Radioactive 

Waste

07/05/2011 
Regulations
Regulations

1. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)10 CFR 20 Subpart K. Various approved options for radioactdisposal. (See also Appendix F)10 CFR 35.92. Decay in storage of medically used byproduc10 CFR 60. Disposal of high-level wastes in geologic reposito10 CFR 61. Shallow land disposal of low level waste.10 CFR 62. Criteria and procedures for emergency access tand regional low-level waste disposal facilities.10 CFR 63. Disposal of high-level rad waste at Yucca Mount10 CFR 71 Subpart H. Quality assurance for waste packagintransportation.10 CFR 72. High level waste storage at an MRS
Regulations

2. Department of Energy (DOE)DOE Order 435.1 Radioactive Waste Management. General R

regarding radioactive waste.10 CFR 960. General Guidelines for the Recommendation of Nuclear Waste Repositories. Site selection guidelines for a w

The following are not regulations but they provide guidance reimplementation of DOE Order 435.1:DOE Manual 435.1-1. Radioactive Waste Management Manuthe requirements and establishes specific responsibilities for DOE O 435.1.DOE Guide 435.1-1. Suggestions and acceptable ways of impDOE M 435.1-1 
Regulations

3. Environmental Protection Agency40 CFR 191. Environmental Standards for the Disposal of Sp

Fuel, High-level and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes. Protecpublic over the next 10,000 years from the disposal of high-letransuranic wastes.

4. Department of Transportation4. Department of Transportation49 CFR Parts 171 to 177. These provide requirements pertintransportation of radioactive waste.5. Local MunicipalitiesLocal municipalities have no regulatory authority over radioacAlthough they cannot restrict the disposal of waste because it they might make life difficult for the licensee.
NRC

10 CFR 20 S b t K10 CFR 20 Subpart K
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

20.2001. General Requirements(a) A licensee shall dispose of licensed material only—(1) By transfer to an authorized recipient as provided in in the regulations in parts 30, 40, 60, 61, 63, 70, and 72 ochapter;(2) B d i t(2)

By 

decay 

in s

torage; o

r

(3) By release in effluents within the limits in § 20.1301(4) As authorized under §§20.2002, 20.2003, 20.2004, oAuthorized RecipientThe licensee is responsible for ensuring that the coindividuals receiving the radioactive material for dislicensed to receive it. Copies of the license should 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Decay in StorageDecay in storage must be permitted in the facility lic10 CFR 35.92 (for medical licensees) permits decaof radionuclides with half-lives up to 120 days.At the end of the decay period

“its radioactivity can

At the end of the decay period its radioactivity candistinguished from the background radiation level wappropriate radiation detection survey meter set on most sensitive scale and with no interposed shieldiA pancake GM or other thin window detector might beta emitters while a thin window low energy NaI duR meter might be used for photon emitters). 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Decay in StorageThe count should be performed in a low backgrounIn the case of a metal waste drum, the lid might be and a measurement made on top of the exposed bacarefully removing the bag from the drum, measuremight be made on all sidesmight be made on all sides.

Even though the low energy betas from H-3, C-14 othe waste should not be detectable through a plastitype of measurement is still usually performed. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Decay in StorageAfterwards, radiation labels must be defaced or remthis point, the waste may be disposed of as ordinarUnless specified in the license or state regulation, t

required decay period (e.g., ten half-lives). 

Records pertaining to decay in storage must be maat least three years. They include the date on which was sealed for decay, the radionuclides involved, thsurvey instrument used, the name of the surveyor, background, the measurement on the surface of the container and the date of disposal.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Decay in StorageIn some cases, long-lived impurities can complicate in storage process by resulting in measurable levelradiation after the decay process should be compleFor example I-123 might contain trace amounts of I125. In-111 can contain small amounts of In-114m. contain Cs-134 and Sm-153 might contain Cs-134.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

20.2003. Disposal by Release into Sanitary Sew(a) A licensee may discharge licensed material into sanit

if each of the following conditions is satisfied:

(1) The material is readily soluble (or is readily dispersib

material) in water; and

(2) The quantity of licensed or other radioactive material licensee releases into the sewer in 1 month divided by thmonthly volume of water released into the sewer by the not exceed the concentration listed in table 3 of appendix part 20; and .. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

20.2003. Disposal by Release into Sanitary Sew(3) If more than one radionuclide is released, the followimust also be satisfied:(i) The licensee shall determine the fraction of the limit iappendix B to part 20 represented by discharges into san

b di idi th t l thl 

sewerage 

by di

viding the ac

tua

l monthly average concen

of each radionuclide released by the licensee into the sewthe concentration of that radionuclide listed in table 3 of to part 20; and(ii) The sum of the fractions for each radionuclide requirparagraph (a)(3)(i) of this section does not exceed unity; 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

20.2003. Disposal by Release into Sanitary Sew(4) The total quantity of licensed and other radioactive mthe licensee releases into the sanitary sewerage system in not exceed 5 curies (185 GBq) of hydrogen-3, 1 curie (3carbon-14, and 1 curie (37 GBq) of all other radioactive combined.(b) Excreta from individuals undergoing medical diagnowith radioactive material are not subject to the limitationin paragraph (a) of this section.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Sanitary Sewerage Disposal - General‘Sanitary sewer' does not mean septic tank systemfields, or treatment facilities owned or operated by tlicensee. It applies to a system of public sewers.A model procedure for disposal of liquid wastes into sanitary sewerage can be found in Appendix V of N1556 Volume 11.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Soluble CriterionInformation regarding “readily soluble” is found in NNUREG-1736 and Information Notice 94-07.Quoting NUREG-1736, “Readily soluble has not bein the regulations, but NRC requires that an evalua

d b i t t d t i th 

ma

de 

by any appropria

te means 

to 

d

e

termine the s

water” “the evaluation may be theoretical, i.e., basknowing the chemical characteristics of the compoudisposed, or on experimental determinations.”
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Soluble CriterionTheoretical approach described in IN 94-07: If the form of the material is known, its solubility can be dfrom the literature, e.g., CRC Handbook of ChemistPhysics. Readily soluble materials include those chas very soluble (vs) or soluble (s). Experimental approach described in IN 94-07 : Filtrrepresentative sample using the methodology of ASD 1888-78 “Standard Test Methods for Particulate aDissolved Matter, Solids or Residue in Water” or thaMethod 7110 “Gross Alpha and Gross Beta Activity Standard Methods for the Examination of Water anWastewater.”
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Soluble CriterionThe ASTM standard involves filtering the water throum membrane filter. Any residual activity on the filteof a filtered background sample indicates the preseinsoluble radioactive material. The APHA method involves filtering the solution thrmembrane filter. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Soluble CriterionSolubility determination of Hotte and Sokolek (200The liquid waste is mixed and three 10 ml aliquots from the container. Two one ml samples are obtaineeach 10 ml aliquot and analyzed by LSC. A total of unfiltered 1 ml samples are analyzedunfiltered

1 ml samples are analyzed. 

4 mls from the remainder of each 10 ml aliquot is fithrough a 2 um membrane filter. Two 1 ml samples from each of the three filtrates arby LSC. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Soluble CriterionSolubility determination of Hotte and Sokolek (200If a statistical analysis showed that there was no difbetween the measurements made on the six filtered unfiltered solutions ( p < 0.05), the radioactive comthe waste was assumed to be solublethe waste was assumed to be soluble. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Readily Dispersible CriterionNUREG-1736 states “Readily dispersible biological was included in the regulation to permit disposal of research waste products, such as animal carcasses that have been finely ground.”The BioSAFE Engineering/WR2 Tissue Digestor (foThe BioSAFE Engineering/WR2 Tissue Digestor (fo

known as the Path-Clav system) solubilizes biologicincluding entire animal carcasses via an alkaline hyprocedure. This product is directly connected to the system and leaves almost no residual material.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Concentration of Radionuclides in Sewage SludRadionuclides may concentrate in the sludge at the sanitary sewage treatment facility. This matter is addressed in NRC Information Notice Reconcentration of Radionuclides Involving DischaSanitary Sewage Systems Permitted Under 10 CFR Evaluating such a build up is normally the responsistate radiation control program. In some areas worrequired to carry personnel dosimeters.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Hot SinkIf individual users are permitted to dispose of liquid the sanitary sewer, a specific sink should be desigidentified for this purpose. A log should be kept on all licensed material dispossink.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Control of Disposal Into Sanitary Sewerage SysTo prevent a facility from exceeding its monthly conor annual activity limits, restrictions might be placed amount that can be disposed of by individual usersThis might or might not require that the user seek pfrom the radiation safety office prior to each disposaIt is very common to prohibit individual users from dof material into the sanitary sewerage. Instead, liquare collected from the user by radiation safety and disposed of at a central location under controlled anmonitored conditions. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

§ 20.2004 Treatment or disposal by incineration(a) A licensee may treat or dispose of licensed material b

incineration only:

(1) As authorized by paragraph (b) of this section; or(2) If the material is in a form and concentration specifie(2) If the material is in

a form and concentration specifie

20.2005; or

(3) As specifically approved by the Commission pursuan

20.2002.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Disposal by IncinerationThe only wastes that can be incinerated without the permission are certain oils (e.g., lubricants) used at power plants and LSC cocktails and animal carcasscontaminated with low concentrations of H-3 and CA good reference: ANSI N13.45-1998 Incineration oInstitutional Low-level Radioactive Waste.Quoting section 8.11 “Waste Management “ in NURVol.11: “Applicants proposing incineration should bthat a notice in the Federal Register may be requiredisposal of ash as ordinary waste can be approved
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Disposal by IncinerationIncineration does not eliminate radioactive waste, bsubstantially reduce the volume of the waste. It migdone in an incinerator operated by the licensee, or might be sent to a commercially operated incineratoTh t f t d b i i ti i l The sor

ts o

f was

tes processe

d

by incineration inclu

combustible solids, liquid scintillation cocktails (in por other combustible containers), oils, and animal cIf the incinerator also handles non-radioactive wastbest to run radioactive dedicated burns so that the the radioactive and non-radioactive wastes are not 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Disposal by IncinerationWaste might be incinerated in fiberboard drums sinlatter are combustible and inexpensive. Incineration of radioactive waste is less common toonce was. In part, this is due to the difficulty in obtapermission from the regulatory agencies. It is also dproblems associated with handling radioactive ash. 
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

§ 20.2005 Disposal of Specific Wastes(a) A licensee may dispose of the following licensed ma

were not radioactive:

(1) 0.05 microcurie (1.85 kBq), or less, of hydrogen-3 or 

per gram of medium used for liquid scintillation coun

(2) 0.05 microcurie (1.85 kBq), or less, of hydrogen-3 or 

per gram of animal tissue, averaged over the weight animal.

(b) A licensee may not dispose of tissue under paragraph 

this section in a manner that would permit its use eithfor humans or as animal feed.
NRC: 10 CFR 20 Subpart K

Disposal of Specific WastesWhile the material might be treated as if it were not radioactive, all relevant local, state and federal regupertaining to the chemical nature of the waste must adhered to.Averaging the concentration over multiple animals permitted – the concentration is calculated for indivanimals.
General Comments 

Regarding WasteRegarding Waste

Management
Waste Management

TrainingRadioactive waste disposal is expensive. Ensure that employees are trained in the techniqueminimize the generation of such waste.Among other things, users should be cautioned not dispose of non-radioactive items (e.g., papers, plasthey were radioactive. Such items can be surveyed disposal.
Waste Management

Health Physics-User RelationshipFor training to be effective, there must be a good wrelationship between the waste generators (authorusers) and the health physics personnel. Cooperation is more difficult to achieve in a researcenvironment than a production facilityenvironment than

a production facility.

Researchers often have little concern for the volumthey generate and the hazards posed by the radioamaterials they use. Charging the researcher for waste disposal helps.
Waste Management

Health Physics- User RelationshipAt a large institutions, waste is often taken by the user/researcher to a local collection area where it is by health physics personnel. Alternatively, health phpersonnel might pick up the waste at the site of genWaste collection might be performed at the request researcher (many facilities have on-line pick up reqforms) or the pick ups might occur at regular intervaa specific time and day of the week. Communication between the researcher and health improved if a single HP is responsible for a given glabs and if mechanisms are in place for frequent co
Waste Management

Maximize Disposal OptionsGiven a choice of several radionuclides, chose the short half life, i.e., one that will permit decay in storaSegregate the use of short-lived and long-lived matseparate waste at the source according to half life.Separate waste at the source as known to be contaor possible contaminated.Select protocols that do not combine radioactive maand EPA designated hazardous wastes, i.e., avoid generation of mixed waste. For example, rather thaorganic solvents to degrease contaminated materiacitrus based degreaser.
Waste Management

Reduce the Quantity of Contaminated MaterialDetermine if the test/procedure might be performed radioactive materials (e.g., stable or fluorescent trabe substituted for radiotracers). Unfortunately, the methods might be less sensitive, less specific, and widely accepted. In addition, the researcher might devote additional time to learning the new methodoDon’t purchase more activity than necessary just begood deal is available on larger quantities.Reduce the volume of non-radioactive material beinthat will become contaminated waste. For examplethe volume of liquid scintillation cocktail in the vials
Waste Management

Reduce the Quantity of Contaminated MaterialReduce the use of single-use materials, e.g., plastControl what is taken into and out of contaminated Segregate radioactive and non-radioactive materiaequipment used to handle them. In some cases, coequipment used to handle them. In some cases, co

might be useful.Consider decontaminating contaminated material ratreating as waste (e.g. equipment). Switch to materials that can be easily decontaminaRemove and dispose of the contaminated portion omaterial or equipment rather than disposing of ever
Waste Management

Return Source to ManufacturerIt is sometimes possible to return a source to the manufacturer. The ability to do so might have to be incorporated into the purchase agreement with the manufacturer, so plan ahead.To facilitate a return keep all the original packaginTo facilitate

a return, keep all the original packagin

paperwork that came with the source. In the case of tritium containing exit signs, the manmight accept an old sign at no charge if it is being efor a new one. If it is not being replaced, the manufwould charge a fee for its return. Even if the manufahas gone out of business, a different company mighwilling to accept the sign. 
Waste Management

Waste CompactionCompacting radioactive waste might not reduce the disposal cost. After all, the activity and mass of the waste are not affected. Nevertheless it can reduce the numberNevertheless, it can reduce the number

of waste shipments and make better use of limited waste storage space. Compaction might be done at a thirdparty commercial facility or in-house. The latter option can involve the use of a small kitchen compactor or a larger unit for compaction in 55 gallon drums. 

S&G En

Co
Waste Management

Waste CompactionPlastic or other materials might expand following coExpansion can be reduced by keeping the waste co(with the ram down) in the compactor for an extendof time, e.g., 5 minutes. Another approach is to hold compressed waste down with commercially availabthat are wedged tight against the inside walls of the (e.g., S&G Enterprises Germantown WI).Compactors can generate airborne radioactive matmust be considered a possible contamination sourcparticularly a concern for volatiles such as iodine. Freason, decay in storage might precede compactio
Waste Management

Waste CompactionAnother problem is that contaminated water or othecan be squeezed out of what otherwise would appedry waste. This liquid waste that accumulates in thof the waste container (e.g., drum) must then be disSection 8 11 in NUREG 1556 Volume 11 (for broad Section

8.11 in NUREG 1556 Volume 11 (for broad 

licensees) states: “Waste compaction or other treatreduce the volume of radioactive waste, but such pmay pose additional radiological hazards (e.g., airbradioactivity) to workers, members of the public, anenvironment. Safety procedures to address these cshould be implemented.” Appendix V of the NUREprovides information for a licensee proposing the ushouse waste compaction.
Waste Management

Vial Crushers and ShreddersLiquid filled LSC vials can be processed via commeavailable shredders or crushers that separate the sthe liquids.The glass fragments of the crushed vials, or the shfragments of plastic vials can usually be washed afragments of plastic vials, can usually be washed a

disposed of as non-radioactive waste. The liquids sto be disposed of (e.g., disposal into the sanitary seincineration, etc.)The shredding/crushing might be done in-house or a commercial vendor. 
Waste Management

Vial Crushers and Shredders

Vyleater LSC vial cru

Courtesy of S&G Enterprises. 
Waste Management

Reduce Volume of Waste by Evacuating Waste BBy using a vacuum system to remove the air from pbags containing low level waste, the volume of the be substantially reduced.Evaporation of Liquid WastesEvaporation of liquid radioactive waste can be usefcircumstances where such waste cannot be disposthe sanitary sewerage. Any solid radioactive residue that remains is easier of than liquid waste.
Waste Management

Send to Processor for Decontamination or MeltContaminated metal and equipment can be sent to processor (e.g., Energy Solutions) for decontaminamelting.Radioactive Source Recovery ProgramThis program operates out of Los Alamos National Laboratory. It was originally set up to accept sealed transuranic sources such as Am-Be and Pu-Be neusources. It has now been expanded to take other hsealed sources. Since the service can be free of ch

can be a huge money saver. Mail address: osrp@laGeneral phone number: 1-877-676-1749. http://osrp
Waste Management

Recycle Radioactive MaterialsSome companies (e.g., J.L. Shepherd) can recycle that have useful quantities of specific radionuclidescharge for this service can be less than that of dispfurther details contact the Conference of Radiation Program Directors (CRCPD) at (502) 227 4543.Transfer SourcesSubmit information about an unwanted source to thConference of Radiation Control Program Directors maintain a list of such sources. Many of the listed s

find new homes and the only cost might be that asswith shipping the source to the new owner. 
Waste Management

Extended StorageQuoting Section 8.11 in NUREG 1556 Volume 11:“The NRC does not consider storage as a substitutdisposal of radioactive wastes. Other than storage radioactive decay, LLW should be stored only when capacity is unavailable and for no longer than is necapacity is unavailable, and for no longer than is ne

NRC Information Notice No. 90-09, “Extended InterStorage of Low-Level Radioactive Waste For Fuel CMaterial Licensees,” dated February 1990, provides to licensees for requesting an amendment to authoextended interim storage of LLW.”More recent guidance is provided in regulatory IssuSummaries 2008-12 and 2008-32.
Waste Management

Medical FacilitiesNRC guidance regarding waste handling programs facilities can be found in Section 8.28 and Appendix NUREG 1556 Volume 9.Waste containing the short-lived nuclides typically ein nuclear medicine can be dealt with via decay in sin nuclear medicine can be dealt with via decay in s

while unwanted long lived brachytherapy sources ainstrument quality control sources might be returnemanufacturer. Waste generated in a medical facility’s research labcan be more problematic since the long-lived sourcnot be sealed, and the waste forms are more variedliquid scintillation cocktails, animal tissue, etc.
Waste Management

Medical FacilitiesWhat should only be ordinary hospital trash can socontain radioactive material (e.g., paper towels, padsheets, and clothing contaminated with excreta and bodily fluids). To prevent this waste from leaving the facility hospTo prevent this waste from leaving the facility, hosp

have survey instruments or monitors at trash collecso that all trash is monitored before going into a duWhen a radiation monitor at a municipal landfill alarpersonnel can be called to the scene. If the trash is come from the medical facility, it can be rejected anRSO called to deal with it. This often means that thends up sorting through the trash to identify the sou
Waste Management

Medical FacilitiesAlarm thresholds at landfills can be very low, e.g., jbackground, to ten times background. The NRC anCRCPD recommend thresholds be set at 3 to 5 timbackground. If a low threshold is causing too many and unnecessary trips to the disposal site, it might possible for the medical facility to get the landfill to the thresholds on its detection equipment.Some waste disposal sites are permitted by the staaccept certain types of waste contaminated with the lived radionuclides employed in nuclear medicine. Ethe site should be given advance notice when such is shipped for disposal.
Waste Segregation
Waste Segregation

General Waste is often segregated at the point of generation the user) according to its: physical form

chemical form or flammahalf life

Physical Form Solids

Sharps (needles, razor blades) Animal CarcassesLiquidsGases
Waste Segregation

Chemical Form or FlammabilitySolids Combustible (e.g., paper, plastics)

Non-combustible (e.g., glass, metal)

Liquids Aqueous (or miscible in water)

Flammable Organic (e.g., toluene)

Non-flammable Organic
Waste Segregation

Half-lifeShort-lived radionuclides that are permitted to undedecay-in-storage are separated from longer lived radionuclides that must be disposed of by some oth(e.g., disposal into sewer, burial, etc.). The half-lives employed for segregation depend on license or regulations allow for decay in storage, e.

< 120 days (decay in storage)> 120 days (other disposal)
Waste Segregation

Half-lifeSome facilities might segregate waste into three caas follows: Very short lived material might be allowed to undergin storage at the point of generation (e.g., the lab), longer lived materials are taken to a centralized wastorage/treatment facility for decay-in-storage, or oof disposal:

< 15 days (decay in storage in laboratory)15 - 90 days (decay in storage at centralized fac> 90 days (other disposal)
Waste Handling and 

Storage
Waste Handling and Storage

GeneralProtective clothing should be worn when handling rwaste (disposable gloves and a laboratory coat).Short term storage of waste might take place near tgeneration (e.g., the lab). Long-term storage might more remote centralized locationmore remote centralized location. 

Waste storage areas must be secure. Emergency pand contacts should be posted near the entrance.Waste should not be stored any longer than necessfuture options for waste disposal might be more limthey will certainly be more expensive.
Waste Storage Areas

GeneralWaste should not be stored near counting equipmeoccupied areas, or high traffic areas, e.g., hallwaysor other uncontrolled areas. Liquid waste should nstored in areas that would be difficult to clean in the spill or leak. Radioactive waste should not be stored in the same chemical waste.Waste containers should be shielded, handled and so as to keep the exposures to personnel ALARA, esurrounding the high activity waste containers with activity waste containers. At the same time, visual of the containers should be possible.
Waste 

Characterization
Waste Characterization

GeneralWaste characterization means identifying and quanradionuclides in order to determine the type and clawaste. The NRC provides limited guidance in 10 CFR 61.5Radionuclide concentrations in waste can be averathe entire volume or weight of the waste.It is preferred, but not necessary, to directly measurradionuclides in the waste. 
Waste Characterization

GeneralThe quantity of a radionuclide in the waste needs to estimated, not determined with extreme accuracy.The estimates of radionuclide concentrations in wanot be overly conservative since the waste disposalicense will limit the total activity of the waste permi

site.
Waste Characterization

Exposure Rate MeasurementsThe concentration of a single gamma emitter in the be estimated by measuring the exposure rate (e.g., a standard distance from the waste container.Gamma Spectroscopy MeasurementsGamma spectroscopy (using NaI, LaBr or HPGe decan be used to estimate the concentration of the vagamma emitters in the waste.If the gamma spectroscopy system cannot be calibsuitable standards (i.e., sources similar in size, shamakeup to the waste) corrections to be made to acgeometry and self absorption effects.
Waste Characterization

Gross Beta MeasurementsGross beta measurements on the waste (e.g., perfothe outside of a clear plastic bag containing the wasbe used to estimate the concentration of the variouemitters if a ratio between the different beta emitterestablished.Materials BalancingExample: If you know how much activity goes into a the amount that ends up in the product, and the amdecayed away, you can estimate the amount in the 
Waste Characterization

Scaling FactorsIf radionuclide A is measured directly, and radionucknown with 'reasonable assurance' to be present in ratio to radionuclide A, the concentrate of radionuclbe estimated by multiplying the measured concentrof A by an appropriate scaling factor. The issue of scaling factors is addressed in NRC InNotice 86-20 Low-level Radioactive Waste Scaling The latter states that scaling factors are intended to accurate within a factor of ten and that if confirmatomeasurements indicate that the actual and predicteconcentrations differ by more than a factor of ten, thmay be out of compliance with 10 CFR 61.55 (a) (8
Waste Characterization

Scaling FactorsThe information notice points out that scaling factorspecific to a given waste stream and that the use oscaling factor for all the facility wastes might be ina
Classification of Radioact

Waste in the U SWaste in the

U

.

S

.
Types of Radioactive Waste

Types of Radioactive WasteThe classification of the waste can be based on somcombination of the:

• origin of waste• concentration of radionuclides• half-life of radionuclides• heat generation
Types of Radioactive Waste

Types of Radioactive WasteIn the U.S., the three basic types of radioactive was

• High-Level Waste• Low-level Waste• Transuranic Waste 

The NRC, DOE, and EPA definitions differ slightly adistinction between the three waste types is not alwThere is also mixed waste: a combination of one of types of waste and hazardous waste.By volume, the majority of radioactive waste generaU.S. is low-level waste. By activity, it is high-level w
Types of Radioactive Waste

High-Level Waste (HLW)NRC Definition (10 CFR 60):“ (1) Irradiated reactor fuel, 

(2) liquid wastes resulting from the operation of the fir

solvent extraction system, or equivalent, and the cosolvent extraction system, or equivalent, and the cowastes from subsequent extraction cycles, or equivfacility for reprocessing irradiated reactor fuel, and 

(3) solids into which such liquid wastes have been conv
Types of Radioactive Waste

High-Level Waste (HLW)DOE Definition (10 CFR 960): “(1)the highly radioactive material resulting from the rep

of spent nuclear fuel, including liquid waste producereprocessing and any solid material derived from suc

t th t t i fi i d t i ffi i t 

was

te th

a

t con

t

a

ins fiss

ion pro

duc

ts 

in suffi

c

ien

t con

and 

(2) other highly radioactive material that the NRC, consi

existing law, determines by rule requires permanent i[DOE defines spent nuclear fuel separately]
Types of Radioactive Waste

Transuranic (TRU) WasteDOE Definition (M 435.1-1): “Transuranic waste is radioactive waste containing more 100 nanocuries (3700 becquerels) of alpha-emitting tranisotopes per gram of waste, with half-lives greater than 2

t f

excep

t

for: 

(1) high-level radioactive waste; (2) waste that the Secretary of Energy has determined, w

concurrence of the Administrator of the EnvironmenProtection Agency, does not need the degree of isolatrequired by the 40 CFR Part 191 disposal regulations

(3) waste that the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has a

disposal on a case-by-case basis in accordance with 61.”
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Waste (LLW)NRC Definition (10 CFR 62) “(1) Is not high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fu

byproduct material (as defined in paragraphs (2), (3)

the definition of Byproduct Material set forth in § 20

thi h t ) dthis c

hap

ter

); an

d

(2) The NRC, consistent with existing law and in accord

paragraph (1) of this definition, classifies as low-levradioactive waste.”
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Waste (LLW)DOE Definition (M 435.1-1): “ Low-level radioactive waste is radioactive waste that is level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, transuranic wbyproduct material (as defined in section 11e.(2) of the AE A t f 1954 d d) t ll iEnergy 

A

c

t of 1954, as amen

ded), or na

turally occurr

ing

radioactive material.”
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)Low-level mixed waste meets the NRC’s definition level waste and at the same time contains material as hazardous waste in 40 CFR 261 Subpart D, or cLLW to possess any of the hazardous waste characidentified in 40 CFR 261 Subpart C (e.g. ignitable, ctoxic etc.). Common examples include contaminated spent somaterials contaminated with solvents and radioactivmaterials, discarded lead shielding and scintillation DOE has estimated that a large fraction (perhaps 6transuranic waste is in the form of mixed waste.
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)Mixed waste is expensive to dispose of, e.g., severthousand dollars per gallon. Some types might be ito dispose of.Small businesses generating small quantities mighexempt from RCRA requirements if they receive coexempt small quantity generator (CESQG) status (sCFR 261.5)Information concerning mixed waste is available at http://www.epa.gov/wastes/hazard/wastetypes/mixe
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)May 16, 2001, the EPA published 40 CFR Part 266 Treatment, Transportation and Disposal of Mixed WFinal Rule in the Federal Register (Vol. 66, No. 95, 27218 - 27266) that eases thee regulatory burden ogenerators of mixed waste. 
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)The Final Rule allows LLMW to be conditionally exeRCRA requirements during storage and treatment igenerated and managed under a single NRC or AgState License. Evaporation and decay in storage are among the aEvaporation and decay in storage are among the a

treatment options. After decay in storage, when the waste is no considradioactive, it becomes subject to RCRA requiremeAnnual inventories and quarterly inspections are rethere is no time limit on storage. 
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)Certain wastes become nonhazardous following trethat allow them to meet the land disposal restriction standards of 40 CFR 268. Such waste is then no losubject to RCRA regulation.The Final Rule also allows LLMW and NARM mixed The Final Rule also allows LLMW and NARM mixed 

be exempt from RCRA Subtitle C requirements for and disposal. The waste container must be a carbon steel drum, equivalent, or a high integrity container as defined bNRC. Disposal must meet the acceptance criteria ooccur at, an NRC or Agreement State licensed low radioactive waste disposal facility (LLRWDF). 
Types of Radioactive Waste

Low-Level Mixed Waste (LLMW)Disposal of Low Level Mixed Waste must meet the requirements of 10 CFR 61 and the RCRA requiremCFR 264 and 40 CFR 270. Note that the mixed wascontainer must thoroughly describe the hazardous component of the waste, not just the radioactive coA variety of treatments are available that can eliminhazardous component of the mixed waste and allowbe disposed of as radioactive waste. In a few casesradioactive and hazardous components can be sepSome wastes might require vitrification, others (conlead) might require encapsulation, and others such contaminated oil or solvents might require incinerat
Types of Radioactive Waste

Facilities that Treat/ Dispose of Mixed Waste1. Perma-Fix Environmental Services, Inc.

Gainesville FLPrimarily employs chemical treatment of solid mi

2. Diversified Scientific Services, Inc. (DSSI)

Kingston TNKingston, TNA subsidiary of Perma-Fix. Treats mixed liquid waincineration.

3. East Tennessee Materials and Energy Corporatio

Oak Ridge, TNA subsidiary of Perma-Fix. Treats solid and liquid waste via several methods.
Types of Radioactive Waste

Facilities that Treat/ Dispose of Mixed Waste4. Energy Solutions

Clive, UTTreats and disposes of specific types of MLLW.

5. NSSI

Houston TXHouston, TXTreats a variety of types of mixed waste.

6. Waste Control Specialists 

Andrews, TX. Can treat various mixed waste types including “u

quantities” (see 10 CFR 40.13)
Types of Radioactive Waste

Facilities that Treat/ Dispose of Mixed Waste7. American Ecology

Boise, ID They treat some types of mixed waste at their si

Grand View Idaho, and Robstown Texas
International Waste 

Classification
International Waste Classification

GeneralThere is no standard international approach to the classification of radioactive waste.The classification systems used in most countries aat least in part, on older IAEA recommendations.Some countries even employ two classification sysclassifies waste for short-term handling or treatmenother is used to classify waste for disposal (long-terhandling).
International Waste Classification

Typical Waste CategoriesThe following classes are fairly typical of those usethe U.S.

Exempt Waste (EW)Low Level Waste (LLW)Intermediate (or medium) Level Waste (ILW)Intermediate (or medium) Level Waste (ILW)High Level Waste

Low and Intermediate Level Wastes (LILW) are oftetogether .In addition, the low and intermediate level categorieoften divided into short lived (LILW-SL) and long liv(LILW-LL).
International Waste Classification

Exempt Waste

Concentrations at or below clearance levels, e.g

1 Bq/g and half-life less than 75 days. Dose to puthan 0.01 mSv (1 mrem). No disposal restrictions

Low Level Waste

A ti it b th l l l C t t d A

cti

vity a

bove the clearance levels. 

Con

tac

t

dose 

mSv/hr. Examples might include protective equipment/clothing, filters, paper, biological wastactivated concrete. Near surface disposal accept

Intermediate (Medium) Level Waste

Contact dose rate between 5 mSv/hr and 3 Sv/hAlpha emitters, if present, at low concentrations. surface/geological disposal might be required.
International Waste Classification

Low and intermediate level waste might be grouped and subdivided into two categories based on half-livradionuclides:Short Lived Low and Intermediate Level Waste

Half-lives less than 30 years (includes Cs-137 anMust be isolated from intrusion for 300 years NeMust be isolated from intrusion for 300 years. Ne

disposal possible.

Long Lived Low and Intermediate Level Waste

Half-lives greater than 30 years. Geological disporequired. 
International Waste Classification

High Level Waste

Consists of spent fuel and/or wastes from proces

fuel. Significant concentration of alpha emitters. dose rate greater than 2 Sv/hr. Thermal power gr2 kilowatt/m

3. Geological disposal required.
International Waste Classification

Current IAEA Recommendations

The latest International Atomic Energy Agency (I

recommendations regarding waste classification in IAEA GSG-1 “Classification of Radioactive Wa2009:

Exempt Waste

Very Short Lived WasteVery Low Level WasteLow Level WasteIntermediate Level WasteHigh Level Waste
Low Level Waste 

Classification
Classification of Low Level Waste

GeneralThe NRC (10 CFR 61.55) defines three classes of waste suitable for near surface disposal: 

Class A Class B

Class C 

Low-level waste that exceeds the class C criteria is greater than class C waste (GTCC) and is unsuitabsurface disposal.Each waste package (e.g.. drum) must be clearly laidentify the Class. 
Classification of Low Level Waste

Class A WasteContains the lowest concentration of short lived and lived material.Concentration: Near background to 700 Ci/m3 (25.

Exam

ples: Personal 

protective clothin

g

(PPE), tools

p p g ( ), 

wastes, ordinary trash, soil, rubble, depuranium.

Stability: Not required but must be segregated from 

and C if not stable. If stable, segregation required.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Class B WasteIntermediate classification. Decay results in acceptahazard to inadvertent intruder after 100 years.Concentration: 0.04 to 700 Ci/m3 (25.9 TBq/m

3

)

Exam

ples: reactor com

ponents, sealed sources, filt

p p , ,

Stability: Required. Waste might be inherently stab

container can provide the stability.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Class C WasteContains the highest concentrations suitable for nedisposal. Deeper burial or barriers required to proteinadvertent intrusion for 500 years.Concentration: 44 to 7,000 Ci/m3 (1.6 to 259 TBq/mExamples: Ion exchange resins, cooling water filter

activated metals.

Stability: Required. Waste might be inherently stab

container can provide the stability.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Greater than Class C Waste (GTCC)Greater than Class C (GTCC) waste is not suitable surface disposal. According to the Low Level Radioactive Waste PoliAmendments Acts of 1985, the U.S. Department of responsible for providing for the disposal of GTCC responsible for providing for the disposal of GTCC 

present, GTCC material must be stored on-site untsuitable disposal option is available. If the licensee to do so, the NRC might request that DOE accept tmaterial.Examples: activated reactor core shrouds, support 

filters and resins.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Classifying Low-Level Waste as A, B, C or GTCCThe following two tables, modified from Tables 1 anCFR 61.55, are intended to illustrate how the NRC regulations classify low-level waste. They are not inbe used for classification purposes.If the LLW only contains one nuclide and it is includIf the LLW only contains one nuclide, and it is includ

of the tables, the classification is straightforward.If none of the nuclides in the LLW are found in the ftables, then the waste is considered Class A.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Table 1 - Long-lived Nuclides 

Radionuclide

Concentration in Ci/m

3

Class A Class C 

C-14

#0.8 >0.8 to 8 

C-14 in activated metal

#8 >8 to 80 

Ni-59 in activated metal

#22 >22 to 220 

Nb-94 in activated metal

#0.02 >0.02 to 0.2 

Tc-99

#0.3 >0.3 to 3 

I-129

#0.008 >0.008 to 0.08 

* These wastes are Class B unless the concentratioother nuclides in this table determine the waste to tC independent of these nuclides.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Table 1 continued - Long-lived Nuclides 

Radionuclide

Concentration in nCi/g

Class A Class C 

Alpha emitting transuranic with half-life > 5 years

#10 >10 to 100 

Pu-241

#350 >350 to 3,500 

Cm-242

#2,000 >2,000 to 20,000 
Classification of Low Level Waste

Table 2 - Short-lived Nuclides

Radionuclide

Concentration in Ci/m

3

Class A Class B Class C 

Total of all nuclides with less than 5 year half-life

#700 * *

H-3

#40 * *

Co-60

#700 * *

Ni-63

#3.5 >3.5 to 70 >70 to 700 

Ni-63 in activated metal

#35 >35 to 700 >700 to 7000 

Sr-90

#0.04 >0.04 to 150 >150 to 7000 

Cs-137

#

1 >1 to 44 >44 to 4600 

* These wastes are Class B unless the concentrationother nuclides in this table determine the waste to bC independent of these nuclides.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Classifying Low-Level Waste as A, B or CWhen considering more than one nuclide in a given use the sum of fractions approach:

1

1

∑

<

=

n

i i

i

L

C

Ci is the concentration of nuclide iLi is the maximum concentration allowed in t

for a given class (e.g., Class A). Use the higthat applies to any single nuclide in the wast

If the sum of fractions is less than 1, the waste falls 

class. If it is greater than 1, the waste belongs to thhigher classification.

i=1
Classification of Low Level Waste

Classifying Low-Level Waste as A, B or CFor the case where some nuclides in the waste are Table 1 and others are found in Table 2:

If the mix of nuclides in Table 1 is considered Cla

classification is determined by the nuclides in Ta

If the mix of nuclides in Table 1 is considered Clafinal classification is C or GTCC according to the in Table 2.If the mix of nuclides in Table 1 is GTCC, the finclassification is GTCC.
Classification of Low Level Waste

Low-level Waste Breakdown by Volume and ActSlightly more than half the LLW generated in the U.

Class A Class B Class C

By Volume 97% 2% 1%

By Activity 9% 8% 83%

Slightly more than half the LLW generated in the U.

from nuclear power plants.The rest comes from medical facilities, research facindustry.
Required Waste 

Characteristics
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56a – General Characteristics1. “Waste must not be packaged for disposal in cardboa

fiberboard boxes.”

2. “Liquid waste must be solidified or packaged in suffi

absorbent material to absorb twice the volume of the 

3. “Solid waste containing liquid shall contain as little fr

and noncorrosive liquid as is reasonably achievable, bcase shall the liquid exceed 1% of the volume.”

4. “Waste must not be readily capable of detonation or o

decomposition or reaction at normal pressures and temor of explosive reaction with water.”
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56a – General Characteristics5. “Waste must not contain, or be capable of generating, 

of toxic gases, vapors, or fumes harmful to persons tra

handling, or disposing of the waste. This does not appradioactive gaseous waste packaged in accordance wiparagraph (a) (7) of this section.”

6. “Waste must not be pyrophoric. Pyrophoric materials 

in waste shall be treated, prepared, and packaged to bnonflammable.”

7. “Waste in a gaseous form must be packaged at a press

does not exceed 1.5 atmosphere at 20 degrees C. Totamust not exceed 100 curies per container.”
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56a – General Characteristics8. “Waste containing hazardous biological, pathogenic, o

material must be treated to reduce the maximum extenpracticable the potential hazard from the nonradiologimaterials.”
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56b - Stability“Stability is intended to insure that the waste does not strdegrade and affect overall stability of the site through slucollapse, or other failure of the disposal unit and thereby water infiltration.”Stability is also a factor in limiting exposure to an inintruder. For additional information about this topic NRC Information Notice IN 89-27 Limitations on the Waste Forms and High Integrity Containers for the of Low-Level Radioactive Waste.
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56b - Stability1. “Waste must have structural stability. A structurally st

form will generally maintain its physical dimensions aform, under the expected disposal conditions such as 

overburden and compaction equipment, the presence 

microbial activity, and internal factors such as radiatio

and chemical changes. Structural stability can be provwaste form itself, processing the waste to a stable formplacing the waste in a disposal container or structure tprovides stability after disposal.”
Required Waste Characteristics

10 CFR 61.56b - Stability2. “Notwithstanding the provisions in 61.56(a)(2) and (3

wastes, or wastes containing liquid, must be converted form that contains as little free standing and noncorroas is reasonably achievable, but in no case shall the liq1% of the volume of the waste when the waste is in a 

container designed to ensure stability, or 0.5% of the vthe waste processed to a stable form.”

3. “Void spaces within the waste and between the waste, 

package must be reduced to the extent practicable.”
Waste Containers
Waste Containers

Strong Tight Container Could be a metal box or a wooden box reinforced wstraps. Only needs to be capable of surviving routihandling and transportation. Suitable for limited quawaste, i.e., activity does not exceed one thousandth or A2 values (whichever applies). Not all strong tighcontainers are acceptable for waste disposal.Type A Container Could be metal box or drum. Must be capable of sminor accidents as well as routine handling and transportation. Suitable for waste with activities betthousandth of the A1 or A2 values (whichever applie

A1 or A2 value.
Waste Containers

Type B Container Could be metal drum or large shielded metal transpcontainer. Must be capable of surviving severe accwell as routine handling and transportation. Suitable with activities exceeding the A1 or A2 values (which

applies).

Low Specific Activity (LSA) Packaging LSA waste might require either a strong tight contatype B container depending on the total activity.
Type A C
Type A Container
Type B – Normal Form Container
Type B – Special Form Container
TRUPACT-II Container for Transuranic Waste
Waste Containers

Example Instructions for Packaging Liquid WasMethod One 1. Place a 4 mil. poly liner into a type A drum.2. Place a layer of approved absorbent into the po

drum.

3. Slowly add liquid to the absorbent being careful 

the liquid is thoroughly absorbed. The ratio betwabsorbent to liquid is 2:1. 4. Continue adding layabsorbent and liquid until the drum is full.

5. Seal the poly bag.6. Install the gasket and lid.
Waste Containers

Example Instructions for Packaging Liquid WasMethod Two1. Place an approved absorbent into a poly bottle o2. Add liquid to the absorbent filled bottle. Don’t ex

ratio (absorbent to liquid)ratio (absorbent to liquid)

3. Install the lids on the bottles.4. Place the filled poly bottles into a DOT specifica

drum with an approved absorbent placed arounbottles to fill all void spaces.

5. Install the drum gasket and lid.
Waste Containers

Example Instructions for Packaging Liquid Was
Waste Disposal Sites
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste Disposal At present, no disposal site for HLW exists, in the Uelsewhere. The 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act called for the Dof Energy to begin accepting spent fuel from nuclea

l t i 1998 DOE h b itt d li li 

plan

ts in 1998. DOE

has su

b

mitt

e

d a license applic

the NRC for repository construction at Yucca Mounthe Obama administration has effectively halted the Most of the U.S. high-level waste (including over 10of commercial spent fuel) is in storage at the site of pools or dry casks. Some is stored at West Valley, National Engineering Laboratory at Idaho Falls, ID; Midwest Fuel Recovery Plant at Morris, IL. 
References

Waste Disposal SitesHigh-Level Waste Disposal 
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste Disposal 

Dry cask storage of spent fuel
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste DisposalYucca Mountain, approximately 120 miles northwesVegas on the border of the Nevada Test Site, is the in the United States approved by Congress for the high level waste. Its advantages as an HLW reposiinclude:

• The site is remote.• The property is controlled by the Federal Gove• The Nevada Test Site is already contaminated.• The soil is very dry.• The water table is very deep.• The minerals in the soil are strongly adsorptive
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste Disposal

Yucca Mountain Tunnel Entrance Yucca Mounta
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste - Problematic RadionuclidesThe long-lived fission products and transuranics of concern in HLW are:

Tc-99 (2.11 x 10

5 years) 

beta, no gamma

I-129 (1.57 x 10

7 years) 

beta, low energy gammas

Np-237 (2.14 x 10

6 years) 

alpha, low intensity low energy gammgammas of concern primarily from the product Pa-233 (27 d)

Pu-239 (2.41 x 10

4 years) 

alpha, very low intensity gammas 
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste - Problematic RadionuclidesOther long-lived fission products of concern:

Sn-126 (2.3 x 10

5 years) 

Se-79 (2.95 x 10

5 years) 

Z 93 (1 53 10

6

)

Zr

-93 (1.53 x 10

6 years

)

Cs-135 (2.3 x 10

6 years) 

Pd-107 (6.5 x 10

6 years) 
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste - Problematic RadionuclidesMedium-lived fission products of concern:

Eu-155 (4.75 years) Kr-85 (10.76 years) Cd 113m

(14 1 years)

-113m

(14.1 years)

Sr-90 (28.79 years) Cs-137 (30.08 years) Sn-121m (55 years) Sm-151 (90 years) 
Waste Disposal Sites

High-Level Waste Disposal in FranceIn France, the spent fuel generated at reactors is re

(after approximately three years of storage). This inchemically extracting the uranium and plutonium fofuel.

The remaining waste is separated into Intermediate The remaining waste is separated into Intermediate

Waste (ILW) and High-Level Waste (HLW).The ILW is put in drums and solidified with cement concrete.The HLW is vitrified and poured into stainless steel which are put in dry storage.
Waste Disposal Sites

Transuranic Waste DisposalThe WIPP (Waste Isolation Pilot Plant) facility, operthe Department of Energy (DOE), is 26 miles east oCarlsbad, NM. It serves as a repository for transuragenerated by the defense industry. Transuranic wastes not tied to the Department of Dare being stored in a retrievable form at the sites ware produced.Since disposal costs at WIPP are very high, waste have to be classified as TRU waste is analyzed verto ensure that it cannot be disposed of as simple L
Waste Disposal Sites

Transuranic Waste DisposalAt WIPP, the wastes are buried, in a recoverable foformations at a depth of approximately 2000 feet. Tadvantages of the site include the following:

• The geology is stable with little earthquake activ

• The salt formations almost by definition indicate 

absence of groundwater.

• Salt is a plastic material that will seal any fissur

that may occur.

• The site is located in a remote area.
Waste Disposal Sites

Transuranic Waste Disposal

WIPP Site
Waste Disposal Sites

Transuranic Waste Disposal

The two TRU wa

contac

Although WIPP has been receiving contact handled waste for some time, it has only recently been acceremote handled TRU.

remote 
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste DisposalThe Department of Energy operates its own low levsites, although it also ships LLW to commercial siteFour LLW waste disposal sites in the U.S. have cloNV; Maxey Flats, KY; West Valley, NY; Sheffield, ILThere are three operating commercial low level wasdisposal sites: 

Barnwell, SCRichland, WAClive, UT

A fourth, in Andrews county, Texas, is expected to baccepting waste in the spring of 2011.
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste DisposalThe site in Barnwell, SC is operated by Chem-Nuclsubsidiary of EnergySolutions

) .

Barnwell continues to accept all three classes of Lfrom a very limited number of states: Connecticut, N

and South Carolinaand South Carolina.

The Richland, WA disposal facility is operated by AEcology. Richland, like Barnwell, accepts Class A, B and C wonly accepts waste from states in the Northwest (WOregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming) and RocMountain (Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico) Compa
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste DisposalClive, UT is operated by EnergySolutions .The low level waste disposal site was once known Envirocare . It onl

y acce

pts Class A LLW. However, it will acce

p

yp , p

types of mixed waste for burial.The bulk of the Class A waste that it accepts consiscontaminated soil and mill tailings. If waste can be sent to Clive, it will cost less than sewaste to either Richland or Barnwell.
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste DisposalThe Andrews County, TX is operated by Waste ConSpecialists.It has been licensed to accept all types of low level waste from Texas, Vermont and the Federal Governproposal is being evaluated that would permit waste proposal is being evaluated that would permit wast

accepted from any state.Although the license has been approved, the Andresite is not yet accepting waste for disposal.The facility is expected to begin disposing of waste 2011.
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste DisposalBarnwell puts waste in below ground concrete vauldrainage system directs water away from the waste a sump.

Above: engincap/cover ove“trench” Barn
Waste Disposal Sites

Low-level Waste Disposal
Packaging and 

Transportation

Issues
Packaging and Transportation Issue

Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC)• detail a given waste site’s requirements for licens

compliance (e.g., characterization, packaging, redocumentation).

• identify the limitations on isotope acceptability an

form

.

• can be more restrictive than regulatory requireme• are usually available at the waste facility’s web s• waste shipments must comply with the acceptan
Packaging and Transportation Issue

DOT RequirementsShipments of radioactive waste to a site must compthe DOT regulations pertaining to the shipment of rmaterial.These regulations address a variety of issues includlabeling and marking of the packages, vehicle placashipping manifests, exposure rate limits and contamlimits.
Packaging and Transportation Issue

DOT Exposure Rate Limits for PackagesNon-Exclusive Use Carrier

Container surface: 200 One meter from container surface (TI): 10 

Exclusive Use Carrier open transport vehicleExclusive Use Carrier - open transport vehicle

Container surface: 200 One meter from container surface (TI): 10 

Exclusive Use Carrier - closed transport vehicle

Container surface: 100
Packaging and Transportation Issue

DOT Exposure Rate Limits for Exclusive Use VeSurface of the vehicle: 200 mR/hTwo meters from the vehicle: 10 mR/hOccupied portions of vehicle cab: 2 mR/hDOT Contamination Limits Total

Beta-gamma & low toxicity alpha: 22,000 dpHigh toxicity alpha: 2,200 dp

Removable

Beta-gamma & low toxicity alpha: 2,200 dpmHigh toxicity alpha: 220 dpm
Packaging and Transportation Issue

Inspections of Waste ShipmentsWaste shipments are inspected extremely carefully they reach the waste disposal site. If the shipment inspection, it can be sent back to its origin at the ex

the facility that shipped the waste.

W t hi t b i t d b f th l Was

te shipmen

ts can 

be inspec

t

e

d

b

e

fore they leav

facility that generated the waste.The state might inspect the waste shipments while on route to the waste disposal site.
Packaging and Transportation Issue

Common Reasons Why Shipments Fail Inspecti

1. Placards missing on truck and trailer.2. High radiation levels, e.g., underside of trailer.3. Excessive contamination on trailer.4. Damaged/leaking packages.5. Packages not braced.5. Packages not braced.6. Package bolt rings/latches not tight.7. Improper container.8. Contaminated packages.9. Radionuclides not identified or activity not spec

10. State certificate (e.g. Washington/Nevada) mis11. Shipping papers lack exclusive use directions w

required.
References

Hotte and Sokolek. Operational Radiation Safety AS23, 2001.NRC. “Classification of Transportation Packaging aSpent Fuel Storage System Components According Importance to Safety.” NUREG/CR-6407. 1996.NRC “Scope of Exemption in 10 CFR 20 303 (d) fo

. Scope of Exemption in 10 CFR 20.303 (d) fo

Disposal of Patient Excreta in Sanitary Sewers” HPNRC. “Categorizing and Transporting Low Specific Materials and Surface Contaminated Objects.” NUR1998.NRC. “Standard Review Plan for Transportation PaRadioactive Material.” NUREG-1609. 1999.
Waste Brokers
Waste Brokers

GeneralWaste disposal brokers can assist in the processing disposal of radioactive waste. A list of waste brokeregularly updated on the CRCPD website.Advantages:1. Brokers can reduce the paperwork associated w

disposal.

2. They can supply the waste containers as well as 

materials, e.g., absorbents, pipes, bags.

3. The broker can make disposal more cost effectiv

volume reduction methods normally unavailable licensee..
Example Forms and 

Labels