THE WOMEN'S ARMY 

CORPS, 1945-1978 
DIRECTORS-WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS 

Col. Ove" Cull' Ilobby 

16 May ]9-42- 11 Jul I!J4S 

Col. Irene O. aaLloway 

1 Jan 19$3_ 2 Jan 19n 

Dri,. Gen. Eliubeth 1'. Hoisington 

I Allg 1%6-31 Jul 1971 

Col. Weslray Battle Boyce Long 

11 Jul 1945-<4 Mar 1947 

Col. Mary L M. "'mll~n 

J Jan 19S7- Jl JIll 1962 

Dri, _ Gen. Mildred I. C nailey 

I A .. & 1971- 1L J ul 191' 

Col. Mary A. Iiall aren 

' Mar 1941_ 2 J." 1953 

Col. Emily C. Cornlan 

I Aug 1962- 31 J ul 1966 

Brig. Gen. Muy E. Clarke 

I Alii 197'_21 Apr 1978 
ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES 

THE WOMEN'S ARMY 

CORPS, 1945-1978 

by 

Bettie J. Morden 

--

CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY 

UNITED STATES ARMY 

WASH INGTON, D.C., 1990 
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Morden, Bettie 1.,192 1-

The history of the Women's Army Corps, 1945- 1978/ by Bettie 1. Morden. 

p. cm. 

\. United States. Army. Women's Army Corps-History. I. Tille. 

UA565.W6M67 1989 

355.3' 48'0973- dc20 

CM H I'ub 30- 14 

First Printing 

89- 600225 

CIP 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington. D.C. 20402 
Army Historical Series 

Advisory Committee 

(As of 23 September 1988) 

Charles P. Roland 

University of Kentucky 

Edward M. Coffman 

University of Wisconsin 

Maj. Gen. Jack B. Farris, Jr. 

U.S. Army Training and 

Doctrine Command 

Brig. Gen. Roy K. F lint 

U.s. Military Academy 

L. Eugene Hedberg 

H.D. Reid Foundation 

Ernest R. May 

Harvard University 

Jamie W. Moore 

The Citadel 

Maj. Gen. J.H. Binford Peay 1II 

U.S. Army Command and General 

Staff College 

Brig. Gen. Michael J. Scotti 

Depu ty Surgeon General 

Brig. Gen. Stephen Si]vasy, Jr. 

U.S. A rmy War College 

William Walker 

A rch ivist of the U.S. Army 

Russell F. Weiglcy 

Temple University 

David 8 . M iller 

Office of the City Solicitor 

Scranton, Pa. 

u.s. Army Celller of MilitolY History 

Brig. Gen. William A. Stofft, Chief of Military History 

Acting Chief Historian 

Chief, Histories Division 

Editor in Chief 

v 

Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. 

Lt. Col. Robert E. Morris 

John W. Elsberg 

Foreword 

This is the second volume published by the U.S. Army Center of Military 

History on the history of the Women's A rmy Corps from its beginn ing in World 

War II until it was discontinued by Congress thirty-six years later. The fi rst 

volume, by Mattie E. T readwell, dealt with the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps 

(WAAC) and its successor, the Women's Army Corps (WAC), throughout 

World War II. This volume covers the thirty-th ree years of Corps history 

between V-J Day and the decision by Congress in 1978 to end the WACs' 

separate status and assimilate them into the other branches of the Army (except 

the combat arms). 

T he current volume tells how the directors o f the Women's Army Corps 

struggled to achieve the goals that we take for granted today. It tells of the years 

they spent push ing and prodd ing the A rmy. the Departmen t of Defense, and 

Congress to achieve Regular Army and Reserve status, military cred it for their 

WAAC service. and promotion above the g rade o f lieutenant color:el. Wh ile 

early WAC d irectors had the task o f fighting for progress and equ ity, their 

successors foug ht a losing battle to keep en try standards high and 10 retai n their 

separate corps status. 

The author of th is volume served as a WAC throughout t he existence of the 

Corps. She provides readers with a comprehensive picture of WAC growth and 

development and the transformation in the status o f Army women brought by 

the advent of the all-volun teer A rmy and the women's rights movement of the 

seventies. T he book makes a significant contribu tion to women's history and the 

history of the Army. 

Washingto n. D.C. 

14 July 1989 

vu 

WILLIAM A. STOFFT 

Brigadier General, U.S. Army 

Chief of Military History 
The Author 

Colonel Bettie J. Morden enlisted in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps 

from Michigan o n IS October 1942 and served th ro ughout Wo rld War II. 

Discharged from the Army in November 1945. she entered Columbia University, 

completed her baccalaureate degree in 1949 and her masters degree in June 1950. 

Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army Reserve in 1950, 

she reen tered active duty as a first lieutenant in May 1952. 

She is a graduate of the WAC Officers' Advanced Course (1962); Command 

and General Staff College (1964); and the Army Management School (1965). She 

has been awarded the Disting uished Service Medal, the Legion of Merit, the 

Joint Service Commendation Medal, and the A rmy Commendation Meda l with 

Oak Leaf Cluster. Colonel Morden retired o n 31 December 1972 and was 

recalled 0 11 active dut y to write the WAC history in February 1974. She reverted to retired status on 31 December 1982. 

V III 
Preface 

In 1974, twenty years after it published a volume of histo ry on the Women's 

Army Corps (WAC) in World War II, the Army d irected the preparation of a 

sequel to cover the subsequent twenty-seven years o f WAC history, 1945- \972. 

However, it soon became clear that the Women's Army Corps as a separate 

corps of the Army wou ld be discon tinued ill 1978, and the scope of the new 

volume was extended to include the fi nal years of the Women's Army Corps. 

The initial volume, The Women's Army Corps. was written by Lt. Col. Mattie 

E. Treadwell and was published in 1954. Colonel Treadwell chronicled the 

actions taken by members of Congress, sen ior offi cers o f the War Department, 

and the director o f the WAC in mobilizi ng, organizing, and utilizing women in 

the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and, after 1943, in the Women's 

Army Corps. She also detailed the reaction of the women of the Corps to Army 

life and to their reception by the men of the Army. The first chapter of this 

volume summarizes Colonel Treadwell's work in o rder to provide the reader 

with the background needed to understa nd subsequent even ts. 

For many years, Colonel Treadwell's volume stood alone as an official account of the plans and policies that d irected the lives and careers o f the women 

in the milit ary services. In 1986, the Marine Corps published Col. Mary V. 

Stremlow's A History of the Womell Marines, 1946-1977. The A rmy Nurse Corps, 

the Air Force, and the Navy have in recent years begun work on the history of 

women who served in their organ izations. 

This volume, li ke Colonel Treadwell's, focuses Oil the interaction of plans, 

decisions, and personalities at the highest levels of the Department of the Army 

that affected the Women's A rmy Corps. The main players ill the story are the 

secretaries o f the Army, Ihe c hiefs of staff, the depu ty chiefs of staff for personnel, the directors of the Women's Army Corps, the WAC staff advisers, and the 

commanders of the WAC Center and the WAC School. $0 many high"level 

plans and decisions had to be described that little space remained to describe the 

day-to-day happenings in a detac hment, the humorous things, the serious th ings, 

the exhilaration of promotio n, the joy or agony o f tra nsfer orders, the suspense 

of mail call, or lears when the natio na l anthem was played. For this reason, it is 

hoped that many WACs will follow Maj. Camilla Mays Fra nk, Capt. Georg ia B. 

Watson, and others in publishing their stories, or the fam ily of Lt. Col. Emily U. 

Miller who provided the funds for a grad uate st udent, Kathleen E. R. Smit h, to 

write a biography of their sister. 

Many of the ideas and moral attitudes that existed in the middle decades of 

this cen tury will seem strange to modern readers, but they existed and they 

innuenced policies affecti ng the WACs. For example, until 1971 the Corps did 
not accept the in itial en listmen t of a married woman. Society expected that a 

woman would stay at home with her husband. Also unti l that year the Corps 

would not even consider enlisti ng a woman who had had an illegitimate pregnancy, whether or not a child was delivered from that pregnancy. Un ti l the late 

19605 most WAC detachment commanders did not allow enlisted women to 

wear blue jeans or slacks outside the unit area unless the women were en route 

to the softball field or bowling alley. A WAC in uniform could 1I0t enter a liquor 

store or a ba r, smoke while walki ng, or chew gum in public. The rules were 

strict and were sometimes disobeyed, but the women lea rned high standards of 

deportment and they knew their officers and NCOs cared abou t them as individuals as well as members of the Corps. By the late 19708, society had taken such a 

wide turn in attitudes toward unwed mothers, unmarried couples livi ng together, 

dress codes, cond uct in public, and olher standards that the strict morality and 

social proprieties of earlier years faded from existence. 

For the most part, th is volume follows a chronological arrangement strucItlred around the tenures of the successive directors of the Corps. Only Chapter 

XII in terrupts this order. That chapter, all the history of the WAC Cen ter and 

WAC School, recounts the history of the traini ng center at Fort McClellan, 

Alabama, from 1954 through 1976, when the center was discontin ued. I have not 

singled out any eth nic gro up for a separate chapter because in one way or 

another each WAC belonged to a minority group, but together we made up the 

mosaic that was the Women's Army Corps. Women of every eth nic group made 

notable achievements in their WAC careers; most are not men tioned here only 

because they did not become involved with th is part of the WAC history. 

For assistance, guidance, and ad vice in preparing this volume, the author is 

indebted to a number of people. Brig. Gen. Mild red Inez Ca roon Bailey, the 

eighth director of the WAC, suggested and obtai ned approval for the project, 

with strong support from Brig. Gen. James L. Collins, Jr. , chief of military 

history and commander of the U.S. Army Center of Military History (197 1-

1982). The work proceeded initially (1974- 1983) under the overall supervision of 

Dr. Maurice MatlolT, chief historian of the Army, and under the daily guidance 

of Robert Ross Smith, chief of the Army Center of Military History's General 

History Branch, whose detailed editorial commen ts laid a steady track for the 

WAC manuscript. Later, the author profited from the adv ice of Brig. Gen. 

William A. StolTt, who became the chief of mi li tary history and commander of 

the Army Cen ter of Military History in 1985. T he author is also greatly indebted 

to the panel members who reviewed the initial manuscript: D r. Cynthia E. 

Harrison, George Washington University; Brig. Gen. Elizabet h P. Hoisington, 

former director of the WAC; Dr. David F. T rask, who succeeded Dr. Matloff as 

chief historian of the Army; Lt. Col. Richard O. Perry, c hief of CMH's Histories 

Division; and Dr. Albert E. Cowdrey, chief of CMH's Special History Branch. 

A pal'licular debt of gratit ude is owed Dr. Cowdrey, who patientl y provided 

advice and suggestions to improve the volume's style and organization. I am 

grateful for the editorial assistance provided by Sara J. Heynen of CM H's 

production staff who also coordi nated the work of the Editorial Research Assox 
ciates whose chief, Mary F. Loughlin, provided the substantive ed iting that 

eliminaled many of my erro rs and repel it ions and added some life to the manuscript. Craig Skates did a masterful job on the copy ed iting of the manuscript. 

Three outside readers provided va luable suggestions-Col. Elizabeth H. Branch, 

USA Retired, D r. Margaret Conrad Devilbiss, and James Charles Gibbons. 

During the years that the volume was being prepared, I frequently contacted 

the former directors WAC for informal ion o r clarification. Each director, from 

Col. Mary A. Hallaren through Maj. Gen. Mary E. Clarke, read portions of the 

revised manuscript and provided valuable insights. Many WAC officers and 

noncommissioned officers, too numerous to name but deserving of recognition, 

responded promplly and unselfish ly to my calls for info rmation. From 1974 

through 1981, 1 was fort unate to have the assistance of two outslanding USAR 

mobilization designees; Col. Jean Bakkom, who researchcd discharge and unifo rm regulations and analyzed statistics; and Col. Shirley J. Minge, who resea rched and wrote material on women in the USAR and the National Guard. 

Mattie E. T readwell not on ly provided advice and encouragement but also 

frequent ly helped me with background information. 

My research was greatl y assisled by many archi vists who gave generously of 

their time, particularl y William H. Cunliffe and Edward Reese at the National 

Archives and Hannah M. Zeidlik, Gerald ine K. Judkins, Larry A. Ballard, and 

Mary L. Sawyer at the Army Center of Mililary History. My sister researchers 

and writers, Maj. Gen. Jeanne M. Holm, USAF Relired, Maj. Ri la G. DeArmond , U.S. Air Force Reserve, Col. Mary V. Stremlow, U.S. Marine Corps 

Reserve, and 1 exchanged ideas and research material, and 1 benefit ed from 

reviewing sections of their manuscripts. Providing encouragement and support at 

the Army Center of Military History were the Army Nurse Corps historians: 

Col. Anna E. Anton icci, Col. Rosemary T. McCarthy, Lt. Col. Mary E. V. 

Frank, Maj. Cindy A. Gurney, and Maj. Winona Bicc-Slephcns. The curator of 

the WAC Museum at Fort McClellan, Gabriele Torony, and her assistant, Eli zabet h Avery, frequentl y helped me locate files and historica l references. 1 am 

grateful to Robert Mayfield, Trai ning Aid Service Command, Fort McClellan, 

fo r many of the photographs in the sectio n 011 uniforms, and to the many women 

who modeled the uniforms for this section, including Brig. Gen. Mildred C. 

Bailey, Sgt. Janice L. Cosey, Sgt. Lori Cousi ns-Powell, Capt. Paula Gienapp, Lt. 

Lois Grey, Sgt. Helen M. Harris, Lt. Linda C. Jones, Pvt. MlITY Milolajozak, Lt. 

Linda L. Norman, and ot hers no t identified on U.S. Army pho tographs. 

I am indebted to John W. Elsberg, Editor in Chief of CMH publications, who 

skillfull y directed the ed itorial and prod uclion processes. My volume benefited 

from the talent and ingenuity of the center's g raphics personne l led by Arthur S. 

Hardyman under whose direction Linda M. Cajka prepared the photographs and 

Howell C. Brewer the c harts. My thanks also go to LaJuan R. Watson, Terrence 

L. Offer, Gina Wilson, Gabrielle S. Patrick, and others at CM H who typed the 

chapters and inserted changes. 
Throughout this labor of love, my family encouraged me, my WAC friends 

inspired me, and my colleagues at the Army Center of Military History provided 

a stimulating and cheerful atmosphere d uring all my days in their midst. 

If, despite my efforts to present an accurate chronicle, errors have been made, 

they are solely my responsibility. 

Washington, D.C. 

14 July 1989 

BETTIE J. MORDEN 

Colonel, AUS, Retired 
Contents 

Chapter Page 

I. THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945....... ............... 3 

The Auxiliary......... ..................................................................... 6 

COl/version to Army Status .................. ........... ... ........................ 12 

Regula/iolls and Policies; Tradition and Custom ...................... 13 

Assignment alld Utilization ....... ............. .............. ............. ......... 18 

The End of the War ............................................. ...................... 24 

Demobilization ..... .............. ... ... ........... .. .............. .............. ........ 25 

Postwar Planning .............................................................. .. ........ 28 

The Struggle Jor Regular Army and Reserve Status ................. 3 1 

II. WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMy.... .............. .................. 35 

Architects oj the WAC Bill......................................................... 39 

Progress oJ the Legislation, 1947 and 1948................................ 44 

The Women's Armed Services Integration Act oj 1948 ....... .. .... 48 

Integration ...... ............................................................................ 56 

Ill. WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING......... .............. . 63 

The Office oJthe Director, WAC............................................... 63 

Key WAC StaJJOfficer Positions........ .... .............. ........ 67 

DeJense Advisory Committee on Women ill the Services ........... 70 

WAC Training Center, Camp Lee.. .......................... ... .. .......... 72 

The Last Years oj Racial Segregation........................................ 85 

IV. THE KOREAN WAR ERA ...................................... .. ............ 89 

Mobilization Jor War ................... .. ............................................. 90 

Reserve Screening ........................................ .......... .. ............... 97 

WAC Recruiting Accelerated ............................... ...................... 98 

WACs ill the Far East Command ............................................ 106 

Armistice and Aftermath ............................................................ 108 

The Elld oj an Era.. . ............. ....... ......... ... ............ ............ .. .. .... 109 

V. OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER 

DEVELOPMENT .................... ............ ............ ............ 113 

WAC OJficer Procurement ......................................................... 11 3 

A Question oJStatus ................................................................... 123 

Career Planfling ...................... ................ ............ .............. ........ 124 

Warrant Officer Procuremel/t and Career Managemel/t ........... 133 

VI. STRENGTH GOALS AND THE MOVE TO FORT 

McCLELLAN ................................................ ...................... 137 

Discharge Policies ... ............ ................ ... .......... J 37 

Recruitment and Reenlistment .................................................. 140 

The Move to Fort McClellal/.............................................. ........ 144 

Expandillg Enlisted Utilization .................................................. 152 

XIII 
Chapter 

VII. MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE ........ .... ................................ . 

Burnishing the I,nage ................................................................ . 

Congressional Liaison ............................................... ................. . 

Society and Utilization ............................................... ......... ... .. .. 

Attitudes ............ .......... .......................................................... .. .. . 

Reappointment ................ ... ....... ............................................... .. 

The Berlin Crisis ........................ .... ......... ... ............................. .. 

Army Reorganization, /962 ........... ............. ............................... . 

VIII. THE 1960s- A NEW LOOK ................................ .................. .. 

WAC Strength-Enlistment ......................... ........................... . 

The WAC Exhibit Team . .... .......... .............. ........................... .. . 

WAC Strength- Reenlistment ......... ... .................................... .. 

Interchangeable Spaces ....................... ................. .................... .. 

Housing .. ... ........... ............................................ .. ... ... ......... .. ..... . 

GAO and Early Separations ..................................... ....... .. 

Officer Careers and Restrictions .... ........................................... . 

IX. VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS ...... . 

The WAC Student Officer Program ............. .................. .......... . 

Officer Promotion and Sen ior Service College Selection 

The WAC Expansion for Vietllom ............... ............................. . 

The Movement Toward all All· Volunteer Army ....................... . 

A Giant Step for Women ............................... ............................ . 

Controversy and Challging Standards .......... ... .............. .. .......... . 

The AbortiOll Policy ...... ........... ................... ................ ... ......... . 

The WAC in Vietnam .... ........... .................. ................. ........... . . 

WAC Detachment, USARV. ........ ............. ............................. . 

General Hoisington Retires ......................... ... ........................... . 

X. THE END OF T HE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION .. .. 

A New WAC Image ................................... ... ............... ............. . 

The Expansion Plans ......................................... .............. .......... . 

The Elimination of Assigllment and Career Restrictions ......... . 

New Career Fields for Womell .......................... .............. .......... . 

Extending the Command Authority o[ Women ........................ . 

WAC Housing Policy Changes ......................................... .... .... .. 

Statutory Ell iistmem Qualifications Changed ..... ... ........ .. 

Concerns Over Numbers alld MOSs .............................. .......... .. 

Expansion and Overseas Assignmellts ....................................... . 

The I nterchangeable Spaces Policy ........................................... .. 

The Impact of Expansion 0 " WAC Officers ....................... ..... .. 

OPMS G"d the Integration of WAC Officers [,,10 Other 

Branches ........... .. ............ .. ........................................... .. 

WAC Expansion and the Reserve Components ...... ................ .. 

Other Womell's Services ........................................ ................... . 

xiv 

Page 

157 

159 

162 

165 

170 

172 

173 

179 

187 

189 

189 

192 

194 

196 

202 

206 

2 17 

2 18 

220 

221 

228 

23 1 

232 

240 

241 

245 

255 

257 

259 

263 

269 

270 

273 

275 

277 

279 

282 

285 

286 

289 

292 

297 
Chapfer Page 

Xl. THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE 

WAC............ ............ .. .. ........... .. ................................ 299 

Pregnancy and Parenthood Policies ............................................ 302 

Eliminate the Corps? ................................................................. 310 

Women Enter the u.s. Military Academy................................. 318 

General Bailey's Departure .................................................... .... 324 

XII. WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL.......... ............... 329 

WAC Organizations ............. .................................................. 331 

WAC Center- Organizational Structure ............................... 333 

Center Commanders: Command and Training Roles ........... 334 

Racial Strife, 1971 .................................................................. 347 

Commanders During the Expansion and Reorgallization . 350 

14th Army Balld (WAC) .... ....... ........ ........................... ...... 356 

Basic Training Changes and Inactivatioll ............... ............... 362 

XIII. WOMEN IN THE ARMy .................................... .. .................... 367 

MAX WAC alld Other Studies ......................... ...................... 369 

Womell ill the Army Studies .................................................. 373 

The Feud Over Increasing the N umber of WA Cs ........ 375 

The Combat Exclusion Policy .......................... ...................... 38 1 

A Senior Military Spokeswoman ............................................ 386 

Disestablishment of the Office of the Director, WAC............ 390 

Gelleral Clarke Is Reassigned ................................................ 393 

Discontinuance of the Corps ................................................... 395 

XIV. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................... 399 

APPENDIXES 

A. PERSONNEL STATISTICS ..................................................... 409 

I. Strength of the WAC, 1942- 1978, and Women in the 

Army, 1979- 1984 ...................................... ...... .................. 409 

2. Accessions of Women's Army Corps Personnel, 1942-

1978 .............................................................. ...................... 410 

3. Enlisted Women Separated From the Army by Cause, 

FY 1946- FY 1980 ............................................................. 41 2 

4. WAC Reenlistment Rates, 1949- 1984....................... 414 

5. Strength of Black Members of the Women's Army 

Corps, 1945- 1978 .............................................................. 4 15 

B. MOSs AND TRAINING ............................................................ 417 

6. D uty MOSs Held by WAC Officers, December 1963 ..... 417 

7. D uty MOSs Held by Enlisted Women, December 1963 .. 419 

8. Basic Trai ni ng for Female Military Personne l Without 

Previous Service, 1961 ..................................................... 420 

9. Women's Army Corps NCO Leadership Course, 51OF3, 

1971 ........................................... .. ....................................... 421 

xv 
Page 

10. WAC Officer Basic Course/W AC Officer Candidate 

Course, 1962 ...................................................................... 422 

11. Associate WAC Company Officer Course, 1952............. 423 

12. WAC Officer Career Course, 1960 ..................................... 425 

C. KEY PERSONNEL ...................................... ............... ............... 427 

13. Directors and Deputy Directors, Women's Army 

Corps, 1942- 1978 .............................................................. 427 

14. WAC Staff Advisers, Major Commands ........................... 428 

15. WAC Center Commanders and Assistant Commandants, 

WAC School..................................................................... 432 

16. Battalion Commanders at the WAC Centers..................... 434 

D. WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS UNIFORMS, 1942- 1978 ............ 437 

ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND INITIALISMS ................. 493 

NOTE ON SOURCES ................................................................. ............ 499 

INDEX ....................................................................................................... 505 

Tables (excluding Appendixes) 

N. 

1. Black Women in the Services, 1945 and 1947................................ 51 

2. Enlisted Women's Strength ............................................... .............. 58 

3. WAC Training Center: Training Capacity....... .............................. 83 

4. Male and WAC Enlistments, 1951 ..... .. .............. ............................ . 99 

5. Enlisted Women's Strength ................... ........................................... 100 

6. Enlisted Losses for Discharge on Marriage and Pregnancy......... 102 

7. Strength of the Women's Services .................................................. 103 

8. WAC Personnel Overseas ................................................................ 107 

9. Officers Authorized and On Duty, 1949, 1950, 195 1 ..................... 114 

10. WAC OCS, 1949-1953 ..................................................................... 115 

II. WAC Company Officers Course, 1950- 1953................................. 11 8 

12. Direct Commission Program, Grade Determinants, 1951............. 119 

13. WAC Officers in Specialization Programs ..................................... 128 

14. WAC Officers Detailed to Other Branches .................................... 129 

15. Distribution of WAC Officer Assets, December 1964 .................. 130 

16. Additional Enlisted WAC Spaces, Selected Commands and Activities ............................................................... .............................. 178 

17. Strength of the Women's Services .................................................. 190 

18. WAC Reenlistment Rates ................................................................. 193 

19. Enlisted Women Discharged Before Completing a First Enlistment ............................................................................................... 203 

xvi 
No. Page 

20. Women's Services Projected Increases .................................... 223 

21. WAC Expansion Progress, 30 June 1968 ...... .. ................... 226 

22. WAC Loss Rates.................................. ............................................ 227 

23. WAC Strength Outside CONUS ..................................................... 283 

24. Women in A rmy ROTC .......... .................................. ..................... 288 

25. WAC Officers on Permanent Detail, 17 June 1974.................... 291 

26. Enlisted Women, Strength by Service ............................................ 298 

27. A rmy Enlisted Women Discharged for Pregnancy and Parenthood ............................................. .................................................. 304 

28. Comparison, Selected Courses ................................. ........... ............ 364 

29. Proposed Increases, Women in the Services .................................. 376 

30. Women in the Army, Strength Objectives ........................... 379 

Charts 

No. 

I. WAC Training Center, Fort Lee, Organi zation, 1948.................. 79 

2. Army Staff, Organization, 1946, 1950....... ..................................... 90 

3. Department of the Army, Organization, 1963 ............ .................... 180 

4. Plateau Plan- Utilization of Women in the Army ........................ 301 

5. WAC Center and School, Fort McClellan, Organization, 1974 ... 356 

Illustrations 

Directors, Women's Army Corps .... ... .. ..................................... .. frontispiece 

First WAAC Training Center, Fort Des Moines, 1942......................... 7 

Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers, 1942........ .... ............................. 8 

Mess Hall, Fort Oglethorpe, 1944 .............................. .............................. 9 

WAAC Officers, AUS Integration, 1943................................ ................. I I 

WAC OCS Class No. 50, Fort Oglethorpe, 1944............... ............ 17 

WAC Driver, Fort Oglethorpe, 1944 .................................... .. ................ 18 

149th WAAC Post Headquarters Co., North Africa, 1943........ 21 

Maj. Gen. Willard S. Paul and Lt. Col. Mary Louise Milligan, 1946.. 40 

Col. Mary A. Hallaren, 1947 .......................................................... 47 

WAC Staff Advisers and Senior WAC Officers, 1949....... ................... 66 

Maj. Annie V. Gardner, 1948.............................................. .. .................. 74 

Barracks A rea, Camp Lee, 1948....................................... ....................... 75 

LL Col. Elizabeth C. Smith and Staff, 1948............. .......... .................... 77 

WACs Depart Camp Lee, I 948.............................. ........... ... .......... .. ........ 84 

Anna M. Rosenberg................................................. ....................... 105 

General J. Lawton Collins ............................. .......... ......... ....................... 105 

WAC OCS G raduates Commissioned, 1970 ... .................... .. ................. 120 

College Juniors at WAC School, 1964.. ......... .. ............................. 121 

XVII 
Poge 

Lt. Col. Hortense M. Boutell, 1960......... ............................ 127 

Lt. Col. Lillian Harris, 1960 ..................................................... .............. .. 127 

Maj. Gen. Cha rles D. Palmer and WAC Center Staff, 1953 ................. 147 

New Recruits Arrive at Fort McClellan, 1954....................................... 149 

WAC Area, Fort McClellan, 1954....... .. .......... ................. .. ....... 150 

General Matthew B. Ridgway, 1954...... .................................................. 152 

Lt. Gen. Alexander R. Bolling, 1953....................................................... 153 

Col. William T . Moore, 1955.................................................................... 153 

Col. Mary Louise Milligan Becomes Director, WAC, 1957 ................. 158 

Sgt. Maj. Carolyn H. James and Sgt. 1st Cl. May E. Judy, 1965.... 160 

Lt. Col. Hattilu White Addison, 1954.......................................... ............ 161 

Lt. Col. Helen Hart Corthay, 1958 .......................................................... 161 

Colonel Milligan, L t. Col. L ucile G. Odbert, and Mrs. George V. 

Milligan, 1961 ........................................................................................ 172 

WAC Band, Kennedy Inaugural Parade, 1961 ....................................... 174 

Torchlight Parade, 1964 ............................................................................ 184 

Lt. Gen. Russell L. Vittrup and Colonel Rasmuson .............................. 185 

Lt. Col. Mary E. Kelly and the Directors of the Women's Services, 

1963 ... ...................................................................................... ........... ... 188 

First Display, WAC Exhibit Unit, 1963 .................................................. 190 

Pallas Athene Insignia ........... .. .................................................................. 191 

Lt. Col. Irene M. Sorrough, 1955............................................................ 195 

Women's Tri-Service Barracks, Fort Myer, 1968 ...... ......... ................... 20 1 

President Johnson Signs H.R. 5894, 1967.......... ... ............................ .. ..... 214 

Sgt. Patsy M. Wright, 1964 ....................................................................... 215 

Col. Emily C. Gorman, 1966.............. .............. .............. .. ............ 215 

Col. Marie Keh rer, 1969 ............................. ........ .... ........... ..... ................. 22 1 

Col. Mary C. Fullbright, 1969 .................................................................. 222 

Col. Elizabeth P. Hoisington With Five Former D irectors, WAC ...... 225 

Brig. Gen. Anna Mae Hays, Mrs. Eisenhower, and Brig. Gen. 

ElizabethP. Hoisington, 1970 ............................................................... 232 

Maj. Kathleen I. Wilkes and Sgt. 1st Cl. Betty L. Adams ................... 243 

Lt. Gen. Jean E. Engler and Capt. Peggy E. Ready, 1967................... 246 

1st Sgt. Marion C. Crawford, 1967 .... ..................................................... 247 

General Creighton W. Abrams, Col. Hoisington, and Lt. Col. 

Leta M. Frank ................. ........... ........................................................... 249 

Colonel Hoisington and WAC Detachment Cadre, Vietnam, 1967...... 250 

Colonel Hoisington and Unit Members, Long Binh, 1967 ..................... 25 1 

General Hoisington, Retirement, 1971 ................................................ ..... 256 

Secretary of the Army Robert F. Froehlke and Brig. Gen. Mildred 

I. C. Bailey, 197 1 ............................................................................ ....... . 258 

DWAC Staff and WAC Staff Ad visers, 1972 ....... ............ ..................... 260 

WAC Trainees, Camp Carroll, Alaska, 1976.......................................... 296 

"Er, We're Still Giving It Second T houghts" ..... .................................. 320 

xviii 
West Point Cadets, 1976 ..................... ..................... ............................... . 

Lt. Col. Eleanore C. Sullivan and Lt. CoL F. Marie ClarL ............. ... . 

Lt. Col. Marjorie C. Power ... ........ ........................................ .............. .... . 

Colonel Odbert.. ......................................................................... . 

Lt. Col. Sue Lynch ................................................................................... . 

Lt. Col. Elizabeth H. Branch ................................................................... . 

Col. Shirley R. Heinze .......... ................................................................... . 

Col. Lorraine A. Rossi ............................................................................. . 

Retreat Ceremony, WAC Center, 1970 .................................................. . 

Col. Maxene B. Michl, Maj. Gen. Joseph R. Russ, and Col. 

William A. McKean, 1968 ................. ................ .................................. . 

Comd. Sgts. Maj. Yzetta L. Nelson and Curtis Ramsay, 1968 ............. . 

Comd. Sgt. Maj. Betty J. Benson, 1973 ........................................... ....... . 

Dance Band, 14th Army Band (WAC), 1965 ......................................... . 

14th Army Band (WAC), 1970 .... """" ......... """" .... "" .. " ....... ,,"",, ....... ,, 

Col. Edith M. Hinton, 1975 ..................................................................... . 

Secretary of the Army Clifford L. Alexander, Jr .................................. . 

Maj. Gen. Mary E. Clarke, 198 1 ............................................................. . 

Assistant Secretary (M&RA) Harry N. Walters With General 

Clarke, 1981 ........................................................................................... . 

WAC Museum ....................................................... ................................... . 

Page 

324 

334 

335 

335 

337 

337 

337 

337 

340 

343 

344 

346 

357 

358 

368 

379 

394 

394 

395 

Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: p. 320, Army Times; p. 397, 

H. K. Barnett. All other illustrations from the files of the Department 

of Defense and the U.S. Army Center of Mili tary History. Paperback 

cover: Reteat, Womell 's Army Corps Center by Robert Norton, courtesy of 

the WAC Museum, Fort McClellan, Alabama. 

xix 

THE WOMEN'S ARMY 

CORPS, 1945-1978 

CHAPTER I 

The Women's Army Corps, 

1942- 1945 

Women ill the Army? Never! 

In early 194 1, "Never!" was a typical reaction to the idea of women 

serving in the U.S. Army. The subject conj ured up pictures of women 

wearing helmets, carrying rifles. and attacking an enemy in a wa r zone. 

But after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, these ideas and images did 

seem somewhat less outrageous. With new demands o n labor- for war 

plants, for the A rmy, for the Navy- Americans began to face the reali ty 

that manpower shortages would occur in the near futu re. Eno rmous 

numbers of guns and planes had to be produced for the increasing 

numbers of American soldiers and sailors. The crisis changed the nat ure 

of the questions abo ut women in the Army: What could women do in the 

Army? Would they ever be in combat? What weapons would they fire? 

Would they be giving o rders to men? How would the Army, a traditio nal 

male society, accept women into its midst? 

Some interest in the subject had developed in 1941 , before the Japa· 

nese attack. Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers had introduced a bill 

in the House of Representatives to establish a Women's Army Auxiliar y 

Corps. She proposed a quasi·military o rganization of 25,000 women to fill 

clerical jobs that the Army would otherwise give to enlisted men. Army 

Chief of Staff George C. Marshall approved the idea. He envisioned such 

a corps as a cond ui t for en rolling thousands of women d uring wartime, 

th us releasing men from administrative jobs and making them available 

fo r combat duty. However, Mrs. Rogers' bill languished d uring 1941 

because Cong ress was preoccupied with mo re pressing issues- the lend· 

lease bill, price controls, war plant production, and labor problems. 

Mrs. Rogers introduced another bill in January 1942 for a Women's 

Army Auxiliary Corps of 150,000 women for noncombat d uties. In a 

surprise move, she added an amendmen t that would give women military 

status and the right to be enlisted and appointed in the Army o n the same 

basis as men. To Mrs. Rogers' dismay, the amendment immediately generated bitter controversy on the noor of the House. W hile congressmen 

could accept the idea of a women's auxiliary to ease a manpower short-
4 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

age, they objected to giving women military status as well as the rights 

and benefits of veterans. 1 

Several precedents existed to buttress the granting of military status to 

women in the Army. In 1901 Cong ress had established a Nurse Corps 

(Female) in the Army Medical Department of the Regula r Army. The 

nurses served under contract-they did not receive commissions-but in 

1920 Congress gave them "relative ra nk." This meant they could hold the 

rank of second lieutenant, fi rst lieutenant, captain, or major and could 

wea r officers' insignia. Though they still lacked most of the privileges of 

regular officers, the nurses had gained some signifi cant milita ry status. In 

1926, Congress authorized A rmy nurses a retirement pension based on 

length of service and, in 1930, added a pension for disability incurred in 

the line of duty. The Navy Nurse Corps (Female), established in 1907, 

followed the Army Nu rse Corps' organization and offered similar status 

and benefits.2 

During World War I, the Navy had used its recruitment authority to 

enlist approximately 13,000 women, called "Yeomanettes" and "Marinw 

ettes," to serve on active d uty and fi ll clerical positions in various Navy 

and Ma rine Corps offices in the United States. T he women wore uniw 

fo rms. and they received the same pay and priv ileges as men while on 

active d uty and as veterans the reafter. After the war, the Navy disbanded 

these g roups. 

The War Department had had similar authority to enlist women 

du ring World War I. But, instead of enlisting women, it hired them under 

civilian contract to serve as telephone ope rators and clerks with the 

American Expeditionary Forces in F rance. Long after the war. in the late 

1920s. planners on the War Depa rtment's General Staff wrote two separate proposals fo r establishing a women's corps as an integ ral pa rt of the 

Army. Howeve r. neither proposal received adeq ua te support; both we re 

filed and forgotten.3 

Either the 77th Congress. 194 1- 1943, was ignorant of these precedents. 

or it chose not to consider them. In the hearings on Mrs. Rogers' bill. 

legislato rs proclaimed that including women in the milit ary wo uld destroy the very foundations of American society. They envisioned an 

intolerable situation in which "women generals would rush abou t the 

country dictating orders to male personnel and telling the commanding 

officers of posts how to run their business."4 Other members roundl y 

I Mallie E. Treadwell. The Womell s ArlllY Corps. United States Army in World War II (Washing· 

ton. DC: Government Printing Office [GP01, 1954). p. 24. In addition to citations 10 spcdfic 

information from this source. the general information in this chapte r. unless noted otherwise. is also 

from this volume. 

2 US Army Center of Military History. lJigMiglJls ill the History oJ tl.e Army Nurse Corps (Washing. 

ton. DC: G PO, 1981). pp. 13- 19. 

3 Trcadwcll.WomellS Army Corps. p. 15. 

~ Ibid. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 5 

obj ected to giving women disability pensions, retirements, and veterans 

benefits. Some congressmen received support for their arguments from 

male officers who disliked the bill but dared not publicly oppose legislation supported by the War Department. 

On 14 May 1942, after all debate ended, Congress established a 

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), but did not grant its members 

military status. T he next day. President Frankli n D. Roosevelt signed the 

compromise bill; A n Act to Establish the Women's Army Auxiliary 

Corps became Public Law (PL) 77- 554. 5 

The act authorized the Army to enroll 150,000 officers and enlisted 

women between the ages of twenty-one and fo rty-five for noncombatant 

service; to organize them in separate units; and to pay, house, feed, 

clothe, train, and prov ide medical care for them at Army posts and other 

facilities. It did not ba r them from service overseas. Women officers 

received appointments in the Women's Army Auxilia ry Corps in the 

created grades of third officer, second officer, first officer, field director, 

assistant director, and director-comparable to the Army's grades of 

second lieutenant through colonel. E nlisted women he ld the grades of 

auxiliary, junior leader, leader, staff leader, technical leader, first leader, 

and chief leader-comparable to the Army's enlisted grades of private 

through master sergeant. At fi rst, W AACs received less money than their 

male equivalents, but o n I Novembe r 1942 they began to d raw the same 

pay and allowances as members of the Regular Army serving in corresponding grades. They continued, however, to use their auxiliary grade 

titles. 

Because the W AAC law did not make the women a n integral part of 

the Army, they could not be governed by Army regulations o r the 

A rticles of War. The director of the WAAC and he r staff, therefore, 

prepared a set of rules called the W AAC Regulations that covered 

appointment, enlistment, promotion, discipline (including a code of cond uct and suggested punishments for infractions), training, uniforms, pay, 

and discharge. These regulations were patterned after Army regu lations 

as closely as possible and provided that when the WAAC Regulations did 

not cover a partic ular situation, Army regulations would be used. W AAC 

crfficers alo ne would command WAAC units and administer punishment 

under the WAAC Regulations. Male officers and civilian supervisors, 

however, did have autho rit y over the women who worked for them. 

Anticipating its own manpower shortages. the Department of the 

Navy took a different approach to obtaining servicewomen. It asked for 

and received from Cong ress authority to enlist and appoint women in a 

women's section of the Naval Reserve, the Coast Guard Reserve, and the 

~ Ibid. Members of the Women's Army Corps traditionally eelebratc lhe founding of the WAAC 

on 14 M;a y. lhe dale Congress approved lhe bill. Tal her Ihan on lhe dale il was signcd by the 

president. 
6 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Marine Corps Reserve. The bill encountered little opposition; evidently 

neither legislators nor men in the naval services believed that women in a 

reserve status would threaten the composition and traditions of those 

services. The president signed the bill into Jaw (PL 77-689) on 30 July 

1942. 

Within six months, the Navy, Coast Guard, and Marine Corps had 

established reserve components-the WAVES (Women Accepted for 

Volunteer Emergency Service), the SPARS (from the Coast Guard 

motto, "Semper Paratus-Always Ready"), and the Marine Corps 

Women's Reserve (whose members were called Women Marines); had 

enlisted women in those compo nents; and had ca lled those reservists to 

active duty. The women in these groups received the same pay and 

benefits given regulars, but they were not eligible for disability or retire~ 

ment pensions. And while generall y governed by the same regulations 

and pOlicies as men, they were restricted to noncombat duties ashore in 

the Continental United States (CONUS). In 1944, the 78th Cong ress 

relented and with Public Law 441, 27 September, allowed WAVES. 

SPARS, and Women Marines to serve in Alaska and Hawaii. They were 

not, however, allowed to serve aboard combat ships. 

In an attempt to equalize the status and benefits of W AACs with those 

of women in the other services. Mrs. Rogers introduced a bill in October 

1942 to make the W AAC a part of the Army's Organized Reserve. 

General Marshall disapproved the bill only because he believed it would 

become highly controversial and wo uld delay the passage of other War 

Department legislation pending in the Congress. The bill died in committee. 

The Auxiliary 

Despite inequities and limitations. implementation of the earlier authorizing legislation was well under way. Chief of Staff Marshall had selected 

Oveta Culp Hobby. a native of Texas who would later serve as the first 

secretary of health. education, and welfare (1 953-1955), to be the director of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. She was a logical choice; as 

chief of the Women's Interest Section in the War Department's Bureau of 

Public Relations, she had helped to plan the Corps. She took the oath of 

office on 16 May 1942. In June, she donned the fi rst WAAC uniform, and 

onlO her shoulders, General Marshall pinned sil ver eagles, symbolizing 

the relative rank of colonel. 

In the Army's organizational structure. Director Hobby's headquarters 

was under the largest of the Army's th ree major commands, Services of 

Supply.6 This Army-wide command directed and managed administraB Services of Supply (50S) was renamed Army Service Forces (ASF) in March 1943. Waf 

Dcparlmenl General Order (WO GO) 14. 12 Mar 43. CMH Library. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 

TEMPORARY BUI LDINGS at the First WAAC Trail/ing Cel/fer, Fori Des Moilles, 

1942. 

7 

tion, personnel, trammg. and supply matters for all military personnel. 

The other two major commands, A rmy G round Forces and Army Air 

Forces, trained and equi pped combat soldiers for war on land and in the 

air. 

Immediately after the WAAC bill was signed, the War Department 

also assigned Col. Don C. Faith, a Regular Army infantry officer with 25 

years' service, to command the First W AAC Training Center at Fort Des 

Moines, Iowa. With hard work and perseverance, Colonel Faith and his 

staff transformed the old cavalry post, with its stables, riding halls, and 

hitching posts, into a home for the W AAC. 

The first women arrived at Fort Des Moines on 20 J uly 1942. Among 

them were 440 officer candidates who had been selected to attend 

WAAC Officer Candidate School (OCS). After successfull y completing 

the six-week course, the g raduates were commissioned as third officers, 

WAAC. New classes, averaging 150 students in size, entered the WAAC 

OCS every two weeks. In addition, the 125 enlisted women who had also 

arrived o n 20 July underwent the four-week WAAC basic training 

course. T he size of those classes inc reased as recruiting became mo re 

successful and additional training facili ties were made available. T he 

average age of the officer candidates was thirty; over 40 percent were 

college graduates. The average age of the enlisted personnel was twentyfou r; over 60 percent were high school grad uates. many with some 
8 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

CONGRESSWOMAN E D ITH NOURSE 

R OGERS addresses the graduates of the 

first WAA C officer candidate class at Fort 

Des Moilles. 29 August 1942. 

college trammg. In terms of education, if not milit ary status, the WAAC 

was an elite corps. 

Students in both courses studied milita ry customs and courtesies, organi zation of the Army, map read in g, fi rst aid, and suppl y; drilled and 

participated in ceremonies and parades; and stood guard d uty. Because 

they had a lo nger period of instruction, o fficer candidates also received 

training in leadership, teaching techniques, voice and command, courtmartial proced ures, W AAC company administratio n, and mess management. The women had no trouble learning the material. Becoming accustomed to Army life was another matter. They awakened in the morning 

to the boom of a cannon and the sound o f a bug le and kept to a tight, 

crowded schedule through a long day. They perfo rmed KP (kitchen 

po lice), trash co llection, and other tasks necessa ry to maintain militar y 

neatness despit e cramped living conditions. And they learned to " hu rry 

up and wait " as they stood in long lines for meals, mail, and an ironing 

boa rd. Most of the students adapted well, and those who had had lillie 

experience in teamwork discovered its rewa rds-heightened satisfac tion, 

morale, and camaraderie. 

After completing training, unless she remained at the training center to 

replace a male member of the cadre, the WAAC o fficer or enlisted 

person was assigned to a ISO-woman table o f o rganization (TO) compan y. 

Such units had spaces o nly for clerks, typists, d l"i vers, cooks, and unit 

cadre. It was disappointing to women who though t their civilian skillssuc h as accoun ting, communications, deni al hygiene, d rafting, ling uistics, 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 9 

MESS H ALL N o . I S, FORT OGLETHORPE, 23 November 1944. 

library science, mat hematics, school administration, and photographywould be useful to the A rmy. As soon as a company was full. it moved in 

to to- WAAC commander, officer and enlisted cadre, a nd cooks- to the 

Army post that had requisitio ned it. This system of assig nment by T O 

company, however. was too inflexible for wartime. In May 1943. it was 

eliminated for no ncomba t units. Under the new system. post commanders 

received a bulk allotment of WAAC spaces, then submitted requisitions to 

obtain women with the skills needed at their posts. The new system 

increased the variety o f assignments open to enlisted women. W AAC 

officers, however, continued to be primarily assigned to positions dea ling 

with WAAC administration, training, and recruiting. Public Law 77-554 

stipulated that they be limited to such duties. 

W AAC recruiting quickly surpassed its initial goals and the training 

center's capacity. President Roosevelt had set 25,000 women as a reasonable goal for the Corps to achieve by 30 June 1943, the end of the fiscal 

year. By November 1942, WAAC recruiting had topped that goal, and 

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson promptl y increased the goal for 30 

June 1943 to the ceiling sel by Congress ( 150,000) and d irected that more 

training centers be opened. Before the end of 1942, a second center was 

functioning at Daytona Beach, Flo rida. Between January and March 

1943, centers opened at Fort Og lethorpe, Georgia; Fort Devens, Massachusetts; and Camp Ruston, Louisiana. 

T he Women's Army Au xiliary Corps was a solid success. Its enlistment standa rds were relatively hig h, but the recruits it attracted met and 

surpassed those standards. In addition to strict physica l standards (height, 
10 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

weight, VISion, etc.), the Corps required two years of high school, a 

police check, employment and c haracter refe rences. and a score of at 

least 60 on the A rmy General Classification Test (AGCT).7 Such standards contributed to its success. But, in January 1943, the Army Rec ruiting 

Se rvice, under the Adju tant General (TAG), initiated a major campaign 

to recruit thousands more W AACs by lowering the standa rds: no minimum educational level, a minimal AGCT score of 50, no police check, no 

references, and less strict physical requirements. The lowe red standards 

were supported by the commander of Services of Supply, Lt. Gen. 

Brehon B. Somervell. Competition for manpower was the reason. T he 

W AAC recruitment was competing with recruitment for WAVES, 

SPARS, and Women Marines, as well as for civilian industries. The naval 

services sought approximately 100,000 women; industry, attempting to 

supply wartime demands, needed 4 million. 

Director Hobby opposed the lowered standa rds and attempted to have 

the higher standards reinstituted before the recruitment campaign was 

launched. Despite her stand. the lower standard went into effect. By the 

end of March. however. she had sufficient statistical evidence to convince 

General Marshall that because of the lower standards. unskill ed and 

un trainable women were inundating the W AAC. Approximately 40 percent of the 34,000 women recruited in the fi rst three months of 1943 had 

had fewe r than two years of hig h school; roughl y 15 percent had AGCT 

scores that placed them in the two lowest intelligence categories. Compounding those problems was the lack of background information abo ut 

the recruits' reliability and repu tations. In April, General Marshall delegated authority to set W AAC enlistment standa rds and to manage 

WAAC recruitment to Director Hobby. 

In the th ree months following the restoration of the higher standards, 

only 13,800 women enlisted, despite an intensive recruiting campaign. 

Corps strength on 30 J une 1943 was 60,000 officers and enlisted womenfar below the 150,000 goa l set by the Secretary of War. WAAC headquarters cited the g radual depletion of the most available vol untee rs and 

competition with ind ustry and the Navy, as well as the rei nstituted higher 

standards, as prima ry causes for the recruiting failure. 

A fourth fac tor, a slander campaign against the WAACs had also had 

an impact o n the recruiting results. T he demeaning assa ult o n the reputation of the WAAC had begun in the spring of 1943 and soon spread into 

the other women's se rvices. Some men used the WAACs as the subject of 

rid iculous or obscene jokes and scurrilous gossip and rumors about their 

moral character and behavior. This pastime seemed to have o riginated 

., T he AGe T. given to all mcn and womcn who entered the Army. measured aptitudes and 

cap.1bilities. The tCSt determined all individual's relative intelligence level and measured the ;'ldivid· 

ual's skills in reading and voc"bulary. arithmetic computation. arillllllclic reasoning. and pattern 

analysis. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942-1945 11 

WAAC OFFICERS being swom i ll lo the Army of the Ullited States, Fort Des 

Moilles, / September 1943. 

within the A rmy itself where the hostile attitude of many males, both 

officer and enlisted. toward the WAAC was well known and where little 

effort was made to d isguise it. T he slanderous jokes and gossip moved 

quickly from the military community into civilian circles where the news 

media took them up. British servicewomen had suffered the same experience in World War I and ea rlier in World War II. Accord ing to sociologisls, it is not unusual, from time to time, fo r minorities to become the 

popula r subject for obscene jokes and remarks. A War Department investigation of the matter failed to fi nd any defi nite source for the slurs, and 

attempts to ove rride the slander with favorable publicity o n the W AAC 

had little efTect. A long year afte r it began, the campaign wore itself out. 

But it took years to erase the ideas that had spread across the country 

about the WAAC. For the women who served in the wartime W AAC, 

the slander campaign was a nightmare that they wa nted to ensure would 

neve r happen again.8 

Unpleasant as it was, th is episode d id not prevent t he W AAC from 

achieving increased status in 1943. General Marshall decided to ask Congress to give the women military status. T he auxiliary system had proved 

complex and unwieldy, requ iring a separate set of WAAC regulations and 

policies. For example, among those who might have had lega l problems 

~ Tr(!adwcB.Woll1<'Jls Army Corps. pp. 191 - 217. 
12 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

under the auxiliary system were the 200 officers and enlisted women 

stationed in Algeria at General Dwight D. Eisenhower's North African 

Theater headquarters. Unli ke servicemen, the auxiliaries could not receive 

overseas payor government life insurance. If they became sick or were 

wounded, they would not receive veterans' hospitalization. If they were 

killed, their parents would receive no death grat uity. And, if they were 

captured, they would have no protection under existi ng international 

agreements covering prisoners of war. 

Mrs. Rogers and Director Hobby d rafted a bill that was approved by 

General Marshall and introduced into the new Congress, the 78th, in 

January 1943. T he Senate approved the bill on 15 February 1943, but 

members of the House questioned the effects of the change in statusWhat would be the top rank for women? How large would the new 

Corps be? What types of d uty would Corps members perform? What 

benefits would be granted? Six months of debate and compromise passed 

before the bill was approved by both ho uses and signed by President 

Roosevelt o n 1 July 1943. An Act to Establish the Women's Army Corps 

in the Army of the United States became Public Law 78- 110. 9 

Conversion to Army Status 

The new law deleted the word "Auxiliary" from the Corps title, 

removed the 150,000 limitatio n on its size, and c hanged the entry age 

from 21 through 45 to 20 th roug h 49. The distinctive WAAC grade titles 

vanished; the officers and enlisted women now used the same military 

titles as men. The d irector of the new Women's Army Corps (WAC), 

however, could not be promoted above the g rade of colonel and other 

WAC officers could not rise above lieutenant colo nel. E nlisted women 

could be promoted to the h ighest enlisted grade, master sergeant (E-7). 

Unfortunately, time spent in the WAAC did not coun t toward length of 

service, but henceforth, as part of the Army of the United States, members of the WAC would receive the same pay, allowances, benefits, and 

privileges as men. T hey would also be subject to the same discipli nary 

code. 

Under the old law, Director Hobby had stood as commander of the 

women, had written WAAC Regulations, and had directed the women's 

assignments, training, and uniforms. The new law took away her command authority and left her with the role of adviser to the secretary of 

the Army and the Army staff on WAC matters. Now the WACs would 

be governed by Army regulations with a few exceptions. The exceptions 

would be covered in an Army regulation called WAC Regulations. WAC 

officers would still command the women's units and administer punishment, but under the Articles of War rather than WAAC Regulations and 

9 Ibid., pp. 220-21. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942-1945 13 

the W AAC Code of Conduct. In the past it had often been unclear w hich 

chain of command the women should follow- the W AAC or the Regula r 

A rmy chain. Now, the Corps would c learly follow the normal c hain of 

command: WAC detachment commander; to post commander; to commander of the service command; to commander of the major command; 

to the c hief of staff; and, ultimately, to the president. 

Other changes in command and administrative responsibilities also 

stemmed from the new law. WAC personnel management, suppl y. training. and operations moved from WAAC headquarters to the War Department stafr offices thai managed such matters for men. T he WAC director 

retained staff responsibilities for preparing WAC plans and policies, inspecting WAC units, and advising the Army staff, majo r commanders. 

and the chief of staff on WAC matters. 

Oveta Culp Hobby was appointed Director. Women's Army Corps 

(OW AC), and was commissioned a colonel in the Army of the United 

States o n 5 July 1943. WAAC headquarters was retitled Office of the 

Director, Women's Army Corps (ODWAC). The director was authorized 

to communicate directl y with the major commanders and with the WAC 

staff directors assigned to each of those commands. T he d uties of the staff 

directors, who were commissioned lieutenant colonels, paralleled those of 

the director, and they, in turn, were authori zed direct contact with post 

commanders and WAC detachment commanders rega rding personnel 

matters. Through this network, the director kept abreast of progress o r 

problems concerning WAC housing, assignments, training, discipline, and 

morale. 

Organizationall y, the director's office remained under the commanding 

general, Army Service Forces (ASF). Colonel Hobby. however, believed 

that the Corps' new status required its director to be assigned to a level 

higher than Army Service Forces so that policy directives affecting 

WACs in all major commands would not appear to be generated by 

another command. General Marshall agreed and, in March 1944, relocated the director's office under the G- l (Personnel) of the War Department General Staff, the organizational level above the major commands. 

Regulatiolls alld Policies; Tradition alld Custom 

Until 1943, Army regulations had been written with o nly men in mind. 

While working with Mrs. Rogers on legislation to end the auxiliary 

status, D irector Hobby pushed her belief that the women in the Army 

sho uld be governed by the same regulations as men. She wanted it clear 

that the women received no special or favo red treatment. T hus, she 

opposed any proposal that "tends to give the impression that the WAC is 

something apart from the Army."lO 

I 0 Ibid .• p. 268. 
14 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

After the establishment of the Women's Army Corps ended the auxilia· 

ry status, however, Colo nel Hobby did recogni ze that the WAC needed 

special regulatio ns or policies. American social customs and the physiological differences between men and women led to Congress' expectation 

that women be noncombatants and to the "limiting" provisions of PL 78-

liD- for example, the restrictions on officer promotions and command 

authority. 

Congress had not included in the WAC law, as it had in the W AAC 

law, the statement that women would be no ncombatants. But, in the 

hearings on the WAC bill, every legislator in volved had made it known 

that he expected the secretary of war to ensure that women would be 

noncombatants. Thus, Army regulations excluded women from combat 

training that involved weapo ns or tactical exercises and from duty assignments that required weapons. Colo nel Hobby allowed some exceptions to 

this rule. Commanders could assign women to such noncombat dut y 

positio ns as disbursing or pay orficers, intelligence personnel who worked 

in code rooms, or drivers in certain overseas areas, even though the 

positions required the use of a weapon. If assigned these positions, the 

WACs received proper training with the appropriate weapon (usually the 

.4S-caliber automatic pistol). And to avoid the impressio n that the women 

were involved in combat duties, public relatio ns officers ensured that the 

news media did not print photographs of WACs with weapons. 

The WAC law did state that, with the sole exception of the director, 

no woman would be promoted above the grade of lieutenant colonel. The 

restriction existed because Congress and orficers in the War Department 

believed that a WAC o rficer's maximum responsibility would be at that 

level; higher positions of command and stafT duty required officers with 

combat training and experience. Thus, all colonels, except for the WAC 

director, and all general officers in the Army would continue to be male. 

The higher positions of command and stafT dut y also required the 

authority to command males, individually and in units, and PL 78- 110 

stated that women could not command men unless specificall y authorized 

by the secretary of war. II To counterbalance this limitation of authority, 

Colonel Hobby had the regulatio ns stipulate that WAC units would be 

composed only of women and would be commanded only by WAC 

officers. She also required that commands using WAC units establish and 

fill a position for a WAC staff director whose duties would include 

regular inspections of the command's WAC units. 

Regulations and decisions were needed to cover many areas not addressed by PL 78- 110. One important area left unsettled pertained to 

dependents: Could WAC members receive dependency allowances? Colonel Hobby requested a ruling by the comptroller general of the United 

States. His decisio n, 8- 35441 of 4 August 1943, ru led that husbands of 

II No record of such an aUlhorizHl ion hud oc'Cn found. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 15 

WACs CQuid not receive dependency benefits or allowances. However. if 

a WAC presented proof that she had children, parent's. grandparents, 

brothers, o r sisters solely or chieny dependent upon he r for suppo rt, they 

could receive dependency allowances. In 1944, the rul e was revised to 

allow a dependency allowance for a husband when he was dependent 

upon the WAC for morc than 50 percent of his support. Servicemen, on 

the other hand, automaticall y received dependency benefits for their 

wives and for children under 2 t without having to furnish proof of 

dependent status. Regardless of these rulings, WACs. in fact. had few 

dependents; enlistment and reenlistment regulatio ns barred women from 

service if they had children under 14 or dependent children between 18 

and 21. Men with children were eligible for enlistment and induction. 

Fortunately, the members of the 78th Congress had omitted an y provisions regard ing marriage, pregnancy, maternity care, or detention for 

misconduct from PL 78- 110. In consequence, Colonel Hobby was able to 

recommend that Army regulations covering these matters follow the 

policies that had been used successfully in the WAAC; the policies that 

had not been successful would be c hanged. Policies regarding dating and 

marriage reflected Army tradition, including the prohibition against officers and enlisted personnel mingling after duty ho urs. That prohibition 

affected dating and caused consternatio n worldwide, primarily because 

working conditions brought male officers and enlisted women together. 

However, with a permission slip from her superio r officer, a WAC officer 

could socia lize off duty with an enlisted husband o r relative, and likewise, 

an enlisted woman could socialize with an office r husband or relative. 

War Department policy on marriage as embodied in W AAC, WAC, 

and Army regulations did not c hange during the war. Marriage did not 

disqualify a woman from enlistment, no r did it provide a basis for requesting transfer or discharge. Obtaining a commander's permission to marry 

was not required by Army regulatio ns, but a commander could require it 

by publishing a directive to that effect, usually in the company's Standing 

Operating Procedure. If marriage did occur, a woman was required to 

forward a change of name through command channels. 

Commanders in the United States and overseas in the North African, 

Mediterranean, and Middle East theaters allowed military personnel to 

marry. In the European Theater, marriage was permitted, but, when it 

occurred, one spouse was immediately transferred to a distant statio n 

within the command or out of the theater. The purpose of the immediate 

transfer was to discourage hasty wartime marriages and pregnancies. In 

the Southwest Pacific Area and in the China-Burma-India Theater, marriage was not permitted unless the woman was pregnant. In such cases, 

the pregnant WAC was sent home at once and discharged. 

Under auxiliary status, a woman, married or single, who became pregnant was promptly sepa rated from the serv ice and given an honorable 
16 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

discharge. 12 When the Corps became part of the Army, the War Department found it had no authority to discharge personnel for pregnancy. 

Legislation for the traditional all-male Army provided many grounds for 

discharge- minority, dependency or hardship, bad conduct, mental disability, medical disability, unfitness. and inaptitude, as well as expiration 

of time in service (ETS)- nollc of which in a traditional interpretation 

covered pregnancy. The Army, however, resolved the problem by including pregnancy as a cause for a medical discharge. 

Thus, WACs who became pregnant could be legall y discharged. If a 

woman became pregnant overseas, she was evacuated by air to the 

United States. ]f birth occurred before a woman could be discharged for 

medical disability, she was discharged on the grounds of dependency of a 

minor c hild. If the child were stillborn, the woma n was discharged fo r 

"the convenience of the government." An illegal abortion, however, 

resu lted in a dishono rable discharge for bad conduc t. From 1942 thro ugh 

1945, the WAAC/ WAC pregnancy rate was 7 per 1,000 per month; the 

rate for civilian women in similar age groups for the same period was 11 7 

per 1,000. 

Maternity care was no t authorized for WACs after discharge unless 

they were married to military men-as dependents they received fu ll 

medical care. WAC commanders assisted unmarried pregnant women in 

finding social agencies that provided prenatal and postnatal care in return 

for light work. Few unmarried women went back to their hometowns if 

they were pregnant. In May t 944, after trying fo r several years to obtain 

help for these women, Colonel Hobby finall y convinced the War Department to provide care in Army hospitals for both married and single 

women discharged because of pregnancy. 

In these matters, the WAC reflected Army tradition and regulations 

and American social c ustom, as it also did in racial matters. In 1940, the 

War Department had established a policy of accepting black inductees 

under a quota that approximated the black propo rtion of the national 

population- to percent. The Selective Service Act of the same year 

prohibited discrimination based on race or color. Black men and women 

responded through patriotism and through the encouragement of black 

leaders who saw in the armed forces a chance to bring about change in 

the deep-rooted racial practices of segregation and discrimination. The 

Army had argued that it could not undertake a program for such a major 

social change while it was in the midst of a war. In consequence, since 

"official policy permitted separate draft calls and the officiall y held definition of discrimination neatly excluded segregation- and both went unchallenged in the courts," the Army continued throughout the war to 

segregate enlisted blacks and whites in basic training units and in housing. 

T he Army's training policy, however, provided that blacks and whites 

I I WAAC CirCl.llar (Cir»)7, 29 Dec 42. CMH Library. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 

WAC OFFICER CANDIDATE CLASS No. 50 G RADUATES, 20 May 1944, Third 

WAC Trainillg Cel/ler. ForI Oglethorpe. 

17 

would train toget.her in officer candidate schools (beginning In 1942) and 

in specialist and technical trai ning schools (beginning in t 943). Basic 

traini ng remained segregated; the Army feared that mixing the races 

immediately upon entering the service would lead to rac ial conflict. 13 

The W AAC and the WAC followed the Army's racial polic ies. but 

adapted those policies to meet their requ irements. When the first WAAC 

OCS class of 440 women arrived at Fort Des Moines in Jul y 1942, it 

included 40 black candidates. These women and those in several more 

classes received their training in segregated facilities until pressure from 

the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 

(NAACP) fo rced a reversal of this practice in November 1942. Housing 

and messing facilities for W AAC officers and service club facilities were 

also desegregated at this time. But the Corps continued to segregate basic 

training fo r enlisted women and to assign them to segregated units in the 

. 3 Morris J. MacGregor. Jr .. IIII r(J/ioll of /he Armer! Forces. 1940- 1965. Defcnse St\ldie~ Series 

(Washillgtoll. DC: G I'O. 198 1). pp. 17- 18. 
18 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC OKIVER, Fort Oglethorpe. 1944. 

field; black units in the fi eld and at the Corps' traini ng centers were 

commanded by black commissioned and noncommissioned officers. Black 

women, however, trained and served in the same military occupational 

specialties (MOSs) as white women. When attending specialist schools, 

black and white women trained and lived together. And, since only one 

women's unit was usually authorized at most Army posts, if the unit were 

white and a woman arriving for training at a school on that post were 

black, o r vice versa, all the women-black and white- li ved together in 

the same unit. 

D uring the war, recruitment of black women lagged considerably 

below the 10 percent desired by the War Department. A total of 6.527 

black women enlisted in the WAAC/ WAC between 1 July 1942 and 30 

June 1945-5.1 percent of the Corps' enlisted accessions. 14 

Assignment and Utilizatioll 

After conversion to Army status, WACs continued to be assigned 

under the bulk allotment system instituted in May 1943 for noncombatant 

U Treadwell. WCllmms Arm)' Corps. Appcnd ~ A. Table II. "S1reng1 h or Negro Personnel in lhe 

WOnle,l"s Army Corps: 1943- 1946·': Press Release, WAC Group, Bur or l'ublie Relations, Washing. 

lon, DC, Nov 45. aUlhor's fil e. CMII. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 19 

units. Under that system, a commander received a quota of WAC spaces 

by grade; he then submitted requisitio ns to obtain WACs with particular 

skills. However, commanders could no lo nger get away with assigning 

the women to unauthorized positions as some had done w hile the women 

were in the auxiliary: if the women were not part of the Army, so the 

reasoning went, they could not be c harged aga inst au thorized spaces. 

Because of the WACs' Army status, commanders had to acco unt for the 

women and ensure that they filled authorized positions on manning documents- the documents which describe the military positio ns (by g rade, 

position title, military occupational speciaJty, and branc h) in every installation, activity, and unit in the Army. After May 1943, a manning document for a noncombat (sometimes called an overhead) unit was referred 

to as a table of allotment (T A) or, later, a table of distribution (TD); a 

manning document for a combat or combat-related unit was ca lled a table 

of o rganization (TO). 

Colonel Hobby placed few restrictions o n the jobs women could hold. 

WAC regulations allowed a woman to fill, at a tilted location, any 

authorized military position that she was physicall y fit to perform. Wartime manpower shortages required that women be allowed to do more 

than serve in such positions as typists, clerks, and drivers. WACs began 

to put civilian-acquired skills, such as in mathematics and communications, to work for the Army. They received more training and moved 

into new occupational specialties; they became mechanics, weather observers, radio operators, intelligence analysts, photographers, carpenters, 

painters, parachute riggers, posta l workers, and heavy equipment operators. 

Commanders not only had to provide suitable housing (e.g., separate 

barracks) and working conditions (e.g., separate toilet facilities in work 

places), they had to show considerable need because WACs were only 

assigned in detachments of fifty or more under the command of a WAC 

omcer. The WACs could not be assigned as cooks, waitresses, permanent 

KP, or janitors in an Army club or cafeteria; those no nmilitary jobs were 

reserved for local civilian labor forces. And because Colo nel Hobby did 

not wa nt members of the Corps associated with fri volo us, nonmilitary 

duties, WACs could partic ipate in tal ent shows or plays intended for 

military audiences, but not in shows scheduled to be shown to the general 

public, suc h as recruiting shows and war bond rallies. This restriction also 

applied to the five WAC bands located at the WAC training centers and 

at ports of embarkation. 

Acceptance and reception of WACs differed from command to command. The surgeon general of the Army requisitioned few WAACs or 

WACs early in the war. But in mid-1944, as shortages developed in the 

Army's medical facilities, the Medical Department asked for 50,000 

WACs to be trai ned and assigned to care and treatment installatio ns 

around the world. Though this request was impossible to fi ll, a major 
20 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

recrUiting campaign in late 1944 and early 1945 succeeded in increasing 

the strength of enlisted women in the medical field to 20,000 by the end 

of the wa r-about 20 pe rcent of WAC strength. WACs se rved the medical staff prima rily as medical technicians and office clerks. 

Of the major Army commands, the Army Air Forces (AAF) welcomed the assignment of WAACs and WACs most enthusiastically. General Henry R. (Hap) Arnold took advantage of every opportunity to use 

WAAC/WAC officers and enlisted women in a wide variety of positions 

at airfields, depots, and schools. And. in 1943, as the anti-WAC slander 

campaign swept through the service and into the civilian sector, he 

directed his field commanders to take prompt disciplinary action against 

any man who participated in or encouraged the gossip or jokes. As a 

result, the WACs appreciated the AAF. and approximately 34.000 (35 

percent of total WAC strength) served in that command. They came to 

be known as Air WACs. and. for the most part, they initially filled 

clerical and medica l specialist positions. 1 5 Toward the end of the war. 

however. when the AAF could not recruit enough men who scored in 

the higher intelligence categories on the AGCT, the command placed 

women in its many technical specialties-control tower operator, link 

trainer instructor. aerial photographer. weather observer. radio operator, 

mechanic. While no Air WACs piloted planes, a few served during 

training and administrative missions as air crew members, radio operators, 

mechanics. o r flight clerks. Three were awarded the Air Medal. o ne 

posthumously. 

The Army Ground Forces (AGF) utilized the fewest number of 

WACs during World War II- onl y 2,000. or about 2 percent of the 

Corps strength. While most AGF units had combat missions. a few 

WACs were assigned as stenographers, typists, drivers. mechanics. or 

supply specialists at Ground Forces schools, training centers, or supply 

depots. This command, however, did conduct o ne of the few combatrelated experiments involving women. In January 1943. approximately 10 

W AAC officers and 200 enlisted women replaced men in several batteries 

of an antiaircraft artillery (AAA) battalion located in the Washington, 

D.C., area. T he women received on-the-job training in all gun crew 

d uties except fi ring the 90-mm. antiaircraft gun; their noncombat status 

precluded firing training. At the conclusion of the ex periment, the AAA 

commander reported that the women were highl y capable and efficient, 

particularly in operating the radar. calculating he ight and direction of 

enemy aircraft. and controlling searchlights. Despite such positive results, 

the chief of staff decided that, overall, women could best be employed in 

administrative and logistical duties rather than in combat support positions. 

1$ Strcngth pcrccll1ages here llrld elsewhere in this chapter arc (r0111 Sm!JIgll, 0/ the Army Rcpor/ 

(STM_30), 30 JUII 45. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942-1945 

WAACs OF THE 1491'H POST HEADQUARTERS COMPANY readdressing mail, 

North Africa. /943. 

21 

The Army Service Forces (ASF) employed the highest number of 

WACs, over 45 percent of the Corps' total strength. 16 WACs served 

throughout the large service commands that managed ASF matters in 

specific geographical areas of the United Slates and in the technica l and 

administrative services (Signal Corps. Ordnance Corps, Quartermaster 

Corps, etc.). Each of these service commands and technical and administrative services had a WAC stafT director. WAC personnel, officer and 

en listed, worked in communications, administration, personnel, research 

and development, supply and logistical operations, transportation management, military intelligence, and military pay operations. A rew enlisted 

women were employed in c haplains' activities and as military policewomen at the WAC tra ining centers, and several WAC units were assigned to 

the Manhattan Project- the development or the atomic bomb. The units 

stationed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Los A lamos, New Mexico; and Pasco, 

Washington, received the Army's Meritorious Unit Commendatio n. Most 

WACs in the ASF, however, had more everyday assignments. To support the wartime Army scattered around the world, they perrormed a 

myriad or services, such as rorwarding and censoring mail and processing 

personnel and freight through port racilities. 

II WACs;n !raining. crnnsit. pacient. or swderu status m~d e up che renmini ng 18 percen!. 
22 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

As already noted, overseas d uty had begun while the women were still 

in auxiliary status. In December 1942. five WAAC captains had arrived in 

North Africa after their troopship had been to rpedoed and sunk by a 

German submarine. The following month, January 1943, after an uneventful c rossing, the 200 women (10 officers, 190 enlisted) of the 149th 

WAAC Post Headquarters Company had also arrived in North Africa 

and had taken up duties at General Eisenhower's theater headquarters. 

The unit furnished the operators for the headquarters switchboard, clerks 

and lypists for the postal directory service, and stenographers and drivers 

for the commanding general and his staff. 

With the spring. new contingents of WAACs began arriving monthly 

for duty with Fifth Army headquarters in Morocco and Twelfth Air 

Force headquarters in Algeria. By the fa ll, the W AAC had become the 

WAC, and when the F ifth Army, commanded by Lt. Gen. Mark Clark, 

invaded Italy, a sixty-member WAC platoon went with it. Half the 

platoon joined General Clark's advance headquarters that followed closely behind the combat troops moving up the Italian peninsula. Usually 12 

to 35 miles behi nd the fighting lines, but sometimes as close as 5 miles, 

the WACs acquitted themselves well and turned down offers for rotation 

to the rear. And while General Clark appreciated their work and later 

requested that the platoon accompany him during the occupation of 

Austria, the WAC staff director in the theater pointed out the obvious 

drawback under the existing regulations: the headquarters had to give up 

an armed soldier for every woman assigned. 1 7 

The summer and fall of 1943 also saw WACs taking up duties in 

England, at various AAF stations, and in India, at Southeast Asia Command headquarters. As the months went by, the number of WACs employed increased. In England, the initial battalion (19 officers and 555 

enlisted women) had arrived in July. Others soon followed and were 

assigned to the expanding number of headquarters: Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force; European Theater of Operations; Strategic Air Forces; Eighth A ir Force; Ninth Air Force; Allied Expeditionary 

Air Forces; 8th Fighter Command; and the 9th Bomber Command. As in 

North Africa and elsewhere, the women worked primarily as clerktypists, stenographe rs, dri vers, suppl y specialists, postal clerks, and 

switchboard and teletype operators. By D-Day, 6 June 1944, WAC 

strength in England was 3,600. In mid-July. WAC units began crossing to 

F rance with the support and service troops, and at the end of August, 

they moved into Paris with the support headquarters. 

On the other side of the world. the first contingent of WACs (sixty 

officers and enlisted women) had reported for administrative and communications duties at the headquarters of the Allied Commander, Southeast 

1 7 T rcudwcll. WQluclIs Army Corps. p. 368. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 23 

Asia Command, in New Delhi, India, in October 1943. Six months later, 

the entire command moved to Ceylo n. where it remained until after the 

Japanese surrender in 1945. By the time of that move to Ceylon, however, other WAC units had arrived in India for service at that headquarters 

and elsewhere in the China-Burma-India T heater. As in other theaters, 

WACs were partic ularl y welcomed by the A rmy Air Forces, where, as 

discussed earlier, they were employed not only as stenographers, typists, 

dri ve rs, and communications specialists, but also as mechanics and other 

technical specialists. 

In November 1944, the War Department separated the China T heater 

from the China-Burma-I ndia Theater. One hundred WACs were detached 

from d uty in Ceylon and assigned to the new headquarters of U.S. Forces 

in China at Chungking. After the Japanese surrender, the unit moved to 

Shanghai and then to Nanking and Peking for further service before 

returning to the United States. 

To the south, WACs had arrived in Australia to take up duties in the 

Southwest Pacific Area in May 1944. Of the initial contingent of 640, 

approximatel y 100 were assigned to General Douglas MacArthur's headquarters in Brisbane. The others moved o n to Port Moresby, New 

G uinea. That spring and summer Allied forces occupied the north coast, 

then moved against the enemy on Morotai, in the Palaus, and, in October, 

in the Philippines. WACs were assigned to supply and support facilities at 

Oro Bay, Lae, Finschhafen, and Hollandia in New Guinea and at Tacloban on Leyte. By the end of 1944, over 4,700 enlisted women and 330 

WAC officers were assigned to the Southwest Pacific Area. With the 

new year, 1945, more WACs were assigned. In February, a WAC detachment was assigned to Biak, New G ui nea, and, o n 7 March, th ree days 

after the city was cleared of Japanese, the first WACs arrived in Mani la. 

WACs assigned to the Southwest Pacific endured greater hardships 

than other members of the Corps during World War II. Uniform suppl y 

was slow and irregular, and the herringbone twill fabric of the WAC 

coverall had not been designed for use in the tropics. Men's cotton khaki 

shirts, trousers, and coveralls were substituted, but as both men and 

women discovered, no uniform gave much protection against the weather, insects, and diseases. Canned and dehydrated food o r fi eld (K) rations 

were standard diet; most consumers sustained a steady loss of weight. 

Housing ranged from the best, at Port Moresby, with wooden barracks, 

cement floors, o utside showers and toilets, to the worst, on Leyte, with 

mud-floored tents and no laund ry facilities. For protection, the compounds were surrounded by ba rbed wire and the women were g uarded to 

and from their work place. 
24 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The End of the War 

Disregarding such comparative hardships, by V- E Day. 8 May 1945. 

99,388 women had joined the Women's Army Corps. But that figure also 

represented the Corps' World War II peak. Despite campaig n after campaign, the WAC Recruiting Service had been unable to bring the Corps' 

strength up to the desired 150,000. The reasons for the sho rtfall were 

numerous, but the primary causes remained the same-continuo us male 

opposition to women in uniform; the "slander campaign," which had been 

rooted in that opposition; and. in the face of labor shortages, competition 

from industry and from the other women's military services. 

Regardless of the reasons, recruitment was ofT, and th ree of the fi ve 

training centers had been closed before the end of 1943. However, 

women could be assigned in 406 of the Army's 628 military occupational 

specialties; even without those jobs deemed unsuitable- jobs requiring 

combat training, g reat physical strength, long trai ning courses, or supervisory duties- women could fill over 1.3 million Army jobs. Therefore, the 

General Staff had suggested o n several occasions that women be registered o r drafted for the WAC and the Army Nurse Corps. Colonel 

Hobby had favored drafting women as she "was convinced that the new 

quota [1 50,000 women] could not be filled by voluntary recruiting."18 

Gallup polls co nd ucted in October and December 1943 had shown that 

the majority (73 and 78 percent respectively) of the general public also 

favored the idea, albeit in a limited way-drafting single women before 

fathers. 1 9 Congress, however, had rejected suc h proposals. 

In any event, with the war in Europe over and the war in the Pacific 

obviously coming to an end, the War Department halted the recruitment 

of women, effec tive 29 Aug ust 1945. The WAC training center at Fort 

Ogletho rpe closed before that date, on 15 July; the last training center, 

the o ne at Fort Des Moines. closed on 15 December.20 

In July, Colo nel Hobby, who had been proposed for promotion to 

brigadier general, had resigned because of illness in the family. Her 

executive ability and perseverance had enabled her to organi ze and administer the Corps despite the legal obstacles and organizational and 

societal prejudices that had besieged it. The original auxiliary status of the 

Corps had created many of the obstacles- legal and administrative- and 

had neither made the presence of women in the Army more acceptable to 

the men in the Army nor made the Corps more prestigious. Creation of 

the Women's Army Corps as a part of the Army Organized Reserve 

instead of as an auxiliary corps might have eliminated many of the 

problems and helped resolve the others. 

" Ibid., p. 85. 

" Ibid., p. 247. 

o Ibid., pp. 658, 699. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 25 

Colonel Hobby, however, had worked within the system and with her 

staff had managed to overcome many obstacles to build an efficient 

organization, one that had earned respect and recogni tion. By mid-1945, 

over 140,()(X) women had served in the Corps. Their commanders praised 

their performance of duty. deportment, and appearance in uniform. One 

woman had earned the Distinguished Service Medal; 62. the Legion of 

Merit; 565, the Bronze Star; 3, the Air Medal; 10, the Soldier's Medal for 

heroic actions (not involving combat); and 16, the Purple Heart. 2 I 

Colonel Hobby recommended that her deputy succeed her. On 12 

July. General Marshall. accepting that recommendation, appointed Westray Battle Boyce to the positio n of director of the Women's Army 

Corps, with a promotion to colonel. Colo nel Boyce, a native of North 

Carolina, had graduated from W AAC DCS, Class No.3, in September 

1942 and had served as WAAC staff director at 4th Service Command in 

Atlanta, Georgia, and as WAC staff director of the North African Theater befo re becoming Colonel Hobby's deputy in May 1945. 

After assuming directorship of the Corps, Colo nel Boyce initiall y carried on the plans and policies established by her mentor. Among these 

was Colonel Hobby's " un varying conviction that the WAC sho uld be 

disbanded as soon as possible after the war was over. "22 To accomplish 

that end, Colonel Boyce recommended that a separate demobili zation 

plan be adopted for the WAC that would discharge women at the same 

rate as men. The War Department. howeve r. directed that WACs be 

discharged under the same demobilization plan as men- WACs would 

thus probably not be demobilized at the same rate because they had fewer 

demobili zation points. And. while most of the senior WAC officers statio ned in the United States agreed with Colonel Boyce's view, o ther 

WAC officers. particularl y those overseas, favored the War Department 

solution. They wanted women held on duty as long as possibl e so that a 

plan to include the WAC in the postwar Army. both the Reg ular Army 

and the Reserve. could be considered. 

Demobilization 

On V- J Day. 2 September 1945, the Women's Army Corps boasted a 

membership of 90,779. That mo rning brought with it a heady sense of 

c hange to WACs at work thro ughout the United States and overseas 

from Calcutta to London. Not only was World War II ending, but the 

news media had forecast that the number of Adjusted Service Rating 

(ASR) points needed for demobilization would be lowered immediately 

after the surrender in Tokyo Bay. To the many servicewomen looki ng 

I . Ibid .• Appendix A. Table 8. p. 774; TAGO. WAC Awards Dnd Decorations. 30 lun 41. dis!. by 

WO Bur of Public Re lations. ODWAC Ref File. Awa rds and Decorations. CMH. 

U Treadwell. Women's Arm)' Corps, p. 716. 
26 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

forwa rd to going home, this was good news. To those who had found 

Army life more interesting, mobile, and satisfying than the c ivilian caree rs 

they had left behind, it aroused concern. Was there an alternative to 

going home- to leaving their Army jobs and friends? Had any Army 

leader, WAC or non-WAC, recommended that the WAC be continued?23 

In point of fact, the Reserve Policy Committee of the War Department 

had recommended, in May, that women be given reserve status in the 

postwar Army; Army leaders had commended WAC performance in the 

fi eld; and, later that fa ll, Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker, who had commanded the 

Eighth and Ninth Air Forces in Europe before becoming deputy commander of the Army Air Forces, would recommend that the WAC "be 

retained as part of the postwa r military plans." General Eaker based his 

recommendation on the WACs' performance during the war. Other male 

Army leaders also pra ised WAC performance. General Eisenhower 

wrote, "During the time I have had WACs under my command they 

have met every test and task assigned to them .... Their contributions in 

efficiency, skill, spirit, and determination are immeasurable." General 

MacArthur, in complimenting their effectiveness and efficiency to Colonel Boyce, called the WACs "my best soldiers" because they worked 

harder than the men, seldom compl ained, and were well-disciplined 

troops. 24 

But other Army leaders, including Colonel Hobby and Colonel Boyce, 

while cognizant of the WACs' contributions, urged quick demobilization. 

Colonel Hobby believed that Americans wanted their servicewomen returned home promptly to reknit family life. She also recognized that 

WACs had to return quickly to begin sea rching for jobs because they had 

no reemployment rights and that Congress had shown its intention to 

discontinue the WAC by not providing it with a peacetime military 

status. u 

Demobilization had begun afte r V -E Day, Discharge was based on the 

total number of ASR points accrued- for months served in the United 

States and overseas, for participation in combat, for decorations received 

for gallantry, and for number of minor children. Between V-E Day and 

V - J Day, enlisted men required 85 points for discharge; enlisted women, 

44. A c ritical score, the number needed for discharge, was not established 

for officers until V - J Day, 

Despite the lower c ritical score, the method of accruing points slowed 

demobilization for WACs. The laws and regulations governing the Corps 

eliminated, for all practical purposes, three sources of points-participation in combat, decorations for ga llantry, and number of minor child ren, 

to "Talk or CUIS in I'oims," Stars alld S/ri/X's (Gennany edilion), 29 Aug 45, p. I; "Enlistments;n 

WAC Discoll1inued," Army.Nuvy Regis/er. I Sep 45, p. 22. 

H Treadwell, Women s Army O>'ps. pp. 408, 460. 

U Ibid .. p. 726. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 27 

And since o nl y one-fifth of the WACs had served ove rseas by V- J Day, 

the primary source of points for WACs was service in the United Siaies. 

Only one category of WACs was excepted from this point system. In late 

May 1945, in response to critic ism, a joint Army-Navy policy agreement 

had given eligibility for discharge to all servicewomen married to veterans. By V-J Day approximately 2,000 WAC officers and enlisted women 

had been discharged to be with their veteran husbands. 26 

On the day after V-J Day, as the news media had predicted, the 

critical poin t score needed by enlisted personnel for discharge was lowered to 80 for men, 41 for women. On 16 November. it was announced 

that effective I December 1945 point scores would be further lowered 

and, for the first time, length of se rvice became an alternative c riterion 

for discharge for men. Enlisted men could be discharged with 55 points 

or fo ur yea rs of service; male officers, 73 points or fou r years and three 

months of service. An announcement on 19 December added a length of 

service alternati ve for WACs. Effective 31 December, enlisted men could 

be discharged with 50 points or three years and six months' service; male 

officers, 70 points or fo ur years; enlisted women, 32 points or two yea rs 

and six mo nths; and WAC officers, 37 points or three years and three 

months. Army nurses and other Medical Department personnel were 

demobilized under a separate set of criteria covered by the War Department's Medica l Department Readjustment Plan. In addition, all servicewomen who had married prior to 12 May 1945 (when demobilization 

began) could be discharged upon request to reestablish homes with their 

husbands. However, the need to main tain Army strength, not lower than 

2.5 million in June 1946, was recognized, and commanders had the autho rity to retain some c riticall y needed specialists for up to ninety days 

beyond their rotation or demobilization date- an authority that they 

exercised. 27 

Efforts to maintain the Army's strength met with little success. With 

the new year, 1946, General Eisenhower, who had replaced Gene ral 

Marshall as chief of staff, announced a slowdown in demobilization so 

that the Army could accomplish its occupation mission. Soldiers, parents, 

and congressmen reacted adversely. In c ities around the world- Manila, 

Ho nolulu, New Delhi, Shanghai, Frankfurt, Paris, and London-soldiers 

gathered in mass meetings, shouted protests, lit bo nfires, and marched 

th rough streets to show their discontent. In Manila, on 7 January 1946, 

20,000 men participated in that day's protest. WACs, w ho needed fewer 

points fo r discharge than the men, did not join the demonstrations. The 

WAC staff director, Lt. Col. Mera Galloway, described the scene for 

U John C. Sparrow. lIiJlory 0/ Persollllel Demobilizatioll i,/ Ihe u.s. Army. DA Pam 20-210 

(Washington. DC: 1954), pp. 350-52: SIrt'IIgth o/tht Army Report (STM-JO). JO Jun 46: WD Cir 187. 

2) Jun 45. Sec IV, Joint Army·Navy Agreement . CMU Library. 

11 Sparrow. lIistory 0/ PtTWIlllel De",obilizalicm. pp. 350-52. 
28 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Colonel Boyce: " Beginning last evening, there have been G I de ra~ 

lions ... in protest to the War Department delay in not lowering point 

scores fast eno ugh to utilize all the empty ships waiting in the harbor . ... 

The demonstrations so far have been orderl y but feeling is run ning 

high." 28 

The soldier demo nstrations generated eno ug h pressure to make the 

Army speed up demobilizatio n. On 15 January, General Eisenhower 

announced that enlisted men with 45 points o r thirty months' service 

would, by 30 April, be either demobilized or en route home. In J uly. the 

Army notified the WACs that, beginning in October, requests for discharge would be approved regardless of ASR score or length of service. 

On 31 December 1946, WAC streng th was 9,655 officers and enlisted 

women.29 

Meanwhile the National Civilian Advisory Committee on the WAC, 

established by General Marshall in September 1944, was working to assist 

the discharged WACs. After almost a year of work, in August 1945, they 

succeeded in obtaining the enactment of legislatio n giving reemployment 

rights to WACs. 30 

Postwar Planning 

In May 1945, rather than waiting fo r another emergency, the Reserve 

Policy Committee in the War Department had offic iall y recommended 

immediate legislation giving women reserve status. Colonel Hobby had 

given only faint approval to the plan calling for the retention of th ree 

women officers on active duty to help develop lo ng-range plans fo r a 

women's reserve; all other officers would be placed o n inactive status. 

And while enlisted women would not be admitted into the planned 

women's reserve, a Reserve Officer T raining Corps (ROTC) program 

was envisioned to provide replacements for the officers. Colonel Hobby 

had fe lt that an effective, extensive reserve program for women would be 

infeasible because so many women reservists would marry, have children, 

and thus be unable to serve on active duty whe n they were needed. 

Initiall y, Colo nel Boyce had agreed with her; however, other officers in 

the G-l persuaded her that enlisted women should also be included in the 

reserve. Ag reeing that some women, both officers and enlisted perso nnel, 

should serve in the Organi zed Reserve Corps did not mean, however, 

that she had c hanged her mind about either the speedy demobilization of 

the WAC or its early and complete discontinuance. 3 1 

.. Llr. LlCoI Me ... Galloway, WAC Dir. USAFPAC, to Col Uoyce, 7 Jan 46, file 33 1.1 . DWAC 

Starr Visits, Record GroLip (RG) 165, Modern Military Or, National Archives and Records Administration (NA RA). Washington. DC. 

n StulIgth of tilt Army Report (STM- lO), 31 Mar 47. 

~o PL 709, 79th Cong, 1st 5CSS. 9 Aug 1945; Treadwell. Womerls Army Corps. p. 623. 

U Memo, Reserve Policy Committee to DWAC, 9 J un 45, with Inels. lind Disposition Form (DF), 

Spe.:;ial !'Ianning Division (SI'D) 10 0 - 1. G - 2, G-4, Opera tions und I'lulls Division (01'0). Executive 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 29 

In mid-September, Colonel Boyce met with the WAC siaff directors 

and senio r officers at their annual conference. She Sci the tone of the 

meeting in her openi ng remarks: "Ex bello pax- out of wa r in to peace-is 

our motto .... Let us put O Uf very best effort into the writing of the last 

chapter of WAC history so that it may contain nothing but shining pages 

right th rough to the end." According to Colo nel Boyce, even if legislation that included the WAC in the postwar Organized Reserve Corps 

were passed, the WAC enabling law (PL 78- 110). which called for the 

discontinuance of the WAC six mo nths after the president declared the 

wa r over, was still in force. She was, therefo re, cha rged with carrying 

Qut the plans to discharge every WAC and to close the training centers 

and the director's office. She told the gathered office rs that the conference would be one of their last and that their fina l mission was "the 

orderly demobilization of the Women's Army Corps." 32 

The remaining speakers reviewed the WAC's accomplishments, explained demobilization and separation center procedures, outlined services 

available under the Veterans Administration, described the benefits offered by the GJ Bill, and discussed c ivilian readjustme nt diffic ulties and 

the availability of employment counseling after discharge. 

To many officers, especiall y those from ove rseas theaters. the to ne and 

agenda were depressing and pe rplexing. They knew the magnitude of the 

problems faced by U.S. Army occupation forces. They knew too that the 

British, French, and Russian governments were considering including 

their servicewomen in their postwar forces. In a question and answer 

period at the end of that first day of the conference, Colonel Boyce was 

asked if "any consideration had been given to the use of the WAC in the 

post-war period?" She replied that neither discussion nor action o n the 

subject had been taken up in the General StafT. She then went on to say 

that plans about including women in the Organi zed Reserve were " under 

consideratio n." 33 

At the end of the sessio n, Lt. Col. Anna Walke r Wilson requested and 

obtained from Colonel Boyce. who was leaving o n an inspection trip to 

the Southwest Pacific, permissio n to address the confe rence o n the subject of WAC postwar planning. The former WAC staff director for the 

E uropean Theater, assigned now as a plans officer in Headquarters, Army 

G round Forces, was placed on the next day's agenda. 

Lt. Col. Helen Hamilton Woods. Deputy Directo r, WAC. announced 

the c hange in the proceedings and then introduced the new speaker to a 

hushed and attentive audience. Colonel Wilson described the gallantry of 

(or Reserve and ROTC Affairs. 29 Jlln 4~, sub: War Department Polic)' ill Regard IQ Female 

I'ersonnel in Ihe I'OSI War Organized Reserve Corps, file 326.2. Organized Re$Crve Corps. RG 16~. 

n Rp1. WAC Starr Directors Conf, Fort Des Moines, Iowa, 18- 19 Scp 4~, p. 7. WAC History 

Collection, WAC Museum. Fort cC1c Il ~L . A L. Collt"Ction hereafter cited as History Collection, 

WAC Museum. 

U Ibid., p. 36; Inlerv, LtCol Ma ry·Agnes Brown Groover with 'he uu tho r, 27 Apr 79. 
)0 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

British, F rench, and Russian women during the wa r and their effo rls to 

be retained in their countries' defense forces. She then spoke of the trend 

to demobili ze the WAC: "One of the things that bothers those of us 

returning from overseas is the reali zation that so many Americans have 

decided that we are th ro ugh and it is time to pack up and go home." 34 

Because Colonel Wilson saw a fu ture role for the WAC- in the 

demands of postwar occupation responsibilities and in the event of another national emergency-she saw a need to counteract that trend. She 

asked the officers at the session to encourage WACs leaving the service 

to take a message into their home communities: "We are the medium 

through which the knowledge and experience gained in the utilization of 

woman power d uring this war can be preserved. We are also a nucleus. a 

framework around which total mobili zation of woman power can be effected in the next emergency." 35 

Once Colonel Wilso n had raised the issue of a postwar WAC, the 

conference attendees became divided. Side conversations and heated discussions replaced the hushed, attentive audience- the WACs should go 

home; they should be included in the Organized Reserve, in the Regular 

Army, in both; they should continue as a separate corps; they should be 

integrated. The meeting was adjourned for lunch and later reconvened in 

closed session to keep o ut local reporters and casual visitors. The discussions threatened to take up the remainder of the conference. Colonel 

Woods finall y decided the subject had been sufficientl y aired and asked 

for a show-of-hands poll on the ideas covered in the discussions. How 

many would be interested in joining the Organized Reserve Corps after 

returning to c ivilian life? How many thought other WACs, both officer 

and enlisted, would be interested in joining the Reserve? How many 

would prefer assignment in o ne of the traditional branches; how many, a 

separate WAC branch? T he majority indicated they would join the Reserve, thought other WACs would join the Reserve, and preferred o ne of 

the traditional Army branches to a WAC branch.36 

T he discussion at the September conference did not c hange the attitude in the Office of the Director, WAC. While C<>lonel Boyce was on 

her inspection trip in the Pacific area, Colonel Woods conti nued to press 

for speedy demobil ization of women and for a date for the discontinuance 

of the WAC. When the new G- J of the Army. Maj. Gen. Willard S. 

Paul, arrived at the Pentagon in late October. Colonel Woods sent him a 

memorand um recommending that 14 May 1946, the fourth anniversary of 

the WAC, be set as the target date for total demobilization of the Corps. 

She also req uested he announce that reserve status wo uld be offered to 

"all women who [had served] ho no rably in the Army du ri ng the wa r." 37 

s. Rpl, WAC Staff Directors Conf. 18-19 Sep 45. p. 68. 

3& Ibid .. p. 69. 

36 Ibid .. p. 79. 

31 Treadwell. Womell's Army Corps. p. 732. 
THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 31 

Meanwhile, Colonel Boyce continued her inspection trip- looking into 

WAC health. morale, and li ving conditions, and in to possible abuse of the 

demobilizatio n regulation allowing commanders to retain specialists past 

their demobilization dat e.:l8 From the western Pacific, her inspectio n trip 

was extended to other areas. With her team, she visited WACs in Shanghai, China; Calcutt a and Ka rachi. India; Cairo, Egypt; and Rome and 

Caserta, Ital y. At Caserta. o n 13 November, Colonel Boyce interrupted 

her trip and returned to Washington in response to a message from 

Colo nel Woods. Members of her team completed the inspection trip as 

her representati ves. 39 

The Struggle/or Regular Army olld Reserve Status 

Colonel Woods had had suffic ient cause to alert Colonel Boyce. President Truman had nominated General Eisenhower to succeed General 

Marshall as chief of staff; the Senate had confi rmed the nomination; and 

General Eisenhower woul d occupy his new office o n 19 November. 

Meanwhile he had notified General Paul that he wa nted the question of 

the WAC in the postwar Army reconsidered and a plan prepared to 

include women in the Regular Army as well as in the Reserve. Following 

those instructions, the G- t returned Colo nel Woods' memo randum and 

told her he would present General Eisenhower's wishes to Colonel Boyce 

when she returned. 

Colonel Boyce arrived back at the Pentagon o n 19 November. General 

Paul returned to her the Reserve Policy CommiLtee's plan and asked her 

to redo it, to come up with a detail ed plan that put WACs into the 

Regular Army and the Organized Reserve Corps and that answered any 

questions that might arise. 4o On the 22d, Colonel Boyce call ed in the 

WAC stafT directors and senior WAC officers in the Washington, D.C., 

area to assist with the revisio ns. The group devised fo ur plans for legislation: 

Plan A. Provided fo r Regular A rmy and Reserve status for WAC 

commissio ned officers, warrant officers, and enlisted 

women. 

Plan B. Provided for a Women's Reserve section in the Organized 

Reserve Corps for WAC commissioned officers, warrant 

officers, and enlisted women. WACs would not be admitted into the Regular Army. 

Plan C. Provided for Regu lar A rmy and Reserve status for WAC 

commissioned and warrant officers only. 

U Ibid., pp. 456-57. 

U Memo. DWAC 10 Chief or Staff (CofS). Army. 22 Mar 46. sub: Report of Visit 10 WAC 

Personnel in Overseas Theaters, fil e 333. 1. Stpff VisilS, 1945, RG 165 . 

• 0 Rpt. WAC Sta.ITDirCClors Collf. II J u146. p. 7, History Coll ection, WAC Museum. 
32 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Plan D. Provided that WAC commissioned and warrant officers 

and a g roup of enlisted women (called "Auxiliary Specialists") would serve in the Regular Army and the Reserve." I 

In earl y December, Colonel Boyce sent the study, with the recommendation that Plan A be approved, to the General SlafT divisions; to the 

commanding generals of the A rmy Ground Forces, Army Air Forces, 

and Army Se rvice Forces; to the chief of ROTC and reserve affairs; and 

10 the head of the Legislative and Liaison Division of the War Department's Special Staff. 42 

A week later comments were returned; they showed that no unanimity 

existed. T he G- 2 (Intelligence). 0-3 (Operations), a nd the commanding 

general of Army Service Forces rejected inclusion of WACs in the 

postwar Army- Regular or Reserve. The G- I (Personnel), G- 4 (Logis· 

tics), the ROTC and Reserve Affairs c hief, and the commanding generals 

of the Army Ground Forces and the Army Air Forces recommended 

inclusion of WACs in the Regu lar Army and the Reserve. The Legisla· 

tive and Liaison Division chief believed that Congress would go along 

with the inclusion of WACs in the Reserve. 

Colo nel Boyce weighed these opinions along with her own perceptions 

of women's role in the Army. Despite significant support for Plan A, she 

decided that Plan B, a WAC Reserve branch withi n the Organized 

Reserve Corps, was the more appropriate alternative. She wrote to General Paul that although "a small permanent corps of officers and enlisted 

women specialists would be the ideal plan, the time for the acceptance of 

it is not at hand." 43 

No further action was taken in 1945. In January 1946, when G - I 

division chiefs were asked to comment on a proposed speech for General 

Eisenhower to deliver to Cong ress on the 15th, Colonel Boyce took the 

opportunit y to suggest that the chief of staff anno unce that the WAC was 

scheduled to be disbanded o n 14 May and request that Congress autho rize 

women in the Reserve. 44 Neither General Paul nor General Eisenhower 

agreed with her suggestion. 

On 17 January, however, General Paul testified before the Senate 

Subcommittee on Military Demobilization. He announced that the War 

Department would ask fo r legislation to include WACs in the postwar 

Army. He stated that " the war has shown that the utilization of women 

4' OOW AC, Presenlalion of Four Plans for Inclusion of Women. Other Ihan Those of the Medical 

Department. in the Post-War Military Establishment. Dec 45. History Collection, WAC Museum. 

4, Memo. OWAC to Commanding Generals (CGs) of Ihe major commands (Maj Corns). Chiefs of 

the General Staff Division. Chief of Legislative and Liaison Div. Special StalT. and Chief or ROTC 

and Reserve Affairs. 4 Dec 45, sub: Anached File Concerning Inclusion of Female Personnel. Other 

than Medical Department Pcrwnllel. in the I'ostwar Military Establishment. tile 326.2. Classifk'd 

Legislation, RG 165. 

41 Memo, DWAC to G - 1. 14 Dec 45, sub: Allached File Concerning luclusion of Female 

Personnel in the Postwar Military Establishment. file 326.2, Classified Legislalion. RG 165. 

44 Memo. DWAC to G- 1. 14 Jan 46. fil e 310.Q1. Demobilization Jan- Dec 1946. RG 165. 
T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1942- 1945 33 

in time of war is a necessary and accepted fact. ... The War Depa rtment 

will soon ask Cong ress to consider a request for legislation to include the 

Army Nurse Corps, the Physical T herapy Corps, the Dietitians Corps, 

and the Women's Army Corps in the Regular Army a nd the Organized 

Reserve Corps." 4 5 

T he anno uncement came as a complete surprise to Colonel Boyce. 

Although the Navy had been given ad vance notice of the move, she 

learned of it through a news release prepared at the Pentagon. General 

Pa ul had deliberately failed to coordinate the anno uncement with her. 

Colonel Boyce realized at last that War Department policy had been 

established on the subject. 

On 5 February 1946, Chief of StafT Eisenhower charged the G- I with 

the responsibility of preparing the plans and drafting the legislation to 

establish a Women's Army Corps in the Regular Army with concurrent 

Reserve Corps status. Both he and General Marshall had recogni zed the 

role women had established in the Army during Wo rld War II. T he 

postwar introduction of women into the Regular Army stemmed from 

that recognition. T he idea was not to prov ide equa l opportunit y for 

women o r to set a precedent fo r society; it was to relieve as man y men as 

possible from administrative jobs so that they would be available for 

combat. 

H Memo. A$St Chief of Staff {ACofS),G- 1. to Under SecWnr thru Cors, 15 Jan 46. sub: Fulure 

Ulitiulion of Female I'ersonncl in Ihe Postwar Military Eslablishment. fil e 326.5, Organized Rc.'lCrvc 

Corps, RG 165. 

CHAPTER II 

Women in the Postwar Army 

The six~mo nth countdown to disbandment called for in the 1943 WAC 

legislation would not start until the president declared the war over. But, 

to stave off disbandment, supporters of regular and reserve status for 

women had to overcome much opposition. Genera l Eisenhower's decision 

to seek both regular and reserve status for the Corps gave hope for the 

future. 

The chief of staWs decision also brought with it the requirement to 

justify the request to Congress. The Army needed to show that a sufficient number of women were interested in remaining on active duty to 

carry out the missions of the proposed Corps. On 9 February 1946, four 

days after General Eisenhower's orders to the 0 - 1, General Paul, to 

prepare plans and draft legislation, the War Department announced a 

major campaign to persuade active duty WACs, particularly those with 

specialist skills, to extend beyond their scheduled release dates and to 

encourage former WACs to reenlist. Reenlistment was open to honorably 

discharged women between twenty and fifty years of age who would 

volunteer to serve where needed for a specified period. To balance that 

campaign and to ensure that authorized positions awaited those who 

extended or reenlisted, the 0 - 1 urged all major commanders to requisition WACs- both officer and enlisted-to fill their administrative, communications, and medical care vacancies. 1 

Reinforcing those efforts, fourteen specially selected and trained WAC 

officers traveled the United States to provide instruction and information 

on the retention and reenlistment programs and on the plan for women in 

the Regular Army and the Army Reserve. Between 22 February and 26 

March they visited 105 Army posts. The recruitment offices of the service commands also helped. They advertised the programs in their news 

releases and radio announcements and on their posters. 2 

Under these programs, enlisted women could request either retention 

or reenlistment until 30 September 1946 or for the duration of the war 

plus six months. The September alternative was later replaced by "for 

I Msg. WARX 96587 to Maj Coms. 9 Feb 46; Ltrs, WO T AGO to Maj Corns, 9 and 27 Feb 46, 

sub: WAC Volunteer Programs. Unless cited otherwise. retention and reenlistment documents referred to in this chapter are in file 342. Enlistment and Reenlistment 1946. RG 165. 

1 Memos. DWAC to 0 - 1, 2 Feb 46. sub: WAC Volunteer Program, and DWAC 10 0 - 1, 8 Apr 

46, sub: WAC Volunteer I'rogram. 
36 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

one year." And while provisions were made for former WACs then 

living in occupied areas to reenlist if they accepted a duty assignment 

with the occupation forces, women who had served onl y in the WAAC 

could not reenlist. Such former W AACs had no military status. Thus 

they would be enlisti ng for the first time, and the lack of WAC training 

centers precluded recruitment. During the summer, the enlisted ranks 

grew and the campaign was expanded to officers. Beginning in August, 

former WAC commissioned and warrant officers could apply for reca ll to 

extended active duty for 13, 18, or 24 months, or for an unlimited 

period.

3 

The timi ng of the retention and reenlistment programs contributed to 

their relative success. T he exodus of soldiers from overseas commands to 

the United States for demobilization had caused extreme personnel shortages in those areas. The commanders, learning that WACs could be 

retained and reenlisted, promptly submitted requisitions for them. And 

because the most prized assignment for a WAC was one overseas, these 

requisitions provided the perfect incentive for exte nding or reenlisting. 

The retention and reenlistment programs proved fairly successful. Announcements that promised assignment in the European or Pacific theaters were the most popular. In Jul y 1946, the War Depa rtment asked 

major commanders to report on how many of the women in their commands had volunteered to remain after October 1946, when all WACs 

could be discharged rega rdless of length of service or number of demobilization points. Approximately 30 percent of the enlisted women had 

volun teered. In Europe, 80 percent of the WACs chose to remain on duty 

there for another year. Under the postwar programs, however, no enlisted women had yet been assigned to the Pacific or Caribbean commands. 4 

Director Boyce, despite her concurrence with the reentry/reenlistment 

program, found reason to be displeased with its development. She had to 

answer the complaints about numerous errors in WAC enlistment papers 

and the poor quality of some WAC reenlistees. To improve the basic 

program, she recommended to the G- l that a WAC recruiting supervisor 

be assigned to each of the six Army area commands to screen applicants. 

General Paul disapproved the request as a waste of personnel and as an 

action that could only delay the processing of reenlistments. 5 

3 Msg, WCL 96566, WD TAGO to Maj Corns. 9 Feb 46; Radio Msg, WD T AGO to Maj Corns, 

31 May 46, AGSE- P 342.06 (24 May 46); DF, G- l to TAGO, Altn; MI'PS, 23 May 46, sub: 

Reenlistment of WACs in European Theater; DF, DWAC to G- I (Procuremelll Branch), 13 Scp 46, 

sub: Reenlistment in Pacitic T heater; WD Press Release, 30 Aug 46, sub: Former WAC Officers May 

Request Recall on Active Duty . 

• Msg, WCL 230 19, TAGO to Maj Corns, 3 Jul 46; Memo, DWAC to Oir, Personnel and 

Administration (D/PA D). DA, 26 SCI' 46. sub: Distribution of Enlisted WAC Strength During the 

Interim Period, tile 370, Strength and Utilization, RG 165. 

$ Memos. OOW AC to G- 1. 27 Scp 46. sub: WAC Reentry Program. and O DW AC to G- l. 2 Oct 

46, sub: WAC Reentry Program. tile 342, Reentry. RG ]65. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 37 

In September 1946, however, with the help of the Surgeon General of 

the Army, Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk, Colonel Boyce established medical, psychiatric, and administrative screening boards for WACs at embarkation ports on the East and West coasts. Unfortunately, board members 

had no more success than recruiters in detecting poor candidates for 

overseas duty. Overseas commanders continued to complain that newly 

assigned women had emotional or marital problems, inadequate skills in 

their MOSs, and poor records of deportment. After a few months, General Kirk and Colonel Boyce agreed that the screening boards were useless 

and discontinued them. Nevertheless. Colonel Boyce did continue to 

exhort WAC detachment commanders and WAC staff officers to weed 

out the unsuitable and to be vigilant in ensuring that women of poor 

character and deportment did not remain in the Corps. She dreaded the 

possibility that the poor conduct of a few WACs might trigger another 

slander campaign. 

The WAC was not alone in having troubl e with the quality of person· 

nel. The problem affected the entire Army. Men with poor performance 

and behavior records also remained or reenlisted in the Army. The 

situation forced the G- l to initiate a quick discharge program. In October 

1946, an administrative board was set up through w hich commanders 

could rid the Army of individ uals who demonstrated an inabili ty to do 

their jobs, absorb training, adjust to gro up living, or perform physically. 

The policy applied across the board- male, female, commissioned, war· 

rant, or enlisted. "Our future Army has no room, repeat no room, fo r the 

inefficient, inept, and generally those who cannot, repeat cannot, conform 

to group living," the G- l warned.6 

In January 1947, Colonel Boyce issued new WAC reenlistment procedures and eligibility requirements. The minimum score allowed on the 

Army General Classification Test was raised. WAC detachment commanders were required to certify that the conduct and efficiency of their 

enlisted women were excellent. 7 And reenJistees had to spend three 

months o n assignment in the United States before becoming eligible for 

duty overseas. 

Between February 1946 and October 1947, the reentry program, the 

sole source of WAC enlisted accessions, reenlisted 4,570 women. When 

reenlistments dwindled to almost nothing, the program was discontinued. 

But, despite complaints from WAC and male commanders about the poor 

quality of reenlistees, the program helped to keep the WAC ali ve during 

the period that the WAC bill struggled for passage in Congress. 8 

~ Msgs. TAG. WA RX 83266. to Maj Corns, CONUS, 16 Oct 46, and TAO. WARX 833443. to 

Maj Corns. overseas, 18 Oct 46, file 321. Changes. RG 165. 

7 Llr, TAGO (AGSE- I' 342.06 WAC) (22 Jan 47). 27 Jan 47. sub, Reenlistments in the WAC; 

Memo, WD, 600-750-13, J Apr 47. sub: Reenlistments in the WAC; LIT. TAGO (AGSE- I'), 14 Apr 

47, sub: Reenlistments in the WAC. 

8 Msg, TAGO 4 1950, to all Maj Coms, II Aug 47, sub: Termination of WAC AUS and Reentry 

Program. file 342. Reentry. RG 165. 
38 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Women in the Medical Department faced less resistance than did those 

in the WAC. In November 1945, Surgeon General Kirk had sent General 

Eisenhower a plan to gain congressional approval of regular and reserve 

status for women nurses and specialists. A new branch, the Women's 

Medical Service Corps, was developed to manage the specialists- dietitians, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. On 5 February 

1946, Eisenhower approved the plan. General Kirk and Col. Florence A. 

Blanchfield, Chief, Army Nurse Corps, prepared a draft bill, which 

gained Army approval on 1 June. It was introduced in the 79th Congress 

too late in Jul y to be passed before adjournment. In 1947, however, 

members of the 80th Congress combined the bill with one giving regular 

status to the women of the Navy Nurse Corps, and, on 16 April, the Act 

to Establish a Permanent Nurse Corps of the Army and Navy and to 

Establish a Women's Medical Specialists Corps in the Army, known 

popularly as the Army-Navy Nurses Act of 1947, became Public Law 80-

36. 9 

The Department of the Navy had also gone ahead with its own 

postwar plans for servicewomen other than medical personnel. In March 

1946, at the request of Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal, Carl 

Vinson. c hairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee. introduced 

legislation (H.R. 59 15) to create women's reserve groups in the Naval 

Reserve and the Marine Corps Reserve as well as provide for women's 

limited peacetime active duty. These were to be permanent groups that 

would replace the wartime reserve organizations scheduled to go out of 

existence when President Truman orticially declared the war to be at an 

end. The Naval Affairs Committee reported the bill out favorably on to 

May, but Congress adjourned on 2 August without taking final action on 

it. D uring the fall and winter. the bill was rewritten. Admiral Louis E. 

Denfeld. the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). eliminated the bill's 

provision for separate groups for women. Instead. he directed that 

women be included not onl y in the Naval Reserve and Marine Corps 

Reserve, but also in the Regular Navy and Marine Corps. The commandant of the Marine Corps, General Alexander A. Vandegrift, at first 

opposed such proposed legislation because he did not want women counted against the Marine Corps' already low authorized strength; it was, 

however, widely suspected that he did not want women in the postwar 

Marine Corps-women might weaken the Corps' combat image. Nonetheless, before the revised bill went to the 80th Congress in 1947, he 

withdrew his objections so that the Navy and Marine Corps could 

present a unified program. The third wartime women's nava l service 

organization, the SPARS, was not included in this d raft bill because, with 

~ Pauline Maxwell (UCol. ANC, Ret). "The Histor)' of the Arm)' Nurse Corps. 1901-1947," 

unpublished ms. pp. 324- 66. CMH; I'L 36, 80th Congo lSI seSS. 16 Apr 47. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 39 

the end of the war, the Coast G uard reverted to the Treasury Department. 1o 

Architects o/the WAC Bill 

In February 1946, after receiving General Eisenhower's directions on 

seeking both regular and reserve status for women, the 0 - 1, General 

Paul, had summoned a young infantry officer, Lt. Col. A llan L Leonard, 

Jr., from the Plans Branch. " Ike says we have to have a permanent 

WAC, Leona rd; I'd like you to come up with a plan and a bill withi n the 

next ten days. The entire resources of the War Department are at your 

disposal. " General Paul had gone on to explain that two WAC officers 

were to be temporaril y assigned to the 0-1 office to help prepare the 

plan and the draft legislation. The two officers were experienced and 

knowledgeable: Lt. Col. Emil y C. Davis, WAC Staff Director, Headquarters, Army G round Forces, and Lt. Col. Ma ry A. Hallaren, WAC Staff 

Director, Headquarters, U.S. Forces, European Theater. 1 1 

The three planners began their work in mid-February, assisted by a 

group of pa rt-time consultants from the General and Special Staff di visions and the major commands. t2 On 25 February. they presented "A 

Tentative Plan and Pro posed Bill on Establishi ng the Women's Army 

Corps in the Regular Army and Organized Reserve" to General Paul. He 

accepted it and sent it to the chiefs of the Army General Staff divisions 

and the commanders of the major commands for their comments or 

concurrence. 

While the plan was being reviewed by the War Depa rtment staff, the 

consultants' group was enlarged, although the group's members continued 

to serve pa rt-time. Lt. Col. Mary Louise Milligan, assigned to the O- l's 

office in February 1946, became a consultant/ planner. t3 She, Lt. Col. 

Kathleen McClure, also from 0 - 1, and Colonel Davis. of the original 

planning group. became joint coordinators for the project. The expanded 

consultants' group speedil y gathered supporting data and prepared reports 

10··Permanent l1asis for WAVES," The Army (lI/d Navy Register. 30 Mar 46, p. 16; ··Pcacetime 

Plans for WAVES." The Army 01111 Na ~y RegiSU:f. 7 Scp 46, p. 9; Mary V. Stremlow (Col. USMCR), 

A History oJ the Womel1 Marines, 1946- 1977 (Washington, DC; HQ USMC. 1986). pp. 15- 16; Mary C. 

Lynne and Kay Anhur, Three Yean 8ellilld the Mast (Washington, DC; privately published. 1946), p. 

122. 

"Llr, DrigOcn Allan L. Leonllrd, Jr., USA Rct, to author. 6 Dec 74, author's file, CMH. 

'a Rpt, Meeting of thc Planning Group for the WAC in the Regular Army, 25 Feb 46, file 032, 

Legislation 1946-1949, RG 165. lists the consultants; LtCol John F. Cassidy: LlCol James C. 

Herberg, Legislative I1r, ACofS, G- I; LlCol Elizabeth H. Strayhorn, Plaus Dr, AGF; LtCoI Doro· 

thea A. Coleman. WAC StafT Oir, MOW; LtCol Kathlecn McCl ure. Policy Group, ACofS, G-I; 

Maj Selma Hcrbert and Maj Jere Knight, O DWAC; Maj Elizabeth C. Smith, T raining Div, HQ. 

ASF: and Maj Elizabeth E. Hardesty, HQ, AAF. 

13 Filc 032. I'rcparalion of WAC IN FACT for Presentation to Congress, RG 165. Also added to 

the group were Majs Marion Lichty, Dorothy Harms, and [rene Sorrough: Capt Katherine Stull; Lt ~ 

Edith Aycrs and Elizabeth Hatch; and WO Irenc SCOII. 
40 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

L T . COL. MARY LOU ISE MI LLIGAN receives the Legioll of Merit from Maj. 

Gel/. Wilfard S. Paul, Director of Persollnel alld Administration, the Pel/tagol/, 

1946. 

on subjects that might arise during congressio nal hearings in the hope 

that the proposed legislation CQuld be sent to Congress and be passed 

before summer adjournment. They also wrote the regulations, plans, and 

policies that would be needed to implement the legislation if it became 

law. 

Also in February 1946, Deputy Director Helen Hamilton Woods requested release from active duty. Regretting the loss of this diligent 

worker and loyal supporter, Colonel Boyce sent General Paul a list of her 

preferences for a replacement. Weeks, however, passed wit hout the G- I's 

decision. The matter was finall y settled in mid-April. Lt. Col. Mary A. 

Hallaren was recalled from Europe, and on 20 June she took up her 

d uties as deputy director of the WAC.14 

U Lieutenant colonels eligible for the position were Dorothea A. Coleman. Emily C. Davis, Mera 

Galloway, Katherine R. Goodwin. Mary A. Hallaren, Geraldine 1'. May, Kathleen McClure. Mary 

Louise Milligan. and Elizabeth Ii. Strayhorn. Memo, OOWAC to Ex!..""Cutive Officer, 0 - 1, WOOS, 

15 Apr 46.lile 320, Organization of the Offiee of the Director WAC. RG 165. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 41 

Throughout the spring of 1946, the Army staff and major commanders 

reviewed the proposed WAC legislation. The rev iewers rejected o ne 

change requested by Colonel Boyce. In March, she had recommended 

that a sentence be added to the proposed bill to give women military 

credit for time they had spent in the W AAC. She did not ask for back 

pay for these women, only that W AAC time be counted as "active Army 

service" for promotions and retirement. Two years ea rlier, in 1944, Army 

nurses, dietitians, and therapists had been given military credit for the 

months they had spent as civilians under contract to the Army. or as 

reserve nurses under contract to the Army, or as reserve nurses under the 

American Red Cross. This action stood as a precedent for Colonel 

Boyce's recommendation. Colonel Hobby, too, had asked the War Department to c redit W AAC service, but her request had been refused on 

the grounds that it would set a precedent for paramilitary groups such as 

the Civil Air Patrol and the Women A irforce Service Pilots (WASP). 

Now Colonel Boyce's request was disapproved for the same reason. The 

chief of the Legislative Branch wrote, "Since the days of the War 

between the States, the War Department with the support of Congress 

has had to safeguard against the 'watering down' of the groups held 

eligible for military or veterans benefits." 1 5 

At the end of May 1946, the G - I did not have a unanimous staff 

position to present to Chief of Staff Eisenhower. T he G- 2, the c hief of 

the Special Planni ng Divisio n, and the commanding general of Army 

Service Forces still opposed regula r and reserve status for WACs even 

though they approved of such status for nurses, dietitians, and therapists. 

General Paul could exert no more effort in trying to obtain a consolidated 

position; Congress needed the time if it was to consider the bill before 

adjou rning. He sent the plan and the bill to Genera l E isenhower with his 

recommendation that the minorit y objections be ignored and that the 

action be approved for implementation, Eisenhower ca lled for a briefing 

o n I June; Paul selected Colonel Boyce to present it. His gesture was a 

compliment to her, as well as recognition of the support she had given to 

a measure she had once opposed. 

Colonel Boyce summarized the results of the preceding months' work. 

The proposed WAC Integration Act of 1946 provided for a separate 

women's corps in the Regular Army whose officer, warrant, and enlisted 

strength could not exceed 2 percent of the men's strength in each equivalent category. Women appointed to the Regular Army could not be 

permanentl y assigned to anot her branch of the Army. They were not 

restricted to noncombat duty, but existing and proposed regulations en-

' 5 Memos, DWAC to ACofS. G- 1. 25 Mar 46, sub, Recognition of Service inlhe Women's Army 

Au~iliary Corps for All Purposes, and Chief. Legislative Dr. ACofS, G- I. to G- I. 4 Apr 46, sub: 

Recognition of Service in the Womeu's Arll)y Auxiliary Corps for All Purposes (approved by Gen 

l'aul. 4 Apr 46), file 324,5. Legislatiou, RG 165; Memo, DWAC to G- I, 26 Feb 44. sub: I'roposed 

Legislation Relative 10 WAC. file 314, Legislation. RG 165. 
42 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

sured that no WAC, officer or enlisted, would be assigned to duties 

requiring combat training or experience; WACs could be temporarily 

assigned to any branch except Infantry, Armor, or Artillery. WAC offi~ 

cers had to be at least twenty-one years old at the time of appointment 

and, except for the director, could not be promoted above the grade of 

lieutenant colonel; the number of permanent lieutenant colonels was limited to 10 percent of the Corps' total officer strength. The director would 

be a temporary colonel while serving in that position. WAC officers 

would have their own eligibility lists for temporary and permanent promotions; thus the women would not take promotions away from men or 

compete with them. 

Women could enlist in the WAC at age eighteen with both parents' 

consent, or at twenty~one without it. Enlisted grades were not restricted, 

and enlisted women would compete with men for promotion. 

Women who had reached age twenty~one could be appointed as war~ 

rant officers in the WAC, Regular Army. Because warrant officers were 

not assigned to branches as commissioned officers were, the women's 

assignments, like the men's, would be controlled by their MOS and the 

branch that monitored it. These women had no sepa rate promotion list 

and would compete for promotion with men in their MOS. 

Two provisions applied to all WACs. A servicewoman's husband and 

children would not be classified as dependents unless she could prove that 

they depended upon her for more than 50 percent of their support. A 

woman could not be placed in a position command ing men unless it were 

authorized by the War Department. 

WACs, officer or enlisted, would be appointed and enlisted in the 

appropriate Organized Reserve Corps (ORC) on the same basis as men, 

except that they could not serve in positions requiring combat duty. They 

would enter the reserve through the WAC Section, ORC. As in the 

Regular Army, with the exception of former WAC directors who could 

be appointed to colonel, officers could not be promoted above lieutenant 

colonel, nor could these officers command men unless authorized by the 

War Department. Dependency allowances were not a factor- no such 

allowances were paid to reservists, male or female. 

At the conclusion of Colonel Boyce's briefing, General Eisenhower 

directed that the proposed legislation be forwarded, in turn, to the Bureau 

of the Budget and to the Congress. At the same time, the draft legislation 

for women in the Army Medical Department was also approved and 

forwarded. 16 

"Summary Sheet (5S), ACofS. G- I to CofS alld 5e<;War. 28 May 46. sub: Proposed Report-T o 

Establish the Women's Army Corps ill the Regular Army and in the OffICers Reserve Corps and in 

the Enlisted Reserve Corps alld for Other Purposes. Slid MFR. LtCol Ka thleclI McClure. Plans Dr. 

ACofS. G-I, sub: NOles used by Col Doyce in Presenting Ihe WAC RA Bill 10 the Chief of SlnfTon 

1 JUri 47. file 320, Legislation for a Permsnent WAC 1946, RG 165. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 43 

T he WAC Integration Act of 1946 was introduced in the Senate o n 25 

J uly and in the House on the 26th. Referred to the cognizant committee 

in each chamber, the bill died when Congress voted to adjourn on 2 

August, before either the House or Senate committee had held hearings. 

Because it died in committee, it would have to be reintroduced as a new 

measure when the 80th Congress convened in January 1947. This outcome was a disappointment, but !lot a surprise- the 79th Congress had 

received the bill the week before an adjournment that began the first 

vacation of the Congress since the beginning of hostilities in 1939. 

A time of major change ensued for the country, the Congress, and the 

armed forces. Unemployment inc reased as soldiers became civilians; 

strikes plagued the steel, automobile, and coal industries; and, in the 

election of November 1946, voters gave the Republicans control of Congress for the first time since 1930. In the 80th Congress. the lawmakers 

reorgani zed by consolidating and reducing the number of standing committees. In each chamber, the separate Military and Naval Affairs committees merged and were renamed the Armed Services Committee. 

Postwar reorganization of the War Department had also begun. The 

General Staff divisions became directorates, and the personnel received 

new titles. For example, the assistant c hief of staff for personnel, G- I, 

became the director of personnel and admin istration (D/ PAD) on 10 June 

1946. The Army Service Forces command was abolished alo ng with its 

ni ne service commands. The functio ns of the latter were assumed by the 

six numbered armies, whose commanders reported to the commanding 

general of Army Ground Forces. In November 1947, although remaining 

under the administration of D/PAO. the Office of the Director, WAC, 

(ODWAC) was assigned to the chief of staff of the Army. who thereafter 

controlled ODWAC funds and personnel spaces. Although the change 

gave the director direct access to the chief of staff, she continued to 

communicate through the D/PAD. 

Such reorgani zation was not limited to congressional committees and 

the Army. On 17 September 1947, Congress renamed the War Department the Department of the Army, added a new Department of the Air 

Force, and placed those departments, along with that fo r the Navy, under 

a new o rganization, c reating the National Military Establishment headed 

by a cabinet-level secretary. Two years later this organization was renamed the Department of Defense (000).17 

17 WO Oir 138. 14 May 46. and OD/PAD Organizalioll CharI and Memo, Nov 47. CMH Library; 

PL 253. Naliolllli Security A(;t of 1947, 80th Congo 1st sess. 26 J ul 47. and I'L 216, Arnendmellls to 

the Natiollal Sccurity Act of 1941. 81s1 Congo 1st SCSS, 10 Aug 49. 
44 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Progress a/the Legislation, 1947 and 1948 

Deputy D irector Ha llaren and Lt. Col. Mary Louise Milligan revised 

the WAC bill for introductio n before the 80th Congress in January 1947. 

Colonel Milligan had become sole coordinator of the bill in June 1946 

when Colonel McClure had been reassigned as the WAC staff director 

for U.S. Army Forces, European Theater, and Lt. Col. Emily Davis had 

resigned from the Army_ 

In October 1946. Colonel Boyce began an inspectio n and staff visit to 

WAC units in Europe. She was accompanied by Genevieve F. Herrick, a 

member of the National Civilian Advisory Council for the WAC. Together with Colonel McClure, they visited eighteen WAC detachments in 

Germany, Austria, F rance, and Italy. At each detachment, Colo nel Boyce 

described the WAC bill and encouraged the women to remain in the 

service for the career advantages that the new law would create. The 

th ree women also visited the joint (male/female) A rmy Officer Candidate 

School at the Seckellheim School Center nea r Heidelberg. A severe 

shortage of officers in Europe had resulted from the rapid postwar demobilization, necessitating this course from which more than 450 enlisted 

men and 58 enlisted women received appointments as second lieutenants.18 

After returning from Europe, Colonel Boyce was hospitalized several 

times for loss of stamina, fatigue. and hypertensio n. In March 1947. her 

request for a medical retirement was approved; Colonel Ha llaren was 

appointed acting director of the WAC. Members of the Army General 

Staff knew that Colonel Hallaren supported a permanent WAC as strongly as Colonel Boyce had once opposed it. On 7 May 1947, with Colonel 

Boyce's retirement in effect, Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson appointed Mary A. Hallaren as the third director of the WAC and promoted her to fu ll colo nel. 1 0 

Soon after her appointment, Colonel Hallaren sent General Paul a list 

of WAC office rs eligible for the position of deputy director under the 

provisions of the proposed bill. General Paul returned the list and asked 

her to indicate her choice. She wrote, "My first choice is Mary Louise 

Milligan." General Eisenhower then ruled that the WAC director should 

be permitted to choose her own deputy. establishing a precedent followed 

thereafter. Colonel Milligan took office as deputy director on 5 August. 20 

18 Memo. DWAC 10 0 - 1.7 Dee 46. sub: Reporl of SlaffVisil 10 Women's Army Corps Personnel 

in the European Thealer, 24 OClober 10 7 Dee 46, file 333. 1, InspeClions, RG 165; also sec HQ, Third 

US Army, "Uislory of lhe Second Year of Ihe Oecup31ion in Germany," ch 15. CMH Ref Ilr . 

.. Rpt , WAC Slaff Directors Conf. Mar 47, ODWAC Ref File. WAC Slaff Advisers Confercnces, 

CMH. 

~o Memo, DWAC 10 Gell l'ilUl. IJ May 47, sub: Vacancy of Depuly Director. WAC. file 320. 

Organizmion of lhe Office of lhe Dire<:lor WAC. RG 165. 
WOMEN IN T HE POSTWAR ARMY 45 

On 15 April 1947, the WAC bill, known as the WAC Integration Act 

of 1947, had been introduced in Congress- in the House as H.R. 3054 by 

the chairman of the House Armed Services Committee, Walter O. Andrews of New York; and in the Senate as S. 1103 by the chairman of the 

Senate Armed Services Committee, J. Chandler Gurney of South Dakota. 

H.R. 4038 and S. 1527, legislation to include the WAVES and Women 

Marines in their appropriate regular and reserve components, were intro· 

duced on 27 June. Swift passage of the Army-Navy Nurses Act in April 

had encouraged Colonel Hallarcn and Capt. Joy Bright Hancock, the 

director of the WAVES, to believe that their legislation would be approved that summer. 

On 2 July. a Senate Armed Forces subcommittee opened hearings on 

the women's services bills. General Eisenhower appeared and recommended passage of the WAC bill. He stated that the time had "come 

when we must stabilize the Women's Army Corps in order to offer those 

still in uniform and prospective members a career with prestige and 

security. We cannot ask these women to remain on duty, nor can we ask 

qualified personnel to volunteer, if we cannot offer them permanent 

status." 21 

Other senior Army officers who testified in support of the WAC bill 

included General Carl Spatz, Commander, U.S. Army Air Forces; Maj. 

Gen. Jacob Devers, Commander, U.S. Army Ground Forces; Maj. Gen. 

Raymond W. Bliss, Surgeon General of the Army; Maj. Gen. Luther D. 

Miller, Army Chief of Chaplains; and Maj. Gen. Willard S. Paul. At 

General Eisenhower's request, General Douglas MacArthur, Commander, 

U.S. Army Forces, Far East, and General Lucius DuB. Clay, Commander, U.S. Army Forces, European Theater, sent supporting statements that 

were read into the record. Colonel Boyce and Mary Pillsbury Lord, 

chairwoman of the National Civilian Advisory Counc il, also appeared in 

support of the bill. General Paul had considered calling on the former 

director, Mrs. Hobby, and the former deputy, Mrs. Woods, but decided 

not to place them in the position of seeming to disparage the WAC's 

excellent wartime record simply because they had not recommended 

Regular Army status for women. The Chief of Naval Operations, Fleet 

Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, and other senior officers of the Navy and 

Marine Corps testified in support of e WAVES and Women Marines 

legislation. 22 

On 15 July, the subcommittee met in closed session and combined the 

WAC and WAVES/Women Marines bills into one, the Women's Armed 

Se rvices Integration Act of 1947 (S. 1641). Title I contained provisions 

.. us Congress, Senale, Commiuee on Armed Services. lleoriflgs on S.JJOJ. 5./527. ond $.1641. 

SOIh Congo lSI sess. 2 Jul 47. p. 10. Docurnelll ciled hcreaflcr as IINrillgs on ... 5./64/. 

n Treadwell. The Walt/ell's Army Corps. p. 748; Dwight D. Eisenhower, Thc Popers of Dwight O. 

Eiscl/hower. the Chief of Stoff. ed. Louis Galambos. vol. 8 (Ballimorc: Johns Hopkins Univ Press. 

1978), p. 1734. 
46 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

for the WAC; Title II. provisions for the WAVES and Women Mari nes. 

The committee approved the measure on the 16th. On the 23d, it was 

unanimo usly approved by the full Senate and forwa rded to the Ho use fo r 

action.

23 

On the 24th, General Eisenhower had a personal letter hand carried to 

the chairman of the Ho use Armed Services Committee urging speedy 

approval of the bill. He wrote, 

My experience in the use of Wacs covers bot h wartime and peacetime conditions, both overseas and in the Zone of Interior. T hat experience has convinced 

me that a modern army must have Wacs. Modern warfare places o ur future as 

close to the firing line as Europe's past. T hai means that the women of America 

must share the responsibility fo r the security of their country in a future emergency as the women of England did in World War II. ... I heartil y support, and 

urge speedy Congressio lwl approval of, the bill to integrate women into the 

Regular Army and Organized Reserve Co rps. 

He also offered to testify again for the bill.24 

Subcommittee No.3, Organization and Mobilization, of the House 

Armed Services Committee acted immediately o n the bill, holding its 

in itial hearing o n the day it was fo rwarded from the Senate. Colo nel 

Hall aren believed that with the Senate approval a nd a personal letter en 

route from the chief of staff to the committee c hairman, the bill would 

pass without delay. Then came an unexpected blow. After convening, the 

subcommittee voted to postpo ne further hearings o n the bill until Ja nuary 

1948 when the 80th Congress would reconvene in its second session. The 

vote crushed hope for regular and reserve status fo r women in 1947. 25 

Before adjourning, Congress did extend the life of the WAC in the 

Army of the United States (AUS) until I J uly 1948. 26 Nonetheless, 

disappointment over the handling of the bill caused many WACs to 

consider leaving the service. A stirring o pen letter from Colo nel Hallaren, 

however, convinced many to stay o n: 

You have been over the hurd les once-back in the W AAC/WAC days. There 

were many bets against you then: that you cou ldn't ta ke it. .. . Those who bet 

against you lost. You sold the country on the value of womell in a wartime 

Army. You sold the Army all the need for women in the peacetime establishment. ... Breaking the trail has always been harder tha n following it.27 

U I/eorillgsoll ... S.1641. 2J J ul47, p. 101. 

U Llr, Cors 10 Congressman Walter Gresham Andrews, 24 J u147, file 324.5, COS 1947, RG 1M. 

II Memo, Dep DWAC to Chief. Liaison Planning. P&'A Diy. sub: P&'A Division Ncwsleu,"r, 21 

Aug 47. file 461, Books. Publications. Periodicals, RG 165. 

Ie PL 239. Termination or Certain Emergency Measures., 80th Cong, 1st SCS$, 2~ Ju147. 

n Col Ma ry A. ~l allare . "A Message from the Director," WA C News/cltcr 4{Jul 47):1. The sizable 

attrition in the WAC rrom the end of WW 11- 95,957. JO Jun 4~. to 17.896, 30 Jun 46-slowed 

during this period with only a 9,762 drop to 8.134 in J une 1947, and a 2,782 drop 10 S,3S2 in J Ulie 

1948 (StfClIgtb oft},e Army Rcport [STM - 30], 31 Dec 48, App. A). 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 

COL. MARY A. HALLAREN, Director, 

WAC. arri~es ill Japan 01/ a stoflvisif, 24 

September J 947. 

47 

As part of her effort to improve morale, Colo nel Hallaren also responded to a request from General MacArthur to conduct an inspection 

and staff visit to WAC units and personnel in Japan and China. That 

autumn, she visited the two WAC detachments that had been activated in 

Japan during 1946. In Yokohama, approximately 150 women of the 

8000th WAC Battalion wo rked in the offices of Headqua rters, Eighth 

Army, and lived in a quonset hut compound. In Tokyo, over 400 enlisted 

women of the 8225th WAC Battalion wo rked in General Headquarters 

(GHQ). U.S. Army Forces, Far East (USAFFE), and lived in a downtown, multistory converted office building formerly occupied by the 

Mitsubishi Corporation. T he WAC director also stopped al the headqua rters of the China T heater in Shanghai to meet with the 25 enlisted 

women and 2 officers assigned there. 28 

28 "Strcngth Outsidc CONUS:' Slnmglh of the Army Report (ST M- JO). 30 Nov 47, p.13; Press 

Release, DA Public Affairs. 7 Nov 47, Director WAC Returns from Trip to Pacific. 
48 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Tlie Women's Armed Services In tegration Act of 1948 

On her return from the Far East. Colonel Hallaren completed the 

planning for the January 1948 presentation of the amended Women's 

Armed Services Integration bill. One of the changes was the addition of 

Title III, which contained provisions for women in the newly created 

United States Air Force. At this time. approximate ly 1,500 WAC officers 

and enlisted women were assigned to various Army Air Forces com~ 

mands. Although still in the WAC, these women had been assigned for 

d uty in the USAF pending enactment of the bill Title III, to include 

women in the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve, had been 

written by Brig. Gen. Dean C. Strothers, D irector, Milita ry Personnel, 

USAF, and Maj. Frances Sue Cornick, Adviser on WAC Affairs, Headquarters, USAF.29 

Another change had been necessitated by the I July 1948 deadline on 

the WAC extension passed by Congress before it had adjourned. The 

measure gave the Corps some time before its discontinuance, but not 

enough time to allow for passage of the Integration bill and its implementation- the conversion of servicewomen to regular and reserve status. 

Colo nel Hallaren, therefore, added a clause to Title I extending the WAC 

as part of the AUS for twelve months after the enactment of the law. For 

similar reasons, Captain Hancock added a clause to Title II transferring 

the WAVES and Women Ma rines into the Nava l Reserve and the Marine 

Corps Reserve upon enactment of the law and for one year thereafter. 30 

The revised bill, the Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948 

(S. 1641), went to the Senate and House Armed Services committees in 

January. Because the revisions o nly added T itle III and provided the time 

necessary for the administrati ve changes involved in integrating the 

women into the armed forces, the women directors thought the bill 

would pass easil y. However, they soon learned of a new threat to its 

passage. Opponents in the House had begun a "cloakroom" campaign to 

convince committee members that women sho uld have reserve stat us 

only. Colonel Hallaren had expected some reserve-only advocacy, but she 

was surprised by the extent of the o pposition. ]n a letter to Colonel 

Milligan, who was on a staff visit to Germany, she wrote, "This is a new 

development, for, you remember, neither the Senate hearing nor the first 

hearing in the House gave any such indication. We expected we would 

have to defend the question, but we did not expect a block." 31 

The leaders of the reserve-only bloc were the Armed Services Committee c hairman, Walter G. Andrews, and the ranking minority member 

of the committee, Carl Vinson. These men believed that women should 

~g HQ, USAF, ,frmy-Air Force AgreemclIIs (USAF Pam, 15 Sep 47), sec. II, p. 65. 30 34 USC Sec 857. Naval Reserve and Marine Corps Reserve. 

31 Llr, Col Hallaren 10 LtCol Milligall, DepDir WAC, 14 May 48, file 032, Legislation. RG 165. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 49 

not be admitted to the Regular A rmy un til their peacetime service could 

be studied and observed. Their opinions would affect other members of 

the committee, indeed the whole Congress. 

Colonel Hallaren. now the recognized leader of the fight for the bill's 

passage, organized a counteroffensive with help from General Paul, the 

other women directors, and Chairwoman Lord of the National Civilian 

Advisory Counc il for the WAC. 32 

When Subcommittee No. 3 of the House Armed Services Committee 

convened on 18 February 1948 for hearings on S. 1641, the room was 

crowded with high-ranking military and civilian officials. Among those 

who came to urge approval of regular and reserve status for women were 

Secretary of Defense James Forrestal; former Army Chief of Staff and 

current president of Columbia University, Dwight D. Eisenhower; Army 

Chief of Staff, General Omar Bradley; Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Louis E. Denfeld; Vice Chief of Staff, USAF, General Hoyt S. 

Vandenberg; Army Director of Personnel and Administration, General 

Paul, and his counterparts in the Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force; 

Director, WAC, Colonel Hallaren, and her counterparts in the other 

services. 3 3 

Chairman Andrews opened the hearings by commenting frankly on the 

"considerable, not antagonism, but antipathy to the thought of women 

being brought into the regula r services on exactly the same basis as men 

permanently." He also noted that man y congressmen questioned how 

women could compete under the promotion, retention, and retirement 

policies established for men by the Officer Personnel Act of 1947. In 

addition, he asked General Eisenhower and the other officials who wo uld 

testify to comment on an alternative to S. 1641 - a Women's Reserve 

Corps created for enlisted women and officers in the WAC, W A YES, 

Women Marines, and Women in the Air Force. Under the alternative, 

women could join for 10, 15, or 20 years and, if they wished, could apply 

for active duty positio ns that were o pen to women reservists. Chairman 

A ndrews and the other members of the committee would develop a plan 

whereby women could be incorporated into the promot.ion and retirement 

systems for regular officers.34 

3~ Ocher women direccors were Capt. Hancock of the WAVES and Maj. Ju]ia E. Hamblet of che 

Marine Corps Women·s Reserve. 

33 US Congress, House, Armed Services Subcomnlillee No.3, Hearings on S 1641, 80th Cong, 2d 

sess, COllgres.siollol Record. ]8 Feb 48, p. SS6S; cited hereafter as House Hearings on 5 1641. 

30 Ibid. The Officer Personnel Act of ]947 (PL 381. 80th Cong, 1st scss) lowered the number of 

years of service required for promotion to major, lieutenant colonel, colonel; provided review boards 

co select officers for promotion based on seniority and me rit; forced allrilion in the upper grades, 

requiring retirement at certain ages and lengths of service to provide opportunities for advancemel11 

for younger offieers. Lleol George E. Bays. ·'New Promotion Law for Officers,"' Army Ill/ormarioll 

Digesi. Sep 47, pp. 13- 16. 
50 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

The first speaker of the morning was former Chief of Staff Eisenhower. He told the members. " I thin k it is a mistake to put [the women] on a 

Reserve basis rather than a Regular. I think they should be an integrated 

regular pa rt of the Army. J th in k the Air Forces feel the same way. We 

need them." 35 The secretary of defense. the Army chief of stafr, and the 

chief of naval operations followed Eisenhower and voiced strollg objectio ns to reserve-only status. 

At the close of these presentations, Congressman Vinson addressed the 

chairman: "I came in wit h the opinion that the best thing to do was to 

put [women1 in the Reserve but having listened to the generals, the 

admiral, and the Secretary of National Defense, I think we might just as 

well make up our minds ... to put them in the Regulars and take up this 

bill section by section." 30 

The c hairma n agreed, but o nly to the section by section analysis of 

S. I64 1. For two days, 23 and 25 February, General Paul and Colonel 

HaIJaren led the subcommittee through each sectio n of Title I, detailing 

the reasoning behind each provision and explaining how only a few 

amendments to the Officer Personnel Act of 1947 would be necessa ry to 

include women under its provisions without jeopardizi ng men's promo· 

tion, retention, and retirement opportunities. The ot her titles were exam· 

ined in the same manner, with explanations provided by the cognizant 

personnel chiefs and directors. 37 

On 23 February, the second day of the hearings. Leslie S. Perry of the 

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 

had also appeared before the subcommittee. He requested the addition of 

an amendment to eliminate "discrimination or segregatio n on account of 

race, color, religion, or national origin" in all women's services. He 

presented statistics showing the number of black women who had served 

in World War II and the number currently on duty (see Table I). He 

noted that the WAC had accepted black women as officer candidates and 

enlisted women beginning in July 1942. but that the other women's 

services had accepted them more slowly.38 

The proposal to add the NAACP's amendment was defeated. Mr. 

Vinson responded to the amendment for the committ ee: "Discrimination 

is forbidden by the Constitution and none can be practiced by the armed 

services, hence it is unnecessary to put such a provision in this bill .... If 

Negroes are qualified and meet the requirement, we can and do accept 

them .... Let us legislate for the whole country and not for any particular 

group." 39 

U HOllsc Hearings on S 164 1. CO>rg"ss;olraf Record. IS Feb 48, p. 5566. 

. Ibid .. p. 5590. 

~1 Ibid., 23 Feb 4S. p. 5604. 

U Ibid. 

U Ibid., p. 5657. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTW AR ARMY 5 1 

TABLE I - BLACK WOMEN IN T H E SERVICES. 1945 AND 1947 

WAC .................................................... . 

WAVES ............................................... . 

Women Marines ...................... ............ . 

Officer 

111 

2 

o 

Sourr:r: COIlgffiSiolIQ/ Record. 2] Feb 48, p. 5604. 

1945 

EnliSlcd 

8,892 

58 

o 

Omcer 

7 

o 

o 

1947 

Erllisled 

307 

6 

o 

Other areas of concern surfaced during the hearings. The provision to 

limit WAC streng th to a maximum of 2 percent of the lo lal authorized 

Regular Army strength meL with protests from several legislators. 

Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas addressed General Paul: "The fighting 

fo rces of the Army [are] now 12,000 under strength .... Why do yo u 

wa nt to tie you rself to 2 percent; why don't you put in a limitation of 5 

percent, which would allow you to enlist up (0 33,OOO?" 40 General Paul 

explained that 2 percent had been selected as a beginning and that the 

Army had no objection to a higher percentage. Mr. Vinson, however, 

wa rned against going higher: " If you try to bring in 35,000, you will hear 

the c ry all over the country that you have an Army of women." 4 1 

Leroy Johnson of California questioned the provisions for dependents 

of WACs. He believed that the provisions would "open the door for 

wholesale support of husbands by servicewomen." 4 2 Colonel Hallaren 

assured him that women would continue to be required to provide proof 

that their husbands were dependent. As had been true under earlier 

legislation, even though a serviceman's wife and c hildren were automatically assumed to be his bona fide dependents, a servicewoman would 

have to provide documentary proof that she provided over 50 percent of 

her dependents' financ ial support. T he director added that women with 

dependent children under eighteen would not be admitted to the services. 

After spending five days in hearings, the subcommittee reserved the 

final day, 3 March, for suggestions from individuals and organizations. 

Adam Clayton Powell of New York asked for a reconsideration of the 

NAACP amendment. James Finucane of the National Council for Prevention of War recommended that the bill be disapproved because it 

would militari ze women and thus make them potentia ll y subject to the 

"ell:cessive" wartime powers of the president. Col. John P. Oliver of the 

Reserve Officers Association (ROA) recommended an amendment giving 

the WAC director and her deputy the ranks of major general and briga40 Ibid., 18 Feb 48, p. 5622 . 

• , Ibid .. p. 5624. 

t2 Ibid .. 23 Feb 48, p. 5671. 
52 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

dier general, respectively; the WAVES director, a rear admiral, and her 

deputy, a captain. Next, speaking for the Women's Committee to Oppose 

Conscription, Mrs. Alexander Stewart of Chicago urged the bill be voted 

down because it laid the groundwork for further domination of the 

coun try by the military and inc reased the possibility that women would 

one day be drafted. A ll of the proposed amendments were defeated.4 3 

At the end of the day. the subcommittee went into executive sessio n. 

When its members emerged, they anno unced that they had rejected 

regular status for women in the military by a six-Ie-three margin and had 

voted instead to recommend reserve-only status to the full committee. 

T his rejection was disheartening, but Colo nel HalJaren did not give up. 

The bill still had a lo ng way to go, and it had been unanimously approved by the Senate in 1947 and was supported by top military and 

c ivilian leaders. Colo nel Hallaren and the other directors used the time 

before the measure was taken up by the full committee to write fact 

sheets and memorandums to correct the misconception that reserve-onl y 

status gave women the same benefits as regular status. 44 

T he House Armed Services Committee met in closed session on Tuesday, 23 March, to consider S. 1641. When the committee adjourned, the 

chairman announced that, once again, regular sta tus had been rejected; 

the bill had been revised and retitled "Women's Armed Services Reserve 

Act of 1948." In the revised bill, all references to regular status were 

deleted; the position of the WAC director was eliminated; and no extension for the WAC AUS was provided. T he committee had voted twentysix to one to adopt the revised bill. 45 

The sole dissenter was Margaret Chase Smith of Maine. A staunch ally 

and champion of women's place in the regular forces, Congresswoman 

Smith was incensed that the House would offer women reserve status 

only. She maintained that the " issue is simple-either the armed services 

have a permanent need of women officers and enlisted women or they do 

not. If they do, then the women must be given permanent status .... I am 

further convinced that it is better to have no legislation at all than to 

have legislation of this type." 46 

A few days after the committee had voted down regular status and 

revised the bill, Congresswoman Smith learned that S. 1641 had been 

placed o n the Consent Calendar where noncontroversial bills were 

placed. She objected to the maneuver, which required unanimous approval. She explained, "When there is such a radical difference between the 

Senate version and the House version, it is extremely surprising that an 

u Ibid .• 3 Mor 48, pp. 5732-47. 

U Memo, Col Hallaren to Carl Vinson. 22 Mar 48, sub: Women in the Regular Servicell versus 

Women in the Reserve, file 326.2, Organi~ed Reserve Corps, RO 165. 

U COlIgre.ss;Olla/ Record. 23 Mar 48, p. 7338. 

4' lbid., 6Apr48. p. 24 11. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 53 

attempt would be made to get this legislation railroaded through on the 

Consent Calendar." 47 

The interval gave Mrs. Lord and the National Civilian Advisory 

Council for the WAC time to garner additional support for the legislation 

in Congress and from various veterans' and women's organizations. Colonel Hallaren spoke, wrote, and answered inquiries about the need for 

regular status for women. Articles supporting regular status for women 

appeared in the New York Times. the New York Herald Tribune, and the 

Christian Science Monitor. 46 

Because of the action in Congress, the executive for reserve and 

ROTC affairs in the Pentagon prepared a contingency plan- one which 

would include the WAC in the Organized Reserve Corps only. Under 

this plan, women would be enlisted and commissioned in a WAC section 

of the ORC, but they would be assigned for duty to the Quartermaster 

Corps, Signal Corps, Adjutant General, or other noncombat branches. An 

initial target of 20,000 officers and enlisted was established. Officers 

would receive appointments that were renewable every five years; they 

could not hold a grade higher than lieutenant colonel. A WAC director 

would advise the chief of staff on WAC mobilization and monitor a small 

active duty program for WAC officers. Colonel Hallaren approved the 

plan, hoping it would never be used; but, if it were and if reserve status 

were all the WAC could get in 1948, the Corps would have a base from 

which it could continue to fight for regular status. 49 

On 21 April, when the Women's Armed Services Reserve Act of 1948 

reached the noor of the House, representatives opposing Regular Army 

status spoke up. Paul W. Shafer of Michigan noted that many male 

officers with combat records had not been accepted for the Regular 

Army. Armed Services Committee Chairman And rews echoed that argument: "You who favor putting women in the Regular service ... will dish 

out Regular commissions to women in spite of the fact that these young 

men, who fought for their country during the war, were denied these 

commissions." 5 0 

Dewey Short of Missouri expressed concern about potential physical 

limitations among servicewomen : "We were told that 8 percent of all 

women while they were in the service became pregnant. I do not cast 

aspersions, I tell facts. " He added that committee members had been told 

that women had so many illnesses and disabilities assoc iated with meno-

., Ibid., pp. 4233-34 . 

• 8 "Women Power in National Defense," New York Herald Tribulle. 26 Mar 48; "Why Bar 

Women?" Chris/ian SciellCl' Mani/or, 29 Mar 48; "Women in the Services," New York Tillles. 3] Mar 

48. 

U OF, Chief. Procurement and Sepa.ra.tions Br, PAD, DA, 10 DWAC, 3 Mar 48. sub: Plan for 

WAC in the ORC, and Comment 2, DWAC to Chief, Procurement and Separations Br, PAD, DA, 8 

Mar 48, fil e 326.2, Organized Reserve Corps, RG 165. 

6°This and all subsequent material pertaining to the full House debate on S 1641 is from the 

Congressiallal Record, 2] Apr 48, pp. 4699-4831. 
54 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

pause that the costs of their medical care would be prohibitive. He did 

not provide his source for his "facts," Edward H. Rees of Kansas contended that nearly all the services performed by milita ry women could be 

done by women in the fede ral civil service. 

Among the speakers for regular status was Edith Nourse Rogers, who 

read a long list of organizations suppo rting her view. Refuting unfounded 

objections to women's service, she pointed out: 

There has been some story going around that officials of the Navy and Army did 

not want women taken in to the Regu lar service . ... High ran king officers ... 

have stated emphaticall y that ... they would be much beller off if women are 

taken inlO ... the Regular services . . .. No one expects the Army. Navy, or Air 

Force to operate as a reserve organization alone .. . [and] in every case there is a 

permanent body of Regu lars. . . The women's components must be set up the 

same way. 

James C. Davis of Georgia supported regu lar status because it seemed 

" the height of absurdity to hamstring our recruiting effort by forbidding 

enlistment of women [in Regular status]. " Harry R. Sheppard of California insisted: "Let the draft fill up the shortages w hich men alone can 

fill ... but let us not take a man away from a farm, home, or school ... 

to be a telephone operato r. There are and always will be jobs. . women 

can do bette r. " George M. Bates of Massachusetts relayed the opinion of 

some post commanders, "Everywhere I have gone ... they have been 

loud in their praise of the splendid and magnifi cent work that these 

women have done." Lyndon Johnson, echoing Mrs. Rogers, reminded the 

House that every major military leader had recommended regular status 

for women. 

Marga ret Chase Smith offered an amendment to the bill that would 

restore regular status to the House version of S. 1641. Her amendment 

was defeated by a stand- up vote of fifty-fou r to forty-two. She offered 

another amendment; it would limit the ORC to no more than ten officers 

and twenty-five enlisted women on active dut y a t anyone time. Her 

strategy was to deny the armed forces the use of great numbers of 

women if Congress did not give the women regular status. This amendment was also defeated. 

The vote on the bill was finall y ta ken; it passed and was fo rwarded to 

the Senate on 26 April. As expected, the Senate did not accept the 

revised bill. A joint conference committee, appointed to reach a compromise, began deliberations, which continued into May. 

T he conference committee deliberated, and the days passed slowly fo r 

the directors of the women's services. The committee members sent 

frequent requests for information and statistics on marriages, pregnancies, 

menopause, the GI Bill and other veterans' benefits, and dependency 

aIJowances within the women's services. The requests were answered, 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 55 

and the waiting continued. Colonel Hall aren kept up WAC mora le with 

frequent newsletters to the field and personal correspondence with her 

staff advisers. To one who wrote for news about the bill, she replied, "As 

one of our WACs puts it, the story of the WAC legislation is like the 

'Perils of Pauline.' It leaps from one c risis to another. I don't think it is 

possible for anyone to think of another point of opposition. They have all 

been used." 5 I 

The steadil y worsening international situation between January and 

June 1948 strengthened the women's services case for regular status. T he 

Russians had gained political control over Czechoslovakia and had restricted rail and highway traffic into West Berlin. These cold war developments and the Army's inability to recruit enough men for an allvol unteer force led President Truman to ask for a peacetime draft. Some 

politicians, reluctant to vote for the draft, did not want their constituents 

to believe they had turned down a potential source of volunteerswomen. For this reason, many congressmen changed their minds about 

permitting women to enter the Regular Army. 

Finall y, on 19 May, good news emerged from the confe rence committee. Its House members had given in and agreed to include women in the 

regular as well as the reserve components of all the services. The Senate's 

wording of the bill was restored, and, for House members, two amendments were added- a limit on the number of women to be integrated into 

the regular forces between 1948 and 1950 and a provision that women 

officers would be commissioned in the regular services in three or four 

increments rather than one. T he House members were satisfied that these 

amendments would deter indiscriminate commissioning and enlisting of 

women and prevent any suggestion of favored treatment received by 

female officers during their integration periods into the Army, Navy, Air 

Force, and Marine Corps. 5 2 

On 26 May, the Senate unanimously approved the conference bill and 

sent it to the House. T here, on 2 June, it passed by a 206 to 133 vote. 

President Truman signed the bill into law as Public Law 625, the 

Women's Armed Services Integration Act, on 12 June 1948. 53 

U Ltf, Col Hallarell to Maj Harriet N. Moses, Adjutant, Seattle Port of Embarkation. 17 May 4S. 

file ) 12.2, Correspondence with WAC Starr Directors. RG 165. 

U US Congress, HOIlSC, Report of fhe COllferellce Commit/ee 011 S./64I. HRpt 2051. SOth Cong, 2d 

$eSS. 25 May 4S. p. 22 . 

.. COlIgrtSSiOIlUI Record. 2 Jlln 48. p. 7052; PL 625. SOth Congo 2d SCSS, 12 J un 4S. 
56 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Integration 

Regular Army 

Receiving regular and reserve status gave WACs that feeling of pride 

and accomplishment that comes with having "made the team. " But the 

new law, while it included women as an integral pari of the permanent 

Army establishment, failed to give them status equal to that accorded 

men. The WACs hoped the Army would eventually eliminate the disparities- the restrictions on their numbers; the restriction on promotion above 

lieutenant colonel; the limiting of officers' command authority to other 

women; and the restriction of training and duties to noncombat activities. 

Nevertheless, WACs celebrated their progress; they had moved from 

auxiliary status (WAAC) in 1942, to military status (WAC AUS) in 1943, 

to membership in the Regular A rmy (WAC RA) and the Army Reserve 

in 1948. 

Administratively, the director of the WAC, in the grade of colonel, 

was assigned to the Office of the Chief of Staff of the Army, but her 

directorate was located in the Office of the Director of Personnel and 

Administration. The sepa rate branch status of the WAC allowed for 

greater control of training, assignments, and administrative matters; 

WACs could be assigned temporaril y to other noncombat branc hes where 

their MOSs were needed. 

During the two-year integration period, June 1948-June 1950, PL 625 

limited the number of women accepted into the WAC to 500 commissioned officers, 75 warrant officers, and 7,500 enlisted women. Officers 

would be integrated in increments of 40, 20, 20, and 20 percent, to occur 

at equally spaced intervals. A fter the initial integration period, the 2 

percent limitation would apply. 

The 7,000 or more women who had been commissioned through a 

WAAC or WAC Officer Candidate School during World War II formed 

the reservoir from which the initia l WAC Regular Army officer applications would come. Officers of the women's naval services were ineligible 

for appointment in the WAC RA until the two-year assimilation period 

ended. A similar rule excluded WAC officers from applying for entry 

into Regular Navy or Marine Corps during this period. The A ir Force, 

however, as a new service, accepted applications from women with 

previous commissioned service in any of the armed services, with the 

primary source being the approximately 2,000 WAC officers who had 

served in the Army Air Forces. 

Many qualificatio ns for appointment as a Regular Army officer were 

the same for men and women. Applicants had to be U.S. citizens, at least 

twenty-one years old, and of good moral character. They also had to be 

physicall y qualified, have a minimum of two years of college, and have 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR A RMY 57 

excell ent efficiency ratings as officers during their prior service. But, 

while a woman, like a man, could be married- provided she had previous 

military service-she CQu ld not have any dependents or children under 

age eighteen. 54 

Approximately 1,100 WAC AUS officers applied fo r Reg ul ar Army 

commissions. The selection boa rd, chaired by Maj. Gen. G len A. Edgerton, approved 333. Some in that number changed their minds about 

accepting commissions and others fai led to pass the physica l examination, 

but 311 were appointed during the initial integration phase. lIS 

The fi rst officer commissioned in the WAC, Regular A rmy, was Colonel Hallaren. She was sworn in and appointed director of the WAC in a 

ceremony in the chief of stafT's office on 3 December 1948. She received 

Army serial number L-I. 

The WAC RA selection board also examined applications for appointments of warrant officers. Previous service as a warrant officer in the 

WAC AUS was required, but few WACs had held this status-by V-J 

Day, only forty-two had been appomted. A special procurement program 

in February 1948 had added another thirty-four. Not all of these women 

applied, but on 12 April 1949, the board was able to seleci eleven women 

for appointment as Regular Army warrant officers. Seven of this group 

accepted. 56 

Priority for enlistment in the Regular Army duri ng the integration 

phase went to those women who had remained in the Corps awaiting 

passage of the legislation or who had reenlisted before passage. Beginning 

8 July 1948, in-service women had three c hoices: to enlist in the Regular 

Army; 10 enlist in the Regular Air Force; or to extend their current 

enlistments until 12 June 1949, when the WAC AUS would be discontinued. Those who had not reenlisted by that time would be discharged and 

lIpon discharge, they could, if they wished, join the Enlisted Reserve 

Corps under the Organized Reserve Corps. 

Twelve women at Headquarters. Third U.S. A rmy. Fort McPherson, 

Georgia, won the distinction of being first to enlist in the WAC Regular 

Army. They were sworn in by Maj. Gen. Alvin C. G illem, Jr., in a 

ceremony held at one mi nute after midnight on 8 Jul y 1948, the fi rst day 

enlistments opened. Unknowingly, they had upstaged Army Chief of StafT 

Bradley, w ho swore in T3g. Vietl a M. Bates during ceremonies at the 

Pentagon later in the day. She was to have been the fi rst WAC enlisted in 

14 DA Cir 183. 1948, QualifICations ror Appointment in the WAC Regular Army; WD Cir 392, 

194 ~: and DA Cirs 101 and 2190, 1947, QualifICations ror Appointment or Men in the Regular Army, 

CMU Library. 

u DA 50s 252. 20 Dec 48; 77, 21 Apr 49; and \s2, 5 Aug 49. CMU Library . 

.. $Irtnlllh OJlltt Army Reporf (STM - 30), 31 Dee 45; Memo, DWAC ror Chier, Procurement Hr. 

D/ PAD, DA, 17 Nov 47, sub: Appointment of Warrant Officers, AU5, rile 320. Organization or the 

WAC, RG 165; DA GO 29, 30 Aug SO, Warrant Officer Lineal List, and OA Cir 320, 1948, CM H 

Library. 
58 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

the Regular Army. T he staff director at Fort McPherson apologized to 

Colonel Hallaren, who responded, " Don'l give a second thought to the 

WAC Regular Army enlistment timing .... Morc power to you and the 

T hird Army and our appreciation to General G ill em for his interest in the 

Women's Army Corps." 15 7 

Women who had been honorably discharged from the WAC AUS 

could reenlist in the WAC RA beginning J 5 September 1948. A reenlistee's age could not exceed 35 plus the number of yea rs she had served on 

acti ve duty after I July 1943, when enlistment in the WAC AUS began. 

A minimum of two years of higb school was requ ired, and the applicant, 

as was true for officers, could be married but could not have dependents 

or children under 18. 

From 15 September on, women with no previous military service 

could also enlist. These recruits had to be between 18 and 35; those under 

21 needed parental (or guardian's) consent. T he women had to be single; 

possess a high school diploma or a passing score on the General Educational Development Test; pass a mental al ertness test and a physical 

examination; have no dependents or children under 18; and be of good 

moral c haracter. 58 Such high requirements, however, did not deter enlistments during the integration program (see Table 2). 

TABLE 2-ENLISTED WOM EN'S STRENGTH 

Women's Army Corps ............................................... . 

Women in the Air Force .......................................... . 

Women in the Navy ................................................... . 

Women Marines ......................................................... . 

30 June 1948 

3,266 

1,433 

1,618 

159 

30 June 1950 

6,55 1 

3,782 

2,746 

535 

Sollru: Selected Manpo",er Statistics. OffICe or the Secretary or Derense, 1 Feb 63, p. 47. 

Organized Reserve 

In 1947. when Colonel Hallaren had proposed incl uding women in the 

Organi zed Reserve on an equa l basis with men, the judge advocate 

general had reacted with disbelief and astonishment to her suggestion that 

women might enter the male reserve branches. That, however, was exactly what she had in mind. But the Army tradition o f appointing. enlisting, 

training, and assigning its male personnel by branc h was too strong . 

.. Ltr, DWAC to Moj Mary M. Pugh. WAC StofT Adv, Third US Army. Fort Mc Pherson, GA. 

J u1 48. file 312.2, Correspondence ",ith Staff Directors. RG 16.5. 

U DA Cir 188. 1948, and SR 62.5- 120- 1. 9 Sep 49. Enlistment Dnd Reenlistmcnt in Ihe WAC 

Regular Arm)' und Regular Air Force, C MH Librar)'. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 59 

Whatever the Army did, it did by branch. So the WAC had to have a 

branch in the Reg ular Army and WAC sections in the Officers' Reserve 

Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. T he overall adviser to the Army 

on reserve matters, the executive fo r reserve and ROTC affairs, established a WAC branch withi n his division and named L t. Col. Kathleen 

McClure as its chief. She would prepare plans and policies and coord inate 

them with the director of the WAC. 

WAC officers on active duty in 1948 could apply for appointment in 

the Officers' Reserve Corps and remain on active duty by signing an 

active duty commitment statement. Former WAC AUS officers who had 

been demobilized could also apply and, if accepted, request return to 

active d uty. If they did not want full-time active duty, they could request 

assignment to a reserve un it near home. Women who had no prev io us 

military service could not apply fo r appoi ntment in the Officers' Reserve 

Corps because no women's officer training program existed in the reserves. Such women could, if they wished, take the circuitous route of 

enlisting in the Regula r Army, obtaining a commissio n through WAC 

Officer Candidate School, and, upon completing two years of active duty, 

returning to civilian life and being assigned to a reserve unit near their 

homes. 

Unli ke their Regu lar Army counterparts, former WAC officers could 

serve in the inactive reserve regardless of marita l status or dependents. 

Those who entered the Officers' Reserve Corps before 12 June 1949, 

when the WAC AUS was discontinued, could coun t all their active duty 

service after I September 1943 towa rd their longevity- plus all the time 

after their release from active d uty in the WAC to civilian status. This 

point of law was based on the fac t that male and female AUS officers, 

though demobilized, remained subject to recall on active duty after discharge. 59 

T he grade of warrant officer did not exist in the Organi zed Reserve in 

1948, but legislation to include it had been proposed in Congress. Meanwhile, WAC and male AUS warrant officers on active duty, o r eligible 

for reca ll, could apply for enlistment in the reserve until the rank was 

authorized. In Jul y 1950, the 81st Congress authorized warrant officers in 

the Organized Reserve. 6o 

Enlisted men discharged from the Army of the United States at the 

end of World Wa r 11 could contin ue their military service and longevity 

by enlisting in the Enlisted Reserve Corps (ERC). Enlisted women could 

not do the same until the Integration Act established the WAC in the 

Organized Reserve. As a result, enlisted women who were demobilized 

n DA Cir 191, Sec II, 29 Jun 48, CM H Library. 

$0 SR 140-5- 1. Dec 48, Reserve Officers Except Genera1 Officers, lind S R 140-106-5. 5 Oct 50, 

Appoi111rnent or Warrant Officers in the Organized Reserve Corps, CMH Library: PL 604, Army and 

Air Force Authorization Act of 1950, 81st Cong, 2d sess, 10 J ol 50. 
60 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

or discharged between 8 May 1945, V-E Day. and 12 June 1948 had no 

opportunity to continue their military service unless they reenlisted and 

returned on active duty. 

Efforts to enlist former WACs in the reserve began after the WAC 

AUS was discontinued on 12 June 1949. T he program had a slow start 

because it received little publicity. At the WAC Staff Advisers Confer· 

enee in September 1949, Maj. Selma Herbert described the problem: "We 

have just started on the recruiting program. It is being launched in one 

locality at a time. The principal cry is for a definite and authorized WAC 

Reserve Program and for some publicity material in the form of leanets. 

folders, and posters to be used in conjunction with the procurement 

plan." 61 

Between 1948 and 1950, onl y women with previous military service 

could enlist in the WAC Section, Enlisted Reserve Corps, because no 

basic training was ava il able in the ERC for women. Beginning in May 

1950, however, under a new program, women could enlist, receive their 

first two weeks of basic training at the WAC Training Center, and 

receive, as men did, the balance-six weeks of instruction-at their home 

reserve unit. 

Reservists had to be U.S. citizens. Although men could enlist at 17, 

women had to be 18; neither could be over 35. Men under 18 and women 

under 2 1 required parental consent. Both men and women needed a score 

of 70 or more on the general classification test and had to show leadership potential. WACs who were married and, for a brief time, those with 

dependents or children under 18 could enlist in the ERC.62 By the end of 

the two-year integration program, 30 June 1950, WAC strength in the 

Organized Reserve stood at 718 officers and 3,563 enlisted women. These 

numbers did not include those reservists serving on active duty.63 

After a three-year struggle, the WAC had achieved both regular and 

reserve status. Women had gained the opportunity to develop a military 

career-full-time active duty or part-time in the reserves. Considering the 

conservatism of the wartime WAC directors, of most Army officers, of 

the general public, and of many members of Cong ress, the achievements 

were a near miracle. T he right combination of people in key positionsGeneral Eisenhower, General Paul, Congresswoman Smith, Colonel Ha llaren- made the goal obtainable. Many thought it strange that nurses had 

had no difficulty in gaining regul ar and reserve status while WACs had 

"Rpl, WAC StafT Advisol"5 Conf, Sep 49, p. 110, ODWAC Pef File, WAC StafT Advisers 

Conferences, CMH. Although the original spelling, "'advisor," was not changed to "adviser"' until 

1958, "adviser" has b«n used in this study exeept where "advisor'" appeal'll in Quoted material, titles, 

or source material. 

.. SR 140- 107- 1. 20 Oc:: t 49, Enlistment and Reenlistment, Enlisted Reserve Corps. Change I, 12 

May SO. permitted enlistment of women without previous service. Change 3, 19 Sep SO, prohibited 

the enlistment or retention of women with dependents or children under 18. 

n Strellglh Qllhe Am.y Report (STM- 30), 30 June 50. 
WOMEN IN THE POSTWAR ARMY 61 

an uphill struggle. The explanation seemed to be that women in the 

medical professions already had well-established and clear-cut roles; 

WACs, in comparison, had a short history, and their roles had not been 

clearl y defined by their Corps' titl e. The WAC bill had suffered much 

c riticism- primarily disinformation, petty attacks, and nuisance objections- but the major resistance to it had come from men who simply did 

not want women in the Regular Army because they "belonged at home." 

These and other objections were overcome by cold war developments, 

the Army's inability to raise an all-volunteer fo rce, and the determination 

of a sma ll but powerful group of men and women. The wartime record of 

the WACs brought them to a new beginning in 1948, and while integratio n did not mean total acceptance, they had reason to look forward with 

hope. 

CHAPTER III 

WAC Organization and Training 

Between 1946 and 1948, while Congress debated regular and reserve 

status for women in the armed services, the Army staff and Colonel 

Hallaren and her staff conducted business as if the women's integration 

legislation would pass. The director of organization and traini ng (DOT), 

formerly the assistant chief of staff, 0-3, optimistically directed that a site 

for a new WAC training center be selected. Colonel Hallaren and her 

staff prepared plans for the new center and an officer candidate school. 

Among themselves and with Army commanders in their geographical 

areas, WAC staff directors discussed the future of the WAC and the 

possible establishment of additiona l WAC units. Then, on 12 June 1948, 

the Women's Armed Services Integration Act became Public Law 625. 

Colonel Hallaren set in motion the approved regulations for the new 

WAC. Only then did she have time to reflect on the fu ture: did the WAC 

have the right organization, mission, and personnel to manage the Corps 

in the Regular Army and Reserve and to conduct training operations? 

The Office of the Director, WAC 

The mission of the directo r of the WAC (DWAC) o n the Genera l 

Staff had changed little since 1943. By law, she was the primary adviser 

to the secretary of the Army on WAC matters and was responsible for 

ensuring that the Army's staff agencies issued appropriate plans and 

policies concerning the supervision, morale, health, and safety of WACs. 

She was the primary adviser to the chief of staff and members of the 

Army staff on regulations and other matters concerning the WACenlisted recruiting, officer procurement, classification, utilization, training, 

assignment, housing, supply, discharge, and morale. She ensured conformity to those regulations and policies by inspecting WAC units and personnel worldwide. She also maintained liaison with civilian and governmental agencies and with other women's services in the armed forces of the 

United States and its allies.! 

Under the new law, the WAC director would also serve as an adviser 

to the WAC Section, Orga nized Reserve Corps (ORC); each of the chiefs 

I AR 625- 5, 25 Jan 49, Women's Army Corps, General I'rovisions. This Army regulation, and its 

successors. was commonly called the WAC regulation. 
64 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

of the Army's technical and administrative services monitored and advised his particular reserve section. Colonel Hallaren had been unable to 

preclude the creation of a separate WAC section in the Organized Reserve, but she had won a small victory by convincing the executive for 

reserve and ROTC affairs not to establish WAC detachments within the 

ORC. Thus, WACs were to be commissioned and enlisted in the WAC 

Section, ORC, according to the law, but they were to be assigned to 

existing men's units for administration, training, supply, and discipline. 

The director and her staff would advise the executive for reserve and 

ROTC affairs, through his WAC adviser, about entry into the Organi zed 

Reserve and subsequent training, utilization, retention, and mobilization of 

WAC reservists. 2 

In early 1946, while the Army shifted to peacetime operations, General 

Paul, the G- I, had reorganized his office. He had added a new positiona special assistant for women's affairs. As an additional duty, the director 

of the WAC would fill the position and advise the G- l on matters 

pertaining to all women in the Army, not just WACs, but all women in 

the Army. 

Colonel Boyce, then the director of the WAC, sent a stiffl y worded 

memorand um to Genera l Paul stating that the task of advising the G - I on 

all women in the Army was " beyond the ability and authority" of the 

directo r. She wrote, " it is deemed inappropriate to include in your chart 

that the Director WAC will perform the d uties of the Special Assistant 

for Women's Affairs." 3 Colo nel Boyce knew that the chief of the Army 

Nurse Corps and the senior women medical specialists would object to 

her advising the G-I on their professional status and career development. 

Conversely, if the head of the Army Nurse Corps had been assigned the 

role of special assistant, Colonel Boyce would have vehemently objected. 

General Paul did not change his organizational chart, but, swayed by 

Colonel Boyce's objectio n, he did not assign this additional duty to the 

WAC director or to anyone else. He did, however, retain the proposed 

slot so that if, during hearings on the WAC bill, Congress complained 

about establishing th ree separate women's organizations within the Army, 

he could show that the women's services had been unified under a special 

assistant for women's affairs.4 

Even though General Paul's move to enhance the WAC director's 

status with the additional responsibility had not wo rked o ut, he remained 

concerned about where the directo r's position would fit in the Army's 

2 SR 140- 190- 1. 18 Oct 49, Utiliz.ation and Training of WAC Mcmbers of thc Active Reserve in 

the Organized Reserve Program, C MH Library. This special regulatiOI1 was revised 18 Aug SO and 

superseded by A R 140-140.4 Dec 52, Army Rcserve, Assignment and AHachmcnts. 

3 Memo, DWAC to Gcn Paul. 21 Feb 46, sub: Personncl and Administrativc Functions undcr 

Reorganization Rccommcnded in the Report of thc 1l03Td of Officers on Organization of thc War 

Department. file 320. I, Organization of the Office of Ihe Director. WAC, RG 165. 

~ Inlerv, Col 1-lal1aren wilh Ihe author, 23 Mar 79. The position was nOI dropped Unti) 1952. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 65 

postwar hierarchy.s The placement of the director's office under the G- I 

had worked well, but, in November 1947, General Paul had arranged for 

it to be placed under the chief of staff. T he action improved the director's 

prestige with Congress and impressed on the legislators the Army's high 

regard for the WAC and the desirability of regular Army status for 

women.s 

As in any hierarchy, muc h depends on the relationship a subordinate 

builds with a superior; and the success of any WAC director depended 

largely upon her relationship with the G-J or, as that position had been 

redesignated, D/PAD. She needed his confidence in her decision making, 

knowledge of WAC matters, and leadership. On appointment, of course, 

she had his goodwill and trust- he held the key role in her selection. 

Problems, however, occasionall y arose when a change in the D/PAD 

position occurred, as it did almost every two yea rs. Colonel Boyce, for 

instance, had served amicably as deputy director and as director under 

Maj. Gen. Stephan G. Henry, the G- I during 1944 and 1945. She had not 

served so compatibly under General Paul, who became G- I in October 

1945. The crux of their difficulty was Colonel Boyce's dedication to 

carrying out Colonel Hobby's plan to disband the WAC. General Paul 

was committed, instead, to carrying out General Eisenhower's orders to 

get the WAC into the Regul ar Army and the Organized Reserve Corps. 

It was not surprising that, fifteen months after they met, Colonel Boyce 

had retired and the bill providing for regular and reserve status for 

WACs was in Congress for the second time. 

T he WAC director worked closely with the D/PAD. She usually 

attended his weekly staff meetings along with the adjutant general, the 

provost marshal general, the chief of chaplains, and the chief of special 

services. Also in attendance were the chiefs of the three major groups 

within the Directorate of Personnel and Administration: Career Management Group, Manpower Control Group, and Military Personnel Management Group. Through these meetings and associations, the director participated in Army personnel planning and had a forum to explain the 

impact of Army-wide polic ies on the WAC and to annou nce WAC plans 

and policies to the other personnel policy makers in the Pentagon. 

By the end of October 1948. the Office of the Director, WAC 

(ODW AC), consisted of five officers, three enlisted women, and a civilian 

secretary. The officers included the director, her deputy, an executive 

officer, a career management officer, and a technical information officer.' 

• Ibid, 

"Office of the Dep Col'S for Personnel (ODCS PER). "Chronological Histor)' of the OffICe of the 

Deput)' Chief of Staff for Personnel 1942- 1972," Oct 78, CM H Ref Or. Ilereafier cited as ODCSPER 

Chronological I-l istor),. 

1 Thc militar), personnel assiglled ~t IhPt time were Col Halhlren; LlCol Milligan; Maj Mary C. 

Fullbright. who replaced Maj Mary L. Kersey on I Sep 48; Capt Cora M. Foster; IstLt Mar)' B. 

Wurner; und TSgts Mar)' F. Lever. MUf)' E, Cuthbert. and Catherine 1·lowe. 
66 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC STAFF ADVISERS AND SENIOR WAC OFI' ICERS CONFERENCE, the 

Pentagol/. September /949. Left to righl. from row: Moj. Virginia Mathew, Maj. 

Mary M. Pugh, Maj. Mary K. Moynaholl, Maj. Clwrlee L Kelly, Col. Mary A. 

Hollorell, Director, WAC. Lt. Col. Mary L Milligan. Deputy Director, WAC. 

Lt. Col. Elizabeth C Smith, Mal. Irene 0. Galloway, Maj. Gel/e~a 

McQlIlIrlers. Maj. Selma Herberl, Maj. Ruby Nerman, Maj. Margaret M. 

Thorloll, Capt. Sue Lynch, Lt. Hazel GIYIIII. Second row: Moj. Mary C. 

Fullbright. Maj. Bernice Huglles. Maj. Mary E. Savage, Lt. Norma J. Fisher. 

Capt. Ellen Dill/bar, Maj. Mary Jo Key. Maj. Cloe E Doyle. Maj. FOIIl/ie 

Reynolds, Maj. La Vern F. Noll, Capt. Beatrice Parker. Capt. Lucile O. Odberr. 

Maj. Rulli Reece, Capt. Mary Womer. Third row: Capf. Marjorie Schulten, Lt. 

Dorothy Frome. Copt. lie/eli Cooper, Moj. Alelle Drezmo/, Maj. HOllilu C 

White, Maj. F Marie Clark, Maj. Eleal/ore C Sullivan. Maj. Beatrice Rillggold. Capt. Marlha D. Allell. Maj. Elizabeth W. BiollClii, Maj. Alllle E. 

Sweelley. Maj. Etliel S. MorOll. Back row: Maj. Coro M. FOSler, Capt. Helell 

Roy, Maj. Alllle K. Hubbard, olld Maj. Margaret A. LOllg. 

The career management officer worked in the officers' assignment office 

in the Ca reer Management Group and managed WAC officer assignments 

and career development actions. The technical information officer was 

added to the staff to disseminate WAC plans and policies to the field and 

to coordinate WAC public relations. 8 

The director's primary link to WAC officers and enlisted women was 

the WAC staff director. Because the MOS (2145) for that position had to 

be filled by a WAC officer, the WAC director selected and nominated 

• ODCSI'ER Chronological History. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 67 

staff directors for each major command. These staff directors, assigned to 

the command's D/PAD, acted as the commander's WAC expert and 

troubleshooter and attended his weekly stafT meetin gs. Through their 

regular inspections of WAC units, the staff direc tors became well known 

to post commanders, staff officers, and WACs througho ut their particular 

command. Their knowledge and contacts made it easier to solve problems, distribute information. and gather statistics. If a staff director could 

not resolve a problem within a command, she sought the assistance of the 

director and her staff at the Pentagon. In January 1949, the WAC staff 

director's title was changed to WAC staff adviser, a title more descriptive 

of her duties.9 

The responsibilities of the stafT advisers increased rapidly. At the 

WAC StafT Advisers Conference in September 1949, Colonel Hallaren 

reported that twelve WAC detachments had been established or reactivated during the year. Four of the twelve were segregated black detachments stationed at Fort Dix, New Jersey; Fort Knox, Kentucky; Fort 

Lewis, Washington; and Kitzingen, Germany. Other new or reacti vated 

detachments were assigned to post headquarters complements at Fort 

Belvoir, Virginia; Fort Bliss, Texas; Camp Gordon, Georgia; Camp Holabird, Maryland; and Fort Sheridan, Illinois. The remaining new or reactivated detachments were at the Army Finance Center, St. Lo uis, Missouri; 

the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York; and Brooke General 

Hospita l, Fort Sam Houston, Texas. With these additions, the WAC had 

a total of fifty-seven units, with eleven overseas (seven in Germany. one 

in Austria, two in Japan, and one in the Canal Zone).l 0 

Key WAC StaffO/fleer Positions 

Throughout the war and postwar years, many WAC officers had been 

assigned to positions in various General and Special SlafT divisions at the 

Pentagon. In addition to her other duties, the senio r WAC officer in a 

division became its expert on staff actions regarding the Corps. Through 

demobili zation, most of these jobs were vacated between 1945 and 1947. 

Drastic reductions in military personnel precluded the assignment of 

replacements, and division c hiefs, lac king the advice of these experts, 

gradually forwarded more and more WAC staff actions to the director's 

office for information, advice, and solution. 

In October 1946, Colo nel Boyce submitted an urgent request to the 

chief of staff for assistance, noting that a " Iarge volume of papers, corre-

' AR 625-5. 2j Jan 49. Women's Army Corps, General Provisions. describes the composition of 

the WAC and gives a list of commands authorized WAC Staff Advisers. TM 12-406. Feb 1946, 

Commissioned Officers Military Occupational Specialties, was superseded by SR 605- 105-5, I Mar 

54. same subject, 

,0 Rpt, WAC Staff Advisors and WAC Staff Officcrs Conf, 12- 16 Sep 49, O DWAC Ref File, 

WAC StafT Advisers Conferences, CMH, 
68 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

spondence, and inquiries" were being referred to her office " for initial 

study, preparation, and aclion, " She pointed o ut that her fi ve·woman staff 

was too small to handle the additional work. I I T he directo r asked that a 

WAC stafT officer with the primary (but not sole) dut y of preparing 

WAC staff actions and studies be assigned to divisions that had a high 

vol ume of such actions. Her request was approved and within a few days 

the chief of stafr directed: 

There will be assigned to the Offi ce of Director or Chief of each General or 

Special Staff division to whom Ihis memorandum is addressed. a WAC officer 

who is mutuall y acceptable 10 the division direc tor o r chief and 10 the Director, 

WAC, and who will be responsible for advising the director o r c hief on all 

maUers pertaining to the Women's Army Corps. 12 

By the end of the yea r, each designated division had a WAC staff 

action office r. Colonel Hallaren, o n becoming director in the spring of 

1947, formed a WAC Plans and Policy Committee from that group of 

officers. The committee was to meet when needed to review Department 

of the Army staff plans and policies that might affect the WAC and to 

make recommendations concerning WAC operations. During the next 

few years, the committee met infrequently. In 1950, with the Korean 

War, the group's activities were stepped up as the Corps ex panded; but, 

thereafter, the committee again met infrequentl y and was eventually discontinued. By the end of 1951, the divisio ns had designat ed appropriate 

spaces in their manning documents for WAC staff action officers, and 

WAC officers were routinely requisitioned to fill these positio ns. 13 

During its first two years in the Regular Army, the WAC had few 

lieutenant colonels. When the integration bill became law on 12 June 

1948, the Corps had three. A few days later, on 16 June, one of these 

women, Lt. Col. Geraldine P. May, was transferred to the Air Force, 

promoted to temporary colonel, and appointed the director of Women in 

the Air Force. Only two lieutenant colonels remained: Deputy Director 

Milligan and Lt. Col. Kathleen McClure, WAC Staff Director, Headquarters, U.S. Army, Europe. In November, however, a few months after 

returning from Germany, Colonel McClure transferred to the Air Force 

and was assigned to the Pentagon. 1 4 

"SS, ACors, G- 1. to the CofS (prepared by Maj Selma lierbert, ODWAC exec officer), 2 Oct 

46, sub: Administration of the Office of the Direc tor. WAC, file 320, Organiuuion of the Office of 

the Director WAC, RG 165, 

U Memo. Cors to Directors. Personnel and Administration; Organization and Training: Services, 

Supply, and Procurement, and Chids, l'ublic Relations; information and Education. 14 Oct 46. sub: 

Administration of Office, Director, WAC, Superseded by Memo, 1 Oct 48, $lime subject, and Memo 

625- 10- 1. 24 Jnn 49, $lime subject. All in rile 320.1. Organization or lhc Office of the Dircctor WAC, 

RG 165. 

13 Memo, DWA C to Chiefs, Gencral and Special Slaff Divisions, 27 Oct 48, sub: 1'lallS and Poli cy 

Commil1ee, Women's Army Corps, fil c 337, Conferences, RG 16'. 

I. ·'Women in the Air Force,"Army (urd Navy R~isler. 19 June 48, p. 20; U.s. Air l:orr:e R~isler. I 

Jan SO. p 13 1. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 69 

At the time, the WAC had little hope of obtaining additional lieutenant 

colonel slots. Under the rules for integration into the Regular Army, 

neither men nor women could be appointed in the Regular Army in a 

grade higher than major. In addition, the Officer Personnel Act of 1947 

(PL 80-381) had included a new promotion system for the Army. This 

law stipulated that no permanent promotions could be made in the WAC 

until 12 September 1949, fifteen months after the Integration Act was 

signed; no temporary promotions could take place until after the women's 

first Regular Army promotions had been made. 15 

General Paul, however, had anticipated problems in obtaining promotions for WACs and had included two specia l provisions in the integ ~ 

tion law. The secretary of the Army was authorized to designate specific 

WAC admi nistrative and training positions at the grades of lieutenant 

colo nel and major. He was also empowered, until I July 1952, to grant 

temporary promotions to women selected for those positions. Thus, even 

though promotions were initiall y very restricted, the WAC could pro ~ 

mote officers on a permanent basis beginning in 1949 and, until mid~1952, 

could add additional temporary officer personnel, as necessary. By that 

time, the new officer personnel law was expected to provide a sufficient 

number of women at the proper grades. If it did not, the secretary could 

have the .temporary promotion autho rity extended. 16 

A new Army staffing regu lation followed the enactment or the tegra~ 

tion law. Under its authority, delegated by the secretary of the Army, 

Colo nel Hallaren designated certain key WAC administrative and traini ng 

positions at the maximum allowable g rade. Of these positions, only those 

authorized for the new WAC Training Center were not yet fi lled. The 

other positions had incumbents, but not all of those officers had reached 

the grade authorized by the new regulation. The subsequent special regu~ 

latio n instructed the major commanders who controlled these positions to 

add the following to their manning documents: 

Lieu/enant Colollels 

Executive Office r, Office of the D irector, WAC 

Chief, WAC Career Branch 

Adviser, WAC Reserve Section, Office of the Executive fo r 

Reserve and ROTC Affairs 

Commander, WAC Training Center, and Commandant, WAC 

School 

Assistant Commandant, WAC School 

Basic Training Battalion Commander, WAC Training Center 

,. Sec 509a. PL 80- 381, was included in sec l04d. PL 80 625. 

'" Sec 103, PL 80-625. 
70 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Advanced Traini ng Battalio n Commander, WAC Training 

Center 

WAC Staff Advisers at the following commands: 

The six Continental Army commands in the United States 

Headquarters, Military D istrict of Washingto n, Washi ngton, 

D.C. 

Headq uarters, U.S. Army, Europe 

Headq uarters, U.S. Army, Far East 

Majors 

Two ba ttalio n commanders, WAC Training Center 1 7 

In early 1950, with the in tegration phase moving into its last months 

and the freeze o n permanent promotions lifted, a number of WACs were 

promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. F ive pe rmanen t promotions, 

including D irector Hallaren's. came th rough in January. Six new temporary promotions were announced before the end of the year, two in May 

and fou r in November. 

De/elise Advisory Commiuee all Warnell ill the Services 

With the new decade, the women's services gained the assistance of a 

c ivilian advisory group- one composed of women. T he idea for the 

gro up stemmed from a recommendation made by Mary Pillsbury Lord, 

chairwoman of the National Civilian Adviso ry Committee on the WAC, 

at its final meeting in October 1948. She recommended that each service 

appoint six c ivilian women, leaders in their fi elds, to advise the service 

secretaries and the secretary of defense on matters pertaini ng to women 

in the armed forces. General Bradley, Army Chief of Staff, promptly 

approved the idea, but it was not implemented until April 1949. At that 

time, the Department of Defense (DOD) hired Dr. Esther B. Strong and 

appointed her Representative of Women's Affa irs o n the DOD Personnel 

Policy Board, which had been established in February. Dr. Strong, who 

held a doctorate in sociology from Yale, took up M rs. Lord's recommendation.ls 

" Memo, DWAC to DOT, DA. thru O/PAO, 10 Jul 48, ~ub: E.~ tabli hmellt of Administrative and 

Training Positions for WAC Officers. file 320, Organi zation of lhe Office of the Director WAC. RG 

165; SR 625- 10-5, 21 Jan 49, Women's Army Corps Administrative and T raining Positions for 

Officers, CM H Library. The list of key positions did IIOt include the dcp dir of the WAC because her 

position was spc<:i!ied ill J'L 80- 625. SR 625-10-5 W,I$ superseded by AR 6(X)..100, 25 Jot 1958. 

Women's Army Corps General Provisions. 

18 Dr. Esther Il Strong, "Women in the Department of Defense," R pl of the WAC Staff Advisors 

and WAC Staff Officers COllf. 12- 16 Sep 49, pp. 2- 3. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 71 

A year later, Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson invited a number of 

nationall y known women to the Pentagon to discuss issues affecting 

military and civilian women employees of the department, to Jearn about 

the department, and to consider formi ng an advisory group for women in 

the services. 19 Hosted by the Personnel Policy Board. the conference 

was held on 21 and 22 June 1950. Among the civilian attendees were 

Mrs. Lord; India Edwards, D irector, Women's D ivision, Democratic 

Party; Anne Wheaton, Director of Publicity, Rep ublican Party; Dorothy 

Ferebee, President, National Council of Negro Wome n; Dr. Margaret 

Craighill, Chief Consultant on Medical Care for Women, Veterans Ad~ 

ministration; F rances D iehl, representing the General Federation of 

Women's Clubs; Ma rgaret Hic key, lawyer, educator, and writer for the 

Ladies Home Journal; Marie B. 10hnson, representing the United Council 

of Church Women; D r. Dorothy C. Stratton, former director of the 

SPARS; D r. K. Frances Scott, President, National Association of Business and Professional Women's Clubs; Katheri ne Densford, past president 

of the American Nurses Association.

20 

The conference slarted with briefings on the national defense establishment, its various branches, and its long-range plans for women in the 

milita ry. Four of the women military leaders, Col. Geraldine P. May of 

the Air Force, Captain Hancock of the Navy, Col. Mary G. Phillips of 

the Army Nurse Corps, and Colonel Hallaren, then gave talks on "T he 

Historical Background of the Women's Milita ry Services," "The Present 

Utilization of Military Womenpower," "Women in Medical Service," and 

"Mobilization Planning for Military Women." 21 

On the second day, the women discussed the depa rtment's plans, 

programs, and policies concerning women. And, at the meeting's end, 

they agreed to forward, individuall y, to Dr. Strong any conclusions on 

such issues as registering and drafting women, assigning women to 

combat zones, and forming a permanent women's advisory committee. 

All participants wanted more time to assess the roles for women in the 

milita ry and to consider the opinions of those they represented. Conference Chairman J. Thomas Schneider, of the Personnel Policy Board, 

adjourned the group by saying, " I know we are going to get a great dea l 

of value out of your reviewing with us the program of the Department of 

Defense .... We will welcome you r suggestions, your counsel, and your 

advice." 22 

19 DOD. Semi·Amlllaf Rep<m ojlhe Secre/Ory oj Dejl!I/se. I JOIIl/ar}' /0 30 Jlllle f950 (Washington. 

DC: GPO. Sep 1950), p. 27. 

20 DOD Personnel Policy Boord, Report oj COl/jerel/ce oj Civilian Women Leaders. lUll 48. pp. 167-

68. ODWAC Ref File. CMH. Hereaf'ler cited as Rpl COII/o/CMliall Womci/. 

U Ibid .. p. 16l U Ibid. 
72 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The Sunday after the conference, on 25 June, the Korean War began. 

A little over a year later, the women were again contacted. In August 

1951, approximately fifty o utstanding civilian women leaders-most of 

those who had attended the 1950 conference·- were asked to serve a oneyear term on the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS). Forty-fou r women accepted appointments, including 

Mrs. Hobby, the first WAC director; Mildred McAfee Horton, former 

director of the WAVES; Dorothy Streeter, former director of the 

Women Ma rines; Helen Hayes, actress; Sarah G. Bl anding. president of 

Vassar College; Lillian Gilbreth, engineer; and Beatrice G. Gould, editor 

and publisher. Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Personnel Anna M. Rosenberg announced that the women would help develop 

policies and standards for military women in suc h areas as recruiting. 

utilization of women, expansion of ca reer opportunities, housing, education, and recreation. The formation of the committee ensured that women 

had representation at the Department of Defense level. 23 

WAC Training Center, Camp Lee 

The original site selected for a training center for the proposed WAC 

had been Fort Knox- c hosen by Maj. Gen. Jdwal H. Edwards, Director, 

Organization and Training, from posts recommended by Lt. Gen. Jacob 

L. Devers, Commanding Genera l, Army Ground Forces, who was to 

have responsibility for the training center. 24 Colonel Boyce objected so 

vehemently to the isolated, run-down area ava il able at Fort Knox that 

General Edwards ordered a second survey of possible locations. After a 

ten-month search, the new site selection committee, which included Colonel Boyce and other WACs, repo rted that only three of the posts visited 

had adeq uate housing and classroom space, and. of those three, Camp 

Lee, Virginia, was their fi rst choice. General Paul and Lt. Gen. Charles 

W. Hall, who had succeeded General Edwards, concurred.25 

Meanwhile. the commander of the Army Ground Forces, uncomfortable with the responsibility for WAC training, asked General Hall to 

transfer the function to an agency with concerns more compatible with 

23 DOO Oir 110.09-2. 12 Oct 195]' authorized the comm ill ~'C and sct forth its objectives. Also sec 

Hislory of Ille Defense Advisory Commillt't 011 WOlllell ill /Ire SenliCl'S. ODWAC Ref File, OACOWITS. 

CM H. The one-year term was later lengthened to three years. 

24 OF, ACofS, 0 - 1 to the CO, ASF, 26 Feb 46, sub: Establishment of WAC in the Regular Army 

and the Organized Reserve, file 320. Selection of a Training Center, RO 165. 

25 OF, ACofS, ~OT, WDGS, to O/ I'AD, WDGS, 27 J un 46. comment 7, ~nd Memo, Site 

Se ~~tion T eam to LtGen Charles P. 1·lall. DOT. WOGS, 20 Apr 47. ub: Report on Selection of a 

Location for a WAC Training Center. folder 320.0, WAC Training Center, Records of the War 

Department's General Staff, Director of Organization and Training, RG 319, Modern Military Br, 

NA RA. Washington. DC. The selection team included Col George E. Blish and Maj Elizabeth C. 

Smith from O OOT; Maj Albert H. Smith and Maj Louise M. Niels..:n. HQ. AGF; and Col Boyce and 

LICol Hallaren, ODW AC. 
WAC ORGANIZA nON AND TRAINING 73 

the WAC's training needs- his command was primarily involved with 

ground combat training. As a resu lt, in June 1947, General Hall transferred responsibility for WAC traini ng to the adjutant genera l (TAG) of 

the Army,26 The c hange was appropriate and convenient because the 

adjutant general's department primarily performed administrative fu nctions, such as personnel, recruiting, and postal operations. Its role was 

aki n to the administrative nature of most WACs' d uties. At General Hall's 

direction, The Adjutant General's School moved in September 1947 from 

Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, to Camp Lee. 27 To manage his new 

responsibilities, Maj. Gen. Edward F. Witsell, TAG, proposed a eorga ni ~ 

zation. He would c reate The Adjutant General's Training Center at 

Camp Lee whi ch would include T he Adjutant General's School with the 

WAC T raining Center attached to it. A brigadier general would co ~ 

mand this new organization. 28 

Colonel Hall aren, by this time the director of the WAC, opposed the 

plan. She wanted the WAC Training Center to have as much stat us as 

TAG School; she wan ted the training program to o ffer WAC officer 

candidates and NCOs positions from which they could gain leadershi p 

experience. The center would be the model for future centers, and it 

would provide the "trained cadre for any such organization as might be 

req uired upon mobilization." 29 

To settle the matter, Colonel Hallaren held a conference, in November 

1947, with representatives of the app ropriate Army agencies. T hey agreed 

that the WAC Training Center sho uld be "a complete functio ning unit 

under the TAG Training Command," not a subsidiary of TAG School. 

This agreement ensured maximum autonomy for the WAC Traini ng 

Center.30 

T he agreement, however, was not implemented. A major eorgani za~ 

tion of the Army, in March 1948, replaced Army Ground Forces with 

Army Field Forces, with its commander becoming the Army's chief 

training officer. 31 The WAC Traini ng Center was now given a numerical 

designation, the 2004th Army Service Unit, and placed under the co ~ 

manding general, Second A rmy, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland. 32 

26 Memo. LtGen Charles P. Hall. DOT. to MajGell Edward F. Witscll. TAG. 9 JUIl 47. file 320.0, 

WAC Trainillg Center. RG 319. 

21 WD GO 80. Sec I. 22 Aug 47. CMH Library. TAG School conducted courses in persollnel 

mal13gernent and administration. recruiting, postal operations. daia processing. typing. stenography, 

etc. 

18 DF, DWAC to D/PAD. I Aug 46. sub: Planning for Ihe WAC ill the Regular Army. wilh 

commellts. ODWAC Ref File. Fort Lee. CMH. U Ibid. 

30 Ibid .• comment 4. D/I'AO to ~OT, 24 Nov 47. 

31 DA Cir 64.10 Mar 48. Organization of the Army. CMH Library. 

32 DA GO 43, Sec 111. 21 Jun 48, eff~'Ctive 15 lUll 48, CMH Library; LtT. HQ. Second Army to 

CG, Camp Lee, VA. 19 lun 48. Sub: Establishment of Ihe 2004th ASU, WAC T raining Center, 

AiABC-O 322. ODWAC Ref rile. ForI Lee, CMH. 
74 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

MAJ. ANNIE V. GARDNER, Acting Commander, WAC Training Center, Camp 

Lee. JUlie J948. 

The proposed training site for Women in the Air Force (WAF) had 

changed several times during 1947 and 1948. Early in 1947, planners for 

the Army and the proposed Air Force had decided that the WAC and 

WAF would train together. But after the National Security Act was 

signed. making the Air Force a separate military department, the Air 

Force o pted for separate tra ining and prepared a plan to train its own 

women. 33 The 3741s1 WAF Training Squadron at LackJand Air Force 

Base. San Antonio, Texas. would conduct basic training for WAFs. According to the plan, USAF specialists' training in such areas as air traffic 

control, photography, radio, and weather observation would be open to 

enlisted men and women. Women officer candidates would also train with 

men; in January 1949, 25 enlisted women joined 250 enlisted men at the 

USAF Officer Candidate School at Lackland. 34 

In March 1948, when the commander of the Army Field Forces 

became the Army's c hief training officer, he lacked much of the authority 

held by his predecessor, the commander of the Army Ground Forces. He 

did not have command authority over the six CONUS armies. which now 

reported instead to the Army c hief of stafT. He did not control training 

spaces, training fu nds, and missions. Camp Lee came under the authority 

of Lt. Gen. Leonard T. Gerow, Commanding General, Second Army. at 

Fort Meade, approximately 125 miles northeast of the camp. He con· 

n OF, DrigGen Thomas S. Power. Dep ACofS. 0 -3. 10 D/ I'AD. WOGS. 3 Oct 47, sub: Training 

or Women in the Air Force. ODWAC Ref File. ForI Lee. CM I·I. 

30 Press Release. USAF Public InformHlion Div. sub: Air Force Men and Women Will Allend 

SOllle OCS. 17 Dec 48. 
W AC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 75 

SOME OF T HE BE'n'ER LOOKING BARRACKS ill the 2d BauatiOIl area, WA C 

Trainillg Cel/ter. Camp Lee, August 1948. 

trolled funds and personnel spaces to suppo rt all posts within his geographical area. Suppo rt included everything from medical care and treatment to food, rec reation, transportation, repairs, and utilities. 3s 

Although the training center commander would be selected from the 

WAC. Gene ral Gerow delegated to the post commander at Camp Lee, 

Brig. Gen. Roy C. L. Graham, supervisory control of the WAC Training 

Center. General Graham, therefore. became the rating officer fo r the 

WAC commander's operation and management of the center. The director of the WAC had no direct authority over its operation. However, 

because she was the chief of the Corps, plans affecting the center and 

school were refe rred to her office ror comment. 36 

Activation of the WAC Training Center 

Colo nel Haliaren wasted no time after the Integration Act gave the 

WAC regular and reserve status. She immediately moved women to 

Camp Lee. Within two days, Maj. Annie V. Gardner and Cpl. Wanda E. 

Pinkney reported to Genera l G raham. On 15 June 1948, the WAC Train3& DA Cir 64. 10 Mar 48. OrgPlliUltion or the Army. CM H Library. 

"This policy WIIS incorporated illto AR 3SO- 170, Women'$ Army Corps School. 23 Jun n. 

revised 14 Dec:: 56 alld I L Apr 60. 
76 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

ing Center was officiall y activated with Major Ga rdner as acting commander. 37 To fill the position of commander of the training center and 

commandant of the Officer Candidate School (OCS), Colonel Hallaren 

selected Maj. Elizabeth C. Smith and obtained a temporary promotio n for 

her to lieutenant colonel under Public Law 80-625. Colonel Smith, who 

had been assigned to the Office of the Director of Organization and 

Training since 1943, was recognized as the Army staWs expert on WAC 

training and had been a member of every major board and committee 

concerning the WAC. 38 

While WACs had not been pampered by elegant living at their World 

War II training centers, the WAC area at Camp Lee discouraged even 

those who had lived in the converted stables at Fort Des Moines or the 

converted POW camps at Fort Oglethorpe, Fort Devens, and Camp 

Ruston. In addition, when the wind at Camp Lee was right, sulphurous 

smoke from a nearby chemical plant permeated the air at the installation. 

One WAC officer considered "stable row at Fort Des Moines ... the 

Ritz Carlton in comparison. " 39 Another described the center as having 

been "activated in a section of the camp that had been unoccupied for 

two-and-a-half years and whic h had become a wilderness of weeds, underbrush, dilapidated buildings, and the inevitable training center 

mud." 40 

The wood-frame buildings in the WAC area were uni nsulated, had 

unfinished interior walls, sat on concrete blocks high enough to allow for 

water and drain pipes, and were heated by coal furnaces that were fed by 

hand shovel twice a day during the winter months. Most one-story 

buildings contained orderly rooms, supply rooms, or day rooms; the twostory buildings served as either barracks or classrooms. 

Each floor of a barrack conta ined army cots, footlockers, and steel 

wall lockers, approximately forty-fi ve of each, along with two small 

rooms that were reserved for platoon sergeants who supervised the trainees, day and night. Officer candidates and student officers had partitions 

between every two beds which prov ided some privacy but interfered 

with adequate ventilation. Permanentl y assigned officers lived in twostory buildings that had private rooms or permanent partitions. Lieutenant colonels and majors had single rooms; captai ns and lieutenants had to 

double up. Each building had a makeshift ki tchen, a reception room for 

visitors, and a dayroom. And, while no ne had private baths, Army regu3. DA GO 4), Sec III. 21 JUIl 48, activated (he WAC Training Center, 15 l Ull 48, CMH Library. 

u PL 80- 625 cont3inerl a provision that permitted the DWAC to nominate WAC officers to the 

higher grade needed to fill a key administrative or training position. Col Hallnrcn used this authority 

only Ollce- for Maj Smith'S promotion. 

3~ Llr, WAC Staff Dir (Capt Sue Lynch), HQ Second Army. Fort Meade, to Plans Officer (Capt 

Cora M. Foster). ODWAC, 16 Aug 48. file )'12.2. Correspondence with WAC Staff Direc tors, RG 

165. 

~o Rpt. WAC Staff Advisors and WAC Staff Officers Conf, ]2- ]6 Scp 49, p. 68. 
\ 

WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 

WAC TRAIN ING CENTER COMMANDER AN D HER I MMEDIAT E STAFF, 

Camp Lee, September / 948. Left 10 righl: Ma). Allllie V. Garlillcr, Commander. lSI Baualioll; Capt. Emily C. Gormoll, 5-3; Capt. Margaret E. Ol/iol1, 

Executive Officer; LI. Col. Elizabeth C. Smilh, Commander: Capt. Lillian F. 

Foushee, 5- 4; alld Capt. Hauiill C. While, In/ormation Officer. 

77 

lations specified that women's barracks had to contain at least one bathtub 

per seventy-five women in addition to individual showers. 01 I 

T he officers and enlisted women who would conduct the traini ng, 

administration, and supply operations at the traini ng center began arriving 

early in July. They undertook the back-breaking task of cleaning buildings and grounds and moving furnitu re and supplies. The pace was hectic; 

but the center would be ready to begin training recruits, officer candidates, leaders, and clerk typists in October. Colonel Smith later described 

their efforts: 

Looking back it seems to me that the pioneers who made the beachhead landing 

at Camp Lee are certai nl y entitled to campaign ribbons and maybe even battle 

'I, WO Cir 325. 14 Dec 43. <luthorized 2 tubs for each 150 women. L<ltcr, AR 415- 107, 7 Jun 50. 

Space Allowances at I'crmnncnt Inst"lIatiOIlS. authorized I tub for ench 25 women, in addition to showers. 
78 THE WOM EN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

stars .... Their devotion to duty, their investment of time, physica l labor, and 

constructive tho ught ... produced a training establishment of whic h we as a 

Corps can be proud.42 

Colonel Smith arrived at Camp Lee 011 3 August. The nex.t day, 

Gene ral Graham hosted a ceremony for her as she assumed command of 

the training center. Major Gardner then assumed command of the newly 

activated 1st Battalion (Basic Training) to complete the c hange in leadership at Camp Lee. 43 

Colonel Hallarell was dismayed when she visited Camp Lee for the 

first time since viewing it as a member of the site selection committee. 

Promises from Army Field Forces about improving the WAC area had 

not been kept. After inspecting it on 24-25 August 1948, she wrote to 

General Gerow: "The barracks at the rar end o r the T raining Center 

where new recruits are to be housed are in extremely poor condition. 

G reat strips of paint have peeled ofr the barracks resultin g in a rotting of 

the exposed wood and an outside appearance w hic h would deter an 

observer from volunteeri ng." 44 

Colonel Hallaren requested funds and equi pment to rehabilitate the 

bUildings. She appealed ror electric fans for the classrooms and offices 

and paint ror the interiors and exteriors or buildings. Fans were in short 

supply, but General Gerow rushed as many as possible to the center, two 

rrom his own quarters at Fort Meade. Obtainin g runds for the needed 

paint was more difficult- runds for painting "temporary buildings" except 

ror "sash doors, trim, and exposed metal" was prohibited. Eventuall y, 

however, General Gerow was able to obtain almost $400,000 in appropri ~ 

ated runds fo r rehabilitating the buildings during fiscal year (FY) 1949. 45 

T he organi zational structure adopted ror the WAC Training Center 

rollowed the lines of a regimental command. T he training center commander had a personal staff consisting of an executive officer, special 

services officer, and public inrormation office r. She also had a traditional 

staff (5- 1, Personnel; 5-2, Intelligence; S-3, Plmls and Training; S-4, 

Supply). The WAC units under her command were Headquarters and 

Headquarters Company; the 14th Army Band (WAC); 1st Battalion with 

five lettered companies to conduct basic training; 2d Baualion with three 

41 Rpl. WAC Staff Advisors Conf. 12- 16 Scp 49. p. 68. n Llr. CO, Second Army 10 CO. Camp Lee. 19 Jul 48. sub: Establishment of 2004th ASU. Camp 

Lee. Virginia. AIABC- 322. ODWAC Ref File. Fort Lee. CM H. T his leiter authorized activation of 

the 2004th ASU (Army Service Unit) and its integral units. Sec aho Camp Lee GO IS, 9 Jul 48. 

U Ltr. DWAC to CG. Second AmIY. Fori Oeorge G. Meade. I Scp 48. sub: Rehabililalion of 

WAC Training Center Area. Camp Lee. Virginia, rile 354.1, WAC Training Center. Camp Lee. RO 

165 . 

.. 1st Ind, Dir of Logislics, OS. to D/PAD. DA, Attn: DWAC, 23 Sep 48. to Memo. DWAC to 

Dir of Logistics. through D/PAD. 4 Scp 48, sub: Rehabilitation or WAC Training Center Area. 

Camp Lec. Virginia. file 354.1. WAC Training Center, Camp Lee, RO 165; Llr. ACofS, 0-4 (Col N. 

A. Durncll) HQ Second Army. Fl. Mende. MD. to Col Hallaren, 20 Oct 48. O DWAC Ref File. Fort 

Lee. CMH. 
WAC ORGANIZA nON AND TRAINING 79 

CHART I- WAC T RAIN ING CENT ER, FOKT L EE ORGAN IZATION, 1948 

COI.1MI\NOfA 

WAC TRAINING CENTER & 

I SPECIAL SERVICES OfFICER 

COMMANDANT 

I PUBLIC INF~MATION 

WAC OfFICER CANDIDATE SCHOO<. OFfICER 

E~ECUT!VES OFfICER 

SPI'ClAL STAFf 

I I I I S·l. PUISONNEL S·3. PLANS & 

S·2. INTElUGl'NCE lllAlNING ~. SUPPLY 

.o.OJUTANT 

UNIIS 

I I I I I HO COMMANDANT WAC OffICER 

&' COMMANDER CA"OIOAH SCHOO\. 101 BATTAliON ~ BATTALION 3d BATTAlION 

HD & HO COMPANY COMPANY 

Source; Anllual History. WAC Training Center. 1 J un- 31 Dec 48, App A, History Colleclion. 

WAC Museum. 

companies: one for leadership trammg, one for reeniislee processing, and 

o ne, a holding company, for ho using and processing trai nees awaiting 

discharge, board action, or transfer; 3d Battalion with o ne compan y for 

women attending the typing and clerical procedures course, one to oversee students enrolled in other specialist courses at Camp Lee, and one for 

women attending WAC Officer Candidate School (see CharI 1).46 

T he WAC Traini ng Center was staffed entirely by women from WAC 

detachments in the CONUS armies. But the commande rs of these detachments often objected to reassigning their ablest women to the training 

center, and the women themselves frequent ly disliked being transferred 

into an all-female environment. Still, the WAC planners insisted that 

commanders fill the training center requisitions with qualifi ed women and 

would not accept enlisted men or male officers as substitutes. T he planners wanted to avoid the problems experienced during World War II 

when some of the ma le trainers had carelessly performed their d uties. had 

been hostile to women senior officers, and had hazed the trainees without 

the officers' knowledge. 47 

48 WAC Training Center. S- I Division, Camp Lee, 14 Dec 48. " Historical Report of the WAC 

Training Center, Camp Lee, Virginia, for I'eriod 14 J une 1948 to 14 December 1948," History 

Collection. WAC MU$Cum . 

• , Treadwell, WomclIS Army Corps. pp. 139-41. 
80 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The training center was officiall y opened on 4 October 1948. By that 

time, WACs had cleared the weeds, made the classrooms habitable, and 

prepared the class schedules. The first event was a review o n the WAC 

pa rade ground. commonly called "the Black Top" because its surface was 

a thick layer of asphalt, which on hot days would soften and move 

underfoot and on cold days would develop holes and bumps-significant 

hindrances for marchers. Three battalions of men from the post and two 

companies of WACs marched in this first parade. The guests then moved 

to the WAC theater nearby for an opening ceremony. Colonel Hallaren, 

principal speaker for the occasion, commended the permanent party on 

their efforts and proclaimed the new WAC Training Center officially 

open and ready to train women for the Regular Army. Representatives of 

the other women's services attended the ce remony: Col. Gera ldine P. 

May, Director, Women in the Air Force; Maj. Julia E. Hamblet, Acting 

D irector, Women Marines; Lt. Comdr. Sybil A. Grant, representing Capt. 

Joy Bright Hancock, Director, WAVES. 

On 6 October, two days after the ceremony, Colo nel Smith welcomed 

the first trainees. The first recruit to arrive directly from civilian life was 

Macseen Sutton of Boone, Nebraska; the first reenlistee to report for 

processing was Pfc. Alice W. Roseberry of Pawtucket, Rhode Island. On 

13 October, Colonel Smith formally received the black WAC officers 

who would command and train black recruits in Company B, 1st Battal· 

ion-Capt. Bernice G. Hughes, Commander; 1st Lts. Doris H. Williamson, Ann G. Hall, and Catherine G. Landry. T he first black recruit to 

arrive was Callie L. Hawthorne of Kilgore, Texas.4 8 

Almost every week during the next few months, a "first" or an 

"opening" at the center drew high-ranking guest's. All of these events 

were well publicized by the public information officer, Capt. Hattilu C. 

White. The WAC theater opened on 19 September, showing movies three 

nights a week. The WAC Cadre Club (later called the Enlisted Open 

Mess) opened with a dance on 2 October. Maj. Gen. William H. Middles· 

wart, Assistant Quartermaster General of the Army, his wife, and Colonel 

Smith were the guests of hono r. A beauty shop opened o n 2S October, 

and near it the WAC PX opened on 4 November. T he fi rst marriage at 

the WAC chapel took place o n 13 November 1948; Sgt. Katie Kucher 

married Edmund Zielinski. In accordance with local c ustom, rac iall y 

segregated WAC service clubs opened on 29 October for whites and on 

19 November for blacks; USO clubs opened in Petersburg, Virginia, on 

Byrne Street for whites and o n Wythe Street for blacks. Tennis courts 

and a hobby shop opened in the WAC area in November and December. 

U "Hislory of the WAC T raining Center, Camp Lee, Virginia, from J une 1948 to January 1949," 

Hislory Collection, WAC Museum. Unless Olherwise nOI<.'<I. information on Ihe WAC Training 

Center during this period is from Ihj ~ source. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 8 1 

The first graduation of Regular Army WAC basic trainees on 10 

December 1948 was a major event. Company A, 1st Battalion, had 

trained the graduates. Both General Paul and Colonel HaJlaren attended 

the event, and the forme r gave the grad uation speech. 

Inspections, an everyday part of life at the tra ining center, ranged from 

the dail y walk-through of the barracks by the first sergeant to visits by 

teams from the Office of the Inspector General. A team of officers from 

Headquarters, Second A rmy, and the Office of the Chief of Army Field 

Forces cond ucted the first major inspection at the center between 13 and 

16 December. The training center received a superior rating for all 

aspects of training and administration during its first three months of 

operation. 

In March 1949, the arrival of the ll ~fe mal e 14th A rmy Band (WAC) 

ra ised the morale of the women at the training center. The WAC Band, 

as it was commonly called, had been activated at Fort Meade o n I I 

August 1948 and had assumed the lineage of the 400th Army Band 

(WAC), which had served at Fort Des Moines and Camp Stoneman, 

California, before being deactivated in April 1947. The WAC band ~ 

rived with bandmaster W01G Katherine V. Allen and a few reenlistees 

from the World War II WAC bands. These women had assembled their 

instruments, music, and equipment while attached for traini ng to the 51st 

Army Band at Fort Meade. To bring .its complement up to the thirt y~ r 

authori zed, recruits we re auditioned while still in WAC basic training, 

and if they met Miss Allen's high standards, they were assigned for d uty 

with the band upon graduation. By the end of June 1949, the band had 

twenty-six musicians and was playing for WAC parades o n the Black Top 

and at o rientatio n ceremonies, graduations, retreats, and other troop for~ 

mations.49 

Trail/illg Missiol/s 

During its first two yea rs, the missions of the WAC T rai ning Center 

were clarified. One mission brieny imposed on the center in 1948 by the 

Army's director of traini ng was that of providing overseas training for all 

WACs. D uring World War II, this task had been accomplished by an 

activity called Extended Field Service at the Third ' WAC Training 

Center, Fort Oglethorpe. Men, on the other hand, received overseas 

training at depots throughout the United States. The end of the war had 

eliminated the need for these large depots, and a new system was begun 

whereby each post conducted the appropriate training for men who 

411 HQ Second Army, GO 132. 11 Aug 48, and Llr, TAG to CG, Second Army. 28 Jul 48, sub: 

Activation of the 14th Army Band, ODWAC Ref Fi!e, Bands, CMH. The only TO&E unillhal was 

aU-WAC. the band was assigned 10 HQ, Second Army, and attached for duty to the 2004lh ASU, 

WAC Training Center, Camp Lee, HQ 2001 ASU HQ MRU Augmentation, Fort Meade. SO 42. par 

4,2 Mar 49, CM H Library. 
82 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

received overseas orders. By March 1948, this system was in effec t 

throughout the Army. In J une, pending completion of a review by the 

Office of the Directo r, WAC. to determine whether women too sho uld 

be trained in this way for overseas duty, the mission was assigned to the 

WAC Traini ng Center. Later in the year, Colonel Hallaren recommended 

to the director of organization and trainin g that post commande rs provide 

overseas traini ng and processing for WACs as well as men. The WAC 

director's review convinced her that establishin g a separate facility solely 

for women would increase trai ni ng and travel costs. He r recommendatio n 

was app roved, and, in March 1949, the comma nding general of the 

Second Army deleted the mission as a WAC Training Center respo nsibility and included women under the A rmy regulatio n o n this subject. 50 

In the summer of 1950, the training center took on the mission of 

giving basic training to women of the WAC Sectio n, Organized Reserve 

Corps. Customaril y, the reserve units gave basic combat training to male 

enlistees, with over half of the time devoted to weapons use and tactical 

training for infantry units. As this kind of traini ng was inappropriate for 

the duties to which WAC reservists would be assigned, a two-week, 

active-d uty basic traini ng program was introduced for them. T he SS-hour 

program, conducted at the WAC T raining Center, was preceded by 12 

pre-active-duty training hours at the reservists' home units. As part of the 

SS-hour program, reservists studied the achievements and traditions of the 

WAC, military customs and courtesies, drill and ceremonies, fi rst aid, 

map reading, military justice, physical traini ng, marches and bivouac, 

Army administration, and wea ri ng of the uniform.5] 

Altho ugh the Army had six traini ng centers for men, it needed only 

one for tra ining WACs in peacetime. One-third the size of the World War 

II facilities, the center at Fort Lee ca rried out every functio n the earlier 

centers had performed-except overseas tra ining. Its mission was "to 

prepare the woman soldier fo r the job she will be assigned in the Army; 

to indoctrinate her into the elements of military life and customs; and to 

imbue her with the high moral and ethica l standards which the Army 

demands." 52 To perform this missio n, the center acted as a reception and 

processing center and a replacement training center fo r recruits; a specialist training center for graduates of basic training; a school fo r officer 

candidates and potential enlisted leaders; and a reserve tra ining center. Its 

maximum training population was 1,547. (See Table 3.) 

~o OF. D/PAD to DOT, 14 Feb 49, sub: WAC Training Center. and Ltr, DOT, DA. to CG. 

Second Army. ) Mar 49. same subject. in file 322. Correspondence with Organi"£ation and Training. 

RG 165; SR 55- 760- 1. Prcparalion of Individual Repll1eemenlS for Overseas Movemenl (POR), 4 

Nov 49, CMH Library. 

"' Army T raining Program. ATP 21- 121. Aug 51. Basic Program for Fcmllie Mililary Personnel 

without Prior &:rvice. 

62 WAC Training Clr. Fort Lee, VA. "History of the WAC Training Center)O June 1948 to 31 

December 195)," History Collection, WAC Museum. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING 83 

TABLE 3- WAC TRAINING CENTER: TRAIN ING CAPACITY 

MaxiUnit(s) mum 

Strength 

Course Length Input Oasis 

5 Basic T raining 

Companies ......................... 760 8 weeks 152 every 2 weeks 

1 Reenlistment Company ..... 76 Processing As received 

1 Leaders' Company ............ 120 6 weeks 20 every week 

3 Specialist Trai ni ng 

Companies ......................... 456 8 weeks 92 every 2 weeks 

1 Officer Cand idate 

School ................ .............. 75 6 months 75 every 6 months 

1 Reserve Basic Training ..... 60 2 weeks 2 sessions a year 

Source: WAC Training Center, "History of the WAC Training Center, )0 June 1948 to 31 

De<:ember 1953," History Collection, WAC Museum. 

The basic training battalion received, processed, and trained the newly 

enlisted women. Their fi rst week was devoted to initiating their Army 

personnel file, receiving immunization shots and a dental check-up, being 

fitted for uniforms, and taking tests. Each also received a $10 cash 

advance on her monthl y pay of $65. T he eight-week training program 

included such subjects as military customs and courtesies, organi zatio n of 

the Army, military justice, personal hygiene and military sanitation, social 

hygiene, first aid and safety measures, maintenance of clothi ng, equip· 

ment, and qua rters, map reading, supply, Army administration, close 

o rder drill, and physical training. Instruc tion in the traditions and history 

of the WAC was given to instill an esprit de corps in the trainees and to 

stress the importance of good behavior on and off duty. Before they left 

the training center, the newly enlisted women understood their role in the 

predominantly male Army and recognized that their performance in the 

service would be highly visible. To disgrace themselves th rough poor 

deportment or performance meant disgracing the platoon sergeants and 

officers who had given them their initial training. Each graduate was 

honored by marching in a grad uation parade and receiv ing a certificate at 

a ceremony in the WAC chapel. Family and hometown friends frequently 

attended these festivities. 

After graduating from basic training, some enlisted women who had 

exhibited leadership qualities attended a special six-week course in the 

basic principles of leadership. This Leaders Course prepared these women 

and highly qualified reenlistees for responsible d uty as platoon sergeants, 

assistant platoon sergeants, or instructors in basic or other training. In the 

fi rst three weeks of classroom instruc tion they learned how to supervise, 

instruct, evaluate, and counsel other WACs. Classes included publi c 
84 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WACs DEPART CAM P LEE alter completillg basic alld advanced rraining, 

December /948. 

speaking, mili tary history, leadership, and methods of instruction- subjects not given to basic trai nees. The last th ree weeks of the course were 

spent in practical work as acting NCOs or instructors at t.he training 

center. Graduation to act ual leadershi p positions depended upo n their 

abili ty to perform these newly learned skills. 

T he Officer Candidate School (OeS) accepted women who had graduated from basic training and the leaders course. T heir 960 hours of 

instruction covered a twenty-week period. In addition to receiving further traini ng in some of the same subjects given in basic traini ng and the 

leaders course, candidates also had classes in military law and boards, 

food service, personnel management, methods of organization, leadership 

and morale, relations with civilian agencies, recruiting, mili tar y governmen t in civil affairs, psychological warfare, and practical problems in unit 

management. Outstanding graduates were offered Reg ular Army commissio ns; the o thers received commissions in the Reserve and signed a commitment to serve a minimum of two years' active d uty. Some officer 

candidates who wanted but did not receive Reg ular Army commissions 

on graduation from oes emba rked on a competitive tou r for one year. 

Each woman spent fou r months at each of three different posts undertaking various assignments. At the end of the year, those who received high 

efficiency ratings from all their rating officers were offered commissions. 

Other graduates of basic trai ning entered specialist traini ng companies. 

Some received eight weeks of training as clerk typists, supply clerks, or 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND TRA INING 85 

general clerks; some attended the Cooks and Bakers Course at the Quartermaster's School; some, the Stenography Course at T he Adjutant General's School. 

Reenlistees arriving at the training center received initial in-processing, 

new uniforms, and a few refresher courses in military c ustoms and courtesies, drills and ceremonies, and care of the unifo rm. A t the end of two 

weeks, they were assigned to duty at the training center or to a WAC 

detachment in the fi eld. 

The Last Years oj Racial Segregation 

Despite the strides made by women in the armed services. racial 

segregation remained a major issue for the Army. In 1946, the Army had 

made the changes in its racial policies that improved job and educational 

opportunities for blacks, eliminated all-black divisions, and banned some 

discriminatory practices, such as designation of race o n overseas orders 

and segregation in national cemeteries. Despite the c hanges, howeve r, 

entry quotas and segregatio n remained. Blacks continued to enter the 

Army under a quota system and to receive basic training in segregated 

units. OCS and specialist tra ining were integrated, but after completi ng 

this education, blacks faced Army careers in segregated work assignments, housing, eating arrangements, and social gatherings. The new 

racial policies, however, provided some hope that the quotas and segregation eventually would be eliminated. 53 

The WAC reentry (reenlistment) program of 1946- 1947 had been open 

to black women, but its primary attraction- overseas assignment- was 

not. When asked about this situation, Colonel Boyce stated the War 

Depa rtment policy: "While there is no c urrent or foreseeable requirement 

for Negro WACs in any overseas theater, the question of future employment of Negro units in the ove rseas service is under continuing study in 

the War Department." 54 

After World War II, black WAC strength had declined drasticall y. At 

the end of June 1948, the month the women's Regular A rmy and Reserve 

integration bill was signed, 4 black WAC officers and 12 t enlisted women 

remained on duty, including those serving in the A rmy Air Forces. 55 

Then on 26 July 1948, President Truman issued Executi ve Order No. 

998 1, mandating an end to racial discriminatio n and segregation in the 

armed forces. T he Truman administration formed an executive commit53 MacGregor, IlIIegrolioll ill Ibe Armed Forces. pp. 224-26. 

5~ Press Release. WD, ODWAC (approved by Act'g D/I'AD. WD GS. DdgGell William E. 

Bergin), 161u146. WDWAC file 342. Enlistment and Reenlistment. 1:I1I- Dec 46. RO 165 . 

•• Slnmg,h of Ihe Army Reporl (STM-JO). 31 Dec SO; EO 998 1 in DA Bullelill 32. Se<: III. 2 Aug 

48. CMH Libmry. The rour black officers were Maj Harriet M. West. TAO's office, I'entagon: Capl 

Bernice G. Hughes, Commallder, WAC Oct. FOri Ord, CA: Capt Jeanne G. Childs, Admin Officer. 

Army M~'(li cal Center. Washington. DC; IstLt Alma O. Berry. E~ cc Officer, WAC Del. ForI Ord. 
86 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

tee, headed by Charles O. Fahey, to prepare and submit a plan for 

desegregating the services. A lmost two years elapsed, however, before 

the Fahey Committee presented its final report. And, in the interim, the 

WAC had to follow established Army policy concerning recruitment, 

tra ining, and assignment of black personnel. 

When the WAC Training Cente r o pened in October 1948, the 10 

percent quota for black women resulted in recruiters' sending black 

enlistees to the center only during every fifth increment. When these 

women arri ved at the center, they went to Company B, 1st Battalion, for 

basic training; the other companies-A, C, D, and E- trained only whil e 

women. Company B, staffed wit h black women officers and noncommissioned officers, followed the same curriculum, techniques of training, and 

policies as the other basic tra ining companies. When a thirteen-week basic 

training program was adopted in the fall of 1949, eve ry seventh increment 

arri vi ng al the training center was an all-black unit, trai ned in Company 

B. 

After months of stormy meetings, maneuve ring, and compromises, the 

Fahey Committee and the Army fina ll y agreed upon a revised policy for 

including blacks in the A rmy. In January 1950, a new directive, "Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army," was issued; it did not continue 

the policies of the 10 percent racial recru iting quotas, segregated basic 

training, o r black cadre for black units. It directed that all specialist 

training courses be open to qualified blacks without quotas. Graduates of 

the courses were to be assigned "to any Table of D istribution or Table of 

Organization and Equipment unit without regard to race or color." Two 

months later, the Army issued a directive, effective 1 April 1950, incorporating these policy changes and eliminating racial recruiti ng quotas. 56 

Elimination of the quota did not eliminate segregation for men; the 

Armed Forces Examining Stations (AFES) continued to send black male 

recruits for basic training only to Fort Ord and Fort Oix. But elimination 

of the quota did end segregation for the WAC. Thereafter, race was 

disregarded for women recruits, and black and white women arrivi ng at 

the training center fi lled whatever unit was processing at the time. They 

began side-by-side basic tra in ing in Ap ril 1950. Approval of the new 

policy was obvious from a comment in the center's historica l report for 

the qua rt er: "We noted the change in the A rmy's system of segregation as 

we welcomed the last Company B into 405 School [WAC Clerical Training Course for MOS 405, Cle rk-Typist]." 57 

u SR 600-629- 1, 16 Jan 50. Utilization or Negro Munpower in the Army. superseded WD Cir 124. 

1946. which contained the policy sustaining segregation. both in CM H Library: MacGregor. llllt'gra· 

lioll ill Ille Armed Forces. Pl". 434- 36. 

1 WAC Training Center. Quarterly I-listorical Rp\ for the period ending 30 Jun 50. History 

Colle(;tion. WAC Museum. 
WAC ORGANIZATION AND T RAINING 87 

By the end of June 1950, the WAC had been permanentl y integrated 

into the Regular Army and Reserve. The director was secure in her role 

as adviser to the Army staff, and her responsibilities and position gave her 

influence that was greater than her real authority. She also possessed an 

enviable latticework of communications that extended upward to the 

Department of Defense, th rough the Defense Advisory Committee on 

Women in the Services, and downward to the enlisted women, th rough 

the WAC staff ad visers. At the Department of the Army staff level, the 

WAC had senior officers in almost every General Staff and Special Staff 

division, who were gaining experience to assume greater responsibilities 

later. And although the WAC T raining Center lacked elegance, it did 

provide command and staff leade rship positions not avail able to WAC 

officers and NCOs elsewhere in the Army. The all-W AC staff at the 

center provided sound traini ng, strict discipline, and patriotic inspiration 

for prospective officers and enlisted women, black or white. 

CHAPTER IV 

The Korean War Era 

In the early morning hours of 25 June 1950, the army of Communist 

North Korea crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. The 

Communists ignored an appeal from the United Nations for a cease-fire; 

the U.N. Security Counc il appointed the President of the United States as 

its executive agent to restore peace in Korea with the assistance of other 

U.N. members; and President Harry S. Truman immediately appointed his 

senior military officer in the Far East. General of the Army Douglas 

MacArthur, as commander in chief of the United Nations Command 

(CINCUNC). 

During July and August, the North Korean Army drove the U.N. 

forces down the peninsula. The drive was checked before Pusan, the 

southernmost port in Korea. By September, General MacArthur had 

gathered sufficient troop strength and firepower to drive the invaders 

back up the peninsula to the Manchurian border. In late November, the 

U.N. forces stopped at the Yalu. The Chinese Red Army crossed over 

and with the North Koreans mounted a strong offensive that resulted in 

their recapturing territory down to and south of the 38th Parallel in 

January 1951. A U.N. counteroffensive stopped the drive, but the entry 

of the Chinese into the war removed any hope for a quick U.N. victory. 

The United States and other U.N. members had to prepare to fight a 

longer war than they had anticipated. 

Congress had already passed the laws necessary to mobilize U.S. 

forces as part of the U.N. effort. In December 1950, as the Chinese 

streamed south, President Truman had issued a much-delayed proclamation that a state of emergency existed. I By the end of January 1951, the 

Communist forces had been pushed back to the 38th Parallel. In April, 

Truman relieved MacArthur as CINCUNC and named General Matthew 

B. Ridgway as the new commander. The combatants soon reached a 

stalemate. In July, peace negotiations were begun at Kaesong. In August, 

they were broken off, and, in October, they were resumed, at Panmunjam. An armistice was signed on 27 July 1953. 

, Presidential I'roclarnation 2914. 16 Dec 50, DA Boll #22, 29 Dt-c 50, CMH Library. 
90 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

C HART 2- A RMY STAFF, ORGANIZAT ION, 1946 (below) AND 1950 (right) 

CHIEF OF STAFF 

",,""TY 

CHi£f OF Sf A" 

Gl NEflAl STAFf 

1 ~'''~~.I ""~SO'", n"'lll OIlGA

DtIl£CTOA NlUo rOON or I I. SUM!: '~ EC'OAOF ' , SOPPl Y 1 fI($EAflC ""'''~~ H ANO 1 ADMINlS1Ml00H ANO IMIN'''':; AND PIIOCUfl[M EN' OlvUOPM(>I! 

1 ".,,~ 1 1 I)IR(CIOROf I rNlt l~IG(m:[ Pl.ANS ANO 

O"U'ATOOHS 

SPECIAl 5 1"" 

I .• =!s I j'NfOAMAI"71 I' EX[CUllV~ I I '''$f(eIOR I h W ," :1 I "f~1IS I ,., fOR RES(~Vf GlN' .... l ",,·p .. AI MEN T 

[O<!CA'IOH A" OAOI, ~POw[" 

I <.GOS .... ,"', I 1 • .,~"' 1 I HI$10fUC.0,l 1 ~~, 1 ,., ..... ".0 OFfICI '''''SON 

Source: WD Circular No. 138, 14 May 46. 

Mobilization/or War 

The Army had completed a major reorganization just before the 

Korean War began. Under the new plan, the Office of the Director, 

Personnel and Administration (D/PAD), was retitled the Office of the 

Assistant Chief of Staff, G- I (ACoiS, 0 - 1), and given the manpower 

control fu nction formerly under the director of organization and training, 

whose office was eliminated. The Office of the D irector, Plans and 

Operations, retitled Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, 0 - 3 (ACoiS, 

0 - 3), reta ined responsibility for mobilization planning and training policies. Training supervision remai ned with the chief of the Army Field 

Forces. 2 

The president and Congress had reacted quickly to the crisis in Korea 

by mobilizing U.S. fo rces. The A rmy's aut horized strength inc reased 

from 630,000, when the wa r began, to 1,263,000 by 31 December 1950. 

Other measures were taken to sustain that strength : 

- The president was authorized to extend enlistment contracts 

involuntarily for men and women in all components and services (PL 624, 81st Congress, 27 Jul 50). 

a SR 10-5- 1. 11 Apr 50. Or ani~ation and Functions, OA; OA Cir 12. 1950; SR 10-110- 1. 21 Mar 

51. Organization and Functions, Office of the ACofS, G- 1. CM H Library, 
THE KOREAN WAR 91 

CHIEF OF STA FF 

VIC! CHOU Of 51Aff 

"lCo« r AAy 01' "'f CU". ""l S 1 ,," 

CwO Of' .1 I CtIIl. Of ' l GlSUo.HIIE 

' '''OI'CM", '1Ot'I , .... !SON 

Cl,,!""', St"" 

I 

":>50&,,,,., 

I I ASSlSIA .. l I "SS'S'''''' I I ASSIStANt I CHIHOI 5'.0." C"'U Of sr ... " C",,, Of $'." e."u Of 51 ... , C 1. I'l HSONNU G 2. IN ,HUGlOlC( GJ,o>,( ..... ' IONS c •.• OGIS'I(;S 

Sf>LC'A, SIAn 

1 ''''',. ·~'''" 1 '"'' 01 ~~ 'I I" " MllII .. Ay AQVOUI( ..... ,lONAl I,'OR (C~IM A's!:"'" 'I AND 1I01C " .. ANel GE N(...... '''Sl00t ~.~ 

GlI'LO,A. ........AlI Aff ..... S 

AO"''''SIAAlivE 51"'''5 ..... 0 ~,R ">S ' (CtI .. " .. , 51"-"5 ANO ""HIIICtS 

I "" ,I -'~ II:"" ,I I ,~~~ I I '''''0 I AO....,I" .. 1 ...... A$ H ... ' Of (itHE .... ' U«:lINH'HS I ,' ,," ...... 0, 5 I I ,,,,MICA, " .. ' I 

GtN{AA' GENE .... ' CH ......... 'N$ 1'0111""101'< CORf'S 

C'''U 01 \ I ~AA MA$!(A '" I I ~ " .. .. ,I OHON""" - GEN(AA, OHIC'R 

Source; SR 10- 5- 1, II Apr. 50. 

- The d raft law was extended for one year beginning 1 July 

1950 (PL 599, 81S! Congress, 30 Jun SO). 

- T he president was authorized to order members of the A rmy 

Reserve and National Gua rd to active duty with or without 

their consent in units or as individuals for a term not to exceed 

21 months (PL 599, 81st Congress, 30 Jun 50). 

The measure extending the draft had no effect on the WAC because 

Congress had excluded women from registration and induction. The 

measure extending enlistments, however, did affect them. It extended for 

12 months enlistments scheduled to expire before 9 July 195 1. Coincidentally, this date was exactly th ree years and one day after the first date 

when WACs had been allowed to enlist in the Regular A rmy. Therefore, 

women who had competed so fiercely to be "first" to enlist on 8 July 

1948 were some of those "caught" by the fi rst of several involuntary 

extensions. The next extension, ordered in J uly 195 I, again stretched 

enlistments fo r 12 months, until I July 1952; the last, ordered in April 
92 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

1952, extended enlistments for 9 months, until 1 J ul y 1953. The last two 

extensions affected most of the WACs on active d uty, but no enlistment 

was extended involuntarily more than once. 3 The third measure affected 

WAC reservists. They were recalled. volu nta rily and involuntarily, to 

serve o n active d uty d uring the war. 

To maint ain personnel strength at overseas stations, the chief of staff 

used his regulatory authority to extend the length of foreign service tours 

for six months, effective 31 Aug ust 1950. In January 195 1, he again 

extended those tours for another six months. As a result, over 1,400 WAC 

officers and enlisted women had their foreign service tours lengthened.

4 

In November t 950, the president asked Congress for a new draft law 

to replace the one that would expire o n 30 June 195 \. The proposal 

sparked a flurry of interest in registering and dra fting women. Colonel 

HaUaren had suggested suc h a measure in Aug ust. In a memorandum to 

the G-I, General Brooks, she wrote: "This has been my theme song for 

two years-the need for Selective Service for women (w ith natio nal 

service) in any future wa r effort. It will take a tota l emergency to put this 

th ro ugh- and it will take this to put a total emergency through." 5 

Another advocate was the former director of the WAVES, Capt. 

Mildred McAfee Horton. She favo red drafting women in both war and 

peacetime but would limit combat trai ning and assignments to men. " It 

was," she said, "more efficient to deal with one sex under combat conditions." 6 Millicent Carey McIntosh, the dean of women at Barnard College, recommended that women register voluntaril y for milita ry service. 

The World Wa r II head of the Coast Gua rd's SPARS, Capt. Dorothy C. 

Stratton, urged compulsory registration of women- the services would 

then know how many women would be available to them fo r long-range 

planni ng purposes. The National Federation of Business and Professional 

Women's Clubs supported draftin g women. Maj. Gen. Lewis B. Hershey, 

head of the Selective Service System, thought a draft of women "was 

possible." Many, however, were opposed. Dr. Harold Taylor, president 

of Sarah Lawrence College, felt that drafting women would "threaten 

our whole social structure." 7 Vivien Kellems, a well-known industrialist 

from Connecticut, thought the patriotism of women would bring adequate numbers of volunteers. "As to the draft of women, I say no, it 

won't be necessary." 8 

3 Elllislmcnl cXleusious we re announced by EO 10145, 27 J ul SO; EO 10270. 6 Jul 51; and EO 

10345, 17 Apr 52, CMH Library . 

• DA Msgs WA R 87056. 25 J ul 50. and WCL 40973. 22 Jan 51. History oflhe ACofS. 0 - 1. 25 J un 

50-8 Scp 51. CMH Ref Dr. 

$ Memo. Col HalJarell 10 OCII Ilrooks, 0 - 1. II Aug 50, file Demobili7.lllion. RG 165. 

G New York TiIl1(,s. 10 Feb 51. 

7 Ibid., 21 Mar 51. 

8 New York El'fwillg Pilll. 21 Mar 51. 
THE KOREAN WAR 93 

In any event, such measures were not enacted. An annex to the 

Army's Mobilization Plan (AMP) outlined the steps to be ta ken to ~ 

crease WAC strength in the event of war or national emergency. Under 

the plan, the assistant c hief of staff, 0 - 3, would estimate the number of 

WACs needed after M-Day (Mobilization Day) for assignment to each of 

the CONUS armies and the overseas theaters of war. The estimates 

would be passed to the G-I to be translated into a WAC recruiting 

objective for the Army Recruiting Service and to the chief of A rmy 

Field Forces to increase basic, officer candidat e, and specialist training 

faci lities at the WAC T raining Center. "Discharge on marriage"-marriage as an accepted reason to request and obtain an ea rl y dischargewould no longer be an option for WAC officers and enlisted women. The 

training center would temporarily increase its housing and classroom 

capacities by double·decking beds in the barracks and initiating a twoshift schedule of classes. Additional WAC cadre and instructors would be 

obtained through recall of WAC reservists. A new WAC training center 

would be opened if necessary. 9 

The Korean War brought about implementation of the WAC section 

of the mobilization plan. Pending development of a lo nger-range plan, the 

chief of staff approved a DW AC proposal to increase WAC enlisted 

strength from 8,000 to 10,000 by 31 December. Additional WAC recruiters were sent to the field with a new monthly objec tive-638, up from 

324. On 25 August, the Army suspended discharge on marriage fo r WAC 

officers and enlisted personnel. 1 0 

While the interim measures we re being ta ken, Colo nel Ha llaren developed a lo ng-range ex pansio n plan, which the chief of staff approved in 

January 195 1. T he plan called for 1,000 WAC officers and 12,000 enlisted 

women by 30 June 195 1, and 1,900 and 30,000, respectively, by 30 June 

1952. To meet the strength goal for 30 June 195 1, the WAC, with 240 

WAC recruiters authorized, increased its recruiting goa l from 638 a 

month to 840. To ho use and provide basic traini ng for the projected 

increased numbers of recruits, without establishing another traini ng 

center, the WAC discontin ued the Typing and Administration Course at 

the WAC Training Center in mid-November 1950. Graduates of WAC 

basic training who were scheduled to attend the course were diverted to 

similar courses at male training centers. 1 1 

' Office of lhc Chicf, Army Field Forccs, "Annual History of thc Office of the Chief. Army Field 

Forces, I January 1950 through 31 Deccmber 1950." CMH Rcf Br. 

10 Memo, WAC Plans and Policy Commincc (Chairman, Maj Hortense M. Boulell) to DWAC, II 

Aug 50, sub: WAC Expansion Plan, file 337. Conferences. RG 165: AR 615- 361, 30 Aug SO. CMH 

Library. I, WAC Training Cenler, "Historical Summary Womcn's Army Corps Training Ceruer, Fort Lee, 

Virginia, J une J950-January 1953," pp. 5-6, History Collection, WAC Museum. DA GO 13, 20 Apr 

50. retitled Camp Lee as Fort Lee, effective 15 Apr SO. 
94 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

T he action to extend enlistment contracts and overseas tou rs did not 

immediately increase the Army's strength. In September 1950, fo r the first 

time since January 1949, men were drafted into the Army. But the new 

draftees CQuid not be considered in the trained strength numbers un til 

January 1951, after they had completed a minimum of sixteen weeks' 

combat training. To obtain the trained personnel it needed immediately. 

in Jul y the Army had appealed to enlisted reservists, men and women, to 

voluntarily return to active d uty for one year or until the emergency 

ended. The initial call had been fo r antiaircraft gunners, mechanics, radio 

operators, X-ray technicians, translators, and stenographers. Within a few 

weeks, however, enlisted volunteers in any MOS were accepted. Also, 

reserve lieutenants and captains in any MOS were asked to return vol untaril y to active d uty. 1 2 

The call for volunteers did not bring in the great numbers needed, and 

the Army was forced to order reservists to serve on active duty involuntarily fo r not more than twenty-one months. In addition to providing 

troops for Korea, the United States also had to maintain and increase its 

forces in Europe to deter further Soviet encroachment there. In early 

August, the Army ordered 62,000 enlisted reservists to report on active 

duty in September and October. Reservists assigned to units that participated in regular drill sessions were exempt from recall. T he exemption 

caused public protest. Inactive reservists charged that the Army was 

punishi ng them for not participating actively in the reserve program. 

A rmy spokesmen denied the charge; the active Army reserve units constitu ted the trained defense fo rce that would be needed if the Korean War 

broadened into World War 111. Despite the A rmy's explanations, Congress called for an investigation, and in late October, to satisfy Congress, 

the Army discontinued the involuntary recall of enlisted reservists based 

on the anticipated input from the draft. 13 

Initially, women in the A rmy (WAC, Army Nurse Corps, and 

Women's Medical Specialist Corps) were not included in the involuntary 

recall actions. By mid-August, however, Colonel Hallaren had recognized 

the need for additional women to fill future requirements. On 25 August, 

the 0-1, Lt. Gen. Edward H. Brooks, who had replaced Gene ral Paul on 

1 January 1949, approved her request to prepare, with the chiefs of the 

Army Nurse Corps and Women's Medical Specialist Corps, a combined 

plan for women. The chief of staff approved their plan on 21 September. 

But, since involuntary recall of enlisted reservists was ended in October, 

the plan affec ted primarily the officers of those corps. 14 

~ DA Msgs WAR 853 17. 9 lui 50. and \VeL 34\25. 22 lui 50. History or the ACofS. G- 1. 25 l un 

50-8 Sep 51. eMH Ref Dr. Maj Elva Stillwaugh. " Personnel Problems in the Korean Conflict." in 

CMH Ref Dr. provides extensive information on the recall programs. 

U DA Msg WeL 22673. 25 OCt 50, History of the ACofS, G- I, 25 Jun 50-8 SCI' 51, eMH Ref Dr. 

1~ Ltr, TAG to COs of CONUS Armies (AOAO-S 210.455 Org Res 21 SCI' 50 0 - 1 MAOPR), 21 

ScI' 50, sub: Recall of Womell Officers and Enlisted PCr50nnel. author's Iile. Korea. 
THE KOREAN WAR 95 

To carry out the recall plan, the commanders of the CONUS armies 

received monthl y quotas fo r reserve officers and selected those to be 

recalled. The quotas were filled first with volunteers, then with women 

from inactive units (not receiving d rill pay) who were single and had no 

dependents, and. in last priority, married women w ithout dependents. 

Women with children or dependents under eighteen were not nvolun ta ~ 

ily recalled. Nu rses, dietitians, or therapists who held key administrative 

o r teaching positions or whose depa rture "would jeopardize the health of 

the community in which employed" were not recalled. D uring fiscal year 

(FY) 1951 (I July 1950- 30 June 195 1), 67 WAC officers and 1,526 

enlisted women were vol untaril y recalled on active duty; 175 WAC 

officers were in voluntarily recalled. 15 

Though not subject to the draft, active duty and reserve WACs were 

subject to every other mobilizatio n measure. The invol untary reca ll of 

reserve officers in 1951 marked the first time women were summo ned on 

active duty without their consent. Technically, they had consented to 

recall by voluntarily joining the Army Reserve, an action that plainly 

carried an active duty commitment in the event of war or national 

emergency. Nonetheless, for women, it was a "first" worthy of note. 

The controversy over mobilization practices led the Department of 

Defense to examine its personnel plans and policies. One study group was 

assigned to determine whether women were being underutilized. On 12 

October, the g roup issued its report, "A Study of the Maximum tili za~ 

tion of Military Woman power." It recommended that the services ormu~ 

late a joint policy for the expanded employment of military women and 

that they study the effect of applying policies for men to women or to 

mixed groups. The report proposed research into the participation of 

women in the armed services; the development of mechanical aptitude 

tests for women; the develo pment of functional clothing and safety de· 

vices for women; and the recruiting practices and positions that the 

services assigned to militar y and c ivilian women. 16 

The services were not pleased with the report. The assistant secretary 

of the Air Force stated that the Air Force mission had to guide its 

utilization of women. The Air Force had studied its mobilization req uirements for women and had appointed a panel, led by famed mer Jacq ue· 

line Cochran, to conduct a study of utili zation of the WAF. T he secretar· 

ies of the Navy and Army recommended that, before any policy statements or research programs were initiated, an interservice committee of 

1& Ibid.; History of the ACofS, G- I. 25 J un S()"8 Sep 5[. pp. [9· 20. CM H Ref Dr. T he involuntarily recalled officers reported to the WAC T raining Center in March and April 195 1 for uniforms and 

a brief refresher course. They dubbed themselves the "Mothball Brigade." 

Ie DOD Personnel Policy Board, Military Subcommittee Rpt, sub: Study of Maximum Utilization 

of Military Womanpower, 12 Oct 50, included in DOD I'ersonnel Policy Board Subcommittee 

Project Rpt No. M-1_SI, "Maximum Utilization of Military Womanpower," 9 Apr 51, ODWAC Ref 

File. Studies. Utilization, CMH. hereafter cited as Project Rpt No. M-1- 51. 
96 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

senior women officers draft a department-wide policy on the utilization of 

women. The committee sho uld also study the proposed research projects 

and make recommendations concerning them. 17 

The chairman of the DOD Personnel Policy Board agreed with the 

recommendation, and, in Februa ry 195 1, direc ted each of the services to 

select a senior woman officer for the committee. Lt. Col. Kathleen 

McClure, deputy director of the WAF, was appointed chairman of the 

study group.18 

Originall y classified "secret," the 200-page report was completed on 9 

April 195 1 and was signed by each member of the group. T he conclusions reached by the panel were similar to the attitudes expressed by their 

service chiefs on the October 1950 study. They joined the men in rejecting the assistance offered by the DOD Personnel Policy Board in what 

they considered their services' internal polic ies. T he women directors had 

zealously guarded their role as experts on matters affecting military 

women. They recommended that no action be taken on the recommendations in the October stud y. They further concl uded that existing laws, 

regulations, policies, and directives concerning women did not adversely 

affect their utilization by the military services: "since the Services are 

working continuously on a refinement of these criteria and are constantl y 

evaluating their utilizatio n of military woman power in terms of occupational studies and experience, no further clarifying policy or directives . . . 

are needed to assure efficient utilization of military woman power. " 19 

The DOD Personnel Policy Board accepted the report without comment. 

While the women officers were formu lating their report, Marga ret 

Chase Smith, now a member of the Senate, asked for the plans for 

utilizing women in the event of total mobilization and for an estimate of 

the extent to which women would replace men. Under Secretary of the 

Navy Dan A. Kimball stated that, under total mobilization, women could 

replace up to 15 percent of the Navy officers and 12 percent of the 

enlisted men and up to 7 percent of Marine Corps officers and enlisted 

men. Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert replied 

that women could replace approximately 10 percent of its men. Assistant 

Secretary of the Army Earl D. Johnson reported that the Army would 

provide fo r the "replacement of male personnel by WAC's to the maximum extent." This would, he said, require some form of involuntary 

" Memos. Asst SecAF to Chief. DOD Personnel Policy Board, 16 Nov and 18 DC(; 50, sub: Study 

of Ma~imum Utilizatioll of Military Womallpower; SeeNav to Chief, DOD Personncl Policy Board. 

20 Nov 50. same sub; and SecArmy to Chief. DOD Personnel Policy Board, 21 Nov 50. same sub. 

All in Project Rpt No. M- 7- 51. 

18 Memo, Chairman, DOD j'ersOl1nel Policy Board, Military Personnel C0I111niw_'e, to SL'eArmy, 

SeeAF, SecNav, 9 Feb 51, sub: I'roject Rcpor Ma~imum UtilizatiOIl of Military Womanl>ower. 

Project Rpt No. M- 7- 51. Included 011 the senior womell's panel were LtCoI Cora M. Fosler. WAC; 

Cdr Louise K. Wilde. USN; Maj Margaret H. Henderson. WM; LtCdr Etta Delle Kitchen. from 

Office of SeeDef; and LI M3rgaret A. McAghon. USCG. 

IG Project Rpt No. M- 7- 51, p. ), 
THE KOREAN WAR 97 

ind uction for women. " In this connection, there is presently being processed within the Department of the A rmy, a d raft bill to make Standby 

Selective Service Legislation applicable to women as well as to men in 

time of full mobilization." 20 The d raft bill referred to by Secretary 

Johnson did not get far. T he DOD Personnel Policy Board failed to 

show any interest in the proposal, and General Brooks, the G-I, shelved 

it. 2 1 

Reserve Screening 

Beginning in 1948. the Organized Reserve Corps (ORC) had welcomed WAC members into the va rious established units and branches. In 

fact. WAC staff advisers reported that "the demand for WAC reservists 

exceeds the supply." 22 And, while WAC participation rose from zero in 

June 1948 to 4,28 1 in 1950, it was far short of the 20,000 ORC spaces the 

Army had hoped the WAC would fil1. 23 

The Korean War recall prog rams revealed weaknesses in the readiness 

of the ORC-outdated personnel rosters, incomplete training and qualification records, physically unqualified personnel. Reservists failed to 

notify their units when they moved, enrolled in college, or voluntaril y 

returned to active duty. Complicating matters for the WAC, women 

reservists also failed to report marriages, changes in name, births of 

children, or the addition of other dependents. And compounding the 

problems for the entire Army, annual physical exams for officers had 

been discontinued in February 1947 for lack of funds. 

In October 1950, to correct these problems, which affec ted each of the 

services, George C. Marshall, now secretary of defense, directed that the 

armed forces screen their reserve personnel reco rds and correct them; 

reject any unfit reservists; and code the availability status, in days, for 

each member. In the latter process, each eligible reservist, male or female, 

was placed in a mobilization category representing the number of days 

that the reservist had between notification of recall and reporting for 

active duty. T he category, or amount of time given, was based on the 

reservist's occupation, complexity of personal affairs, number of dependents, and physical status. Two years later the Armed Forces Reserve Act 

of 1952 abolished this cumbersome system and assigned readiness catego20 Memos, Chairman, DOD Personnel Policy Board, to SecArmy, SecNav, SecAF, 26 Dec SO. 

sub, Utilization of Women in the Wa r Effort: Replies: Under SttNnv, 5 Jail 51; Asst SecAF, 8 Jan 

51; and Asst &cArmy. S Jan 51, Project Rpt No. M- 7- 51. 

2, interv. Col Hallaren with the author, 23 Mar 78. 

n Rpt. WAC Staff Advisors Conf, Sep 49, p. 11 9, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Staff Adviser 

Conferences, CMH. 

23 DA Press Release, 23 Jul 48, sub: Address, LtCol Kathleen McClure, Office of the Executive 

for Reserve and ROTC Affairs, to the WAC Veterans Association 2d Annual Convention, 24 l ui 48, 

file 000.7. Press Releases, RG 165. 
98 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

ries to units rather than individuals. This law also redesig nated the ga~ 

ni zed Reserve Corps as the United States Army Reserve (USAR).24 

As a result of the Korean mobilization experience, the USAR changed 

enlistment and reenlistment qualifications for WAC reservists to coincide 

as closely as possible with those for Regular Army WAC personnel. Few 

changes, however, we re made in utilization or training policies for the 

reservists. Screening. discharge regulations, and recall programs reduced 

the number of WAC reservists from 4,281 on 30 June 1950 to 2,524 on 30 

June 1951. 25 

WAC Recruiting Accelerated 

On 9 January 1951, General Brooks advised Colonel Hallaren and the 

chief of the Mili tary Personnel Procurement Services Division (MPPSD) 

that Colonel Hallaren's plan had been accepted and that the WAC target 

strength for 30 June 1952 was 30,000 enlisted women-2 percent of the 

1.5 million-man Army authorized by Congress. The WAC goal fo r 30 

June 195 1 remained at 17,000 enlisted women. 26 

As of I January, however, the WAC had only 8,674 women on duty; 

the short-term goal of 10,000, set in August, had not been reached. WAC 

strength had to double in six months to meet the new goal. The number 

of WAC recruiters was inc reased from 90 to 240; a shorter, two-yea r 

enlistment period was added; and recruit application procedures were 

streamlined. For the first time since 1945, the Army purchased advertising time on radio and television for WAC recruiting and funded the 

publication of additional promotional literature and posters. Colonel Ha llaren also recommended a joint male-fema le recruiti ng campaign to spur 

enlistments. "The WAC objective will not be reached," she warned, 

" until every ... procurement speech made by Army personnel includes 

the need for both men and women . .. and until publicity pictures include 

women and men." 27 However, the Army's rec ruiting theme for 195 1, 

"The Mark of a Man," was already under way and did not lend itself to 

including women. Nonetheless, several recruiting posters were produced 

Showing men and women serving together. 

The chief of the MPPSD recommended that controlled input (i.e., a 

quota given each CONUS army) into the WAC T raining Center be 

abandoned so that a rec ruiter would not be limited to the weekly quota 

and could send as many enlistees as possible after their applications had 

been approved. Upon the recommendation of the new WAC T raining 

24 Change 2, 22 scp 50, to SR 140-177- 1. 29 Sep 49, ORC, Enlisted Separation; I'L 476, 82d 

COllg, 2d sess, 9 July 1952, Armed Forces Reserve Act of 1952. 

HSR 140- 107- 1, 12 Apr SI, Enlistment and Reenlistment in the Enlisted Reserve Corps, CM ]'] 

Library; Strengtlr of tire Arm)' Reporl (STM-30), 30 Jun 52. 

2G Address. Col Roger M. Crosby. to the Conf. Rpt. WAC Staff Advisors Conf, May 51. p. 26. 

21 Rpt, WAC Staff Advisors Conf. May 51. p. 23. 
THE KOREAN WAR 99 

Center commander, Lt. Col. Ruby E. Herman, Colone l Hallaren vetoed 

this idea because the center did not have barracks space to "store" new 

recruits until their training began. Colonel Ha llaren, howeve r, did agree 

to reconsider the idea if the WAC recruiting objective were to be greatly 

increased in the next six months; and the training center was alerted to 

plan for this contingency. 

With exceptional perfo rmance by the WAC recruiters, from the start 

of the war to 30 June 1951, WAC strength increased by a little over 60 

percent. Enlisted strength, however, was still a little ove r 6,000 short of 

the goal of 17,000. During the period from 30 June to 3 1 December 1950, 

3,603 enlisted women had entered the Corps (including 1,140 recalled 

reservists); between January and June 195 1, 3,443 had e ntered (including 

385 recalled reservists). Total WAC strength on 30 June was 11,932. 28 

WAC recruiting appeared to be repeating the pattern that had 

emerged during World War II. At the outbreak of the wa r, women had 

rushed to enlist, but as the war wore on, enlistments fell off. T here were, 

however, contributing facto rs. Between January and June 195 1, the new 

recruiters and promotional brochures trickled slowly into the recruiting 

stations. And, o nce On duty, the new recruiters, untrained and inexperienced, had to learn their sales techniques on the job. F inally, the large 

number of high school grad uates who usually were ready to enlist in May 

and June simply did not materialize. Army enlistments, male and female, 

declined during these months. (See Table 4.) 

TABLE 4 - MALE AND WAC ENLISTMENTS, 1951 

Jan Feb M" Ap' May JUIl 

WAC Enlistmen ts ................. 694 614 733 543 415 444 

Male Enlistments .................. 35,327 27,355 23,710 16,587 10,058 10,829 

Sourre; Sirength of the Army Report (STM - 30), 31 Dec 53. 

Despite recruiting problems, the overall strength in each of the 

women's services had increased impressively during fiscal year 1951. (See 

Table 5.) 

The increase interested Anna M. Rosenberg. Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Manpower and Personnel. She believed it showed great 

potential for increasing military women power. 

28Strell8th of the Army Report (STM -JO), 31 DC(: 51. Total WAC strenglh of 11,932 included 1.010 

officers, 39 warrant officers, and 10,883 enliSled women. 
100 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Women know thai they have a stake in this nation. During World War II, the 

women exercised the right to serve on equal terms with men as they volunteered 

in large numbers in the WAC, the WAVES, the SPARS, the Women Marines, 

the Nursi ng Services, and Medical Specialists Corps. Now with an acute shortage in manpower, women again have the o pportun ity of serving. They will not 

be found wanting. 29 

TABLE 5- ENUSTED WOMEN'S STRENGTH 

30 June 1950 JO J unc 1951 

WAC..................... . ..................... . 6,55 1 \0,883 

WAVES .......................... . 2,746 5.268 

WAF ............................................................................ . 3,782 7,514 

Women Marines .................................................................. __ --' 5 ___ ~,OO '--

Total .................................................................... . 13,614 25,667 

SOllru: Semi"Aml/lUl Report of tile SI!Crt!lUry 0/ De/elise, Jail /-hlll )0. 1951 (Washington, DC: 

GPO, 1951), p. 22. 

Mrs. Rosenberg set out to obtain 72,000 more servicewomen and 

began by asking Congress to remove the 2 percent ceiling on the strength 

of women in the regular forces. Congress complied, suspending the ceil· 

ing until 31 July 1954 (PL 51, 82d Congress, 1st session, 19 Jun 51). Next, 

she presided over the first meeting of the Defense Advisory Committee 

on Women in the Services (DACQWITS) on 18 September 1951 and 

asked its members to spearhead the recruiting campaign. They agreed 

and, with the directors of the women's services and stafT officers in the 

Department of Defense and the th ree services, developed a "Unified 

Recruiting Plan" to begin on I I November 1951. 

The basic work of the campaign began in committee members' home 

communities. Those on the committee who were college presidents in vited service recruiters to their campuses to ta lk to students about a military 

career after graduation. Presidents of women's clubs asked their chapter 

members to invite recruiters to speak to audiences in civic, church, or 

school organizations. The journalists, broadcasters, and publishers among 

the group used their media to tell women about the need for and the 

benefits of service life for women; Helen Hayes and Irene Dunne, noted 

stage and sc reen actresses, gave interviews on the need for women in the 

armed forces. Some women convinced the governors of their states to 

issue proclamations on the need for women in the services. Others pushed 

members of Congress to approve a commemorative stamp honoring 

women in the services, and, on 11 September 1952, President Truman 

2V Anna M. Rosenberg, Ass! SeeDef for Manpower and Personnel, '"Women in the Armcd 

Services Program'" (Office of Public information, DOD, Nov 51), p. 10. 
THE KOREAN WAR 101 

presided over the first-day-of-issue ceremony at the White House. 

President Truman had officially opened the recruiting campaign by 

announcing it in his annual Armistice Day speech delivered by radio on 

I I November 195 1. He told his listeners: "There are now 40,000 women 

on active duty in the Army, Navy, A ir Force, and Marines. In the next 

seven months we hope at least 72,000 mo re will volunteer for service. 

OUf Armed Forces need these women. T hey need them badly. They need 

them to undertake every type of work except duty in actual combat 

formations." 30 

Detachments of servicewomen buttressed the initial effort as they 

marched in Armistice Day parades in New York City, Chicago, San 

Francisco, Atlanta, and other cities. T hroughout the year, nationall y 

known people assisted the Department of Defense in promoting the 

campaign. Generals, admirals, and highwranking civilian government offiw 

cials publicly praised the contributions of military women and described 

the need for them. The National Advertising Council prepared and disw 

tributed thousands of newspaper ads, outdoor advertising signs, bumper 

stickers, and fact sheets to over 1,500 newspapers, magazines, and other 

media o utlets as a public service to enhance the recruiting campaign. The 

theme was "Share Service for F reedom." 

To reach the goal set by Mrs. Rosenberg, the WAC had to recruit 

20,000 women by June 1952. The Army increased the WAC recruiting 

objective to 2,400 a mouth and increased the number of WAC recruiters 

to 486. Statistically, each recruiter had to enlist 5.2 recruits a month to 

achieve that goal. Colonel Hallaren, in a move agreed to by Colonel 

Herman, relinq uished controlled input of trainees at the WAC Training 

Center to eliminate a factor the recruiters said was an obstacle to their 

success. Other changes at the center included a switch to the committee 

system of instruction in October 1951 and introduction of two-level 

traini ng in March 1952. 

The women's basic training program, like the men's, had been reduced 

in length in October 1950 from 13 to 8 weeks. Until October 195 1, unit 

cadre conducted all basic traini ng courses, but unde r the committee 

system, officers and NCOs from the office of the S- 3, WAC Training 

Center, conducted 35 percent of the training to free the cadre for other 

duties. With two-level training, a basic tra ining company would begin one 

class as soon as one or two platoons filled and would begin another when 

the other platoons filled the company a week later.

31 

30 Radio Address. Harry S. Truman, II Nov 51, Public Popers 0/ Harry S. Trumoll, 19JJ (Washington. DC: GPO. 1965). pp. 627- 28; "Women in the Armed Services Program." Nov 5]. pp. 4- 6, 

ODWAC Ref File, DACOWITS, CM H. St:e also IJiSlory o/Ihe De/elise Adpisory Commillee 011 

Women ;11 Ihe Services. 

3' Historical Summary. WAC Training Center, June 1950-January 1953, H istory Collection, WAC 

Museum. 
102 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

In November 1951, Mrs. Rosenberg visited the troops in Korea and 

Japan. Upon returning, she announced, "A WAC unit of 600 members 

will be sent to fill jobs at the United States Eighth Army suppl y base in 

Pusan, Korea." 32 In other years such an announcement of opportunity 

for foreig n service duty would have created a flood of applicants for 

WAC enlistment at recruiting stations. But, a month later, Colonel Ha ~ 

laren was forced to tell newsmen that "the lag in recruiting" forced the 

Army to postpone. indefinitely, assignment of a WAC unit to Korea. 33 

Colonel Ha llaren's words provided an early indication that all was not 

going well with the Unified Recruiting Campa ign. Despite increased 

publicity. advertising, and recruiters, WAC recruitment for FY 1952 did 

not equal that achieved d uring FY 195 1-7,046 enlisted women and 423 

commissioned and wa rrant officers. In FY 1952, the Corps gained only 

3,933 enlisted women and 330 offi cers; attrition, however, doubled. 34 

After discharge on marriage had been discontinued in all services in 

August 1950, losses resulting from pregnancy climbed sharply, exceeding 

even the high rate anticipated under wartime conditions. Women were 

using discharge on pregnancy to break their enlistment contracts in order 

to establish ho useholds with their husbands, or, sometimes, to leave the 

service when they became dissatisfied. WAC leaders reasoned that the 

pregnancy rate would climb higher if discharge on marriage were not 

reinstated, and it appeared to be a benign actio n since truce talks had 

begun. D ischarge on marriage was reinstated on 20 July 1951 for enlisted 

women in all services and much later, on 18 September 1953, for women 

officers. Unfortunately, when the decision was made to reinstate discharge on marriage for enlisted women, no one foresaw that a Unified 

Recruiting Campaign would begin in Novembe r 195 1. 

TABLE 6-ENLISTED LOSSES FOR D ISCHARGE ON MARRIAGE AND 

PREGNANCY 

[Ily percentage of total WAC 10ssesl 

Discharge on: FY 1950 FY 1951 FY 1952 FY 1953 FY 1954 

Marriage ............................ 26.9 9.3 34.9 27.6 16.6 

Pregnancy ......... ................ 18.9 39.5 23.9 19.0 14.6 

Total ....................... 45.8 48.8 58.8 46.6 31.2 

SOl/ree: Losses of Enlisted Women by Cause. Slrellglll of Ihe Army Repof/ (STM- JO), for the 

years shown. 

U New York 'li"1II1'5. 6 Noy 51. p. 36. 

33 Dorothy Brandon, "WAC Recruiting Lag Slows Korea Assignment." Washillgloll PoSI, II Dec 

51, p. 19. 

~~ Slrellglb of lire Army Reporl (STM- 30), 30 June 1952. 
THE KOREAN WAR 103 

Thus. while the unified campaign was in progress during FY 1952, the 

WAC experienced high rates of losses on marriage and pregnancy. Those 

losses, with the poor recruiting results, had a severe effect on the strength 

of the Corps. (See Tables 6 and 7.) 

TABLE 7-STRENGTH OF THE WOMEN'S SERVICES 

30 June 

1951 

WAC........................................................................ 11,932 

WAVES................................................................... 6.074 

WAF ........................................................................ 8,001 

30 lune 

1952 

11,456 

8, 187 

11 ,89 1 

Increase or 

Decrease 

- 476 

+2, 11 3 

+3,890 

Women Marines ........................................................ __ 2,.,,,06,,5'---_--"2,462 ""'---_-""'-'''- +397 

Total.............................................................. 28,072 33,996 +5,924 

Source; Selected Manpower Statistics, Office of the Comptroller of the Department of Defellse, 

30 J UII 56, p. 41. 

Early in the recruiting campaign. Mrs. Rosenberg discovered that the 

service recruiters lacked marketing information for their campaigns. 

Hence, in 1952 she directed that a comprehensive attitude survey be 

conducted to discover women's reasons for enlisting and reenlisting. 

Some of the fi ndings concerning the WACs were informat ive: 

- Four out of every ten newly enlisted women said they entered 

the WAC to receive training in a skill (38 percent); to travel 

(19 percent); to serve their country (18 percent); to get away 

from an unsatisfactory job or home situation (10 percent). 

- Of a group of 980, 30 percent said they intended to reenlist 

and 24 percent were undecided. Of the 30 percent who said 

they intended to reenlist, 63 percent desired an overseas assignment. 

- The most frequen t reasons given for not reenlisting we re marriage or pending marriage; dissatisfaction with military job, 

promotion, or pay; desire to obtain more civilian education or 

training; dissatisfaction with lack of acceptance of 'Y,,omen or 

their perceived reputation. .. 

- Sixty-two percent of the women felt men and women were 

treated equall y by the Army; 27 percent felt women were 

treated better; II percent thought men were treated better. 

- Older enlisted women in NCO grades who held super.J'isory 

jobs or jobs requiring initiative. originality, or responsibility 

were most likely to reenlist. 35 

3a AUitude Re$CfI(ch Branch, Office of Armed Forces Information and Education, DOD. Rpt No. 

126-345 W, "Women in the WAC, A Study of Recellt Enlistees. May 52; Rpl No. 127- 347, 
104 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The studies. conducted in 1952 and 1953, provided information that 

would be of future value to enlistment and reenlistment planners for the 

WAC and the other women's services. 

Colonel Hallaren had her own thoughts about why the WAC recruitment effort had failed during 1952. At the Personnel Officers Conference 

at the Pentagon in December 1952 as her term as director of the WAC 

drew to a close. she said that the Unified Recruiting Campaign "could 

hardly be considered an unqualified success." She attributed the failure of 

recruitment to " inexperience of women recruiters; parental objection; 

poor reputation of service women; and competition with civilian industry." In addition, she blamed competition with the Air Force. 36 

She also offered some constructive suggestions to improve WAC rec ruiting. She recommended that enlisted recruiters be replaced on a "one 

WAC officer for two enlisted women basis." She observed that the 

average enlisted recruiter did not have the schooli ng, the background, or 

the pay to be a supersalesman and compete "with high powered civilian 

procurement agencies" or with women in the Air Force who somehow 

received promotions faster than the WACs. "It is no reflection 011 a 

WAC corporal that she has a difficult time selli ng a ca reer in the Army 

when the WAF she recruited last year comes home with three stripes 

while she still has two." 37 Colonel Hallaren be lieved that parental objectio ns to women joining the WAC were frequently based o n "war stories" 

about WACs. When traced to their sources, the stories proved to be 

invent.ed or embellished beyond recognition. To help eliminate these 

myths and stories, she suggested that accurate information could improve 

the recruiting problem. "If representative high school students, teachers, 

and parents were invited to visit the WAC units in their areas, familiarity 

would breed content. " 38 

Like many Army officers concerned with recruiting, Colonel Hallaren 

disliked the joint Army- Air Force recruiting system. Under it, shared 

office space put recruiters in direct day-lo-day competition in a single 

place where they could sc rutin ize each other's prospects and listen to 

each other's sales techniques. The Army could not compete with the 

"wild blue yonder" image, the glamour of the Air Force. As the 19505 

progressed WAF recruiters inc reasingly o utsold their WAC counterparts, 

even though WAC entry requirements seemed easier. The WAC would 

accept women for a two-yea r rather than a three- or fou r-year enlistment; 

women with General Educatio nal Development (GED) certificates in-

"Altitudes of Enlisled Women in Ihe Regular Service loward Reenlistment:' Aug 52; Rpl No. 128-

347, "The Servicewoman as a l'ublic Relalions Agent for her Serviee:' Sep H; Rpl No. 136-347. 

"Some Salisfactions and Dissatisfaelions of Service Life:' Jun 53, e M H Ref !Jr. 

31 Address, Col Hallaren. "WAC MaIlers." Rl'porl of Ihe World- Widl' G_I COIr/l'Nmce. 2-4 Dectm. 

ber 1952. prepared in Ihe Office of Ihe ACofS. G- I. DA , p. 50. 

3' Ibid. 

U Ibid .• p. 52. 
THE KOREAN WAR 

ANNA M . ROSENBERG, Assistant Secretary of De/elise, Manpower alld PersOllllel (1 950-1953). 

105 

GENERAL 1. LAWTON COLLINS, 

Army Chief of Staff (1949- /953), 

stead of high school diplomas; and women with Slightly lower intelligence test scores. 39 

Colo nel Hallaren opposed adopting the WAF standard of accepting 

o nly women who scored in the top two (of four) mental aptitUde categories. The WAC accepted women in the top of the third category, slightly 

below the median in intelligence. The director was a staunch supporter of 

the concept of "quality before quantity," but she saw no reason to enlist 

women who were overqualified for the jobs they would be doing. She 

recommended that greater emphasis be placed on good character and an 

unblemished record of deportment. Women with a very high intellect 

would, she felt, become bored and discontented in many jobs available to 

them in the Army, 

We cannot go along with raisi ng Ihe AFWST [Armed Forces Women's Selection Test) score to the 65th percentile, There are jobs to be done in the clerical. 

medical, rood service, and other fields, in the Air Force as well as the Army, 

u SR 62.5- 120-1 and Air Force Regulation AFR 39- 28, 9 Sep 49, Entiument and Reenlistment in 

the Women's Army Corps, Regular Army, and Women in the Regular Air Forces, with Change I. 28 

Feb.50, Reviscd enlistment regulation SR 6 1.5- 105- ], 6 lun .52, the fin;t separated rrom that ror the 

USAF, raised the necessary score ror entry into the WAC to the 49th percentile: AFR 39- 9, Oct 52, 

plneed the WAF entry score at the 65th percentile, 
106 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

which [would bore) an ind ividual with a high lQ . 

These jobs must be done. In an emergency we wou ld 

mellts.40 

. into non-reenlistment. 

have many such assignWAC recruitment had been successfu l early in the Korean War; then 

accessions declined. After July 1951, the unpopularity of the war, the 

start of truce talks, the competition with the other women's services for 

recruits. and public apathy combined to cut WAC enlistments in half. 

The Unified Recruiting Campaign, begun with such high hopes in November 1951, proved unsuccessful as that fiscal year drew to a close in 

June 1952. Fiscal year 1953 was equall y unsuccessful. Recruitment of 

males also dropped, from 238,000 in FY 1951 to 155,000 in FY 1953. 

Army strength was maintained through the draft (1.5 millio n men) and 

recall from the reserve components (288,000 reservists and guardsmen). 4 1 

WACs if! the Far East Command 

The war in Korea reinforced the change in the mission of U.S. military 

forces around the world from occupation to defense against invasion. No 

one knew what the Russians would do while the United States was 

preoccupied by the Korean War. According to one historian, James F. 

Schnabel, "The United States believed Russia to be the real aggressor in 

Korea, in spirit if not in fact, and effective measures to halt the aggression 

might provoke total war .... The determinant for Korea was, then as 

always, 'What will Russia do?'" 42 In addition to forces fighting in 

Korea, North Atlantic T reaty Organizatio n (NATO) obligations required 

the maintenance and reinforcement of Western defenses in Europe, while 

other treaty commitments required the defense of Japan and the Ryukyus. 

During FY 1951, the United States sent twelve additio nal combat divisions to Korea, Japan, and Okinawa and four to Germany. 

WAC strength overseas fluctuated with the Korean War. At the start 

of the conflict, approximately 20 percent of WAC strength was overseas; 

that percentage increased during the second year, then fell after the war 

ended. (See Table 8.) 

In Japan, WAC strength inc reased rapidly after the war began. In Jul y 

1950, the WAC had two detachments, at Tokyo and at Yokohama; by 

mid-1951, there were six; and by the end of December 1953, there were 

nine. 43 A WAC unit was also established at Fort Buckner on the island 

of Okinawa in 1951. 

40 RI'f'(H'f of /hl' World-Widl' PI'I'S()lIIrl'l OffruFS COII/l'n!llCl'. 1-4 D« 51. p. 51 . 

41 Enlisted Gains and Losses. S/m,gfh of/he Army Rl'por/ (STM- 30), 30 Jun 53. 

41 Jame$ F. Schnabel. Policy and Direc/it)ll: Thl' First Yl'Ur. United Stales Army in the Korean War 

(Washington, DC GI'O. 1912). p. 67. 

4S The detachments were located at Yokohama. Tokyo, Camp Sendai, Camp Sakai, Camp Drew, 

Camp Zama, Camp Osaka, Cump Saglulli, and Camp Schimmclpfcnning in June 19H. 
THE KOREAN WAR 107 

TABLE 8-WAC PERSONNEL OVERSEAS 

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 

Far Easl................................................. 626 2,604 1,79 1 1,764 976 

Europe................................................... 632 933 1,356 1,130 994 

Australia................................................ 84 81 139 143 74 

Ca ribbean .............................................. _~9'-'1 __ --"'---_-'''-- 98 89 __ 89 ''"-__ ---'-- 1 

Total .......................................... 1,433 3,7 16 3,375 3, 126 2,045 

$oUfU: Sm!llgll. of tire Arm)' Report (STM- JO), for 30 JUlie of each year 001«1. 

The women in these units, both officers and enlisted, were assigned 

primarily to administrative, communications, medical, and intelligence 

duties. They worked al Fa r East Command headqua rters and other commands in Tokyo, at regio nal commands throughout Japan, and at genera l 

and station hospitals in Japan and Okinawa. 

In the first year of the wa r, the shortage of personnel in some specialties was critical Overseas, women who held one essential MOS were 

often retrained in an even more urgently needed MOS-telephone and 

teletype operato rs, cashiers, motor vehicle operators, mechanics, and 

medical corpsmen. W itho ut complaint, the WACs did their best at whatever work needed to be done, At the May 1951 WAC Staff Advisers 

Conference, Lt. Col. F. Marie Clark, the adviser for the Far East, 

reported: "As a result of the Korean situation, WACs in the Far East 

Command are being efficientl y utilized in assignments heretofore believed 

by some could only be performed by male personneL ... With few 

exceptions, WACs arriving subsequent to June 1950 have been and are 

being utili zed in positions either to replace o r release a man to a combat 

element." 44 

One landmark in the utilizatio n of medical WACs occurred in the 

Army hospitals in Japan, As a matter of necessity, WACs had been 

assigned as ward masters, a supervisory role traditional ly the province of 

mal e medical NCOs. The medical WACs also learned specialized skills by 

assisting in the care of paraplegics, victims of frostbite, and patients with 

broken or injured limbs, hepa titis, and other injuries and illnesses. The 

Chief, Army Nurse Corps, Col. Mary G. Phillips, praised their work. 

"We have found wherever we have WAC technic ians in our hospitals 

that, on the whole, they are doing a wonderful job, There are, however, 

too few of them. Many, after putting in long ho urs of work in their 

assigned duty, volunteered their services for extra duty or visited the 

44 Remarks, LtCol F. Marie Clark. in Rpt, WAC Staff Advisors Conf, 2- 4 May S1. p. 43. author's 

file, CMH: "A History or the Women's Army Corps ill the Far East, 28 Jan 44 to 28 Jan S5," Office 

of the WAC Staff Advisor. FECOM, O DWAC Ref File. Far East Command WACS, CM H, d ted 

hereafter as I-listory, WAC FE. 
108 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

patients after working hours to ta ke care of personal needs such as letter 

writing, post exchange purc hases, etc." 45 

By the spring of 1951, while over 300 Army nurses were in Korea at 

field. station, evacuation, and mobile Army surgical hospitals. WACs 

waited expectantly for a detachment of their own to be formed for 

service there. Months passed, but, even though more and more WACs 

were requisitioned for duty in Japan and Okinawa, no detachments were 

requested for Korea. During the WAC Staff Advisers Conference in 

May, the G- l. Lt. Gen. Edward H. Brooks, said, "I just came back from 

Korea and I believe there is a real requirement over there for women in 

uniform- WACs and WAVES." 46 His words swept th rough the Corps, 

but no detachments were assigned. In August, Lt. Gen. Antho ny G. 

McAuliffe succeeded General Brooks as G-l; still no WAC detachments 

were assigned. A yea r later, in August 1952, General Mark W. Clark, 

then commander in chief of the United Nations Command and Far East 

Command, asked General McAuliffe whether women could be assigned to 

Korea. The G - I replied that policy allowed it, but that WAC recruiting 

was poor- no further WAC units could be sent to the Far East. Thus, 

even tho ugh individual WACs would serve in Korea on special assign~ 

ments, the door was closed to the establishment of a WAC unit in 

Korea. 47 

Despite the fact that no WAC units were assigned to Korea, contact 

was established with the Corps' counterpa rt in the Republic of Korea 

(ROK) Army. Its women's corps had formed rapidl y in 1950 around a 

nucleus of policewomen trained for service in the Korean National Constabulary in 1946 by a former WAC captain, A lice A. Parrish, who, in 

1948, rejoined the WAC and remained in the Regular Army until retirement. Contact during the war strengthened the tie and led to the assignment of a senior WAC officer as U.S. military adviser to the ROK Army 

WAC in 1956; the position was not discontinued until 1974.48 

Armistice alld Aftermath 

Ending the war in Korea became a major issue in the 1952 presidential 

campaign. In November, Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected; in January 

1953, he was inaugurated. In March, Joseph Stalin died; he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev. Negotiations at Panmunjom accelerated. In 

4. Remarks. Col Mary G. I'hillips, Rpl. WAC StafT Advisors Conf, 2-4 May 51. p. 10. 

48 Remarks. LIGen Edward H. Brooks. Rpl. WAC 51afT Advisors Conf, 2-4 May 51. p. 8. 

47 History of Activitit."S of Ihe Office of the AColS. G- I. for CY [952. p. 52. CM H Ref Or; 

History. WAC FE. p. 18. In Dec 52. MSgt Carolyn H. James and Cpl Louise M. Farrell, stenographers. and Cpt Christine F. Chrones. interpreter, wenl 10 HQ. Eighth Army, in Seoul. They were 

followed in 1953 by MSgts Dorothea S. Cully and Grace T. Donatio, and Cpl Elaine J. Wilford. 

Capt Martha A. Voyles served as aide-de-camp to the commander of the Pusan Mi[itary POSt from 

Aug 53 to Dec 54. 

48 LIT. LtCol Alice Parrish Talley, USA (Ret), to author, 22 Sep 76, in author's Iile, CMf!; 

Address, LtCol Mary C. Lane, "The WAC in Korea." 19 Oct 61. History Collection, WAC Museum. 
THE KOREAN WAR 109 

July, an armistice was sig ned. No massive demobilizatio n followed the 

end of the war in Korea. By December 1952, most of the recalled 

reservists had been released from active duty and had been replaced by 

draftees or Regular Army personnel. Draft caBs had already fallen from a 

monthly high of 87,000 in January 1951 to 26,000 in July 1953. At the 

time the armistice was signed, the Army had only 1.5 million men and 

women on active duty. No demobilization plan was needed- the men and 

women left the Army as their terms of enlistment ended or as they were 

released to the Army Reserve or the National Guard to complete the 

balance of their obligated federal service. Congress rewarded Korean 

veterans as it had veterans from World War lI- educational benefits. 

home loans, mustering·out pay, reemployment rights. Those who had 

served in the combat zone had received hazardous duty (combat) pay and 

deferment from federal income taxes on that money. 

The End of an Era 

By the end of 1952, Col. Mary A. Hallaren had completed almost six 

years as director of the WAC. She had led the effort to obtain Regular 

Army and Reserve status for WACs. She had directed the procedures for 

assimilating WACs into the regular and reserve components between 

1948 and 1950; supervised the revival of WAC recruiting and the opening 

of the WAC Training Center; and led the Corps through most of the 

Korean War. After leaving the directorship, she served on active duty for 

another seven years before retiring in 1960 at age 53. 49 At Colonel 

Hallaren's retirement, Col. Mary Louise Milligan, then the director of the 

WAC, summarized: "She had symbolized the highest traits of character 

and service which I am certain General Marshall visualized when he 

planned for American women to serve in our Army. It was due to her 

outstanding leadership and service that our organization was made a 

permanent part of the Regular and Reserve forces of our Army." 50 

Before her tour as director ended, Colonel Hallaren gave the G - l. 

General McAuliffe. a resume on each of the Regular Army lieutenant 

colonels eligible to replace her. T he list was considered by Secretary of 

41 Col Hallaren served as acting dir from 5 Mar 47, and as DWAC AUS from 7 May 47; as dir, 

WAC RA from 3 Dec 48 to 3 Jan 53; HQ US European Command, Frankfurt, Germany, 1953- 1957; 

and in the Office of the Asst SeeDef, Manpower, Personnel, and Reserve Affairs, 1957- 1960. At a 

retirement ceremony on 30 J une 1960 al Ihe WAC Center and WAC School, Fori McClellan, Col 

Hallaren was awarded Ihe ugion of Merit for the third lime. LIGen Herbert B. Powell, CG, Third 

Army, presented the award and read this tribute from the Hon Wilber M. Brucker, SecArmy: "The 

honors which have come to you . . . speak for themselves as to the characler o f your service. You 

have indeed len an indelible mark upon the Army by your magnificent contributions." (DA Msg 

496498,25 Jun 60, Appendix "0," Annual History, WAC CtS, 60-6 1, CMH Ref Br.) WAC Center 

and WAC School historical reports, whethe r they are titled annual, biennial, IS·month, or supplemen· 

tal, are cited hereaner as Historical Report, WAC C&S, with date and location of document. 

10 Address, Col Mary Louise Milligan, Hallaren retirement ceremony, Appendix "0," Historical 

Report, WAC C&S, 60-6 1, CMH Rd Dr. 
110 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

the Army Frank Pace, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Army for Manpow~ 

er and Reserve Affairs Fred Korth, and Army Chief of Staff J. Lawton 

Collins. Although there we re nineteen eligible lieutenant colonels, seniority was an important consideration in fi lli ng statutory positions, and it was 

almost certain that Charl ee L. Kell y. Cora M . Foster, Eli zabeth C. Smith, 

or Irene O. Galloway would be chosen. On 9 December 1952, Secretary 

Pace announced the selection of Irene O. Galloway to be director of the 

WAC. 5 1 

Quiet-spoken and more conservative than her predecessor, Irene Otillia 

Galloway had a strong personality and a reputation for sincerity and 

skilled performance of d uty. She had graduated with the second WAAC 

OCS class, September 1942, and had served at W AAC headquarters at 

the Pentagon; at Headquarters, Army Service Forces; and with the G-1 

Career Management Group. From June 1948 to October 1952 she was 

assigned as WAC Staff Adviser, U.S. Army in Europe. In November, she 

was selected to replace the commander of the WAC Training Center, 

who was resigning her commission to get married. s2 Colonel Galloway 

reported to Fort Lee on 24 November 1952 and within two weeks was 

notified she had been selected to be the new WAC director. On 3 

January 1953, in Secretary Pace's office, she was sworn in as the director 

of the WAC and promoted to temporary colonel. 5 3 

The position of deputy director had officially been vacant since September 1952 when Colonel Milligan left for Germany to relieve Colonel 

Galloway. Lt. Col. Charlee L. Kelly had performed the duties without 

being appointed to the position by Colonel Hallaren, who wanted her 

successor to be free to select her own deputy. Colonel Galloway selected 

Lt. Col. Emily C. Gorman, then the WAC staff adviser at Headquarters, 

Second Army, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland; she was sworn in by 

the adjutant general, Maj. Gen. William E. Bergin, on 3 January 1953. 54 

Other positions in the Office of the Director, WAC, were also filled: 

Maj. Rebecca S. Parks became the executive officer; Maj. Catherine J. 

Lyons, WAC career management officer, and the only holdover from 

Colonel Hallaren's staff, Maj. Elizabeth P. Hoisington, became the technical information officer. 1515 

&1 Date of rank for these officers was 12 Sep 49 (Army Regisler. I Jan ~2); the I~ olher eligibles 

held RA dale of rank 15 Aug 51: Eleanore C. Sullivan. Frances M. Lathrope, Sara L. Sturgis. Ruby 

E. Herman. Esther P. Pulis. Helen M. Bouffier, Arlene Scheidenhelm, Emily C. Gorman. Lucile G. 

Odbert. Mary K. Moynahan, Mary L. Milligan, Anne E. Sweeney, F. Marie Clark. Hortense M. 

Boutell, and Lillian Harris. 

n Colond Herman had suddenly announced her plans 10 resign, effective] December, and to 

marry William Flannery, art direclor for a movie, Never Wll ve III II WAC, filmed at the WAC Center 

Ihat summer. 

u DA SO 258, J I Dec ~2. 

50 Ibid. 

U Maj Parks was promoted 10 LICoI in Jul n; Maj Lyons in May 56. Maj Hoisington remained on 

Ihe slalT unlil Jan 54: lJ years later she relurned as DWAC. 
\ 

THE KOREAN WAR III 

Colonel Galloway assumed her duties in 1953, a year of many changes 

in national and world affairs. The status of women was also changing. 

President Eisenhower appointed Oveta Culp Hobby to his cabinet as the 

secretary of the newly established Department of Health, Education, and 

Welfare. Mary Pillsbury Lord was appointed as a U.S. representative on 

the U.N. Economic and Social Council. Clare Booth Luce, a congress· 

woman from Connecticut, became the first woman appointed ambassador 

to a major nation-Italy. Eli zabeth II. who had succeeded to the throne 

in 1952, was crowned Queen of England and the British Empire on 2 

June 1953, and, in September, Mrs. Vijaya Pandit of India was elected 

president of the United Nations General Assembly. 

There were also changes in the other women's services. The Women 

Marines, with over 2,500 women on active duty, celebrated their tenth 

anniversary in February 1953 and welcomed a new director, Col. Julia E. 

Hamblet. Over fifty enlisted WAVES were assigned to sea duty for the 

first time in 1953; they served on ships of the Military Sea Transportation 

Service. Capt. Louise K. Wilde replaced Capt. Joy Bright Hancock as 

director of the W AVES- official title, Assistant to the Chief of Naval 

Personnel for Women-on I June 1953. The Air Force selected its 

second ex-WAVE officer to be director of the WAF, Col. Phyllis D. S. 

Gray, who replaced Col. Mary Jo Shelley on I January 1954. Col. Ruby 

F. Bryant had been appointed chief of the Army Nurse Corps in 195 1 and 

would serve until 1955. And in March 1953, 1st Lt. Fae M. Adams 

became the first woman physician appointed to the Regular Army Medical Corps.6 6 

After the Korean armistice, the United States had no time to be 

complacent. In August, the Soviet Union detonated a hydrogen bomb, 

ending the United States' monopoly over nuclear power. The nature of 

East-West friction changed. Scientific and technological competition intensified. Weapons and weapon systems became more sophisticated. 

Skilled technicians became more necessary. Standing armies grew. 

Such changes also affected the WAC, but responding was difficult. 

With the draft providing the requisite number of men, Congress cut 

recruiting budgets. The FY 1953 budget limited those expenses to half 

that spent in FY 1952. The WAC, dependent on recruiting, saw its 

publicity funds cut and half of its recruiters reassigned to nonrecruiting 

duties. 

The WAC, like the other women's services, was now a permanent part 

of a large, continuing peacetime military establishment. Improved administration and reduced costs were now the goa ls. 

U Army.Ntny.Air FOITe Regis/er. 14 Mar 53, p. 8. 21 Mar B. p. 7. 30 Apr 53. p. II, and I Aug 53, 

p. 9; PL 408, 82d Cong, 2d sess, 24 Jun 52. 

CHAPTER V 

Officer Procurement and Career 

Development 

Upon entering the permanent military establishment, the WAC had 

one source of officers and onl y vague plans for their career development. 

In World War II, large numbers of enlisted women had applied eagerly 

for Officer Candidate School (OeS); consequently. WAC planners assumed that applicants would continue to provide the annual requirement. 

for second lieutenants. But between 1948 and 1950, few enlisted women 

rushed to apply for DeS, and many of those who did failed the long and 

difficult course. The WAC sorely needed another source of officers. It 

also needed a program to keep its current officers interested in remaining 

on active duty despite the restrictions on promotion. Wartime personnel 

planning had been minimal. Career management planning was needed to 

ensure proper officer training and c hallenging assignments. But. because 

the WAC was a temporary part of the Army. a lo ng-range officer 

development program was not proposed. When the Corps became permanent in 1948. WAC planners had to prepare career plans that would give 

WAC officers job satisfaction and offer hope for ca reer advancement. 

The task would be difficult because WAC officers received little training 

beyond OCS and could not advance beyond the grade of lieutenant 

colo nel. 

WAC Officer Procurement 

Until 1948 the Corps had been concerned with only the total number 

of officers on active duty. After the Corps became part of the Regular 

Army. WAC planners became preoccupied not only with increasing the 

number of its regular officers but also with obtaining supplementary 

reserve officers willing to se rve on extended active duty to meet the total 

officer requirement. Traditional male officer procurement sources-the 

U.S. Military Academy and ROTC programs- were not available to the 

WAC. The Organized Reserve. however, was. And, in 1948. Congress 

authorized retirement pay for reservists who served twenty years o n 
114 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

active duty. It, thus, became easier to attract reservists for active dUly. I 

Eligible women CQuid choose between becoming regular officers with a 

generall y accepted commitment of thirty years on active duty or becoming reserve officers and spending twenty years on active duty. WAC 

officers showed a preference for the shorter reserve career over the 

lo nger, more prestigious and advantageous status of a regular officer. (See 

Table 9.) 

TABLE 9-0FFICERS AUTHORIZED AND ON DUTY, 1949, 1950, 1951 

1949 1950 195 1 

Author- Actual Author- Actual AUlhor- Actual ized izcd ized 

Regular Army, WAC ........... 500 267 500 314 600 329 

Reserve, WAC ...................... 300 259 300 372 800 68 1 

Tolal ......................... 800 626 800 686 1,400 1,010 

Source: Strellg!1I of {he Army Repor{ (STM- JO), 30 Jun 49, 30 JUIl 50, 30 Jun 51; Army Progress 

Report, Military Personnel, 30 J un 51, p. 7. 

Within a year Colonel Hallaren saw that OCS alo ne would not 

produce enough second lieutenants to fill the Corps' requ irements. For 

each biannual OCS class, she had anticipated receiving 100 or more 

applications from which to choose 75 outstanding candidates-a total of 

150 annually, With an estimated attrition rate of 11 percent, the average 

OCS loss during World War II, about 135 officers would enter the Corps 

each yea r. But only 81 women applied for the first c1ass-69 were 

selected, 37 g raduated. For the second class, 86 applied, 61 were selected, 

42 graduated. In 1949 the Corps gained only 79 of the requ ired 135 

officers.2 

There were seve ral explanations for the low number of OCS applications. During World War II, women between 20 and 50 years of age 

could apply, but after 1948. women (like men) had to be at least 20 years 

and 6 months old and could not be 28 or over. T he educational requirement was not considered a deterrent for applicants because the requirements for enlistment and for OCS were the same- a high school diploma 

o r a passing score on the General Educational Development Test. T he 

necessity to obtain passing scores on the Army General Qualification Test 

(110) and the Officer Candidate Test (115), however. eliminated many 

, PL 810, Army und Air Force Vitalization and Retirement Equali"Zation Act, 80th Cong, 29 Jun 

48. 

2 " History or the WAC Training Center. Camp Lee, Virginia, from June 1948 to January 1949," 

History Collection. WAC Museum; Rpl, WAC Slaff Advisors lind WAC SlatTOfficers ConC 12- 16 

Sep 49, p. 46, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Staff Adviser Conrerences, CMH. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEV ELOPMENT 11 5 

applicants. As a matter of choice. some women with all the qualifications 

for oes simply preferred enlisted status. Others considered the length of 

training interminable-eight weeks of basic traini ng, eight weeks in Leaders Course, and twenty-four weeks in Officer Candidate School. 3 News 

of the high rate of attrition, spreading to WAC units in the field, may also 

have deterred some applicants. 

WAC planners were perplexed by the number of women candidates 

who failed to complete DeS successfull y. The attritio n rate for the first 

eight classes averaged 34.3 pe rcent. (See Table 10.) T he WAC School 

tried several methods to reduce attrition. Screening of applicants was 

tightened in 195 1. Candidates received a four-hour remedial reading 

course before they began OCS. An ana lysis of the rail ures in the first 

seven classes showed "defi ciencies in leadership" to be the most rrequent 

cause. Such defic iencies included the inability to solve leade rship problems, to conduct close o rder drill, to exercise good j udgment, or to 

maintain the appea rance, demeano r, and deportment or a leader. The staff 

and raculty tried to resolve these problems through extra tutoring and 

counseling sessions. But nothing seemed to help; attrition remained high.4 

TABLE IO- WAC OCS, 1949- 1953 

Class No. Graduation Entered Graduated Perccnt Lcngth 

Date Allrilion (weeks) 

I ..................... I Apr 49 69 37 46.4 24 

II ................... 29 Sep 49 61 42 31.1 24 

lll .................. II Apr 50 63 50 20.8 24 

v ................... 19 Dec 50 42 26 38.1 17 

v ................... 24 Jul 51 48 21 56.3 17 

VI .................. 8 Mar 52 41 35 14.6 17 

VII ................ 19 Jul 52 13 10 23. 1 17 

VIII ............... 14 Mar 53 25 13 44.0 20 

&mrce: SlafT Study, WAC School. "Analysis or Candidatcs Relieved According to Causc, 

Classes [ through Vlll. WAC OCS, 1949- 1953." file OCS. History Collection. WAC Muscum. 

The WAC was not alone in experiencing such high rates or attrition. 

In 1951 the chier or Army Field Forces, General Mark W. Clark, appointed a board or officers to study officer candidate school operations 

throughout the Army. The board's final report showed that attrition in 

male OCS courses at Fort Riley, Fort Sill, and Fort Benning averaged 

3 AR 625- 5, 12 Scp 44, Officer Candidate Schools. and DA CiT 216. 19 J ul 48. and SR 350- 350-40. 

6 Jan 50, WAC Officcr Candidate School. CM H Library. Age waivers allowed members of the first 

WAC OCS class to be as old as 32. Such age waivers we re never again permined for WAC OCS. 

4 WAC School, "Analysis of Candidates Relieved According 10 Causc. Classes [ through VIII 

WAC OCS, 1949- 1953." file OCS. History Collection. WAC Muscum. 
11 6 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

37. 12 percent; attrition from WAC DeS was only sligh tl y hig ber at 37.8 1 

percent. The study group, presided over by Col. George G. Elms, the 

assistant commandant of the Army Ground School, concl uded that "imperfect procurement and selection rather than weaknesses in the DeS 

system constitute the principal reasons for the present attrition rate." 

Based o n their recommendations, screening of all officer candidates was 

tightened to narrow the selection of applicants. Screening so reduced 

WAC selectees fo r enrollment in oes that in 1954 the officer candidate 

class had to be merged with the WAC Company Officers Course 

(WCOC), the class for direct commissio n students.s 

Earlier, in 1949, when Colonel Hallaren had seen that WAC OCS 

would not provide enough officers to fill regular and reserve requirements, she had obtained approval to initiate a direct commission program 

similar to one used by the Navy. Under the WAC program, women 

college graduates received appointments as second lieutenants in the 

Organized Reserve, and upon successfully completing the WCOC, they 

applied for appointment in the Regular Army. Each applicant had signed 

a statement that read, in part, " I further agree to apply for a commission 

in the Women's Army Corps, Regular Army, upon successful completion 

of such training." 6 

The merger in 1954 of OCS and WCOC classes produced a surprising 

effect. OCS classes that graduated between A ug ust 1954 and June 1962 

had an average altrition rate of only 18 percent. Although leadershi p 

deficiencies still led other reasons for failure, fewe r failures occurred. The 

reason for the reduction in attrition perhaps lay in the merger of the 

student officer and officer candidate classes. One theory was that the 

officer candidates benefited from the more understanding attitude that 

cadre and faculty members exhibited toward college students new to the 

Army. Previously, all class members had had some Army experiencethey had been selected because of their excell ent leadership ability, 

knowledge, appearance, and ambition. Many cadre and faculty members, 

therefore, maintained such high standards in these areas that only overachievers could qualify. Some candidates became discouraged in trying to 

succeed; many finall y just gave up. When the cou rse fo r student officers 

and officer candidates was combi ned, a more balanced approach to 

achievement prevailed, and the learning atmosphere improved for the 

candidates. Another theory about the lower attrition was that the calldi-

& Rpt, Officer Candidate School Board, 8 Feb 52. and Llr, Chief. Army Field Forces. to all Army 

DCS School Commandants, 13 Mar 52 (file ATrNG-32 334/164, 13 Mar 52), sub: Rcport of 

OCAFF Officer Candidate School Board, file OCS, History Colle<:tion. WAC Museum. 

G Memo, CG, Second Army. to ACofS. G- 3, DA. 18 May 49. sub: Report of Conference on WAC 

Training Center. ODWAC Ref File. Officer T raining, CMH: Rpt, WAC SlafT Advisors and WAC 

StafT Officers Conf. 12- 16 Sep 49. p. 8, ODWAC Ref File, WAC StafT Adviser Conferences. CMH; 

SR 140-105- 25,6 De<: 49, Appointment in WAC Se<:tion. Organized Reserve Corps for Subsequcllt 

CommiSSioning in the Women's Army Corps, Regular Army, CM H Library. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER D EVELOPMENT 117 

dates competed mo re strongly against the student officers to show that 

experience in the enlisted ranks was more valuable than a college education. Whatever the explanation, afte r the merger, attrition was never 

again a problem in Des. 7 

Three routes were available for appointment in the Regular Army, 

WAC. in 1949: the WCOC direct commission program, designation as a 

distinguished graduate of oes, and the Competitive Tour Program. 

Under the latter, reserve officers could apply for a o ne-year tour of 

special assignments in which their skills and performance were closely 

assessed and rated. Those who received the highest ratings were offered 

Regular Army appointments. In 195 1, a fourth program allowed commanders to nominate outstanding Regular Army enlisted women and 

WAC warrant officers fo r appointments as second lieutenants in the 

Regular Army, WAC.s 

To inform college women and their deans about the new direct co ~ 

mission program that led to appointment in the Regula r Army, Colo nel 

HaJlaren selected Maj. Eleanore C. Sullivan to visit six.ty-seven colleges 

and universities throughout the United States during November and e~ 

cember 1949. She stopped at each major Army headquarters to brief the 

commander and appropriate staff members, including the WAC staff 

adviser, who then accompanied her to the colleges and the rec ruiting 

stations within the command.9 Arter Major Sullivan's visit to a college, 

WAC recruiting officers paid fo ll ow~up calls to distribute applications 

and to interview interested candidates. 

The WCOC did not produce many WAC Regu lar Army officers. (See 

Table 11.) The initial effort to obtain students fo r it was fairly successful 

in 1950 and 195 1, but fewer you ng women participated as the Korean 

War waned. Also, WAC School counselors reported that most students 

regretted having made a commitment to apply for the g~range Regular 

Army status. The great unpopularit y of that commitme nt persuaded the 

WAC director, then Colonel Irene O. Galloway, to discontinue that 

entrance requirement effective 31 D ecember 1953. 10 

'WAC &hool. "A Study of I'crccntagcs and Ages of Students Eliminated from WAAC/WAC 

Officer Training, 1942-1962," Oct 63, file AllritiOI1 , History Collection, WAC Museum, 

• SR 62S , 2 Nov 49, Appoinlmel1t of Officers in the Regular Army. WAC; SR 140-IOS-2S,6 

Dec 49, Appointment in WAC Section, Organized RC$Crve Corps for Sub$cquent Commission in the 

Women's Army Corps, Regular Army; and SR 62S-S-1, 22 Jun 51, Appoinlmel1t or Officers in the: 

Regular Army, WAC, CM H Library . 

• Rpt, Maj Eleanore C. Su11ival1, OooT, DA, Trip to Various Colleges in Connection with WAC 

Officer Procurement Program, 16 Feb SO, liIe Officer Procurement, History Collection, WAC 

Museum. 

'0 Historical Report. WAC C&S, 1953, History Collection, WAC Museum; SR 605 ~25~2 5. 30 Jun 

n, Appointmelll ill Ihc Women's Army Corps. Regular Army, CM H Ubrary. 
118 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE II- WAC COMPANY OFFICERS COURSE, 1950- 1953 

Appoimmcnl in 

Class No. GraduaTion Entered Graduated Date Reserve Regular 

Army 

I ..................... 19 Dec SO 47 41 20 21 

II ..... ............. 11 Feb 52 72 56 35 21 

III .................. 7 Feb 53 19 15 9 6 

IV .................. 19 Dec 53 27 23 21 2 

Source: Historical Reports, WAC C&S, years shown, History Colle<:tion. WAC Museum. 

As the Korean War continued into 1951 , the WAC Career Branch was 

besieged with requisitions for WAC officers to fill vacancies created by 

the reassignment of male officers to Korea. The Corps itself also required 

more and more officers for recruiting, training, and administrative positions. To help satisfy these req uirements, the direct commission program 

was expanded in 1951. It offered reserve commissions as second lieutenants and above and active duty to three groups: college graduates with at 

least one year of military service, enlisted women and warrant officers on 

active duty or in one of the reserve components of any service, and 

former members of any of the armed forces who had received an honorable discharge. In return for a commission as a second lieutenant, fi rst 

lieutenant, or captain-depending upon her academic degree and work 

experience- the applicant agreed to serve 011 active duty for two years 

and du ri ng that time to complete a thirteen-week Associate WAC Company Officers Course (AWCOC). Applicants had to be single, between 21 

and 39, and have no dependents under 18. In some cases, the college 

degree requirements could be waived. To receive a commission in a 

grade higher than second lieutenant, applicants required a combination of 

years of work experience plus a baccalau reate or higher degree, as shown 

in Table 12. For example, a woman applying for appointment as a captain 

req uired a baccalaureate or masters degree plus five or six years' experience 

in a field that demanded leadership ability, e.g., teaching, business, or 

personnel. 11 

T he WAC considered the A WCOC a success because it produced 

high-quality students and had a low attrition rate. An analysis of the six 

classes conducted under this program indicated that the lower attrition 

resulted from enrolling older students with more college and work experience than officer candidates or WCOC students. Of the 182 students in 

I'SR 140- 105-1,21 May 51, rev 25 Mar 53. Appointment a~ Reserve CommissionL'<l Officers of 

the Army for Assignmcnts 10 WomclI's Army Corps Branch. CM H Library. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 119 

TABLE 12-DIRECT COMMISSION PROGRAM, GRADE 

DETERMINANTS, 195 1 

Grade Maximum Age 

Second Lieulenant................................................... .... 27 

First Lieutenant........................................................... 33 

Captain ......................................................................... 39 

Combined Years 

of College and 

Work. 

E~perience 

4 

7 

II 

Soruu: SR 140-105-1, 21 May 51, Appointment as Reserve Commissioned Officers of the 

Army for Assignment 10 Women's Army Corps Branch. 

the classes, 162 graduated-an attrition rate of IO percent that slightl y 

exceeded the rate for officer candidates during World War I1.t 2 

As mentioned earlier, the tightening of the application and screening 

processes and the decline in applications after the Korean War led to the 

1954 decision to merge the direct commission courses and the officer 

candidate courses. T he WAC Company Officers Course, the Associate 

WAC Company Officers Course, and the WAC Officer Candidate Course 

were merged into a twenty-week course offered twice a year, the WAC 

Officer Basic Course. T he continued existence of a WAC Officer Candidate School was ensured by identifying the course as the "WAC Officer 

Basic Course and Officer Candidate Course (WOBC/OC Course)" and 

assigning each section a separate class number. However, because few 

women applied for OCS, officer candidates participated in only one of 

the sessions each year. I 3 The merger provided efficient use of funds, 

faculty, classrooms, cadre, and administrative staff personnel. 

T hat same year, 1954, in an effort to increase officer proc urement, 

Colonel Galloway and her staff began work on a new approach- the 

WAC College Junior Program. The concept, a modification of one used 

successfully by the Women Marines, was implemented in the summer of 

1957. WAC recruiting officers distributed literature on the new program 

to colleges and universities throughout the country. Beginni ng in 1955, 

two WAC officers were assigned to each Army area to find applicants 

for the College Junior Program as well as the direct commission program. They contacted college officials, talked to students, and processed 

applications. 14 

12 WAC School, "An Analysis of Associate WAC Company Officers' Course. Classes I through 

VI :· file Studies, History Collection, WAC Museum. 

" Historical Reports, WAC C&S. 1954, 1955. History Collection, WAC Museum. 

u Ltr, DWAC to Chief. Army Field Forces, II Oct 54, sub: Final draft, AR 140- 107, the WAC 

College J unior I'rogram, and 1st Ind, 22 act 54. A R 140-107 was superseded by para 26b of A R 
120 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC OCS GRADUATES receive the oath of office as secolld lieutenants from 

Col. Maxelle B. Michl, Commandallt, WAC School, FOri McClellan. JUlie 

1970, while the graduating members of their sister class, WAC Officer Basic 

COllrse. look 01/. 

The primary purpose of the program was to give women in their 

junior year of college a taste of life as a WAC officer. For four weeks 

each summer (later three), approximately sixty college juniors entered the 

Army as corporals in the Army Reserve. While on active duty, the Army 

paid for their transportation, gave them the pay and allowances due an 

E-4, and provided them with uniforms, food, and ho using. In return, they 

attended introductory classes on Army organization, leadership, training, 

administration, ose order drill, and physical training. They also went on 

field trips to other Army posts and worked at WAC Center headquarters, 

at the basic training battalion, or at WAC School. After the orientation 

course, they returned to college but remained in the Army Reserve on 

inactive duty. Upon grad uating from college, they were commissioned as 

second lieutenants in the Army Reserve, and they reported o n active duty 

to the WAC Officer Basic Course the summer after graduation. T hose 

140-111 , Army Reserve Enlistment and Reenlistment, 10 Jan 55; SS, DWAC to CofS through G - I, 

12 Jan 55, sub: WAC Officer I'rocurcmenl. All documents in O DWAC Rcf File, College Juniors, 

CM H. The summary sheet was approved 26 Jan 55, 3uthorizillg two WAC captain spaces for WAC 

officer procuremcllt programs in each of the Army area commands and one WAC major for TAG 

MilillirY Personnel Procurement Division. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 121 

COLLEGE JUNIORS il/ a map readillg course at WAC School, Fort McClellan. 

instructed by Capt. Anll B. Smith. July 1964. 

who did not graduate or declined a commission were simply discharged 

from the enlistment. 1 5 

Extraordinary effort was exerted to make the College Junior Program 

informative and interesting so that most participants would apply for 

appointment and return to WAC School the following summer. After the 

summer program, the WAC School commandant wrote each participant, 

sent pictures of her graduation and other events, and wished her luck in 

her senior year. The commandant also wrote the dean of women or dean 

of students, whichever was appropriate, to describe the program and the 

student's participation in it and to send photographs. 

The training given the college juniors was not as rigorous as that 

given regular officer students, but the faculty was instructed to portray 

life in the WAC realistically and not to impart any false information or 

impressions about work, training, additional duties, social life, or career 

opportunities. While at Fort McClellan, the cadets, as the college juniors 

were called, observed the fu ll scope of a WAC officer's life. 

U HislOrical Reports. WAC C&S. FYs 1958. 1959. History Collection. WAC Muscum. 
122 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Enrollment in the program gradually increased. Only 19 cadets had 

entered in the summer of 1958; 147 were enrolled in the class of 1967. In 

1966, the Army Audit Agency estimated that the service had spent less 

than $3,050 annually all each student. Thus, whjle only 50 of the 591 

students who had entered the program between 1957 and 1966 accepted 

commissions and served on active duty, it was the most economical of the 

Army officer procurement programs. 16 In comparison, the cost of maintaining one student through four years at the U.S. Military Academy was 

$48,<X>O; a non-scholarship ROTC student, approximately $5,000; and a 

scholarship ROTC student, approximately $10,000,17 

The mid-1950s also saw some college women enrolled in a reserve 

officers training corps program. Like the WAC, the WAF had experienced a steady decline in officer procurement after the Korean War. Its 

sources matched those for the WAC: officer candidate school, a direct 

commission program, and reserve officers recalled on active duty. In 

September 1954, the director of the WAF obtained permission to include 

women in the Air Force ROTC program at ten colleges and to initiate 

legislation that would include women permanently in the program. A 

WAF officer was assigned to each college to advise and supervise the 

students. 1 8 For the first time, women were enrolled in an ROTC program in any service. 19 Great speculation arose about whether the WAC 

would enroll women in the Army's ROTC programs. In response to 

several inquiries, Colonel Galloway wrote: "The position taken by the 

Department of the Army is that it interposes no objection to the proposed 

legislation insofar as it pertains to the Department of the Air Force but 

similar authority to enroll female students in the Army ROTC is not 

desired." 20 The WAC preferred its College Junior Program. 

The WAF ROTC experiment was not successful and after several 

years of fail ing to aUract sizable numbers of women, it was discontinued. 

In June 1958, four women received commissions th rough the program 

and served on active duty. None received commissions in 1959, and the 

program was discontinued that year. Ten years later, in 1969, the WAF 

again ventured into ROTC. The program then proved so successful that 

Le WAC School, "Statistical Analysis of College Junior Cadet Program, 1957- 1966:' May 67. 

ODWAC Ref Fi]e, College Junior Statistics, CMH. 

If Rpt, US Army Audit Agency, Revil.""w of the WAC College Junior J'rogram, 1966, ODWAC 

Ref File, Inspections, CMH . 

• 8 Semi-Annual Rpts, SecAF to SeeDef, 30 Jun 55, p. 272; 30 Jun 58, p. 293; 30 Jun 59. p. 305. 

LIO First-time enrollment of women in a college military training program may have occurred 

informally in 1889. In a letter 10 Army. Jan 75, MajGen N. J. Hennan, USA Ret, quoted Capt James 

P. Kress ("A History of Mi]itary Training at the University of Minnewta, ]869-1960"): " ]n 1888. the 

Regenls permitted coeds to enroll for military training in Ihe fall of 1889. Female participation in 

military training was brief. In 1892 Ihe new PMS&T, 1st Lt. George H. Morgan requested that the 

Regents restrict military training to mole students." 

ao Memo. DWAC to Cdrs, COlltinental Armies and MDW; mojor overseas cdrs; ond Cdr, WAC 

Center, 27 Nov 56, sub: Army Position on WAC ROTC Program, fil e Legislation, History Collection, WAC Museum. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 123 

all the women's services began using ROTC as a major source of officer 

procurement. Its popularity increased after cadets began to receive higher 

pay and full academic credit for ROTC courses taught by military personnel. Cadets could also substitute academic courses in history and 

political science for some ROTC courses. 21 

A Question of Status 

The postwar decision to permit reserve officers to serve on extended 

active duty for twenty years and qualify for retirement helped the Army 

achieve its active duty strength, but it also created problems in maintaining Regular Army strength.22 G iven a choice between a twenty- or a 

thirty-year career, WAC officers almost always chose the shorter term. In 

1954, the Reserve Officers Personnel Act enhanced reserve status when it 

gave reserve and regular officers almost the same respo nsibilities, rights, 

and privileges regarding promotion, retention, and discharge. 23 Reserve 

officers who desired career status could sign indefinite agreements when 

their initial active duty obligation expired. 24 

By the mid*1950s the Army became concerned about the imbalance 

between regular and reserve officers-only 21.1 percent were regulars. 

To achieve a more balanced force, the Army and the other services asked 

for and received from Congress legislation that raised the strength ceiling 

for regular officers and provided a continuing program for assimilating 

reserve officers into the Regul ar A rmy. The Army's strength ceiling for 

regular officers thereby increased from 30,600 to 49,500. If, as part of this 

action, Army leaders had used the 2 percent formula for WAC officers, 

the WAC ceiling would have been 990 regular officers. Instead, the G-I 

directed that the WAC ceiling remain at 6OO-a figure more realistically 

attainable. After conducting a three*year campaign (1955- 1958) to acquire 

regular officers, the Army was still 2,000 short of its goal for male and 

WAC regular officers. The WAC contribution to this goal was negligible. 

On 30 June 1958, of 779 WAC officers o n duty, 318 were regulars (40.8 

percent). Four years earlier, on 30 June 1954, the WAC had had on duty 

1,019 officers of whom only 329 were regular officers (32.4 percent). By 

1958 the WAC had lost t t regular officers-the percentage had risen 

because total strength had decreased. 2 5 

II Victor B. Hirshauer, "The History of the Army Reserve Officers Training Corps 1916-1973." 

dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. 1975, pp. 255- 63, 368- 370, CMH Libmry. 

u PL 810. Army and Air Force Vitalization and Retirement Equalization Act, 80th Cong, 29 Jun 

48. 

23 PL 773. Reserve Officers Personllel Act (ROPA), 83d Cong, 3 Sep 54. This legislation paral. 

leled provisions for regular officers in the Officers Personnel Act of 1947. PL 381, 80th Cong, 7 Aug 

47. 

u PL 476, Armed Forces Reserve Act, 82d Cong, 9 J ul 52. 

U Stre"Bth of the Army Report (STM-30), 30 Jun 54 and 30 Jun 58. 
124 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Regular Army status, although a symbol of prestige to the men of the 

Army, held little attraction fo r WAC officers. 26 The inequities between 

the status of male and WAC officers more than likely caused the WACs' 

rejection of regular status: 

- WACs could not be promoted beyond lieutenant colonel. 

- WACs had to prove dependency status for children under 18 

and husbands. 

- WACs could not remain on active duty with dependents 

under 18. 

- If a WAC officer was married to an Army officer, her quarters allowance and quarters assignments were based o n her 

husband's rank and status rather than her own, even if hers 

were higher. 

-No places were reserved for WAC officers at the senior service colleges, e.g., Army War College. 

- WAC duty assignments were usually limited to administrative 

or WAC branch duties. 

Women officers knew these inequities existed. and those who chose to 

remain on active duty did so with the knowledge that a WAC officer's 

career was permanently stunted by the c utoff of promotion beyond lieu ~ 

tenant colo nel. Nonetheless, many women did remain for the benefits of 

being in service (leadership experience, equal pay for equal rank, tire~ 

ment, travel opportunities, post exchange and commissary privileges). 

The opportunities for promotion and advanceme nt far surpassed those 

generall y available to women in civilian life in the 19508. The Army was 

a man's world, but so was civilian life. 

Career Plan fling 

Despite the inequities, or perhaps because of them, the Corps, o n 

becoming a permanent part of the Army establishment in 1948, began to 

develop plans to provide full and satisfactory careers for women offi~ 

cers- whether they were regulars or reservists o n extended active duty. 

That same year the Army had issued its first publication on career 

planning for officers. Although initiall y intended for regular officers, 

within a few years the directive included planning for career reserve 

officers as well. Like everything the Army did, career planning was done 

by branch. Each branch, including the WAC, prepared a plan for an 

officer to progress from second lieutenant through colonel. The WAC 

U Regular Army WAC officer strength and percentage of total WAC officer strength on 30 lun 

65 was 234 RA offi cers of 742 or 31.5 percent; 30 lun 76, 142 RA officers of 1,713 or 8.2 percent ; 30 

&p 80, 84 1 of 3,454 or 24.3 percent. After elimination of promotion restrictions in 1967, a separate 

WAC branch in 1974, and entry of women into West Point in 1976, t he percentage of Regular Army 

women officers increased. Slrellglll ofllle Army Report (DCSPER-46) for the dales ~hown . 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 125 

career plan provided that, during the first seven years of their Army 

service. WAC officers would obtain a firm foundation of training and 

experience in military duties by serving as WAC unit officers, recruiters, 

instructors, trainers, or administrative staff officers. During the next 

seven-year period, many, not all, would attend the WAC Officer Advanced Course or the advanced course of a branch related to a current or 

potential MOS, e.g., The Adjutant General's Corps, Quartermaster Corps, 

Finance Corps. Also, during this period the officers were encouraged to 

focus on a specialty in which they could receive recurrent assignments 

and advanced training. If they desired, they could remain generalists in a 

career fi eld such as administration or training. Women interested in specialist training took correspondence courses offered by various branch 

schools, or they enrolled in college courses. During the third seven-year 

period, a WAC officer alternated between branch duty assignments and 

assignments in her area of specialization. A few attended Command and 

General Staff College. By the last phase of their career pattern- the 

twenty-first to thirtieth year of service- most WAC officers had achieved 

their last promotion to major or lieutenant colonel and were assigned to 

WAC Center or WAC School or a major headquarters somewhere in the 

Army. Their male peers, meanwhile, were attending a senior service 

college, commanding a battalion or brigade, or managing a large stafT 

division in a major headquarters. Men could look forward to promotion 

to colonel or even general officer rank and to assignment to positions 

such as division, corps, or army commander or even chief of staff of the 

Army.27 

In career management, attendance at the right schools was one of the 

keys to job satisfaction and to promotion. Each branch operated a school 

that taught officers and enlisted personnel the skills required by the MOSs 

it controlled, as well as general skills- leadership, management, instruction, administration. After attending a precommission school-U.S. Military Academy, ROTC, OCS- a male officer attended his branch's basic 

officer course. In the WAC, however, precommission and basic officer 

training were accomplished in the same course. Also, because the WAC 

did not control any MOS other than the one for WAC staff advisers. 

WAC School did not conduct officer specialty courses leading to the 

award of an MOS.28 A male officer went on to the advanced officers 

IT TM 20-206, Career Management for Army Officers. 29 Jun 48, superseded by OA Pam 600-3, 

Career Planning for Army Officers, 15 Oct 56. References contain (!Ireer planning patterns for each 

branch of the Army. 

11 For eJlample, in 1952, TAG School offered the following officer courses: Adjutant General 

Company Officer, Adjutant General Officer AdYanced, A.ssociate Adjutant General AdYanced, 

Recruiting Management, Personnel Management, Special Services, Adjutant General Company 

G rade Officer Refresher. Adjutant General Field Officer Refresher. 
126 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS. 1945- 1978 

course conducted by his branch. In these courses, the branch prepa red its 

officers to perform staff and command duty at field grade level (major 

and lieutenant colonel) at higher Army headquarters and the Department 

of Defense. A few WAC officers attended advanced courses given by 

other branches (The Adjuta nt General, Quartermaster), but the WAC had 

no advanced courses of its own. For officers, an advanced course was 

important because it was a prerequisite for attending the Command and 

General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth. 

In 195 1 Colonel Ha llaren asked the G-3 of the A rmy to approve a 

WAC Officer Advanced Course at the WAC School. T he G-3 saw the 

need for the course. Of almost 1,200 WAC officers on active duty, only 

29 had attended the short World War II Command and General Staff 

Course. 29 The G-3 also directed the chief of Army Field Forces to 

prepare a program of instructio n and to initiate acti on to provide instructors, material, and equipment for the course. The first WAC Officer 

Advanced Course was conducted at Fort Lee, and o n to July 1954 

twenty-nine officers graduated. Thereafter WAC School conducted one 

advanced class a yea r un til the course was discontinued in 1972. 

With the opening of the advanced course, WAC officers gained access 

to a prerequisite for the Command and General Staff College, attendance 

at which almost gua ranteed promotion to lieutenant colonel for men and 

women. Beginning in June 1955, the G-I annually allocated four spaces 

for WAC officers to attend a I3-week Associate Command and General 

Staff Course. None attended the 43-week regu lar Command and General 

Staff Course until 1968, when the associate course was discontin ued. 30 

In June 1955, the first WAC officer graduated from a senior service 

college. Based on her outstanding performance of duty in G-4, Department of the Army, and othe r logistical assig nmen ts, Lt. Col. Hortense M. 

Boutell was selected to attend the Industrial College of the Armed Forces 

at Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. This ten-month course trained st udents in joint logistic planni ng, strategic planning, and national economic 

policies. No other WAC officer attended a senior service college until 

1968. 31 

In the early 1950s the Army offered ca reer specialization to officers 

who had achieved sufficient training in genera l milita ry assignments, both 

command and staff, and who had demonstrated the ability to become 

specialists in logistics, intelligence, public information, civil affairs, or a 

29 Llr. G-3 to Chief, Army Field Forces. 17 Nov 51. sub: Training of WAC Officcrs. with 1st Ind. 

Chief, Army Field Forces. to Cdr, WAC Training Center. Fort Lce. VA. 7 Fcb 52. and LtT, Chief, 

Army Field Forces. to 0 - 3, 3 Nov 52. sub: Proposed Program of Instruction- WAC Officer 

Advanced Course. ODWAC Ref File. Officcrs Adv1lnced Course, CMH. 

~G LlCol Mary E. Kelly and LtCol Patricia E. McCormick wcre the first WAC officeN; to ancnd 

thc Associate Comnwnd and General StafT Course. in J un 55. In June 68. MajoN; Nancy M. 

Hopfcnspirger. Kitt M. MacMichael, Incz L. Nease. Marilyn J. Russell. and Martha J. Thompson 

graduated from the regular course. Chronological Record. JUIl 55. lun 68. ODWAC Ref File. CMH. 

3, Ibid., Jun 55. Aug 68. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 127 

LT. COL. HORTENSE M . BOUTELL 

(Photograph taken in 1960.) 

LT. COL. LILLIAN HARRIS 

(Photograph taken ill 196a) 

foreign area. In the last-named specialty, for example, a n officer received 

training in the language, c ulture, and economy of a specific foreign area. 

Because the training was extensive. only Regular A rmy office rs with a 

career expectancy of thirty years were selected for such specialization. In 

addition to long periods of military and civilian graduate-level schooling 

in his specialty, a male officer also had to maintain proficiency in the 

skills associated with his branch. For WAC officers this requirement 

meant returning occasionally to command a WAC unit. to be assigned to 

recruiting, to instruct at WAC School, or to fill a stafT position at the 

WAC Center or WAC School. The first WAC officers to enter specialization fields were Maj. Martha F. Schuchart, Army Security Agency; 

Maj. Elinor J. Connor, Intelligence; Maj. A. Nora Howes. Public Infor. 

mation; Lt. Col. Ruth Briggs. Foreign Area; and Lt. Col. Hortense 

Boutell, Lt. Col. Lillian Harris, and Maj. Mary L. SuJlivan, Logistics. 32 

In June 1961, the judge advocate general agreed to accept WACs who 

were lawyers for duty and temporary detail (a three·year assignment 

away from the basic branch). Lt. Col. Nora G. Springfield was the first 

to be approved for duty as an Army lawyer. In a few years, the Army 

approved a program under which civilian lawyers and senior law school 

students could apply for appointment in the WAC with permanent detail 

II Ibid. 
128 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

to the Judge Advocate General's Corps. Their careers would be managed 

by that corps rather than by the WAC Career Management Branch. On 

21 July 1966, 1st Lt. Adrienne M. McOmber became the first lawyer 

permanentl y detailed in the Judge Advocate General's Corps directly 

from civilian Iife. 33 

By 1960, 23 of 735 WAC officers on duty had entered the specialization programs. All 23 were Regular A rmy officers. By 1972, specialization had increased as career reserve officers also entered these programs 

(Table /3)." 

TABLE I3- WAC OFFICERS IN SPECIALIZATION PROGRAMS 

Program 

Army Security Agency .. ............. ............ ...... ............... ..... .. . 

Civil Affairs .......................................................................... . 

Foreign Area SpeciaJist. .. ............... ................. ......................... .. 

Information ................. ............. ... . .. .......... . ...... ......... . .. 

Intelligence and Securit y ...... .. .................................................. . 

Logistics .. ... .......... ... ..... .......... . . .. ....... ... ........................ . 

Added after 1960: 

Automatic Data Processing ..... . .. ..... ....... .......... .......... ........ . 

1960 

1 

4 

3 

10 

4 

1972 

15 

8 

38 

2 

Research and Development ....................................................... _-==-___ --'._ Total .................................................................................. .. 23 64 

Source: Reporl 0/ Major Even/s (md Problems. DCSPER. DA. FY 1960. Chapter V. WAC. and 

Memo. Offiee of Personnel Operalions. Offieer Personnel Management Task Group. to Chief. WAC 

Career Branch, 28 Sep 72. sub: WAC Participation in OPMS Career Fields and SpecialislS, 

ODWAC Ref file. Specialization. CM H. 

By law and regulatio n WAC officers could not be promoted above 

lieutenant colonel, could not command men, and could not be assigned 

combat d uties. A wide range of assignments, however, was now available 

to them. The MOS in which most WAC officers served was administrative officer; next were unit commander, adjutant, personnel officer, recruiting officer, training center unit officer, supply officer, special services 

officer, troop information and education officer, public information officer, and intelli$ence staff officer. Technology opened new fi elds in the 

1960s and 1970s, and WAC officers were trained and assigned in automatic data processing, computer science, and logistical systems. 

UChronological Record. Jun 61, Jul 66, ODWAC Ref File. CMH: AR 140-100.6 Apr 61. 

Reserve Components, Appointment of Commissioned and Warrant Omcers of the Army. superseded 

by AR 135- 100.5 Feb 64. same title. CMH Library. 

30 Historical Reports. WAC C&S. FYs 1958. 1959. History Collection. WAC Museum. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 129 

Because the WAC branch primarily controlled women officers and no t 

a specific Army function as the male branches did (Signal, Ordnance. 

Medical, etc.), WAC officers not in a specialization program could be 

assigned more easil y than men to "branch immaterial" positions-jobs 

common throughout the Army in administration, personnel, training, or 

supply duties. Most male officers spent months being trained by their 

branch in a technical MOS o r another branch area. Without j eopardizing 

their careers, they could not move into generalist positions or take positions outside their MOS. However, assignments that required WAC officers to be moved into other branches did not disrupt their career patterns. 

Many WAC officers served repetitive tou rs with other branches. 35 Table 

14 shows the number detailed to other branches in selected yea rs. 

TABLE 14- WAC OFFICERS DETAILED TO OTHER BRANCHES 

Army Branch 1955 1963 1966 1970 

Adj utant General ................................................ . 21 11 31 48 

Chemical ............................................................. . 9 2 1 1 

Engineer ................................................. ........ .... . 1 0 

Finance ....................... ........ .... ..... .......... ........ .... . 3 7 8 7 

Intelligence ....... ....... ... .......... ............... ... ............ . 1 1 6 13 

Judge Ad vocate General .... ............................... . 0 4 4 6 

Medical Service Corps ....................................... . 1 0 0 0 

Military Police ....................................... . 5 0 0 0 

Ord nance ........................................................... .. . 4 12 0 

Quartermaster ................................................ . 18 5 4 21 

Signal ............................ ..... .. . 8 3 2 5 

Transpo rtation ..... .......... .. . ..................... _"--- 7 -'----"- 0 - ---"- 0 

Total ............................. . 78 47 56 103 

Source: Slrellg,h of ,IIe Army RCfXm (STM- 30. DCSI'ER-46) for 30 June of years shown. OA 

Cir 52, 1953. discontinucd authority to detail WAC officers to the Medical Service Corps aflcr 

1955. 

At no time did WAC officers as a group interfere with the progress of 

male officers' career development or assignment. The restrictions on 

WAC officer assignments prevented this. A study completed in 1964 

concluded, "There is no evidence that broad utilization of WAC officers 

has prevented male office rs from receiving appropriate career experience 

to any appreciable extent. " Fewer than 100 WAC o fficers, the study 

continued, held staff positions that might be career enhancing for male 

u DA Pam 600- 3, 15 Oct 56, Carecr Planning for Army Officers, pp. 51, 53, CM H Library. 
130 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

officers and "even in these cases it may be argued that the Army is just as 

well off. They [WAC officers] may do just as much or more for the male 

officer's career advancemenl or improved promotion opportunity," The 

women could not relieve the Army's true shortage, which was combat 

officers, but they could "reduce the possibility or necessity for diverting 

combat arms officers into branch immaterial or noncombat assignments." 36 Apparently no WAC officer held a job that a male o rticcr 

would want or one in which the assignment of a male would have been 

more advantageous to the Army. 

Another study completed the following year analyzed the entire WAC 

program for the deputy chief of staff for personnel. Its goal was to 

review the Corps' streng ths and weaknesses and to assess its ruture. With 

regard to WAC officers, the study concluded that because they were rew 

in number, they had been more easily assimilated into the Army than 

enlisted women. "There is, thererore. no great impact on total ma le 

requirements rrom a WAC asset or less than I percent o r the whole. On 

the other hand. distribution or WAC officers throughout the active Army 

is quite broad." 37 (See Table /5.) 

TABLE I5-DtSTRIBUTION OF WAC OFFICER ASSETS 

DECEM8EM 1964 

Occupational Area 

WAC Comtnand and Staff ............................................................... . 

WAC Recruiting and Training ................................................................ . 

Chief of Staff Area .................................................................................... . 

0 - 1 Area ................................................................................................... . 

0-2 Area ................................................................................................... . 

0-3 Area ................................................................................................... . 

Comptroller Area ...................................................................................... . 

AO Area .................................................................................................... . 

Information Area ...................................................................................... . 

Duties Unassigned, Special DUly, Faculty, Student ............................. .. 

Other .............................................. ............................................................ . 

Percent 

12.5 

12.0 

2.5 

12.5 

3.5 

4.0 

1.5 

19.0 

5.5 

15.0 

1.5 

Detail to Other Branches ................................ ......................................... __ -"..5'-

Total ............................................................................................... . 100.0 

$cUI«: Staff swd)'. Utiliution Div" Directorate of Manpower. QDCSPER, 12 Jun 65, sub: The WAC Program, Anne)! D. p. 4. QDWAC Ref File, Studies. CM H. 

U Staff Study. ODCSPER. sub: WAC Requirements, Jul 64. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. CM H. 

n Staff Study. Utili7.ation Div, Directorate of Manpower. O DCSI'ER. sub: The WAC Program, 

12 Kin 65, Anne~ B. p. 4. O DWAC Ref File, Studies. CM H. Stud), cited hereafter as DCSPER. The 

WAC Program. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 131 

The study showed that 25 percent of the WAC officers performed 

duty in WAC jobs; 75 percent, in branch immaterial assignments. The 

stud y g roup summed up its findings, "There are no restrictions on officer 

utilization from a career field point of view or from a promotion point of 

view, as there are with enlisted personnel. In effect, WAC officer utilization follows the same pattern as male officer utilization. Accordingly, 

WAC officer utilization is quite fl exible and can be responsive to Army 

requirements." 38 

The 1965 study did bring out the interesting fact that the overall age 

of WAC officers had been decreasing. In t 960. WAC officers aged 

twenty-five and under constituted 5 percent of the Corps; in t 964, officers 

in Ihis age group comprised 20 percent. In 1960, officers in age group 

forty-one through forty-five made up 20 percent of the Corps; in 1964, 

they were 15 percent. The trend toward a you nger Corps had been 

expected because the average age of WAC officers in World War II had 

been thirty. By 1965, many of these older WAC officers had reached 

retirement age. The increased youth of the Corps was a healthy sign. It 

showed that a steady stream of second lieutenants was entering the Corps 

and remaining for at least a twenty-year career. 39 

The c hief of the WAC Career Branch played an important role in 

every WAC officer's career. She was responsible for assigning officers 

upon their graduation from a school or upon completion of a tour of 

duty. Because all officers sent a preference statement to the chief of their 

branch every year, she knew their choices for location of assignment, 

their hopes for additional military or civilian school training or specialization, and personal or family factors that required consideration. If they 

did not send a preference statement, the career branch chief assumed that 

their preferences were unchanged or that they had no strong preferences 

for reassignment when their current tour ended. Myth had it that the 

preference statement brought officers the opposite of their requests, but 

few tested the theory. Because the chief of the WAC Career Branch 

occupied such an important position, the director of the WAC personally 

nominated, to the G - l or chief of personnel operations, the woman she 

considered best qualified to provide job satisfaction to the officers and 

fulfill WAC and Army requirements for officers of the Corps.40 

U Ibid., p. II. 

3t Ibid., Anne~ 13. pp. 15- \6. 

40 Between 1948 and 1974. when the WAC Career Branch was dissolved, ten women served as 

chicf-LICols Mary C. Fullbright (1 948- 52). Mary M. Pugh ( 1953), Catherine J. Lyons ( 1953- 57), 

Pauline V. Houston (1957-61). Miriam L. DUllcr (1961 - 65), Maribclh C. Simpson (1965-67). Shirlcy R. 

lieirll.c (1967- 68). and Col$ Mildr~'d G. Qualls (1968-70), Maida E. Lambeth (1970-72), Shirlcy R. 

1·ldllze (1972- 74), and Mary E. Clarke (1974_75). The chief of the WAC Advirory Officc. which 

bricny Suc(;e~'ded WAC Career Branch, was LtCol Virginia L. ~'SCnmn (1975- 76). 
132 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The order of priority for filling requisitions fo r WAC officers was 

established by the G-I of the Army. The first priority in most years was 

filling projected vacancies in WAC units, WAC recruiting, and WAC 

training. because male officers could not be substituted. When these 

requirements were filled, requisitions submitted by the major commanders 

were filled in an order that depended upon the urgency of the mission 

being performed or supported. The chief of the WAC Career Branch fi rst 

filled the urgent requisitions with the best qualified available officers. 

After that, she could consider the personal wishes of the officers.41 

The small size of the Corps, averaging 800 officers between 1948 and 

1972, was a boon because officers could receive individ ual attention and 

sometimes get a choice of assignments. Because their upward mobility 

was limited, WAC officers made the most of a life of travel and interesting assignments in the Army. The fact that their retention rate was higher 

than that of male officers indicated that they were not displeased with 

their prospects or with Army life. Most WAC officers enjoyed relocation 

and assignment to a new position every two or three years-until they 

approached mandatory retirement. At that point most of them had 

achieved their career goals, had reached the limit of promotional opportunity, and were content to buy a house and settle in a community near 

an Army post. 

By 1957 the WAC had in place th ree procurement programs for its 

officers. The new procu rement programs (the direct commission and the 

College Junior Program) were the best the Army could produce, but they 

could not achieve the WAC officer strength objective, even though that 

objective was lowered by an Army-wide strength reduction ordered by 

Congress. WAC officer strength on 30 June 1953 was 1. 109; on 30 June 

1957, 740. The decrease in officer accessions could be attributed to the 

end of the Korean War and an economy that offe red plentiful employment in the civilian sector. In a 1955 letter to the commanders of the 

continental armies, Adjutant General John A. Kle in suggested, "When 

there is placed in colleges and universities accurate information on commissioned military service as a vocation for young women, the needs of 

the Women's Army Corps can be met." He felt sure that young women 

would volunteer as soon as they knew about the opportunities for them in 

commissioned status. 42 Civilian women's advancement to executive levels 

in business, educatio n, government, and the professions was just as limited 

as it was in the Army. Advancement in civilian life, however, was not 

restricted by law, onl y by custom; and hope existed for upward mobility 

particularl y in periods of a prospering economy. Army life on the other 

., DA Pam 600- 3, Career Plnllllillg for Army Officers, 30 J un 64, p. 8, CM H Library. 

42 Llr, TAG to CGs. Continental Armies, 15 Feb 55 (file AGST - L(M)210.1 WAC, II Feb 55), 

sub: I'rocuremenl of Reserve Commissioned Officers of the Army, Women's Army Corps Branch, 

Direct from Civilian Life. ODW AC Ref File, Officer Procurement, CMH. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT 133 

hand had proved satisfactory to only a small number of American women 

because its limitations were too marked and its opportunities for career 

fulfillment developed too slowly to give it mass appeal. The women 

officers procurement programs needed a great public relations effort to 

help the WAC achieve its officer objectives. 

Warrant Officer Procurement and Career Management 

The procurement and career development of male warrant officers 

were managed by the branch that controlled the ind ividual's primary 

MOS. A major change in the MOS of a warrant officer usually affected 

both the control branch directing his assignments and the basic branch 

managing his career. Under the Jaw, a WAC warrant officer's basic 

branch remained the WAC even though her MaS and control branch 

c hanged. The WAC Career Management Branch monitored WAC warrant officers' careers to ensure that the officers were promoted and 

retired on time, but the branch that controlled the women's MaS assigned and reassigned them and ensured the proper MOS training. To be 

appointed as a warrant officer, an enlisted man o r woman had to have 

served at least one year on active duty or, if a civilian, possess a highl y 

technical skill in short supply in the A rmy. The various branches obtained additional warrant officers primaril y by inviting proficient enlisted 

personnel to apply for appointment in a certain MOS. Most WAC warrant officers se rved in an administrative, intelligence, or suppl y MOS; 

their assignments were managed by The Adjutant General, Intelligence 

and Security branch, or Quartermaster branch. 43 

Legislative action, the Warrant Officer Act of 1954, improved the 

attractiveness of careers for regular and reserve warrant officers by creating four warrant officer grades- there had previously been two- and by 

aligning the services' regulations regarding promotion. retention, separation, and retirement. Surprisingly, Congress decided to align the retirement laws for women warrant officers with those for women commissioned officers rather than with those for male warrant officers. Whereas 

male warrant officers with over twenty years' service did not face mandatory retirement until they reac hed age sixty-two, women wa rrant officers 

had to retire at age fiftyfive. 44 WAC commissioned officers in the grade 

of major and lieutenant colo nel retired at fifty-three and fifty-five, respectively. In 1967, Congress finally aligned retirement laws for male and 

WAC officers. 45 

43 TM 12-4{)6, 8 Feb 46. Commissioned and Warran! Officer Classification, SR 605- 105- 5, I Mar 

54. Manual of Commissioned and Warrant Officer MOS: AR 611 103 , 6 Dec 54. Classification 01 

Officers and Warranl Officers, AR 6 11 -112, 3 lun 61. Manual of Warrant Officer MOS. Copies iT 

CM H Library . 

.. PL 379. Warralll Offi<.-er Acl, 83d Congo 29 May 54. 

u PL 130, An Acl 10 Remove ReslriClions on the Careers of Female Omeers. 901h Congo 8 No, 

67. 
134 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

In other respects, women warrant officers received the same treatment 

as men. Women could be promoted to all warrant officer grades (W- I, 

the lowest, through W- 4), and they competed on the same Jist with men 

for promotion in their MOS or career fi eld. Women, however, still could 

not hold an MOS associated with combat duties. 

At the time the Warrant Officer Act of 1954 went into effect, the 

WAC had forty-eight warrant officers, five of whom were Regular 

Army. Two of these five required a private bill in Congress to remain on 

duty beyond the mandatory retirement age to acquire twenty years' 

active service for retirement. 46 

Warrant officer status did not achieve popularity in the WAC primarily because it offered neither the advantages of a commission nor the 

status of a senior NCO. But it did provide higher pay than an enlisted 

person received, and it also ensured that a woman could continue to be 

assigned in the same MOS or occupational area throughout her career. 

Often women who qualified for a warrant officer appointment also quali· 

fied for a reserve appointment as a commissioned officer and chose the 

latter because the pay was higher and the prestige more attractive. A 

higher retirement age equal to the men's might have improved warrant 

officer status for women; it would have given them a longer period on 

active duty than women commissioned officers. Lack of appeal of warran t officer status to women is indicated by the fact that on 30 June 1975, 

the WAC had on active duty only twenty-two, of whom onl y one was 

Regular Army.47 

Being a WAC officer was not a career that beckoned many women in 

the 19505 and 19605. Compared to the opportunities available to male 

officers, the opportunities of a WAC officer were few. Many who entered the program left as quickly as possible when they encountered the 

male bias against women in service, the odds against promotion above 

major, and other disadvantages. Army life meant living in one room, 

eating out, working long hours, taking orders, going where sent, wearing 

uniforms without jewelry, scrimping on Army pay, and keeping one's 

hair above the collar. Assignment restrictions included prohibitions 

against serving in combat, commanding men, serving as chaplains or 

aviators, or being assigned below theater army level. On the positive side, 

however, were factors important to young women just leaving college. 

Army life meant self-supporting freedom; a guaranteed job, housing, and 

pay; social life and camaraderie; and educational and travel opportunities. 

As the years passed, WAC officers ea rned some career-enhancing 

benefits. Major among them were the opening of an advanced course for 

os SI1'I'I1glir of lire Army Repcrl (ST M- 30). 30 lun 55. The regular warrant officers were Thelma L. 

Alley. Dorothy E. Green. Marcia E. E.stabrook. Helen E. Ryan. and Eli7.llbcth C. Smith. The first 

two required a private bill 10 remain on duty- HR 5836, 19 Mar 59. introduced by Paul J. Kilday 01 

Texas 31 the request of the Department of Defensc. 

*' Strength of/he Army Repcrt$ (STM- 30, DCSPER-46), 30 lun 55 and 30 lun 75. 
OFFICER PROCUREMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT \35 

WAC officers in 1954 and the allocation of four spaces annuall y in the 

Command and General Staff College. Also, beginni ng in 1955, WAC 

officers could enter specialization programs that could give those with 

special talent greater job satisfaction. The WAC office r corps survived on 

these few career benefits and the fact that Army life meant excitement, 

leadership opportunities, travel, retirement, veterans benefits, and higher 

expectations than they might have had in civilian jobs. 

While some decline in Army strength was anticipated after periods of 

mobilization, the downward trend in WAC officer strength presented a 

continuing problem for a succession of WAC directors. Between 1953 

and 1965. for example, WAC officer strength fe ll from 1, 109 to 742.48 

The DCSPER studies in the 1960s showed that the A rmy could have 

filled many more officer positions with WACs if it had had them. Not 

o nly was this decline apparent to the WAC directors, but they knew that 

the effectiveness, if not the continued existence of the Corps, depended 

on their attracting more women into the service. 

u Ibid., 30 JUIl 53 and 30 JIIII 65. 

CHAPTER VI 

Strength Goals and the Move to 

Fort McClellan 

The subject of WAC strength was uppermost in Colonel Galloway's 

mind at her first WAC staff advisers conference in May 1953. In her 

opening remarks, she outlined the problems ahead: "The matters of primary concern to us include our strength trends and our future procurement. We can take definite and corrective action and build increased 

interest and impetus in the matters of recruiting and reenlistment. " I 

Reinforcing that concern, Brig. Gen. Herbert B. Powell, Deputy Assistant Chief of StafT, G- I, Manpower Control, told the attendees: "I stress 

to yOll, and urge your continued emphasis o n, the need for the services of 

volunteer women in the Army_ The utili zation of women in the Army is 

an integral and carefully evaluated factor in the overall national manpower potential. ... The second consideration which I stress with equal emphasis is the matter of reenlistments." 2 

For the second consecutive year, WAC losses had exceeded gains. 

Recruiting and reenlistment rates had gone downhill for both men and 

women beginning in June 1951 and had continued downward- a trend 

not tota ll y unexpected with an expanding wartime economy and an unpopular war. But in the spring of 1953, peace seemed to be in sight, and it 

was hoped that civilian attitudes toward military service would improve 

so that recruiters could again interest you ng women in an enlistment or a 

career in the Women's Army Corps. Such changes were needed for the 

Corps to continue as a creditable manpower resource to the Army. 

Colonel Galloway and her staff, unable to influence prevailing attitudes, 

began examining the discharge policies on marriage, pregnancy, and parenthood to find a way to reduce the Corps' heavy losses in those areas. 

Discharge Policies 

During most of World War II, no policy had existed under which 

women could be discharged on marriage. After V- E Day, women could 

request discharge when their husbands we re demobilized. Later, any 

1 Rpt. WAC SIafT Advisers Conf. 4-6 May 1953. p. 51. ODWAC Ref File. WAC StafT Advisers 

Conferences. CMH. 

~ Ibid .• p. 17. 
• 

138 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC who had married before V-E Day could be discharged without 

regard to demobilization points or to her husband's status as civilian or 

military. After demobili zation ended, WACs could be discharged on 

marriage upon request. The policy, however, was stiffened when the 

WAC entered the Regular Army in 1948. Thereafter, neither officers nor 

enlisted women could be discharged on marriage unless they had completed one year of their c urrent enlistment or appointment contract. T his 

policy was included on enlistment applications so that the women would 

be aware of the obligation.3 With the Korean War, discharge on marriage 

had been suspended. When it was reinstated. the e ligibility requirements 

had again changed. Enlisted women had to have completed o ne year of 

service beyond their initial training and arrival at the fi rst d uty station; 

officers needed two years' continuo us active d uty. Women stationed 

overseas at the time of their request had to complete one year of their 

foreign service to ur in addition to attaining the basic eligibility fo r discharge. 4 

Few changes had occurred in policy regard ing discharge fo r pregnancy. F rom the days of the Auxiliary Corps, women had been discharged as 

soon as possible after a doctor had certified the condition. D uring World 

War II, women at posts in the United States were usually processed o ut 

of the Army within fourteen days after certification; women stationed 

overseas were returned to the United States by air and then discharged. 

After the war, women who were pregnant could be discharged overseas 

if their husbands were there. Whether they were married or single, 

women being discharged on pregnancy received hono rable discharge 

ce rtifi cates; women who had ill egal abortions did not. Instances of the 

latter were rare. If women who were to be discharged for some cause 

other than pregnancy (unsui tability, demobilization, etc.) were found to 

be pregnant during their fina l physical examination, they were discharged 

for the original cause, but their discharge papers noted that they were 

pregnant. T his enabled them, if they had an honorable discharge, to 

receive matern ity care at an authorized military facility.s 

During its 1948 hea ri ngs on the WAC bill, Congress had made clear 

that the service sho uld not interfere with the accepted pattern of women's 

lives. Congressman Carl Vinson stated: "We should not put any thing in 

3 DA Cir 252, 12 Sep 47. See 111 ; DA Cir 335. 27 Oct 48; SR 625- 5- 5. II Jan 49. Discharge of 

WAC Offieers and Warrant Officers on Milrriage and Pregnancy; AR 615- 361, 30 Aug 50, Enlisted 

Personnel Discharge on Marriage and Pregnancy. Copi/..'S in CM H Library. 

4 Change I, 3 Aug 51. to AR 615- 361. Enlisted Personnel. Discharge on Marriage and Pregnancy; 

DA Cir 81. 17 Sep 53: and SR 605- 225- 10, 17 Jan 54. Release of Women Officers of Marriage. 

Pregnancy or Parenthood. Copies in CM H Library. 

3 AR 615- 361. 4 Nov 44. Enliswd Men, Discharge Medical. CMH Library. I)eh vt:en July and 

De<:ember 1942, umm.rried pregnant women Te<:eived a summary. nOI dishonorable. discharge, usual· 

Iy given WAACs who proved 10 be disciplinary problems (WAAC Regs (Tentative), 1942, p<ITiI 38a). 

Ikginning in Dec 42, all pregnanl women received honorable discha rges (WAAC Cir 17, 29 Dec 42). 

See Treadwell. '11/(' Wemel/'s Army CQrps. p. 501. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 139 

the law which should cause them to hesitate getting ma rried o r to raise a 

family; on the contrary, we should encourage it." 6 As a resu lt, the WAC 

and other women's services continued their World War II policies that 

permitted women to marry, have children, and leave the service. Con~ 

gress slopped short of encouraging family life for women in the service 

by not extending dependency allowances to the husbands or children of 

military women. The law stated that "husbands of women officers and 

enlisted personnel ... and c hildren of such officers and enlisted personnel 

shall not be considered dependents unless they are in fact dependent on 

their [wives or] mothers fo r their c hief support." 7 Congress allowed 

dependency status to wives and to children under eighteen whether or 

not they were capable of working, but it would not automaticall y grant 

that status to husbands, who were presumed to be capable of working to 

support their wives and children. 

WACs had received no maternity care until the last months of World 

War II. After November 1944, women honorably discharged or released 

from active duty could receive prenatal and postnatal care (including 

deli very) at an Army fa cility provided that their hono rabl e discharge 

papers showed they were pregnant when they left the service. Before 

being discharged, pregnant women forwarded a request through channels 

to the surgeon general of the service command in which they would be 

living; he designated which Army hospital in their area would provide 

the necessary care. From 1951 o n, women honorably discharged from 

any armed service on pregnancy could receive prenatal and postnatal 

care from any military medical facility without written approval. S 

Until 1949, the termination of a pregnancy by miscarriage, stillbirth, or 

therapeutic abortion did not deter the progress of orders for discharge on 

pregnancy. Prevailing opinion assumed that by becoming pregnant, an 

unwed woman proved she did not meet the moral standards necessary for 

military service and should be discharged. And since a married woman 

would probably become pregnant again, she too sho uld be discharged. In 

February 1949, the women's services agreed to modify this rule. Officers 

and enlisted women whose pregnancy terminated before the date of their 

discharge from the service could request retention on active duty. The 

requests went through channels to the Army area commander. The regulation did not bar unmarried women from requesting retention, but few 

wanted to sufTer any further embarrassment, and, given the prevailing 

attitude toward illegitimate pregnancy, it was almost certain that such 

requests would be disapproved. If a li ving child were born before the 

• House Hearings on S 1641. COIIgmslollOI Rerord. 23 Feb 48, p . .5667. 

1 I'L 62.5. 80Ih Cong, 2d sess. 12 Jlln 48, sec 1000h). 10.5(b), 1000b). and 107 . 

• WD Cir 430, 4 Nov 44; DA Memo 40-50.5-4. 20 May 48. Maternity Care: of Women Discharged 

or Released from Active Duty; und A R 40-506, 19 Dec 52, Persons Eligible to Receive Mt-dical CMe 

in Army Medical Facilities; AR 40-108, 13 Jan .55. &arne tille. Copies in CM H Library. 
140 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

mother was discharged from the service, the officer or enlisted woman 

was discharged under the pregnancy regulation. 9 

In 195 1, President Truman issued an executive order (EO- 10240) that 

provided authority to discharge military women "on parenthood." Although the o rder did not req uire the services to discharge on parenthood, 

each service made such a discharge mandatory and issued new regulations in 1954. If a servicewoman married a man with children under 

eighteen years of age in his household for more than 30 days a year, the 

new regulations required the woman to request discharge. Each serv ice 

permitted women to request retention all active duty if extenuating circ umstances existed. Requests from unmarried women to adopt or otherwise acq uire full-time custody of a child under eighteen were rarely 

approved. 1 0 

Colonel Galloway's review of women's discharge policies produced no 

new recommendations. Believing that the discharge policies were already 

as liberal as possible, she felt unable to change or eliminate any of them 

to reduce losses. To abolish discharge on marriage or pregnancy would 

make Congress and the public think the Army forced married women and 

mothers to remain in service against their will. For its part, the A rmy had 

no desire to keep on duty women w ho could not work full time, or be 

transferred, or receive additional training, or perform shift or fatigue 

duties. Colonel Galloway and her staff, therefore, turned their attention 

to recruitment and reenlistment policies in their continuing search for a 

means of inc reasing gains and red ucing losses. 

Recruitment and Reenlistment 

An examination of WAC recruitment and reenlistment programs disclosed that Regular Army enlisted women received no choice of station, 

unit, or training course in return for a three-year, or longer, enlistment. 

Qualified male enlistees, on the other hand, could c hose from an array of 

assignment g uarantees- overseas duty, a certain command or division, 

school training. Pointing to the Corps' obvious need for more enlistments, 

Colonel Galloway convinced the G-l to open the special school training 

option to women toO. Under it, women high school graduates who met 

" Change 3. 23 Feb 49, to AR 625-36]. ]4 May 47, Discharge of Enlisted Personnel. M ... odical. and 

SR 625- 5-5. II JIIIl 49. Discharge of WAC Officers and Warmm Officcrs ror Marriage and Pregnancy. Change 2. 2 Nov 61. to AR 635- 210, 17 Feb 61. Discharge of Enlisted Person ne] 011 Marriage, 

Pregnancy, or Parenthood, clarified the wording by stat ing that "when a legitimate pregnancy is 

termina ted." the woman could request retention on active dUly. While that wording was not included 

in the officers' regulations, the policy W"S applied to officers as well. 

10 EO 10240. 27 Apr 5]. Regu]ations Governing the Separation from the Service of Certain 

Women Serving in thc Regular Army. Navy. Marine Corps. or Air Force. in DA Bull 7. 14 May 

1951: AR 615- 361, 21 Sep 54. Enlisted Personnel. Dischllrge on Marriage. Pregnancy and Parenlhood; SR 605- 225- ]0. 17 JI.lII 54. Re]ease of Womell Officers Because of Marriage, Pregnancy, or 

Parenthood. Copies in CMH Library. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 14 1 

the mental and physical requirements and agreed to enlist for at least 

three years would be guaranteed assignment in one of seventeen specialist 

courses. 11 The optio n, ad vertised as the "Reserved Seat Program" or the 

"High School Enlistment Option," opened in March 1953. Though it did 

not immediately increase WAC enlistments. it was a step forward. 

A two-year enlistment had been made available to women in 1952. To 

young women, eighteen to twenty years of age (the average enlistment 

age for WACs), the shorter alternative was mo re appealing, especiall y 

when a longer enlistment provided no obvious advantages. Long range, 

however, the two-year enlistment was disad vantageous to the Army in 

two respects. F irst, like d raftees, few two~year women reenlisted; and 

second, after completing fo ur months of training, wo~year women had 

only twenty months left to spend in the Army versus thirty~two months 

for three-year women. For the women who signed up, t.he two-year 

program had several drawbacks as well. T hey could not enroll in school 

training programs longer than eight weeks because most required students, male or female, to have eighteen to twen y~fo r months remaining 

on their enlistments when they completed the course. They could not be 

assigned overseas because WACs had to serve at least one year on active 

d uty before becoming eligible for such duty, and all volunteers needed at 

least o ne year remaining on their enlistment when they arrived at a port 

of embarkation. Recruiters, however, liked the two-yea r enlistment because it sold easily, and it gave them the same amount of credit as an 

enlistment for three years. Thus, in FY t 953, which ended just two 

months after the Reserved Seat Program went into effect, of the 2,638 

women who enlisted directly from civilian life, 2,354 chose the two-year 

enlistment. 12 

To strengthen the recruitment process, a new mental screening test 

was introd uced in January 1953-the Armed Forces Women's Selection 

Test (AFWST). For women, it replaced the Armed Forces Qualification 

Test (AFQT), in use since t 950, which men continued to use. Because the 

AFQT was designed primarily to test men, it contained a high co centra~ 

tion of questions on mechanical skills, knowledge of motors and tools, the 

sciences, and physics. By contrast, the AFWST emphasized verbal skills, 

arithmetic reasoning, and pattern ana lysis. This test mo re aptly measured 

a woman's potential to be trained in clerical and administrative positio ns, 

typical assignments in the t 950s. T he AFWST retained some questions to 

II SR 6 15-120-23, 27 Mar 53. Enlistment of High School Graduates for Specific Army Schooling, 

CM H Library. The 17 courses were Dcntal Assistant, Dcntal Laboratory Specialist. X-Ray T echnician, Medical Technician, Medical Laboratory Procedures Specialist, Occ upatiorlal Therapy T echnician, Personnel Management Specialist. Machine Accounting Specialist. WAC Clerical Procedures 

lind Typing, Stenography, Cryptography, Finance and Accounting Specialist, Clinical Psychology, 

Telephone or Teletype Operations, Still Photography, Message Center Procedures, and Cooking. 

12 AR 600-175. 17 Jul 53, Foreign Service, CMH Library; Gains of RA Enlisted Women by 

Source and Term of Enlistment, Sm!llglll of Ille Army Report (STM- 30), 30 J UIl 54. 
142 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

eva luate knowledge of mechanics, science, and other subjects, but such 

questions were few. With periodic revisions, the AFWST was used as the 

primary mental screening test for WACs and the other women's services 

until 1978. 13 

WAC reenlistment programs were examined next. In 1952 a reenlistment option had been opened to all personnel returni ng from overseas. 

Under this provision returning personnel could select the Army post to 

which they wished to be assigned. If a vacancy in their MOS and g rade 

existed at the post, they were able to reenlist for it. If it did not, they 

reenlisted without a guaranteed assignment. 14 Women who were due for 

reenlistment while in the United States had no comparable choices. Men 

reenlisting under similar circumstances had a variety of options- assignment to the Far East, Europe, Alaska, Australia, o r the Caribbean; assignment to a particular branch (Infantry, Engineers, Signal); or duty (airborne, counterintelligence, a band); or a specific division (1st Cavalry, 2d, 

3d, 7th, 24th, or 25th Infantry).15 In mid-1953, however, Colonel Galloway was able to obtain some reen listment options for women. They could 

reenlist for duty in a specific geographic Army area or the Military 

D istrict of Washington (MDW); at a specifi c post, if it had a WAC 

detachment; or for duty in Europe o r the Far East commands, provided 

that a proper vacancy existed. 16 Beginning in 1955, servicewomen could 

reenlist for special school training courses just as women enlisting directly 

from civilian life could do. 11 

On 30 Ju ne 1950, the reenlistment rate for all services had been 59.3 

percent; by 30 June 1954, it had fa llen to 23 .7 percent. These low 

reenlistment rates concerned Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson. 

Before the Korean War ended, he had appointed a committee to determine why the rates had dropped so drastically since 1950, and what could 

be done to increase them. The committee, headed by Rear Adm. J. P. 

Womble, Jr., conducted its study during the summer of 1953 and sent its 

report forward in October. It pinpointed the high civilian employment 

rate as the basic cause for the lack of reenlistments and noted that civilian 

pay was "lucrative. particularly for the skills taught within the services." 

The committee also noted that increases in military pay had not kept pace 

with increased costs of living, increases in pay in industry, or increases in 

government civilian pay. Contributing factors were the country's world13 Chnoge 3. 27 Mar 53. to SR 615-105- 1. 6 Jun 52. Recruiting ror Regular Army. CM H Library; 

QDWAC WAC RerFile, AFWST. CMH. 

14 SR 615- 120- 7, 10 Jul 52, Reenlistment of Overseas Returnees for Direct Assignmenl to Army 

Installations in the Continental Unitt'd States. CMH Library. 

'" SR 615-120-5, 20 Feb SO. as superseded 28 Jul 53 and 14 May 54. Choice of Scrvice for Mer 

Enlisting or Recnlisting for 3. 4. 5. or 6 Years, CM I1 Library. 

18 OF. ACofS, G- I. to TAG. 8 Sep 53, sub: Reenlistment Options for Regular Army Enliste( 

Women in ACofS-GI Summary of Major Events and Problems FY 1954. CM H Ref Dr; Change I 

21 Apr 55. to SR 615- 120- 5. 14 May 54. added reenlistment options for womcn. 

11 AR 601-229. 31 Aug 55. Enlistment and Reenlistmcnt for Army Schooting. CMH Librar} 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 143 

wide commitments, which meant increased hardships for soldiers because 

of longer overseas tours and family separations; a decline in public re· 

spect for military service; and a service-wide dilution in discipline, 

morale, and attention to personal problems. To counter these factors, the 

Womble Committee advised eliminating incompetent personnel; estimating the impact of new policies before implementing them; and improving 

housing. dependent care, retirement programs, travel allowances, reenlistment incentives, and pay.16 

These proposals generated a wave of improvements in the military 

services. Chief among them was the passage of legislation that provided a 

new method of computing reenlistment bonuses. Up to this time, men and 

women received a lump cash sum of $40, $90, $160, $250, or $360 for 

reenlistment for two, three, four, five, or six years, respecti vely. Now, 

individuals reenlisting for the first time would receive an amount determined by multiplying their monthly base pay by the number of years on 

their new enlistment contract. For example, a WAC corporal (E- 4) 

reenlisting for three years would receive $390-her base pay of $130 

times three. Under the old law she would have received only $90 for 

reenlisting. 1 9 

Using the new legislation, the Army launched a major reenlistment 

campaign in 1954. Reenlistment NCOs were appointed to assist unit 

commanders in canvassing, interviewing, and counseling enlisted members 

on the advantages of remaining in the service. Each individual qualified 

to reenlist was interviewed at least th ree times before his or her enlistment ended. The counselor pointed out options for which the individual 

qualified, computed the reenlistment bonus mo ney, and explained the 

other benefits of military life- retired pay, further training and educational opportunities, medical and dental care, etc. Prospective reenlistees 

were scheduled to see films designed to encourage them to reenlist-

"Ninety-Day Wondering," " U's Your Future," or "A Look Ahead." 20 

With the higher reenlistment bonus, the Army became more particular 

about the qualifications of reenlistees. The Army laid the groundwork for 

this selectivity in 1953 by introducing the idea of a "bar to reenlistment." 

Unit commanders could document habitual misconduc t or inadequate 

mental ability and record the information in an individual's service 

reco rd. At the end of the individual's tour, that information would bar 

the person's reenlistment unless the problem had been eliminated. A 

WAC reenlistment guide admonished commanders "to reenlist as many 

It Memo 10 Assl SeeDer (Manpower and Personnel), Ocl 51, sub: Final Reporl, AD HOC 

Comminee on Ihe Future or Mililar)' Service lIS a Career Ihal will AnraCllllld Relain Capable Career 

Personnel. Arm)' Ill/wmarion Dignl, Feb 54. p. 24. 

u PL 506, An Amendmenl 10 Ihe Career Compcnsalioll ACI or 1949, 8Jd Cong, 16 Jul 54. 

10 SR 6 Ij- 120- 1. 1 Mar j4, Intra-Army Rccruiling Program; DA Pam 601 - 1, A ReenliSlmenl 

Guide, Jul 54: and AR 601 -280. 21 Apr Sj, Inlrll-Army Reenlislmenl Program. Copies in CM H 

Library. 
144 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

good WACs as possible. . One of the most important parts of your job 

as Unit Officer is to promote a high rate of fe-enlistment of desirable 

WACs." 21 

Congress passed a number of other laws that had a good effect on the 

Army's and the other services' reenlistment programs. In 1955 and 1958 

military pay was increased and. in 1958. two enlisted grades were added: 

E-8, master sergeant o r first sergeant. and E-9, sergeant major. Increased 

pay made military service more competitive with pri vate industry; the 

additional grades increased the prestige of the enlisted ranks. To provide 

proficiency incentives, the 1958 pay bill allowed additional pay for enlisted personnel who demonstrated excellence in their MOS performance. 

The fi rst proficiency level, P- J pay, gave a man or woman an additional 

$50 a month; P-2 pay added $100 a month; and P-3 pay added $150 a 

month. As an additional benefit, the 1958 bill also offered one year of 

college for every three-year enlistment or reenlistment and two years of 

college for every six-year enlistment or reenlistment. And, at the beginning of this period of goodwill and good public relations, the Defense 

Department, at the urging of Director Galloway and several veterans 

groups, had sponsored a bill, passed by Cong ress on 24 August 1954, 

giving V A benefits to W AACs who had been ho norably discharged on 

physical disability between 14 May 1942 and 30 September 1943. 22 

Between 1953 and 1955, by providing options for women in duty 

stations and schools, Colonel Ga lloway succeeded in bringing the 

women's reenlistment program almost in line with the men's. The WAC 

reenlistment rate, whic h had fallen to 18.7 percent in 1954, had swung 

upward to 35.6 percent by June 1955. 23 G reater freedom of choice, 

increased enlistment bonuses, and higher pay all contributed to the improved reenlistment rate. Another major event during 1954 also had a 

favorable impact o n WAC recruiting and reenlistment- the openi ng of a 

new WAC center and WAC school at Fort McClellan, A labama. 

The Move to Fort McClellafl 

Discussion about a new WAC center and WAC school had begun 

after a November 1950 visit to Camp Lee by Lt. Gen. Matthew B. 

Ridgway, Deputy Chief of Staff of the Army fo r Administration. On his 

retu rn to the Pentagon, he asked the G- I, then General Brooks, to find a 

better training area for the WACs. General Ridgway observed: "The 

210A Msg, 10 Feb 53. ~I,lb: Dar to Reenlistment. and "A Re·E lll istment Guide For WAC Unit 

OfficeTli." May 53, OOWAC Ref Filc, Re-Enlistmcnl. CMH. 

11 I'L 20. 84th Cong, 31 Mar 55: I'L 442. 85th Cong, 20 Mar 58: I'L 650, 83d Congo 24 Aug 54; 

AR 350-260. 13 Mar 58, Army Enlistcd Training Progrum ill Civilian Educational Institutions, CM H 

Library. HR 143, introduced in Jan 47 by Congresswoman Edith Nourse RogcTli to provide VA 

bencfits to WAACs honorably discharged 011 disability, had not passed. 

u Slrellglh oflhl! Army Re{XJrI (ST M- 30). 10 ,,," •• 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 145 

barracks these young American women occupy ... can never create any 

pride of occupancy. T hey are the dirty old temporary type of wooden 

shack. I think we can do better. " 24 Genera l Brooks agreed and forwarded the memorand um to Colonel Hallaren, then the director of the WAC, 

and received a surprising reply. Colonel Hallaren recommended that the 

WAC training center concept be eliminated and that me n and women be 

trained together in the Army's basic training system. She pointed out that 

few differences existed in their training programs except for the weapons 

and tactical training given men. She proposed for a pilot model that "a 

training battalion be activated at a pe rmanent post such as Fort Benning 

to provide joint training fo r men and women in common subjects. If 

successfu l, similar battalions might be activated at other training divisions 

until the entire func tio n of a WAC training center had been absorbed." 25 

Men and women would be assigned to separate companies but would 

share c lassrooms, instructors, training aids, and equipment. Such a pro· 

gram, she felt, would reduce training and travel costs, "create a highly 

desirable orientation for both men and women entering the Army," and, 

hopefull y, improve soldiers' attitudes toward women in the A rmy.26 

When her proposal received no support, Colonel Hallaren dropped the 

idea and turned to the selection of a post suitable for a WAC training 

center. A site selection committee, appointed by the c hief of staff, was 

already at work. T he members of the committee, who represented 

the G-I, the G- 3, the G- 4, the director of the WAC, and the chief of 

Army Field Forces, reviewed the availability of land and facilities at the 

sites considered onl y a few years earlier when Camp Lee had been 

chosen: Fort Bragg, Fort Benning, Fort Riley, and Fort McClellan. Their 

choice was Fort McClellan. The A labama location had a mild climate, 

allowing a maximum number of outdoor training days; adequate transpor· 

tation, both ground and air; and proximity to the service schools where 

the WACs would receive specialist training. In December 1950, the c hief 

of staff approved Fort McClellan as the site of the WAC Center and 

WAC School. 21 

Located five miles north of Anniston, Alabama, in a valley west of the 

Choccolocco Mountains, Fort McClellan was first o pened in 19 17. 

Named in hono r of the Civil War general·in·chief of the Union armies, 

George B. McClell an, the post had been an infantry training center 

during both world wars and had been closed, reverting to c ustodial 

status, after those wars had ended. During Wo rld War II, Fort McClel· 

lan's large hospital ( 1,728 beds) and statio n complement had included two 

WAC detachments-one white, o ne black- whose members worked in 

U Memo. LIGen Ridgway to the G - 1. 17 Nov SO. ODWAC Ref File, Fort McClcli an. CM H. 

U Memo for Record (MFR). ODWAC. 7 Mar 53. sub: Ilnckgrollnd Information on Permanent 

WAC Training Centcr. ODWAC Rcf File. Fort McClell an. C MI-I. U Ibid. 

aT Ibid. 
146 THE WOM EN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

the hospital, post headquarters, motor pool, bakery, service club, supply 

offices, and warehouses. 28 

On 4 January 1951 , the Department of the Army announced that Fort 

McClellan, closed in 1947, would reopen as a permanent post and that the 

Chemical School and Replacement Training Center would move there 

from Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland. Chemical training activities would 

occupy the existing buildings on post. Meanwhil e, a task force prepared 

detailed descriptions and justifications for moving the WAC Center to 

Fort McClellan and constructing faci lities there for both the WAC and 

the Chemical Corps. The plan was presented to Congress and approved 

by the lawmakers. On 21 September 1951 , President Truman signed the 

appropriations bill that authorized $23,333,250 for the projects at Fort 

McClellan. 20 

Bids on construction opened in J une 1952. In September a contract 

was signed with Bruce Constructio n Company of Miami, F lo rida. The 

WAC deput y direc tor, Lt. Col. Emily C. Gorman, reported : "When the 

bids were let and the actual working construction got underway, the cost 

of the WAC Center ... was established at S7,300,000." 30 Initial construction costs, however, totaled $10. 5 million, even though in the legislative 

process, approximately $3 million had been de leted from the WAC 

project and some needed buildings were lost. 31 

A formal g round-breaking ceremony took place on 7 October 1952, 

with Maj. Patricia E. Grant representing the director of the WAC. who 

could not be present. During the construction phase. Majo r Grant had 

been the o nl y WAC officer at the post. She represented the director in 

monitoring the progress of the construction and assisted the post commander and his stafT in their planning. She contacted the merchants and 

civic leaders in the Annisto n area and gave tal ks on WAC history and 

training courses to business. c hurch, and school groups throughout the 

state. She established the goodwill that future WACs would enjoy within 

the communit y. The WAC staff advisers at Headquarters. Third Army, in 

this period-Lt. Cols. Rebecca Parks and Verna A. McCluskey. and Maj. 

N. Margaret Young- visited frequentl y and provided what assistance 

they could. 

Stri kes, bad weathe r, and shortages of building supplies caused by the 

Korean War slowed construction. The contractor, after changing the 

n Maj Mary C. Lane, ·'The History or FOri McClellan." 14 Jul 55. CMH Rer Dr. 

U MFR. LtCoI Emily C. Gorman, DepDWAC, 30 Sep 53, 5ub: WAC Center Constructioo with 

incl ··Estimated Cost or WAC Construction," QDWAC Ref File, WAC Center Iiousing, CMH . 

30 MFR, LtCol Emily C. Gorman, DepDWAC, 30 Apr 53. ODWAC Ref File. WAC Center 

1·lousing. CMH. 

~I DF. DWAC 10 0-4. 14 Jan 53, sub; WAC Training Center Conslruc tion, and OI'LAN 

(Operaliolls !'Iall) CONSOLIDATE. I Jul 76, USA Schoolrrraining Ctr. FI McClellan, An e~ F. 

App I. p. 1'- 1- 1. ODWAC Rer File. WAC Center Housing. C MI-I. See also LtCol lIelen Boumer. 

"Construction," ill Rpl. WAC Staff Advisers Conr. 1953. p. 25. ODWAC Rer File. WAC Slaff 

Advisers Conrerences. CMf!. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 147 

MAJ. GEN. C HARLES D. PALMER, G-3, ARMY F IELD FORCES, FORT 

MONROE, cOllfers with officers from WAC Center alld WAC School regarding 

the move lrom Fori Lee 10 Fori McClellan. Left to righl: Maj. Martha D. 

Allen, 8-3, WAC Cenfer; Maj. Sue Ly"ch, AssislOIl/ Commandant, WAC 

School; LI. Col. Eleanore C Sullivolf, Commander, WAC Ce1ller, alld Cammal/dam, WAC School. March /953. 

"moving in" day three times, finall y set 25 June 1954 as the date, and the 

WAC Center commander, Lt. Col. Eleanore C. Sullivan, immediately sel 

in motion the detailed moving plan that her immediate staff had prepared. 32 

Beginning o n IO May 1954, advance parties of WACs began arri ving 

at Fort McClellan, whic h, effective 10 June, would become the home of 

II Maj Margarel A. Long. 5- 1; LtCol Helen V. Novak, 5-); Maj Mona L Voinche. 5-4; Maj 

Charloue I. Woodworth. CO. Basie Training Ibualion; Maj Laura M. 51. Clair. Asst CommllJldant. 

WAC School; Maj Gertrude F. Lund. Food Service Adviser; Maj Margot L Harris, Headquarters 

Commandanl; Maj Elil:lbeth G. 1Jc1l. Adjut~nt: and Capt Kelsey C. Crocker. Special Servk'(,'lI 

Officer. 
148 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

the WAC Center and WAC School. The largest group led by Lt. Col. 

Luc ile G. Odbert, deputy WAC Center commander, arrived o n 12 June. 

T he enlisted members of the group cleaned buildings, arranged furniture 

and equipment, and received property as it arrived from Fort Lee. The 

first shipment of property, supplies, and equipme nt left Fort Lee o n I 

Junc. By 16 Aug ust, over 120 tons of station and personal property had 

arri ved at Fort McClellan. To reduce transpo rtation costs, no new basic 

trainees were sent to Fort Lee after 17 June, and of those already there as 

many trainees and students as possible were graduated. F rom 1 Jul y to 9 

August, the WAC officiall y o perated two training centers so that no 

training time would be lost. Some trainee transfers. however, were necessary. and two platoons of Compan y A. WAC Training Battalion, who 

had begun their traini ng at Fort Lee in early Ju ne, completed it at Fort 

McClellan in August. 3 3 

WAC recruiters o utdid themselves in obtaining new enlistees and officers to enter the courses at the new center and school that summer. Two 

hund red women began their basic training o n 5 Jul y. The WAC Clerical 

Procedures and Typing Course. restored to WAC Sc hool after being 

disbanded in 1950 to make room for mo re recruits at Fort Lee. commenced its first class on 16 Aug ust with fort y students. Class VI of the 

WAC Officer Basic Course and Class X of the WAC Officer Candidate 

Course, the first combined class. began o n 26 August with twenty-two 

student officers and six officer candidates. 34 

The WAC area was divided into two major sections-the WAC 

School and the WAC Center. whic h included the WAC T raining Battalio n. The Center's main building contained offices for the battalio n commander, her staff and instructors, twent y-fi ve classrooms, and a small 

gymnasium. Across the street were six c ream-colo red barracks buildings. 

made of steel-reinforced concrete blocks, with asphalt tile floors and 

pastel-painted interiors. Basic trainees occupied fi ve of the barracks, and 

members of the 14th Army Band (WAC) li ved in the sixth, part of which 

was co nverted into rehearsal rooms. Also in the ba tta lion complex were a 

mess hall, which co uld seat 400 at a time. and a building for fitt ing and 

issuing WAC uniforms. 35 

n Movement Orders, HQ. Second Army, Fort Meade. MD. A IA BCO-O 370.5. 2 May 54. sub: 

Movement or Units on Permanent Change or Station. and HQ WAC Center. ForI Lee, VA. 2 Jun 54. 

sub: Movement Orders. Women's Army Corps Center. DA GOs 38 and 39, bOlh 26 May 54. 

e$tablishcd the WAC Center and WAC School. Fort McClellan. effective 10 Jun 54. Fort McClellan 

GOs 19,23. and 25, 29 J un. 12 Jut and 21 Jul 54, respectively, established major WAC units at WAC 

Center and WAC School. Fort McClelll\ll. Copie$ of all documents are illCluded in Annual Report, 

WAC Center. Fori Lee and Fort McClellan. 1954. History Colh .. 'Ction. WAC Museum. 

H Historical Report. WAC C&'S. 1954. History Collect ion. WAC Museum. 

Ii InformaliOIl on WAC facilities and WAC relations wilh the locnl popul ation is from Historical 

Reports, WAC C&S. 1954 Mnd 1955. History Cott ectioll . WAC Museulll. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 149 

NEWLY ENLISTED WOMEN arrive at the trai" stotiOl/, Anllislol/. Alabama, to 

begill basic trail/illg at lite /lew WAC Celller, Fort McClellall, JII/Y 1954. 

Each barracks had three stories and a basement. On the first floor 

were offices for the company commander and her staff, a kitchen. reception area, dayroom, and bathroom with private toilets, individual showers, and two bathtubs. The basic trainees lived on the second and third 

floors in large bays without partitions, two bays per floor. Each bay 

contained forty-five to fifty cots, footlockers, wall lockers, and steel 

clothes closets. In addition, each floo r had a laundry room with automat· 

ic washers. dryers, and ironing boards; a large bathroom; and several 

cadre rooms in which the unit's platoon sergeants lived. The basements 

contained offices for the unit supply officer and her assistants. storage 

rooms for the unit's supplies and for the basic trainees' suitcases. and a 

mailroom. 

The WAC School was about a half-mile from the basic training area. 

The main building contained offices for the assistant commandant, her 

staff, and the instructors as well as twenty-five classrooms, a bookstore, 

and a library. Student officers and officer candidates lived in a barracks 

designed like those at the Center for basic trainees, except that partitions 
150 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC AREA, FORT MCCLELLAN, 1954 

were provided between each two cots in the bays. Enlisted students lived 

in another barracks in open bays witho ut partitio ns. Headquarters and 

Headquarters Company, also located in this area, held the permanent 

party enlisted women who were assigned to WAC Center headquarters, 

WAC School, Fort McClellan's post headquarters, the hospital. or another activity on post. Another large mess hall was located in this area to 

serve the women who lived in these barracks. 

WAC officers assigned 10 activities o n post Ji ved in bachelor officer 

quarters in the WAC area. Lieutenants and captains shared a suite, whic h 

consisted of two bedrooms separated by a bathroom. Majors and above 

had individual suites- livi ng room, bedroom, and bath. The few small 

cottages available were assigned to the officers w ho occupied key positions, e.g., the WAC Center commander/School commandant, assistant 

commandant, battalion commander. 

WAC Center headquarters, which stood on a hill in the center of the 

area and overlooked the parade ground, held offices for the commander 

and her immediate staff, a small auditori um, message center, and printing 

shop. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 151 

Colonel Sullivan, Center commander, arrived on 15 July to assume 

command of the new WAC facility from her deputy, Colonel Odbert. A 

few days later, the citizens of Anniston welcomed their new neighbors by 

proclaiming 21 July as "WAC Day." The main streets of the city (population 26,CK)(:l) were draped with bunting and welcome banners; merchants 

placed placards of welcome in their store windows; and the local newspaper and radio station featured WAC activities throughout the day. WAC 

Day initiated an enduring and warm relationship between the members of 

the WAC at Fort McClellan and the citizens of Anniston and the adjoining towns of Oxford, Jacksonville, Weaver, and Heflin. 

Dedication of the WAC Center and WAC School was deferred until 

27 September 1954, when all activities were fully operational. General 

Ridgway, now Army chief of staff, was the principal speaker at the 

ceremony. He told the 700 or so military and civilian guests: "Here the 

traditions of the Women's Army Corps will be passed o n to those yet to 

wear the proud insignia of the WAC. They will become familiar with the 

splendid achievements of their predecessors and with the g reat honor and 

responsibility that is theirs in wearing the uniform of their country's 

Army forces." 36 He concluded the ceremony by unveiling a large 

bronze dedicatory plaque that read: "The WAC Center, dedicated to 

members of the Women's Army Corps who served their country in peace 

and war. Fort McClellan, Alabama, 27 September 1954." The plaque was 

later mounted on a marble slab and permanently placed in an area called 

the WAC Memorial Triangle across the street from the WAC chapel. 37 

Support in the field as well as in Washington had helped make the new 

WAC " home" possible. Lt. Gen. Alexander R. Bolling, Commanding 

General, Third U.S. Army, at Fort McPherson, Georgia, the area commander, took an active interest in the construction and operation of the 

Center, ensuring the resources necessary for its success. Providing day-today assistance were the Fort McClellan post commanders-CoL Michael 

Halloran, who retired in August 1954, and his replacement, Col. William 

T. Moore, who served until 1958. 

Attainment of the branch "home" made a difference in the progress of 

most WAC programs. It provided visible proof that Congress and the 

Army appreciated the Women's Army Corps and wanted it to prosper. 

The Ilew Center and School thus enhanced the prestige of the WAC 

within the Army, improved the morale of women on duty, and gave 

WAC recruiters a significant new selling point for obtaining recruits and 

student officers. During the year that ended 30 June 1954, 2,958 enlisted 

women entered the Corps; in the year that followed, 4,384. And while 

only 90 women received commissions in FY 1954, and only 53 in FY 

1955, liS were appointed in FY 1956. 38 

•• WAC Ct:mcr Commander's Newsletter, II Ocl 54. ODWAC Rer File, Fori McClellan. CMU. 

n Hislorieal Report. WAC C&S. 1954. Hislory Collection, WAC Museum. 

n Strengt" of the ,Irmy Reports (STM -JO), )0 lun 54. JO lun 55, 30 lun 56. 
152 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

GENERAL MAlTHEW B. RIDGWAY, ARMY CHIEF Of STAFf, speakil/g allhe 

dedicatiol/ of file lIew WAC Center alld WAC School at Fort McClellan, 27 

September 1954. To Generaf Ridgway's left are Sella/or Lister Hill 0/ Alabama. 

Brig. Gell. Charles G. Holle. Corps of Engilleers, alld Col. Irene 0. Galloway, 

Director, WAC. III the background are Pic. Flora G. Thompson alld lsI LI. 

Edllo Lee Gray, escorts. 

Expanding Enlisted Utilization 

In her contin uing search fo r ways to increase WAC personnel 

streng th, Colonel Galloway also worked to improve job satisfaction. A 

survey conducted in August 1945 had reported, "Satisfaction with her job 

is probably the single most important factor in an enlisted woman's 

evaluation of her ro le as a member of the Women's Army Corps and, 

consequently, her general morale and adjustment in Army life." 39 Thus, 

if ways could be found to increase job satisfaction, the reenlistment rate 

should also rise. 

Job satisfaction to most WACs meant doi ng work that was meaningful 

and that occupied them full y during duty hours. During World War II, 

after the W AAC had overcome the Army's initial resistance to the idea 

that women could be more than clerks, cooks, telephone operators, and 

drivers, opportunities opened in hundreds of military occupational specialties (MOSs). This large bank of jobs contributed most to the successful employment of women during the war. Altho ugh the majority of 

women worked in administration, communications, and medical ca re and 

treatment, they knew that some of their peers worked in a variety of 

"" T readwell. 111e Womel/s Army Corps. p. 753. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 153 

LT. GEN. ALEXANDER R . BOLLING, 

Commal/dillg Gel/eral, Third u.s. 

Army, 1953. 

COL. WILLI AM T. MOORE, Commander, Fori McClellan (1954- /958), 

unusual occupations. They, thus, sensed that the Army offered women 

increased opportunities. Knowing they had a choice in work assignment, 

location, and even the uniform they wore was impo rtant to the women 

and contributed to their job satisfaction. 

After World War II, the 0-1 ordered a major study aimed at developing a modern personnel management system and MOS structure for 

enlisted personnel. The new system, introduced during the first year of 

the Korean War, encompassed 490 MOSs arranged in 31 major career 

fields and 194 areas of specialization. Each new MOS description included a detailed outline of work performed, its physical and mental requirements, its training requirements, and a statement about whether o r not a 

WAC could be assigned to it. From this, the 0 - 1 developed the first 

authorized list of MOSs in which WACs could be trained and had it 

issued as a special regulation. A lthough revised periodically in the years 

to follow, the list was the controlling factor in determining WAC assignments. 40 

~o AR 615-2S-20. IS Nov so. Enlisted CMccr Fields; SR 6 IS- 2S- IS, IS Nov SO. Enlisted Military 

Occupational Specialties; and SR 615- 2S-36. 15 Nov SO. WAC MOS Assignment. Copies in CM H 

Library. 
154 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

During the development of the new system, other studies were also 

conducted. In 1949. Surgeon General Raymond W. Bliss authorized a test 

to determine "to what extent women could be substituted for men in the 

operation of Army hospitals." 41 The experiment began on 1 June 1949 at 

Murphy General Hospital, a SOO-bed facility near Boston, Massachusetts. 

Military and civilian women graduall y replaced males in the majority of 

medical and administrative jobs in the hospital and in the facil ity support 

jobs required when the hospital functioned as a military post. Civilian and 

Army nurses and members of the Women's Medical Specialist Corps 

filled positions in the hospital's clinics, wards. and offices. WAC officers, 

warrant officers, and enlisted women received either school training or 

on-the-job training so that they could fill administrative and technical 

positions. By the end of the year, 16 WAC officers, 2 WAC warrant 

officers, and 240 enlisted women had been assigned to the hospita l. 

Women, however, did not fi ll all positions. No women Army doctors 

were available to participate because the law permitting them to be 

commissioned in the Army of the United States (AUS) had expired in 

1948. And costs precluded the hospital's hiring of civilian women doctors 

for the experiment. In another case, enlisted women did not replace the 

janitorial staff, mostly male civilians, because no compa rable MOSs existed for such jobs. The test administrator also excluded WACs from positions that were located in isolated areas, that called for physical strength 

beyond a woman's capac ity, that would require women to discipline men, 

and that would offend the "modesty of the average woman and sense of 

delicacy of male patients" and "would make the service of a male attendant desirable." 42 

On 30 April 1950, Murphy General Hospital was deactivated and the 

study was discontinued. Col. John M. Welch, commander of the hospital, 

reported that during the experiment, the hospita l had operated with full 

effectiveness. He recommended that the maximum percentage of women 

in hospital activities be 92; in hospital-post activities, 60. In hospital 

funct ions, however, he recommended that men be assigned for such tasks 

as heavy lifting in connection with male-patient care and treatment. WAC 

officers had performed well as hospital executive officer, management 

officer, personnel officer, medical supply officer, mortuary officer, and 

transportation officer. A WAC warrant officer had served competently as 

hospital registrar, and a WAC master sergeant had served successfully as 

sergeant major of the hospital. The jobs to which women were not 

assigned were those usually associated with great physical strength: fire 

fighter, prison gua rd, psychiatric attendant, boiler fireman, and butcher. 

The stud y supported the conclusions of other studies being conducted 

., Office of the Surgeon General of lhe ArrIlY, Reporl of the Female Staffing Test at Murphy 

Gcneral liospital. I June 1949 to 30 April 1950, p. I. CM H Rcf Ur. 

n Ibid .• p. 15. 
STRENGTH GOALS; THE MOVE TO FORT McCLELLAN 155 

during the period, but it did not result in any changes in utilization of 

women in the medical career field. 43 

A different stud y began in October 1949 at Walter Reed General 

Hospit al (Forest G len Section), Washington, D.C. Twenty-nine enlisted 

women entered an experimental 48-week course in practkal nursing- the 

Advanced Medica l Technic ians Procedures Course. The course curriculum. developed by Maj. Isabelle A. O. Mason, ANC, was taught by her, 

five other Army nurses, and one dietitian. Based on objective periodic 

reviews, tests, and evaluations, the course was considered a success. 

Twenty-one WACs graduated from the first class. The surgeon general 

and the chief of Army Field Forces approved continuance of the course, 

and enlisted men were admitted to subsequent classes.

44 

For the next three years, the practical nursing course was conducted 

solely at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. The Korean War inc reased 

the demand for its graduates, and beginning in 1952, similar courses 

opened at Letterman and Fitzsimmo ns General Hospita ls in San Francisco and Denver, respectively. Graduates took practical nurse licensing 

examinations in the states in which they were assigned. The commanding 

general at Walter Reed Army Medical Center commented: "Many practical nurses are serving overseas where they assist Army nurses in giving 

the highest quality of nursing care. In augmenting the nursing service, 

these technicians have become a most welcome asset in the medical 

field." 45 

Despite the results in the medical area, the enlisted personnel management system initiated in November 1950 was not a complete success. 

Commanders complained that the MOS and classification structure with 

its 31 career fields and 194 speciali zations was too complicated to administer. The exigencies of the Korean War also made it difficult to implement some of the innovative provisions of the new system, such as 

efficiency reports, competitive promotions, pooling of g rade vacancies, 

and MOS testing. These provisions were suspended until the war ended. 

In December 1951 , Army Chief of Staff J. Lawton Collins directed the 

c hief of Army Field Forces to devise a new MOS structure, career fie lds, 

and classification prog ram. Work on the project- with the major commanders, the chiefs of the administrative and technical services, and the 

Army staff at the Pentagon participating- began early in 1952.46 

n Ibid .. IlP. U- 16 . 

•• Waller Reed General Hospital. Washington. DC. Annual HiSlorical AClivitic:s RpIS. 19SO (pp. 

255-56).1951 (p. 333). and 1952 (po 33S). CM H Records Br. 

U Army News Feature release. Tlrt 8D)'OIll.'1 (FI. Benning post newspaper). 4 Sep 52. 

to Llr. Cors 10 G- 1. 30 Ocl 51. sub: Reduction in Number of MOS AUlhorizcd. with 1st Ind 10 

Chief, Army Field Forces. 26 Dec SI. Fillill Report. Study of the Enlisted MOS Struclure of the 

Army. 12 May 54, pari 3. CM H Ref Br. 
156 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The WAC did not have a role in the new study, and no WAC officer 

was included in the study group. Upon reviewing the new MOS structure 

when it was proposed in 1953, Colonel Galloway compared each MOS 

declared sui table for WACs against the women's utilization polic ies then 

in effect. She told the c hief of the study group that seventy MOSs on the 

"suitable" list d id not meet the c riteria laid down in the policies and 

recommended the list be made compatible with WAC standards. She 

noted, for example, that eighteen MOSs in the artillery series were not 

appropriate for the training and assignment of WACs. Although Colonel 

Galloway wanted the widest possible spectrum of MOSs, she also wanted 

the selection and assignment of women to be guided by what she considered sound policies. Assignments that would require combat traini ng and 

possibly combat duty for women were unacceptable. 

A new MaS structure introduced by the Army in ! 955 made a 

number of changes in enlisted personnel management. Ten occupationa l 

areas replaced the thirty-one career fields. Under the new MOS code, a 

WAC administrative specialist who formerly held MaS 1502 now held 

MaS 717.60. The first two digits (7 1) showed her occupational area 

(Administration-7!); the third digit her specialty (Personnel-7). The suffix 

digits (.60) indicated her skill level and special qualifications, if she had 

any. The new system also provided separate grades and titles for NCOs 

and specialists. Under this restructuring, 128 of the 385 A rmy MOSs were 

opened to enlisted women. The criteria for WAC utilization were now 

included in the same regulation that o utlined policies for men (AR 611-

203, Enlisted Personnel Selection and Classifi cation, 2 March 1955). This 

was a small step forward. Those facets of the new system whose implementation had been suspended during the Korean War- enlisted efficiency reports, MOS testing to determine proficiency, and an Army-wide 

promotion system based on merit- were put into effect between 1955 and 

1960. These changes brought marked improvement in the management of 

enlisted personnel, but neither opened new fields nor closed old ones to 

the WACs. 

Colonel Galloway'S tenure as director was a time of sound WAC 

accomplishment: enlistment gains had finally exceeded losses; three-year 

enlistments had surpassed two-year enlistments; and the reenlistment rate 

was higher than in 1953. These improvements were, in part, a result of 

increased military pay and reenlistment bonuses, the Army's new management system for enlisted personnel, and the WAC's move to a new home 

at Fort McClellan. They were also the result of Colonel Galloway's 

success in adding enlistment options and improving job satisfaction for 

the WACs-achievements that earned her the respect and affectio n of the 

women of the Corps. 
CHAPTER VII 

Management and Image 

As each new WAC directo r took up her duties, she continued her 

predecessors' work- publicizing the WAC, burnishing the WAC image, 

and vitalizing WAC programs. After World War II, WAC visibility had 

fa llen so sharply that the general public believed that, like price controls 

and rationing, the WAC had gone o ut of existence. T he directors turned 

to public relations to increase public awareness of the WAC and to 

inspire high standards among members of the Corps. In addition, each 

successive director had to develop new programs that adapted to changing situations as well as to continue old programs that had proved 

successful. And in choosing each successive director, the secretary of the 

Army, the chief of staff, and the G-I searched for a woman who would 

succeed as an executive, as a role model for the women, and as a 

spokeswoman for a career that neither the public nor the A rmy had fully 

accepted. 

With these factors in mind, in late 1956, Secretary of the Army Wilber 

M. Brucker selected Lt. Col. Mary Louise Milligan to succeed Colonel 

Galloway as the fifth director of the WAC} A veteran of World War II 

and of the fight for Regular as well as Reserve status for the WAC, 

Colo nel Milligan had served in the field, both in the United States and 

overseas, and in the Pentagon, as a member of the office of the G-I and 

as deputy director of the WAC. On 3 January 1957, she took the oath of 

office in Secretary Brucker's office. The secretary pinned one silver eagle 

on her shoulder; her mother, Alice G. Milligan, pinned on the other. 

Like her predecessors, Colonel Milligan chose he r deputy and the 

officers to serve in her immediate office. 2 The o utgoing deputy, Lt. Col. 

Emily C. Gorman, whose tour had ended. was reassigned to Headquarters, Continental Army Command. Lt. Col. Anne Eloise Sweeney, then 

staff adviser at Headquarters, Sixth U.S. Army, at the Presidio of San 

Francisco, was chosen to replace her. Colonel Sweeney was also sworn 

'Col Milligan was senior among those eligible 10 be director of Ihe WAC. She was promoted to 

temporary lieutenant colollel on 7 J un 45; to permanent lieutenant colonel on 15 Aug 51. 

~ LtCol LUla C. McGrath, the executive officer. and LtCoI Rebecca S. Parks, the plans lind 

policics officer. were replaced in 1957 by LtCol Eunity F. Elderdice and LtCol Marie Kehrer, 

respectively. In 196 1. they were ill turn replaced by LtCoI Catherine H. Fosler and Maj Carol M. 

Williams. LtCol Pauliue V. Houston, the chief of WAC Career Br from April 56 to Dec 59, was 

replaced by LICol Miriam L. Butler, who served from hn 60 to ~'C 64. 
158 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

COL. MARY LOU ISE MILLIGAN swom ;/1 as Director, WAC, by Maj Gel/. 

Herber/ M. JOlles. The AdjlllQllt Gel/era!. DA. Secretary of the Army Wilber M. 

Brucker looks 011, 3 Jalluary 1957. 

in on 3 Janua ry; Lt. Gen. Donald P. Booth, Deputy Chief of Stafr, 

Personnel (DeSPER). swore in the new deputy director.:I 

In the early months of her tour as director, Colonel Milligan described 

her goals, "to build up the WAC, . . . to have women used by the Army 

in a wider variety of jobs •... and to sell the Corps not only to potential 

recruits but to mothers and fathers as well." 4 These goa ls were inexora· 

bly entwined, and their attainment required leadership, energy, and skill 

in public relations. In her civilian life and military duties, Colonel MilliI ACofS, G- I, was retitled DeS PER on 3 Jan 56. 

4 Sidney Shnllcr, "This Lady'~ Army," SaI/lrJo! Ewmillg Post. 7 Jul 57, p. 22. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 159 

gan had gained experience in public relations. She was an accomplished 

speaker and had a keen sense of the appropriate- the right word and 

action at the right time. An officer who knew her well said of her: "She 

could come off the pa rade ground w hen the temperature was in the 

nineties and look cool and immaculate. She could step off a ross~co untry 

plane witho ut one wrinkle in her skirt." :; In an era when the Air Force's 

popularity was exceeding the Army's at recruiting stations, the Women's 

Army Corps needed a Mary Louise Milligan. 

Bumishillg the Image 

Colo nel Milligan followed several avenues in improving the WAC 

image. On trips to WAC units across the United States, in Europe, and in 

the Far East, she communicated a sense of pride 10 the women- in WAC 

history and in their individual contributions to the history of the Corps, 

its traditions, and its heritage. She charged commanders and enlisted 

cadre to be exemplary models for the women and to teach respect for the 

reputation of the Corps and pride in work, personal behavior, and appearance. She directed WAC unit commanders and WAC staff advisers to 

work together. She encouraged the advisers to work with her office staff 

to eliminate obstacles that impeded women's careers and diminished their 

satisfaction with the service. T he WAC staff advisers monitored the 

performance of the WAC detachment commanders to ensure that they 

exercised good judgment and maturit y in managing the women. Those 

who lost the women's respect or otherwise failed their responsibilities 

were summaril y relieved from their command duti es. Later, in December 

1958, to fill an informa tion gap about personnel matters, uniforms, and 

WAC news, Colonel Milligan initiated a monthl y memorandum to the 

WAC staff advisers; they, in turn, passed the informatio n along to WAC 

units and personnel in their commands. She also reinstituted the annual 

WAC staff advisers conference, the last of which had been held in 1955. 6 

Colo nel Milligan and her staff saw to it that all newsworthy and 

special events within the Corps were publicized. One such event was the 

assignment, in 1957, of a dozen enlisted women to the first Missile Master 

unit at Fort Meade. Another was the promotion of WACs to the newly 

authorized enlisted grades of E- 8 and E-9. In 1959, Ca rolyn H. James, 

assigned to Headquarters, U.S. Army Air Defense Command, Colorado 

Springs, became the first WAC promoted to master sergeant (or first 

sergeant), E-8; in 1960, she was the first WAC promoted to sergeant 

• Inlerv, DrigGen Elizabeth 1'. Hoisington with the author. 1 Nov BO. 

t Memo. DWAC 10 WAC Starr Advisers, Dec 58-Jan 70. Therearter. WAC news was transmitted 

through the WAC Jourtlol, a quarterly rna8Dzine published by WAC School. 1970-75. WAC starr 

advisers conference; were held 1942-49, 1951. 1954. 1955, 1959 64, and 1972- 75. The memos. WAC 

JQurllal. and conference reports are in the History Collection, WAC Museum. Dnd in the ODWAC 

Ref File, CMH. 
160 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

RETIREMENT CEREMONY FOR SGT. MAJ. CAROLYN H. JAMES AN D SGT. 1ST 

C L. MAE E. JUDY, FOri McClellon, April 1965. 

major, E-9. Also public ized in 1959 was the addition of the college 

enlistment option to the self-enhancement programs. Sgt. 1st CI. Ellen B. 

Steel was the first enlisted woman to attend college under that optio n. 

Colo nel Milligan's presence at events also generated favorable press releases for the WAC. In 1958. she represented the women's services at the 

dedication of the American Chapel, St. Paul's Cathedral, Londo n; in 

1961, she represented the Corps at the Women's Conference of the 

NATO Countries, Copenhagen.1 

Such publicity was aimed at potential recruits. T he Army's recruiting 

function was vested in the adjuta nt general (TAG), and within that 

office's Military Personnel Procurement Division was the WAC Recruiting Branch. The c hief of that branch was a lieutenant colonel personall y 

selected by the WAC director. The branch c hief was responsible for 

preparing plans and advising TAG divisions and the Army staff on WAC 

enlistment, reenlistment, and officer procurement matters. Colonel Milligan retained in this position the officer who had been assigned since 1952. 

1 Chronological Record of Events. ODWAC, 1942- 1978. ODWAC Ref File. CM H. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 

LT. COL. H ATII LU WHITE ADDISON, 

Chief. WAC Recruiting Brallch. 

TAGO, DA. / 952-1958. 

161 

LT. COL. H ELEN HART C ORTHAY, 

Chief. WAC R ecruitillg Brallch, 

TAGO. DA, 1958- 1962. 

Lt. Col. Hattilu White Addison combined initiative and effic iency with 

flamboyance in carrying out her duties. Well known throughout the 

Corps, Colonel Addison always carried a flowing, white chiffon kerchief 

on her left wrist when not in uniform. It was a public-relations image 

maker that she continued to use even after she retired. Colonel Milligan 

coordinated her public relations activities with Colonel Addison and 

Colonel Addison's successor, Lt. Col. Helen Hart Corthay. to ensure a 

senior WAC presence at important functions. 8 

Responsibility for recruit and officer procurement advertising also lay 

with TAG. The Recruiting Public ity Branch, also w ithin the Military 

Personnel Procu rement Divisio n, developed brochures, poste rs, film clips, 

and rad io and TV spots in conjunction with whatever major advertisin g 

agency had won the current Army contract ro r this work. A WAC major 

o r captain was assigned 10 the branch to coord inate work on WAC 

publicity projects. 

'Capt Helen M. Roy developed the WAC Regular Army recruiting prognlm (1947- 51). She was 

SII(."eeeded by LtCol Haltilu White Addison (1952- 58) and LICoI Helen Hart Corthay (1958- 62). In 

1962, the Army transferred its recruiting function to HQ, CONA RC, Fort Monroe, VA. Chiefs of 

WAC recruiting from that time were: LtCol Josephine L. Redenius (1963- 66): LlCol Julia Ledbc:lter 

(1966--69): LlCol Frances V. Chaffin (1969- 72); and LtCol Doris L. Caldwell (1972- 75). In 1975, the 

position was eliminated and the Recruiting Command created a new branch 10 manage WAC 

recruiting. 
162 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

One of the director's primary responsibi lities regarding the WAC 

image was women's uniforms. After the taupe uniform was introduced in 

1951, WACs and women in the Army Medical Department wore the 

same uniforms. Thereafter, the chiefs of the corps (WAC, Army Nurse 

Corps, Army Medical Specialist Corps) collaborated on the design and 

regulations for the proper wear of the women's uniform. Because the 

taupe uniform was generall y disliked for its color, style, and fit, the 

women chiefs pushed for a c hange; and, in March 1956, the Army 

Uniform Board approved development of a new uniform style and a 

change in color from taupe to Army green. The men had changed from 

olive drab to Army green earlier that year. After months of consultation 

with heads of some of the most famous women's fashion houses in New 

York City and with the Quartermaster Corps' uniform experts. the 

women chiefs agreed upon the designs for winter and summer uniforms. 

The secretary of the Army approved the new designs in February 1957. 

and in March 1959. after two years in development and testing, the Army 

issued the summer cotton-and-dacron green cord uniform. In 1960, it 

issued the women's winter Army green service uniform. Officers purchased their uniforms; enlisted women received an initial free issue and 

thereafter received a monthly clothing allowance to replace worn items.9 

The women liked the style and color of their new uniforms. and it was 

generally agreed that the new uniforms improved the women's appearance. 

As a result of the increased attention given to its public image after 

World War II. the Corps suffered few ignominious incidents like the one 

that occurred in 1946- the court-martial of Capt. Kathleen Nash Durant, 

her husband, and severa l others in Germany for the theft of the royal 

jewels of the House of Hesse from Kronberg Castle in Frankfurt. Most of 

the jewels, valued at over a million dollars, were recovered, and Durant 

was found guilty of larceny, dishonorably discharged, and sentenced to 

serve five years at hard labor at the Federal Reformatory for Women in 

Alderson, West Virginia. She was paroled on good behavior in 1949. 10 

Congressional Liaison 

An important part of the director's duties involved proposed legislation. She worked with members of Congress by providing information on 

WAC matters and by helping draft legislation affecting the Corps . 

• The term "service uniform" includes the skirt, shirt, jacket, hat, or cap; the "duty uniform" migh 

be hospital whites, cook's whites, fatigu es, or the service uniform. Officers received a onc-t ime S2() 

uniform clothillS aliowftllce and thereafter purchased their own uniforms. ODWAC Ref File, Uni 

forms, CMH. 

1(' History of the Second Year of the Occupation Forces in Europe, 1 Jul 46- 30 Jun 47, omc 

Chief of History. European Command, p. 26, CM H Ref Dr; New York Times. 29 Jul 49. p. I: 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 163 

One long-standing WAC need had concerned each director Since 

1944-a law to give women active duty credit for the months they spent 

in the WAAC between J uly 1942 and 30 September 1943. No such 

provision had been included in the bill that made the WAC part of the 

Army of the United States in 1943. 11 After the WAC achieved permanent status in 1948, obtaining this credit became c ritical because it would 

increase a woman's service longevity, and longevity affected pay, promotion, and retirement. Requests for such legislation by Colonel Hobby and 

Colonel Boyce had been denied because the War Department conside red 

the W AAC a civilian organization. Colonel Hallaren and Colonel Galloway had succeeded in getting the remedial legislation introduced, but the 

bills had died in committee. In 1953, Secretary of Defense Charles E. 

Wilson helped the cause when he accepted the view that W AAC time 

should count as active duty. T hereafter, he included th is action in his 

legislative packages, but Cong ress continued to defeat the actions. Two 

bills granting WAAC credit failed in the 84th Cong ress; four, in the 85th 

Congress. 1 2 

Bills designed to rectify the situation did not reach the committeehearing stage until 1959. After the bills introduced in 1957 and 1958 died 

with the adjournment of the 85th Congress, Colonel Milligan and Col. 

Emma J. Riley, Director, Women in the Air Force, began another campaign for such legislation, ra ising the issue within the Department of 

Defense and calling on the members of the Defense Advisory Committee 

on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) for assistance. The WAF 

joined in the effort because the WAF had its o rigins in the WAAC and 

many of its women would benefit. In 1959. another bill, H.R. 332 1, was 

introduced by Cong ressman Paul J. Kilday of Texas. Scheduled for a 

hearing before Subcommittee 3, House Armed Services Committee. the 

bill would make W AAC service coun t as active duty if a woman had also 

served in the WAC, WAF, or one of the other women's services after 

1943. It did not allow back payor promotion rights for the service 

gained. but it did provide the longevity credit. Colonel Riley and Colo nel 

Milligan appeared befo re the subcommittee o n 23 March. One of their 

most compelling points was the inequity created because women in the 

Navy (WAVES, SPARS, and Women Marines) had received active duty 

credit for their wartime service as reservists on active duty. The subcommittee reported the bill favorably to the full committee which, in turn, 

unanimously recommended its passage. T he bill was passed in the House 

on 15 J une and in the Senate on 29 J uly. President Eisenhower signed it 

on 7 AuguSt. 13 Approximately 1,400 women on active duty in the WAC 

I'Treadweli. WOllum's Army Corps. Appendi~ C, "A Summary of Controversy on Legal Status of 

WAAC," pp. 782- 83. 

U Bills introduced 011 WAAC credit: 80th Cong: S 592; 81st Cong: S 924; 82d Cong: 5 3078: 83d 

Cong: 5 2040; 84th Cong: HR 2560. HR 4786; 85th Cong: HR 2408. I·IR 2883. HR 8115. S 2305; 86th 

Cong: IiR 938. IiR 3748, HR 9167. HR 1888. HR 3321. 

13 PL 142. 86th Cong, 1st sess, 7 Aug 59. 
164 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

and WAF gained additional active duty credit as a result of the legislation. The law allowed thirty-three WAC reserve officers to remain on 

extended active duty to achieve retired status and fift y-three reserve 

office rs to remain on inactive status to ea rn c redits for retirement. 

Women with no furt her military service after the WAAC would have to 

wait until 1980 for a decision that would give them active military credit 

for their WAAC service. 14 

After the campaign to obtain W AAC c redit, Colonel Milligan and her 

staff turned to other inequities. In 1954, Congress had passed the Reserve 

Officers Personnel Act (ROPA) to equalize car eer opportunities and 

conditions for regular and reserve officers in the three services. Each 

service retained its own system of regulations and implementation policies 

for the promotion and retention of officers, but, effective I July 1955, 

ROPA required that each se rv ice apply its system to all officers rega rdless of status. Retirement, however, differed- reserve officers who had 

completed twenty yea rs on active duty would be mandatorily retired 

unless a board selected them for retention beyond twenty years. I 5 

The retirement provisions of ROPA adversely affected the careers of 

many WAC reserve officers. Their career patterns differed from men's: 

WAC officers still could not advance beyond the grade of lieutenant 

colonel, and, as of 30 June 1955, 66 percent of WAC officers on active 

duty were reservists. 16 The restriction on promotion curtailed the length 

of time WAC reserve officers could spend on duty-either extended 

active duty or inactive reserve status. Since the women could not be 

promoted above lieutenant colo nel, openings at that level and at lower 

grades were, of necessity, mo re restricted than for male officers. With 

promotional restrictions, time-in-grade pressures on WAC officers became 

undul y restrictive. Women who could not be promoted above lieutenant 

colonel could not complete 28 or 30 years o n duty as men promoted to 

colo nel or brigadier general could. And that problem was compounded 

since it affected the lower grades. 

Because of the scope of ROPA, Congress reali zed that the act would 

require amendment and set a date of 2 July 1960 fo r any needed changes. 

Colonel Milligan prepared amendments to adjust the provisions detrimental to the careers of WAC reserve officers. Her proposed amendments, 

accepted by Congress and the president, allowed: 

- WAC reserve officers to be considered for promotion through 

the grade of major whether or not a vacancy existed in the 

unit's manning documents. 

14 ODWAC. Information Sheet for Mr. Frank Slotinshck. Counsel for Subcommiuee 3. House 

Armed Services Committee, Jan 59. and SeeDer decision. 2 Apr 80 (based on sec 40, PL 202. 0 1 Bill 

Improvemem Act of 1917, 93th Cong), ODWAC Ref File. Legislation, CM II. 

'& I' L 713. 8Jd Cong, 2d sess. 3 Sep 34. 

,a SIreJl81IJ of tIJe Army Report (STM- 30). 30 Jun 55. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 

- WAC majors and below to remain on duty to complete 

twenty~five years of service and lieutenant colo nels to complete twenty-eight years of service provided they were otherwise eligible for retention. I 7 

165 

WAC reserve officers thus became less confined by the time-in-grade and 

promotion-or-passed-over-and-oul restrictions of the o riginal act. 

With the passage of the ROPA Amendments Act on 30 June 1960, 

Colonel Milligan successfull y completed her agenda for congressional 

action. Her legislative and public relations efforts to improve recruiting 

and retention were bearing fruit. WAC strength had increased by 2,000 

between 1957 and 1960; first-term enlistments had increased; and the 

overall reenlistment rate had remained steady. New WAC units were 

established at Fort Huachuca, Arizona (April 1959), and Fort Shafter, 

Hawaii (December 1959). Those statistics had also been influenced by 

another area of effort-the campaign to increase the number of MOSs 

open to women. 

Society and Utilization 

A 1957 book entitled Womanpower reinforced Colonel Milligan's belief 

that WAC strength and job variety could and should be increased. The 

book stressed the increasing importance of women in the labor force and 

in labor politics. It noted that a slightly higher number of women than 

men had entered the labor fo rce between 1950 and 1956, and it predicted 

that this trend would continue. Employers, the book advised, needed to 

recognize that the life-style of many women was changing- women were 

raising their families while pursuing fu ll-time careers. a distinct change 

from the 1930s and 1940s. Employers should capitalize on the change and 

eliminate gender-labeling in the hiring. assig nment. promotion, and pay of 

their workers. The book did not infl uence the Army to begin eliminating 

the regulations that prevented WACs from combining marriage, famil y. 

and career. but, to many, it did introduce the ideas that led to identifying 

Army jobs that could be do ne by either men or women as interchangeable. 16 

Other social issues also influenced the future of the WAC. In the late 

1950s and I 960s, Americans increasingly recognized the j ustice of the 

civil rights movement. Both the legislative and judicial branches of the 

federal government acted to ensure blacks equal rights under the Constitution- the right to vote and equal access to schools and other public 

facilities. Practices established in the 1940s in the WAC had become 

11 ROPA Amendments Act of 1960. PL 559. 861h Cong, 2d sess. 30 Jun 60. 

18 Nalional Manpower Council, Womullpower (New York: Columbia Uni ... l'ress, 1957), pp. 17. 136; 

lulery, LtCol Irene M. Sorrough with Ihe author, 10 Ocl 79. 
166 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

accepted throughout society and had returned in an expanded form to the 

WAC. 

During the same years, space exploration took on the character of a 

national endeavor. Research spawned by the "space race" prod uced technological advances year after year. The new technology was quickly 

absorbed into industry, business. education, government, and the military 

services. To the Army, it brought new weapons, transportation, communications, and logistical systems, and a requirement for more complex 

training, administratio n, and management. In this atmosphere, Colonel 

Milligan began her campaign to expand the role of the WAC. 

In 1957, the director asked the deputy chief of staff for personnel 

(DCSPER) to conduct a stud y to identify additional MOSs that women 

could perform in peacetime and during periods of mobilization. After 

World Wa r II, men replaced the women who had learned to repair and 

o perate machines used in the medical, personnel, maintenance, logistics, 

and communications fields. By 1957, few WACs operated a machine 

heavier than a teletypewriter or a I V2-ton truck. Space technology, however, had introduced miniaturization, electronics, and lighter weight 

equipment to other segments of the economy, and Colo nel Milligan knew 

that most WACs, not just the exceptionall y strong, could manage almost 

any piece of machinery. The DCSPER and the Army Personnel and 

Training Research Advisory Committee approved the stud y and assigned 

it to a research team at the Adjutant Gene ral's Office (T AGO). 

The resultant 1958 stud y identified 116 MOSs out of 400 that WACs 

could 1101 perform because the jobs involved combat weapons or a 

combat environment, isolated duty posts, extraordinary physical strength 

and stamina (i.e., frequent requirements to lift fifty or more pounds), 

assignment to a post where housing could not be provided at a low 

additional cost, or duties culturall y unsui table for women (i.e., mortuary 

attendant, vermin exterminator, quarry worker). The research team divided the balance of the MOSs into three groups based on A rmy needs and 

the restrictions on employment of women. Group J consisted of 134 

MOSs that women could fill in 75 percent of the cases where the Army 

called for such occupational skills; group II, 76 MOSs in which women 

could fill from 11 to 74 percent of the positions; and group III, 67 MOSs 

in which women could fi ll from 1 to 10 percent of the positions. The 

team concluded that WACs should not be restricted to 2 percent of 

Regular Army strength. In a 700,OOO-man Army, the WACs could fill 25 

percent (175,000) of the enlisted spaces; in a mobili zation-size Army of 

3,200,000, they could fill 23.4 percent (748,800). A TAG study in 1942 

had concluded that women could fi ll approximately 19 percent of the 7.7 

million positions in the Army- almost 1. 5 million positions. 19 

IQTreadwell, 771/~ Womell s Army Corps, pp. 92- 95; Jack J. Sternberg, Frank S, Greenberg. and 

Edmund F. Fuchs, " Idcntirying Army Jobs Suitable ror WAC Assignmcll\," I'crsollncl Research 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 167 

The research team then turned to related studies. A battery of electronic, electrical, and mechanical aptitude tests was given to 1,412 high 

school students (742 women, 670 men); the results showed that S5 percent 

of the women could qualify for training in electronics, 27 percent in 

general maintenance, and 14 percent in mechanical maintenance. The 

team concluded that women scored lower than the men in these areas 

because the men had had more training in the use of shop tools, equipment repair, and mechanical and motor principles. Women, however, 

could quickly develop skills in these areas when mobilization requirements demanded. 2o 

The team also visited two Army service schools that taught courses 

requiring electronics, electrical, and mechanical aptitudes- the Army 

Signal School at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and the Southeastern 

Signal School at Fort Gordon, Georgia. The team examined curricula, 

entry qualifications, strength and lifting requirements, attrition, uniform 

and clothing requirements, assignments upon g raduation, and career patterns. As a result, the team recommended an experiment in which women 

would be trained and assig ned in four MOSs-Fixed Station Attendant 

(MOS 270), Field Radio Repairman (MOS 296), Manual Central Office 

Repairman (MOS 3 11), and Teletype Equipment Repairman (MOS 

34 1).21 

In April 1960, Colonel Milliga n reported to the members of 

DACOWITS that 250 enlisted women would be selected to participate in 

the experiment recommended by the research team. "We believe," she 

said, "that this research will contribute substantially to the broader utili zation of womanpower in the Army in peacetime as well as in war." 22 

Unfortunately, the number of WACs involved dropped sharply- except 

for twenty positions in MOS 270 series, the Army's training requirements 

in the four MOSs had been filled for FY 1961. Women were selected, 

Ilranch, TAGO, Research Study 58-3, Washington, DC, Aug 58, ODWAC Ref File, Studies, TAG, 

Utili:tation of Women, CM H. 

26 Jack J. Sternberg, John dcJung, and Charles Hammer, "Distribution of Aptitude Area Scores 

among High School Senior Women," Research Study 61 -2, May 61; Jack J. Sternberg. John dcJung, 

and Frank S. Greenberg, "Opinion Survey, Effect on WAC Recruiting of Offering Electronics 

Training Options," Research Study 59-4, J un 59; Jack J. Sternberg and Frank S. Greenberg, 

'"Review of Research and Predicting Performance of Womcn ill Elcctrical alld Mcchanical Work," 

Research Memorandum 59- 7, Aug 59. All studies cOllduclt'd by Personnel Research Branch, TAG 

Personnel Research and Procedures Division, later redesignated Human Factors Research Office, 

T AG Research and Development Command. All studies in ODWAC Ref File, St udies, TAG, 

Utili:tation of Women, CM H. 

21 Memos, LtCoI Emily C. Gorman. CONARC representative, to DWAC, 23 lui 59, sub: Conference at Fort Monmouth, NJ, and 29 Jill 59, sub: Conference a1 Fort Gordon, GA, ODWAC Ref 

File, Studies, TAG, Utilization of Women, CMH. At Fort Monmouth, Ihe group includt'd Maj 

Bernice C. Skutas, Signal School, alld ISILI Jeane W_ Wolcott. WAC dClachment commander: at 

Fori Gordoll, IstLt Mildred E. Pons, WAC detachment commander, and LtCol Lillian F. Foushee, 

WAC Staff Adviser, HQ, Third Army. Fort McPherson. 

22 Mill. DACOWITS Sprillg Mtg, Apr 60, Tab C, p. C-1-4, ODWAC Ref File, DACOWITS, 

CMH. 
168 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

trained, and assig ned to those MOS 270 series jobs. Their progress was 

tracked for a year; afterwards the team reported: "The conclusion seems 

reasonable that no serious administrative or situational factors preclude 

assignment of women to electronics MOS." 23 

As the research team worked on its final report, Colo nel Milligan 

submitted, to the DeSPER, a list of recommended additions to MOSs on 

the WAC lists: 

-forty-nine MOSs in the electronics, electrical, radio, and general maintenance and repair areas (WAC reservists' mobilization list); 

- nine MOSs in the scientific and professional area (WAC active 

duty list); 

-four bandsmen MOSs (WAC active duty list); 

- thirteen group I MOSs, among them, orthopedic specialist, 

light truck driver, TV production specialist, flight simulator 

specialist, and food inspection specialist (WAC active duty 

list). 

The DCSPER concurred and added the new MOSs to the WAC lists in 

July 1961. 24 

Obtaining authorization only partiall y accomplished the task of moving 

enlisted women into the new MOSs. Commanders had to identify such 

positions on their manning documents and then submit personnel requisitions for WACs in the MOSs. When requirements for women showed up 

in Army personnel reports, women would be trained in the new MOSs. 

The Army distributed its available traini ng spaces during the Enlisted 

MOS Requirement Conferences (known as the White Book Conferences) 

held in September and April. The ODW AC prepa red an annual estimate 

of WAC training requirements based on attrition reports, recruiting and 

reenlistment records, and housing information provided by WAC staff 

advisers. The men's training requirements were derived from the Inventory and Projection of Army Strength Report (CSGPA- 45), called the 45 

Report. It contained a consolidated inventory of actual, authorized, and 

projected strength by MOS, sex, and grade. T he report, however, did not 

contain accurate statistics for women (officers or enlisted) because commanders in the field did not code their manning documents appropriately. 

For example, on 30 June 196 1, the 45 Report showed onl y 1,200 authorU Edmund F. Fuchs and Aaron Katz. "Enlisted Womcn in Electronics Jobs:' Human Faetors 

RC5C<lrch Office, TAG Research and Development Command, Research Siudy 62-4, Jul 62, p. 4, 

ODWAC Ref File, Studies. TAG, Utilization of Women, 1958- 1962. CM H. 

24 DCSPER Summary of Major Events and Problems for FY 1962, Chapter V, Women's Army 

Corps Management, p. 118, CMH Ref !Jr. Also see change 3. 7 J ul 62, to AR 611- 201. 15 Jun 60, 

Military Occupational Specialty Manual, eMl-I Library. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 169 

ized spaces fo r enlisted women worldwide; over 8,500 enlisted women 

were actuall y serving on active duty.25 

The problem stemmed from the Table of Distribution (TO) system 

that had been introd uced in the A rmy in 1946. Procedure required personnel officers to code a position that was or could be filled by an 

enlisted woman with an "A"; an enlisted man, an "E"; a male commissioned officer, an "0"; a WAC commissioned officer, an "L"; ma le 

warrant officer, a "W"; and a WAC warrant officer, a "V." A requisitio n 

to obtain a replacement fo r an inc umbent leaving a job had to matc h the 

req uirements shown on the TO by g rade, MOS, sex, and, until 1951, 

race. 26 If the TD had not been annotated for a WAC. then a requisition 

could not be forwa rded for one. 

As a result of problems inherent in the replacement system, as well as 

misuse and abuse of the system, TAG assignment offi cers had problems 

assigning women o n completion of school training or a tour of d uty. 

After filling all requisitions coded "A" that had come in, TAG assigned 

women to "E" spaces, provided the women had the proper MaS and 

grade. If a command rejected the substitution, another command was 

tried and then another. If an authorized position could no t be found 

within a reasonable time, TAG assigned the WACs in overstrength to 

commands as replacements for future losses in their MOSs. As a last 

resort, TAG assigned WAC grad uates of a service school to a command 

that urgen tl y needed personnel and could give them on-the-job training in 

a different MOS. Such commands later tried to place the women in their 

formal school-trained MaS as vacancies became available. Because the 

inspector general gave low ratings to commands that d id no t use personnel in their school-trained MOS, it was to a commander's advantage to 

have as many personnel as possible wo rki ng in their school-trained MOS. 

This pressure helped the WACs move into suitable positions. 

Most other efforts to correct abuses in the replacement system came to 

naught. The DCSPER wrote letters to commanders about errors and 

advised them of the proper proced ure for annotating their manning documents and requisitions. T he WAC director and the WAC staff advisers 

visited commanders and personnel officers to explain the impact of their 

failure to designate spaces o n man ning documents fo r WAC officers and 

enlisted women- it affected training, housing, assignments, and promotions. Commanders sympathized with the directo r and her staff advisers, 

2. AR 330-112. g Mar 60. Inve1110ry and Projcction of Army Strength Rcport (CSG PA-45). CMH 

Library; ODCSPER Annual Summary of Major Events and Problems for FY 1960. p. 62, CMH Ref 

Dr; and Inventory and Projection of Army Strength Report (CSG PA- 45). 30 Jun 61. RG 319. 

Modern Military Br, NARA, Washington. DC. White Book Conferences began in 1960 and werc 

conducted by TAG until the 1962 DA reorganization, when the Enlisted Personnel Directorate. 

Office of Personnel Operations. took over the function. At the same time, CSG I'A-45 became 01'0-

4l. 

u SR 345- 50-8. 27 Dec 48. Inventory and Projection of Army Command Strength (Report 

CSGPA-45). CMU Library. 
170 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

promised to correct the situation, but seldom did. They had their own 

problems. Manpower had been reduced and personnel spaces cut to lower 

the Army's payroll costs. By designating their spaces "fill by men," 

commanders, in effect, had two chances to fill their requisitions. If the 

process resulted in an overstrength, they used another report to declare 

their WACs surplus (i.e., available for reassignment). Since TAG had no 

requisitions for them, the women remained where they were. The com· 

mander, however, had ba lanced his books and was eligible to submit 

requisitions for men. 27 The WAC had no recourse except to live with the 

system, understanding that it benefited the great majority and hurt only 

the WAC- less than 2 percent of Army strength. 

Despite the TO problem, Colonel Milligan could count some progress 

in opening new opportunities for women. She had succeeded in adding 

forty-nine MOSs to the WAC reservists mobilization list and twenty-six 

to the active duty lists. She hoped that later it would be easy to move the 

new Reserve mobilization MOS list over to the active duty list. And 

because the civil rights movement had forced elimination of racial coding 

on TDs, the possibility of eliminating gender coding existed as well. 

Attitudes 

During World War II, after women had demonstrated that they could 

perform military jobs efficiently, most Army career men had yielded and 

acknowledged that the WACs were of value to the Army. Still, man y of 

the men had expected the WACs to go home after the war; the Army 

would again become all male and do its work without the help of women. 

But things were never again the same in the Army. 

Despite the changes in society and in the Army. the attitude among 

some men in 1942 that women did not belong in the Army was still there 

in 1962. Sociologists thought the cause a matter of territo rial prerogative- the Army was men's ground, and women had no right to be on it. 

After the WAC had gained entrance in the Regular Army and Reserve in 

1948, the problem of acceptance merely took on a new face. The women 

were no longer temporary help; they were now permanent employees 

who competed for assignments, schools, and favorable ratings. Some men, 

however, still viewed WACs as interlopers or as unfair competition in an 

arena that was meant to be theirs alone. This attitude was a shock to the 

newly enlisted and appointed women who expected instant acceptance 

from the moment they joined the Army. The Army had said it needed 

them. 

~1 SR 615- 260- 50, 27 Dec 48, Report of Immediately Available EnliSled l'en\Onnel; AR 614- 208. 

12 Aug 55. Report of Surplus Enlisted Personnel; AR 310-41. 3 May 57. Tables of Distribution; and 

AR 616- 1. 16 Jan 61 and J Peb 64, Manpower Management. All in CMH Library. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 171 

To help the women understand the problem and to gain acceptance. 

detachment commanders and senior WAC cadre insisted that the women 

dress correctly, behave properly in public and private, and become efficient in their duties. They conducted recreation, sports, and educatio n 

programs to develop esprit de corps. And they provided counseling and 

guidance, which required a great deal of common sense and patience 

because most of the enlisted women were between nineteen and twentyone and were still learning to manage adult responsibilities and relationships. 

Lack of acceptance was only one of the disappointments the women 

experienced. Disappointments also stemmed from other frustrations of 

Army life- the lack of privacy, poor housing, few overseas assignments, 

little money, and slow promotions. To compensate for the deficiencies, 

many WACs concentrated on improving their education, socializing, or 

pursuing a hobby. 

Promotion disappointment was one of the hardest things for enlisted 

women to accept. Many supervisors found it difficult to explain to a 

woman why she had not been promoted, and, as a result, she drew her 

own conclusions-usuall y that the supervisor had picked another woman 

because she was prettier or that he had picked a man just because he was 

a man. When a male soldier was not promoted and a WAC was, he 

assumed that the supervisor picked the woman because she was pretty 

and was a woman. Feuds started this way. WAC detachment command· 

ers, therefore, followed promotions closely, talked with the women's 

supervisors, discovered any negative factors, and assisted the women in 

making improvements so that they could earn promotion the next time. 

Frequently, women were not promoted because they lacked superviso· 

ry experience. Even ambitious women who had no trouble learning their 

work and improving their MOS skills had trouble getting a leadership 

position. When the majority of workers were men, supervisors were 

reluctant to make an enlisted woman the chief. In a predominantly male 

environment, men felt demeaned reporting to a woman. Men who might 

have accepl.ed the situation often protested or showed hostility because 

their peers expected it. Some enlisted women rejected a leadership role 

when it was given to them because of the problems it created. Only the 

strongest could cope daily with verbal barbs, deliberate desultory performance, and frequent cha llenges to their authority. Imperturbable, confident, and good-humored women had the most success in vanquishing 

harassers and climbing the supervisory ladder. After 1960, improvements 

in the enlisted personnel management system- such as the addition of 

MOS testing, centralized promotions, and commander evaluations-eliminated some promotion problems for women. Little change occurred, 

however, in men's attitudes toward women supervisors. 

By the end of her first tour as director of the WAC, Colonel Milligan 

had improved WAC utili zation, management, and image. Some policies 
172 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

COL. MARY LOU ISE M ILLIGAN receives cOllgratulotions IIpOIl Iter reappointment as Director. WAC, from the deputy director, Ll. Col. Lucile G. Odbert, as 

Colollcl Milligan's mother, Mrs. George V. Milligan, proudly watches, 3 January 19M 

and procedures designed to manage men had been revised to benefit 

women in the Army. Through her initiative, she had expanded WAC 

training requirements, schooling, and assignment opportunities and had 

successfully pushed to amend the laws that deprived women of service 

credit and benefits. She had also initiated a news memorandum and 

reinstituted the staff adviser conferences. Overall, the WAC was resolving its problems and presenting a positive image to the public. 

Reappointment 

In October 1960, Secretary of the Army Brucker surprised the Corps 

by announcing that he would reappoint Colonel Milligan to serve as 

director for another two years, until she became eligible for retirement on 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 173 

31 July 1962.28 The reappointment ceremony was held o n 3 January 1961 

in the secretary's office. 

After reappointment, Colonel Milligan made a few personnel changes. 

The deputy director's fou r-year term had expired. Colonel Sweeney was 

reassigned to the position of WAC Staff Adviser, Headquarters, U.S. 

A rmy, Europe. replacing Lt. Col. Nora Gray Springfield, a lawyer, who 

went to the Office of the Judge Advocate General of the Army at the 

Pentagon. For her new deputy, Colonel Milligan selected Lt. Col. Lucile 

G. Odbert, then Commander. WAC Center, and Commandant, WAC 

School. Lt. Col. Sue Lynch replaced Colonel Odbert at Fort McClellao. 20 

On 20 January 1961, a new president was inaugurated in a ceremony 

on the steps of the U.S. Capitol. For their third appearance in an inaug ura l parade, the members of the 14th Army Band (WAC) from Fort 

McClellan wore the Army's new women's dress blue uniforms, modified 

for band members. Their appearance on TV gave the WAC worldwide 

publicity. 

The term of a new president, Jo hn F. Kenned y, had begun peacefully 

enough. But strife soon followed. At home, a renewed and mo re aggressive c ivil rights movement challenged discriminatory laws and practices 

in the southern states. Abroad, the Bay of Pigs fiasco broug ht increased 

tension with Cuba. In Southeast Asia, Communist expansion th reatened 

Thai land, Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam. T he United States supported anti-Communist leaders in Thailand and South V ietnam by providing them with military supplies and with military personnel to train their 

armed forces. In Geneva, the Uni ted States suppo rted Laos diplomatically 

as Laotian leaders sought and obtained " neutral country slatus," a status 

it was to lose in 1964. But, at the time, such problems were overshadowed by a series of confrontations between the United States and the 

Soviet Union. 

The Berlin Crisis 

In the late spring and earl y summer of 196 1, the Russians threatened to 

use their power to unify East and West Berlin in violation of the fourpower agreements o n the city dating from World War II. On 25 Jul y 

196 1, President Kennedy responded to these threats by promising to 

protect West Berlin and West Germany from invasion. He asked for and 

received from Congress autho rit y to increase the size of the U.S. armed 

forces and $2.5 billion to accomplish the increase. Congress authorized 

him to double draft calls, order Reserve and National Guard units and 

It Chronological Record. Oct 60. ODWAC Rer File. CMH. 

U Ibid .. Jan 6 1. 
174 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

T HE 14TH ARMY BAND (WAC) marches ill President Kennedy's inaugural 

r.orade. 20 Jall uary /961. 

personnel to active duty, extend military enlistments and appointments, 

and defer retirements and resignatio ns.3o 

On the morning of 13 August, East Germany closed its border with 

West Berlin. Within a week, the East Germans had constructed a wall 

along that border. President Kennedy alerted lDO U.S. Army Reserve 

units and 46,500 individ ual reservists for recall a nd proceeded with an 

orderly build up of U.S. military strength. Before the end of August, the 

Army extended for four months active d uty enlistments that expired aft er 

I October 1961 and before 30 June 1962. Active duty tou rs of reserve 

officers were extended for up to one year; foreign service to urs, for up to 

six months; enlistments of Ready Reserve personnel, for one year. Vo ~ 

tary resignations and retirements of office rs and wa rrant officers were 

suspended.31 

30 PL 117, 87th Cong, 1st sess, 1 Aug 61. 

3 1 DOD Press Release, 12 Aug 61, and DA Msgs 901078 (16 Aug 61), 569161 (17 Aug 61). 569627 

(21 Aug 61), and 574456 (27 Scp 61). Summary of Major Events and Problems FY 1962. DCSPER, 

CM H Ref Sr. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 175 

By and large. the public and Congress supported President Kennedy's 

actions, and the buildup continued throughout 1961. The tempo of activity at the Pentagon increased as action officers carried out instructions 

issued by Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara, and Secretary of 

the Army Elvis J. Stahr, Jr., both of whom had been appointed in 

January 1961. T he Army had a new deputy chief of stafT for personnel 

matters, Lt. Gen. Russell L. Vitlrup, who had replaced Lt. Gen. James F. 

Collins on I April 196 1. Tension inc reased as the partial mobilization 

continued into the fall , but President Kennedy did not declare a slate of 

emergency that would have activated full mobilization. Action officers at 

the Pentagon, however, reviewed and updated contingency plans in case 

a more serious commitment of U.S. forces in Europe was ordered. 

Colonel Milligan reviewed the WAC annex to the overall mobilization 

plan with her staff. Assuming that WAC strength would inc rease as it 

had in other crises, Colo nel Milligan obtained from the WAC Center 

commander and the staff advisers up-to-date information on housing in 

WAC units, training capacity and resources, and assignment information. 

She told her staff that she would not req uest any exceptions for WACs 

during the buildup and that she would mai ntai n peacetime standards for 

entry and retention. And while she did not suspend the rule permitting 

discharge on marriage for fear that suc h an action wOllld hinder recruiting, she did support a change in regulations that allowed commanders to 

retain an enlisted women for ninety days beyond her designated discharge 

date, provided time was needed to obtain or train a replacement. (The 

delay provisio n would remain in the regulation until d ischarge on marriage was discontinued in 1966.) Colonel Milligan did not initiate a similar 

de lay provisio n for o rficers, because regulations already req uired them to 

se rve two years befo re they could request discharge o n marriage. Such 

policies preserved the principle of allowing women to leave the service 

when they married while preventing abrupt personnel losses. 32 

Under the partial mobilization, WACs were included in every buildup 

action the Army took. Directives extending enlistments and foreign service tours applied to men and women on active duty and in the Army 

Reserve. Of the 100 reserve units recalled to active duty in October 196 1, 

16 included WACs-approximately 50 women, 5 of whom were officers. 

They belonged to support units, such as hospitals, civil affairs groups, 

logistical commands. and quartermaster or signal battalions. Upon reporting to their mobilization station, the enlisted women were attached to the 

local WAC detachment for quarters and rations, but they remained under 

the operatio nal control of their reserve unit. Recalled WAC officers 

sa Change 2, 2 Nov 61, 10 AR 635- 210, 11 Feb 61. Enlisted Personnel Separations, and Change 21, 

16 Apr 11, 10 AR 635- 200,15 Jul66, same lille, CM H Library. Also see ODWAC Rer File, Build-up 

Actions (1961-2), CMH. 
176 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

served with their reserve units on acti ve dut y. None of the units with 

recalled women was assigned to an overseas station. 33 

In the two years preceding the buildup, WAC strength had taken a 

decisively upward swing. Though the surge CQuld , in pa rt, be attributed 

to the in novatio ns resuhing from the work of the Womble Committee, a 

new enlistment optio n both for men and women also inspired many 

enlistments and reenlistments. In 1958, when the Military Personnel Procurement Division, TAG, proposed the Army Career Group Option, 

Colonel Milligan had enthusiastically endorsed it for WAC recruitment. 

It offered women a c hoice of seven career fields and the guarantee of 

formal schooling or on-the-job training that led to award of an MOS 

needed by the A rmy. The exact MOS was not guaranteed, only the 

career fi eld. which might hold as man y as a dozen different MOSs. The 

applicant had to be a high school graduate or hold a OED certificate, 

pass a physical examination, and score well above average in the aptit ude 

area that dominated her chosen career field and above average in two 

othe r areas. Women already in service could reenlist under this option if 

they were grade E- 4 or below. 34 

The new option brought excellent results. Between 1959 and 1961, it 

attracted from 700 to 1,000 additional enlistees annually. It contributed to 

raising the reenlistment rate for "first termers" fro m 36.5 percent during 

FY 1959 to 40.5 percent during FY 196 1. WAC strength climbed from 

7.853 on 30 June 1958 to 9,369 on 30 June 196 1. 35 

Another unexpected surge occurred in WAC recruiting between January and June 1961. In those months, 1,742 recruits arrived at the WAC 

training battalion versus 1,402 for the same period the previous year; o n 

31 August 1961, the training battalion had a record 1,052 recruits in 

contrast to its earlier peak of 800 the previous year. Filled to overfl owing, the' battalion was forced to borrow bed space, instructors, platoon 

sergeants, cooks, and clerical personnel from other units. The increase in 

enlistments was not confined to the WAC. Enlistments rose in all services. 

T he historian at the WAC Center wrote, "The influx was attributed to 

the tense situation in Berlin, a rise in unemployment, socio-economic 

patterns in the United States and a surge of patriotism following the 

inaug uration of President John F. Kennedy in January 1961." 36 

U Fact Sheet on WAC Reserve Call-up Action, 4 Apr 62, and Llr, WAC Siaff Adviser, HQ, Firth 

US Army, 10 DWAC, 19 Dec 6\, sub: Recall of WAC Reservists, ODWAC Ref File, Build·up 

Actions (1961-2), CMH. 

H AR 601 -2 15, 8 Dec 58, Regular Army Enlistment and Reenlistment Options. The Career Field 

Option went into effect on I JlIn 59. The career fieldS open to women were clerical, communications. 

finallce, general supply, pictorial, medical care alld treatment, and rood service. 

u Strength o/thl/! Army Report (DCSI'ER 46,) 30 J un 61. Effective 30 Jun 60 the publication 

number of the strength repor! chllnged from STM- 3O to DCSPER- 46. 

U LtCoI Mllry Charlotte LIIne, Historical Reporl, WAC C&S, 1960- 61, p. 4, CMH Ref Dr. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 177 

At the end of July 196 1, Colonel Milligan was forced to consider 

imposing a ceiling on WAC recruiting to control the overcrowded situation at the WAC Center. She discussed the questio n with her staff; 

Colonel Lynch, commander of WAC Center; and Lt. Col. Helen H. 

Corthay, chief of WAC Recruiting in TAG. Colonel Corthay knew from 

long experience working with Army recruiters that they would resent a 

ceiling. In past years they had found it extremely diffic ult to obtain 

enough WACs; now, in 1961, it had suddenl y become easy. As an alternative. Colonel Corthay proposed that WAC enlistment standards be 

raised- higher qualifying scores on enlistment tests and elimination of 

acceptance of a OED in lieu of hig h school diploma. Her solution would 

produce a higher quality recruit, reduce enlistments, and, consequentl y, 

eliminate overcrowding at the training battalion. a7 

Colonel Milligan weighed the advantages and disadvantages of imposing a ceiling or raising standards. Although she wanted high-quali ty 

recruits, she did not want to raise enlistment standards so high that 

recruiters would be unable to achieve their objectives in low-yield 

months (e.g., December, April, May). She decided that imposition of a 

ceiling, though objectionable to recruiters, provided the quickest and 

most easily reversible way of eliminating the overcrowding. If the Berlin 

situation worsened, full mobilization would cancel the ceiling, and the 

increase in WACs would be accommodated by the opening of another 

training center. Meanwhile, a ceiling could be quickly imposed, raised, 

lowered, or eliminated; a change in the enlistment qualifications, however, req uired lengthy staff procedures. On 18 August 1961, recruiters 

received a message announcing mandatory WAC enlistment ceili ngs by 

month for each Army area. 38 

Soon after the Berlin Crisis developed, General V ittrup, DCSPER, 

asked the director if she wanted to increase the Corps' authorized enlisted 

strength. The figure had not been changed since 1954, when enlisted 

strength had been set at 8,000. Colonel Milligan proposed a 15 percent 

inc rease in WAC enlisted strength, to 9,200, to match the 15 percent 

overall increase in Army strength, from 875,000 to 1 million, directed by 

President Kennedy that summer. In suggesting this modest increase, the 

director told the DCSPER that she favored a growth pattern that could 

be achieved under current WAC enlistment standards. She recommended 

that the major commanders be asked to indicate how many more enlisted 

women they could utilize, house, and offer career-enhancing opportunities. General Vittrup agreed and sent a message to the commanders 

asking those questions. He reminded them that increases in WAC strength 

" Memo, Chief of WAC Recruiting, TAG, to DWAC, 3 Aug 61. This and other correspondence 

on this subject are in ODWAC Ref File, Build-up AClions (196 1- 2), CMH. 

38 Msg, DCSPER 10 Ma.j Coms 18 Aug 61. and MFRs, ODWAC E~ecutive Officer, 18 and 24 

Aug 61, sub: Conference wilh Col Corthay on Cha.nges in Recruiling Standards. ODWAC Ref File, 

Build·up Actions (196 1- 2), eMH. 
178 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

would be counted against their overall total authorization for enlisted 

personnel. 3 9 

The director's staff tabulated the commanders' replies and prepared a 

plan to distribute additional women. T he commanders requested 2,072 

more enlisted women- l,293 who could be accommodated within current 

housing and space requirements and another 779 more for whom new 

WAC detachments and personnel allocations would be required. In her 

report, Colonel Milligan noted that 75 percent of the requests were for 

WACs with administrative MOSs (clerical, finance, suppl y, data process~ 

iog. etc.); 12 percent for WACs with medical care and treatment MOSs; 

and 13 percent for WACs with intelligence, communications, food service, or graphics MOSs. Six. percent were for grades E- 6 and above. She 

noted the areas in which WAC housing was poor and those in which 

commanders had promised to modernize or rehabilitate buildings. General 

ViUrup forwarded the director's recommendations to the chief of staff, 

General George H. Decker, who approved a 1,300-woman increase in the 

Corps' enlisted strength and a lOO-woman increase in its commissioned 

officer strength, effective 30 June 1962. (See Table 16.) No change was 

made in the authorization for WAC warrant officers; it remained at 39. 

New WAC detachments were authorized at Fort Rucker, Alabama (activated September 1962); Yuma Test Station, Arizona (March 1963); and 

White Sands, New Mex.ico (May 1962).40 

TABLE 16- ADDITIONAL ENLISTED WAC SPACES, SELECTED 

COMMANDS AND ACTIVITIES 

Command Spaces 

U.S. Army, Europe ............................................. ................................... 150 

U.S. Continental Army Command (to be distributed to Army area 

comlnands).................................... ..... ............................................................. 395 

Deputy Chief of StafT, Logistics, DA.. ........................................................... 50 

Research & Development, DA......................................................................... 60 

Transients, Trainees, Patients, and Students (TTP&S)................................... 645 

Tolal ............... ..... ............. ................... ... .......... ... ............ ............... ......... 1,300 

Source; Staff Study, DWAC 10 DCSPER. Nov 61. sub: Recommended Distribution of 

Additional WAC Spaces, and Memo, DCS1'ER (programs Division) 10 Col'S, 19 Dec 61, sub: 

Increased WAC Enlisted Strength, ODWAC Ref File, Build-up Actions (1961 - 2), CM H. 

3 i Memo, DWAC to Chief Procurement Division, DCSPER. 13 Sep 61, sub: Build-up of WAC 

Enlisted Strength, and Msg, DCSPER (DPD) 574335 to Maj Corns, 26 Sep 61. ODWAC Ref File, 

Build-up Actions (1961- 2), CMH. 

46 ODCSPER, Annual History. FY 62, Chap V. and FY 63, Chap V , 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 179 

In April 1962. tension subsided in Europe; fear of war lessened; and 

the Army was able to release its recalled reserve units and personnel from 

active duty by mid- 1962. Further alerts and personnel actions affecting 

active duty personnel were canceled. During the crisis, WAC strength 

reached its highest post- World War II point with a to tal strength of 

11, 11 3. 41 

Army Reorganization, 1962 

In 196 1, as the regular forces were being expanded and reservists were 

being called up, Sec retary of Defense McNamara had begun to transform 

the structu re of the Army and the o ther military services by applying 

organizational principles drawn from his experience in industry. He began 

by consolidating commo n functions and giving them to one service or 

agency to control- the single manager concept. For example, the D efense 

Supply Agency was created to centralize the purchase a nd distribution of 

food, uniforms, gas and oil products, medical and automotive supplies for 

the armed services. The Defense Intelligence Agency coordi nated and 

centralized certain military intelligence operations. T he Defense Language Institute controlled foreig n language training for military and civilian personnel. 42 

At the secretary's directio n, the Army developed a reorganizatio n 

plan, known as Project 80, that followed the new concepts. Under the 

plan, the Army discontinued the offices of the chiefs of most of the 

technical services in 1962 and transferred their functio ns to the Defense 

Supply Agency or to one of two new commands-the U.S. Army Materiel Command and the U.S. Army Combat Develo pments Command. T he 

Army c reated the Office of Personnel Operations (OPO) with two maj or 

directorates-the Officer Personnel D irectorate (OPD) and the Enlisted 

Personnel D irectorate (EPD). T he new organizatio ns relieved the 

DCSPER and TAG of many day-to-day operational jobs but not of 

responsibility for policy functio ns, whic h remained with them. Recruitment and reenlistment functions moved from T AG to the U.S. Army 

Recruiting Command under the Continental A rmy Command 

(CONARC); two years later, the Army Recruiting Command would 

become a separate agency reporting directly to the chief of staff of the 

Army. Control of most service schools passed from the c hiefs of the 

technical and administrative services to the commander of CONARC, 

Fort Monroe, Virginia. Up to this point, CONARC had supervised the 

4. Strength of the Army Report (DCSPER- 46) 30 Jun 62. The previous post_WW II high point had 

been 10,213 on 30 Apr 53. before the Korean armistice. 

41 James E. Hewes. Jr., From Root to McNomora. Army Orgol/irotion ond Administration /9Q()..../963, 

United States Army Special Studies (Washington, DC: G PO, 1975) pp. 360- 65; CONARC Reorganization Planning Group Study, USCONARC Reorganization, Activation Plan, 15 Jun 62, CMH Ref 

D,. 
180 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

curricula and instruction at WAC School while WAC Center exercised 

command over it, funded its operations, and provided its manpower 

spaces. Under the reorganization, CONARC controlled the school's curricula, instruction, doctrine, policy, funds, and manpower spaces. The 

commander of the WAC Center, however, retained the title of commandant and continued to administer the school. 43 

A few months after the Project 80 stud y group began its work, two 

members of the committee visited the Office of the D irector, WAC, to 

review its mission, status, and administrative procedures. Colonel Milligan 

was on a staff visit to WAC units. Her staff explained that their functions 

were operational, that the director had no command jurisdiction, and that 

her function was purely advisory, with the exception of WAC officer 

career management over which she exercised control. T he deputy director, Colonel Odbert, told the gro up that altho ugh the director's close 

association with the DCSPER was an advantage in many ways, the 

director needed more visible evidence of her assignment to the chief of 

staff. Colonel Odbert pointed o ut that the assignment " in practice" was 

"overlooked." She faulted the lack of an "established regular procedure" 

for informing the chief of staff. She suggested that if the director's office 

were "more closely tied in with OCS [Office of the Chief of Staff], as 

well as assigned on paper, there would undo ubtedly be closer coordination by other staff agencies . . . particularly in planning, both current and 

(for] mobilization." 44 

Toward partial achievement of this goal, Colonel Odbert recommended that the director be made a member of the General Staff Council, a 

high-level decision-making body. T he study group rejected her proposal. 

Under Project 80, o nl y one major change affected ODWAC: the WAC 

Career Branch was transferred, along with other career branc hes, to the 

Officer Personnel Directorate of the Office of Personnel Operations. The 

director lost direct control over the career branc h, but the director of 

OPO and OPD encouraged close coordinatio n between ODW AC and the 

WAC Career Branch on matters of policy and assignment of key fie ld 

grade officers. On the whole. the director's office had come through a 

major organi zational upheaval with no signifi cant loss. 45 

43 Ibid; OA GO 20, 18 JUri 64, WAC School assigned 10 CG, USCONARC, crr I Jun 64, CM H 

Library. 

H MFR. LICol Maric Kehrer, Plans and Policy Officcr. ODWAC. 13 J un 61. sub: Hoelscher 

Commiu ee Study. with addcndum by LtCol Lucile G. edbert. Oep Dir. WAC. ]5 Jun 61. ODWAC 

Ref File. Reorganiz.ation, CMH. The project di rector of Project 80. Study of thc Functions, Organization and Procedures of the Department of the Army, was Leonard W. Hoelscher, Asst Comptroller 

of the Army; within Ihe Pentagon, the $\udy group was known as the Hoelscher CommiUee. 

H DCS PER o ulletin No. 33, 23 Jul 62. ODWAC Ref File, Reorganization, CM H. LtCol Miriam 

L. DUller, Chief. WAC oranch, and her staff. MSgl Mary K. Johnson, Sgt lstCI Belly Adams, and 

Edith Solomon, were transferred to the O I'D, 0 1'0, DA. but remained in the same Pentagon location 

until Oct 66, when the entire dirt.""C torate moved [0 Tempo A, near Ft McNair. Washington DC. 

Along with AG, Finance, Military Police, Avialion, Intelligence and Security. WAC Branch was 

assigned to Special Support Division. 0 1'0. 
C H Aln- 3- 0RGANIZATION OF THE DEI'ARTMENT OF THE A RMY, APRIL 1963 

SECRETARY OF THE ARMY I ~D""'O$'O~''''' I I ~to •• I I CM'" O. H I I CH!I.'(M' I .S$IS'.'" C"""S" .,,"'''' ... 00 . .... ' .,.. "(;0$"""" ".,,01< UNDER Sl:CRETARY OF THE ARMY 

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CHIEF OF STAFF I '."~, I I ,.. . I VIa. CHI{F or STAfF I 'M'" Of I e .... o.. s"' .... eO .... "uts.., I .... U'" u, ....... <;u.o."" • ..., ._."","' .... OtSI'tC'OO ...: ..... , "'N'''''OI , ... <;IftC ..... s, .... """" .. .,.,.. """y ..... w l'OU;y 

I 01."''' 'H'" O. 5"''' J l·u." ... 'e ..... Ofs'MJ 1·SS<li"' .. 'CU.OII'." I ....... eH ... .,. ., ... "''''IYC''''' OfS'M' e ..... Of to .... ,OOI.". CH'" .o"o;to. fOO '0" '0. "" ~ O,tI.OeM ."0 "' I< "~' (OMOO",,, " ,II ,,, ....... 

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r- C~H' ,~. ••• CM~' C"". CH'" CH~ ' ••• , .... .~ .~ . CM'" 

• eM'" .-. • • ... '10 ..... .. s ..... , • _. o. ........ , ..... , . .... • -~ .... " ... - • ~ . .~- _"0 .""" .. 1ISOI'"'' _.- In.lv, '''.''''. Gl ........ '"~ ...: ...... ..,"'''''"' Of."' •• .-.to, ... ""' .. • ...:HC~ ""' .. ,"' .. s . -- ,.,.,.. _'0 

I I I UNlno '''''15 u .... , I I "'''''0 ''''ItS I UHII.OIUIlSu", u .. ,,'" '''''U U ... ""'''.0''.'' ...... """1(0 ""'" ...... I I ..... "10 ' '''TI ' U"Y a I UH'''O'' ......... ,. I COlI .. , "' .. u ......... 1$ CQ+I'."N'''' ..... ,. """ to ;,., ........ ...... C"_." .- ·ACOIIC fOOCl"- ...... I;0Il ..... 0 ... 1Il "~SI cOY ......... COY .... "" 1;OII ... ~o .. ....... 'COll ..... O 

MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 181 

A general upheaval, however, continued In the months that followed. 

Shortly afte r the reorganization, the WAC staff adviser at CON ARC 

informed the director that a plan was being discussed to consolidate all 

administrative schools at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana, and, thus, to 

eliminate duplicate trai ni ng facilities. 46 The Adjutant General's School 

and the Army Finance School had moved there in t 951. Among the 

schools proposed for relocation were the Army Information School, the 

Civil Affairs School, the Army Management School, the Military Police 

School. and the WAC SchooL Colonel Lynch, Commander, WAC 

Center, and Commandant, WAC School, strongly opposed the move and 

emphasized that the WAC School was "much more than a facility for 

teaching clerical skills and providing advanced training for a few officers." She wrote that "the School is the place where WAC doctrine is 

studied and disseminated, where WACs are branch oriented and where 

there is a nucleus for expansion in case of mobilization. " 47 These arguments and the complexity and cost of the proposed merger dissuaded 

CONARC from making the change. 48 

Amid the many other changes, however, Colonel Milligan thought she 

saw a chance to win some colonels' spaces for her Corps. In 1961 . a stud y 

emerged from ODCSPER, entitled "Positions that may be Staffed by 

Colonels. WAC," which enclosed an earlier (I 958) study she herself had 

submitted on the subject. In her study, she had recommended that the 

secretary of the Army order the officer promotion boards to select three 

WAC officers annuall y for promotion to temporary colonel until a total 

of fifteen was reached. She supported her proposal with a 1956 decision 

by the judge advocate general stating, "Promotion of WAC officers to 

the grade of temporary colonel is not prohibited o r limited by the 

Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948." 

The JAG, however, had added that the number could be limited by 

the total number of colonels authorized under the Officer Grade Limitation Act of 1954 and by Army budgetary or policy considerations. Lt. 

Gen. James F. Collins, then DCSPER, had not been convinced that the 

law was subject to such a policy interpretation, and he had sent it to the 

DeSPER Directorate of Manpower Management for reexamination. The 

study had remained there until 1961, when the new DeSPER, Lt. Gen. 

Russell L. Vittrup, arrived. 49 

6 Llr, LtCol Ruth M. Driggs, WAC School Monitor, HQ. USCONARC. to OWAC, 11 Oct 62. 

ODWAC Ref File, WAC School. CMH. 

<1 Llr. LtCol Sue Lynch, Commander. WAC Center/Commandant, WAC School, to DWAC. 20 

Sep 62, OOWAC Ref File, WAC School, CM H. 

u MFR, OWAC, 19 Oct 62, sub, Status WAC CIT/Sch, OOWAC Ref Fi le, WAC School, CMH. 

u Memo, Oir Manpower Management (BrigGen Autrey 1. Maroun) to DCS PER. 19 Apr 61. sub: 

Positions that may be starTed by Colonels, WAC, with 2 Incls. 3nd OF, OWAC to JAG. 10 Apr 56, 

sub: Interpretation of Public Law 625. with Comment 2, JAG \0 ODWAC, 30 Apr 56, O OWAC Ref 

File, Promotion Restrictions (Book 3), CM H; lruerv. Col Rasmuson, nee Milligan. with the author. g 

l Ull 80. 
182 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The DeSPER study contained new proposals. In lieu of fifteen WAC 

colonels, it recommended three-the director, the commander of WAC 

Center and commandant of the WAC School, and the WAC staff adviser 

to U.S. Army, Europe. It further recommended that the Directorate for 

Military Personnel Management assess the impact o f promoting WACs to 

colonel on officer caree r development. morale, the A rmy Nurse Corps, 

the other women's services, and the promotion of male lieutenant colonels. General Vittrup approved these recommendatio ns, which led to a 

new study. 

In J une 1962. Lt. Gen. Robert W. Colglazier, Deputy Chief of Staff 

for Logistics (DCSLOG), recommended Lt. Col. Hortense M. Boutell, 

Chief, Programs Branch, DCSLOG, who supervised a $1. 5 billion budget 

on logistical operations and maintenance programs. for promotion to 

temporary colo nel. She had graduated from the Ind ustrial College of the 

Armed Forces, was a member of the Logistics Career Speciali zation 

Program, and had been a logistics staff officer at joint and Army staff 

level since 1950. Gene ral Vittrup returned the request, explaining that it 

was Army policy that the directo r of the WAC would occupy the one 

colonel's space authorized the Corps. T he DCSLOG realized that without the DCSPER's support it would be futil e to send his req uest further 

up the c hain of command. 50 

In 1962, the members of DACOWITS again raised the issue of women 

officers' promotions. They recommended to Secretary McNamara that all 

promotion and retirement restric tions on women officers be eliminated by 

modifying the legislation then being proposed to change the Officer 

Personnel Act of 1947. T hat legislation had been developed by a triservice committee, c haired by General Charles L. Bolte, U.S. Army 

(Retired), and known as the Bolte Committee. Asked for his views on the 

DACOWITS recommendation, General Vittrup replied in a memorand um that the Bolte Committee had examined the Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948 and had concluded that Congress had intended the WAC and other women's services to be limited to o ne temporary 

colonel each. He noted that he had discussed the matter with the WAC 

director, "who quite understandably does not conc ur. " As a result of this 

memorand um, the secretary of defense disapproved the DACOWITS 

recommendation. This did not, however, close the issue.1:; I 

~o S5. DCSLOG to SecArmy through DCS PER. 6 Jun 62. sub: Consideration for T cmporary 

Promotion, and OF, DCSLOG to DCSPER. 22 l un 62. :same sub, ODWAC Ref File. Promolioll 

Restrictions. (()ook 3). CM~ . Also see "Conversations between Lt.CoJ. Hortense M. Boutell and Col. 

Donald R. Hargrove and LLCol. MiltOll L. Lillie:' 7 Mar 77. Senior Officers Debriefing Program. 

US Army Military History Institute, CMH Ref Br . 

• , Rpt. Defense Ad Hoc Committee 10 Study and Revise the Offi(:er Personnel Act of 1947. Dec 

60. and Memo, DCS PER to Asst SecDef (Manpower) lASD(M)]. 17 May 72. sub: Grade S1ructure 

for the Women's Army Corps. ODWAC Ref File, Promotion Rcstriclions (Book 3. Tab 3). CMH. 

Also see Army.Na.y Regislcr. 28 Jan 61. p. II. 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 183 

The members of DACOWITS tried a new tactic. They sent their 

request for a change in the law o n the promotion and retirement of 

women officers to the President's Commission on the Status of Women, 

c haired by Eleanor Roosevelt. President Kennedy had established the 

commission in December 1961 to examine federal laws and policies that 

might discriminate against women. 52 At the commission's request, on 7 

November 1962, Assistant Secretary of Defense Carlisle P. Runge, accompanied by Mrs. Donald Quarl es, chairwoman of DACOWITS, and 

LL Col. Kathryn J. Royster, executive secretary of OACOWITS, traveled to Hyde Park, New York, to brief the commission. Mr. Runge 

defended his department's decision not to seek a c hange in the law 

regardi ng women office rs; Mrs. Quarles and Colonel Royster argued for 

the requested legislation. A few days later, the commissio n unanimously 

approved a resolutio n recommending the change and sent it to President 

Kennedy. 53 On 10 Jul y, Secretary McNamara wrote Mrs. Roosevelt, " In 

response to the adoption of the resolution, the Administration has approved the recommended action and the Department of Defense will now 

ta ke the necessary steps to modify the proposed legislat ion." 54 When the 

Bolte legislation was revised, it inc luded a provision that removed career 

restrictions on women office rs. 

The Bolte proposals now appeared to be the Corps' best hope of 

ex panding officer promotion programs; but they we re not a sure solution. 

From the moment the legislation was unveiled, some of its provisions 

aroused bitter controversy- a single promotion list, an up-or-out policy 

for some officers, a new formula for computing the numbe r of authorized 

general (flag) officers, and use of the "best qua lified" promotion method. 

The services disagreed among themselves on so many prov isio ns that the 

Bolte legislation was not introduced in Congress fo r several years. 55 As a 

resu lt, hope for more WAC colonels waned. 

Despite the setbacks regarding promotions, the last months of Colonel 

Milligan's tenure were marked by personal changes and professiona l successes. In November 1961 , she married Elmer E. Rasmuson of Anchorage, A laska, and formally announced she would retire on 31 Jul y 1962. 

The o nly WAC director to marry while in office, Colonel Milliga n 

changed her name to Rasmuson immediately afte r her marriage. 56 

.. Eleanor Roosevelt chaired 1he eormnissioll un1il her dea1h on 7 Nov 62; Es1her Pe1erson 

repl:leed her. Col Galloway had been recalled on aC1ivc duly in Feb 62 10 serve "s "d",in;slw1;ve 

officer. 

~3 Llr, Mrs Roosevelt 10 Sec McNmnara, wilh Incl. ODWAC Ref File. Prom01ion Res1ric1ions 

(Book 3). CM H. 

U LIT, Sec MeNamam 10 Mrs Roosevell. 10 Jul 62, and Rpl, l'residcul'S Commission on lhe S1a1ns 

of Women, American WOlttel/. Oc1 63. ODWAC Rd File. Promolion Res1 riclions (Book 3). CM H. 

u ODCSPER, F:ICI SIIL'CI on Boltc Lcgislulion. Mar 63. OOW AC Rer File, Promolio n Restrictions 

(Book 3, Tab 6). CM H. 

~6 Change of Nnmt.'S or Regulnr Army Officers, Officers Regis/er. 1962. p. 613. 
184 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TORCH LIGHT PARADE, WAC CENTER, FORT MCCLELLAN, 14 May 1964. 

Before leaving, however, Colonel Rasmuson launched another initiative desig ned to resolve a WAC assignment pro blem. Existing policy 

allowed WACs to be assigned to positions in ser vice-type (noncombat) 

Table of Organizatio n and Equipment (TOE) units or in Table of Distribution (TD) units. Because all TDs had noncombat missions, fixed locations, and a gender coding system, the A rmy primarily assigned WACs to 

TO un its. Few women went to TOE units because even the service-type 

units had contingency plans for combat d uty. In addition, no code was 

provided by which TOE commanders could designate spaces for WACs 

and thus requ isition them. Nonetheless, TOE commanders had accepted 

WACs offe red by TAG Assignment Division to fill noncombat MOSs in 

units not highly vul nerable to early deployment. In Jan uary 1962, when a 

proposed regulation on prepa ri ng TOE manning documents was being 

circulated for comment in the Pentagon, Colonel Rasmuson seized the 

opportunity to recommend that a code be added to designate spaces that 

could be fi lled interchangeably by either a man or a woman-commissioned, warrant, o r enlisted. Her suggestion was approved and the revised 
MANAGEMENT AND IMAGE 185 

COL. MARY LOUISE M ILLIGAN RASMUSON alld Lt. Gen. Russell L Villrup. 

Deputy Chief of Sloff for Personnel, DA, at her retirement at Fort MeC/ellan, 

31 July 1962. 

regulation, published in J une 1964, included this provision. 57 Altho ug h 

the code did not induce TOE commanders to designate many spaces for 

WACs or to requisition them properl y, the action laid the groundwork 

for establishing an enfo rceable, interchangeable system in both TOE and 

TD manning documents later on. 

u OF, DWAC to Chief, Utilization Division, ODCSPER. 19 Jan 62, sub: Review of Proposed 

Final Draft Revision of SR 310- 30-15 and AR 310-32, ODWAC Ref File. AR 310-32, CMIi ; AR 

310-43, 16 Jan 64, OrglllliUltioll and Equipment Authorization T ables. CMH Library. AR 310-3 1 

described three types of TOE units: Category 1. Combat; Category II, Combat Support; and 

Category 111 , Combat Service Support. WACs had been assigned in the two lauer categories. AR 

31()...32 replaced both SR 310-30-15 and AR 310- 31. 
186 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

On 14 May 1962, the WAC was twenty yea rs old, and WACs around 

the world celebrated the event. In Washington, Colonel Rasmuson presided over ceremonies honoring General Marshall and Congresswoman 

Edith Nourse Rogers, then joined the forme r directors Westray Boyce 

Leslie. Mary A. Hallaren. and Irene O. Galloway in hosting an anniversary reception at Fort Myer. The next day, President Kennedy received 

Colonel Rasmuson, the former directors, and director-designate Lt. Col. 

Emily C. Gorman at the White House to congratulate them on the 

anniversary. 58 At WAC Center, a torchlight parade, which had become 

traditional, wound its way from the training battalion area to the Hilltop 

Service Cl ub where the trainees enjoyed a birthday cake and a talent 

show. The WAC Officers Association hosted a reception at the Fort 

McClellan officers club. 

On 31 July 1962, Colonel Rasmuson's retirement ceremony was held at 

the WAC Center. General Vittrup, DCSPER, attended and presented her 

second awa rd of the Legion of Merit and a scroll for distinguished 

service from Army Chief of Staff General George H. Decker. 59 

In five and a half years as director, Colonel Rasmuson had accomplished most of the things she wanted to do. WAC strength had increased 

from 8,300, on 31 January 1957, to 11 ,100. T he Army had opened twentysix new MOSs for active duty enlisted women and fifty for WAC reservists. The Bolte legislatio n, under revision, included a provision to eliminate WAC officer promotion restrictions. Congress had g ranted active 

duty c redit for W AAC time to women with further military service, and 

it had corrected inequities for WAC reserve officers. Colonel Rasmuson's 

public relations efforts had enhanced the WAC image and helped convi nce the public and Army men of the value of the WAC service. Withi n 

the Corps, morale and appearance had improved w ith issue of the modern 

A rmy green uniform. But even as Colonel Rasmuson left office, it was 

evident that new situatio ns on the horizon would precipit ate challenges in 

WAC management and manpower for the incoming director. 

08 Anniversaries, WAC. the 20th- 1962, History Collection. WAC Museum. 

U Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1962. CMH Ref Or. 
CHAPTER VIII 

The 1960s-A New Look 

Soon after Colonel Rasmuson announced her decision to retire, Secreta ry of the Army Elvis J. Stahr, Jr., appointed a board, includ ing Colo nel 

Rasmuson, to recommend nominees for her replacement. l In February 

1962, he annou nced he had selected Lt. Col. Emily C. Gorman to be the 

sixth director of the Women's Army Corps. Colonel Gorman was sworn 

in as director and promoted to colonel on 1 August 1962 by a new 

secretary of the Army, Cyrus R. Vance. She took the oath of office 

holding the bible used by Colonel Hobby in 1942 and by each o f the 

subsequent d irectors. 

Colonel Gorman could look back on twenty years' service in the 

A rmy. After graduating from WAAC DeS Class No. 5 at the First 

W AAC Training Center on 10 October 1942, she was assigned as chief of 

the center's WAAC Administration SchooL In 1944, she was selected to 

be the WAC staff directo r for the surgeon general of the Army, Washington, D.C., and, in August 1945, she was sent to Berlin as executive 

sec retary of the Allied Control Authority. After eighteen months, she 

retu rned home and was demobilized. Seven months later, February 1947, 

she returned to active duty, at Colonel Hallaren's request, to prepa re 

o rganization and traini ng plans for a new WAC traini ng center. When the 

WAC bill passed in 1948, she went to Camp Lee as S-3 (training office r). 

Promoted to lieutenant colo nel in November 1950, she served as commander of the basic training battalion before leaving in 1951 to assume 

duties as WAC staff adviser at Headquarters, Second Army, Fort Meade. 

She served as deput y director of the WAC from January 1953 until 

January 1957, then became the deputy chief of the Plans and T rai ni ng 

Division, Headquarters, Continental Army Command, Fort Monroe 

(1957-1960). She was serving as assista nt chief o f the Foreign Military 

Training D ivision, ODCSOPS, at the Pentagon, when selected by Secretary Stahr. 

To serve as her deputy director, Colonel Gorman chose Lt. CoL Mary 

E. Kelly, who was appointed on 3 January 1963. Colonel Odbert, deputy 

director under Colo nel Rasmuson, then retired. Colonel Kell y had served 

, Thc top candidates for OW AC by order of seniorit y were lieutenant colonels Emily C. Goonan. 

Hortense M. IJ.oulell. Lillian Harris. Lucile G. Odbert. alld Anne E. Sweeney. 
188 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

NEWLY NAMED DE.'UT\, DIRECTOR, WAC, L T. COL. M ARY E. KELLY with 

direClOrs of the women s services. Left 10 right: Capt. Viola B. Sanders, 

WAVES: Col. Elizabeth Ray, Womell ill the Air Force; Col. Emily C Gorman, 

WAC; Colonel Kelly. alld Col. Margaret M. HenderSOll, Women Marilles. 3 

January 1963. 

as the director of instruction at the WAC School from 1957 to 1958 and 

as a staff officer in ODCSLOG from 1958 to 1963.2 

Because Colonel Gorman, like Colonels Boyce, Hallaren, and Rasmuson, had served as the deputy directo r, she was well aware of the 

responsibilities of the director's position. And she was well prepared fo r 

them. One reporter summed up her presence this way: "Trim and tiny, 

with brown eyes, this 52-year-old officer has an easy manner that contrasts with her reputation for strict efficiency." 3 Soon after assuming 

office, Colo nel Gorman set her goa ls-to increase WAC officer and 

a Colonel Odbert served as deputy until Jan 63, when she reached age 53. the mandatory retire· 

ment age under existiug laws. She retired on 28 Feb 63 and was awarded the Legioll of Merii for the 

second time in her Army career. LtCol E. Marie Baird served as Plans and Policies Officer, 

ODWAC. 1963- 1964. then was transferred to the Personnel Services Divisiou, ODCSPER. where 

she developed the Army Community Services Program ftud WftS its chief until 1966. LlCol Ma~ene 

M. Baker replaced LlCol Baird ill ODWAC. LlCol Mildred M. Ferguson wns assigned O DWAC 

executive officcr in 1965, replacing LtCol Carol Williams. LtCol Frances Weir replaced Colouel 

Baker in 1966. From 1963 to 1967 SgtMaj Frances M. Tail was administrative NCO. 

3 Ruth Dcan, Washillg/Oll S/aT, 20 Mar 62. 
THE 1960S- A NEW LOOK 189 

enlisted strength, to raise reenlistment rates, and to improve WAC utili zation, job satisfactio n, and housing,4 

WAC Strength-Enlistment 

Colonel Gorman had been in office only a few weeks when the Cuban 

Missile Crisis began to build . In a TV address on 22 August 1962, 

President Kennedy warned that further shipments of Russian milita ry 

materiel to Cuba would be interpreted as aggressive action and would not 

be tolerated. Congress authorized the president to recall 150,000 reservists 

for o ne year and to extend enlistments, overseas tours, and active duty 

commitments. 5 On 21 October, the president anno unced that he had 

"unmistakable" evidence that Cuba was receiving jet bombers and missiles from the Soviet Union and was constructing missile launching pads. 

Such actions presented a threat to the security of the United States; the 

president recalled thousands of Navy and Air Force reservists to active 

duty and ordered a naval task fo rce south to establish and enforce a 

limited blockade of Cuba by diverting shi ps laden with military equipment or personnel. T he U.S. naval facility at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, 

was reinforced in anticipation of an attac k on the base. T he A rmy 

relocated troops, planes, airbo rne and artillery units, and amphibio us 

fo rces throughout the southeastern states, but did not call up reservists. 

The crisis ended o n 27 October when Soviet Premier N ikita Kh rushchev 

agreed to dismantle and withdraw missiles and jet bombers from Cuba, 

and President Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba. 6 

Though intense, the Cuban Missile Crisis did not inspire heavy enlistments in the WAC as the Berlin Crisis had the preceding yea r. Between 

July and December 1962. 1.888 women enlisted in the Regular Army 

(acti ve duty), and 1,973 WAC rese rvists volun taril y retu rned to active 

duty. During the Berlin Crisis, 2,469 women had enlisted in the Regular 

Army and 197 WAC reservists had returned on active duty.7 (See Table 

17.) 

The WAC Exhibit Team 

To stimulate enlistments, Colonel Gorman enrolled the Corps in the 

exhibit program that had been operated by the Depa rtment of the Army's 

chief of information since 1963. The exhibits explained what the Army 

could do. how it trained, and what kind of equipment it used. In 1963. the 

~ ODCSPER, A'lIuJ1.1 Historical Summary, FY 1963. WAC Section, pp. 161- 64, CMII Ref Br. 

~ PL 736, 871h Cong, 2d scss. 3 Oct 62 . 

• ODCSPER Annul.1 Historical Sumillary, FY 1963; ~Clj 011 File YeaFbook 196}, pr. 339- 40, 344, 

361 - 65.313- 78,385_87,397_99,409_10. 

'ODCSI'ER. Annual Historical Summary. FY 1963. CMH Ref Or, Smmgrh of Iht! AFmy Repon 

(DCSPER 46), 30 Jun 62 Qlld JO JI,II1 63. 
190 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

UNDER SECRETARY OF TH E ARMY STEPH EN A ILES Clils the ribboll to open 

the WAC Exhibit UI/;t 01/ Ihe Pel/lagoll COI/COUf'Se willi Colollel Gormol/, 

Oireclor, WAC. alld enlisted members of the I/ewly formed WAC Exhibit 

Team, 14 May 1963. 

A rmy Exhibit Unit at Cameron Station, Virgini a, built a mobile exhibit to 

show A mericans how and where the WACs served and how effectively 

the Army utilized women in a variety of jobs. The WAC exhibit was part 

of the overall program to educate the public and stimulate goodwill and 

support for the Army, S 

TABLE 17- STRENGTH OFTHE WOMEN'S SERVICES 

1958 1961 1962 1963 Goals 

WAC ........................... .............. 7,853 9,369 9,056 9.500 

WAVES ...................... ......................... 5,2 12 6,43 1 6,074 7,500 

Women Marines .................................. 1,645 1,612 1,698 2.500 

WAF ..................................................... 7,889 5,959 5,5 14 7.500 

TOlal .............................................. 12,599 23,37 1 22,342 27,000 

Solll,(:~: Secretary of Defense. Amwal Rt'poru for 1958. 1961. 1962.3nd 1963. 

8 Maj John O. Thisler. "GeHing lhe Show 011 the Road." Army ItVQrmlllil)lr Digt'si. Nov 57. PI'. 36-

40; Rpl . WAC S13fT Advisers COllf. Mar 63. ODWAC Ref File. WAC Slaff Advisers Conferences. 

CM H. 
THE 1960S- A NEW LOOK 

PALI.AS ATHENE, insignia 0/ the Women's 

Army Corps. 

191 

The under secretary of the Army and the director of the WAC 

unveiled the exhibit at the Pentagon on 14 May 1963, the twenty-first 

anniversa ry of the WAC. Colonel Gorman se lected LL Col. Mildred L C. 

Bailey to head a team, consisting of herself and six enlisted women, to 

accompany the exhibit and answer questions about WAC life, train ing, 

and assignments. The women also modeled uniforms, current and past. 

When not on display, the WAC exhibit was loaded into a gold and white, 

five·ton truck. On its sides were the Pallas Athene profile and the theme 

of the exhibit, "The Women's Army Corps-Servin g with Pride and 

Dignity." 9 

While other Army exhibits tou red the country for six mo nths or a 

year, the WAC Exhibit Unit was on tour ror six and a hair years. T he 

women assigned to the exhibit received training as models before joining 

the team and remained with it for only short tours so that their ca reers 

would not be inj ured by an assig nment outside their military specialty. Lt. 

Col. lona S. Connoll y replaced Colonel Bailey in 1968 and rema ined with 

the team until it was discontinued. In 1969, Congress reduced the Army's 

runds for public info rmation activities, and the WAC unit was deactivated 

in December of that year. In addition to praise from their superio rs, team 

i WAC Exhibit TellO], Bill"" ... ",1 RepoTls to the Chief of InfOTnmlion. OA. 1963. ODWAC Ref 

File, E~hibil Te.IO], CMH. 
192 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

members received the Freedoms Foundation's George Washington Honor 

Medal for the best government unit activity in 1968,10 

WAC Strength- Reelliistment 

Hig h reenlistment rates are as important to A rmy strength as a good 

year of recruiting. In 1959, the then new Army chief of staff, General 

Lyman L. Lemnitzer, had set reenlistment goals by asking the major 

commanders to reenlist one of eve ry three firsHerm soldiers and fou r of 

every five career soldiers. II To promote the reenlistments, a new option 

had been added permitting men and women to reenlist for training in a 

specific career g roup; WACs could also reenlist fo r recruiting duty or for 

their own vacancies. In 1960, an option called "taking a short to re-up" 

was introduced. Under it, men and women could reenlist after they had 

completed two years of a three-year enlistment or two-thirds of any 

enlistment period. The optio n owed half of its popularity to the fact that 

it gave men and women an opportunity to enter a different career fie ld by 

reenlisting for a specific service school. The other half could be attributed 

to the cash reen listment bonus. 12 The new options helped raise the WAC 

reenlistment rate ro r first termers by 6 percent and career reenlistments 

by I percent in 1960. Then the rates began to fa ll. (See Table /8.) 

At the director's request. the Enlisted Personnel Directo rate (EPD) in 

the Office of Personnel Operations (OPO) initiated a study late in 1962 to 

determine why the WAC reenlistment rate was falli ng. The study presented some ill uminating facts. Of 181 MOSs open to enlisted women, the 

Army actuall y utilized them in only 94. Ten career management fields 

were open to women, but 95 pe rcent of the WACs served in o nl y two: 

administration and medical care and treatment. Ma ny fac tors contributed 

to this distribution; among them were the commanders' failure to designate positions for women, which resulted in a lack of promotion opportunities fo r enlisted women, and a lack of privacy in bac helor housing, 

partic ul arl y for senior NCOs. Approximate ly 90 percent of the WACs, 

compared to 54 percent of the men, were unmarried and lived in barracks. 13 

1<.> Ibid., 1963- 1969. The coslumes, unirorms. and s(">CCiaJ equipment used by Ihe e~hibil unil are in 

Ihe WAC Muscum. FOri McClellan. AL. 

l] Llr. ColS 10 Maj Coms, 7 Aug 59. sub: Relenlion Objcclivcs, ODWA C; Ref File. I Sp~ccs. 

CMH . 

.. A R 601-210. 27 Apr 59. Qualificalions for Enlislnlcnl and Rcenlislmenl in lhe Regular Army. 

C MH Library. 

'" SlaffSludy. I'rocUrentenl Br. EOI' (M~j Jcnllie W. Fca). 13 Feb 63. sub: "Reeillistmcnl of WAC 

Personnel." OI)WAC Rer File. Studies. CM H. 
THE 1960S-A NEW LOOK 193 

TABLE 18- WAC Reenlistment Rates 

[I'crcenl] 

Fiscal YCM First Carccrists Termers 

1959 ............................................................................................. . 36.5 81.5 

1960 ............................................................................................. . 42.5 82.S 

1961 ............................................................................................. . 40.2 82.5 

1962 ............................................................................................. . 37.5 85.3 

1963 ............................................................................................. . 33.8 82.5 

1964 .. ........................................................................................... . 34.8 79.0 

1965 ....................... ................................................................. ..... . 45.6 76.2 

1966 ........................................................................................... . 49.9 75.4 

Sq'UU: Sirengtil oJtlrl! Arm)' Report (DeSPER 46), JO Jun 60 and 30 Jun 66. 

The study concluded, "The [WAC] reenlistment rate is adversely 

affected by limited MaS utilization, lack of promotional opportunities, 

restrictive and sometimes unappealing living conditions. and an inadequate understanding by many enlisted members of the purpose of the 

Corps' existence." It recommended that more MOSs be opened to 

women; that iflterchangeable TO spaces be approved; that more promotion opportunities be provided for WACs; that a senior enlisted woman 

be assigned to the EPD to provide career information and to assign WAC 

NCOs; and that housing conditions for women be improved.] 4 On 27 

May 1963. Colonel Kell y and Maj. Jennie W. Fea. the reenlistment study 

project officer in EPO, briefed Maj. Gen. Stephen R. Hanmer. the chief 

of OPO, on the study's findi ngs. General Hanmer agreed "to expedite 

action" on the interchangeable space concept. to assign a WAC E-9 

(sergeant major) to the Senior Enlisted Control Division. EPD. and to 

support the director's efforts to improve housing for women. 1 5 

Improvements did follow. In April 1964, the Army opened to active 

duty women sixteen repair and ma intenance MOSs previously authorized 

only for mobili zation, and it provided training quotas for the women. In 

1966. EPD established the position of WAC NCO Assignment Adviser 

(E-9) as a career monitor for enlisted women in the top three enlisted 

grades. 16 Between 1962 and 1966. the WAC reenlistment rate for fi rst 

termers inc reased by a little over 12 percent. (See TobIe 18.) 

14 Ibid. 

I. Memo. Maj J. W. Fea. l'rocureme1l1 Or. to DepDir. E PD. 31 M:IY 63. sub: Briefing Reenlist· 

menL or WAC I'ersonnel, ODWAC Rer File. SL udics. eenl i~t en\ or WAC Personnel. CMU. 

Ie DA Msg 88402. 5 May 64 (ODWAC Rd File. Recnlislrne1l1. CM II) opened the 16 repair lind 

mainlenance MOS. The NCOs assigned as WAC NCO As..~ignmenl Adviser. EPD, were Sg\Maj 

Ikuy L. Adams (1966-69). MSgL Mary K. Johnson (1969-7]). SgtMaj Grace L. Mueller (1971 -73). 

Sgt Maj Mildred C. Kelly (]973- 75). In ]975 after a rcorg~ln znlion. the runctions of Lhis position were 

Bbsorbt.'(1 by nn01hcr division in EI'D. 
194 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

blterchangeable Spaces 

At the time that General Hanmer agreed to expedite action on the 

interchangeable space concept, the idea already had some acceptance. 

For the WAC, it would help solve one of the Corps' biggest problcmslack of authorized spaces fo r WACs. In 1962. the DeSPER had rece ived 

a recommendation through the Army Suggestion Program proposing that 

only those TD positions that specificall y required a man or specifically 

required a woman be identified for fill by gender; the balance of the 

spaces could be coded for fill interchangeably by either a man o r a 

woman. The DeSPER had forwarded the proposal to the Enlisted Personnel Directorate for action and had sent a copy to the director of the 

WAC. Colonel Gorman had recognized the potential of the idea and, on 

16 August 1962, had asked EPn to develop an in terchangeable space plan 

to inc rease the flexibility of WAC assignments and to provide more TO 

spaces for WACs to fi ll. I 7 

Lt. Col. Irene M. Sorrough was assigned to develop the detailed 

concept for integrating the idea into the Army's replacement system. 18 

This effort required adding an " interchangeable" category to the id ntifi ~ 

cation codes describing TO positions. A number of personnel manage~ 

ment experts were consulted about the workability of such a change, 

while program analysts ensured the data would be accepted by the 

automatic data processing system. 

Ultimately, the concept developed by Colone l Sorrough gave commanders a method of identifying more WAC spaces without red ucing 

their control over their TDs or requisitions. The code "X" was used 

whenever a TO space could be filled interchangeably by an enlisted man 

or woman. Codes "A" and "E" continued to be used when a space could 

reasonably be filled ollly by an enlisted woman (A) or ollly by an enlisted 

man (E). An increased flexibility was given to the plan with the revision 

of WAC housing policy to allow women in grades E-5 through E-9 to 

be assigned to installations or activities that did nOI have a W AC deta ~ 

ment. 19 No interchangeable code was included in the plan for WAC 

officer spaces. Officer spaces on TOs included a branch code when 

speciali zed training or background was needed. When no specific branch 

background was needed, the position was coded "NO" to indicate an 

officer from any branch with the proper MaS could fill the job. Such 

" Llr. HQ, Third Army. 10 CONARC. 2) May 62, sub: Emplo)'l"e Suggestion No. M- 632- 62. DA 

Form 244{) and 1045. and 1st Ind CONA RC (ATPER- MC 23 May 62) 320.2j, 22 Jun 62. to TAG. 

DA; OF, EPD (Requirements Office) to TAG. 2 Aug 62. sub: PllUl for Improved Operations of Ihc 

U.S. Am.), Replacement System for WAC Enlisted Personnel; OF, DWAC 10 Dir. EPD. 16 Aug 62. 

sub: Employee Suggestion. All in ODWAC Ref File. I Spa~, CM H. 

II MFR. LlCol Qdberl. Ocp DWAC. 17 Ju162. ODWAC Ref File. I Spaces. C MH. 

L. Change 1. 20Jull 63, to AN. 6OO IOO. 8 Jul 58. WAC Rcgulations, ]Jar. 5d(2)(d). Up to Ihis timc. 

onl), WAC recruitcrs and a few senior NCOs could be ;Issigncd where thcre WDS no WAC dClneh· 

mcnl. 
THE 1960S- A NEW LOOK 

LT. COL. IRENE M. SORROUGH (Photograph take" ill 1955.) 

195 

spaces were ca lled "branch immaterial," and WAC office rs fill ed a 

number of them. 20 

On 18 February 1963. Colonel Gorman app roved the concept of the 

plan and recommended it to the DeSPER: "The p.-oposed plan will 

encourage utilization of enlisted women in a broader range of military 

occupational specialties ... and will give commanders increased flexibilit y 

in the assignment of all enlisted personnel." 21 In June 1963, the new 

DeSPER, Lt. Gen. James L. Richardson, approved the concept and 

directed EPO to prepare the plan for approval by the chief of staff. As 

the plan circulated through the Pentagon for final coordination, Colonel 

Gorman dubbed it the "sexless TO plan." In July 1964, the chief of stafT 

app roved it, and a DA c ircular announced that the interchangeable co ~ 

cept would grad ually be implemented throughout the Army. Before a 

revised regulation on prepa ration of TDs was issued in April 1965, a late 

change eliminated the letter "X" and substituted "I" to designate ler~ 

changeable spaces on TDs. In October 1965, Colonel Gorman was 

pleased to tell the WAC staff advisers that the major commanders had 

begun to designate " I" spaces on their TDs to provide for g reater utiliza~ 

tion of enlisted women. 22 

'0 A R 614- 185. 22 Noy 57, Requisitions ror Officers. CMH Library . 

.. OF, OOWAC to DCS PER, 18 Feb 63, ~ub: Plan ror Improved Operation or u.s. Army 

Replacement System in WAC I'ersonncl. ODWAC Ref File, I SPH(:{,'S, CMII. 

U DA Cir , 25 Aug 64, Improved Openl\ion of U.S. Army Repillcement System for Enlisted 

WAC I'erwnnel; Llr. DCSPER \0 CONUS Army mId overse"s (:o l!l1m",d cr~, 22 D{,'C 64, sub: 
196 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

By June 1966, Army repo rts indicated that the interchangeable code 

had been favorably received and had no ticeably increased the number of 

WAC spaces on TOs. In 1962, the Army strength report had shown 6,500 

spaces for enlisted women versus an actual strength of 8,560 enlisted 

women. On 30 June 1966, the report showed 20,500 interchangeable 

spaces plus 2,900 "A" spaces for enlisted women only; actual enlisted 

WAC strength was 9, 179.23 T he new scheme had solved the problem of 

an insufficient number of spaces on manning documents for the training, 

assignment, and promotion of enlisted women. 

As time went by. the interchangeable system continued to be successful. In 1970. a regulatio n added an interchangeable code fo r positions that 

could be filled either by a male o r WAC commissioned officer (code 

"K") or by a male or WAC warrant office r (code "P" ). 24 In 1972, 

commanders of TOE units received instructions to use the same codes in 

preparing manning documents and reporting strength statistics to Department of the Army.25 At the end of December 1974, the report showed a 

total of 420,3 15 "I" and "A" spaces (239,758 TOE spaces; 180,557 TD 

spaces). Act ual WAC enlisted strength on that date was 33,545, with a 

projected increase to 50,400 at the end of FY 1978. 26 

Housillg 

The WAC reenlistment study had also drawn attention to the importance of privacy in housing fac ilities and reenlistment decisions by career 

WACs. Lack of privacy afTected morale, which, in turn, afTec ted reenlistment rates. To the women, privacy mattered muc h mo re than whether 

the buildings were modern or air-conditioned. 

Men and women expressed different concerns rega rdin g ho using. Enlisted men se ldom asked for privacy or considered their barracks a home. 

Women, on the other hand, wanted a secure, private place to call home, 

with kitchens, reception rooms, and laundry fac ilities. For building security some post commanders provided o nl y signs that read, "ofT limits to 

male personnel. " Some provided locked doors that opened from the 

inside with a crash bar. When commanders could not provide adequate 

securit y. some units bought their own locks or kcpt a night watch in their 

own barracks; most improvised kitchens, reception rooms, and laund ry 

Reflection or New Idemity Cooe for I' ositions to be Filled by Either Enlisted Men or Enlisted 

Women in Tabk-s of Distribution; AR 3 10-41, 30 Oct 64. Tables of Distribution: o1>d Memo. DWAC 

to WAC Stoff Advisers, I Oct 65. All in O DWAC Ref File. 1 SP.1Ces. C MH. 

n CSG PA 4S (01'0 45) Rpts. Inventory and Projection of Army Strength. 30 JUI1 61 pnd 30 J UI1 

66. Numbered CSG PA 45 in 1961. the report W'IS renumberf,.'(1 0 1'0-45, e title, in 1962. 

H AR 3 10- 49, 2 Mar 70. T he Army Authorization Plld Documents System (TAADS). CM H 

Library. 

20 LIT. ACSFOR (OA FE- OTD_AC) to Maj Corns. 29 Jun n. sub: Expansion of the Women's 

Army Corps, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Exp.1nsion 1972, CM U. 

u SIrtll81h Qf'l~ Army R .. porl (DCSPER 46). 31 Dec 74. 
THE 1960S-A NEW LOOK 197 

rooms. Many WAC unit commanders allowed their permanent-party 

women some freedom in using bedspreads, dresser scarfs, and rugs and in 

displaying personal items. 

Since the early 19405. the A rmy had prescribed a distance separating 

male and female barracks. A World War IJ regulation prescribed that 

WAC ba rracks be at least 150 feet from male ba rracks o r be separated by 

an intervening structure. After the WAC became a permanent part of the 

Army in 1948, policy dictated that women's barrac ks be a reasonable 

distance from men's barracks and that they be within walking distance of 

the women's workplaces. The local post engineer decided what a reasonable distance was. However, whenever an opportunit y arose for obtaining 

a newer o r a larger building for a WAC detachment, w hether the build~ 

ing was next door o r ac ross the street from a male unit, both the WAC 

commander and the staff adviser recommended that the post commander 

waive the restriction. In 1968, the policy on separating ma le and WAC 

barracks was dropped from Army regulations. 27 

Married WACs had ho using problems, too. If a WAC was married to 

a military man, the couple's eligibility for post housing depended on the 

husband's rank. If quarters on post were not available, the couple rented a 

house or an apartment in the communit y and paid for it with the husband's quarters allowance, at the rate described as "basic allowance fo r 

quarters for pe rsonnel without dependents." A military wife was not 

considered a dependent, but a civilian wife was. Therefore, the man with 

a civilian wife received a qua rters allowance at the higher rate fo r 

personne l with dependen ts. A military woman who married a civilian was 

not eligible for quarters on post, nor could she receive dependents' 

quarters allowance to li ve ofT post unless her husband was, in fact, 

dependent upon her fo r over SO percent of his support. A military couple 

with bona fide dependents received ~post housing w hen it was available. If on-post housing was not ava ilable and they li ved off post, each 

could d raw quarters allowance at the "with dependents" rate. 28 

Efforts to improve bachelo r ho using involved setting standards for 

new military housing and fo r adequacy of existing po t housing. In 

addition to fisca l conside rations. Congress decided standards of new co ~ 

struction; the secretary of defense set guidelines fo r the adequacy of 

buildi ngs, and post commanders made decisio ns about the adeq uacy of 

buildings on their installatio ns. For new constructio n or renovation, Congress annuall y allotted funds for specific projects at specifi c posts under 

the Military Construction Program, Army.29 

u SR 420-105- 1. 27 Sep 49. Iluildings and StruclUrc. and AR 420-70, 3 Feb 55, as revised. CM II 

Librory; Treadwell, nil! Won!!.." S A,my Corps. pp. 515- 16. 

u AR 37- 104. 2 Dec 57. Pay and AlLowances for Military Personnel. 3S rcvist.-d. CMH Library. 

u I'L 241. 851 h Congo 1st sess. 30 Ang 57; DOD Directivc 4165.34.26 Fcb 58. as rcviSL--d. CMII 

Libmry. Also see AR 2lO 45. 16 Sep 48, Family Housing; A R 210- 10. 8 Jun 54. InSlallalions and 

Adminislmlion; AR 210- 14. lO ~'C 58. Quarcer5 and Re11lal Allowances. as revised; AR 210-16. 30 

Jlln 67. Ilachelor Housiug- Officer. Enlish . .'d. and Civilian Employ~'Cs. lIS revised. 
198 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Within the rigidities of this system, housin g improvements emerged 

slowly. The Army au tho ri zed improvements, and commanders carried 

them o ut when they had the funds to do so. In 1953, the Army autho rized the installation of partitions between every two sleeping areas in 

WAC barracks and. within each resultan t cubicle, the addition of clothing 

wardrobes and electrical out lets. Common areas contained cooking facilities. Ten years later, as those improvements were being completed, the 

Army authorized post engineers to install free washers and dryers in all 

bachelo r housing when fund s were available. 30 

WAC officers routinely had more privacy than the enlisted women. 

Single WAC officers lived in bac helo r office rs quarters for women 

(WBOQ) on post. Married officers or those with dependents li ved in 

family quarters on post. When such q uarters we re not available, they 

lived off post and received the quarters allowance for service personnel 

with dependents. In a WBOQ, bachelor officers in the grade of major and 

above were assigned suites-two rooms (living room, bedroom) and a 

bath; captains and below had individual rooms and shared a centrall y 

located bathroom.3 t 

Colonel Gorman encouraged the members of DACOWITS to push for 

improvements in women's ho usin g and livi ng conditions. A DACOWITS 

committee surveyed housing in the field, obta ined suggestions from the 

servicewomen concerned, and consulted with the directors of the 

women's services and with military and civilian ho using experts. In June 

1964, Comdr. Beatrice M. Truitt, USN, DACOWITS executi ve secretary, 

submitted the study, along with DACOWITS recommendations, to Secretary McNamara. T he recommendations, while primarily concerned 

with improving housing conditions for women, also covered housing for 

servicemen. 3 2 

A major breakthro ugh in military housing had occurred in 1963. In the 

Military Pay Act of lhat yea r, Congress, for the first time, had authorized 

bachelor officers in the grade of major and above to live off post and 

receive a basic allowance for quarters when adequate housing was not 

available on pOSt. 33 Ma le and female officers whose duties did not require 

30 Ltr, TAG to M:aj Coms :and Chiefs of Technieal Services. 25 Mnr n, sub: Housing Flicilitk'S for 

Women in the Service, O DWAC Rcf File, 1"lousing, CM H: A R 420-70, 3 Feb 55, Rcpairs and 

Utilities, and DOD Directive 4165.43, 28 J U1I 63, Provision of Furnishings in Personal Qua rters, Sec 

VI 11.1 , CM H Library, 

II AR 2 10- 10, 8 Jun 54 aud Chunse I. 27 Oct 54. Installations and Administration, CM II Library. 

Male officers in OOQs hOO .§imil:lr living llrrnngements. 

II Rpt, DACOWITS. Background on Elllistcd Housing 195 1- 1964, 19 J uu 64, ODWAC Ref File, 

Housing, C MH . 

•• 1'1. 132, 88th Cong, 1st SC$S, 2 Oct 63. Prior to this, the Military Pay Act of 1963, b:lchelor 

officers received 110 allowlmce fo r orr·post quarters if housiug, adcquMe or ilmdcqullte. WIIS Ilv" iluble 

on pOSt 
THE 1960S-A N EW LOOK 199 

them to live on post usuall y took advantage of Ihis opportunit y to rent or 

buy a house or rent an apartment in the local communit y. 

T he new law inspired a number of studies aimed at extending the 

provision to cover other military personnel. By the end of 1964, Secre· 

tary McNamara had received three major studies on the subject- the 

DACOWITS stud y, an Army stud y, and a tri-service study. Sec retary 

McNama ra appoint ed a new stud y group to ev,lluate the reports and 

present recommendations, and, based on the new proposals, in 1967 he 

issued directi ves applying to all se rvices. The directives increased the 

amount of li vin g space allowed each g rade in new ho using and authorized enlisted personnel in the g rade of E-7 and higher and all officers to 

live off post and receive a quarters allowance when the Army could not 

pro vide adequate accommodations under the new standards: 

E-7 through E-9: A private sleeping room. 

Captains and up: An unshared bedroom, li ving room, and bathroom; access to a kitchen. 

Lieutenants and warrant officers: An unshared combinatio n 

li ving and bed room and a bathroom.34 

Meanwhile. in 1963, the DACOWITS had proposed an innovative 

design concept for future ba rracks. In new barrac ks constructio n, a wing 

should be rese rved and designed fo r women that wo uld include partitions 

in latrines. a ki tchen, laundry room, and date room. The proposal, attributed to Colonel Gorman, wo uld, if implement.ed, reduce housing costs 

and ensure that each post had ho using available for about 100 enlisted 

women. Congress seldom approved new construction for WAC detachments because it was uneconomical to build a barrac ks when the average 

WAC population at a post was between 75- 100 wome n. Male barracks, 

on the other hand, usuall y ho used between 250 and 500 men and could be 

cost-justified. Therefore, Colonel Gorman, desirous of obtaining modern 

buildings fo r the WACs, suggested WAC wings in male barracks. "We'll 

live with the men," she remarked, then quickly added a proviso for 

separate entrances for women.

a5 

The idea was not entirely new. Posts with only a few WAC officers 

frequently assigned the women to li ve on one noor o r wing of a bac helor 

officers quarters. In Pirmasens, Germany, the ninety-woman WAC detachment li ved o n the upper noor of an up-to-then male barrac ks in a 

combinatio n of open bays, squad rooms, and individual rooms. Enlisted 

. Rpt. ASD(M) a~k Force. Bachelor Accommodations. May 66. ODWAC Ref File. lIonsing, 

CM I-I ; DOD Direclivc 4270. 1. 16 Nov 67. Conslruction Criteria Manual; AR 415- 31, 21 Fcb 67. 

Basie Facilities and SplIce Allowililees for Peacetimc Missions at Ami)' Illslull;ltions; DOD Directivc 

4165.47.6 Apr 67. Adequacy Assignment. Ulili7.U lion. and IlIvcnlory of Bachelor I-lousing; 8ml A R 

210-16. 30 Jun 67. J)3chclor Housing- Officer and Civilian Employccs. All in eMil Library. 

n Rpl. DCQWITS. Meeting of the AD HOC Comminee on Conl inuing Projccls. 16 May 6J. 

ODWAC Ref File. Housing. CM ]i. 
200 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

men still occupied the first and second floors of the building. Access to 

the women's floor was controlled by the WAC detachment. Despite such 

precedents, Colonel Gorman's suggestion did nol receive favorable con· 

sideration. Evidence of a mo re progressive attitude for future housing 

programs, however, began to appear. An article in the 7 August 1963 

Army Times discussed an "emphasis in Army planning ... on privacy in 

future BOQ constructio n." In addition to discussi ng privacy, the article 

predicted that in the future "all BOQ units on a post will be placed at one 

site" and that consequently "there will be no more separate and segregated projects for male and female officers." 36 

Further progress in housing concepts came when Congress approved 

construction of a major cantonment area at Fort Myer, Virginia. Here 

barracks would be built to house enlisted members of all services, and 

post services (chapels, post exchanges, commissaries, clubs, transportation, 

bowling alleys, and tennis courts) would be located within walking distance of the barracks. In the FY 1965 budget, Cong ress authorized the 

fu nds to build the Tri-Service Enlisted Women's Barracks for 700 enlisted 

women of the Army, Navy, and A ir Force. Women Ma ri nes in the area 

would continue to live in ba rracks at Henderson Hall, the headquarters of 

the U.S. Marine Corps. The new barracks made it possibl e to discontinue 

five sma ll enlisted women's units in the Washington, D.C., area. 37 

Colonel Gorman and Colonel Kell y met frequently with representatives of the Army Corps of Engineers to discuss the size of bedrooms, 

closets, shower rooms, laundry rooms, company offices, and visitor reception areas. Because the barracks was the first of its kind, the director 

knew that the design and construction standards would set a precedent. 

Her demands for the greatest possible space fo r privacy, storage, and 

convenience brought her in constant conflict with the engineers whose 

criteria were "adequacy" in comfort but "perfection" in engineering specifications. The engineers won all the arguments on size of rooms and 

closets and placement of offices and storage rooms. But despite inadequacies in those areas, the huge H-shaped building was air-conditioned, had 

an intercommunications system, game rooms, a lounge, and recreation 

areas. Each noor had a kitchenette and public tele phones. Each wing o n 

each noor had a central bathroom and laundry_ Each woman had a 

private mail box. 

The ground-breaking ceremony fo r the new barracks was held on 24 

May 1966, a few months before Colonel Gorman left office. As a matter 

of principle, Colonel Gorman refused to attend the ceremon y. "I'll onl y 

~6 Randall Shoemaker. "Beuer BOQs Seen in Latest DA Plan." Army Times. 7 Ang 63. 

3. US Congress. House. Commillee Oil AppropriatiOlls. SlIocommince on Military COllstructiOIl for 

FY 1965. Ih'llriJlgs. Milirary COtUlrllClioll Progflllll. PorI I. Dcp(ulm('tll of Ihe Army. 88th Congo 2d ses.~. 

1964. p. 192- 3; PL 576. 88th COllg. 2d scss. 2 Sep 64. That year. Congress provided S2.4 million for 

the Tri·Service Women's lJ:lfraeks; for FY 66. it added allot her S278.000. 
THE 1960S-A NEW LOOK 20 1 

WOMEN'S TRI-SERVICE BARRACKS, FORT MYER, April /968. 

go if the Chief of Staff orders it." She later commented, "Housing- a 

raging battle I did not win." 38 

Management of the women's tri-service barracks was assigned to the 

A rmy. The WAC detachment commander at Fort Myer, Maj. Nelda 

Ruth Cade, was appointed commandant of the building. The women 

moved in to the building in March 1968; each service had an assigned 

sectio n of the building. Junior officers of the other women's services 

assisted Major Cade in counselin g the women and managing activities in 

the building. A WAC first sergeant, Anna M. A rmo ur, assisted her in her 

command d uties- administration, discipline, living a rrangements, and 

ho usekeeping. The residents followed the reg ul ations and policies of their 

pa rent service rega rding personnel management, weari ng of the unifo rm, 

military courtesy, and other procedures. When fou r women were assigned 

to o ne room, beds were double-decked to make room for chairs, TV 

stands, lockers, and desks. After the Army autho ri zed NCOs to live off 

post, the women in the barracks inherited more room, and beds were 

undecked. Like Colonel Gorman, Major Cade believed the women deserved space for a chair, writing table, and a lamp. She accused the 

decisionmakers of failure to " understand that singles want the same 

amount of space and comforts that married people do. " She wrote that 

the decisionmakers "assume that single people spend their time at the 

clubs o r silting around in day rooms watchi ng TV." 39 

n IllIer .... Col Gorman wich Ihe ltuchor, 9 Jun 80. 

39 Lc r, Maj Nelda Rulh Cllde co aUlhor, 7 Aug 80. 
202 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Though bachelor ho using continued to need mo re attention, progress 

had been made. DOD decided a housing allowance for ofT-post li ving 

was more cost effective and efficient for the top enlisted g rades and 

officers than building qua rters for them on military posts. The director of 

the WAC had changed a long-standing policy and had permitted women 

in the grade of E-5 and hig her to be assigned to installations that had no 

WAC detachment but could provide othe r housing or an oIT-post housing 

allowance. All of the services had authorized mo re living space for 

individuals and had acknowledged a trend toward modern li ving arrangements in building the Tri-Service Cantonment Area at Fort Myer. With 

these improvements, married military couples and women with civilian 

husbands could hope for a resolution of their housing allowance problems 

in the future. 

GAO and Early Separations 

If there were anything the director did not welcome in 1964, it was a 

General Accounting Office (GAO) investigation-especially after havi ng 

launched a program to increase enlistments and improve the WAC image. 

In February, she received some probing calls from GAO, the cong ressional watc hdog agency, about WAC strength, training, and discharge 

rates. A quick check revea led thai the other women's service directo rs 

had received similar ca lls. Around Washington, a hint of interest by GAO 

usuall y heralded an in vestiga tion accompanied by adverse publicity. The 

bad news officiall y arrived in March. The director of GAO advised the 

service secretaries that his agency would examine the high rate of discharge among en listed women before they had completed their first 

enlistment. 40 

GAO began its investigation in early April. From a list of all the 

women (2,291) who had entered Army basic training during 1960, they 

selected 600 (20 percent) at random and traced their history of military 

service through Army F inance Center records. A similar procedure was 

followed in each of the othe r services. The results (see Table /9) showed 

that 64.6 percent, or almost two out of every three enlisted women, left 

the Army before completing their first enlistment. Losses fo r pregnancy, 

unsuitability, and marriage accounted for 42, 33, and 22 percent of the 

discharges, respectively.4 I 

~o Memo. DWAC to Chief. Coordination Branch. ODCSI'ER. 4 Feb 64. sub: Inquiry from 

General ACCOllnti ng omec Represcnl31ives. :md Lt rs. Assoc Dir. GAO. to &'(;Army. 3 MM 64. no 

sub, ~nd Under SccArmy to Assoc Dir. GAO, 21 Apr 64, ODWAC Ref File. Investigations. CM li . 

GAO. hendcd by comptrolkr genenl of lhe US. provides Congress wilh nudils ~nd reporls on 

finaueial and mmmgell1enl activities in the fede ral governmeul. 

41 Draft Rpt. GAO. Dec 64. sub: W:lste of Funds Resulting from Failure of M"jority of Enlisted 

Women to Complete First Tour of DUly. QDWAC Ref File, IllvcstigutiollS. CM H. 
THE 1960S-A NEW LOOK 203 

TABLE 19-ENLISTED W OMEN D ISCHARGED BEFORE COMPLETI NG 

A F IRST ENLISTM ENT 

Arm), Nrovy Air Marine 

Force Corps 

Cases Reviewed ..................................................... 600 550 460 80 

Discharged Before Completing Enlistment 388 408 319 61 

Percent D ischa rged Before Comple ting En listment .................................................................... 64.6 74. 1 69.3 76.2 

Salim': GAO. Draft Rpl, Dec 64, sub: Waste of Funds Resulting from Failure of Majority of 

Enlisted Women 10 Complete Firsl Tour of Duty. 

The G AO report also discussed the financ ial impact o f the d ischarges. 

T he services, it said, spent $12 million a yea r to replace women discharged before completing their initial enlistment contracts. T he average 

fi rst-term enlistee spent fo urteen mo nths on acti ve dut y. Replacement 

costs included a per capit a share of funds spent by the services o n 

recruitment, traini ng, pay and allowances, transportation, separation, genera l suppo rt, and specialist training. GAO no ted that in each of the fiscal 

years 196 1 thro ug h 1963. the services d ischarged as many women as they 

had in 1960, primarily fo r reasons of marriage, pregnancy, and unsuitabi. 

lity. T urnover was no t declin ing. In its summary, GAO w rote: " Accordingly we recommend that the Secretary of Defense take action ... to 

materiall y reduce the high tu rno ver rate for enlisted women and, if this 

proves to be infeasible, to consider filling suc h positions through the 

Federal civil service system." 42 

T he services unanimously rejected the suggestion. T he Air Force did 

not "agree with the recommendations and conclusio ns of the draft 

report." It maintained that " no attempt was made by the General Accounting Office to va lidate their concl usions and recommendatio ns" and 

that " the $12 million replacement cost . . . is ove rstated by an estimated 

$1.5 million." Air Force Secretary Eugene M. Z uc kert even referenced a 

report issued by the President's Commission on the Sta tus of Women in 

October 1963 that showed that, because o f family respo nsibilities, civil 

se rvice women under age 2S in the lower grades of the stenographic and 

clerical fi eld had a higher turnover rate than men-almost three women 

left their jobs for every ma n who left. He also presented statistics to show 

that when overtime was incl uded, civilian workers cost more o n a per 

capita basis than milit ary personnel. 43 T he Navy's repl y poin ted o ut that 

U Ibid., p. 20. 

U Mcmo. SL'CAF to ASD(M). 12 Jan M. sub: GAO Rcport- Fnilurc of Enlistcd Womcn to 

Complete Fir$t Tour of Duty (001), OSI) Case No. 2201), ODWAC Ref File. GAO Reports. C MH. 
204 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

enlisted women filled military positions more likely to be filled by enlisted 

men than civilian women. "Women fi ll military billets in the Shore 

Establishment in the activities to w hic h they are assigned within autho rized military allowances: they are incl ud ed within the autho rized strength 

of their service, a streng th based o n known and approved military requirements." 44 T he Army noted that long-range losses would not be 

reduced if enlisted women were replaced by civilian women. "Statistics 

maintained during FY 64 ind icate that 94 percent of losses due to marriage and pregnancy and 98 percent of the losses due to unsuitability for 

military se rvice were fi rst term enlistees. Therefo re while losses due to 

these causes are relatively hig h among th is group, they are extremely low 

amo ng those serving second and subseq uent enlistments." 45 T he Defense 

Department answered GAO in March 1965. As a result o f the report, the 

services began a concerted effort to reduce the hig h turnover and initiated a project to search out positio ns that did not require mili tar y incumbents and to convert them to civilian spaces. 46 

In a final report issued on 31 May 1966, GAO again suggested that by 

substituting civilian fo r military women, the services could recru it full y 

trained women under twent y-five who had lower turnover rates. Also, 

personnel losses wo uld be less because civilians would no t be subject to 

the services' physical and disciplinary standards for retention.47 T he 

Defense Department responded that the services had instituted stricter 

ru les regard ing d ischarge on marriage and had improved sc reening techniques to eliminate potentiall y unsuccessful recru its; these changes had 

reduced losses during FY 1966. As to replacing military women with 

civili ans, hig h d raft calls d uring this period had made it necessary for 

DOD "to take full ad va ntage o f available manpower reso urces, such as 

enlisted women." T he services, however, would continue to stud y and 

improve personnel polic ies to reduce turnover of enlisted women.4 8 On 

the who le, the GAO stud y caused more concern to the WAC leadership 

than to the lower ranks. T here was littl e sign o f p ublic interest, and the 

inquiry d id not inj ure WAC recruiting. 

H Memo, Dir. Women in the Navy. Capt Viola B. Sanders, to Chief of Naval Personnel, 7 Jan 65. 

sub: GAO Dran Report on Failure of Majority of Enlisted Womell to Complete First Tour of Duty. 

ODWAC Ref File. GAO Reports. CMB. 

H Memo, Under SeeArmy (Personnel Mallagemenc) to Dep Asst SeeDef (DASD). 27 Jan 65, sub: 

GAO Report- Fai lure of Majority of Enlisted Women 10 Complete First TOUT of DUly. O DWAC 

Ref File, GAO ReporlS. C MH . 

Ltr. ASO(M) to Harold H. Rubin. As.'iOC Dir. GAO. 2 Mar 65. no subjCl::l. O DWAC Ref File. 

GAO Reports, CMH. 

41 Final Rpt. GAO. Review of Extent of Completion of Firsl Tours of DUly by Enlisled Women 

in lhe Army. Navy. Air Force. and Marine Corps. 31 May 66. OOWAC Ref File. GAO Reports. 

CM H. 

~8 Mcmo. Oep Undcr SccArmy to ASO(M). 30 Jun 66. sub: GAO Final Rcport- Extcnl of 

Complclion of First Tour~ of Duty by Enlisled Women ill the Army. Navy, Air Force, and Marine 

Corps (OSO Case #2201), and Ll r. ASO(M) 10 Hon Elmer B. SWals. Comptroller General of the 

Uniled Stales. 8 Scp 66. ODWAC l~ef File. GAO Reports. CMH. 
THE \960S- A NEW LOOK 205 

Although the pUblicity produced by the GAO study did not prove 

harmful, Colonel Gorman was fo rced to make several changes in 

women's discharge policies. After I July 1965, women could be disc harged fo r marriage only after they had (I) completed one year in their 

current enlistment and any accumulated service obligations and (2) been 

denied reassignment wit h their husbands-either at the same post or close 

enough 10 establish a joint household. In J une 1966, statistics showed that 

the rate of discharge had declined less than a percentage point; a more 

drastic step had to be taken. Colonel Gorman an no unced that discharge 

on marriage was eliminated for women who enlisted or reenlisted on or 

after 20 Ju ne 1966. Losses then decli ned from 36.7 percent in FY 1965 to 

31. 1 percent in FY 1969. 49 

The proced ures for screening women applicants for enlistment that 

had gone into effect in 1963 were strictly enforced. After the GAO 

investigatio n began, Colo nel Gorman asked the Standards and Systems 

Branch, OPO, to develop three additio nal fo rms for use in the recruit 

screening process- WAC Applicant Scholastic Record, WAC Applicant 

Employment Record, and WAC Applicant Personal History Questionnaire. T he branch also developed a "Guide fo r the WAC Applicant." 

Using it, a recruiter could evaluate the potential recruit's personality 

before recommending that her application be approved by the command· 

er of a recruiting station. 50 

Losses for unsuitability dropped as a result of emphasis on the screening process and the new fo rms. At the WAC Staff Advisers Conference 

in 1964, Colonel Kell y reported that the percentage of WAC losses for 

unsuitability had fallen from 12.7 percent in FY 1962 to 11.7 percent in 

FY 1964. By the end of FY 1969, such losses dropped to 9. 1 percent. 5 1 

In addition to her work o n projects and issues such as reenlistment 

programs, the interchangeable code, bachelor housing, and the GAO 

investigation, Colonel Gorman visited WACs stationed in the European 

and Far East commands as well as in detachments throughout the United 

States; conducted a my riad of public relations activities; and participated 

regularly in grad uations and special events at the WAC Center and WAC 

U DA Msg 72lg2, 29 Jun 65; Change 5. 25 Jun 65. 10 AR 635- 210, 17 Feb 61, Discharge of 

Enlisted Personnel for Marriage, Pregnancy alld Parenthood; DA Msg 77037. 20 J un 66: AR 635-

200, 15 Jul66. Personnel Se]l ~rations. Elllisted Personnel; Strl!ngth oflhe Army Reporr (DCSPER 46), 

Part II. Gains and LosS/,'S, for 30Jun 69. All in CMH Ubnlry. Change 10, 12 May 69, to AR 635- 200 

reinstated discharge on marriage. 

~o DA Ltr to Maj Coms. 3 Apr 63. sub: Proposed Screcnillg System for SciL'(;tcd WAC Appli· 

cants, and DA Ur 10 CG. CONA RC. 5 DC(; 63. same sub. ODWAC Rd File. Recruit Screening. 

CMH; Rpl, WAC Staff Advisers COllf, Mar 63. p. 5- 6, ODWAC Ref File. WAC Slaff Advisers 

Conference. CM H. 

U Rpt, WAC Slaff Advisers Conf, 1964, p. 7. ODWAC Ref File. WAC St:.ff Advisers Confer· 

ence, CM H; AR 601- 2 10, 16 Scp 64. Qualifications mltl ProcedufCs for ProcC$sing Applicants for 

Enlislment and Reenlistment ill the Rcgulur Army, and Sirenglh of IIII! Army Reporl (DCSPER 46), 

PMt II , Gains and Losses, 30 Jun 69. CM H Library. 
206 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

School. She also initiated the effort to remove promotion restrictions on 

WAC officers by expanding the g rade structure. 

Officer Careers alld Restric/iofts 

Colonel Gorman took an approach different from that of her predecessors in trying to obtain hig her promo tions fo r WAC officers. Colonel 

Rasmuson, for example. had presented a study, supported by the 1956 

JAG decision, to show that a c hange in policy on the matter would allow 

the Army to promote women other than the director to colonel. The 

study brought no change. Colonel Gorman. on the other hand, set oul to 

achieve the promotions by increasing the authorized grade structure of 

the WAC. 

She initiated her action with a memo to the DeSPER on 23 September 1963. In it, she recommended that the WAC be autho rized 3 colo nels 

(up from I), 85 lieutenant colo nels (up from 75), 20 sergeants majo r (up 

from 12), and 80 master (or fi rst) sergeants (up from 65).:i2 She supported 

her req uest with a September 1962 confirmation o f the 1956 JAG ruling 

and with charts showing the low rate of promotio n of WAC officers- for 

example, the selection rate of male officers to temporary lieutenant colonel was 61.4 percent, but fo r WAC officers, 4.9 percent. She also cited 

the low number of WAC NCOs in the top enlisted grades-for example, 

14,000 ma le E-8s ve rsus 80 WAC E-8s. Within ODCSPER, o nly the 

director of military personnel refused to concur in the increase. He 

argued three points: an increased WAC structure required ded ucting 

spaces from the male branches; WAC offi cers lacked the versatility of 

ma le officers who could serve in administrative or combat positio ns; and 

no military requirements existed for the recommended inc rease. 53 T he 

manpowe r director, however, believed that the req uest should be approved because the interchangeability concept had been approved for 

manning documents and provided ample spaces to assign WACs in all 

grades.:i4 Nonetheless, after studying Colo nel Gorman's proposal, the 

DCSPER disapproved it o n 30 January 1964, commenting that it was 

" not favorably considered as there has been no demonstrated requirement 

for an increased grade struc ture." 5:i 

$I Memo. OWAC to DCSPER, 23 Sep 63, sub: Officer and Enlisted Grade Structure for the 

Womcn's Army Corps as of JO June 1965, ODW(\C Ref File. Re moving Promotion Restrictions. 

CMH. 

U OF. Actg Oir. Military PeT$Onnel. to DWAc. 16 Scp 63, s\lb: OffICer and Enlisted Grade 

Structure for the Women's Army Corps as of 30 June 1965. OOWAC R~f File. Removing J'romotion 

Restrictions, CMH . 

.. Memo, Oir. Manpower, to DCSPER. II Dec 63. sub: OffICer ~nd Enlisted Grade Structure for 

the Women's Army Corps as of JO June 1965. ODWAC Ref File. Removing Promotion Restril:tions. 

CM H. 

U DCSPER's noneoncurn:nee. duted 30 Jan 64, was added 81 the b<:mom of Memo. OW AC to 

DCSPER. 23 Sep 63. sub: Officer and Enlisted Grade Strul:turc ror the Women's Army Corps as of 

30 lune 1965, OOWAC Ref File. Removing Promolion Rcstriclions. CMI-I . 
THE J960S-A NEW LOOK 207 

The commander of the Continental Army Command (CONARC) was 

the next person to broach the issue of obta in ing additional WAC colo nel 

spaces. On 5 January 1965, General Hugh P. Harris, Jr., asked the 

DeSPER for a colonel's space to promote the commander of WAC 

Center and commandant of WAC School, then Lt. Col. Elizabeth P. 

Hoisington. The d ual command responsibilities of the position exceeded 

those of similar commanders whose minimum rank was colone l. But the 

DeSPER replied that "any increase in WAC strength would be at the 

expense of other promotion lists." According to the ex planation, "Male 

officers engaged in administrative and support activities to a large extent 

... are recoverable to perform combat leadership functions. On the othe r 

hand, WAC officers are not. Herein lies the principal difference between 

[the commandan t of the WAC School and] the male commandants of 

other Army schools." 56 

In June, during its annual national convention, the Reserve Officers 

Association (ROA) passed a resolution, d rafted by its South Carolina and 

New York chapters, supporting the Bolte legislation to "allow women 

officers of the Services to compete o n an equal basis with their male 

officer contemporaries." 57 When the resolution was submitted to the 

DCSPER, he returned it stating his previo us objections. Despite this, 

ROA sent its resol ution to each service secreta ry w ith a letter that 

encouraged him 10 support equa l promotion opportunities for women 

officers. ROA thus added another voice to the growing chorus of p~ 

port. 

President Lyndon B. Johnson had become a participant in the issue 

late in May 1965. He sent word to Secreta ry of the Army Stephen Ailes 

that he planned to promote Lt. Col. Mary J uanita D. Roberts, his executive secretary. to colonel. A reserve officer serving o n extended active 

d uty, Colo nel Roberts had over twen y~o e yea rs of active federal serv~ 

ice. When the DCSPER asked Colonel Gorman for her opin ion on this 

matter, she endorsed the promotion and explained that it could be accom~ 

modated by an increase in the number of WAC colo ne ls authorized, an 

action she had recommended earlier. 58 

U Ltrs, CG, USCONARC, to DCSI'ER, 5 Jan 65, sub: Rccormm:ndation for Colonel Authorization for Commandant, US WAC Sclrool/Commanding Officer. US WAC Center, and HQ DA 

TAGO (DCS PER. AGAO-CC. 5 Jan 65). to CG. USCONARC, 22 J(llI 65. ODWAC Ref File, 

Removiug Promotion Restrictions. CMH. 

n LlI"5, LlCol Rosa Lee E. Ilrowu. USAR. Columbia. SC, ROA Chapter, to LlCoI Mary E. 

Kelly, Oep DWAC, 6 Jan 65 and 4 Feb 65. (llId Resolution No.9, Reserve Officers Association of 

the United States, sub: EqUll1 Promotion Opportunity for Women in tire Serviccs, adopted by tire 

National Convention II Jun 65, ODWAC Ref File, Renrovirlg Promotion Restrictions, CM H. 

n "Lady Colonels:' Jo""w/ oflhe Armed Forces. 17 Jul 65, p. 4; DA SO lSI, pl.r. 10,7 Jun 65. 

C Mli Library; Memo. DWAC to DCS PER. 28 May 65, sub: Officer Gr~de Structure for tire 

Womcn's Army Corps as of )0 June 1965. ODWAC Ref File, Removing Promotion Restrictions. 

CMH. 
208 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Without waiting for a response from the Department of the Army. the 

president, under his executive authority, fo rwarded to the Senate his 

nomination of Mary Juanita Roberts for promotio n to colonel. The 

Senate confirmed the nomination, and the Army issued orders promoting 

her effective 7 June 1965. Colonel Gorman took advantage of the event 

by sendi ng a summary sheet to the chief of staff requesting that six WAC 

colonels be authorized. Predictably, the DeSPER added his nonconcurrence to the paper saying that "no military requirements exist to justify 

the increase; colonel requirements in all branches exceed the Officer 

Grade Limitation Act and increasing WAC colonel strength will add to 

the shortage." However, he continued, " In the near future, a recom en~ 

dation will be submitted concerning the upgrading of the position of 

Commandant, WAC Training Center and School, from lieutenant colonel 

to colo nel to include provision for a 'spot promotio n.' " S!) 

In view of the DCSPER's nonconcurrence on the summary sheet, 

Vice Chief of Staff Creighton W. Abrams call ed a conference with the 

DCSPER and the WAC director. Colo nel Gorman told General Abrams 

that her objective was to correct the g~s nd g inequity that limited 

the promotion of WAC officers. She referred to the JAG ruling that had 

cleared the way for a change in policy. She illustrated the problem by 

pointing to the low selection rate for women offi cers and NCOs. At the 

conclusion of the confe rence, General Abrams approved her request for 

five more colonels spaces for the WAC. A few days later, Maj. Gen. 

Philip F. Lindeman, Acting DCSPER, informed the White House that 

the WAC colonels authorization had been increased to six and that a 

selection board would be convened to select four women fo r temporary 

promotion to that g rade. 60 

Before the board could be scheduled, however, Colonel Gorman 

needed to upgrade the positions selected to be colonels spaces. Her 

req uest to revise her own manning document (TO No, CS 8532) went to 

the Staff Management D ivision, Office of the Chief of Staff- her channel 

fo r personnel spaces and operating funds. 6 I Rather than routinely app ov~ 

&9 SS. DWAC through DCS PER to CotS. II lun 65. b: Proposed Revised Officer G rade 

Structure for the Wornen's Army Corps for FY 65 and FY 66. ODWAC Ref File, Removing 

Promotion Restrictions. CMH. The Career Incentive Act of 1957 (PL 155, 85th Congo 1st SCSS, 21 

Aug 57) had authorized nurses other thnn the chief of the ANC to be colonels; on 30 J un 64. the 

ANC had 7 colonels. 

no Col Gorman. briefin g notes. mtg with Vice Co fS. 20 Jul 65: S5 . DWAC through DCSI'ER to 

Corso (( lun 65. sub: Proposed Revised Officer G rade Structure fo r the Women's Army Corps for 

FY 65 and FY 66, Approwd - VC/S US Army 20 Ju( 65; White House Fact Shcet, 27 J ul 65. sub: 

FY 66 Officer Grade Structure for the Women's Army Corps. signed by MajGen Philip F. lindeman, Actg DCSPER. All in ODWAC Ref File. Removing I'romolio n Restrictions. CMH. 

61 OF. DWAC to StufT Mnnagcment Division. Offiee of the Chier of SlnfT (SMO OCofSA), 26 J ul 

65. sub: Officer G nlde Authorization, ODWA C f File, Removing ('rOIl101ion Restrieliolls. CMH. 
THE 1960S-A NEW LOOK 209 

ing the change directed by the vice chief of staff, the division sent the 

request to the Judge Advocate General, Maj. Gen. Robert H. McCaw, 

for a lega l opinion of the action. Within two weeks the JAG advised that 

he overruled the earlier decision. He explained that " it is the opinion of 

this office that additiona l appoin tments to the grade of colo nel in the 

Women's Army Corps may be accomplished only by securing necessary 

legislation o r by the President personally. pursuant to his constitutional 

aut hority (4 1 Op Attny. Gen. 29 1 (1956»." 62 His decision was endorsed 

by the general counsel of the Army and the judge advocate generals of 

the Air Force and Navy. After Colo nel Gorman advised General Abrams 

of Ihis turn of events, he discussed the matter with Genera l McCaw. But 

the decision of 13 August held. The Management Division told Colonel 

Gorman: " In view of the legal opinion of TJAG, the Vice Chief of Staff 

has decided that no further action will be taken with respect to increasing 

the number of WAC colonels from two to six or with respect to convening a selection board until enabling legislation or a Presidential directive 

is obtained." 63 

This reversa l only made Colo nel Gorman more determined than ever 

to accomplish her objective. A friend later commented, " If they had told 

Emily to stop, she probably would have resigned, run for Cong ress, won 

a seat, and pushed the bill through by herself. " 64 The arrival of a new 

DeSPER on I September 1965 gave Colonel Gorman another opportunity to promote her project. Encouraged by her initial interview with Lt. 

Gen. James K. Woolnough, she sent a memorandum through him to the 

vice chief of staff pointi ng o ut that the recent JAG ru ling made it 

impossible to promote WAC officers to colonel by administrati ve means. 

Therefore, she said, "This office will seek authorizing legislation to provide equitable promotion opportunities for WAC officers and actively 

solicit the support of DACOWITS at the October meeting for suc h 

legislation." 65 Neither the DeSPER nor the vice c hief of staff objected 

to her plan of action. 

Colonel Gorman opened her new campaign with a draft summary 

sheet to the ODCSPER directorates. She proposed that the judge advocate genera l prepare legislation to remove promotion restrictions, including promotion to general officer, o n Regu lar Army and Reserve women 

officers. This time, the directorates and the other general and special staff 

divisions (including the surgeon general since the action included promoU OF, SMO OCol'SA to TJAG, 30 Jul 65, sub: Omcer Grade Alllhoriution. lind Comment 2. 

SMD OCoI'SA to DWAC, 1 Sep 65. ODWAC Ref File. Removing I'romotion Rcstrictions. CM U. 

n Memo, DWAC to Vice Col'S through DCSI'ER. 24 Aug 65. sub: I' roposed OrrtCer Grade 

Structure for the Women's Army Corps for FY 65 and FY 66. and Comment. SMO OCoI'SA to 

OW AC. 27 Scp 65. OOW AC Rcf File. Removing Promotion Restrictions. CM H. 

e .. Interv. BrigGen Hoisington with the author, J Nov SO. 

U Memo. OW AC to Vice Col'S through DCSPER, 21 ScI' 65, sub: Proposed Revised Officer 

Grade Structure for the Womell's Army Corl's ror FY 65 and FY 66, O OWAC Ref File. Removing 

Promotion Restrictions. CMH. 
210 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

tion of Army Nurse Corps and Army Medical Specialist Corps orticers) 

approved the recommendations. On 29 December 1965, Colonel Gorman 

forwa rded a summary sheet to the chief of st.aff recommending that 

legislation be prepa red to remove promotion restrictions for Regular 

Army and Reserve officers of the ANC, AMSC, and WAC. Deputy 

Under Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) Arthur 

W. Allen, Jr., approved the action and directed the j udge advocate 

general to prepare the legislatio n.66 

The legislation drafted by the judge advocate general encountered no 

staff resistance. However, the surgeon general, LL Gen. Leonard O . 

Healon, made a last minute addition. He asked that the law authorize fo ur 

more colonels for women officers in the medical corps- one fo r the 

assistant chief of the A rmy Nurse Corps and one for each of the three 

sections of the Army Medica l Specialist Corps (Dietitians, Physical 

T herapists, and Occupationa l Therapists). A n addend um to the legislative 

proposal covered the surgeon general's request. When the draft reached 

Under Secretary Allen's desk. however, he disapproved it and stated his 

objections: "I be lieve that approval of the addendum and the legislation 

as now drafted would create the anomalous situatio n of colonels working 

for colonels. T his is an undesirable situation and one which 1 feel we 

sho uld avoid." 67 The paper went back to the DWAC- another temporar y setback. 

Colonel Gorman's effort with the DACOWITS. however, was yielding results. After its fall 1965 meeting, its members had recommended to 

Secretary McNamara that legislatio n sepa rate from the Bolte legislation 

be prepared to eliminate the restrictions on the ca reers of women officers.68 Later, in Ma rch 1966. Assislant Secreta ry of Defense (Manpower) 

Thomas D. Morris advised the service secretaries that the Bolte bill was 

dead and asked them to prepare legislation 10 remove the stalutory 

inequities affecting women in the service. 69 

Meanwhile, members of the DACOWITS. representatives of veterans' 

o rgani zations and women's clubs, former directors of the women's services, and other servicewomen had begun to bombard members of Congress with requests for legislation to remove the inequities. On 31 March 

&~ OF. DWAC to ODCS PER dirt:<: toratC'S . 30 Scp 65, sub: Promotion of WAC Officers 10 the 

Tempo rary Grade or Colonel. Replies to this DF. and 55. DC5 I'ER/ DWAC. 29 Dec 65. sub: 

Promotion of ANC, AM5C, and WAC Officers. ODWAC ReF File, Removing Promotion Restrie. 

tions. CMH. 

61 DFs, TJ AG to DCSPER. J Feb 66, sub: ANC. AM SC. and WAC Officer Promot ions. and. 

Surge<ln General to DCSPER. 3 Feb 66. s,lme sub: Addendum to 5S. 10 Feb 66. samc sub; Memo, 

Dcp Under 5C(:An',y (M&RA) to Vice Corso 28 Ma r 66. same sub. All in ODWA C Ref Filc, 

Removing Promotion ReM ri etions. CMI-l. 

as DACOWITS. Rc<:ornmendalions and Suggestions. F,lll Meetin g, 10- 13 Oct 65. O DWAC Ref 

File, Removing Promotion Restrictions. CMH. 

~~ Memo. ASD(M) 10 Ihe Secretaries of Ih.:: Milita ry Departments. 28 Mar 66. sub: Legislmioll 

Conceruing Women Officer Personnel. ODWAC Ref File. Removing Promotioll Rest rictions, CMH. 
THE 1960S- A NEW LOOK 21 1 

1966, Congressman Otis G. Pike of New York introduced H.R. 14208 for 

this purpose. Senato r Strom Thurmond of South Carol ina invited Colonel 

Gorman to his office to d iscuss the issues and afterward wrote Assistant 

Secretary Morris that the Senate Armed Services Committee would welcome legislation to correct the existing discriminatory provisions of law 

affecting military women officers.70 

In May. the Department of Defense completed the task of consolidating the services' legislative proposals. The Bureau of the Budget approved the proposed bill, and Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus R. 

Vance sent it to Cong ress. On 28 June 1966, Chairman L. Mendel Rivers 

of the House Armed Services Committee introduced the bill as H.R. 

16000. The proposed law eliminated restrictions on women's promotio n 

and retirement and the 2 percent limitation on their numbe rs; permitted 

men to be appointed in the Army Nu rse Corps and Army Medical 

Specialist Corps and in the Navy and Air Force Nurse Corps; allowed 

women other than those in the medical corps into the Army and Air 

National Guard; and provided assistant chiefs, with the rank of colonel, 

for the ANC and AMSC as General Heaton had requested. 71 

011 31 July 1966, a critical time in the progress of the bill, Colonel 

Gorman's four~year term as director of the WAC came to an end. The 

progress she had made, however, provided the basis for continuing this 

effort by her successor, Col. E lizabeth P. Hoisington, and the deputy 

director, Colonel Kell y. 

Hearings on H.R. 16000 began on 2 1 September before Subcommittee 

I of the House Armed Services Committee. Opening the sessio ns, hair~ 

man Philip J. Philbin of Massach usetts reassured the members that the bill 

would not be used arbitrarily to promote women to general o r flag rank. 

He argued that "every time you promote a woman to flag rank the re is 

o ne less sta r available fo r a male officer" and that this reality "alone will 

probably g uarantee that there is no excessive passing out of stars to 

women officers." 7 2 

A number of witnesses testifi ed in support of the bill: Congressman 

Pike and Richard S. Schweiker and William S. Moorhead of Pen sylva~ 

nia; Genevieve Blatt, Secretary of Internal Affairs, Commonwealth of 

HI "To amend Tille 10. Uniled Slales Code 10 aUlhorize Ihe Presidenl 10 suspend cerlain provisions 

of law reli.ling 10 women in Ihe Armed Forces. alld for Ol her purposes," HR 14208, 89th Cong, 2d 

SCSS. 31 Mar 66; Ur, Strom Thurmond. USS. 10 LICol Rosa Lee E. Brown. 30 Mar 66: Ur. 

Thurmond 10 Ha ll. Thomas O. Morris. ASO(M). 30 Mar 66: and Ur, Morris to Thurmond. 5 Apr 

66. All in OOWAC Ref File. Removing Promotion Restrictions, CM H. 

TO Memo. Dell Under SecArmy (M&RA) 10 ASD(M). 3 MI'y 66. sub: Legislalion Concerning 

Women Officer Personnel: Ur. Dep S~'CDcf Cyrus Vallce. for SeeDcf. to Hon 10hn W. McCormack. 

Speaker. Housc of Reprcscrualives. and 10 I-Ion Carl Hayden, President Pro T empore, Senate. 15 1un 

66; HR I6OCXJ. 891h Congo 2d sess. introduced 28 lun 66. Union Calendar No. 970. All in O DWAC 

Ref File, Removing Promotion Restrictions, CMH. I'L 845. 841h Congo 2d SCSS, 30 J ul 56, had 

enabled women 10 join the medical dcparlmcrus of the Army IUld Air Nalion,,1 Guurd. 

n US Congress. Housc, Armed Services Commillee, Subcommillee No. J. flearillg.T 011 IlR J6000. 

891h COllg. 2d scss. 21 Sep 66. p. 7. 
212 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Pennsylvania; Maj. Gen. Earl F. Cook, U.S. A rmy, Retired. and vice 

president of the Association of the United States Army; Mrs. Donald 

Quarles, on behalf of the DACOWITS; and Judith O. Whitaker, executive director of the American Nu rses Association. Assistant Secretary 

Morris was accompanied at the hearin g by Colonel Hoisington and the 

othe r women directors, but he alone testified, saying in part that "removal of these restrictions will permit women officers to advance to positions 

of higher responsibility to the extent that they are as well-fitted for these 

duties as male officers." And he added that the "impact" of the change 

would be "spread over many yea rs." 73 At the concl usion of the hearing, 

the subcommittee reported the bill out favorably to the full House A rmed 

Services Committee. On 4 October, the committee approved it, and, on 7 

October, H.R. 16000 was unanimo usly passed in the House and sent to 

the Senate. The Senate received the bill on 10 October 1966 and referred 

it to the Armed Services Committee. The second session of the 89th 

Congress adjourned on 22 October; before the committee conside red the 

bill. As had happened to WAC legislation in the 1940s, this legislation 

had to be reintroduced in both houses the following year. 74 

The reintroduced bill made excellent progress in the first session of the 

90th Congress. On opening day, 10 Janua ry 1967, Congressman 

Schweiker offered H.R. 1274, which was identical to H.R. 16000. On 21 

Februa ry, Congressman Rivers introduced another versio n, H.R. 5894, 

which contained one minor change from the ea rlier bills. To resolve the 

"colonels working for colonels" quandary objected to by Under Secretary A llen, the new draft included a phrase declaring that the chief of the 

A rmy Nurse Corps, the chief of the Army Medica l Specialist Corps, and 

the director of the WAC outranked all other officers in their own Corps. 

Mr. Schweiker withd rew H.R. 1274 and strongly recommended passage 

of Rivers' revision. Schweiker's support was a deciding factor in committee and on the floor of the House. 75 

Subcommittee I of the House Armed Services Committee compl eted 

its hearings on the bill in one day. Chairman Philbin reviewed the history 

of the bill and its purposes. Assista nt Secretary Morris, the o nl y witness 

called, gave testimony similar to that he had given the previous year on 

H.R. 16000. Cong ressmen Schweiker and Pike submitted sta tements recommending H.R. 5894. The subcommittee reported the bill out favorably; 

13 Ibid .. p. 4. 

H Office Chi ef of Legish'lioll. L~ap of Slalus of Legislalion. 5 <lnd 23 Oel 66. 

a 1,lIerv. Col Gor'llan wilh Ihe alllhor. 9 JUII 80; US Congress, House Armed Services ComrniHCC. 

Subcornrnillee tt l. COIIJiderOI;oll 0/ fiR 589410 Amel!(/ Tille.< fO. 31. alld 39. Vw'lel} Siales Code. 10 

Uemol't' RC!ilriel ioll!i 011 I/'e Cafl!('f'$ 0/ Female O/Jicef'$ ill I/'e Army. N u,,),. Air ForC('. Ollt! M I";lIe Corps. 

olld lor Olher Purposes. 20 Apr 67. pp. 384- 85. 
THE 1960S- A N EW LOOK 213 

the full committee unanimously approved it; and, on 1 May, the bill was 

approved on the floor of the House and sent to the Senate. 7 6 

The Senate Armed Services Committee conducted its hearing on the 

bill on 19 October 1967. The only Defense Department witness called 

was Brig. Gen. William W. Berg. Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense 

for Manpower (Military Personnel Policy). He reiterated the department's 

support for the legislation. The committee chairman, Richard S. Russell 

of Georgia, joined Senator Thurmond in actively supporting the measure. 

At one point, the hearing strayed off the subject of c areer equality fo r 

women. Senator Daniel K. Inouye of Hawaii interjected a questio n about 

military women marrying and being forced to leave the service when 

they became pregnant. 

SENATOR INOUYE: Does this bill liberalize some o r the restric tio ns we now 

have o n women members marrying and raising children? 

GENERAL BERG: It has no thing to do with that sir. 

SENATOR INOUYE: Wh y hasn 't the service done something about this? It 

would appear to me that by our rules and regulations, we discourage our women 

members to carry on withou t considering the normal and natura l lire o r raising 

ramilies, I ha ve been told that under certain circumstances evidence o r pregnancy 

would mean immed iate dismissal. T his doesn't happen in civil lire. 

In reply, General Berg explained that each service tried to assign 

married military personnel to the same station and encouraged them to 

remain in service, But, he explained, discharge on pregnancy was mandatory in all services because the services could not allow the time lost due 

to pregnancy and because mothers in the service would have diffic ulty in 

taking care of their children. Senator Inouye noted that women in government and industry had children and returned to work. "Why," he 

asked, " isn't it possible for women members in uniform to do the same 

thing?" To conclude this line of questioning as quic kly as possible, General Berg stated that he did not know why the situation existed and that the 

current bill did not address the problem. Because no one else continued 

the line of questioning, it was dropped.77 Nonetheless, comments made 

by congressmen in hearings are seldom forgotten. 

When the committee met in executive session, it voted unanimously to 

report H.R. 5894 favorably to the full Senate. The Senate passed H.R. 

5894 on 26 October 1967. The bill then went to President Johnson who 

had previollsly indicat ed that he would sign it. 7 8 

.. US Congress. House. Armed Services Commil1cc. /leoril/gs lIeld St'p/t'mber 11. /966. ond April 

lQ 1967. To AlX'Omp(my lIR J894. HRpl 2 16. 90th Cong, lSI $CS$, 27 Apr 61; "Womcn Officers Bill 

Approved by Iiousc.·· JOllrnal of/he Armed ~s. 6 May 67. p. I. 

11 US Congress, Senale, Armed Services Committee, I/{'Qri"gs Ikfort Ihe COllllllillf!ll!! 011 Armed 

Senires Oil lIR 4771. IIR 49()J. 0111/ IIR 5894. 90Ih COllg, lSI ses.~, 19 Oct 61. p. 45. 

,. US Congress, Scnme, Co/em/ar of Bllsiness, Thursday Ocwber 16, /976. 90Ih Cong, lSI sess, p. 8. 
214 THE WOM EN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

PRESI OENT LYNDON B. JOHNSON signs H.R. 5894 removing career restrictions 

01/ all womell officers. 8 November /967. 

At a colorful ceremony in the White House al eleven o'clock on the 

morning of 8 November, the president signed the bill into law (PL 90-

130). The 14th Army Band (WAC) played "Hail to the Chier' as the 

president entered the East Room through a cord on of fifty enlisted 

women representing all the se rvices. Among the guests attending the 

ceremony were Senato r Margaret Chase Smith, Congresswoman Frances 

P. Bolton, the current directors of the women's se rvices, Col. Oveta Culp 

Hobby and other former directors of the women's services, and many 

former and current members of DACQWITS. President and Mrs. Johnson held a receptio n for the group in the State Dining Room. In his 

remarks before sig ning the bill, so important to women in the services, 

the president said, "We have brought women to even higher and more 

influential positions th roughout the land- and the gove rnment has improved. Women are leaders and doers today in our Congress and 
SGT. PATSY M . WRIGHT, the first WAC to be assiglled to attache dUly. 

receives collgratulaliolls from Colollel Gorman. Director, WAC, alld Maj. Gell. 

Edgar C Daieman, Assistallt Chief of Staff for Ilflelligellce, DA, 2 lillie 1964. 

Sergeal/t Wright was assigned to Athells, Greece. 

AT HER RETI RHMENT REVIEW, COLONEl. GORMAN reviews the troops by 

jeep accompanied by Lt. Gen. lames K. Woo/llollgh, Deputy Chief of Staff for 

Persol/llel, DA. alld Lt. Col. Frances M. YOlliack. Deputy Commander. WAC 

Celller; jeep driver, M. Sgl. Dof/na Bell. 28 luly 1966. 
216 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

throughout o ur government. So here today in the East Room of the 

White House, we w ill end the last vestige of discrimination- l hope- in 

our Armed Forces," 79 

Though PL 90-130 became law after Colonel Gorman left office. the 

WAC program had made significant progress under her direction. She 

had pushed and gained support for implementation of the interchangeable 

code and elimination of promotion and retirement inequities. Those two 

steps did more to ensure the assimilatio n of WACs into the Army's 

personnel management system than anything since the integration of 

women into the Regular Army and Reserve forces in 1948. Those steps 

also ensured improved utilization under the expanded program of WAC 

assignment opportunities that Colonel Gorman had brought about with 

the removal of restrictio ns on the assignment of women to bands other 

than the 14th Army Band (WAC), to attache duty, and to install ations 

and activities without a WAC unit. She had assigned women to Alaska 

(1963) and Vietnam (1965) and had opened sixteen new MOSs to enlisted 

women. 

Of course, not all was positive. Colonel Gorman's long and difficult 

struggle to eliminate promotion restrictions had shown that while male 

attitudes toward women in the A rmy had tempered somewhat, there still 

remained a great reluctance among some officers to accept women as 

equals. And, despite that reluctance, the connict ill Vietnam, then ex panding, was c reating a greater demand fo r Army women than the WAC 

could satisfy within the recruiting standards then in place. Personnel 

requirements to pursue the war rose monthly, and plans were in progress 

to deploy a WAC detachment there. A new officer procurement program 

had been form ul ated to attract greater numbers of WAC officers. The 

greatest impact of the envisioned expansion of the Corps would be felt at 

WAC Center and WAC School, whose personnel and facilities had been 

stretched to the limit. The new WAC director, Col. Elizabeth P. Hoisington, would need all her experience to resolve these problems. Nevertheless, WACs were now a larger, more important, more respected part of 

the Army. 

On 28 J ul y 1966, Colonel Gorman's retirement ceremonies were held 

at WAC Center. At her regimental retirement review, o n the Ma rshall 

Parade Ground, she was presented with the rarely awarded Distinguished 

Service Medal by Lt. Gen. James K. Woolnough, DCSPER of the Army, 

in recognition of her achievements as director of the WAC and her 

twenty-four years of service in the United States Army.80 

11> Press Relens<:. Office of (he Whi(e I-louse Press Sec. "Rerl13 rks of (he Prcsidcrll upon Signing 

HR 5894. (he Women Officers Legislatio n," 8 Nov 67. 

80 DA GO JS, 19 Aug 66, Sex: I, e M H Librnry. The Oistinguisht.'(! Service Mcdul (DSM) is the 

highcst award given for meritorious service. Colonel Ilohby had been (he only ot her WAC to 

roccivc (he DSM 10 lhat date. 
CHAPTER IX 

Vietnam; WAC Strength; WAC 

Standards 

In the mid·1960s, most Americans supported a military effort in Vietnam to deter the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. Although wa r 

had not been declared and reserve components had not been mobilized, a 

major national effort, signaled by the escalating commitment of U.S. 

forces in late 1964 and 1965, was under way. Events indicated that the 

United States would remain in South Vietnam for a number of years. The 

question of WAC participation, however, remained to be settled. By 1965, 

the Corps had a small contingent-approximately twenty women- in 

Saigon, and plans were in progress to send a detachment to Vietnam 

within the year. The long-term effect of such involvement on WAC 

programs was under much discussion. Would it cause a major increase in 

strength? If so, would another WAC center be required? Would higher 

recruitment goals c reate pressure to lower WAC enlistment standards? 

How would the involvement affect officer procurement and promotion? 

Into this atmosphere stepped a confident new director. In June 1966, 

Secretary of the Army Stanley R. Resor announced that Lt. CoL Elizabeth P. Hoisington would become the seventh director of the Women's 

Army Corps. Her past assignments appeared to have groomed her for the 

position. During World War II and the postwar years, she had held 

command positions in France, Germany, Japan, and at Fort Monroe, 

Virginia. She had served in the Office of the Director, WAC (1951- 1954), 

as a personnel stafT officer under Colonels Hallaren and Galloway; at 

Headquarters, Sixth Army, Presidio of San Francisco ( 1954- 1957); in the 

Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Personnel (1958- 1961); and in Headquarters, U.S. European Command, Paris (1961-1964). From 1964 to 

1966, she served as commander of WAC Center and commandant of 

WAC School. I 

On 1 A ugust 1966, in a ceremony in the office of Secretary Resor, 

Colonel Hoisington was sworn in and promoted to full colonel. Like her 

predecessors, news of her appointment appeared in newspapers and magazines throughout the United States and overseas. One reporter described 

1 Col Hoisington came from a military ramily. Her rather and three brothers graduated from the 

US Military Academy; she joined the Army on 6 Nov 42 and served as an enlisted woman for ~ix 

months before allending WAAC oes at Fort Des Moines: she was oommissionf.-d on 10 May 1943. 
218 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

the impression she made on him. " It would be easy to be carried away by 

her ebullience and c harm. She speaks easily and eagerly about the accom· 

plishments of the Corps and is firmly and o penl y convinced, and convincing. that the WAC can do anything ... and the way she says it, you 

know she will do it and take the Corps along with her. ... The Women's 

Army Corps is in fo r a li vely time. Makes o ne almost want to be a WAC. 

Or a Hoisington." Z 

From her tour in the Office of the D irector, WAC, Colonel Hoisington knew what she wanted to do. She realigned the duties of the staff, but 

maintained continuity and valuable experience by keeping Colonel Kell y 

as deputy director. In November, she brought in two new officers: Lt. 

Col. Bettie J. Morden replaced Colo nel Ferguson as executive officer, 

and Maj. Ann B. Smith replaced Colo nel Weir as plans and policies 

officer. T he following year Colonel Kell y, who had reached the mandatory retirement age (53), retired and was awarded the Legio n of Merit for 

the second time in her Army career. To replace her, Colonel Hoisingto n 

chose Lt. Col. Marie Kehrer, a former assistant commandant of the WAC 

School ( 1964- 1966) and congressional liaison stafT officer at Headquarters, 

Army Materiel Command (1966- 1967).3 

The WA C Studen t Officer Program 

One of Colonel Hoisington's primary concerns was the ailing College 

Junior Program. In nine years, 591 women had entered the program, but 

only 50 had been commissioned as second lieutenants to serve an active 

duty tour of two or more years.4 In 1964, to improve this record, the 

commander of the U.S. Army Recruiting Service, Col. Paul D. Mize, 

proposed a follow-on program- the Army Student Program for Potential 

WAC Officers (later ca lled the WAC Student Officer Program). Under it, 

the WAC School commandant would select ninety graduates of the 

College Junior Program to remai n o n active duty d uring their senior year 

in college. They would not wea r uniforms or attend meetings but would 

receive the monthl y pay and allowances of a corporal, acq uire lo ngevity, 

and receive medical and other military benefits. Colonel Gorman stro ngly 

t Harold E. Davis, '"The Hoisinglons Have II," Army Magazine, Sep 66, pp. 18-19. 

'SglMaj Elizabeth J. Burns succeeded SgtMaj Tail in Apr 67; Sgl Maj Mary E, Richmond 

replaced SgtMaj Burns in Dec 68. Moj Smith was replaced by Maj A gnes Schairer Schriver (1968-

1969). who married and resigned Dnd was replaced by LtCoI Pola L. Garrett (1969- 1972). Col 

Garrett. Ihe firsl block WAC officer to be promOlt'd to fu ll colonel (1973), served as depuly 

commander WAC Center ( 1973-1914). She died al age 49 of emphysema. 

4 WAC School. May 61, "Slatistical Analysis of Collegc J unior Cadet Program 1951- 1\166:' 

ODWAC Ref File, College Junior Stalistics. CM H. The College JuniQr Program cost appro~ima cly 

SIS2,OOO a ycar ror an average of 65 cadets to attend the three·week course al WAC School. 

Rccruiting costs were S11 2,000; all Ol her costs S4().OOO. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 2 19 

endorsed the idea, but the DeSPER thought it too expensive and rejected it. 5 

The College Junior Program continued to Jag. Eighteen months later 

Colonel Gorman reintroduced the student officer proposa l. T his time her 

argumen ts convinced the DeSPER and the Army staff that the program 

had promise. Under Secretary of the Army David E. McGiffert, however, approved it as a trial program for onl y one year. 6 Tho ug h this 

approval was enough to initiate the program, it unfortunately had arri ved 

too late (June 1966) fo r recruiters to contact potential candidates before 

they left college for the summer. Colonel Mize promptly wrote the 

DCSPER and explained that the program needed two more years to have 

a fair chance to succeed. The DCSPER, Lt. Gen. James K. Woolnough, 

agreed and directed Colonel Hoisington to obtain the extension. In her 

staff paper, she asked for the additional time to allow the program to 

build momentum and to permit comparative statistics to be gathered. Its 

success, she said, would ensure the Army enough WAC officers for the 

Vietnam buildup.7 Her paper arrived on Under Secretary McGiffert's 

desk at the same time as a DOD study that recommended increasing the 

strength of the women's se rvices for Vietnam. On 7 December 1966, he 

approved a 38 percent expansion of the WAC, and on 15 December, he 

approved a two-year extension of the trial program. The Corps now had 

an even greater need for the new program and two more years in which 

to prove its value. 8 To provide a wider base from w hich to select 90 

women ann uall y, the DCSPER allowed 120 women, instead of just 90, to 

be enrolled in the College Junior Program in FY 1967. The next year he 

increased the authorization to 150. 9 

After the summer of 1968, Colonel Hoisington was convinced that the 

WAC Student Officer Program was a success. Pointing out that partic ipation had "more than tripled in the student officer program in three years; 

25 in FY 67 86 in FY 69," she requested that its trial status be 

dropped and that it be approved as a continuing program for WAC 

• Ltr. Cdr, US Army Recruiting Seryice to DCSI'ER, 13 J ul 64. sub, WAC Officer I'rocurement; 

OF, DWAC to ODCSPER Director of Manpower, 22 Jul 64, SlIme sub; and Comment 2, Director of 

Manpower to DWAC, 10 Aug 64, All in ODWAC Ref File, College Junior Progmm, CMH. On I 

Oct 64, the US Army Recruiting Command superseded the US Army Recruiting Seryice. 

S OF, DWAC to ODCSPER direc torat es., 28 Jan 66, sub: Army SlUdent Program for Poter!!ial 

WAC Olflcers, with comments, 11- 15 Feb 66, ODWAC Ref File, College J unior Program, CMH. 

1 SS. DWAC to DCSPER, Cors, and Under SccArmy. 28 Mar 66, Army Student for Potential 

WAC Officel'1; Memo, DWAC to Under SccArmy, 17 May 66: and DA Cir 60 1- 16. The Army 

Student Program for Potential WAC Officers, 13 Jul 66. All in ODWAC Ref File, College J unior 

l'rogram, CM H. 

, Llr, Del' Cdr, HQ, Army Recruiting CommMnd. to DeSpER, sub: Army Student Program for 

Potential WAC Officel"$, 21 }ul66; SS. DWAC to DCSI'ER, CotS, and Under SecArmy, sub: Army 

Student Program for POlenlial WAC Officel"$, \J Oct 66; and DA Cir 60 1- IJj, The WAC Student 

OffICer Program. 16 May 67. All in ODWAC Ref File, College Junior Program. CM H . 

• Llr, TAG to USCONA RC, 23 Feb 66. sub: FY 1967 College Junior Class, and DA Msg 812802, 

2 Mlly 67, ODWAC Ref File, College J unior Program. CMH. 
220 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

procurement. On 30 August 1968, Acting Assistant Sec reta ry of the 

Army Arthur W. Allen, Jr., approved the actio n. Over the next nine 

years, the program accoun ted for 25 percent of a ll WAC officer accessions, establishing that it was indeed worth its cost. 10 

Officer Promotion alld Senior Service College Selection 

In January 1968-soon after enactment of PL 90- 130, which reduced 

career restrictions on women officers- Colonel Hoisington requested an 

inc rease in the WAC officer grade structure and action to select six WAC 

officers for promotion to colonel. The DeSPER, Lt. Gen. A lbert O. 

Connor, conc urred and forwarded the request to Secretary Resor, who 

approved both the increase and appointment of a special board to select 

WAC officers fo r promotion to temporary colone l. He directed that the 

selectees meet the same c riteria for promotion as had the male officers 

selected for colo nel by the annual promotion board in the fall of 1967. Of 

twenty-seven eligible WAC officers, the board selected six: Elizabeth H. 

Branch, Lane Carlson, Mary J. Guyette, Marie Kehrer, Maxene B. Michl, 

and Charlotte I. Woodworth. The women o n this list received their 

promotions after the men on the annual list, but the Army later interspersed the WACs by date of ran k on the lineal list of colo nels. Subsequent boards selected both men and women, although a separate quota 

for WAC officers ensured that they did not compe te against men or take 

promotions from them. Year by year, Colonel Hoisington inc reased the 

officer grade structure so that by 30 June 197 1 the WAC had sixteen 

colonels o n active d uty in a total officer corps of 969. 1 1 

Selection of WAC officers to attend senior service colleges was the 

next item o n Colonel Hoisington's agenda. The Army War College, 

National War College, and Industrial Coll ege of the Armed Forces prepared officers for positions of responsibility at colonel and general officer 

level. Up to this time o nl y one WAC officer, Lt. Col. Hortense M. 

Boutell (Industrial College, 1955), had graduated from any of those 

1055, DWAC 1hrough DCSPER. Cors lind Acting A~$t SecArmy (Manpower and Reserve 

AITairs), 26 Aug 68, sub: Women's Army Corps Studen1 Officer Program, ODWAC Ref File. 

College Junior Program. e MH . The posi1ion of Under Secretary o f Ihe Army (Manpower and 

Reserve AiTairs) was discontinued On I Jan 68; most or the position's functions passed to the Assistant 

Secretary of the Army, M&RA. Similar changes occurred in thc ot her services. 

" Mcmo. DWAC to DCSPER, 12 Jan 68. sub: Proposed Revised Officer Grade StrUClUre for the 

Women's Army Corps; 55, DCSPER to Cors and SecArmy. 23 Feb 68, sub: Zonc of Consideration 

and Number 10 be Selected for Promotion 10 Colonel. AUS, WAC; Memo. SecArmy to Cors, 18 

Mar 68. samc subject; OA Msg 859656. 12 Apr 68. All in ODWAC Ref File, Book N2- Elimination 

of PromotiOIl R(."S triclion$, CMH . Actual promotion date and (date of rank) of the prOlllo1ed officers: 

Woodworth. 2 Dec 68 (10 Jan 68); Brllllch, 3 Dec 68 (16 hn 68); Michl. 4 Dec 68 (16 Jan 68); 

Kehrer. ~ Dec 68 (17 Jan 68); Carlson. 6 Dec 68 (3 1 Jan 68); and Guyellc, 9 Dec 68 (21 Feb 68). All 

were Regula r Army offieers with over 24 ycars service. AUS (Army of the United Stales) in the title 

denoted a tcmporary promotion. 
V IETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARD S 

CoL. MARIE KEH RER, Deputy Director. 

WAC 11 967- 1970). 

22 1 

schools. In November 1967, sho rtl y after Chief of Staff Harold K. Johnson had attended the bill-signing ceremony at the White Ho use for PL 

90- 130, the list of officers nominated to attend the senior service colleges 

during FY 1969 arrived on his desk. Noting that it did not include an y 

WAC officers, he returned it to the selection board and directed that two 

eligible and qualified women officers be nominated to attend. In May 

1969. Colonel Hoisington attended the ceremonies at whic h Lt. Col. 

F rances V. Chaffin and Lt. Col. Shirley H. Heinze became the first 

women to graduate from the Army War College. The reafter, one or two 

WAC officers annuall y attended the senior service coll eges. 1 2 

The WAC Expansion / or Vietnam 

These improvements in ca reer and educatio nal o ppo rtunities for WAC 

officers came as the tempo of war increased in Vietnam. While U.S. 

bombers attacked supply routes and depots in North Vietnam, U.S. soldiers fought the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army in South 

Il lnterv, Gen Hoisingto n with the Buthor. 3 Nov 80; " Army Selects 28 1 ror Senior Colleges," 

Journal of the Armed Forco, Dec. 67, p. l. o r 28 1 o fficers selected to atlel.d the senior colleges. 161 

(including . he 2 WAC offl(;ers) attended Army Wa r College in FY 69, The Armed Forces Staff 

College (A FSC). an imernlt:dia,e college like Command a"d General Staff College. divided its 

Student enroll ment among the services; Ml.j Diane Dicke was the first WAC to grodua.e ( 1970) from 

AFSe. 
222 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Col.. MARY C. FUI. L8RIGI-IT, first WAC promoted (0 colollel ill the Army 

Reserve, August 1969. Col. M(lxelle B. Michl, WA C Cel/ler commander, alld 

Lt. Col. Lydia Snyder, 1I reserve officer. pill all the eagles. 

Vietnam. Congress authorized more mo ney and more troops to w in the 

war, but military victory proved elusive. 

As more and more men went to Vietnam, the women's services awaited expansion. [n mid- 1965, the Marine Corps an no unced that the strength 

of the Women Marines, smallest of the women's services, would be 

brought up to and maintained at the level established in 1948-one percent of authorized Marine Corps strength,I3 In May 1966, Secretary of 

Defense McNamara approved a DACQWITS recommendation that a 

study group examine the feasibility and desirability of expanding the 

women's services. He appointed Col. Jeanne M. Holm, Director, WAF, 

to head the stud y group. A member and an alternate from eac h of the 

women's line services served on the committee. Colone l Kelly. Deputy 

Director, WAC, and Lt. Col. Mildred M. Ferguson, Executive Officer, 

ODWAC, represented the A rmy. 14 

~ Slremlow. History olllt~ om " Marilles. p.13. 

~ DOD In1er-Service Working Group. "Swdy on Utilization of Women in Ihe Armed Service~." 

31 Aug 66. DOW AC Ref File. EllplLnsion of WAC. 1966- 1969. eMil. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 223 

T he stud y group's report of 31 August t 966 recommended that the 

se rvices expand their women's components between 38 and 73 percent; 

that high standards be retained in any ex pansio n; and that women contin· 

ue to be concentrated in administrati ve, communicatio ns, and medical 

care fi elds. but that the services ex plore their utili zatio n in other fi elds. It 

also urged thal more women be stationed overseas. The Army approved 

the recommendatio ns and directed an immediate 38 percent inc rease in 

WAC strength. The Navy fol lowed suit, app rovi ng a 20 percent inc rease. 

T he Air Force approved a 60 percent inc rease in enlisted WAFs and a 

33 V3 percent increase in WAF officers. 1 5 (See Table 20.) 

TABL E 20 - WOMEN'S SERVICES PROJECTED I NCREASES 

(Officcr and EnlistedJ 

W AC ...................................................... . 

W AVES ................................................. . 

Women Marines .................................... . 

WAF ...................................................... . 

Programmed 

1966 

9,700 

5,500 

1,825 

5,750 

Planned 

Increase 

3,582 

1, 100 

900 

3,250 

oj~'C ed 

Strength 1969 

13,282 

6,600 

2,725 

9,()()() 

Sol/ret: DOD Inter-Service Worl.:ing G roup, "Study on Uti1i7.Htion of Women in the Armed 

Forces," Aug 66. p. IS, O DWAC Ref File, Studies. Utilization. CM II. 

With the 25 th anniversary of the WAC approaching on 14 May 1967. 

the DCSPER assigned respo nsibility fo r develo ping WAC ex pansio n 

plans to the Directo rate fo r Procurement and Distributio n (DPD) and 

named the directo r of the WAC as the primary point of co ntact fo r WAC 

policy. informatio n, and ad vice. The ODWAC staff w orked dail y with 

the action officers who prepared and later mo ni tored progress o n the 

plan. 1 6 By the sil ver anniversary. all was in readi ness and the Army 

announced: 

U Ibid.; Memo. ASD(M). to Dep Ullder SccArmy (Manpower) (DUSA (M)J. 14 May 66. sub: 

Study of Utiliution of Military Women; Memo. DUSA (M) to ASD eM). 7 Dec 66, same sub; Dull 

IJ for Chief of Naval Personnel for Women (Capt Rita Lenihan). Apr 67; Memo, Dep Under SecAF 

(Manpower) to ASD (M). 29 J un 67. sub: Utilization of Women in the Air Force. All in ODWAC 

Ref File, Expansion of WAC 1966- 1969. CM I·I. 

li T he director of Procurement and Distribution. IlrigGen Frnnk M. lzcnour. assigned the e~ ll ' 

sion project to his I'rocurernem Division. The chief of thlll division, LtCol Levin B. BroughtOIl. and 

WAC Maj Pola L. Garrett worked on the proj~'Ct. Maj Audrey A. Fisher later replaced Maj Garretl. 

LtCol Julia A. Ledbetter. chief of WAC Recruiting. was a major contributor to the plan. The 

Directorate of Procurement and Distribution had been the Directorale of Manpower until I Apr 66. 
224 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS TO BE EXPANDED 

The Army has embarked upon a recruiti ng campaign to increase the enlisted 

strength of the Women's Army Corps by 3,282 and the o ffi cer strength by 314 

duri ng the 24-month period beginn ing I Jul 67. 17 

T he announcement set in motion both the DeSPER's expansion plan 

and a concomitant publicity plan developed by the Army's c hief of 

information. Information officers at all Army posts took part in publicizing the WAC increase. Members of DACOWITS also assisted with the 

publicity. Colonel Hoisington briefed Secretary Resor's civilian aides on 

the expansion and obtained their help in the informatio n campaig n. The 

former directo rs of the WAC-Colonels Hobby. Boyce, Ha llaren, Rasmuson, and Gorman- joined Colo nel Hoisingto n at the Pentagon to make a 

fi lm commemorating the WAC anniversary. T he WAC Center held a 

week-long celebration beginning on 8 May, and Colonels Hoisington, 

Hallaren, Rasmuson, and Gorman partIcipated in ac tivities that included a 

symposi um on the history of the WAC. WAC detachments througho ut 

the United States and overseas held anniversary celebratio ns to mark the 

day and to encourage publicity about the expansion plan. 18 

Like her predecessors, Colonel Hoisington made hundreds of personal 

appearances to promote both recruitment and goodwill. She visited the 

A rmy recruiting stations while making her regular staff visits and inspections of WAC units throughout the major commands. She conferred with 

recruiters, appeared on loca l radio and TV shows, a nd met with members 

of the local press. Her li vely personality made her a welcome visitor to 

news media representatives. 

DCSPER instructio ns to the Army Recruiting Command were to 

increase the ann ual WAC enlisted recruiting objecti ve from 4,000 to 6,000 

and the monthly objective from 330 to 500. The DCSPER also increased 

the WAC officer procurement objective from 180 to 300 annuall y. To 

achieve these objectives, the Recruiting Command added recrui ters, diverted advertising funds to WAC recruitment and appointment programs, 

increased the number and va riety of enlistment options for women, and 

streamlined the enlistment process. Amo ng other moves, ad ministration of 

the Armed Forces Women's Selection Test was shifted from the Armed 

Forces Examining and Enlistment stations to Army Recruiting stations 

wit h a WAC officer o r NCO assigned. The expansion plan received highlevel attention when the c hief of staff directed major commanders Lo 

n 000 Public Information New$ Release, "Women's Army CorPI' to be Expanded." 12 May 67. 

ODWAC Ref File. WAC Expansion 1967- 1969, CMH . 

.. 55. DCSPER to Col'S. 8 Apr 67, sub: Increased Utiliza,ion of Military Women, with Tab A. 

Army Actions. and Tab B. Information Plan. Women'S Army Corps. and DA Msg 81 169. 20 Apr 67. 

ODWAC Ref File, Expansion of WAC. 1966-1969. CMII. The fil m was COIlYcrted inlo II tmining 

film. "The Women's Army Corps 1942- 1967" (M F 35-HS5). 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 225 

CoL. E LIZABETH P . HOiSINGTON, DIRECTOR, WAC. meels wilh her predecessors 01 the Pentagon to make a jilm commemorating the 25th anniversary of 'he 

WAC Left 10 right: Cols. Ovela Cufp Hobby, Wesfray Bailie Boyce Lollg, 

Elizabeth P. Hoisingtoll_ Emily C Gorman, Mary A. H allarelf. and Mary 

Louise Milligan R asmuson. 14 March 1967. 

convert as many manpower spaces as possible to " interchangeable" to 

provide more jobs for women. By the end of FY 1968, progress toward 

meeting the interim goals of the WAC expansion was encouraging, 

though a bit short of the objectives set for commissioned and warrant 

officers. 19 (See Table 21.) 

Statistics dealing with the other side of the strength equation- losseswere also under stud y. Elimination of discharge on marriage in 1966 

applied onl y to those women who had enlisted in that year or later, but it 

It Lus, M.jGell Frallk M. ~enour, Direclorale or Procurcmcnl and DiSlribulion, 10 BrigGcn 

Fl'llnk L. G unn, Cdr, US Army Rccruiling Command (USAREC), 28 Feb 67, and GUl1n 10 IlCllour, 

9 Mar 67; AR 601- 270, 18 Mar 67, Armed Forces E~amini g and EnliSlmenl 5lalions. par. 4- 3b; and 

Cors Weekly Summary Sheel, 2S- 31 May 67. All in ODWAC Ref File, Expansion or WAC, 1966-

1969, CM H. Admillislcring Ihe women's selL-c lion ICSI oUlsidc Ihe AFEES resulted ill a compromise 

oflhc Itsl, and aUlhorilY was wilhdruwl1 ill Change 5 10 Ihe rcgulalion, 24 Jul 72. 
226 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE 21-WAC EXPANSION PROGRESS, 30 JUNE 1968 

Programmed Actual Strc ll~th , )0 Relationship \0 Strength, 30 June June 19 8 Interim Goals 1968 

Commissioned Officers ......... 900 866 - 34 

Warrant Officers ................... 40 27 - 13 

En listed Women ................... . 10,600 10,7 t I + 11 1 

SOl/ree: O DCSPER. DA. Annual Historical Report, FY 1968, p. 13, CMH Ref Dr. 

had decreased losses in that category by 7 percent. However, losses for 

all other causes had increased by 32 percent. This. Colonel Hoisington 

believed, was a reaction to eliminating discharge o n marriage; the same 

thing had happened during the Korean War. Her analysis was confirmed 

by discussions with WAC staff advisers and detachment commanders 

who reported that married women's morale was lowered so much by 

separation from their husbands that they used any other route to disw 

charge. Reports consolidated quarterly by the judge advocate general 

indicated that WAC courtwmartial cases had increased by over 37 perw 

cent. 20 

Armed with these statistics, Colonel Hoisington discussed the problem 

with the heads of the ODCSPER directorates and Office of Personnel 

Operations. They could find no other explanation for the inc reased losses. 

In March 1969, the director asked the DCSPER to reinstate discharge on 

marriage for enlisted women. Such a change would temporarily increase 

those losses, but, long range, it would decrease them in every area, 

including marriage. "The increased gravity of the situation, " she wrote, 

"requires immediate action to improve the Corps .... Increased marriage 

losses would be offset by the greatly desired effect of less discharges for 

unsuitability and unmarried pregnancy, and a decrease in AWOL and 

Court Martial Cases." 21 The new policy required enlisted women to 

spend a longer period on active duty before they became eligible for 

discharge o n marriage (eighteen versus twelve months) and to fulfill any 

school commitments they had incu rred. Lt. Gen. Albert O. Connor, 

DCSPER, approved reinstatement of discharge on marriage o n 1 April 

1969. Although the other women's services did !lot follow suit, a later 

review of WAC loss statistics bore out Colonel Hoisington's predictions. 

20 lnlerv. OrigGen Hoisington lVith the aUlhor, 3 Nov 80; RpIS, ODWAC, Eillisled Gains and 

Losses by FY. and JAG DA, Summary and Special CourlS Martial Cases WAC. RCS JAG 2 (R8). 

ODWAC Ref File. Expansion of WAC, 1966- 1969, CM H. Convictions in FY 65: 195; FY 69: 210; 

FY 71: 116. 3 1 55. DWAC 10 DCSPER, 20 Mar 69. sub: Policy 10 Eff~'C1 Scp:lralion of Enlisled women on 

Marriage, ODWAC Ref File. Discharge on Marriage, CMH. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 227 

After a brief increase during 197 1, WAC losses declined in all areas, and 

WAC court-martial convictions decreased by 44 percent between 1969 

and 1975. 22 (See Table 22.) 

TABLE 22-WAC Loss RATES 

tl'erccruj 

Marriage ....................................................... 4.2 

Pregnancy ............................ ......................... 25.0 

Unsuitabilit y ................................................. 12.5 

A WOL/Desertion ....................................... 3.1 

FY 197 1 

12.6 

19.2 

17.0 

5. 1 

FY 1915 

10.0 

16.9 

15.2 

3.9 

Source: SlrellClh of lire Arm>, Ilrpon (DeSPER 46). Part 1[, WAC Gains lind Losses. 

Other problems affecting recruiting and maintaining WAC strength 

were no t so easil y met. Growing hostility to the war in Vietnam affected 

recruiting so much that none of the women's services reached their 

enlistment goals by the end of FY 1969. As recruiting fa ltered, the war 

became more intense. Combat actio n in Vietnam heig htened; draft calls 

increased; and the number of American servicemen killed in Vietnam rose 

from 1,400 in 1965 to 14,500 during 1968. Battle losses and lack of 

important victories contrib ut ed to the loss of public suppo rt for the war. 

Antiwar and antidraft sentiment became so strong that la rge numbers of 

young American men fled the country or went to jail rather than be 

drafted. In the presidential election of 1968, Richa rd M. Nixon was 

elected primarily on his promises to try to extricate the United States 

from the Vietnam War and to end the draft. 

In August 1969, the extricatio n process began with the withdrawal of 

25,000 combat troops from Vietnam. Recruiters' difficulties, however, 

increased as the war drifted toward stalemate o r defeat. The WAC 

enlisted goal was extended into FY 197 1. Programmed officer strengt h 

was reduced in all branc hes, and the WAC officer goal was lowered from 

1,100 to 925 for FY 197 1. 23 As President Nixon continued to withd raw 

troops from Vietnam, potential recruits concluded they would not be 

needed. WAC fir er m enlistments fe ll from 5,702 to 5,1 93 in FY 1971. 

Despite these negative sig ns, Colonel Hoisington believed that this fall 

was a temporary reactio n and that, when the end of the war was actua ll y 

n Ibid.; OA Msg 903216. I Apr 69. ODWAC Ref File. Discharge 011 Marriage, CMH. The Nayy 

and Marine Corps continued a policy of allowing discharge on marriage if a joint household could 

nOl be established by the couple (Our of Nayal Personnel Manual. Article C-10306, 1959; Marine 

Corps Oull 1l00, Oct 66). Under USAF Regula tion 35-20, the WAF eliminated discharge on 

marriage. 

u ODCSPER. Annual Historical Rilt. FYs 10 Hnd 71. Ref Elr. CMH. 
228 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

in sight, WAC career oppo rtunities would again encourage women to 

enlist. Events soon confirmed her optimism. First-term enlistments rose 

(5,667, FY 1972). while losses on marriage and pregnancy were fa lling 

(2,352, FY 1970; 2,248 in FY 1971; and 1,898 in F Y 1972). Despite the 

bad effect that antiwar attitudes had on enlistments, by 30 June 1971 the 

WAC was only 515 women short of its overall goal (officer and enlisted) 

of 13,282. 24 Meanwhile. the presence in the White Ho use of a president 

who was determined to end the war and the draft stimulated the Army to 

plan for a volunteer peacetime Army. 

The Movement Toward an AII·Volul/teer Army 

In 1967 the Army engaged a civilian firm to develop a new personnel 

ma nagement concept for the post-Vietnam era. A lthough the study did 

not directly address eliminatio n of the draft, it did focus on reducing draft 

calls during peacetime. The project- the "Army ' 75 Personnel Concept 

Stud y," commonly known as the Army '75 Study-was completed in 

1969; the ODWAC staff had assisted the contrac tor in preparing the 

c hapter on the WAC. The primary recommendatio n regarding the WAC 

was that it be expanded to 2,000 officers and 20,000 enlisted women by 

FY 1975 to help reduce draft calls. Other recommendatio ns were that the 

Army ROTC be o pened to women; WACs be assig ned as instructors in 

ROTC and the Army School System; more MOSs be opened to women; 

all TD spaces be considered interchangeable; and Army barracks be 

designed to house either men o r women. The study also examined the 

idea of retaining pregnant women and mothers on active duty as a means 

of reducing WAC losses. It concluded, however, that "there are too 

many more cogent reasons for this no t being permitted . . . . The members 

of the Women's Army Corps must possess the same degree of mobility as 

male soldiers." The stud y recommended that women continue to be 

discharged when they became pregnant. 2 5 

Colonel Hoisingto n reviewed the work of the stud y group as it prog ressed. She conc urred in most of the recommendat.io ns but was adaman tly opposed to opening ROTC to women and to assigning women as 

instructors in the ROTC program. She fea red such a change would lead 

to eliminating the WAC officer procurement programs and WAC control 

over the quality of its officer candidates and student officers. On the 

other hand, she wholeheartedly agreed with the recommendation that 

pregnant women and mo thers should continue to be discharged to sustain 

t4 Slrenglh ol ,l,t! Army Repol'l$ (DeSPER 46) Part I. Sirengih. and I'arl II. Gains and Losses. 30 

Jun 71 and 30 J un 72. As of 30 J un 71, Ihe WA F had exceeded ils goal (9.00J) wilh a 10lal strellglh 

of 11 .289; the WAVES fell shorl of their gool (6.600) with 6.450; Ihe Women Marines were also short 

of their goal (2.725) wilh 2,2S9 (DOD Compl roller. Selected /I1UIlPO"W SWI;Sl ics, 15 Apr 72. p. 4S). 

U DCSPER (Batelle Institute). ''The Army' 75 Personnel Concept Study. 1969." p. 31. ODWAC 

Ref File, Studies, Army 75 Report. CMI-I. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 229 

the mobility of members of the Corps. WAC leadership remained , as 

ever, conservative and cautious as it pressed fo r wider opportunities fo r 

women in the Army.26 

When the Army '75 Study was published in late 1969, it received little 

attention. Its primary assumption had been that the draft would continue 

through 1975, and, in consequence, many of its recommendations were 

soon out of date. Antidraft sentiment had meanwhile reac hed such proportions that the Army staff was preoccupied with new studies aimed at 

establishing an all-volun teer A rmy. 

Impetus for this approach came directly from the president. Soon after 

his inaug uration on 20 January 1969, President Nixon appointed a commission headed by former Secretary of Defense Thomas S. Gates, Jr., to 

study the feasibility of eliminating the draft. A year later the commissio n 

recommended that the draft be replaced by an all-volunteer force.27 The 

president agreed and, in April 1970, to ld Cong ress, " From now on, the 

objective of this Administration is to reduce draft calls to zero, subject to 

the overriding considerations of national security." 28 

After the Gates Commission had begun its meetings, Secretary of 

Defense Melvin R. Laird had convened a joint service study g roup, 

called the Project Volunteer Committee, to prepare contingency plans. 

The secretary tasked each service to submit a detailed plan for achieving 

an all-volunteer fo rce in the event the president should order it. This, to 

most, seemed a foregone conclusion. Secretary of the Army Resor directed the DCSPER to prepare the A rmy's plan. A study g roup was promptly appointed, Jed by Lt. Col. Jack R. Butler from ODCSPER Studies and 

Research Directorate. An officer from ODW AC served on the committee 

as it undertook Project Volunteer in Defense of the Nation (pRO· 

VIDE)." 

One of the principal tasks of PROVIDE was to develop a plan "to 

reduce future military requirements for male un iformed personnel throug h 

increased utilization of c ivilians and o r unifo rmed women." 30 In partial 

U Ibid.; Memo, DWAC to Director of ODCS I'ER Studies and Research. 18 Nov 68, sub, Army 

'75 Personnel COllcept Study, ODWAC Ref File. Studies. Arrl1 y 75 Report. C MI·I: Commcnt 2. DF. 

DWAC to DCSPER Provide Study Group. 9 Jun 69. sub, PROV IDE-Interim Rcpor1. 9 June 69. 

ODWAC Ref File, Studies, PROV IDE, CM H. The study did not address the question of women 

cmering the US Military Academy. 

IT The Reporl of Ihl! Commi.JsiOIJ on QII AJI.Voltmlter Armt'd 1"0rctS (Washingtou, DC: GPO. 1970). 

U Public PI/pel'S of Prt.'sidetlls of lire UIJiwd Slates, Richard NiJfoll. 1970 (Washington: National 

Archives lind Records Service. 1971). pp. 394- 99. Series c ited hereafter as Pllblic Papers. whir 

appropriate name and year. 

n Memo. Cors No. 69- 113. 17 Mar 69, sub: Study: Project Vol unteer in Defense of lire Nation 

(I'ROVIDE): Interim Rpt. DCSPER. 15 Jun 69. same subject: lutd ODCSI'ER, E~ecut ve Summary, 

Interim Rpt. PROV IDE Study. 15 Sep 69. All in ODWAC Ref File. Studies. PROV IDE. CM U. 

'0 Memo, SeeDef to Secretaries of the Military Depts, 4 May 70, , ub: Report of lhe Project 

Volunteer Commillee. p. 12, ODWAC Ref File. Studies. PROV IDE, CM H. 
230 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

fu lfi llment of this requirement, Colo nel Hoisington and her staff proposed 

to inc rease the size of the WAC by 80 percent- to 22,400 enlisted 

women, 2,000 officers. and 40 warrant officers-by FY t 976. Suc h planning, however, depended upon obtaining an increase in the number of 

interc hangeable spaces, approx imately $15 million fo r construction of 

barracks and classrooms at WAC Center and WAC School, $1.5 million 

for rehabilitation of WAC barracks worldwide, and $ 1 million a year for 

fi ve years to sustain an intensive WAC rec ruit advertising campaign. The 

estimated cost of the plan was $2 1. 5 million. Colo nel Hoisington emphasized that its success was conti ngent not only upon the total amount being 

authorized. but also upon additio nal personnel spaces being authori zed for 

WAC recruiters. cadre. trainers. and cooks. 3 I 

In A ugust 1970. the DOD committee combined the services' papers 

and sent the resultant report, "Plans and Actions to Move Toward an All 

Volu nteer Force," to Secretary La ird. Soon thereafter the secretary announced the president's decisio n that a zero draft status would exist on 30 

June 1973. 32 Throughout this planning phase, Army Chief of Staff William C. Westmoreland had opposed ending the draft. Now, however, he 

deferred to the judgment of his commander-in-c hief and committed the 

Army to achieving an all-volunteer force by the White Ho use deadli ne. 

He appointed Maj. Gen. George I. Forsythe as Special Assistant to the 

Secretary of the Army for the Modern Volunteer Army Program 

(SAMV A). The program's initial objective was to increase the attractiveness of Army life fo r potential combat-arms enlistees and reenlistees.33 

Under Project VOLAR (Volunteer A rmy), commanders at selected posts 

tested various methods and procedures that might improve the q uality of 

Army life and increase enlistments and reenlistments. Between Oc tober 

1970 and December 1972, Gene ral Forsythe and his staff eliminated many 

of the irritants of Army life and improved living conditions at posts 

throughout the Uni ted States and overseas. T he A rm y doubled its recruiters, o pened many more recruiting stations, added a va riety of new enlistment and reenlistment options, and streamlined enlistment procedures. 34 

Gene ral Westmoreland introduced changes in routine Army procedu res to make Army life more attractive to enlisted personnel. In December 1970, he issued o rders liberalizing the hair-length code and permitti ng 

sideburns and mustaches. He eliminated bed check, sign-in and sign-out 

procedures, and reveille formatio ns. (These changes applied to permanent 

party personnel; they did not affect men or women in basic or advanced 

3. OF, Dire<;lor. SI Lld y Group PROV IDE. 10 DWAC, 21 Mar 69, sub: Request ror Inrornmlion, 

and Comme111 2, DWAC 10 Dir. Study Group PROVIDE, 16 Apr 69, WAC Ellpllnsion Plan wil h I I 

inds. ODWAC Ref File, SlUdies. PROV IDE. C MH. 

31 Fa(l$ an Filt'. 12 Ocl 70. 

U Memo, Cors, memo 70-392. 31 Ocl 70, sub: Appoinlmenl of Special AssisI:an1 for Ihe Modern 

Volulllcer Army (SA MVA). Maj Diane Dicke was assigned 10 Ihe SAMVA S13fT. 

so MFR, SAMVA. 29 Ju171. lI'ilh Tab C. Ref Or. CMH . 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 23 1 

individua l training.) WACs benefited from the Army-wide reforms that 

no t o nly improved life-styles but also added new enlistment and reenlistment options. The WAC reenlistment rate for first termers rose from 24.5 

percent in 1970 to 33.9 percent in FY 1971. 35 

A Giani Step for Wome" 

To implement an all-volunteer program, the Army took a giant step 

toward improved opportuni ties for women. In April 1970, a WAC and an 

Army nurse were selected for promotion to temporary brigadier general. 

On 15 May, Secretary Resor an nounced that President Nixon had nominated Col. Anna Mae Hays, Chief, Army Nurse Corps, and Col. Eli zabeth P. Hoisington, Director, WAC, for promotion. On 28 May, the 

Senate confirmed their nominatio ns along with those of 84 male officers. 

And 0 11 II J une, in a ceremony in the DOD press conference room at the 

Pentagon, Sec retary Resor and General Westmoreland promoted the first 

two women officers to achieve general officer rank in any military service. Attending the ceremony, in addition to the top c ivilian and military 

leaders of the A rmy, were Senator Robert Dole of Kansas, Mrs. Dwig ht 

D. Eisenhower, Chairwoman Marjorie S. Dunlap and other members of 

DACQWITS, the former directors of the WAC and c hiefs of the A rmy 

Nurse Corps, as well as relatives and friends of the newly promoted 

officers. 3 6 

General Hoisington had planned to retire in 1970, but after her selection for promotion Secretary Resor asked her to remain as director for 

anot her year. T he directo r's star generated an eno rmo us amount of good 

pUblicity. She appeared on numerous national television and radio shows 

and was interviewed by journalists from newspapers and magazines 

around the world. In August 1970, when she visited the Quartermaster 

Center at Fort Lee, the commander, Maj. Gen. John D . Mc Laughli n, 

o rdered the fi rst eleven-gu n salute ever rendered to a woman general 

officer. 37 D uring 197 1, she spent another 102 days in travel, visiting 

WAC units and taking part in recruiting and public relatio ns activities. 38 

U "Army Ups AUr&ctivcness. Downs Irritants." Armed FortY! )O/m,ol. 2 1 Dec 10. p. 17; DA. 

Army !'oster No. 600-20. "Haircuts." May 1 1; Slrf!llgllr oJlht A""J' RtfX#1 (DCSPER- 46). Part II. 

Gains and Losses. JO lun 71. Adm Elmo R. Z umwalt. lr .. CNO. and Gen John D. Ryan. USAF 

ColS. carried out similar programs. 

31 DA Msgs 918)66. )1 lui 69. sub: Brigadier Generall'romotion Selection Do.1rd. Hnd 945094. 19 

Mar 70. sub: Tcrnpor~ry Brigadier General Selection Iloard; SS. DCSPER. DA. 22 Apr 10. sub: 

General Offi<.:er Runk fo r Chief Arm)' Nurse Corps and Director WAC. AU in ODWAC Ref File. 

Promotion Restri<.:t ions Rellloved. CM H. 

n The Trow!!'er. Fort Lee. VA. IJ Aug 10. 

n Interv, BrigGen Hoisington with the author. ) Nov 80. 
232 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

THE F IRST Two M I LITA RY WOMEN To A CHIEVE GENERAL OFFI CER 

RANK, Brig. Gell. AIIIIO Mae flays, Chief 0/ the Army N urse Corps (left), alld 

Brig. Gell. Elizabeth P. HOisillglOlI, Director, WA C (right), with Mrs. Dwight 

D. Eisel/hower 011 fheir promotion day, II JUlie 1970. 

COlltroversy alld Changing Standards 

In 1969, a national political force that had appeared to be spent 

revived, and the women's rights movement agai n began to achieve promi· 

ncnce. Three years after women won the right to vote in 1920, proposa ls 

for an Equal Rights Amendment began to be discussed in Congress. 

Although the draft amendment made little progress over the decades, 

fede ral legislative and executive branch actions in the 1960s eliminated 

some forms of gender discrimination. The Equa l Pay Act of 1963 ensured 

equal pay fo r equal work for women employed in jo bs controlled by 

interstate commerce laws. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 

prohibited sex discriminatio n in employment unless gender was a bona 

fide occupational qualification. Executive Order 11246, 24 September 

1965, prohibited sex discriminatio n in the federal government or in employment generated by federal contracts. 

As the women's movement g rew, it attracted wide public interest and 

began to change some American atlitudes and socia l customs. The mili-
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 233 

tant leaders of the movement sought media attention by orgamzing 

women to strike against housework and waiting on spouse and children, 

to seek entry into all~ma e clubs and meetings, and to boycott businesses 

and cities that discriminated aga inst women in employment or promotion. 

These women demanded that laws and customs that restricted their 

opportunities. roles, and freedom be eliminated. Women in a1l walks of 

life joined the movement, and its political inOuence grew. Even those 

who had initially laughed at the attention-getting antics of some feminists 

were compelled to take note when the courts upheld many of their 

claims. The courts forced businesses and governments to amend discrimi. 

natory laws, policies, customs, and regulations and to compensate women 

retroactively when sex discrimination had deprived them of promotion 

and pay. This side of the women's movement appealed to many, particularly the younger, members of the women's services. 

The women's movement had a decided influence on American life. It 

presented society with more liberal ideas regarding women's work, dress, 

and legal status. Society accepted those ideas and, with them, changes in 

long-standing social c ustoms, relationships, and moral standards. By the 

late 1960s. many Americans accepted unwed mothers, illegitimate children, and couples who lived together without being married. 

Few women in the country could have been considered more likely to 

reject many of these developments than the conservative, traditionminded WAC leadership. To them, c hanges that appeared to make 

women more like men meant a decline, not an improvement, in the status 

of women. But there was no escaping the momentum of the women's 

movement and the acceptance of its goals by most politicians. 

WAC entry and retention standards came under examination in 1970. 

The commander of the Army Recruiting Command, Maj. Gen. Donald 

H. McGovern, wrote in May 1970, "The movement for more libera l 

moral standards and the rising emphasis toward equality of the sexes 

require that this command be prepared to answer an increasing number of 

questions and charges concerning the validity of allegations of discrimination against female applicants for enlistment. " 39 He asked the DCSPER 

why waivers could not be considered for women who had illegitimate 

children or a record of venereal disease (VD) when these fa ctors did not 

bar men from enlistment or even require submission of a waiver. 

The director of the WAC and the director of procurement and distribution, ODCSPER, Brig. Gen. Albert H. Smith, Jr., prepared the reply 

to General McGovern. Arguing that American society demanded higher 

moral character in women, they wrote, "Having a history of venereal 

at Ltr, Cdr. USAREC. to DCSPER. DA (ATTN: Director. I'rocuremcnt and Distribution Direc. 

tOrate IDPDJ). 1.5 May 70. sub: Nonwaiyable Moral and Administratiye Enlistment Disqualificat ions 

for Women. and ht Ind, by DCSPER to Cdr. USAREC, 26 May 70. ODWAC Ref File. Elimination 

of WAC Elilistment Standards, CM H. 
234 THE WOME N'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

disease o r having had a pregnanc y while unmarried is an indicatio n of 

lack of discipline and mat urity in a woman," WAC enlistment standards. 

their reply continued, were desig ned to ensure that the Corps accepted as 

few risks as possible in mental, physical, and mo ral qualificatio ns. Emplo yers in ind ustry tailored employment qualifications to fit job requirements, and the WAC established enlistment qualifications "based o n our 

requirements for service, wearing the uniform, and the necessity to maintain an impeccable public image. " 40 

While General Hoisington believed that g ranting the first waiver 

would open the door to endless requests fo r others, she also believed that 

if a regulation were no longer valid, it sho uld be rewritten. In August 

1970, Maj. Gen. Leo E. Benade, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense 

for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (DASD M&RA), reintrod uced the 

subject. He had received complaints from members of Congress, pressure 

groups, and ord inary citizens, alleging that the militar y services discriminated against women by barring them, but not men, from enlistment or 

retention if they had had unwed pregnancies or a history of YD. Several 

co urt actions involving the pregnancy ru les had been initiated. In o ne 

publicized case, an unmarried, pregnant Air Force Ilurse obtained a court 

order that prevented the Air Force from in voluntaril y discharging her. 

T he Air Force appealed, but over a yea r passed before the co urt ruled 

that the service co uld discharge her on grounds o f a compelling public 

interest in nol having pregnant female soldiers in a military unit. When 

the officer appealed that decision, the Air Force d id not fight the caseby then it had decided to allow pregnant women to submit waivers to 

remain o n dut y. The office r's request for a wa iver was subsequentl y 

approved, and she remained on duty.4 1 

General Benade met with his service counterparts to discuss these 

developments. He asked their opinions o n whether the services discriminated by barring a woman from enlistment or retentio n if she had had a 

child o ut of wedlock, but did not ba r the putative father. General Benade 

hinted at his position, "Congress provided that we cannot enlist the 

insane, the intoxicated, the dese rter, or the convic ted felo n. But beyond 

that perhaps we should not incl ude, as a class, the unwed mother." 42 

Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Personnel Policy and 

Programs John R. Kester, who was a lawyer, reviewed the issues presented. He believed that, as a matter of equity, the A rmy sho uld not bar 

_0 Ibid. 

-, Interv, I1 rigGen Hoisington with the author, J Nov 80: Maj. Gen. Jeanne M. !-1 01m, USA F Ret. 

WOlllell ill Ille M ififUry. An U,rji"isllfd Rem/lllio!! (Novato. CA: Presidio Press, 1982). pp. 297- 30 1. 

General !-101m Ilotes that the services' judge advoca tes general agreed Ihat the Air Force should yield 

rather thall risk bei ng forced to change pil their d ischnrgc policies regard ing prcgnnucy. parenthood, 

and dependency. 

u Memo, Ocp A$SI SeeDef. M& RA (OASO M&RA). 10 Assl Serviee Se<::rClarics, M&RA, 25 

Aug 70, sub: Enlislment policies regarding wo men who have" child oUI-of-wedlock. OOWAC Rcf 

File, EliminaliOIl of WAC Enlistment Standards, CM II. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 235 

married women or unwed mothers from initia l enlistment or appointment 

or from retention. No r should pregnancy and parenthood cause automatic 

dismissa l from the service. On 8 October, he directed the DeSPER "to 

amend and standardize Army Regulations pertaining to ... enlistment, 

appointment, retention, and separation of female members" on marriage, 

pregna ncy, and parenthood. 43 He further asked that the proposed 

c hanges be o n his desk within a week. T he DeSPER, LI. Gen. Walter T. 

Kerwin, Jr., asked for lime to study the impact of the proposed c hanges 

on the budget, housing. medical care, morale, and personnel management. 

In addition, the proposal required coordination with the surgeon general, 

the chief of the reserve components, the Office of Personnel Operatio ns, 

the director of the WAC, and the judge advocate general. He promised a 

report on 15 January 1971 and appointed a task force of representatives 

from those offices to prepa re the study.44 

Before the task force held its first meeting, Under Secretary of the 

Army Thaddeus R. Beal asked the DCSPER to revise Army regulations 

immediately to allow waivers for some moral and administrative disquali· 

fications affecting the enlistment and retention of women: history of YD; 

civilian court conviction; more than 30 days' lost time for being AWOL; 

illegitimate pregnancy; marriage prior to an initial enlistment in the 

Army; or responsibility for a child under 18 years old. Mr. Beal rejected 

the idea of a new study, saying, "Although J understand that the Staff has 

suggested a study in this area, I do not believe such an effort would add 

significantly to what we already know; in any event, the matter is 

urgent." As director of the Army Council of Review Boards, Mr. Beal 

supervised the boards that decided on appeals of discharges and other 

sepa ration actions. He asked for the reg ulatory changes so that the Army 

could avoid fut ure embarrassment and possible adverse court rulings and 

could keep its polices in line with those of the other services. "This 

would not," he said. "require any radical change in policy but would 

allow the Army to decide each case individ uall y." 45 

In the midst of much internal controversy, the task force revised the 

regulations following Mr. Seal's directions. General Hoisington strongly 

disagreed with almost every rev isio n. Regarding waivers that would 

allow married women witho ut previous service to enter the WAC, she 

wrote, "The Army is not a suitable side·job for a woman who is already 

"3 Memo, Dep Assl St'(:Army, M&RA (DASA M&RA). 10 Sec. General StalT. 8 01:1 70, sub: 

Elimiualioll of DiscrimillHlOry Provisions in Army Regulalions Perlailling. to Slanda rds of Service. 

ODWAC Rcf File. Elimination of WAC Enlislmcil l Siandards. C MI·I . 

... Mcmo. Acting DCSPER. OA. to DASD M&' RA . 21 Oct 10. sub: Elimination of Discriminatory 

Provisions in Army Regulalions Pcrlaining to Standards of Service. and O F. DCSPER to DWAC 

and other directoralcs. 21 Oct 70. S..1llIC subject, OOWAC Ref File. Elimination of WAC Enlistmcnt 

Standprds. CM H. 

os Mcmo. Under SccArmy to Viec Corso 26 Ocl 70, sub: ElilllinaLion of Discriminatory Provisions 

of Army Regulations I'crlaining 10 Standards or St:rviee, ODWAC Rcf Filc, Elimination of WAC 

Enlistment Standards, CM H. 
236 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

committed to maintaining a home, a husband, or a c hild," Women who 

had unmarried pregnancies were, she sa id, " likely to be disciplinary or 

adjust ment problems." She would not allow waive rs for women with 

children under eighteen and maint ained that "a woman with children is a 

liability to the Army because she is not free to travel." 46 Maj. Gen. 

Frank M. Davis, Jr., the direc tor of military personnel policies, also 

disapproved wa ivers to enlist unwed mothers and women with a history 

of YO. He felt waivers condoned permissive personal behavior. 47 And. 

despite his agreement with the objections, tbe acting director of procurement and distribution, Col. J. K. Gilham, recommended to Genera l 

Kerwin, the DCSPER, that the Army "comply with a second finn 

directive from Secretarial level." 48 

With one exception, the DCSPER included in the revised regulations 

all the waiver provisions that Mr. Beal had requested. Vice Chief of Staff 

Bruce Pa lmer, Jr., concurred and withheld the wa iver provision that 

would allow women without previous service to enter the Army if they 

had responsibility for minor children. For equity, he recommended that 

the provision also appl y to males without prior service. "Certainly, the 

Army would be a more nexible, mobile, and responsive organization if 

E-I enlistments are not burdened with responsibility for children under 

18 years of age." 49 He also forwarded General Hoisington's comments, 

which said in part: 

T he recent acceleration of the women 's liberation movement and the publicit y it 

attracts from the news med ia, in my o pinion, th reatens to overwhelm good sense 

and perspective in the management of Women's Army Corps personnel. Several 

decisions have already been made on individ ual cases and others are under 

consideration which directly undermine the effective employment of women in 

the WAC and which are counter to o ur reason-for-being in the Un ited States 

Army. 

I feel obliged, therefore. to warn against any rash, unwarranted, and unsound 

decisions affecting the enlistment. utilization, retention, and cost effectiveness of 

women in the Army. 

The Army has an obligation to its c urrent and former WAC members, to parents 

who have en trusted their daughters in our keeping, and to itself, to ad vance the 

standards of moralit y, the effective utilization, and morale of WAC personnel. As 

Director of the WOmen's Army Corps, and as (he spokesman for thousands of 

.1 Tab 1-1. Commcllls by the: Direc tor WAC, in Memo. DCSI'ER. through Vice Col'S, to Under 

SecArmy. 13 Noy 70. sub: Elimination of Discrimil13tOry Provisions of Army Regul ations Pertaining 

to Standards of Service. ODWAC Ref File. Elimill!ttion of WAC En lislmcll! S!nlldards, CMH . 

4T Memo. Dir. Mililary Personnel 1'0lick':S (DMI'P). ODCSI'ER. to 01'0, OOCS I'ER, 4 Nov 70. 

$ub: Statement of Nonconcurrence, ODWAC Ref File, Elimination o f WAC Enlistmenl Standards, 

CMII. 

4. Memo. ActS DPD to DeSPER. 5 Nov 70, sub: ConsideratiOIl of Nonconcurrence. ODWAC 

Ref File. Eliminatioll of WAC Enlistment Standards, CM H. 

4~ Memo. DCS PER. through Vice Cors, 10 Under SecArmy. 13 Nov 70. ~ub: Elimination of 

Discriminatory Provisions of Army Regul ations I' ..,rt~inin g to Standa rds of Service, ODWAC Ref 

File. Elimination of WAC Enlistment Standards. CMH. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 237 

women who have served and are serving in our Corps today. I feel a deep moral 

conviction and obligation to make my objections known and underSlOod. I 

cannot be silent on issues and decisions affecting the Women's A rmy Corps that 

do not consider twenty-eigh t years of experience we have had in jUdging the 

morale, utilization, and disci pline of Women's A rmy Corps personneL For th is 

reason, I desire my comments be forwarded to the Chief of Staff and the 

Secretary of the Army fo r consideration and I stand read y for a personal 

aud ience to presen t further arguments supporting the actions below wh ich are 

vital to the existence of the Women's Army Corps.I>O 

Since senior officials usually resolve differences of opinion in conferences, General Hoisington expected a summons to meet with Mr. Beal or 

Mr. Kester. Several weeks passed without a call. With General Kerwin's 

permission, she wrote directly to Mr. Beal on 24 November 1970. Her 

apprehension had been heightened by the news that the funds and spaces 

would soon be authorized for an 80 percent WAC expansion to support 

President Nixon's call for an all-volunteer Army. Such an expansion 

could lead, as it had in World War II, to a dispensation of waivers so 

liberal that the quality of WAC recruits would fal l. In her memo to Mr. 

Beal, she argued that women's standards did no t discriminate simply 

because they did not parallel men's. They differed because the WAC 

needed recruits of a quality higher than that needed in most of the men's 

branches. "These standards," she wrote, "were set to sustain and improve 

the development of a women's force whose members exemplify the highest standards of professionalism, integrity, and mo ral character in the 

Armed Forces." Experience had shown, she continued, that in the stress 

of a buildup, quality fa lls, and she could no lo nger concur in the proposed 

WAC expansion unless she could "be assured that the quality of women 

in the A rmy would not be ad versely affected by changes made in entry, 

retention, and separation policies for members of the Women's Army 

Corps." 51 

When General Hoisington's memo arrived, Mr. Kester and Mr. Beal 

were rev iewing the rev ised waiver regul ations. The memo delayed their 

response to the revisions, and they met w ith the director on 2 December. 

At the meeting, she urged them to maintain WAC standards as the 

regulations stood, without waiver and witho ut change. Unsuccessful in 

this, she reluctantly proposed a compromise. She would accept the submission of waivers for a history of VD and for thirty days of lost time, if 

they did not insist on waivers for women desiring entry or retention with 

c hildren born o ut of wedlock or with children under eighteen. T his 

effort, too, failed. General Hoisington recall ed the conference: "It took 

only a few minutes to discover they had their minds made up to allow 

o Ibid., Tab H. Comments from the Oin.'Ctor. WAC. 

a, Memo, DWAC to Under SecArmy, 24 Nov 70. sub: Eliminmion of Discriminatory Provisions 

of Army Regulations Pertaining to Standards of Service. ODWAC Ref File, Eliminatioll of WAC 

Enlislrnent Standards, CMH. 
238 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

waivers for everything. Still, I gave forlh my best arguments and pleaded 

with them not to begin the degradation of WAC standards. We went 

back and forth on the qualifications and they discarded every reason I 

had for keeping them." Finally, when they would not consider how many 

unwed pregnancies should disqualify a woman for entry or retention, 

General Hoisington gave up, and the meeting ended. 52 

T he next day, 3 Decembe r, Mr. Beal directed the DeSPER to authorize waivers for moral and administrative disqualifications for women 

entering the Army. He also vetoed Vice Chief of Staff Palmer's request 

to defer the decision to provide waivers for men as well as women with 

minor children. S3 

The outcome reOected a fundamental divergence, not onl y between 

older and newer ideas o n women's military role, but also between milita ry and civilian officials. Being lawyers, Mr. Beal and Mr. Kester diffe red with General Hoisington on the use and enforcement of Army 

regulations. They wanted the regulations to protect the Army from lawsuits and to give the service the greatest amount of Oexibility in accepting 

and retaining personnel. Their roles required them to uphold the rights of 

individuals who were, had been, or wanted to become members of the 

Army, Navy, or Air Force. To achieve those goals in the environment of 

the early 1970s, they needed the authority to waive disqualifications for 

entry and retention-cxcept for insanity, drunkenness, desertion, or felony 

convictions, as already provided by law. 

Arter the DCSPER received Mr. Beal's order, the Directorate of 

Military Personne l Policies, ODCSPER, circulated its proposed policies. lI4 General Hoisington again refused to concur. In a memo addressed 

to Mr. Beal, she wrote: "In reviewing the DCSPER proposals on separation regulations for women in the Army, I can only conjecture that they 

are based on the notion that the Army discriminates against women by 

requiring their separation when they become pregnant. It is a fact that a 

woman has freedom of choice in deciding whether or not she will 

become pregnant. If she elects, therefore, to become pregnant and deliberately incapacitates herself for retention, how has the Army discriminated against her?" Knowing that her objections would be ignored, she 

asked the under secretary at least to establish firm guidelines on approving waivers for retention of unwed mothers and to continue mandatory 

discharge of women who were pregnant upon entry into the service or 

01 Inlerv, OrigGcn Hoising,on wilh lhe aU'hor. J Nov 80. 

U Memo, DASD M&RA (Kesler) 10 Under SecArmy (Deall. 25 Nov 70, sub: Regulations on 

WACs. and Memo. Under SecArmy to Vice Cors, J Ott 10, sub: Elimination of Discriminatory 

Provisions of Army Regulalions I'erillining 10 Siandards of Service, OOW AC Ref File, Elimination 

of WAC Enlistment Standards, CM I-I. 

u OF. OOCSPER, OM I'!', to olher QDCSPER direcloratcs and DWAC, 12 Jan 1], sub; Ch~nge 

10 Sep1!ralion Regulations (AR 635-120 lLRd 635- 200), ODWAC Ref File, Elimination or WAC 

Enlistment Standards. CMH. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 239 

who had abortions or misca rriages while on active duty. She did not 

believe that a woman should be rewarded by retention in the service after 

she had an abortion, when women who rejected abortion and proceeded 

with their pregnancies were mandatorily discharged. To her, this was 

discrimination, even though women forced out of the service on account 

of pregnancy CQuid apply for reenlistment after two years. 55 

A few weeks later. Genera l Palmer asked for a conference with the 

DeSPER and the DW AC to discuss WAC standards. At issue was a 

request for retention submitted by all unmarried enlisted woman who had 

had an abortion. The woman's WAC detachment commander had recommended discharge, based on the woman's poor performance of duty; her 

battalion commander had recommended retention. When General Hoisington reviewed the case, she agreed with the detachment commander. In 

the director's opinion, it was better to discharge the woman immediately 

because the woman was a combined poor risk (performance of duty and 

moral character) and retention set a precedent for similar cases. The 

directo r also knew the Army did not want to rule on how many abortions should be allowed before discharge. Mr. Kester overruled General 

Hoisington and approved the woman's request for retention. 

On 29 March 1971, at the conFerence requested by Genera l Palmer, 

General Hoisington once again explained her view of the impending 

changes in the regulations. She expressed concern that the quality of 

women entering and being retained in the Corps would decline and that 

this decline would diminish the Corps' image and its ability to recruit 

women of high mental, moral, and physical qualifications. The vice chief 

listened to General Hoisington's views and agreed with her insistence 

upon retaining high standards. Nonetheless, he felt that the social and 

political environment would, today or tomorrow, require the Army to 

change its policies. He could not, therefore, recommend that Chief of 

Staff Westmoreland initiate a challenge to the policies directed by Under 

Secretary Bea\. He concluded by assuring General Hoisington that WAC 

requests for waivers would be sent to her for review and that her 

recommendations would receive full support under the new reg ul ations. 

This assurance was faint comfort to the director, who had just seen Mr. 

Kester overrule one of her decisions. 56 

A message to major commande rs announced the new policies. Effective 9 April 1971, women could request waivers for disqualification from 

entry and retention because of pregnancy, terminated pregnancies, and 

U Ibid" Commem 2. DWAC, 22 Jan 71. and Memo. DWAC to Under SecArmy. 5 Feb 71. Inel S 

to Memo, DCSPER, through Corso to Under SecArmy. S Feb 71. sub: Elimination of Discriminatory 

Provisions of Army Regulations Pertaining 10 Standards of Service, OOW AC Ref File. Elimination 

of WAC Enlistment Standards. CM H. 

U Memo, Vice Cors to Sec. General Staff. II Feb 71. no sub. and MFR, ODWAC, 29 Mar 71. 

sub: Resume of OWAC Conference with Generals Palmer and Kerwin. ODWAC Ref File. Elimina_ 

tion of WAC Enlistment Standards. CM H. 
240 THE WOME N'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

parenthood. 57 The new policies also affected women in the Army Medical Department, where the views of the leadership differed markedly 

from those of the WAC. Surgeon General Hal B. Jennings, Jr., had not 

opposed the new policies, declaring that waivers recognized " the princ iples of equality" and eliminated " an inflexible attitude toward changing 

societal patterns." 58 Following the Army's lead, the other services implemented similar waive r polic ies. 

The AbortiOIl Policy 

Between 1950 and 1970, the number of illegitimate births in the United 

States had almost tripled, indicating a change in American social and 

mo ral standards. 59 In li ne with this trcnd. o n 16 Jul y 1970, the assistant 

secretary of defense for hea lth and environment transmitted a new policy 

o n abortio n to the services. The assistant secretary advised the services' 

surgeons general that abortions could be performed in their hospital 

facilities, regardless of the laws of the state in whic h they were located. 

A woman needed only to prove to a doctor's satisfaction that the abor· 

tion was necessary for her long-term mental or physical health.60 

The 1970 policy did not affect the WAC. Army regulations still 

provided that women would be involuntaril y discharged as soon as they 

became pregnant. If an unwed woman had an abortion before her discharge date, she was mandatorily discharged; a married woman could 

request retention o n d uty. General Hoisington became deeply interested 

in the abortion issue when it appeared that the new waiver policies would 

allow any woman who had had an abortion to request retention. In 

February 197 1, she asked Judge Advocate General Kenneth J. Hodson 

for an opinion on whether the Army could prohibit abortions for unmarried WACs under 21, could require their parents' consent to the operation, or could deny a woman an abortion if her pregnancy predated her 

entry into the Army. General Hodson decided that after parents had 

given their consent to the initial enlistment, a woman could make her 

own medical decisions. A woman who was pregnant upon entry, howevn Memo. DASA M&RA to St'C. General Staff. 25 Mar 71, sub: Elimination of DiscrimiuBtory 

Provisiolls of Army Regul ations Pertaining to Standards of Service, and DA Msgs 091528Z and 

202 141Z Apr 71 to Maj Com~. sub: Retention on Active Duty ill Cases of Pregnancy and Parenthood. ODWAC Ref File. Elimination of WAC Enlistment Standards. CMH. 

$I OF, DCSPER to the Surgoon General of the Army (TSG), 9 Oct 70, sub: Separation Policics 

for Women in the Army, Comment 2, Surgoon General to DCSPER, 15 Oct 70. ODWAC Ref File. 

Elimination of WAC Enlistment Standards, CM H . 

.. US Bureau of Census, Slatislicnl Almrocf of the United Stotes fOT 1978 (Washington, DC: GPO. 

1978), p. 65. 

10 Memo. Asst SeeDef for Health and Environmclll (ASD H&E) to Surgeons General of the 

Services. 16 Jul 70. sub: Termination of Pregnancies in Military Facilities, ODWAC Ref File. 

Abortion and Family I)lanning. CMH. Between 1966 and 1973. efforls by the American Civil 

Libcrlics Union and women's rights and pro-aborlion groups led many states to abolish criminal 

penalties for abortion operations. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 241 

er, could be discharged and denied an abortion because she did not meet 

one of the basic qualifications for enlistment. That same month the 

Army's surgeon general disseminated that informatio n as g uidance to 

hospital commanders. 61 

On 3 April, however, President Nixon abruptly changed Defense Department policies on abortion. He directed the services to comply with 

the laws of the state where their military bases were located.62 Accordingly, abortio ns could only be performed as elective surgery in military 

hospitals in Arkansas, California. Colorado, Delaware, the District of 

Columbia, Georgia, Kansas, Ma ryland, New Mexico, North Carolina, 

Oregon. South Carolina, and Virginia. T he other states permitted ~ 

tions onl y when the life or health of the mother was imperiled, and 

military hospita ls there were obliged to follow mOTe stringent rules. 

Abortion laws changed after 1973. That yea r, the Supreme Court of 

the United States ruled that abortion was not a crime and that the states 

could not restrict or prohibit a woman's right to an abortio n d uring her 

first three months of pregnancy. T he ruling put the services' abortion 

policy o ut of step with the law of the land. After waiting fo r the states to 

change their laws (many did so slowly, hoping the decision would be 

reversed), the Department of Defense again authori zed military hospitals 

to perform abortions regardless of state laws, beginning in September 

1975. 63 Then, in November 1978, Congress banned the use of federal 

funds for abortions except when pregnancy was the result of rape or 

incest or when the mother's life was in danger. 64 Subsequent acts contin~ 

ued this prohibition. 

The WAC ill Viefllam 

During the 1960s, as the directo r and her staff struggled with imp ov~ 

ing WAC career potential and ex panding WAC strength while int ai ~ 

ing standards, the situation in Vietnam intensified. In 1964, the personnel 

officer at Headquarters, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam 

(MACV), in Saigon wrote to the director, then Colonel Gorman, that the 

Republic of Vietnam was organizing a Women's Armed Forces Corps 

(WAFC) and wanted U.S. WACs to assist them in planning and developing it. The MACV commander, then General Westmoreland, autho rized 

U OF, TSG to DWAC, 28 Jan 71. sub: Policy for Family Planning Program, and Colnment 2, 

OWAC to TSG, 12 Feb 71; OF, TJAG 10 TSG, 18 Feb 71, same sub. and Comment 2, TSG !o 

OWAC, 23 Feb 71; and DA Msg (TSG) 10 CO, CONARC (Hospital Cdrs). 16 Feb 71, same sub. All 

in ODWAC Ref File, Abortion and Family I'lanning, CM H. 

n Pllblic Papen, NixQII. 1971 . . p. 500; DA Msg (TSG) 071931Z Apr 71, O DWAC Ref File, 

Abor!iOIl and Family Planning. CMU. 

S~ DA Msg (fSG) 04J514Z Oct 73. ~ub: I'olicy for Family Planning Program. ODWAC Ref File, 

Abortion alld Family Plallning, CMH; AR 40-3, 17 Sep 73, Medical, Den ml, and Veterinary Care. 

CMH Library. 

H PL 95-485, Defense Appropriations. FY 79. 
242 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

spaces fo r two WAC advisors. 6~ Before the requisitions arri ved at the 

Pentagon, the MACV personnel officer, Brig. Gen. Ben Sternberg, wrote 

Colonel Gorman, ofTering some friendl y advice: ;'The WAC officer 

sho uld be a captain or major, fu ll y knowledgeable in all matters pertain. 

ing to the operation of a WAC school and the training conducted therein. 

She should be extremely intelligent, an extrovert and beautiful. The WAC 

sergeant should have somewhat the same qualities ... and should be able 

to type as welL" 66 Colonel Gorman replied that the WAC would "cer· 

tainly try" to send women with "the qualifications you outline." Then, 

she added, "The combination of brains and beauty is, of course, common 

in the WAC." 67 

By the time the requisitions arrived at the Pentagon in November 

1964, the director had selected Maj. Kathleen I. Wilkes and Sgt. 1st CI. 

Betty L. Adams to fill the positions. Both had extensive experience in 

WAC training, rec ruiting, administration, and command. On 15 January 

1965, they arrived in Saigon and were met by Maj. Tran Cam Huong, 

director of the WAFC and commandant of the WAFC training center 

and her assistant, Maj. Ho T hi Ve. 68 

The first WAC advisors to the Women's Armed Forces Corps set the 

pattern of duties for those who replaced them eve ry year. They advised 

the WAFC directo r and her staff on methods of organi zation, inspection, 

and management in recruiting, training, administering, and assigning enlisted women and officer candidates. Time did not permit the first two 

WAC advisors to attend lang uage school before they went to Saigon, but 

those who followed attended a twe lve-week Vietnamese language course 

at the Defense Language Institute, Monterey, California. Altho ugh Major 

Huong and her key staff members spoke English, a knowledge of Vietnamese was helpful to the WAC advisors. In 1968, an additional WAC 

officer advisor was assigned to the WAFC training center located on the 

o utskirts of Saigon. The senior WAC advisor, then a lieutenant colonel, 

and the NCO advisor, then a master sergeant, remained at W AFC headquarters in the city and continued to help the director of the WAFC to 

develop Corps-wide plans and policies. For additional training, members 

of the WAFC traveled to the United States. Between 1964 and 1971, 

fifly-one Vietnamese women officer candidates completed the WAC Offi-

.. US military personnel as.signcd to IKIvisory billets with the arml.'(\ forces or the Republic or 

Vietnam were known as advisors. with an "0." 

.. Llr. IlrigGen Ben Sternberg. J- I, IIQ. MACV, 10 DWAC, 17 Nov 64, ODWAC Rer File. 

Vietnam. CM ~I . 

.. LIr, Col Gorman to OrigGcu Sternberg, 13 Nov 64, ODWi\C Ref File, Vietnam, CM I·!. 

... The first WAC to serve ill Vietnam, 1961- 63, was Maj Anne Marie Doering. The daughter or a 

French engineer, she was born and mised in Haiphong and WIIS assigned to the Mili1ary Assistance 

Advisory Group (MAAG) ill Saigoll AS A plans officer. L1 r, Maj Docriug to the author, 11 Feb 81. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 243 

MAJ. KAnlLEEN 1. WILKES ANO SGT. 1ST C L. BE1'TY L. ADAMS, the first 

WAC military advisors ill Vietnam, observe the isslle of IIl1iforms to members of 

the Womel/'s Armed Forces Corps, Repllblic of Vietnam. 9 Morch 1965. 

cer Basic Course at the WAC School; one officer completed the WAC 

Officer Advanced Course. 69 

Another group of WACs was assigned to Saigon beginning in 1965. 

That year General Westmoreland requisitioned fifteen WAC stenographers for MACV headquarters. Six arrived by December; the balance 

reported in over the next few months. Women in grades E-5 and higher 

with excellent stenographic skills, maturity, and faultless records of deportment filled these positions for the next seven years. Peak strength 

reached twenty-three on 30 Ju ne 1970. The senior among them acted as 

U Activity Rpts. Senior WAC advisor to J- ]. MACV. 1965- 71. and OF, Chief, WAFC Advisory 

Or, 10 Chief. I'ersonnel Advisory Div, J-], MACV, 9 Nov 7], sub: Advisory Support to WAFC 

Director, OOWAC Ref Fi]e, Vietnam, CMH; Historical Report, WAC C&S, 1972, Cham of Foreign 

Students at WAC School, istory Collection, WAC Museum. Senior advisors to the WAFC wen: 

LlCois Kathleen I. Wilkes, Judith C. Ilenncit, Frances V. Chaffin, Lorraine A. Rossi, Ann B. Smith, 

Joyce E. Eslick. J unior advisors were Majs Clmrloue Hall. Rosemary L. Davis, Catherine A. 

Ilrajkovich. NCO advisors were MSgts Belty L. Adams. Jane O. Salzobry1. Mary E. Phillips, Eve]yn 

Pord, Mary J. Hinton. Sylvia R. Bernardini. 
244 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

NCQ-in-charge and the senior WAC advisor to (he W AFC was their 

officer-in-charge. Initiall y. the women were biJleted in the Embassy 

HOlel, but they later moved to other hotels in Saigon. Their minimall y 

furnished rooms were usually air-conditioned, and they ate in cafeterias in 

their hotels. Saigon, subject to frequent te rrorist attacks by the Viet 

Cong, was a dangerous place to live and wo rk. Soon after the first group 

arrived. the bus that took them to work was fire-bombed . but, by luck, it 

was empty at the time. The inc ident made walking to work attractive, but 

the Viet Cong were also known to plant antipersonnel bombs in sidewalks, steps, and doorways.70 The WAC stenographers served at MACV 

headquarters and in suppo rt commands throughout the metropolitan area. 

Like everyone else, they worked six-and-a-half to seven days a week, ten 

to fifteen hours a day, and had little time for recreation or socializi ng. 

Nonetheless, several extended their tours in Vietnam, and a few returned 

for second and third tours of duty. 7 1 

Earl y in 1965, General Westmoreland had also requisitio ned a dozen 

WAC officers. They filled administrative positions at MACV headquarters, in the support commands, and in the headquarters of a new command-U.S. Army, Vietnam (USARV), located at Tan Son Nhut Air 

Base, Saigon. Maj. Audrey A. Fisher, the fi rst to arrive, was assigned to 

the adjutant general's office. Like the enlisted women, the WAC officers 

lived in hotels in Saigon, walked o r rode Army buses to their offices at 

MACV, USARV, Headquarters Area Command, Civil Operations and 

Rural Development Support Agency, 1st Logistical Command, 519th 

Military Intelligence Group. and others. T hey worked in personnel, administration, public information, intelligence, logislics, plans and training, 

and military j ustice. A few WAC officers served with the U.S. Army 

Central Suppo rt Command at Qui Nhon and Cam Ranh Bay. 

Until 1968, WACs in Vietnam wore the green cord uniform o n d ut y. 

But, after the Tet offensive of that year, and particularly when alerts 

were frequent, they wore lightweight fatigues. During nonduty hours, 

they could wear civilian clothing. In Saigon, as elsewhere in Vietnam, 

milit ary personnel converted their U.S. dollars to Military Payment Ce rtificates, the medium of exchange in the country. E nlisted personnel were 

exempt from paying income tax on their pay whil e assigned to Vietnam; 

officers received a $500 exemption. 

Representatives of the other women's services began arn vmg 111 

Saigon in 1967. Like the WACs, they worked at Headquarters, MACV, a 

joint command; at Headquarters, Naval Forces, Vietnam; and at Head10 QDWAC Rer File. Vietnam. CM H. The Hostile: Fire: I'ay Act. 2 Oct 63. amended 23 Aug 65. 

gave US armed forces in Viclr.am. Cambodia. and Laos additional payor $65 1\ moruh. SlenogrnphCr5 

arriving in Saigon early wert 51'7 Mary L. Curry. Sgt lslCI Louise: M. Flirrell, 51'6 Theresa 1\ . 

ClIIlInO, SI'6 Ann 5. Frlllltl, 5 1'5 Rebcccli J. Fourth. SP5 Delly E. Reid. 51'5 Nana 8. Wat haw, 5 1'6 

Florence I. Woolard. and SP6 Pauline Wireman. 

71 Interv, SglislCI Theresa A. Cat"no with the author, 27 Feb 81. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 245 

quarters, Seventh Air Force. Air Force women stationed in Vietnam 

numbered twenty-nine officers and twenty-two enlisted women at their 

peak strength in June 197 1. WAVES filled one officer position in Saigon 

between 1967 and 1971, but no enlisted positions. Women Marines had a 

continuing complement of two officers and nine enlisted women on duty 

in Saigon between 1967 and 1972.72 Approximately 5,000 Army nurses 

and medical specialists (men and women) served in Vietnam between 

March 1962 and March 1973. Eight nurses died there, but only one 

perished as a result of an enemy attack- Lt. Sharon A. Lane. 73 No other 

women service members died in Vietnam. 

WA C Detachment, USAR V 

In April 1966, the USARV deputy commanding general, Lt. Gen. Jean 

E. Engler, requested that a WAC detachment be assigned to his ea ~ 

quarters. He asked for 50 (later 100) c1 rk~typi s and other administrative 

workers, plus a cadre section of an officer and 5 enlisted women to 

administer the unit. 74 

Some officers in USARV opposed the idea. T hey believed that the 

additional security required for women would o utweigh the advantages 

of having the WACs serve in Vietnam. However, General Engler won 

over the critics when he decided to house the WACs inside the U.S. 

military cantonment area at Tan Son Nhut rather than in the city, limi~ 

nating the need for additional guards. General Engler realized that the 

WACs would be exposed to risk, but he did not consider it great eno ugh 

to exclude WACs, and he did not request that women being assigned to 

USARV learn to fire weapons. However, he privately decided that if 

they were ever assigned to field installations there, he would recommend 

that they receive small weapons training. 75 

General Engler's request for a WAC unit was approved by command 

channels in the Pacific area and at the Pentagon, including the director of 

the WAC, and, finally, by the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 

General Earle C. Wheeler. General Engler was notified on 25 J uly 1966 

that his request had been approved. 76 

a Morllhly Rpt. Scnior WAFC Advisor. MACV, 10 WAC StafT Advisor, HQ USA Rl'AC Hawaii, 

"Military Women Assigned in Saigon," ODWAC Ref File, WAC StafT Advisor, CMH; SIremlow, 

WOlllell MoTilies. p. 91. 

73 Highligills ill the flislOry of Ihe Army Nurse Corps, /775- /980 (Washington, DC: CM H, 198 1), p. 

62. Lt Lane died of wounds received during an enemy rocket attack o n the 312th Evacuation 

liospital, Chu Lai, 8 J une 1969. 

H Msg. CG USA RV AVA-MI' 09102 O9OS2SZ Apr 66 to CINCUSA RPAC. sub: WAC Dctach· 

mcnl- USARV, and Msg, CINCUSARPAC GPPE-M D 10344 142100Z May 66 to ACSFOR, OA , 

DA IN 424595, sallIe sub. OOWAC Ref File, Vietnam. CM H. The commander of MACV commanded both MACV and USARV and had a deputy commanding general for each commalld. 

H Ltr, LtGcn Engler to the author, 11 Apr 81. 

10 DA Msg 775 146, 2S Jul66, ACSFOR DA to CINCUSARPAC and CGUSA RV, sub: Establishment of HQ, USARV WAC Detachment. ODWAC Rcf File, Vielnam, CMH. 
246 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

CAPT. PEGGY E. READY, COMMANDER, WAC DETACHMENT, VIETNAM, 

alld LI. Gell. Jean E Engler. Deputy Commandcr. US. Army. Vietllam, cui 

the ribboll opening the /lew WAC barracks area, Jalluary /967. 

The WAC cadre arrived in the fall of 1966. 77 F irst to arrive were 1st 

Sgt. Marion C. Crawford and the administrative NCO, Sgt. 1st CI. Betty 

J. Benson. The commander, Capt. Peggy E. Ready, the suppl y se rgeant, 

S.Sgt. Edith L. Efferson, and unit clerks pre. Rhyncll M. Stoabs and pre. 

Patricia C. Pewitt followed. They participated in a ground-breaking ceremony on 2 November for construction of the WAC barrac ks. Two 

months later, Army engineers completed eleven quonset huts, called 

hootches, for living quarters and unit offices. On 12 January 1967, 82 

enlisted women who were to serve that first year at Headquarters, 

USARV, arrived. They were welcomed by the USARV band, the press, 

photographers. officer and enlisted men rrom the command- and the 

sound or mortar fire in the distance. The first sights and sounds or 

Vietnam awed the women, most or whom had little more than twelve 

months' service and were between nineteen and twenty-three years old. 

Arter their arrival, the first sergeant wrote that the WAC area became 

n GO 597 1. 7 Ocl 66. HQ USARV. o..'Slablishcd Ihe WAC Oeilichme nl USARV under Pllr. 03, TO 

PS-2500-03 (Unit Identification Code WIZKOID) HQ Sp«: Troops. USARV, A I'O 96307. effective 

16 Sep 66. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 247 

, 

1ST. SGT. MARION C. CRAWFORD, WAC DETACHMENT, VIETNAM, stands 

relreat wilh the detachmellt, Jalluary 1967. 

alive with activity: "The main route or shortcut to everywhere all of a 

sudden went right past the WAC detachment." 78 On 21 January, the 

detachment celebrated its arriva l by inviting 200 guests to an open house 

in the WAC area. News of the party spread, and before the evening 

ended the WACs had welcomed and fed over 1,800 guests. 79 

Six months later, aiong with the entire USARV command, the detachment moved to Long Sinh post, approximately twenty-seven miles northeast of Saigon. While the engineers readied new barracks. the women 

lived in a building typical of the tropics, with openings between the outer 

wallboards and no windows. Red dust covered their rooms during the 

dry season, and rain soaked them during the wet season. Because of these 

conditions, the USARV commander allowed the women to wear either 

lightweight fatig ues or the green cord uniform before that option was 

authorized for all WACs in Vietnam. Most WACs c hose to wear fatigues. 8o 

Soon after the move to Long Sinh in September 1967, the director of 

the WAC, then Colo nel Hoisington, arrived to visit the unit. She was 

eager to see the women, gauge their morale, inspect their housing, and 

ensure that they were being properly used. She was accompanied by the 

.. IstSgt Marion C. Crawford, ··Another First for WAC," WAC JOUrl/o/ J (1972) : 8- 11. 

.. Ltr, Mllj Peggy E. Ready to Capt Constance C. Seidemann, 6 Sep 72, ODWAC Ref File. 

Viet nom, CMH . 

eo Ibid. 
248 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC Staff Adviser, Headquarters, U.S. Army, Pacific, Lt. Col. Leta M. 

F rank. En route to Saigon, the director had visited the WACs in Alaska, 

Japan, Korea, and Okinawa; on her return trip she spent several days 

with the WACs at Fort Shafter, Hawaii. Her interest in the region 

reflected the rapid increase in the number of WACs serving there. 

Before WACs were assigned to Vietnam. only 44 WAC officers and 

229 enlisted women were stationed in the Pacific area-Hawaii, Japan, 

Korea, and Okinawa. As the war in Vietnam intensified. however, the 

WAC detachment in Japan almost doubled in size as WAC medical 

specialists arrived for duty in the hospitals that received the sick and 

wounded from Vietnam. The strength of the detachments in Hawaii and 

Okinawa remained about the same throughout the war. A few officers 

and married, accompanied, enlisted women rotated in and out of Korea, 

but no WAC detachment was activated there. In January 1970, the WAC 

reached its peak strength in Vietnam with 20 officers and 139 enlisted 

women; there were 54 officers and 393 enlisted women in the Pacific 

area. 81 Colonel Frank visited the WAC units annually, monitored their 

activities, kept the director advised of their status, and forwarded to her a 

monthly report received from each unit or contingent, complete with 

personnel statistics and items of interest. 82 

The director spent a week in Vietnam, conferring with General Westmoreland and the MACV deputy commander, General Creighton W. 

Abrams; with members of the MACV stafT; and with commanders of 

subordinate activities. She talked with the eight WAC officers and seventeen enlisted women then living in Saigon and inspected their living and 

working quarters. She called on now Col. Tran Cam Huong at Headquarters, WAFC, and toured the WAFC training center. 

Colo nel Hoisington then went to Long Binh. She conferred with Lt. 

Gen. Bruce Palmer and his personnel officer, Brig. Gen. Earl F. Cole, 

who praised the performance of the women and asked her advice about 

requisitioning more. The director recommended that they authorize and 

requisition enlisted women in higher grades. After she returned to the 

Pentagon and reviewed the availability of volunteers, she wrote, "I think 

we can settle on a figu re between 120 and 150 if we can improve the 

grade spread and add some MOS. " And she added, "I don't want to 

promise more than we can reasonably expect to receive in qua lified 

volunteers." At the time of the director's visit, the unit had 82 enlisted 

women with o nl y one E- 8 (the first sergeant). three E- 7s, and one E-6. 

By January 1970, the unit would have a strength of 139, with 45 women 

in grades E-8 through E- 6. Although most of the women would continue 

to be assigned in cle rk-typist positions. the variety of MOSs was widened 

" Sfrt!IJgIII of IIII' Army Rf'porls (DeSPER 46). Pari I. 1965- 1972. 

U Talking papers. Col Judith C. Ilcllnctl. ]8 Mar 71. and Col A]it;e A. Long. 20 Ocl 72. ODWAC 

Rer File. USARPAC WSA. CM H. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 249 

UPON ARRIV ING IN V IETNAM to il/spect WAC IIl1ils alld persol/nel, ColOllel 

Hoising/oll alld her escorl, Lt. Col. Leta M. Frank, WAC Staff Adyiser, U.s. 

Army, Pacific. are welcomed by General Creighton W Abrams. Depllly Commander. MACV, 21 September 1967. 

to include specialists in communications, personnel, finance, automatic 

data processing. and intelligence. 83 

The enlisted women at Long Binh greeted their director enthusiastically. Most of them had graduated from basic training during the years 

when she commanded the WAC Center and the WAC School (1964-

1966). She visited their work sectio ns, talked to their supervisors, and 

inspected their barrac ks and dining facilities. In a group session, she 

complimented their excellent record of performance and discipline, passing along the glowing praise of their supervisors, and, later, she allotted 

time to individual discussions. 84 

On one of her last days in Vietnam. Colonel Hoisington visited Army 

men at several outposts beyond Long Binh. Traveling by helicopter in 

n Rpt, DWAC Visit to Vietnam, 1967, and Ll r, DWAC to Dep Cots for Perso'lIlel and Administrlltion, HQ USARV, 17 Oct 67, no sub., ODWAC Ref File, Vietnam, C MH. In General COIc's 

office, Lt Col Shirley R. Heinze and later Maj Mary Jane Grimes worked to increase unit strength, 

grade, and MOS spread ill coordillation with ODWAC and Southeast Asia Distribution Branch (Maj 

Shirley M. Barnwell) of the Enlisted Personnel Directorate, DA. 

8. Rpt, DWAC Visit to Vietnam, 1967; Interv, BrigGen Hoisington with the author, 3 Nov 80. 
250 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

WAG 

COLONEL HOISINGTON meets cadre members of the WAC Detaclunelll, Viet110m, October 1967. Left 10 rig/II: Sp4c. RhYlle/! M. Stoabs. Sgl. lSI Ct. DeifY J. 

Bel/soli (Acting /sl Sgt.), Colollel Hoisillgton. Captaill Ready. SSgt. Edith L 

Effersoll, Gild PIc. Patricia C. Pewitl. 

the Army green cord uniform (she shunned the offer of fatigues), she 

visited the 9th Division, commanded by Maj. Gen. George O. O'Connor, 

at Camp Bearcat and talked to men of the 4th Battalion, 39th Infantry. 

Lt. Gen. Frederick C. Weyand, Commander, II Field Force, Vietnam, 

joined the g roup at noon. From Bearcat, she went to base camps at Xuan 

Loc, Dinh Quan, and G ia Ray to observe the work perfo rmed by fie ld 

detachments of the Women's Armed Forces Corps.85 

Before leaving Long Sinh and later Saigon, Colonel Hoisington re· 

ported her findings to General Palmer and General Westmoreland. In her 

opinion. the mo rale of the WACs in Vietnam was high, their work was 

satisfyi ng to them, their commanders and supervisors were interested in 

their welfare, and they were well ho used, clothed. and fed. Though she 

preferred the women to wear the green cord unifo rm to look neat and 

femi nine. from observation she knew this was not possible, at least until 

the engineers completed the WAC barracks al Long Binh. Her trip 

enhanced the morale of the women, reassured their parents, gave her 

85 Ibid. 
\ 

VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 251 

COLONEL HOISINGTON visits with members o/lhe WAC Detachment. Vielllllln , 

il/ the /lnit's courtyard at Long Bil/II, October /967. 

information about the unit, and resulted in assignment of more WACs to 

Vietnam.ss 

Few problems of significance arose during the seven years that WACs 

served in Vietnam; even losses due to disease or injury were minimal. 

During the Tel offensive of 1968, when American casua lties mounted, no 

WAC received a seriolls injury. Many, howeve r, did receive scrapes and 

bruises diving for cover from incoming artillery fire since the ammunitio n 

depot at Long Sinh was a major target of the enemy. Captain Ready's 

replacement, Captain Joanne Murphy described a scene in her orderly 

room: 

Pay day, 31 January 1968, will long be remembered by all of us. I had jusl 

slaned to pay and handed SI'S [Delores A.] Balla her money when a deafening 

explosion went off at the ammo dump. G lass, gravel and dust were nying. We 

couldn't see for more than a few yards... Meanwhile, SI'S Ba lla was lying in 

front of my desk counting her money. A cou ple of times she called to SSG 

Efferson [the acting first sergeant] asking if she should sign her voucher. 'No, 

child, just stay down,' Sergeant Efferson said. 57 

u Inlerv. DrigGcn Hoisington with the anthor. 3 Nov SO. 

n Rpt, WAC Detachment. USARV. Jan 68, ODWAC Rer File, Vietnam. CM H. 
252 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

In February, Captain Murphy wrote Colonel Hoisington: "We had 

another exciting evening on 18 February when the VC again hit our 

ammo dump. two very spectacular explosions, and much more dramatic 

than the one on pay day. The first blast at abou t 0100 hours, actually 

bounced some women out of their beds .... I marvel at the calm of the 

women." For her part, Colonel Hoisington was constantly concerned 

about their safety. She told Captain Murphy, "That Saturday (Sunday fo r 

you) when the news began coming through, I was worried all over again 

and didn't rest well until news from there sounded more peaceful. ... I'm 

proud of yOll, Sergeant Efferson. and the rest of the women for keeping 

cool heads through that period." 88 

A unique predicament arose over the policy of assigning married 

WAC volunteers to Vietnam. As the number of American servicemen in 

Vietnam grew, it was inevitable that some would be married to WACs 

and that the women would do their best to be assigned to Vietnam to be 

near their husbands. Unfortunately, married WACs arriving in Saigon or 

Long Binh usually found that their spouses were miles away. Even if 

their husbands were assigned to the same area, no family housing existed. 

In either case, a morale problem resulted. In April 1968, Lt. Col. Frances 

V. Chaffin, Senior WAC Advisor, MACV, asked if anything could "be 

done about stopping the assignment to Vietnam of WAC personnel whose 

husbands are stationed here?" She explained that they were "causing a 

problem for both the Long Binh WAC Detachment and HQ, MACV .... 

There are just no [housing] facil ities. " 89 Civilian wives who had soldier 

husbands in Vietnam also complained to their congressmen- married 

WACs could be assigned to Vietnam, but civilian wives could not even 

travel there. Colonel Hoisington requested a change in policy, and the 

DCSPER approved a change, effective 28 May 1969, that barred the 

assignment to Vietnam of married enlisted women whose husbands were 

serving in Vietnam because of the nonavailability of housing for married 

personnel. 90 As a matter of equity, the same policy applied to WAC 

officers. A few WACs evaded the policy by not reporting their marriages. 91 

Few WACs left Vietnam because of pregnancy. Of 14 married women 

assigned to Vietnam between 1967 and 1973, 8 were pregnant upon 

arrival and were promptly sent home for discharge. Between Jan uary 

1967 and September 1968, 225 single WACs arrived in Vietnam; 5 

became pregnant during their tour and went home fo r discharge. 92 

.. Llrs. Capl Murphy, Cdr. WAC Del USARV (Long Binh). to Col Hoisington, 24 Feb 68. and 

Col Hoisington to Capt Murphy. 7 Mar 68, ODWAC Ref File. Vielnam, CMH . 

.. Llr. LtCoI F.V. Chaffin, Senior Advisor, MACV. to DWAC. 21 Apr 68. ODWAC Ref File, 

Vietnam, CMH. 

t<I DA Msg 910626 10 HQ USARV, 28 Mar 69. ODWAC Ref File, Vielnam, CMH. 

" Inlerv. " rigGen Hoisington with the author. J Nov SO. 

n Llr, Capl Nancy J. lurgevieh, Cdr, WAC D CI. USARV, to DWAC, 29 Oct 68, ODWAC Ref 

File, Vietnam, CM H. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 253 

In Vietnam. as in almost every foreign country to which they were 

assigned, WACs found charitable work to do. Soon after the detachment 

moved to Long Binh, the women learned that a Catholic orphanage 

located at nearby Tan Heip nceded assistance. They soon adopted the 

orphanage, and, between 1967 and 1972, detachment personnel visited the 

institution weekly. providing food and clothing as well as care and 

attention for the children. 93 

In December 1968, the WAC detachment moved into its permanent 

barracks at Long Binh. The new compound consisted of four two-story 

wooden buildings with cooking and laundry facilities and a swimming 

pool, donated by the National WAC Veterans Association. With ho using 

for 130 women, the new barracks provided ample room, and according to 

the detachment commander, Capt. Nancy J. Jurgevic h, was "more 

secure, which also makes for privacy." She described the buildings as 

"new and clean. T he rooms average 20'x36', normally four or five 

women to a room. We have a beautiful covered patio with a built-in stage 

and movie screen. Eventuall y our buildings will be air conditioned." 94 

The strength of the WAC detachment continued to increase. In February 1970, with 136 women assigned, the unit was 6 over its maximum 

housing capacity. The situation, however. soon c hanged. The withdrawal 

of U.S. forces from Vietnam had begun. Within a few months, USARV 

could not requisition WAC replacements to fill vacancies c reated by 

rotation. By the end of December 1970, the WAC detachment numbered 

72; by 31 December 1971, only 46.

95 

In early 1972. a new WAC director, Brig. Gen. Mildred I. C. Bailey, 

visited the women in Vietnam on her tour of WAC units in the Pacific 

area. At the time, the USARV WAC detachment had 35 enlisted women 

and was scheduled for deactivation later in the year. General Bailey's 

evaluation was that their morale and living and working conditions remained excellent. 96 

Two years earlier, in 1970, the antiwar and antidraft movements had 

gained momentum, reaching a c rescendo when the president ordered U.S. 

troops into Cambodia to destroy Viet Cong sanctuaries and suppl y routes. 

Many Americans believed the president intended to escalate the war, and 

his action was severely criticized by members of Congress, by peace 

groups. and by students on college campuses from Ma ine to California. A 

student demo nstration at Kent State University brought Ohio National 

Guardsmen to that campus. In the ensuing melee, guardsmen shot and 

U Monthl)' Rpts, WAC Det. USARV. to WAC Staff Adviser. 1967- 1972. ODWAC Ref File, 

Vietnam. CMH. 

t4 Ltr. Capt N.J. Jurgevich to Florence Land. Nat'l WAC Velernns Assoc. 20 Dec 68, ODWAC 

Rd File. Vietnam. CM H. 

" Monthl)' Rpts. WAC Del. USARV, to WAC Staff Adviser, MIlT 70, Jan 71. Jan 72. ODWAC 

Ref File. Vietnam. CMH. 

u lnlerv. I1rigGen Baile)' wilh the author. 12 Aug SO. 
254 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

killed four students. The incident generated mass protests and violent 

demonstrations at other campuses and in cities throughout the country. 

The protestors frequently burned or damaged Army recruiting offices, 

ROTC installations. and federal offices. The president ended the unrest 

by wit hdrawing morc troops from Vietnam and announcing that the draft 

would end on 30 June 1973. 97 

When a unit was deac tivated in Vietnam, the event was called a "stand 

down." T he last commander of the Long Binh WAC detachment, Capt. 

Constance C. Seidemann, the first sergeant, 1st Sgt. Mildred E. Duncan, 

and the twelve women remaining on 21 September 1972 had a stand-down 

party. Captain Seidemann described the party: "We had invited 150 g uests 

and about 350 came .... We had a special three-tiered cake with everyone's name on it, some beautiful hand-made silk flower table decorations, 

and great vol umes of food and two bands." 98 A rter the party, the women 

moved to Saigon and then left for the United States. At the end of 

December, two WAC officers and seventeen enlisted women rema ined in 

Saigon at Headquarters, MACV, or subordinate commands. By the end of 

March 1973, all the WACs had left Vietnam. 99 

WACs served successfull y in Vietnam between 1966 and 1972. Approximat ely 700 WACs served there; none died there. Nor were any 

taken prisoner or reported missing. One woman, Sp5c. Sheron L. G reen, 

received the Purple Heart- the onl y WAC to receive that medal since 

World War 11. 1 00 

Many WACs received meritorious service awards for their contributions during the Vietnam War. Among such awards were the Legion of 

Merit, Bronze Star Medal, Army Commendation Medal, Air Medal, Meritorious Service Medal, and Joint Service Comme ndation Medal. Capt. 

Catherine A. Brajkovich received the Army Commendation Medal for 

heroism; she had alerted residents of a bachelor officers hotel in Saigon of 

a fire in the building. Maj. G loria A. S. Olson, a journalist and photographer with the Office of the Chief of Information, MACV, received the 

Air Meda l for having flown in the equi valent of 127 aerial combat 

missions tota ling 198 air hours during her tour in V ietnam. Maj. Sherian 

G. Cadoria received the Air Medal for meritorious achievement- 101 

n New York Timts. 3. 4. 5. and 10 May 70 . 

•• Llr. Capt Constance C. Seidemann to LtCoI Alice A. Long. WAC StafT Adviser, IIQ USAR. 

I'AC. 2J Scp 72. ODWAC RerFile, USARPAC. CM H. 

n WAC StafT Adviser. USA RI'AC, Ilistorical Rpts. 1972 and 1973. O DWAC Rd File, USARI'AC, CM H. The laSl twO WAC officers to leave Vietnam (MHr 73) were Maj OCQrgia A. Wisc and 

Capt Nancy N. Kl'Qugh. 10°004325. IIQ 1st Avill1ion Bde. A PO 96384. 31u168. 

101 Awa rds & Decorations ror VN Duty, ODWAC Ref File. Vietnal!l. CMH; Llr. Col Gloria A.S. 

Olson to author. 10 May 83; 00 6216. BQ MACV. APO 96222. 31 Oct 69: GO 1132. HQ USA 

Support Command, Qui Nholl. A PO 96238. 8 Aug 69. Cys in ODWAC Ref File. Vietnam. CM H. 
VIETNAM; WAC STRENGTH; WAC STANDARDS 255 

The WAC Detachment, USARV, received unit service awa rds for its 

service in Vietnam during the Vietnam Counter·Qffensive Phase II (I 

July 1966-31 May 1967) and the Tel Offensive Campaign (30 January 

1968- 1 Ap ril 1968). I 02 In retrospect, Genera l Engler characterized the 

participation of the WACs in Vietnam as "superb." He continued. "They 

handled clerical and management assignments in headquarters Vietnam in 

an outstanding manner. It would have been a serious mistake not to use 

their skills. The decision to deploy the WAC's to Vietnam was correct." 103 The war in V ietnam would be the last in which women would 

participate as members of a separate Women's Army Corps of the United 

States Army. 

General Hoisi1lgtoll Retires 

In April t 971, General Hoisington announced she would retire on 31 

Jul y of that year. The annual brigadier general promotio n board met in 

May and selected Col. Mildred Inez Caroon Bailey. Secretary Resor then 

announced that she would be the eighth director of the Women's Army 

Corps. 104 

Because of the standards controversy, General Hoisington left the 

directorship with ambivalent feelings about her tour. Many positive 

events had occurred: the promotion of twelve WAC officers to full 

colonel and o ne to brigadier general; the attendance of WAC officers at 

the senior service colleges; initiation of the WAC Student Officer Program; establishment of a WAC NCO Leadership Course, and a WAC 

Personnel Specialists Course at WAC School. WAC strength had expanded from 9,958 in 1966 to 12,78 1 in 197 1. I 06 A WAC unit had se rved 

successfull y in Vietnam. Discharge on ma rriage was reinstated. A fundraising drive had been initiated to build a WAC Museum. The WAC 

Jouma/ had begun quarterly publication. 

General Hoisington, however, was sorely disturbed by the Army's 

decision to g rant waivers for enlistment, appointment, and retention on 

duty in cases of preg nancy, pa renthood, and other disqualifications. To 

her, such changes signaled the beginning of the end- the disin tegration of 

the high standards the Corps had upheld since 1942. In the closing days 

of her to ur, she said to her staff, "I would trade the stars today to 

recover what we have lost this year." 106 

II" DA GO 83, 27 Dec 68. Victnam CamJ)llign l'articiJ)lltion Credit and DA GO 54. 8 Aug 69, 

same sUb. CMli Libmry. 

lOS Llr, LIGcn Engler to author. II Apr 8 1. 

10. Illlerv. BrigGen lioisinglon wilh Ihe aUlhor, ) Nov SO. 

10$ Smmg/h of/II ~ Army Repor/s (ODCSI'ER 46), I'arl I. )0 Jun 66 and 30 lun 1 1. 

IDe InlCrv, BrigGen Hoisington with thc lI uthor,) Nov 80. 
256 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

GENERAL HOISINCTON shares a momel/t (It her reliremelll review 01 WAC 

Cellfer, FOri McCle/klll, with her mother, Mrs. Gregory Hoisingtoll, 30 July /971. 

The director set aside her personal disappointment and completed her 

last few months in office with typical energy and diligence. She oriented 

General Bailey and participated in farewell parties and ceremonies for her 

retirement. On Friday, 30 Jul y, she went to Fort McClellan for a formal 

retreat ceremony followed by a reception and dinner party at the Officers 

Club. The next morning, a retirement review was held in her honor at the 

Marshall Parade G round. Army Chief of SlafT Westmoreland attended 

the ceremony and presented her with the Distinguished Service Medalthe third WAC to receive it. In his remarks, General Westmoreland said: 

"Elizabeth Hoisingto n's associates in the Army will long remember her as 

the zealo us guardian of the standards of the Women's Army Corps. In 

her we found our modern·day Pallas Athene and, like Pallas Athene. she 

is renowned and respected for her courage and wisdom." 10 7 

'C)7 Cen Westmoreland, "Remarks upon the Retirement and Award Ceremony for Brigadier 

General Eli1.abclh 1'. Hoisington." 31 J "I 71. ODWAC Rer File, Ceremo nies, C MH. 
CHAPTER X 

The End of the Draft and WAC 

Expansion 

T he new director of the Women's Army Corps ass umed her duties as 

optimism about an end to the war in Vietnam grew. In the summer of 

1971, peace talks in Paris progressed toward a cease-fire and prisoner 

exchange. On 28 September, President Nixon signed Public Law 92- 129, 

which he hailed as "the last bill for extension of draft induction authority." He also pointed o ut that U.S. troop strength in Vietnam had dec reased from 540,000 in 1969 to 184,000 in 1971,1 

The end of the war and the elimination of the draft would have a 

major impact on the WAC. For the first time since World War II, the 

Army would be draftless and would need women as a manpower resource. General Forsythe, the special assistant for the modern volunteer 

Army (SAMV A), considered recommending an increase in WAC 

streng th to 20,000 by FY 1978- an increase that would almost double the 

number of WACs. Inroads had already been c ut into traditional WAC 

enlistment and retention standards; such an expansion would necessitate 

granting more concessions. But another, more basic threat appeared as 

well. The women's liberation movement had created an avalanche of 

public and cong ressional sympath y fo r women and their rig ht to the same 

benefits, opportunities, and responsibilities as men. Applying their goals to 

women in the military services, many of the moveme nt's leaders urged 

that women be registered. drafted, enlisted, and commissioned in the 

military services under the same entry c riteria as me n; that women be 

admitted to the service academies; that restric tions against women in 

combat be removed; and that separate women's o rganizations be di s~ 

solved. Such innovation would be ea rthshaking; it would mean lim ina~ 

tio n of the Corps. The new director was caught in the crossfire of fights 

against overexpansion and for the survival of her Corps. 

Mild red Inez Caroon Bailey was promoted to brigadier general and 

appointed director of the WAC on Monday. 2 August 197 1. in the office 

of newly appointed Secretary of the Army Robert F. Froehlke. That 

evening General Westmo reland hosted a formal receptio n at the Fort 

I l'rcsidcuCial News Conf. 28 Scp 7 1, I'll blic Papers. Nixoll. 1971. p. 3S6. 
258 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

SECRETARY OF THE ARMY R o nERT F. FROEHLKE, assisted by Col Keith S. 

Lolle, pills stars QII the new Director. WAC. Mildred J. C. Bailey, 2 August 1971. 

Lesley 1. McNair Officers Club to honor both the retiring director, 

General Hoisington, and the incoming director, General Bailey.2 

General Bailey graduated from W AAC oes C lass 3, was commissioned in the WAAC in September 1942, and was commissioned in the 

Regular Army in Ap ril 1949. A teacher in civilian life. she was first 

assigned as an instructor in an Army Air Corps program training French 

cadets in Alabama. Between 1942 and 1957, she served as a company 

officer at the Second WAAC Training Center, an intelligence officer, a 

WAC detachment commander, and in other positions. In 1957, she graduated from the Strategic Intelligence School. From 1958 to 1961 , she was 

chief of WAC Recruiting for Third United States Army, and, in 196 1, she 

I DA SO 14S. par 10. 28 Jul 11, appoinced Mildred Bailey brig gen lIS of 1 Aug 11; DA SO ISS, 

par II, 2 Aug 11, appointed Gen Dailey DWAC err I Aug 71. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 259 

look command of the WAC company at Fort Myer. V irgini a, the Corps' 

largest unit. In 1963, she was promoted to lieutenant colo nel, and, for the 

next six years, she was in charge of the WAC Exhibit Team. Completing 

that tour in 1968, she was assigned as congressional liaison officer to the 

U.S. Senate. In August 1969, she was promoted to colone l, and, in 1970, 

she was selected to be the deputy commander of WAC Center, Fort 

McClellan- her position when she was chosen to be director of the 

Corps.3 

Unlike her predecessors, General Bailey retained the entire office staff 

she inherited. Col. Bettie J. Morden served in the deputy director position, but, because of her reserve officer status, held the title of acting 

deputy director; by stat ute, the position required a Regular Army officer. 

In June 1972, Colonel Morden was succeeded by Col. Maida E. Lambeth, 

who had served as the assistant commandant of the WAC School ( 1968-

1970), g raduated from the Army War Coll ege (197 1), and served as the 

chief of the WAC Career Branch (197 1- 1972). Colonel Lambeth remained as deputy through the balance of General Bailey's tour and for 

several months of the next director's tour. 4 

A New WAC Image 

One of General Bailey's first experiences as director involved a meeting with General Westmoreland. As she later recounted, the c hief of staff 

had some ideas about WAC objectives: " In the first interview, General 

Westmo reland said to me- it left me gasping when I considered the 

ramifications-he said, 'General Bailey, 1 want you to change the image 

of women in the Army'- and he didn't give me any guidance ... as to 

how." 5 He wanted a new public relations image of the Corps-something creative that would aUract young women's attention and draw them 

into the WAC for a lifetime career. 

Ove r the next few months, General Bailey gathered ideas for a plan to 

satisfy the chief of stafrs dictum. In February 1972, she presented what 

later became known as her "Plan to Improve WAC Recruiting and 

Retention" to the DCSPER, General Kerwin, who approved it for implementation. The first item was a recommendation to redesign the WAC 

uniform wardrobe. Brig. Gen. Lillian D unlap, chief o f the Army Nurse 

' Oen nailey was married for 30 years 10 Roy Bailey. A Marine Coq>s velenm. he died in an 

aulomobile aceidenl in 1966. 

4 Olher staff members iocluded executive officers LtCol Lorraine A. Rossi (197 1- 1973) and LtCol 

Elizabeth A. Derry ( 1973- 1975); plans and policies officers LlCol Pola L. Garrell ( 197 1- 1972). LlCoI 

Evelyn P. Foote ( 1972- 1974). and, after the position was designated interchangeable, Maj Thomas 

K.J. Newell (1974- 1916); ODWAC SgtMaj Mary E. Richmond (1968- 1975): and civilian secretary, 

Mrs. Mary Larrick ( 1970- 1978). Key WAC Assignments, author's file, CMH . 

& Interv. origGen Mildred C. Dailey with LlCol Rhoda M. Messer (Senior Officer Debriding 

I'rogflllll. US Army Military History Institute), Oct 78. p. 35. ODWAC Rer File, Directors. WAC. 

DO Doilcy, CM U. 
260 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

SENIOR WAC STAFF MEMBERS AND WAC STAFF ADVISERS, January /972. 

Left /0 right, frollt row: Maj. Nelda R. Code. LI.Col. Alice A. Lollg. Lt. Col. 

Mary Jo Sansing, General Bailey. Col. Mary J. Guyette, Col. Dorotha J. 

Garrison, Lt. Col. FrOl/ces V. Chaffin, Back row: Ll.Col. Lorraine A. R ossi, 

Col. Frances M. YOlliack, LI.Col. JOliet E. Ziegler. Lt. Col. AI/II J. Prelliro. Maj. 

Rose Ralph, Col. Bettie J. Morden, Col. Mary E. Clarke. Col. Polo L. Garret/, 

alld Lt. Col. Eva Veach. 

Corps, and Col. June E. Williams, chief of the A rmy Medical Specialist 

Corps, agreed with General Bailey, and together they introduced as 

optional wear for all women in the Army a black beret, black clutch 

purse, black umbrell a, and black patent leather pumps. T hey also recommended that white shirts and white accessories replace tan shirts. scarves, 

and gloves. The Army Uniform Board and the chief of staff approved 

immediate implementation of these changes- though they hesitated over 

approval of the umbrella. a traditional taboo in the Army. The plan also 

provided for an increase in WAC strength and ca.lIed for an increase in 

the number of MOSs open to women; a red uction in the minimum body 

weight allowed women upo n entry; a change in regulations to allow 

women to command men except in combat units; a c hange in policy to 

include WACs in all appropriate recruiting advertising and in add resses 

made by Army officials. The design of future troop barracks would 

provide for interchangeable occupancy. A civilian contractor would plan 

and conduct a personal grooming course for trainees and students at the 

WAC Center and School, teaching selection of cosmetics. hair styling. 

diet. clothes. etc. Men would receive instruction on the role of women in 

the Army at courses throughout the training and school system. The plan 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 261 

was aimed at improving the attractiveness of life in the WAC at a time 

when Project VOLAR addressed improvements for men in the A rmy. To 

assist the WAC director's staff in implementing and monito ring the plan, 

the DeSPER approved the assignmen t of an additional officer, Lt. Carol 

A. Martini, to QDW AC for one year. Within that yea r, most of the items 

on General Bailey's list had been implemented or at least initiated. Lack 

of funds, however, eliminated the grooming course. 6 

Growing White Ho use and DOD interest in improving race relations 

and opportunities for minorities and women provided additiona l suppo rt 

for General Bailey's plans. 7 In June 1971 , General Westmoreland had 

named the DeSPER, General Kerwin, as chairman of a committee of 

general officers to develop an affirmative action plan to ensure equa l 

opportunity for military and c ivilian personnel, regardless of race, gender, 

religious beliefs, or nationa l origin. T he c hief of staff had made it clear 

that development of a comprehensive plan and its execution and progress 

would receive top priority throughout the A rmy. Gene ral Kerwin estab· 

lished the Office of Equal Opportunity Prog rams, gave it directorate 

status, and assigned Col. Harry W. Brooks as its first director. Colo nel 

Brooks was to monitor the program, ensure compliance with implement· 

ing directives and reports, resolve problems, and report progress to the 

chief of staff. The heads of the general and special staff divisions and the 

major commanders proposed actions to be included, and the final plan, 

app roved by the c hief of staff and published in June 1972, contained 

General Bailey's goa ls of increasing the number of inte rchangeable spaces 

and of ensuring equa l opportun ity fo r servicewomen.8 

Faced with imminent Joss of the draft and the politica l activity of the 

women's movement, Congress was also taking a new interest in military 

women. In September 1971, F. Edward Hebert, the chairman of the 

House Armed Services Committee, established a sub·committee on the 

Utilization of Military Womenpower. headed by Congressman Otis G. 

Pike of New York. On 6 March 1972, the subcommittee called the 

directors of the women's line services to testify o n requirements. recruit· 

ment, train ing, and utilization of military women. Genera l Bailey spoke 

for the WAC. She outlined the system for identifying requ irements by 

G Memo, OWAC to DCSPER lind ColS. 4 Feb 72. sub: PIon to Improve the Impge of the 

Women'S Army Corps. T he pIon was rctitled Plan to Improve WAC Rccruiting and RetcntiOIl on 6 

Mar 72: Memo, DWAC to DCSPER, 21 J un 72. sub: WAC Expansion Action with J Inds. WAC 

E~p3 sion Actions. WAC Expansion StlltUS, WAC Improvements as of 5 Jun 72: Mill, Army 

Uniform Board Meeting. 19 Apr 72, approved by CoIS, 2 Jun 72. Copi" in ODWAC Ref File, 

Image. Plpn to Improve, CMH. 

~ EO 11478, i'S$ued in lune 71. affirmed President Nixon's commitment to equal opportunit y 

rC8llrdk:ss of race. color, religion, se~, or nationa! origin. Copies or SeeDef progress rcports rrom the 

mi!itary depts to OM S covering recruitment. ll'S$ig nment, training, lind upward mobility of minorit y 

pcl'SQnnd lind \Vomen are in ODWAC Ref File. Equal Opportunity, CMH . 

80DCSI'ER, Annua! History, FY 72, pp. 104- 114: OA Affirmativc Actioll 1'11111, Jun 72 (rev Jun 

75); pnd Annual (Biellnial) Assessments, Army Equal Opportunity l'rogrum. 1977- 84. Copies in 

ODWAC Ref File. Equal 0Pl>oriunity. eM ... . 
262 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

gender, explained the interchangeable code, described the training at Fort 

McClellan, listed rort y~o e new MOSs opened to women, and explained 

Army policy on ba rring women from combat duty, from duty in isolated 

locatio ns. and from tasks requiring prolonged physical labor. She asked 

Cong ress to provide equalizing legislatio n to give married women dependency rights and quarters allowances. She discussed the Army's plan 

to increase WAC strength by 50 percent by the end of FY 1978, contingent upon receiving the funds and personnel spaces to do so. Q 

After the directors had made their statements, committee members 

questioned the women more closely on their plans and their beliefs. 

Asked whether women should be used in combat roles, General Bailey 

replied, "As long as our culture remains as it is and public opinion 

remains as it is, I do not believe in the foreseeable future that the general 

public would accept the idea of women being trained and utili zed in 

combat dut y." 10 When asked to comment on whether women should be 

admitted to the service academies, all the directors e xcept one agreed that 

these institutio ns should train only combat and seagoing officers. Brig. 

Gen. Jeanne M. Holm, Director, Women in the Air Force, sided with 

Secretary of the Air Force Robert C. Seamans, Jr., who said he would 

accept women at the U.S. Air Force Academy if Congress appropriated 

the funds to furnish adeq uate housing and uniforms. Congressman Samuel 

S. Stratton of New York was particularly interested in this subject because earlier that year, another member of the New York delegation, 

Senator Jacob K. Javits, had nominated a woman for entry into the U.S. 

Naval Academy, and the nominatio n had been turned down by Secretary 

of the Navy John H. Chaffee. Both Senator Javits and Congressman 

Stratton had been outraged by the Navy's negative response. When the 

director of the W A YES, Capt. Robin L. Quigley, agreed with the secretary, Congressman Stratton concluded the questio ning by telling Captain 

Quigley: "The world is changing, and ... the Navy in this regard has not 

changed fast eno ugh .... I am going to say flatly, the day is not far off 

when you will have women in the Naval Academy." And the way he 

said it, the women believed it. 11 

• US Congress. Iiouse Armed Services Comrnillee. l/I'(Jrings ""Jure lite Sp«ia/ Slibrom",;//« 011 Ihe 

UliliZlJliQlI a! MUIlpi'ftl'er in Ille Mililary. 92d Cong, 2d sess. HRpl 92-5 1, Jun 72. pp. 12442-50. 

ODWAC Ref File. Hearings, CMH. Rpt hereal'ler cited :!IS lltori'ljJs. Monpoll'i'r in IIII.' Mililary. 

1(1 Ibid .• p. 12469. 

11 Ibid .. p. 12495. Laler Ihal ),ear General Daile),. believing Ihal Congress or the courts would 

force the serviccs to accept womcn in the academics. revcrsed her posilion. In her iuili:,1 interview 

wilh Ihe new ColS. Genen'l Abrams. she rccommended the Arm)' change ils refillable stand and 

admil womcn 10 WCSI " oi ll!. By being firsl 10 i"ilialc Ihe aelion. Ihe Army would be praised ror its 

open-minded progressivcness and still hove lime to plan Ihe admillHnce for women cad CIS. Though 

conceding she had some valid poinls, Gcncral Abrams did not concur in lhe recommendalion. lruerv, 

BrigGcn Bailey wilh Ihe aUlhor, 9 Apr 85. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 263 

In his closing remarks to the women directors, the chairman comment· 

ed on the conservatism apparent in their statements and responses: "It has 

been an interesting session. When I first came to this committee and the 

chairman was Mr. Vinson, he used to say, 'Well, we want to "hep" you.' 

I have had the ugly fee ling today that Mr. Stratton and 1 want to 'hep' 

you more than you want to be 'hcpped.' " 12 

The Expansion Plalls 

Interest in the expansion of the WAC g rew as the end of the draft 

approached. In April 1970, President Nixon had declared he would 

reduce and eventuall y eliminate the draft. The DeSPER and DWAC 

staffs had then produced a plan to expand the WAC to 18,700 enlisted 

women and 1,400 officers by 30 June 1978. The estimated cost was $14,8 

million- primarily for construction of barracks and c lassrooms at WAC 

Center and funds to rehabilitate ma le barracks for women at Army posts 

around the world. The members of the Army staff approved the plan, as 

did the WAC director, contingent upon receiving the necessary funds and 

personnel spaces to implement it fully. Chief of Staff Westmoreland 

approved the plan on 28 June 1971 and directed the deputy chief of staff 

for logistics (DCSLOG) to seek new construction funds or Project Volunteer funds to finance the expansion. The assistant chief of staff for force 

development (ACSFOR) would provide the necessa ry manpower spaces. 

By year's end, efforts to obtain the funds had failed. But the DCSPER, 

General Kerwin, could not drop the idea. With the future of an allvolunteer Army in doubt, he continued to seek funds from Congress to 

support WAC expansion. As an interim measure, he asked the commanding genera l of the Continental Army Command (CON ARC) to formulate 

plans for maximum WAC expansion during FY 1973 at "no cost or low 

cost" to the Army. In turn, the CON ARC commander asked the commanders of Army posts and separate activities how much they could do. 

Based o n their responses, General Kerwin told General Westmoreland 

that, using currently available resources, the WAC could be expanded by 

approximately 1,000 women by 30 June 1973. The chief of staff approved 

the plan. la 

I I lIetm'nfP. MUllf1OK'I!r ill I"~ MiIi/Qry, p. 12503. 

II Public Pu~rs. NiJColI. 1970. 2l Apr 70. p. 385; 55. DCSPER to CoIS. 21 Jun 71. sub: Expansion 

of the Women's Anny Corps, date·stamp approval, VCoIS. 28 J un 7 1; Memos, DeSPER to 

DCSLOO. 26 Jnn 72. same sub. DCSLOO to DWAC, 27 Jan 72. same $ub. and DCSPER to Oir, 

Procurement and Distribution, ODCS I'ER, 7 Feb 72, same sub; Msg, DCS I'ER (OI'D) 2817 ISZ 2 

Peb 72, same sub; Interim reply CONARC to DCSPER, 28 Jan 72, same sub; Llrs, DCSLOG to Maj 

Coms. Il Mar 72, same sub, and ACSPOR to General and Special Staff Divs, DA, and Maj COinS, 

29 Jun 72. same sub. Copies in ODWAC RdFilc. WAC E~ a"sion 1971 - 3. eMH. 
264 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

A week later, however, Secretary Froehlke, faced with reports projecting that the eliminatio n of the draft would leave the Army unable to 

maintain a minimum of thirteen active d uty divisions after FY 1974, 

called upon the Army staff for a plan that would achieve the speediest 

and largest supportable increase in the WAC. O n 16 June 1972, he 

directed the chief of staff "to close the military manpower gap." 1 4 The 

DeSPER and DWAC staffs responded quickly. Earlier they had drafted 

a detailed proposal that would have inc reased the WAC by 100 percent 

over its actual 1972 strength by 30 June 1978. Their "Plan for the 

Expansion of the Women's Army Corps" was updated and submitted to 

the secretary on 20 July 1972. Secretary Froehlke approved it o n 24 July 

and promised fu nds and personnel spaces to implement it. 15 

On 7 August, after Congress had been informed, General Bailey announced to the press that WAC enlisted strength would be increased to 

23,800 by 30 June 1978. She also annOUllced that, as a result of a recently 

completed study, enlisted women could serve in 437 of the Army's 485 

MOSs. The MOSs included the traditional ones in admi nistration, medical 

care, and communications, but women now had opportunities in nontraditional jobs as well-ammunition specialist, chaplain's assistant, decontamination specialist, dog trainer, plumber, quarryman, seaman, and others. 

Both announcements generated wide publicity from the news media and 

great interest from the general public. 16 

The decision to open all but forty-eight MOSs to WACs came as a 

surprise to many. It was the c ulmination of a six-month study cond ucted 

by the Personnel Management Development Office (PM DO), Office of 

Personnel Operations (OPO), Enlisted Personnel Directorate (EPD), in 

conjunction with ODW AC. General Bailey had personall y participated in 

the effort. Momentum for the stud y came from her desire to eliminate the 

old policies, practices, and procedures governing utilization of women 

that had impeded the women's entry into new career fields. At the 

director's urging, Harry Vavra, a senior OPO occupational analyst, had 

conducted a close examination of all MOSs. At one point, he had attempted to compare occupations open to women in the three services, but 

differences in nomenclature, job titles, scope of duties, and classifi cation 

systems made the comparison impracticable. That work, however, had 

revealed that all of the se rvices used women primarily in the administrative, medical care, and communications fields and exempted them from 

duty involving combat, close combat support, sea duty, aviation piloting, 

I. Memo, SecArmy 10 Cors, 16 Jun 72, sub: Requirements for Military Manpower, ODWAC Ref 

File, WAC Expansion \971-3, CM II . 

.. DCSPER, Plan for the Expansion of the Women's Army Corps, 20 Jul 72, approved by 

SecArmy, 24 Jul 72, and Cors Memo 72,600-171. 3 Aug 72, sub: Expansion of the Women's Army 

Corps, ODWAC Ref File. WAC Expansion 197 1-3, CMH. I. DOD Press Release, 7 Aug 72, sub: Expansion of the WAC, ODWAC Ref File, Expansion, 

WAC, 1972 (Conl'd), CMU. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 265 

heavy lifting, or strenuous physical activity. Mr. Vavra had noted that 

each of the services thinks it has " less discrimination on the basis of sex 

than do other serv ices." 17 His group concluded thai women should be 

excluded from only the forty-eight MOSs that involve combat, hazardo us 

duty, or strenuous physical activity. General Bailey added the recommendation that, in the future, the WAC MOS list include only the MOSs in 

which WACs could not se rve rather than those in which they could. 

Generals Westmoreland and Kerwin approved the recommendations; 

General Bailey made the announcements in August, and the new list was 

published in October. 18 

Meanwhile, Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird had established a 

Central All-Volunteer Task Force to develop contingency plans to increase the services' strength if male recrui ting programs fa iled to provide 

the manpower needed; a major project was " to study the utilization of 

military women and prepare alternate utilization plans by service for FY 

1973- FY 1977." In Marc h 1972, Brig. Gen. Robert M. Montague, formerly General Forsythe's deputy special assistant for the modern voluntee r 

Army, had been appointed task fo rce director. t9 His group asked the 

Army, Navy, and Air Force to prepare plans to double their women's 

1972 strengths by the end of 1977 and the Marine Corps to increase its 

women's force by 40 percent in the same period. The directi ve did not 

include women in the services' medical departments. The Army responded with a plan, to c ulminate in FY 1978, in which WAC enlisted strength 

would be increased to 23,800. WAC office r streng th would inc rease to 

only 1,776 because that program was in a state of flux. The Navy and Air 

Force submitted plans to inc rease their women's strengths by 100 percent 

by FY 1977 (to 11 ,400 and 22,800, respectively); and the Marine Corps, to 

increase its women's strength by 37 percent (to 3, 1(0) in the same period. 

Genera l Montague and Secretary Laird approved the plans in May 

1972. 20 

As a result of the DOD project, General Kerwin was able to provide 

Secretary F roehlke with the new WAC expansion program in July 1972. 

Success followed General Bailey's August an no uncements that WAC 

strength would be doubled and that women could enter all but 48 of 485 

11 Study. 01'0 PMOO. sub: MOS Appropriate for Enlisted WAC Usc. Incl in OF. 01'0 PMDO 

to DWAC. 18 JuJ 72. sub: DA Affirmative Action Plan (AA I'). ODWAC Ref File. WAC MOS List 

E~p.anded Aug 72. CM H. 

I I OF, OPO J'Moo to OCSPER. Dir. Military l'ersonneIPolicit.'S, 31 Jul 72, sub: OA Affirmative 

Action Plan (AAP). with Comment 2. ODWAC Ref File. WAC MOS List Expanded- Aug 72. 

CMH; Change 25. 26 Oct 72 to AR 611 -20 1. MOS Manual. See IV (Reviscd) WAC Training MOS 

List. 

II Memo. SeeDef to Asst SeeDer. Manpower &. Reserve Affairs (ASO M&.RA). II Dec 71. sub: 

The AII-Volunlt."Cr Force. ODWAC RdFilc. Expansioll. WAC. 1911. C MH . 

10 Rpl. CellIral All-Volunteer Task Force on Utili1;ation or Military Women. Dec 72. and Gus C. 

Lee and Gt'Offrey Y. Porker. Emlillg Ihe Droft-Ilre Siory of lire AIl-Vollmll!l!r FOret! (Alexandria. VA: 

l'lunmn Resources Research Organi1.alion, Apr 17). pp. 187- 96, ODWAC Ref File. Studies. CMH. 
266 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Army MOSs. In the months that followed, women enlisted in the WAC 

in numbers surpassing the most optimistic forecasts. Many in the Penta· 

gon had expected the campa ign to follow the old pattern of an immediate 

nurry of enlistments followed by a drastic slowdown. For the first lime in 

WAC history, this did not happen; enlistments and reenlistments continued to rise even during the traditionally poor recruiting months of Dccember thro ugh March. Publicity about new career fields for women, 

elimination of old restraints, and a groundswell of euphoria and expectation fell by women as a result of the liberation movement and progress of 

the proposed Equa l Rights Amendment accounted for the continuing 

momentum of enlistments in the WAC and the other women's services. 

General Bailey anticipated no problems in achieving the long·range goal 

of 23,800 enlisted women by the end of FY 1978. 21 

While the Army complimented itself on the progress of the WAC 

expansion, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Reserve 

Affairs Roger T. Kelley was wo rried because, overall, military strength 

had fa llen below congressionall y authorized levels for FY 1972 and 

1973. 22 In the spring of 1973, Secretary Kelley alerted the service secretaries and the directors of the women's services that he would call upon 

them to again double the strength of the women's services by the end of 

FY 1979. General Kerwin's replacement as DCSPER, Lt. Gen. Bernard 

W. Rogers, promptly began work on a plan for 50,000 WACs. Meanwhil e 

Genera l Bailey briefed new Sec retary of the Army Howard H. Callaway 

on the status of the WAC and progress on the current expansion. In 

commenting on the information she provided, Deputy Assistant Secretary 

of the Army (M&RA) Paul D. Phillips wrote: "We cannot limit women 

to 24,000 spaces in a 792,000 space Army .... We cannot wait until 1979 

to reach 24,000 because there will be great pressure from OSD [Office of 

the Secretary of Defense] and the Congress to use more women if, as I 

project. we fail to attract enough men of reasonable quality to meet 

requirements." 23 His words injected a sense of urgency into the development of a new WAC expansion plan. 

In June, the DCSPER's director of plans, programs, and budget 

(DPPB), Maj. Gen. Eugene P. Forrester, met with representatives of the 

Military Personnel Center (MILPERCEN), the offices of the chief of 

reserve components. the DWAC, the ACSFOR, and the DCSLOG, and 

II First-time enlistments in the WAC increased from 5.667 in FY 72 to 8.701 in FY 73; the WAC 

reenlistment rate climbed from 31.6 to B .O perccnt in thc samc period; total WAC strCllglh rose from 

13.250 011 30 JUIl 72 10 17.830 on 30 JUIl 73. Slrf!llgfh oJ/lte Army Re/JO'J (DCSPER 46), 30 Jun 72 and 

30 Jun 13. 

II The !iCrvices were authorized 2.S million men for FY 73; on 30 Jun 73 they had only 2.3 million. 

Study, OASD (M& RA), sub: American Volunteers. A Rcpxt on the AII-Voluntccr Armed Forces, 

31 Dec 13. Fig. 2- 1. CM H Ref I)r. 

n Memos, DASA (M& RA) to DCSPER. 2 May 73. sub: NU1l1bcr~ of Women in the Army, and 

DCSPER 10 DASA (M&RA). II May 73, SIIllle sub, ODWAC Ref File. Expansion. WAC, 1973, 

eM I·!. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 267 

several ODCSPER directorates to discuss further WAC expansion. Availability of uniforms would be a major problem as mobilization stocks (war 

reserves) contained no WAC uniforms, but a concerted effort by the 

DCSLOG, the Defense Personnel Support Center, and the Defense 

Supply Agency could provide the needed uniforms and equipment. Training posed another obstacle as WAC Center operated o nl y fourteen companies. The additional training capacity could be gained by activating 

WAC basic training companies at Fort Jackson, South Carolina; Fort 

Oix, New Jersey; and Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. General Forrester 

assigned other problems involving shonages of drill sergeants, recruiters, 

and cadre to individua l members of the groups for resolution; then he 

reported to the DCSPER that a target of 50,000 women could be 

achieved by the end of FY 1979 without lowering WAC enlistment 

standards. 24 

On 24 July 1973, General Forrester established a committee of general 

officers from the Army staff who were to meet weekly to direct development of the new WAC expansion program and to monitor its implementation. The committee, formally the Utilization of Women in the Army 

Steering Committee, did not decide matters affecting the Army Nurse 

Corps or the Army Medical Specialist Corps and was popularly known as 

the WAC Expansion Steering Committee. Within a few months, its membership was expanded to include general officers from the Training and 

Doctrine Command (TRAOOC), Fort Monroe, Virginia; Army Forces 

Command (FORSCOM), Fort McPherson, Georgia; Army Recruiting 

Command (USAREC), Fort Sheridan, Illinois; and the Office of the 

Assistant Secretary of the Army for Manpower and Reserve Affairs 

(OASA M&RA). The resources and decision-making power of the members ensured speedy resolution of almost any problem thai might arise.2~ 

At the end of August, the group discussed its first draft plan, which 

proposed to obtain the exact figure of 50,400 enlisted women by 30 June 

1979. General Bailey objected to this ambitious undertaking. She felt that 

many problems, such as housing, had not been satisfactoril y resolved. A 

few weeks later, however, after cognizant offices had resolved those 

questions, she agreed to the plan. On 9 October 1973, Chief of Staff 

Creighton W. Abrams, Jr., approved the plan to expand WAC enlisted 

strength to 50,400 by the end of FY t 979. 26 The plan did not mention 

u Memo. OPP". ODCSPER. to OCSI'ER. J Jill 73. slIb: Utilization of Women in the Anny. 

ODWAC Ref File, Expansion. WAC. 1973. CMH. With DA GO 1, 11 Jan 7J. 01'0 was replaced by 

the M 1 Ll'ERCEN. 

U Min. Utilization of Women in the Army Steering Commit1ee. meetings 24 and 31 Jul 73, 

OOWAC Ref File. Expansion. WAC. Steering Ctc Minutes, 197J, CM 1·1. Col Mary Jo Sansing. 

WAC StalT Adviser, HSC, attended the meeting as representative of the Health Services Command. 

Fort Sam HouslOn. TX. 

n OF, DWAC to OCS PER (01'1'11). 23 Aug 1J, Sub: WAC Expllnsion. and SS. DCS PER 

(OAI'F.·PI'B) to Col'S. 24 Sep 73. sub: Plan for E~pansion or Ihe Women's Army Corps, date-Slump 

approvul. 9 Oct 13. ODWAC Ref File, Expansion, WAC, 1973, CM H. 
268 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC office rs, because at that time a pro posal eliminating the WAC 

Branch and permanently assigning WAC officers to the other branches 

was under consideration. 

The expansio n plan detailed the recruitment, training, assignment, and 

housing of WACs. WAC enlistment standards were not to be lowered to 

achieve recruiting objectives, but expansion of the enlistment options 

open to women would help. T he options included the Two-Yea r Enlistment Option, Service Sc hool Enlistment, Choice o f Training and Travel, 

Warrant Officer F light Training, CONUS Station of Choice, Two-Year 

Training and Travel. Stripes for Skills, Delayed Entry Program, Career 

Group Enlistment, Band Enlistment, Buddy Basic Training Plan, and the 

Special Unit Enlistment (SUE) option. The SUE option guaranteed assignment after basic trai ni ng to specific units such as the U.S. Army Air 

Defense Command, Army general hospit als in the United States, Army 

Communications Command, Army Sec urity Agency, and others. The 

Buddy Basic Training Plan ensured that if a woman enlisted with a 

hometown friend, the two would remain toget he r through their initjal 

training and fi rst duty station. The Delayed Entry Program allowed 

women to enlist and then remain in a holding status for not longer than 

180 days or until a space opened in a school they had requested. Other 

options were developed as the expansion progressed. 27 

Buttressing the appeal of these options was the now expanded variety 

of choices in both traditional and nontraditional career fi elds for women. 

Among the latter were many that had previously been desc ribed as 

"men's work"-maintenance, repair, and operation of electricalleledronic 

equipment; law enforcement; and flight operatio ns and flight training. The 

chief of the Enlisted Assignment Divisio n, Military Personnel Center, 

asked that recruiters distribute women evenl y th rougho ut the MOSs 

rather than let the enlistees concentrate, as they tended to do, in the fi elds 

of administratio n, medical care and treatment, and communicatio ns. He 

also asked the Recruiting Command representatives to push overseas 

enlistment optio ns for women in order to achieve an evenly balanced 

number of women assigned in the continental United States (CONUS) 

and overseas. Better distribution graduall y improved rotation and the 

chances for promotion of both men and women. The Enlisted Assignment 

Division no longer had troubl e finding req uisitions fo r women because by 

October 1973 over 70,000 positions had been desig nated as in terchangeable. And, the DCSPER received the fu nds and personnel spaces necessary to activate nine WAC training companies at Fort Jackson. The plan 

also provided basic training spaces for approximately 3,800 WACs annuall y in the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard. To eliminate 

the unifo rm suppl y problem, the Defense Supply Agency assured timely 

receipt of WAC uniforms and accessories by offering bonuses to contrac2. AR 611 .201, I Jul 68, with changes 1912. Regular Arm)' Enlistment Program. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 269 

tors and reducing stock at clothing sales stores. If necessary, the initial 

issue to recruits would be reduced. 28 

The Elimination of AssignmeIU and Career Restrictions 

The expansion gradually forced the Corps out of its conservative 

pattern. Sheer numbers and the extent to which women pushed career 

patterns beyond those envisioned for Corps members since the WAC's 

early days challenged the Corps' mission as well as its personnel policies 

and attitudes. Another director might have resisted change; General 

Bailey did not. She wanted men and women to work together, sharing 

command, responsibility, facilities, and recreation. She also practiced 

what she preached and. in 1974, put a male on her staff. She announced 

that change at a weekly DCSPER meeting in 1973: "There was absolute 

silence for what seemed to me a minute or two .... Then, a very senior 

officer said, 'My God, who is monitoring his career?' It didn't surprise me 

that that would be the attitude. What surprised me was that this senior 

officer was shocked into expressing it publiciy."29 The male officer 

assigned to ODWAC, Maj. Thomas K. J. Newell, did an excellent job as 

plans and policies officer, and General Bailey reported that the DCSPER 

staff "came to admire and respect him as much as we did. "30 

WAC strength had been kept low up to 1972 because the Corps' 

mission was to provide a nucleus of trained women in the event of 

mobilization. As it turned out, the Corps' strength burgeoned not from 

crises but from peacetime needs. The Corps' unique mission was thus lost 

and was deleted from the WAC regulation. 31 The ever-rising WAC 

strength targets, however, also raised concern that enlistment and retention standards might have to be lowered if the Corps failed to meet its 

Objectives. Such a move was as much an anathema to General Bailey as it 

had been to the other directors. To avoid it, she concentrated her efforts 

on modernizing WAC policies, keeping standards high, and improving 

career opportunities, housing, and other factors affecting life for women 

in the Army. 

The opening of new WAC MOSs and enlistment options also brought 

elimination of some assignment policies that dated back to World War II. 

In 1972, General Bailey discontinued policies that precluded women from 

being assigned to mess halls that served only men, participating in law 

enforcement activities involving men, driving vehicles with over 2%-ton 

.. ODCSPER (DPPB·Plans and Systems Div), "Piau for the Expansion of the Women's Army 

Corps," 31 Aug 73, ODWAC Ref File, Expansion, WAC, 1973, CMH. 

u Interv. DrigGen Mildred C. Dailey with LtCoI Rhoda M. Messer (Senior Officer Debriefing 

Program, US Army Military History Instiwte). Oct 78, p. 5, ODWAC Ref File, Directors, WAC, 

DO Dailey. CMH. 

'0) Ibid. 

3. AR 600-3, rev 1976. WAC Regulation. 
270 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

capacity, conducting initial classification interviews for male recruits, 

recruiting men, performing supply activities in men's companies. and 

being trained and assigned in combat support MOS l6K, Air Defense 

Fire D istribution System Crewman. 32 In t 973. she eliminated a policy 

that prevented women from being assigned to units lower than a theater 

army headquarters, another that precluded women from duty on closed 

male wards, and a third that restricted women from duty as physical 

training instructors for male personnel. The new enlistment options compelled further changes. The option that permitted women to choose 

overseas assignment as soon as they completed their training-that is, 

after as little as sixteen weeks-led General Bailey to eliminate the ong~ 

standing requirement that enlisted women and officers spend their first 

year on duty in the United States. In addition, she lowered the required 

ratings in conduct and efficiency from excellent to good for women to be 

assigned overseas. These changes brought assignment and utilization poli~ 

cies for women in line with those for men, with the exception that 

women could not be assigned to combat MOSs or to combat units. 33 

New Career Fields for Womell 

The success of the WAC recruiting program was now vital to the 

Army and, for the first time in its existence, the WAC had the full 

attention of the Army staff, major commanders, and commanders of 

separate agencies. Commanders, who in the past could find few inter~ 

changeable spaces, began to find many and to requisition WACs for them. 

One command that began to utilize women in MOSs previously limited 

almost exclusively to men was the U.S. Army Security Agency 

(USASA), an intelligence~gat ring organization. lts predecessor, the 2d 

Signal Service Battalion, had employed thousands of WACs during 

World War II. After the Korean War, however, the agency used only a 

few WAC ling uists, traffic analysts, and administrators. In 1970, as WAC 

expansion planning was beginning, the chief of USASA, Maj. Gen. 

Charles A. Denholm, took action to increase the agency's WACs-then 

forty~eight officers and enlisted women. At his request, the DCSPER and 

the director of the WAC approved the inclusion of women in the 

USASA Enlistment Option, both for administrative and operational 

MOSs- cryptanalytic specialist, traffic analyst, voice intercepter, and 

many others. The option proved popular with women who found the idea 

nChange 5Z. 16 Dec 74. AR 600-Z00. Enlisted Personnel Management System; Lu . ACSFOR to 

Maj Coms. Z91un n. sub: Expansion of the Women's Army Corps; DA (DCSPER D/PC-EPP) Msg 

Z51Z00Z May 73, sub: Interim Change to AR 600-200; DA Msg 21 1850Z Aug 73 to Maj Coms. sub: 

WAC Expansion. Copies in ODWAC Ref File, Regullllion Changes AR 600-200, CMH. 

33 DFs, DWAC 10 CG, Army Personnel Cu, 15 May 73. sub: A R 600-200 Enlisted Personnel 

Management System, and DWAC to CG, Army Personnel Clr, 21 Jan 74. sub: Draft Change to 

Chapter 3. AR 600·200. ODWAC Ref File, Regulation Changes AR 600·200. CMH. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 27 1 

of intelligence work stimulating and liked the list of interesting USASA 

locations-Eritrea, Thailand, Turkey, Japan, Okinawa, as well as countries in Europe. By 30 September 1978, WAC strength in the agency, by 

then renamed the Intelligence and Security Command (INSeOM), was 88 

officers and 1,203 enlisted women and was continuing to c1imb. 34 

Earl y in 1972, Provost Marshal General Lloyd 8 . Ramsey and General 

Bailey had initiated a pilot program to determine the extent to which 

WACs could be used in law enforcement. Only a few women had been 

trained in MOS 95D, Assistant Criminal Investigator, and were assigned 

to the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command. None had been 

trained in MOS 958, Military Policeman, since World War [] when 

WACs had been assigned MP duties at WAC training centers. After the 

war, a few WACs worked in administrative MP duties at various posts, 

but none had received training at the MP School at Fort Gordon, Geo ~ 

gia. 

In September 1972, General Kerwin approved a pilot program to train 

twe nty~fo ur enlisted women in MOS 95B. In January 1973, twenty-one of 

the we ty~fou r completed the t~week course, which included qu ali~ 

fying with the .38~ca liber pistol, at Fort Gordon; General Bail ey was on 

hand to congratulate them and present their grad uatio n certificates. Dis~ 

tributed to seven Army posts, the graduates performed patrol, traffic 

control, accident investigation, and other MP operatio ns. After six 

months, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), 

successor to CONARC (1 Jul y 1973), recommended, with the conc ~ 

renee of the provost marshal general, the director of the WAC, and the 

provost marshals at seven sites, that women be utilized in the full spectrum of law enforcement duties, including c riminal investigations, Armed 

Forces Police o perations, patrol dog operations, and combat support 

operations. Well before the end of the year, after signing a written 

statement indicating they understood that they had to pa rticipate in weapons training, women were enlisting for training and assignment in MOS 

95B. By the end of November 1974, over 1,400 women had graduated 

from training and had been assigned as MPs. Major commanders ua ~ 

ly converted 3,929 MP positions to interchangeable spaces-IS percent of 

all MOS 95B spaces in April 1975. Women entered the field of Correc~ 

tional Specialist, MOS 95C, in September 1975 after a change in policy 

provided, for the first time, that women could be confined in stockades, 

discipli nary and correctional barracks, and military prisons. By March 

1977, some 100 women we re assigned in MOS 95CY; 

3< Treadwell. The Women's AmlY Corps. pp. 318-20: Ltr, Cdr. HQ USASA. to subordinalc cdrs 

worldwide. 3 Dec 71. sub: WAC Urilil3lion in USASA. ODWAC Ref File. Army Security Agency, 

CM ~I : DA GO 25. 30 Dec 76, CM I-I Library: Sirellgih o/Ihe Army Reporl (DCSPER 46). Part I, )0 

Sep 78. 

30 DA Msgs 012 100Z Sep 72, sub: Award of MOS in Army CaTCer Group 95 to WAC. and 

26 1535Z Sep 72. sub: Employment of WAC in MOS 95 13: Ltf. HQ. TRA DOC, 16 Jul 73. sub: 
272 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Another of the major turnarounds made by the Army and the o ther 

services was the decision to allow women to enter aviation and to take 

airborne training. In earl y November 1972, Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt, 

Chief of Naval Operations, anno unced that WAVES could be enrolled in 

the Naval F lig ht Training Program. On 17 November, General Rogers, 

the DeSPER, initiated a study to determine whether women would be 

allowed to enter the equivalent Army program. The study revealed that 

the Army had approximately 2,800 noncombat avia tor positions in grades 

warrant officer thro ugh colonel and that women possessed the mental, 

physical, and educational capabilities to fi ll them. After reviewing the 

study, General Abrams directed that women be trained as aviators. In 

September 1973, the first WAC entered the Officers Rotary Wing Aviator Course at the U.S. Army Aviation Center, Fort Rucker, Alabama. 

She received her wings on 4 J une 1974. The next year, enlisted WACs 

entered the Warrant Officer Aviation Program at the same location and, 

on completing the course, were promoted to the grade of wa rrant officer, 

junio r grade (W- I). The women followed the same academic, flight, and 

physical training programs as the men except that push-ups were substituted for pull-ups required for males. Initially, women did not participate 

in the survival and POW exerc ises, bUI that practice was changed late in 

1974. The women pilots were assigned to general support, noncombat 

units, where they evacuated medical patients and transported routine 

passengers such as inspection teams. By 15 November 1977, thirty women 

(commissioned and warrant) had completed the A rmy's Flight Training 

Program and were assigned to duty in the United States, Europe, and 

Korea. 36 

F light training prepares personnel as aviators; a irborne training qualifies soldiers to use a parachute, providing them an additional combat skill 

as paratroopers. Airbo rne training is also required for anyone assigned for 

dut y as a parachute rigger (MOS 43E). During World War II, women 

riggers had not been allowed to jump with a chute they had packed, as 

male riggers did. Instead, they rode on planes and watched the paratrooper candidates jump with the c hutes they had packed. 37 After World War 

Employment of WAC in MOS 95 11 ; Memo, LlCo] Edward D. Lockwood for the Provost Mar1;hal 

General. 1 Mar 74. sub: Army Military Policewomen: Llr, DCSPER to Maj Corns. 12 Scp 75, sub: 

U.S. Army Elliisted Women Correctional Specialists. MOS 95C; DA Msg 051459Z Jun 75; and AR 

190A7, 15 Dee 7S. U.S. Army Correctional System. Copies in ODWAC Ref File, Confinement of 

Women. CMH. 

36 SS, DCS PER to Cors, 13 Apr 73. sub: Women in the Army Aviation Flight Program. ColS 

dale·stamp approval 25 Apr 73; Memo. Dir, 0 1'0. M1Ll'ERCEN, to Cdr, MILPERCEN. 16 J ul 74. 

sub: Assignment of WAC Avialors: Ll r. Chief, US Army Research Instilule Field Unit. ForI Rucker, 

AL, 10 OWAC, I J ul 75, sub: Women in Flying Role; Fact Sheet. OA Public Affairs Office, IS Nov 

77, sub: Army Women in Aviation. Copies in ODWAC Ref File. A via tion and Airborne. WAC, 

CMH. T he fir1;\ WAC commissioned officer1; to complete aviator Imining were lSI Ll Sally O. 

Woolfolk and 1st LI Unda M. Horan; the first woman warrant offieer avialor was WOJG Jennie A. 

Vallance. 

31 Tre<ldwell. "111(' Women"s Army Corps. p. 300. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 273 

II, women ceased to be assigned in the MOS 43E even though after 1961 

the assignment was authorized for WAC reservists during mobilization. 

Now, in 1972, it returned to the active duty MOS list, and in August 

1973, the commander of the XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort Bragg, facing 

an acute shortage of men in MOS 43E, urgently requisitioned WAC 

parachute riggers. Within a month, a WAC enlisted for the training, and 

others soon followed. After completing the Airborne Training Course at 

Fort Benning. the women attended the Parachute Rigger's Course at Fort 

Lee, Virginia, and were later assigned to duty in Quartermaster units at 

Fort Bragg, Fort Campbell, and Fort Lee. 38 

Within the space of a few years, the WAC had c hanged its rather staid 

image as an organization of clerical workers, administrators, medical 

specialists, and communications technicians to an organization whose 

members could enter careers not available to women in civilian life, could 

be assigned to interesting locations outside the United States, could work 

without fear of discrimination, and could earn a good living with outstanding retirement benefits. With a snappier uniform, WACs had finally 

begun to project a modern image, while policy changes affecting other 

aspects of their Army life further enhanced that new image. 

Extending the Command Authority of Women 

Under existing law (PL 80-625, 1948), the service secretaries were 

authorized to define the extent of women's command authority. In the 

Army and Navy, women could supervise men and give them efficiency 

ratings, but could not command them. T hough men frequentl y commanded units that consisted of both men and women, the reverse was not true. 

The Air Force, however, allowed women to command any unit that did 

not require a rated officer (i.e., a pilot), and in 1972 it became the first of 

the services to assign women to command units composed of both men 

and women. 39 In August 1972, Admiral Zumwalt followed suit, issuing 

instructions that authorized WAVES to succeed to command. 40 With 

these precedents and continuing pressure from Assistant Secretary of 

Defense for Manpower and Reserve Affairs Roger T. Kelley to "eliminate all unnecessary distinctions in regulations applying to women," GenII Llr, CG, XV III Airborne Corps, Fort Orag&. NC, 10 Cdr, FQRSCOM, Fort McPherson, GA, l 

Aug 13, sub: UliliUltion of WAC Personnel in MOS 4lE, with lsi Ind FORSCOM to HQ. DA. Alln: 

DCSI'ER (DAPE-MPl) 8 Aug 7l. and 2d Ind HQ, DA, (DCSPER DAPE-MJYT) 10 Cdr, FORS· 

COM, 12 Sep 13; Fact Sheet, DCSPER, 30 Aug 7J. Copies in ODWAC Ref File, Aviation and 

Airborne, WAC, CMH. Joyce Ann KU\$(:h was the first WAC enlislee to complete the MOS 4lE 

course. 

II AR 6OCl-20, 28 Apr 71, Army Commllnd Policy and Procedures. CM H Library; Chart, Asst 

SeeDer (M&RA), Comparison of Differences in Regulations Pertaining to Regular Male and Female 

Military Personnel, Mar 72, ODW AC Ref File, Equal Treatment, CM H . 

• 0 Msg, CNO to a.1I commands, 5350, 7 Aug 72, sub: Equal Rights and Opportunities for Women in 

the Navy, ODWAC Ref File, Equal T rcatrnCllI , CMH. 
274 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

eral Bailey initiated action to obtain approva l for WACs to command 

men. In December, Secretary Froehlke ordered that henceforth WACs 

could command any unit in the Army except one that had a combat 

mission.41 

On the whole, g ranting women command authority roused little reaction. The first WAC to command a mixed unit was Capt. Reba C. Tyler, 

who was assigned to the 48th AG Postal Company, Frankfurt, Germany, 

in the spring of 1973. Later in the year, Col. Georgia D. Hill was selected 

to command Cameron Station, A lexandria. Virginia, an Army post under 

the jurisdiction of the commanding general of the Military District of 

Washington. In March 1975, Lt. Col. Mattie V. Parker assumed command of the Armed Forces Examining and Entrance Station (AFEES), 

Detroit, Michigan, the second largest of sixty-two AFEES facilities 

throughout the United States.42 The Army had made worldwide anno uncements of its policy regarding women in command positions, but 

reports of actual assignments were low-keyed. Chief of Staff Abrams 

concurred in maintaining an approach that was "in keeping with the 

Army's approach to its women-fair and equal treatment without fanfare." 43 

In fact. there were not many such assignments to announce. The 

number of women commanders increased by 30 percent between 1972 

and 1974, a figure surprisingly low for a period when women could also 

command men and when WAC enlisted strength more than doubled. 44 In 

this same period. WAC detachments at most posts merged with male 

units. Command of the new unit usually went to the male commander, 

because he had headed a larger organization and was either a senior 

captain or a majo r. A WAC detachment commander was usuall y a first 

lieutenant or a captain. Command positions in most mixed units, however, 

were late r designated as interchangeable on the manning documents, and 

women then competed with men for these j obs. Battalion command of 

training units did not become interchangeable in mixed units and continues at this writing to require men with a combat primary specialty.4 5 

., SS. DCSPER through Col'S to SecArmy. 30 Nov 72, sub; Command by Members of thc 

Women's Army Corps; Memo, Military Assistant to SecArmy (Col Elvill R. Heiberg) to Chief of 

Public Information. 18 Dec 72; alld DA Msg 101 2 12Z Jan 73. sub: Interim Change 2, AR 600·20. 

Army Command Policies and Procedures, ODWAC Rcf File. Equal Treatment. CMH. 

U Memo, CG. US Army Personnel Ctr, to SecAnny, 2 Mar 73, sub: Information on Assignment of 

Capt. Reba Tyler. WAC, ODWAC Ref File, Command. CMH; Nalley Barone. "Making History in 

Detroi!," Recruitillg alld Career Coullselillg JOl/fllal. May 77. pp. 12- 13. 

43 MFR, ODWAC, 6 Mar 73, sub, Information Approach to Assignment of Women to Command 

Positions, O DW AC Ref File, Command. CMH. 

" Info Pape r. WAC Advisory Dr, O PD. 4 lun 74. sub: Women Officers in Conlll13nd, ODWAC 

Ref File, Command. CMH. 

n Semi.Annual Rpts to ASD(M& RA). Rpts Contro l Symbol DD- M (SA) No. 1225, Feb 73. Aug 

73. Feb 74. Aug 74; LIT. Act'g Dir. Officer Personnel. MILPERCEN. to DWAC. 17 Mar 76. no sub; 

Memo. DWAC to Dir. Military l'ersonnel Management, ODCSPER. 20 Dec 77, Sub: Status of 

Women Eligible fOT OS Command. Copies in ODWAC Ref File. Command. CM H. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 275 

WA C Housing Policy Changes 

The merger of male and WAC permanent party units in the fi eld 

required a major change in housing policy. In preparation for the WAC 

expansion, the Army had begun to increase housing for women at posts in 

CONUS and overseas, wherever they were assigned or received training. 

The deputy chief of staff for logistics (DCSLOG) had advised commanders to revise their lo ng-range construction plans to ensure the future 

availability of WAC housing at their posts. Post engineers converted male 

barracks for women's occupancy by removing or covering excess plumbing fixtures. partitioning bathroom facilities, and adding window blinds. 

Most posts did not increase their overall population; they just received a 

higher proportion or women than in the past. 4 6 

Berore the end or 1972. it was apparent that WAC recruiting was 

exceeding all expectations and that additional WAC housing in the field 

would be needed sooner than expected. From July through November. 

the number or basic trainees arriving at WAC Center surpassed the 

planned-for 140 per week. In November. General Bailey issued the necessary new guidelines on housing and the assignment of enlisted women. 

Those in grade E-4 and above (rather than. as forme rl y. E-5 and above) 

could be assigned to installations or activities with no WAC unit. Commanders could follow minimal standards in converting male li ving quarters ror WAC occupancy and could house women in leased civilian 

facilities-hotels or motels with the supervision of a WAC officer or 

NCO. If a sepa rate floor or wing we re available, women could share a 

building with men, though separate entrances for each were recommended. Women in grades E-4 through E-6 could live off post and receive a 

quarters allowance. And, in a major departure from tradition, General 

Bailey ru led that when a WAC unit became overcrowded, women could 

be assigned to male units for housing, feed ing, and administration, if 

privacy we re assured and a WAC supervisor provided. 4 7 

In mid- 1973. as planning progressed for further expansion, General 

Bailey made additional concessions in the hope or improving the ruture 

housing and administration of enlisted women. Beginning in August 1973, 

enlisted women in all grades could be assigned to installations without a 

WAC unit. No WAC supervisor was required; women in all grades 

(formerly o nl y E- 4 and above) could be authorized to live off post and 

receive a quarters allowance. When women were assigned to a male unit 

os Llr, DCSLOG to CG, CONA RC, 12 Jun 72, sub, Facility Support for the Expansion of the 

Women's Army Corps; DA Msg (DCSLOG) 3Q2Q38Z Aug 72 to Army commanders; DA Msg 

(DCSLOG) 041715Z Aug 72 10 CG. CONARC, sub: FY 73 Funding, WAC Expansion l'rogram; 

and CONA RC Msg 151847Z Nov 72 to CONUS Armies, sub, WAC HOllsing Lease of Quarters 

Funds. Copk'S in ODWAC Ref File, WAC Expansion 1971 - 1973. CM H. 

~. DA Msg (ODWAC) 151847Z Nov 72, sub: WAC Expansion, ODWAC Ref File, Expansion. 

WAC, 1972 (conl'd), CMH. 
276 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

for admi nistration and housing. a WAC supervisor for inspection, counseling. and guidance was desirable but no longer required. 48 

The new policies resulted in the elimination of most of the WAC 

detachments between 1973 and 1975. Commande rs eagerly grasped the 

o pportunity to merge enlisted units, for they could now provide more 

housing for women, obtain maximum use of barracks facilities. and reduce 

the number of cadre needed to operate units. The merger also eliminated 

most gender-related variations in disciplinary and promotion policies. 

Unit mergers caused no major upheaval nor did they bring complaints 

from enlisted women. Most did not immediately move into new barracks, 

and women office rs and cadre continued to inspect, discipline, and coun~ 

sel them. In jointly occupied barracks, women lived in separate and 

secure areas; privacy for both sexes was preserved. 

Integration of the sexes in training was simil arl y successful. In 1972, 

TRADOC discontinued the WAC Clerical T rai ni ng Course, the Pe rsonnel Specialists Course, the NCO Leadership Course, and the WAC Officer Advanced Course at WAC School. With the abolition of these 

courses, and excepting combat arms training, WACs-enlisted, warrant, 

and commissioned-attended the same courses as male personnel. The 

WAC Officer Basic Course began to share academic facilities with the 

Chemical School on post, and that move provided the space needed for 

the WAC Center to open two additional basic training battalions. 49 

While housing could be improved by revising Army policy, statutory 

c hanges had to be made to correct a related problem. For a number of 

years, the Army had asked Congress for legislation to allow military 

women to claim dependency status for husbands and children. No fewer 

than eleven bills were introduced between 1968 and 1973 to remove the 

inequity. o No bill survived committee. Dependency status was extremely 

valuable because it governed the military sponsor's entitlement to housing 

and subsistence allowances, and it determined the size of family housing 

on post, quarters allowance for off-post housing, and the benefits given 

dependents (medical care, schooling, transportation, commissa ry and post 

exchange privileges, etc.). 

Then, on 14 May 1973, a Supreme Court decision rendered the proposed legislation unnecessa ry. Early that yea r, USAF Lt. Sharron A. 

Frontiero and her husband had charged the Department of Defense with 

discriminating against them by denying her dependency benefits equal to 

those of men. The Supreme Court held that such discrimination was 

unconstitutional. The comptroller of the United States followed with a 

ruling that the decision applied to the children as well as to the husbands 

.. DA Msg (ODWAC) 2 118SQZ Aug 73, sub: WAC E~~nsion. ODWAC Rer File. E~p:lllsion. 

WAC. 1973. CMH . 

" Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1912. History Colleclioll. WAC Museulll . 

• 0 90th Congo 2d st$$: HR 151 27. S 4195; 91st Congo 1st sess: HR 466. HR 10323, HR 11 210. S 

2741; 92d Congo lSI sess: HR 4954. HR 2580. I-IR 2335. HR 8758. HI{ 8759. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 277 

of female military personnel. Women were allowed to submit claims for 

ten years preceding the date of the decision, in line with the statute of 

limitations o n federal claims. ti l The inequity had been blatant; its removal 

was wholeheartedly endorsed by the services and the women directors. 

Other efforts pursued by persons in and out of the services were not as 

enthusiastically received. 

Statutory Enlistment Qualificatiolls Changed 

One of the objectives of the women's movement was to eliminate dual 

entry qualifications in all aspects of American life. Applied to the armed 

forces, the goals of the movement were to eliminate dual enlistment 

standards, abolish separate women's organizations, such as the W ACt and 

end the prohibitions aga inst women's entering the service academies and 

serving in combat. By contrast, many in the women's services saw no 

discrimination in the separate standards of enlistment for men and women. 

The WAC leadership generally assumed that because men constituted 98 

percent of the Army and men performed a wider range of MOSs than 

women, they required a wider range of mental and educational levels. 

Many men's jobs required strong backs far more than agile minds. To 

perform the duties for which women were trained-still primarily admin· 

istration, medical care, and communications fields- enlisted women 

needed high mental and educational qualifications. But, in the 1970s, more 

WACs were serving in more MOSs than ever before, and traditional 

distinctions began to fade within the Army. 

A bill introduced in Congress in 197 1 to make the minimum enlistment 

age the same for men and women failed, but another, introduced in 1973, 

was enacted in 1974. U General Bailey objected to lowering the women's 

enlistment age to 17, arguing that this change was not necessary to obtain 

enlistments and that accepting 17·year·olds would bring in too many 

women with adolescent problems of adjustment. She agreed to concur in 

the bill only when General Rogers, the DCSPER, assured her that, 

though the Army would have the authority to enlist women below age 

18, the secretary of the Army probably would not choose to make use of 

it. However, contrary to General Rogers' opinion, in 1976, Secretary 

Martin R. Hoffmann, issued a regulation lowering women's enlistment 

age to 17 to duplicate the men's. The issue proved of little consequence; 

between 1973-1976, the ave rage age of women recruits was 20.2 years. 53 

. , Frontiero •. Richardson, Sed)cf. el al.. US 71- 1694 (1973); DA (DACA-CSJ) Msg 241628Z 

Stp 73, sub: Implementation of Supreme CQurl Decision #71- 1694. and US CQmptrol1er General 

Deci~ion, 31 Aug 73, ODWAC Ref File. Frontiero, CMH. 

AI 92d Congo 1st sess. HR 11064; PL 290. 93d CQng, 2d stS$, 24 May 74. 

IS MenlO. DWAC to Dir. Military Personnel Policy Directorate. ODCSPER, 12 J un 74, sub: Age 

Criteria for Female Enlistments. ODWAC Ref File. Enlistment Standllrds, CM H; Study. Women in 

the Military, Oct 81, p. 23. ODWAC Ref File, Studies, Women in the Mililary. CMH; AR 601-210, 1 
278 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Beginning in 197 1, to enlist, women without previous service had to 

request a waiver if they were married or had had an illegitimate pregnancy. During the period I November 1971 th rough 30 October 1972, the 

U.S. Army Enlistment Eligibility Activity received 120 such requests and 

disapproved 15 of them. This high ratio of approva l and the fact that men 

and women in the other services could enlist whether or not they were 

married o r had had illegitimate children made it impossible for the WAC 

to require a waiver. The regulation was discontinued in 1913,54 

In 1972, for the first time, the Army standardized the dependency 

criteria for enlistment for men and women-by allowing one dependent 

who, if other than a spouse, had to be 18 o r older. Until then, a male with 

no previous service was allowed to enlist with one dependent; a woman 

was allowed none. Although the man's dependent was assumed to be his 

wife, it could have been a child of any age, or a parent. In 1973, the 

regulation was relaxed to allow initial enlistment with two dependents 

and, for the fi rst time, spouseless applicants (unmarried, divorced, separat· 

ed) with dependents could enlist if they submitted proof that their dependents were permanently in the care of someone else. The 1973 amend· 

ment was frequently abused. Men and women ignored their preenlist· 

ment statements and brought their dependents to live with them after 

completing training. Commanders found that single parents frequently 

lacked the time, money, and expertise to care for their children properly. 

In January 1975, the regulation was again revised to disqualify from 

enlistment a single parent who had one or more dependents under eight. 

een years of age. Married applicants with more than th ree dependents 

were also disqualified. ISIS 

The physical standards that women joining the Army had to meet had 

always been higher than those required for men. The WAC philosophy 

was that because women in society did not receive the same physical 

conditioning and stamina programs as men, women needed the best possible physical ratings to cope with strenuous Army training and recreation 

programs. In January 1973, the commander of the U.S. Army Recruiting 

Command complained to General Rogers that his recruiters could not 

explain to recruits why women had to be more physically fit tha n men to 

perform duty in the same MOS or career group. General Bailey explained 

that higher physical standards ensured that women could physicall y qualify in any MOS open to them and sustain their performance in it. General 

May 68, Regular Army Enlistment Program, as rev by Table 2·1. 8asie Enlistment QualifICations ror 

Persons with No I'rior Service, CM H Library. 

u Memo, ODCSPER Directorate of Procurement and Distribution (Action OrflCer: LtCoI Mary 

R. Williams) to DeSPER. 2Q De<: 73, sub: Enlistment Eligibility or Women Who have Been 

Pregnant While Unmarried, and Interim Changes 18 and 19, 9 Fcb and 15 Mar 73, respectively, to 

A R 601 -2 10, Regular Army Enlistment Program, ODWAC Rer File, Enlistment Standards, CM H . 

.. Rule " F" Dependents, Table 2- 1, Basic Enlistment Qualifications, AR 60 1- 210, I May 68, 

Regular Army Enlistment Program, as rev 72, 7), and 7S; and Ltr. DCSPER (DA PE-MPR- P), 26 

Jan 76, ODWAC Ref File, Dependency, C MH. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 279 

Rogers. however, believed the discrepancy in the standards would be 

construed as discrimination by the public. He directed that women's 

physical standards be aligned with the men's, with the exception, insisted 

upon by General Bailey, that women have no history of mental or 

emotional disorders. In 1975, this exception, too, was discontinued. 56 

In view of the determined effort by the women's movement and DOD 

to equalize enlistment standards, it is worth noting that neither the Army 

nor Congress asked for lower mental or educational standards for women 

between 1972 and 1976. Both wanted the public to know that the majority of men and women entering the All-Volunteer Army were intell igent 

high school graduates. Immediately after U.S. forces left Vietnam and the 

draft ended, many male enlistees were high school dropouts who scored 

low on the Armed Forces Qualificatio n Test. WAC enlistees during the 

same period scored high on the tests, and their educational level was 

high. The women's statistics thus raised the overall averages. In February 

1976. Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana introduced a bill (S. 3(03) to require 

that mental and educational qualifications for enlistment be the same for 

men and women. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld objected to 

the legislation because it would remove the flex ibility of the services to 

modify mental. physical, education, and other standa rds to select the best 

available men and women based on recruiting market conditions. The bill 

did not leave the Senate Armed Services Committee. 57 However, after 

the WAC was discontinued in 1978. the then secretary of the Army, 

Clifford L. Alexander. lowered the mi nimum mental test score fo r 

women from 50 to 16 and allowed women without a high school diploma 

or GED to enter the Army. Enlistment standards. for the first time, were 

equal for men and women. 58 

COl/cems Over Numbers alld MOSs 

Because WAC expansion had rapidly filled the gaps created by the 

loss of draftees, in January 1974 Secretary of the Army Callaway directed 

the Army staff "to exploit success" and recruit more women as fast as 

possible. As WAC members increased, they boosted Army strength but 

56 LtT, Cdr, First US Army R~'Cruiting Distri<.:t, Fort George G. Meade, MD, to Cdr, US Army 

Recruiting Command, HamptOn, VA, 4 Apr 73, sub: Requcst for a Change in Medical Fitness 

Standards, 1M Ind, Cdr. US Army Recruiting Command. to DCSPER, 16 Apr 73, 2d Ind, DCSPER 

DA (DAPE-MPE-I'S) to Cdr, US Army Recrniting Command. ODWAC Ref File, Enlistment 

Standards, CMH; AR 601·210, ]5 Jun 75. The Regular Army Enlistmcnt Program, CM H Library. 

u Memo, ODCSI'ER Directorate for Militury Personnel Management (DAPE-MPE·CS) to 

DWAC, 14 Apr 76, sub: To Amcnd Section 505, Title 10, USC, to require Ihut qualifications for 

enlistment in the Armed Forces of the U.S. be the same for mule and female personnel, ODWAC Ref 

File, Enlisunent Standards, CM I·1. 

U Interim change, 26 Apr 79, to AR 601-210 Regular Army Enlistment I'rogram and complete 

revision of AR 601 .210 on 1 Oct 80 provided lhat women with a high school diploma or GED with 

II score of 16 could be cnlislcd- but not to c~ceed 10 percent of those enlisted. 
280 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

also created new conce rns. In meetings with the secreta ry. General 

Roge rs voiced his reservations about raising the WAC objective beyond 

the September 1979 goa l of 50,400. He wanted to ensure that women 

could be recruited to fi ll not only the traditional but also the no ntraditional MOSs in which the shortages of ma le recruits would be most acutely 

felt in future years. General Bailey also had reservations about expanding 

beyond the existing strength ta rget. She was concerned that WAC accessions might again overtake the Army's ability to provide uniforms, drill 

sergeants, and housing-as had occurred in 1972. She further wanted to 

be sure that recruiters could achieve WAC objectives without requesting 

further c hanges in the enlistment standards. Secretary Callaway met with 

the concerned officials and agreed to retain the long-range objective of 

50,400 enlisted women. However, he told the DeSPER to push WAC 

recruiting to its limits witho ut lowering the women's enlistment standards 

and to consider a highe r WAC strength objective fo r the future. S9 

On 26 February, the c hairman of the WAC Ex pansion Steering Committee, Brig. Gen. James W. Wrot h (ODCSPER) briefed the committee 

on Secretary Callaway's decisions. Maj. Gen. George W. Putnam, Director, Military Personnel Management (ODCSPER), asked that recruiting 

be directed towa rd enlisting WACs in MOSs that we re traditionall y less 

popular among WACs, such as repair and maintenance, " to prevent a 

surplus in MOS favored by females, and to insu re to ur equity and ma le 

progression opportunity." 60 To accomplish this goa l, the recruiting command decreased the monthly number of spaces available in the MOSs 

favored by women-administration, medical ca re and treatment, communications-and increased those in nontraditional areas. Many women who 

wanted to enlist had to accept training and assignment in a fi eld other 

than the one they preferred. As a result, however, among all WACs, the 

percentage of women serving in nontraditio nal MOSs rose from l.8 

percent in 1972 to 22.4 percent in 1978. T he g reatest increase occurred in 

transportation, mechanical maintenance, law enfo rcement, electrical/electronics maintenance, aviation main tenance, and gene ral engineeri ng.6 I 

But, as the MOS distribution problem was being reso lved, a sho rtage of 

d rill se rgeants began to impact seriously on the ex pansio n program. 

TRADOC fu nded a recruiting team that visited A rmy posts througho ut 

the United States and secured some 100 drill sergean ts to fill c ritica l 

vacancies at Fort McClellan and Fort Jackson.62 

u MFRs. Oep DWAC (Col Maida E. Lambelh), 22 Jan 74. sub: Meeling Wilh SA (S(X;relary of 

the Armyj re Further WAC Expansioll. with Incls, and ODCS I'ER, Chief, Programs Review Team 

(LICol Charles E. Tucker). 24 hn 74. sub: Increase in WAC Strength, ODWAC Ref File, Expansion 

of lhe WAC. 1972-1978. CMH. 

eo Min, WAC Ex p~n on Sleering Committee, 26 Feb 74. p. 2. ODWAC Ref File. Sleering 

Cornrniltee MinUleS, 1974, CM H. 

81 ODWAC Ref File. MOS- Traditional lnd NonTraditional. CM I· •. 

n Min, WAC E~p, n Steering Cornminee. 22 May 74 and 20 May 75. ODWAC Ref File, 

Sleering Comrnim-e Minutes, 1974, 1975. CM H. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 281 

During this period Congress also sought to aid recruitment. In 1971 

the lawmakers had authorized bonuses to men who would enlist in a 

combat arms MOS. So successful was this experiment that in 1974, faced 

with shortages in some nontraditional MOSs. Congress offered bonuses to 

men and women who enlisted in critical MOSs- fixed plant equipment 

repairman, radio relay and carrier attendant, dial central office repairman, 

power generator and equipment mechanic, and others. Bonus money, 

ranging from $1,500 to $2,500 for a four ~year enlistment, did lure women 

to enlist in these c ustomarily all~ma e MOSs.6 3 

The WAC expansion derived additional impetus from another bill, 

which had been passed by Congress in 1973. Fearing the services would 

not secure men and women who could perform complex technological 

tasks, Congress, in its defense appropriation bill for FY 1974, required 

that 55 percent of all enlistees be high school graduates and that at least 

82 percent be in the upper three mental categories. (14 Although Army 

regulations until 1978 required women enlistees to be high school gradu~ 

ates, men could enlist if they met the mental and physical requirements of 

their enlistment option, whether they had attended high school or not. 

The tide of women enlistees helped the Army fulfill Congress' demands. 

The deputy commander of the U.S. Army Recruiting Command 

(USAREC) explained: " In effect every woman we enlist is the equivalent 

of two enlistments-a woman who is a high school graduate and a male 

non- high school graduate who otherwise could not be accepted. Thus, by 

enlisting more women we increase our capability of attaining our total 

enlistment objectives." a t; T he bonuses and the high school law helped 

USAREC surpass its WAC recruitment goals and, at the same time, 

increase the number of women enlisted in nontraditional MOSs. Against 

WAC recruitment objectives of 14,400 for FY 1974 and 17,200 for FY 

1975, USAREC signed up 15,511 enlisted women in FY 1974 and 19,27 1 

in FY 1975. 6 6 

Inevitably, the question of weapons training for women arose. Com~ 

manders frequently stated they could not increase the number of int ~ 

changeable spaces that women might fill because women did not receive 

tactical and weapons training. Combat support and combat service up ~ 

port units provided rear area security for their ba~talions . All unit memo 

bers had to qualify in the use of small arms and use them in patrolling and 

n PL 92-129, Armed Services Enlislmenl Bonus Acl, 28 Sep 11: PL 93·331, the Expanded Armed 

Services Enlistment Bonus Act, 10 May 14: "E~ panded Enlistment Bonus," Us. Arm)' Recruititlg 

Journol, Jun 14, p. 29. 

64 PL 93- 238, Defense Approprialions Act for FY 1974,2 JaJl 13. 

u Llr, Dcp Cdr, USA REC, Fort Sheridan, IL, 10 recruiting district cdrs, 19 Feb 14, sub: 

Increasing EnliSlmenl of Women, in Minutes, WAC Expansion Steering CommiUee. 27 Feb 14, 

ODWAC Ref File, Steering Committee Minutes, 1914, CMH. 

U Fact Sheet, ODCSPER, 20 Mar 75, sub: Expansion of Ihe Women's Army Corps (for objeclives), ODWAC Ref File, Expansion, WAC, 1914- 1975, CMH; Slrc tJglh of Ihe Arm)' Report 

(DCSPER 46). Pari II, Gains, 30 Jun 14 and )0 Jun 15. 
282 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

guarding the unit perimeter to prevent enemy infiltration and sneak attacks. Without weapo ns training, women could not share this work, and 

men in the unit would have to pull double duty. In 1974, therefore, the 

steering committee, including General Bailey, recommended to General 

Rogers that defensive weapons training be reintroduced in the women's 

basic training programs, both officer and enlisted. Such training had been 

eliminated for WACs in 1963 when the carbine, a lig ht rifle, was declared 

obsolete and A rmy trainers considered the new M 14 rifle too heavy for 

women. Approving the recommendation, Chief of Staff Abrams directed 

the commander of TRADOC to add weapons training to WAC basic 

train ing. On 12 July, trainees began a sixteen-hour course to familiarize 

them with the M16 rifle; firing the weapon was voluntary. Recruiting 

literature and enlistment forms were changed to ensure that women 

knew, when they enlisted, that weapons training and use was a standard 

requirement. A year later, the rule was changed again. After I July 1975, 

defensive weapons training and the firing of weapons became mandatory. 

Thereafter, women's basic training contained a forty-ho ur course that 

included familiarization with and qualification on the M 16 and other 

hand-held weapons. Women could now do full duty in combat support 

and combat service support units, and the commanders' objections were 

overcome. 6 7 

Expansion and Overseas Assignments 

Another major challenge facing expansion planners was the need to 

increase the number of WACs overseas. In June 1945, the WAC had 

15,908 women in overseas theaters. T hough 17.5 percent of WAC 

strength, the number was only .3 percent of the total Army strength 

overseas of 4.9 million. In 1972, approximately 40 percent of all enlisted 

men and 8.6 percent of the enlisted women were serving overseas. The 

percentage of women overseas compared to total A rmy members overseas was still .3 percent.68 

With the success of the WAC expansion, General Rogers wished to 

achieve a more equitable overseas ratio. Women sho uld share with men 

the burden of performing overseas duty, and the number of assignments 

o pen to both could be increased. If women occupied the maj ority of 

positions in CONUS, whether in traditional or nontraditional MOSs, and 

were unable to serve overseas, the Army could no t rotate men back to 

CONUS when they completed their foreign to urs. Beginning in 1973, 

enlistment o ptions under which men went directly overseas after complet87 AR 310- 31, 25 May 10, Mftnagcment System for Tables ofOrgani7.8tion and Equipmem, par 2-

25, WAC Personnel, CM I1 Library; Historical Reports, WAC c&S, 1963, 1914. 1915, History 

Collection. WAC Museum. 

88 Treadwell, The W"",ells Ar",y C"rps. Appendix A, Table 1, p. 112; Slr/mglll of lire Army Reporl 

(DCSPER 46), Pari I, Strength by T ype and Command, 30 lun 12. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 283 

iog basic and ad vanced training were opened to women. T he scarcity of 

male replacements induced commanders in Europe to add more interchangeable positions on their manning documents, and in 1974 requisitions for WAC officers and enlisted women increased from 100 to 500 a 

month. Commanders in Japan increased their requisitions from 20 to 

approximately 150 WACs per month. T hose in Alaska, the Canal Zone, 

and Korea, who previously had requ isitioned few WACs, substantially 

increased the number of WACs employed in those areas between 1972 

and 1978. (See Table 23.) By 1978,33.5 percent of the e nlisted women and 

27.7 percent of the women officers in the Army, excluding those in the 

Medical Department. served overseas. There they made up 6.2 percent of 

all Army personnel. 

TABLE 23- W AC STRENGTH OUTSIDE CONUS 

Area 1912 1978 

Europe ............ . 473 13,67 1 

Ha\vaii......... . ................................................................. . 98 974 

Japan ... .......... ... .... ............................................. .... ..... ....... . 90 377 

Korea ............ ................................................ ....... ............... . 20 1,593 

Alaska ........... .................................... ...... ........................... . 49 594 

Panama Canal Zone ................. ..... ..... ................................ . 8 301 

Other .................................................................................. __ ="--- 450 ___ -"'-'---- 981 

Total ............................... ............. ..... ..... .............................. . 1,188 18,491 

Sollrce: Strength of Ihe Army Reports (DCSPER 46), ParI I. 30 lun 12. 30 lun 78. 

The shorter overseas tour that women served was the next inequity to 

be addressed. Regulations directed that single women and all unaccompanied personnel-those who chose to leave their dependents in CONUS 

while they completed an overseas tour-serve a two-year foreign service 

lo ur of duty. But single men and men and women whose dependents 

accompanied them overseas served a three-year tour_ 69 The director of 

Military Personnel Management. ODCSPER. had put the question before 

the steering committee. 70 General Bailey had recommended that the tour 

for unaccompanied and single men and women be set at two years 

because housing overseas was poor. "With the rapid expansion and integration of women," she wrote. " ho using has and will be fo r some time a 

U Min. WAC E~pllnsion Steering Commillce, 22 May and 24 SCI' 74, ODWAC Ref File, Sleering 

Commillce Minutes. 1914, CMH; AR 6 14-30, 14 Mar 55, Foreign Service, CMH Library. 

70 OF, Dir, Military Persolll1eL Managemenl. OOCS I'ER (DA I'E-MI'E-DR), 10 DWAC and olher 

Steering Comminee members, 11 May 13, sub, Overseas Tour Lengths, ODWAC Ref File, Tour 

Lengt h. Overscas. CMH. 
284 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

critical item in Europe." 71 The Corps' expansion had quickly filled the 

available women's barracks, and the buildings to which the overflow had 

been assigned needed rehabilitation. The U.S. Army. Europe, and Seventh Army commander, General Michael S. Davison, supported a shorter 

overseas tour for unaccompanied and single personnel. but primarily for a 

different reason. He believed the number of disciplinary and drug incidents could be reduced by decreasing the length of to ur- especially for 

male soldiers who were most often in volved. He also confirmed that 

bachelor housing in the command was poor and added that the cost of 

travel, food, and rec reation in Europe was outside the price range of 

young soldiers, making thirty-six months overseas a hardship for them. 

He observed, "Despite the availability of off-d uty recreation programs, 

you ng soldiers express continued disenchantment with Germany as a duty 

area." 72 The surgeon general, Lt. Gen. Richard R. Taylor, also preferred 

the shorter overseas to ur ror single and unaccompanied personnel and 

opposed "action which will hurt our ability to retain doctors, nurses, and 

other medical professionals." 73 

Despite the support for a shorter roreign service tour, a budget crisis 

in 1975 fo rced the Army to move in the opposite direction. D uring 

hearings in 1974 and 1975, Congress c hastised the Army for exceeding its 

budget fo r changes or station and reduced the serv ice's appropriation for 

travel costs during FY 1976. 74 To prevent another overrun, the Army, 

effective I April 1975, extended foreign service tours for male soldiers 

from thirty-six to thirty-nine months in Europe and Japan, and from 

twelve to thirteen months in Korea and Turkey. The to ur fo r single 

women and personnel who were married but unaccompanied increased 

from twenty-fou r to twenty-seven months in Europe and Japan and from 

twelve to thirteen months in Korea and Turkey. Single men complained 

to their cong ressmen and to newspapers that women served much shorter 

to urs. Because of this discrepancy and because of budget problems, the 

Army directed that effective 1 January 1976, single men, single women, 

and unaccompanied personnel would serve the same length of overseas 

to ur. When the Army's budget problems lessened in 1977, foreign service 

for all personnel was reduced to thirty-six months in long-tour areas (e.g., 

Europe, Japan), and twelve months in short-tour areas (e,g" Turkey and 

Korea).75 

7. OF. OWA C to Oir, Military Personnel Management, OOCS PER. 11 J un 73, Sub: Overseas 

Tour Length. OOWAC Ref File. Tour Length. Oversc1's, CM H. 

a "Shorter No.Kiu Tours Sought." Army Times. 29 Jan 75. 

T3 "Army Women 10 Gd Longer Europe Tours." Army Times. 25 Dec 75. 

H US Congress. House. 9Jd Cong, 2d lK.'SS. Hearings before (l Sliocommiuee of the Commillce all 

Appropriatians. Deparlmelll of Defellse Appropriatiolls for 1975. 2 May 74, PI'. 72- 73. Appropriation 

hCllrings hcrcaflcr cited as HOII!#! (or SeIWIe) lIearillgs. Defellse Appropriatio/ls. FY. and date; HailsI' 

IIl'arillgs. Defe"se ApprapriatiOIls, FY 76, 26 Fcb 75. p. 1099. 

a DA Msgs (DA I'E·M I'E-DR) 111755Z Mar 75, sub: Reduction of I'CS Moves and Costs; 

(DAPE·M I'E·DR) 021805Z Jan 76. sub: Interim Clmnge to AR 614·]0. Overseas $ervi(;c; and 
THE END OF T HE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 285 

Tire Interchangeable Spaces Policy 

An Army~wid e inc rease in interchangeable spaces on manning dOCUM 

ments was the key to continuing the momentum of WAC expansion and 

filling recruiting goals. During 1973. the U.S. Forces Command (pORS· 

COM), responsible for readiness. led the Army in documenting such 

spaces. The FORSCOM commander, General Walter T. Kerwin, Jr., 

DeSPER from 1969 through 1972, directed units and activities in the 

command to identify all of the Table of Distribution (TO) and most of 

the Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) spaces as interchangeable. He excluded onl y spaces in units classified as Category I, TOE 

units-which had direct combat missions-and those that had a clearly 

justifiable requirement to be coded by sex. In his opinion, women's entry 

standards enabled WACs to qualify for almost every noncombat position, 

and he decla red, "Unless we utili ze womenpower, it w ill be difficult, if 

not impossible to fiU all of our installation jobs .... The FORSCOM goal 

is to achieve true integration with mutual respect, understanding, and 

acceptance." 16 So that lack of housing would not be a constraint, General Kerwin advised FORSCOM commanders to take advantage of the 

Army's new policies: "Minimum standards for WAC barracks have been 

changed to closely coincide with standards for enlisted men, making both 

newly constructed barracks and modernized barracks adaptable for either 

men or women." 11 Although the process of recoding the manpower 

spaces in TD and TOE units was slow, General Kerwin had taken a giant 

step in reducing the importance of gender as a factor in Army personnel 

management. 

In January 1975. General Bailey recommended that the Army adopt 

the FORSCOM policy. The WAC Expansion Steering Committee approved, and the DCSPER Directorate for Plans, Programs. and Budgets 

circulated for comment a c hange to Army Regulation 310-49. T he 

change was approved by the Army staff. On 1 October 1974, the 

DCSPER, General Rogers, announced the new policy. All TD spaces 

and those in Category II and III TOE units-combat support and combat 

service support- would be coded interchangeable. Exceptions would be 

granted by the DCSPER when a commander provided written justification for a space to be coded for male or female occupancy. The new 

policy gave personnel officers maximum assignment flexibility and gave 

the DCSPER an enforceable regulation. Nonetheless, some commanders 

attempted to obtain exceptions to the new policy on the basis of vague 

c riteria- remoteness, isolated locations, field environment, undesirable 

(DAPE-M I'E-DR) 04\3 14Z Nov 76, same sub. All in ODWAC Rer File, Regulations. AR 6 14-30, 

CMH. 

fa Llr, Cdr, FORSCOM, to subordinate cdrs, 26 Nov 13, sub: WAC Expan$ion. ODWAC Ref 

File, Interchangeable Spaces, CM H. 

" Ibid. 
286 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

pressures, lack of facilities, brute strength requirements, emotional and 

logistical problems, and others. By 30 September 1977, however, approximately 275,000 spaces had been designated as interchangeable or femaleonly, and the Army considered establishing an authorized strength of 

80,000 enlisted women. 78 

The Impact of Expansion 0" WAC Officers 

Unlike the program for enlisted women, the 1973 expansion plan did 

not project goals for WAC officer strength. A single sentence declared: 

"Sufficient WAC officers will be procured and trained to meet requirements," 79 Changes affecting officer procurement and a continuing problem in determining WAC requirements had made the vagueness necessary. Army manning documents on 30 June 1973 showed only a small 

number of spaces available for WACs; 470 were for WAC officers only, 

and 2,788 were interchangeable spaces. An unwritten, but commonly 

accepted policy reserved 50 percent of the interchangeable officer spaces 

for WAC officers. General Bailey pointed out to the steering committee 

that this policy produced inc redibly few spaces compared to the total of 

106,000 Army officers authorized for FY 1973. And it provided little 

assistance in planning. At least five methods for projecting WAC officer 

procurement and strength goals for fiscal years 1976 through 1980 were 

proposed, but each had some technical naw. Finally in 1975, the 

DCSPER directed that a computer model be developed using a1l the 

studies, experience, and data gathered on the subject. During the year or 

more needed to complete the task, the DeSPER used the ratio of ma le 

officers to total ma le strength as the ratio for female officers to enlisted 

women's strength to determine requirements for women officers. T hus. if 

the male ratio was 10 officers for every 100 men, and if there were 27,000 

enlisted women on duty, 2,700 WAC officers would be authorized. Although the method was not entirely satisfactory, it was usable until the 

computer model could be completed. 80 

18 OF. DWAC to ODCSI'ER Directorate of Plans. Programs, and (Judge!. 11 Jan 7S. sub: Revised 

AR's 3 10-49 and S70-4; OF. DWAC to SlIme addressees. S Jun n. sub: Strawman- Dcsign:llion of 

Male/ Female/ Interchangeable Positions in TAADS; Llr, DCSI'ER to Maj Conls, 1 Oct 7S. sub: 

Designation MalelFemale/lnlerchangeable Posilioos in TAADS; Llr. Cdr. Eighth US Army 

(Korea). to OCSPER, OA. ) ScI' 1S. sub: WAC Content in Units, with IndS; OF. DCSLOG (Chief. 

War Reserves Office) to ODCSI'ER. 22 Nov 77, sub: Mobilization Suppon for Females. with Incl. 

Copies in ODWAC Ref File, Interchangeable Spaces, 1972- 1978, CMH. 

n SS. DCSPER (DAPE.PI'D) to Col'S. 24 Sep 73, sub: PJ an for ExpansiOn of the Women's Army 

Corps, dale-slamped Rpprova19 Oct 73. ODWAC Rer File. EX jlansion, WAC, 1973. CM II. 

811 Min. WAC ExpAnsion Steering COnlmittee, 14 Aug 73. with Inc!: DCSPER I'oint Paper, 14 

Aug 73. sub: WAC Officers in the 11a.'lCline Force; and Memo, DCSPER through Cors and ASA 

M&'RA ror DASD M&.RA, 20 Nov ?S. sub: Army Women OffICer Program-INFORMAT ION 

Memorandum, OOW AC Ref File, Officers WAC, CMH. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 287 

But the search for a new formula was soon pressured by further 

changes. In 1972. Chief of Staff Westmoreland had opened ROTC to 

women and had included women in a new Officer Personnel Management 

System (OPMS). A cong ressio nal committee had voted to enroll women 

in the service academies. T he impact of these actions was now beginning 

to be felt. 

When General Bailey first became director of the W ACt o ne of the 

questions frequently asked by representatives of the women's movement 

had been "Why can't women as well as men be commissioned through 

Army ROTC?" The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) programs 

were, and are, the most productive source of commissioned officers for 

all the services. At first, Gene ral Bailey was reluctant to relinquish the 

direct commission programs that produced high-quality WAC officers. 

But, in 1969, the Air Force began enrolling women in ROTC, and, in 

Februa ry 1972, the Navy announced that it would open an experimenta l 

ROTC program for women. Before the Navy's announcement, General 

Bailey had decided that the time had come to propose Army ROTC as a 

supplementary means for obtaining WAC officers. A few days after the 

Navy's announcement, General Westmoreland approved a similar experimental program for the WAC. Beginning in September 1972, the Army 

would enroll 200 women in the pilot program. For the experiment, 20 

women would participate in the program in each of ten carefully selected 

Army ROTC colleges: 

Eastern Kentucky Unive rsity, Richmond 

Pennsylvania Stale Uni versity, University Park 

Florida State University, Tallahassee 

South Carolina State Uni versity, Orangeburg 

Louisiana State University and A&M Coll ege, Baton Rouge 

Indiana University, Bloomington 

Texas A&I University. Kingsville 

South Dakota State University, Brookings 

Arizona State University, Tempe 

Uni versity of Hawaii, Honolulu81 

General Bail ey's belief that the time was right for women to enter 

Army ROTC proved to be correct. The participating colleges were 

del uged with applications that first year, and a survey showed that 65 

percent of the other ROTC colleges wanted to include women. With this 

encouragement, on 17 May 1973, Chief of Staff Abrams approved open-

.. 5S, DCSPER 10 Cots. 9 Feb 72, sub: Tesl Program for Opening KOTC Enrol1menl 10 Women 

al 8- 10 Institutions, approved 14 Feb 72; Ltr. CG, CONARC (As.~t DeS for Individual Training. 

OrigGen Mihon E. Key). 10 DCSPER (DAI'£..ITR), 17 Mar 72, sub: Test Program or Women in 

ROTC, wilh Ind, 21 Mar 72; Aililual HislOrieal Summary FY 1972 CONARC, p. 370. Senior ROTC; 

000 Press Release. 23 Mar 15. sub: CollegCllto OtTer Army ROTC 10 Womcu. Copies in ODWAC 

Rtr File, ROTC, C M"' . 
288 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

ing Army ROTC to women at all the colleges that desired it. Thereafter, 

enrollment of women in ROTC increased rapidly. (See Table 24.) 

TABLE 24 - WOMEN TN ARMY ROTC 

School Year 

1972- 73 

1973-74 

1974-75 

1975-76 

1976- 77 

1977- 78 

1978- 79 

Number Enrolk-d 

212 

3,098 

6,354 

9,324 

11 ,838 

14,296 

15,265 

Percent of ROTC 

Sludems 

1% 

9% 

16% 

19% 

22% 

24% 

25% 

Number Commissioned 

ISO 

495 

712 

791 

ScurrY: RB 20-2. Women in che Arm)" US Army Command lind General StalT College, Aug 

78, p. 2J. 

After weapons training became mandatory for women officer candidates and ROTC cadets in January 1976, women and men followed the 

same c urric ulum during the ROTC school year and at summer camp 

between their junio r and senio r years. Beginning in September 1976, 

women could enter the ROTC F light Training Program as well. The 

combat-oriented Airborne and Ranger trai ning programs for ROTC 

cadets remained closed to them. 82 

By September 1974, the program was so successful that General 

Rogers could predict the annual entry o n active duty of hundreds of 

women officers through ROTC. General Bailey realized that she could 

no lo nger retain the WAC direct commission programs even as a supplementary source because ROTC could furnish morc economicall y all the 

women officers the Army needed. The DCSPER and DWAC approved 

TRADOC's recommendation to eliminate the direct commission programs, to integrate women in to the male Officer Candidate School at 

Fort Benni ng begin ni ng in October 1976, and to close WAC School 

when the last WODe class graduated in October 1977. 83 

U DA Msg 091 9()7Z Jan 76 10 Maj Corns. sub: Weapons Training ror Female Soldiers. A<;;live 

Army. Army National G uard. and Army Reserve, and Memo. DCSPER (DAPE-MPO- R) to 

5e<:Army through ColS. 19 Dec 75. sub: Female Training in ROTC Camps and Officer Candidate 

Schools (OCS)- DECISION MEMORANDUM, SccArmy approval da te·stampt.'d 5 Jan 76. Copies 

in ODWAC Ref File. ROTC. C MI·I. 

u ODCSI'ER. A1I1lUul l-l istoricai Summary, FY 75. CM I1 Ref Br. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 289 

OPMS alld the Integration of WAC Officers Into Other Branches 

Few changes had been made in Army officer personnel management 

between the end of the Korean War and January 1972 when Chief of 

Staff Westmoreland approved a new Officer Personnel Management 

System (OPMS). Except for officers in the Medical, Chaplains, and Judge 

Advocate General's branches, which the Army administered separately, 

officers under the new system developed their careers a long a dual track. 

They acquired proficiency in a primary skill associated with their basic 

branch and a secondary skill in one of forty-six specialties within nineteen 

career fields. Centralized selection was another major feature of OPMS; 

an appointed board of officers selected lieutenant colonels and colonels to 

fill designated battalion- and brigade-level command, district engineer, 

logistics command, and project manager positions. To administer the new 

system, officer education and training programs were realigned and the 

Officer Personnel Directorate (OPD) in the Military Personnel Center 

was reorganized to manage officer careers by specialty, grade, and 

branch. a. 

WAC officers were included in the new system, but few WAC branch 

requirements existed from which WAC officers could select a primary 

specialty. Therefore, a newly organized OPMS Steering Committee decided, with the concurrence of the DCSPER, DWAC, and the chief of 

the WAC Career Management Branch, that WAC officers would have 

instead a primary and an alternate specialty.85 WAC officer training was 

adapted to allow for such specialization. In July 1972, the WAC Officers 

Advanced Course was discontinued at WAC School. The basic course, 

retitled the WAC Officers Orientation Course (WOOC), was reduced 

from eighteen to eleven weeks effective 1973. After graduation from 

WOOC or entry on active duty from ROTC, WAC officers attended the 

basic course, usually nine weeks, of another branch. T hey later took the 

advanced course of a branch associated with one of their specialties. And, 

later in their careers, WAC officers, like their male colleagues, had their 

records reviewed by centralized command selection boards for selection 

to serve in positions of command in the grades of lieutenant colonel and 

colonel. WACs, however, were excluded from selection to command 

Infantry, Armor, Field Artillery, VULCAN/CHAPARRAL Air Defense 

commands, and Combat Engineer units.86 

•• Ibid., FY 72. pp. SI- 8S, CMH Ref Br. 

n Min, OPMS Steering Committee, 11 Oct 72. OOW AC Ref File, OPMS. CMH . 

.. Fact Sheet, Chief, WAC Career Manasement Dr, OPO (Ll Col Maida E. Lambeth) to OWAC, 

22 May 72, sub: Officer Personnel Management System, and OF, Oir, Military Personnel Management, ODCSPER, to OWAC and other directorates, 31 May 13, sub: OPMS Centralized Command 

Selectioll System, OOWAC Ref File, OI'MS, CMH. 0l'M5 did not affect the management of 

worrallt officers. 
290 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

To implement the changes, the commander of the Military Personnel 

Center revised existing regulations and directives regarding officer specialties, command, and career management and reorgani zed the CPO. 

The new system had not changed the Army's overall organization by 

branch, nor had it eliminated most of the branc h career management 

sections in OPO. It had, however, brought abo ut the abolition of the 

WAC Career Management Branch in OPO. Under the new system, WAC 

officers would not have a primary specialty related to the WAC. WAC 

officers would attend the basic course of another branch after graduation 

from WODe or ROTC. Thereafter, the WAC officer would be detailed 

(i.e., permanently loaned) to that branch, and she would select a primary 

specialty related to it. After eight or more years of service, she would 

select. as would a male officer, an alternate specialty and thus begin her 

d ual career track. OPD divided the forty-six specialties among managers 

who assigned the officers in their specialties, but coordi nated their actions 

with the officer's basic (or permanent detail) career branch c hief. also 

located in OPD. Under OPMS, the WAC Career Management Branch 

would not control any specialty; the o nl y MOS it had ever controlled 

was MOS 2145, WAC Staff Adviser, which was cOllverted to specialty 

41X and taken over by the specialty manager. The WAC Career Management Branch, therefore. became obsolete and was discontinued after it 

completed the staff actions to integrate WAC officers into the other 

branches of the Army.87 

The WAC Career Management Branch integrated WAC officers into 

the other branches by perma nently detailing them. As soon as the OPMS 

plan was approved, in Marc h 1973. the branch c hief. Col. Shirley R. 

Heinze. and her staff reviewed the indi vidual records of approximately 

1,200 WAC officers to determine the specialties in which they were best 

qualified under OPMS. Approximately two-thirds fell into the administrative category (e.g .• personnel. finance, training, etc.); the other third into 

specialties related to their career specialization programs (e.g., logistics, 

intelligence, foreign area training, etc.). The branch staff then sent each 

officer this information. along with a complete explanation of the OPMS. 

and requested her preferences. After receiving the replies in late 1973 and 

early 1974, Colonel Heinze contacted the branch c hosen by each officer 

as her fi rst preference and gave the branch a resume of the officer's 

qualifications. If the officer's first choice of branch accepted her for 

permanent detail. no other branches were contacted . If the officer's first 

preference did not accept her, her second and, possibly, third c hoices 

were contacted. In cases where a decision could not be reached by this 

.. DA Pam 6/l).3, Officer Professional Developmenr and Uliliu.lion, Mar 74, O DWAC Ref File. 

O I'MS. CMH; AR 611 . 101. 15 Nov 75 (cIT I Mar 76). Commissioned Officer S(M!Cialty Classification 

System, CMH Library. Wilhout congressional aClion, the Army could "01 eliminate 1he WAC as the 

women's basic branch. bu1;t could pcrmPIlCIl tly detail WACs to other bmnches. 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 291 

method, a board was convened to make the decision. Earl y in J une, the 

branch selection process had been completed. It had been a herculean 

task. The adjutant general issued orders, effective 1 July 1974, that pe ~ 

manently detailed 1, 164 WAC officers on active duty to their new 

branches. (See Table 25.) The WAC Career Management Branch was 

retitled the WAC Ad visory Branch and given the mission of coordinating 

aspects of the integration and advising the MILPERCEN and OPD staff 

on matters related to it. 88 

TABLE 2S-WAC OFFICERS ON PERMANENT DETAIL. 17 JUNE 1974 

Branch Col LI Col Maj Capl lSI LI 2d Lt Total Percent 

Adjutant 

General ..... 5 45 47 93 56 135 381 32.8 

Engi neer ....... 2 2 3 13 21 1.7 

Finance ......... 17 14 27 59 5.0 

Military 

Intelligence ......... 3 5 14 38 40 98 198 16.7 

Milit ary 

Police ........ 4 7 6 29 23 66 135 11.4 

Ordnance ...... 4 7 15 17 45 3.8 

Quartermaster .............. 9 19 47 35 57 168 14.2 

Signal ............ 2 4 18 22 57 103 8.7 

Transportation ............ 18 15 36 70 5.9 

WAC· ........... 7 9 5 22 9 52 

• Those counted under WAC were scheduled for release from nctive dut),. retirement. or 

placement in Medical Hold status. 

Sourc/!: DA Special Orders No. 115, II J UII 74, and No. 127,28 Jun 74, ODWAC Ref File, 

WAC Career Marlagement Branch, Integration of WAC Officers inlO Other Branches, CM f-!. 

Before leaving the WAC Ca reer Management Branch, Colonel Heinze 

briefed he r counterparts in OPD on the history and experience of the 

members of the WAC office r corps and the policies that had affected 

their careers. She recalled that the ru les had allowed no promotion for 

WAC officers beyond lieutenant colonel until 1967, had required most 

86 Summar)" WAC Career Management Br, OPO, MILPERCEN, no date. Sequence of AClious to 

Integrate WAC Officers into Other I1 ranches (Feb 7J-Jlll 74), OOWAC Ref File, WAC Career 

Munagement Branch, Integration of WAC Officers into Other Branches, e MH . Collection hereafter 

ciled as O DWAC Ref File- Integration. 
292 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

WAC appointmen ts to have a baccalaureate degree, had excluded WAC 

officers selected for civilian graduate school training from attending Com~ 

mand and General Staff College or the Armed Forces Staff College, had 

allowed only one or two WAC officers to attend a senior service college 

each year, and had precluded most WAC officers from command experience above the g rade of major. She asked OPD to help eliminate the 

restricted utilization of women officers; to improve their traini ng and 

education; to ignore marriage, dependency, and ge nder in making assignments. In closing, she was confident and optimistic: "The Women's A rmy 

Corps officers are equal to the new roles we have been asked to assume. 

You . .. are in a unique position to help us prove it. We have great 

confidence that you will." 89 

WAC Expansion and the Reserve Components 

The end of the d raft also precipitated a g reat effort to increase the 

number of women in the U.S. A rmy Reserve (USAR) and the Army 

National Guard (ANG). Partic ipation of women in the USAR had languished after the involu ntary reca ll of women to active d uty d uring the 

Korean War. At that time, the names of many women were removed 

from active d uty orde rs because they had minor c hildren or dependents, 

were physica ll y disqualified, or could not be fou nd. Consequently, the 

USAR had changed its enlistment and retention ru les to matc h those fo r 

Regula r A rmy women. In 1955, the USAR had 1,139 WAC reservists of 

whom 267 were officers; by 1970, it had only 306 including 84 officers. 

Little effort had been made to recruit women because the reserve had no 

trouble enlisting thousands of men in a 1963 Reserve Enlistment Program, 

which exempted such enlistees from the d raft and required o nl y six 

mo nths on active d uty. In 1967, the bill that had removed WAC ca reer 

restrictions also authorized WACs to be enlisted and appointed in the 

Army National G uard. The National Guard, however, was so slow in 

develo ping its plans that no WAC entered the G uard un til late 197 1. 90 

In March of that year, a Reserve Forces Policy Boa rd study recommended that the se rvices take immediate steps to increase the number of 

women in the reserve components. It called upon the services to prov ide 

adequate facilities fo r women at armo ries and summer camps and to 

119 Briefing. Chief. WAC Career ManagemelU Br. 0 1'0. MILPERCEN. 9 lui 74, sub: WAC. 

ODWAC Ref File-[111egralion. 

no Rp1. LlCol Rhoda M. Messer, USAR, T he Army Reserve WAC Program FY 71 10 FY 8[' HQ, 

USAR, Jan 76, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Reserve & Nalional Guard, CM Ii : Slrl'llgilr of lire Army 

Reporl$ (DCSPER 46), ParI III. 30 lun 55. 30 Jun 61, and 30 J un 70: PL 130, 90th Cong, lSI sess, 8 

Nov 67; Naliallol Gllord$mOlr. Nov 71, .,. 32. Members of Ihe ANC and AMSC were lLuthorized to 

join Ihe National Guard under l'L 845, 841h Cong, 2d sess. 3011,11 1956 , 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 293 

eliminate any inequities in the treatment of women. By June, Maj. Gen. J. 

Milnor Roberts. Chief, U.S. Army Reserve, had prepared an aggressive 

recruitment program for women and recalled a WAC officer on active 

duty to implement it. Maj. Rhoda M. Messer revised and prepared new 

USAR recruitment and training directives and visited USAR commanders 

throughout the United States, informing them of the recruiting program 

and explaining the new directives. In the summer of 1972, General Roberts launched a nationwide campaign to reach a goal of 10,000 women in 

the USAR by the end of FY 1976. T he program achieved some success in 

FY 1972, but it was hampered by a requirement that women without 

previous service complete an eight·week basic training program at Fort 

McClellan before they could attend USAR drill sessions. Many employers 

would not release women for such a lengthy time without loss of benefits, 

although they routinely did so for men who had a military obligation 

under the draft. At the suggestion of Army recruiters, General Roberts 

approved an option to enlist women with skills acquired in civilian life 

and to give them two weeks of basic training at the WAC Center, with 

the balance to be served in their home USAR unit. Under the Civilian 

Acquired Skills Program (CASP), women who were skilled stenographers, c1erk·typists, medical specialists, computer operators, or who pos· 

sessed any of a hund red other skills, were enlisted as privates, first class. 

After they had completed eight weeks of basic training, they were pro· 

moted to corporal or sergeant, depending upon their skill level and the 

need for their MOS in the USAR. Between 1973 and 1978, over 15,000 

women completed the two-week (later three· week) basic training program under CASP at WAC Center.

91 

Several programs also increased the number of women officers in the 

USAR during this period. Women who held baccalaureate degrees could 

apply for a direct commission, attend the eleven-week WAC Officer 

Orientation Course at the WAC School, and then enter a USAR unit in 

their home area. With the September 1972 opening of ROTC to women, 

that program provided a ready and full y adequate source of women 

officers for the USAR. As in the Regular Army, the direct commission 

program for the USAR was discontinued in 1977. 92 

to Memo, Reserve Forces Policy Board to SeeDer, II Mar 71, sub: Women Volunteers in the 

Guard and Reserve. ODWAC Ref File, WAC Reserve Correspondence, C MH; Rpt, Col Helen A. 

Wilson. USMC Res, Current Status of Recruitmel1t and Retention of Women Volunteers ill the 

Guard/Reserve Forces, 20 Aug 11. ODWAC Ref File, Studies, CM H; Annual Historical Summary, 

Reserve Componel1ts. I Jul 71 to JO J UIl 72. 9 May 73, p. 35, CMH Ref Dr; Col Shirley J. Mil1ge, 

USAR, A Resume of the Civilian Acquired Skills Program. Abbreviated lJasic Training (CAS 8T2) 

for WAC Members of the Reserve Components 1973· 1979, ODWAC Ref File. CASP Program, 

eMH. 111 1978. the two-week basic trail1ing program was expanded to three weeks; in 1981. the 

abbreviated program for CAS!' was discontinued. 

liAR 135-100, 17 Mar 72, Appoirument of Commissioned and Wnrrant Officers in the Army 

Nationnl Guard al1d Army Reserve, Chpp 3, Sec V. Appointments of Women ill the Reserve 

Componellts of the Army. and Change 9. I Apr 79, CMH. 
294 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

T he Army National Guard initiated its campaign to obtain WACs in 

September 1971. At the outset, it accepted only women who had previous 

military service. But as commanders in the Nationa l G uard increased the 

number of interchangeable spaces on their manning documents, more 

women could be used, and in March 1972 those without previous service 

were accepted. Based on advice from General Bailey. enlistment and 

appointment qualifications for women in the National G uard matc hed 

those for women in the Regular Army and the USAR.93 In 1974, the 

National Guard also initiated a CASP for enlisted women who attended 

the abbreviated basic training course and for officers who attended the 

WAC Officer Orientation Course at Fort McClellan. Through these programs, the number of women in the Guard inc reased significantly.94 

The reserve components also benefited from effo rts to eliminate differences between military programs for men and women. Congress, in 1977, 

gave women enlistees a six-year military obligation. Beginning I Februa ry 

1978, women between seventeen and twenty-six yea rs old who enlisted 

without previous military service assumed the same military obligation as 

men. Women who completed a three-year enlistment on active duty 

could complete the balance of their obligation in the Individual Ready 

Reserve-a pool of mobilization replacements who did not attend mandatory USAR or Army National Guard drill sessions. Women who enlisted 

directly in the USAR o r the National G uard could se rve the entire sbt 

years in a paid Ready Reserve unit, or four years in a paid unit and two 

years in the Individual Ready Reserve.95 

In the 1970s, both the USAR and the National G uard opened c reative 

programs for women. An all-WAC basic training battalion, largely the 

work of Major Messer, was activated o n I September 1972. Titled the 1st 

WAC Basic Training Battalion, the unit was part of the 80th Division 

(Training), USAR, with headquarters in Richmond, Virginia. The WAC 

battalion, stationed in Alexandria, near Washington, D.C., conducted the 

balance of basic training required for men and women who completed the 

abbreviated CASP basic training program at Fort McClellan. After the 

WAC was disestablished in 1978, the battalion was deactivated (16 September 1978) and its functions were transferred to another unit in the 80th 

D ivision (Training).96 

U The first WAC to be enlisted in the Army National Guard was sp.s Nol'll J. Campbell. who 

enlisted at Fort Lewis. \VA. on 12 Oct 71. T he Air National GUllrd began enlisting women in Dec 

1970. &oe National Gllurt/$IIran. Nov 7\. p. 32 . 

.. DFs.. Chief, National Guard Bureau (NGB). to DWAC, 29 Mar 72. sub: Enlistment of NonPrior Service Women in the ANG. Comment 2. DWAC to Chief. NG Il, 7 Apr 72, and Dir, ANG. to 

Chief, NGB (DARC·ZA). 7 Feb 74. sub: ANG Participation in Fcmllle Basic Training Option. 

ODWAC Ref File, WAC, National Guard. CMH. 

" I'L 95·79. 30 Jul 77. Defense AUlhoriu tion Act. FY 1978; DA Msg 202 113Z Jan 78. sub: 

Military Service Obligation for Women. ODWAC Rcf File. EnliMment Standards. CM H; Change 2. 

1 Apr 78. AR 140-1 II, 1 Jul 76. Enlistment and Reenlistment in the USAR. CM H Libmry. 

II 1st US WAC Basic T minirlg Bilualion. the onl y separate WAC unit in the USAR, was activated 

under GO 831. HQ. First Army. 8 Sep 72. Hnd discontinued under I'ermanent Order 107.1. HQ, First 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 295 

Training sometimes required direct support from WAC Center. In 

1976, the center was called upon to develop and conduct a basic training 

program for women members of the Alaska National Guard. The scout 

battalions of the 297th Infantry, Army National Guard, recruited native 

Alaskan women for duty in their battalions that patrolled the western 

border of Alaska. T he women needed a special training program. After 

being contacted, the WAC Center and School assigned a team of trainers, 

Jed by Maj. Myrna H. Williamson, to the project. The team visited 

Alaska, studied the problems involved. returned to Fort McClellan, drew 

up a course, then returned to Alaska. They conducted the course for 

fifty-two women recruits at Camp Carroll in Anchorage; fifty-one graduated. The recruits learned map reading, marching, communications procedures, intelligence gathering, arctic survival and bivouac, first aid, 

weapons (M16 rifle), and other subjects. During the course the class was 

visited by Maj. Gen. C. F. Necrason, Alaska National G uard adjutant 

general, and Mr. R. "Muk-tuk" Marston, founder of the Alaska Territorial Guard and the Marston Foundation. After completing the course, the 

women went to Army training schools outside Alaska for advanced 

individual training in communications, medical care and treatment, cooking, supply, and administration. Some received on-the-job training at units 

in Alaska before being assigned for duty with the scout battalions. The 

course proved successful, and in I 978, the Army National Guard in 

Alaska again conducted a basic training course for native Alaskan 

women.91 

The WAC expansion inspired an abundance of studies on women's 

programs. One examined women in the reserve components. In November 1977, a review group appointed by the DCSPER undertook a study 

of the policies and programs for women in the USAR and Army National 

Guard for the deputy assistant secretary of the Army for reserve affairs. 

The director of the WAC. given responsibility for the review, appointed 

her deputy, Col. Edith M. Hinton, to chair the Women in the ArmyReserve Components Review Group. Col. Shirley J. Minge, USAR. was 

named to assist Colonel Hinton. The review group issued a comprehensive report on its findings in March 1978. They recommended that the 

two-week CASP basic training course be eliminated in favor of a sevenweek course; that field commanders provide training to eliminate defiArmy. err 16 Sep 79. After a series or aCling cdl'$. on 28 Apr 73, LlCol Dolores J. Miller assumed 

oommand or lhe baualion; she was replaced on 15 Dcl 14 by LICoI Grace M. King. who relired in 

Dec 11 and wu replaced by Maj Jean Curlis., who remained wilh Ihe unil ulllil il was dcaclivaled in 

1919. (hllerv. Maj F. Catherine Dander. Exec:: Officer, 1st WAC D:lSic Training Sn. 14 May 81. 

OOW AC Ref File, WAC Reserve. 1st US WAC Training lJaualion, CMH.) 

n Aner-Aclion Rpt, Maj Myrna H. Williamson. Capl Mary M. Lewis, and Capl Judith A. 

Dewing, ~ub: Special Women's Basic T raining Program, 11 Mar- 8 Apr 16. OOWAC Ref File. WAC 

Reserve &. Nalional Guard. Alaska ScOlit Training, CMH. WAC Cenler Drill Sergeants Suzanne 

Oldt Dnd HMriet Williamson (no relntion 10 the major) led the IWO platoons through the training 

("Alnsknn WOlllen Complele Basic," Army Time5. 10 J ul 78). 
296 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

ME-MOERS OF THE 297TH I NFANTRY, ARMY NATIONAL GUARD, await their 

graduation ceremony llpoll completing a special basic traill ing course at Camp 

Carroll, Alaska, 7 April 1976. 

ciencies in men and women's training caused by variances in the reserve 

programs; that directives make it clear to women members that they 

incurred a six-year obligation when they enlisted; that no ntraditional 

training opportunities be emphasized in recruit advertising for women; 

and that the active Army consider the impact of its new policies and 

programs o n women in the reserve components. 98 

The review showed the success of the WAC ex pansion in the USAR 

and the Army National G uard to have been as significant as it had been 

in the Regular Army. Primarily with the help of the Civilian Acquired 

Skills Program and its abbreviated basic train ing program, the USAR and 

the National Guard made exemplary progress in inc reasing the number of 

women in their organi zatio ns. Women in the USAR increased from 

approximately 550 (17 1 officers) in 1970 to 20,676 (636 office rs) in 1978; 

women in the Nationa l Guard inc reased from zero in 1970 to 13,353 (455 

officers) in 1978.99 

.. Memo. DASA (RA) to DeSPER, 9 Nov 77. sub: Programs ror Women in the Reservc 

Componcnts., and Study. ODCSI'ER, sub: Women ill the Army- Reserve Componems (WITA· RC) 

Review, )] Mar 78. ODWAC Ref File. Studit.'S. Women in the Army Reserve Components. C MI·I. 

if Ibid.; Slreng,h of'he Army Reporl (DCSPER 46). Part III. JO JUI1 70 and 30 J un 78; Office of the 

Chier. ANG. Inrormation Sht."Ct. 2 Jan 79, ODWAC Ref File. WAC NOItionll1 Guard. CMH. National 

Guard offieer statistics include women offieers in the Medical Department . 
THE END OF THE DRAFT AND WAC EXPANSION 297 

Other Womell's Services 

The WAC was not alo ne in experiencing management changes and a 

tremendous increase in strength as a result of the ending of the draft. 

Between 1972 and 1975, the other services also made sweeping changes in 

their treatment of women- c hanges which resulted in a major upswing in 

the number of women in those services. Officers and enlisted women 

entered no ncombat service support d uties in law enforcement, aviation, 

engineering, logistics. communications-electronics, and utilities. The Navy 

and the Air Force trai ned women as noncombat pilots and navigators, 

and the Marine Corps assigned women to administrative and maintenance 

support positions in the Fleet Ma rine Corps Reserve (2d Marine Aircraft 

Wing and 1st Marine D ivision). In 1973, the Navy reassigned Captain 

Quigley to the command of a mixed unit at Monterey, California, and did 

not fill the vacancy created by her leaving the positkn as director of 

WAVES. Brig. Gen. Jeanne M. Holm retired o n 30 Mny 1973 and was 

recalled to active duty as a major general the next day to serve as 

president of the U.S. Air Force Review Board. That same year, the Air 

Force standardized its enlistment qualifications for men and women. In 

1974, it added a course in defensive weapons training on the M16 rine 

and .45-caliber pistol for new recruits and for women officers entering the 

service. Beginning in 1974, Ihe Ma rine Corps deactivated most of its 

Women Marine companies and housed, fed, and administered women in 

the same units as men. Thai yea r, Col. Mary E. Bane became the first 

woman Marine Corps officer to command a mixed unit when she took 

charge of Headquarters and Service Battalion, Camp Pendleton, California. 1oo 

Statutory changes concerning a variety of issues- age upon enlistment, 

a six-year service obligatio n, dependency status for women's spouses and 

children- and DOD-directed revisions in policy affecting waivers for 

enlistment and retentio n of women with minor children and elimination of 

discharge o n marriage applied to women in all the services. When the 

draft ended, the value of women as a source of voluntary manpower 

soared, and many restrictions o n their assignment, educatio n, promotion, 

and administration vanished within a few years. T he remaining issuesretention of pregnant women, entry of women into the service academies, 

and assignment to combat d uties- did not slow the ever-increasing 

number of women in the services. (See Table 26.) 

LOO Strel1l1ow. lIi.I/Ory olthe Womell Mar;"".r 1946-1977. pp. 138-J9: F.O. Margioua, J. Drown. and 

M.J. COllins, cds .. Changing u.s. Military Manpower Realities (Uoulder. CO: Westview Press, 1983). 

pp. 1 ~7 ~9. 17 89. 
298 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE 26-ENLISTED WOMEN, STRENGTH BY SERVICE 

Army Navy Air Force Marine 

Corps 

30 June 1972 ......................................... 12,349 5,723 11,725 2,066 

30 June 1974 ..•.••...•............................... 26,327 13,143 19,465 2.402 

Source: DOD Selected Manpower Statistics. FY 1978, Table P26.62. Female Military Personnel 

on Active Duty, Officers. and Enlisted. 

As welcome as the success of WAC expansio n was to the Army. it 

proved to be a mixed blessing to members of the Corps. Success brought 

changes the Corps could not survive. In the fi rst place, the heavy influx 

of women, beginning in August 1972 and continuing without surcease, 

stretched the ability of the Corps- whose original mission had been to 

maintain a small nucleus of trained personnel- to house and command all 

the new arri va ls. WAC detachments were melded into male companies, 

and, with that melding, administrative control of women passed to male 

commanders. Without WAC units, the Corps lost most of its command 

spaces, and WAC staff adviser positions became obsolete. In 1974, the 

implementation of the Officer Personnel Management System forced 

WAC officers to leave the WAC branch, whose only peacetime function 

was admi nistering women, and to move into branc hes that performed the 

Army's service and support fu nctions. WAC expansion had been so 

critical to sustaining the all·volunteer Army that the DCSPER had ap· 

pointed a committee of general officers to control the expansio n, supplanting the g uidance formerly provided by the WAC director. By 1975, 

loss of WAC detachments, WAC staff advise rs, and the WAC officer 

corps and the declin ing innuence of the director of the WAC had weakened Corps prestige. The Corps was left with little strength to withstand 

the well-intentioned, but destructive demands of the women's movement-elimination of the Corps, its director, and separate promotion list. 
CHAPTER XI 

The Women's Rights Movement 

and the WAC 

It would be hard to deny the tremendous impact of the women's rights 

movement upon policies affecting the WAC and the status of the Corps. 

Beginning in 1969, the movement garnered such wide media and public 

support that its leaders quickl y established a solid political base. Legislators, national and state, suppo rted the movement's goals in hopes of 

capturing the women's vote. In the primary races leading to the national 

election in 1972, that vote appeared crucial for presidential contenders 

Nixon and McGovern and fo r o ther office seekers. Both parties supported 

passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, the primary goal of the movement. In March 1972, lawmakers in the Senate and the House passed, by 

an overwhelming majority, the bill that sent the proposed ERA to the 

slates for ratification. The early success of the proposed Equal Rights 

Amendment stimulated inquiries to the Pentagon fro m Congress, the 

press, and the public on how the ERA, if passed, would affect women in 

the military services. 

In August 1972, at the suggestion of the DCSPER, then General 

Kerwin, Chief of Staff Bruce Palmer, Jr., appointed an ad hoc committee 

to determine the effects of passage of the Equal Rights Amendment on 

the Army. The group was further c harged to propose the Army's position on the issues raised by the women's movement. Known as the ERA 

Committee, the group was made up of eighteen men and womenofficers, NCOs, and civilians. I 

The committee completed its work in four months and concluded that 

if the ERA passed, the Army would be pressed to justify the existence of 

a separate women's organization. Differences in the rules under which 

men and women were enlisted, trained, assigned, and discharged would 

I CSM Memo 12-15-183. 21 Aug 72. sub: Commillce to Sllldy lhe Errt."C1S of the Proposed Equal 

Righl5 Amendrncnt. alld Lt r. DCS I'ER to DWAC. 25 Aug 12. sub: Leiter of Instruct ion 10 

Chairnmn of Ihe CommiUee to Sludy Ihe Errect of the I'roposcd Equal Rights Amendmen1. 

ODWAC Ref File. Studies-ERA Commim"C. CM H. Col Dcl1ie J. Morden. O DWAC. chaired the 

commiut.'e llml included part·time represenlalives from Ol her ODCSI'ER direclornleS. Ihe Office of 

Ihe Chid of Reserve ComponenlS. Ihe Office or the Adjutant General. Hnd lire Office of the Chief of 

hrformntion. Genernl offieer guidlmee was provided by General ~iley; WAC membe rs included Col 

Mary J. G uyclle. Maj Evelyn 1'. Foole. Maj Rhoda M. Messer. Maj 1' (Ltrichl w. Whelan. Sgl Maj 

netty L. Adams. and Sp5 J udy A. Fuller. 
300 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

be difficult to defend. The committee emphasized, however. that the 

wording of the amendment was so general that the courts would be 

required to settle disputes. The committee believed the courts would take 

a balanced approach in deciding issues involvi ng the military services and 

nationa l defense and would uphold differences in housing policies to 

preserve privacy between the sexes; involuntary d ischarge on pregnancy 

to preserve mobility; and exclusion of women from combat to preserve 

tradition. Whether or 110t the amendment was ratified by the states, the 

committee recommended a number of positions for the Army to take: 

- A noncombat role for women 

-Continuation of the WAC as a separate corps 

- Reten tion of the director and othe r key officers 

- Assignment of WAC officers to the WAC as a branch or to 

other branches 

- Maintenance of a separate WAC promotion list 

- Enrollment of women in the U.S. Military Academy 

- Retention of WAC enlistment standards 

- Retention of sepa rate noncombat basic training for women 

- Retention of c urrent policies on discharging women 

If the amendment became part of the Constitution, the committee 

recommended that registration and induction be applied equally to men 

and women and that deferments be given to mothers and to pregnant 

women. The DCSPER, then Lt. Gen. Bernard W. Rogers, concurred in 

most of these positions but o rdered studies o n those he disagreed with or 

felt needed further review- admission of women to the academy, non ~ 

elimination of the WAC as a separate corps, separate basic training, and 

defensive weapons training for women. He orde red that no actions be 

taken at that time regarding registration, induction, deferments, retention 

of the position of the director of the WAC, or policies concerning 

enlistment qualifications or discharges. 2 

The committee's report reflected the traditiona l conservatism of the 

WAC. Its members had bowed to progress only in recommending that 

women officers be allowed to tra nsfer to other branc hes and that women 

enter the U.S. Military Academy, which did not educate officers excl usively for the combat arms. But, despite the A rmy's tendency to maintain 

the status quo, society was increasingly demanding c hanges in the role of 

women. To lose as little g round as possible, the Army (including the 

WAC) initiated a few c hanges-appearing to keep in step but moving 

little. The Army supported this course because it believed that the courts 

would allow separate ru les for women in justifiable cases. And on that 

I Rill. ODCSPER (WAC). Dee 72, sub: Report of Ihe Cornrniltec 10 Siudy Ihe Propost-d Equ"1 

Righls Amcndmcnl, and Mcmo. DeSPER 10 all ODCSI'ER Dirt."Clors "nd DWAC. 18 Jan 73, sub: 

Ulilizlllioll of Women in Ihe Army, O DWAC Ref File, SlUdics- ERA COUlmilh .. -e, CM H. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 301 

point, the Army was wrong. By February 1973, the inc reasing momentum of the women's movement led General Rogers to direct his staff to 

"review where we stand and where we should go" and develop a plan 

for improving utilization and administration of the WAC. General 

Rogers' guidance to his staff was brief-"use the plateau approach" and 

"do what is best for the Army and best for women." Any recommendations for change would be judged on their potential to enhance Army 

effectiveness. not o n their popularity.3 

The WAC director, General Bailey, approved the Plateau Plan produced by the DeSPER staff and the order of priority developed to 

improve the utilization and administration of women. A lmost half of the 

"take action now" items that concerned WAC officers had been generat· 

ed by the Army's new Officer Personnel Management System. The other 

items in this group and in the higher plateaus had evolved from the WAC 

expansion plan, the affirmative action plan, or the report of the ERA 

Committee. (See Chart 4.) 

CHART 4 - PLATEAU PLAN- UTILIZATION OF WOMEN IN THE ARMY 

Women should 

"never" do. 

Do not fo resee 

with in 3- 5 

years. 

Do not plan 

now. 

Include as 

objective in 

the Army 

Personnel 

Plan. 

Take action 

now. 

28. 

29. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

20. 

2 1. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

5. 

Physical combat in conventional or unconven tional 

uni ts. 

Assignments wh ic h preclude pri vacy in the field. 

Disestablish DWAC. 

Eq ualize enlistment standards. 

Change separation policies on marriage/pregnancy. 

Elimi nate separate promotion list. 

Disestablish WAC as separate branc h. 

Conduct Basic Traini ng at other centers. 

Determine whether to allow women cadets at USMA. 

Identify noncombatant positions for women in Cat I 

units below division level. 

Expand training facilities (barracks) to support training 

in skills already open to women. 

s OF. DCSPER D PPlllo all DCSPER directorate!; and ODWAC, 16 Feb 73, sub: Utilization of 

Womell in the Army; Memo, Cdr. MILPERCEN. 23 Feb 73, sub: Utilization of WAC Officers; OF. 

DCSPER DPI'Il to DCSPER. 7 Mar 73. sub: Utilization of WOIl1(!n in the Army; and M(!mo, 

DCSPER to DCSPER dirc<:torates. DWAC, and Cdr, MILJ>ERCEN, 26 Apr 73. sub: UtilizatiOIl of 

Women in the Army. Copies in ODWAC Ref File. "Ialcau Concept, CM H. 
302 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

C HART 4 - PLATEAU PLAN- UTILIZATION OF WOMEN IN THE 

ARMY-Continued 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

II. 

12. 

I J. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

Equal moral and administrative waivers for reenlist· 

ment. 

Standard criteria and procedures for OCS. 

Develop career progression patterns wilh each branch 

for women o fficers, excl uding combat arms. 

A uthorize branch transfers for WAC officers. 

Authori ze separation of sole surviving daughter. 

Examine policy on assignment of married women and 

women wi th minor dependents. 

Examine the officer procurement requ irement with a 

vicw to permitting women in ROTC at all institutions. 

Provide weapons fami liari zation and defensive combat. 

Aviation traini ng. 

Establish career development [or presen t senior WAC 

offi cers under OPMS. 

Iden tify additional MOSs, skills to o pen to enlisted 

women. 

Identify additional MOSs, skills to open to officers. 

Determine appropriate numbers ill baseli ne force. 

Iden tify positions for women in division and corps 

headq uarters. 

Continue to do. I. Authority for WACs to command. 

2. Approved expansion o f WAC. 

3. 

4. 

Include WAC officers in the same senior service college selection process as male offi cers. 

Monitor progress of Equal Rights Amendmen t. 

Sollrt·C: DF. DCS PER DI'I'IJ w :111 DCSPER directorates and ODWAC. 16 Feb 73. sub: 

Utilizalion of Women in the Army. 

Pregllallcy alld Parenthood Policies 

Among the regulations tha t the women's rights movement allacked 

were those that discharged unmarried, pregnant women and single 

women with minor dependen ts. Leaders of the movement were pleased 

when an article concerning the ERA and these matte rs appeared in the 

Yale Law JOlll'llol in 1971. The article stat ed that after the ERA passed, 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 303 

unmarried women could not be discharged for pregnancy unless men 

shown to be fathers of children born o ut of wedlock were also dis· 

charged. [f sin gle women with dependent chi ldren were discharged, then 

men in the same circumstances would also be discha rged. After the ERA 

passed, the armed forces would, the article continued, treat both sexes 

ali ke by retai ni ng single people who fathered o r bore children, by providing day care fo r the children, or by givi ng a discharge to parents who 

could not take ca re of their children if they remained on active dU ly.4 

The Army, however, continued to hold the view that its current 

policies were best both for the national defense effort a nd for the personnel involved, parents and c hildren. In some areas, procedures we re tig htened. Because detection of early pregnancy during an enlistment physical 

examination was almost impossible, proposals had been made that a pregnancy test (blood or urine) be administered immediate ly before or after 

women actually entered active dut y. The su rgeon general of the A rmy 

had rejected such suggestio ns because the tests were no t reliable; the 

director o f the WAC had rejected them because they insulted women 

applying fo r enlistment. The problem, not a major one du ri ng the WAC's 

first quarter century, was ignored until 1973. 5 By then, pregnancy o ut of 

wedlock was so generally accepted that you ng women believed the Army 

would take care of them if pregnancy were d iscovered after they had 

enlisted. In August of that year, however, the Army initiated an ex peditious d ischarge procedure that adm inist ratively eliminated men and 

women within 180 days after enlistment when it was discovered they 

failed to meet minimum mental o r physical standards o r exhibited characteristics that did not wa rranl continued service. Women found to be 

pregnant upon en listment could be discharged under this ru le because 

they did not physica ll y qualify for enlistment. 6 

With this issue seemingly resolved, the Army began to encounter 

greater problems as society's attitudes became increasingly mo re li bera l. 

The first indication o f the extent o f the problems came in December 1973 

when the deputy assistant secretary of defense (M&RA) fo r military 

personnel policy (DASD [M&RA] MPP), Lt. Gen. Leo E. Benade, 

sternly reminded the services: "It is the intent of the Secretary of Defense 

to eliminate all laws and regu lations which make an unnecessa ry distinction in the trea tment of men and women. and [further] to assu re that 

women are accorded equal treat men!." With this, he proposed repea l of 

the law that au tho rized involuntary discharge o f a woman who became 

4 Il:orbara A. Orown <:t "I.. '"The Equal Righls Amcndmenl: A ConStillUional Oasis for Equal 

Rights ror Wom.::n .. · }'II/I: Lo", JOI/f/W/W (Apr 71), 597- 98. 

~ In FY 67. 26 of 4.124 WAC enlistees were discharged ror pregnancy; ill FY 74. 120 of 16.092 

were dischargL'1:1 for pregnancy. SlrclIglh oj Ille Army n t'porl (DCSPER 46). Part II. )0 Jun 67 ,lI1d 30 

J un 74. 

~ DA Msg OIISIOZ Aug 73. ~ub, E,,;,lualiou alld Discha rge of Enlisted Personnel bcfor.:: 180 

Active Duty Days. ODWAC Ref File. Discharge- I'reg","lc)'. CMH. 
304 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

pregnant, a pa rent, o r assumed c ustod y of a minor. He asked each service 

for its eva luation of the impact of the proposal. 7 

Since 1971 , the Army had g rudgingl y allowed waivers for these circumsta nces, and it had no desire to make furt her concessions. In respo nding to General Bcnude, Gene ral Rogers, the DeSPER, voiced strong 

objections to losing in voluntary disc harge authority and showed how the 

waiver policy had reduced the number of women d ischarged on pregnancy and parenthood. (See Table 27.) 8 

TABLE 27- ARMY ENLISTED WOM EN DISCHARGED FOR 

PR EGN A NCY AND PARENTHOOD 

1969 1910 1971 1972 1973 

Enlisted strength .... ........... 10,700 11,100 1[,900 12, 100 14,800 

Discharged, pregnancy ..... 1,444 1,446 1,4 12 1,166 1,034 

Discharged, parenthood ... 24 2O 11 12 

Loss rate, percentage ........ 13.7 13.2 11.9 9.7 7." 1 

SO/lrr:t:: Slrt!"glh of Ihe Arm)' Rl!porl (DCSI'ER 46). Purl t (SI~ng h). 1':1rI I t (Gains M,l(! 

t_osso). 

To wa rd off impositio n o r the policy proposed by General Benade, the 

Army hurriedly implemented o ther polic ies it hoped would appease the 

Depa rtment or Derense: 

- Marriage as a reason ro r d ischa rge was deleted ror commissioned and wa rra nt o ffi cers and enlisted women. 

- Women whose pregnancy terminated in an abortion, misca rriage, or stillbirth remained o n active du ty. 

- Unmarried as well as married pregnant women could req uest 

retention on active dut y. 

A single enlisted woman requesting retention Imd to provide a wrill en 

explanation or how she intended to support and ca re ro r the child and the 

name or the person who would care ror her c hild ir she were temporaril y 

or permanen tly reassig ned to <lIlo lher sta tion or deployed ove rseas. She 

also had to cert iry that she understood her obl ig at io n to purchase and 

wear civilian mat ern ity clothing when she outgrew her unirorms.9 

f Memo. DASD (~ &RA1MI' ' III Ihc ASA (M& RA). 4 1)(.,.:: 73. sub: Repeal of Cerlain Seclions of 

'fille 10. U.S. Code. Concerning ~bnllgemenl of Women in Ihe Service. ODWAC Rd File. ~· 

charge- I'regnan<.;y. CM . T he law Irr~"(;tcd W~~ Excxulivc Order 10240 ss\l~-d 27 Apr 51. 

- Memo. DCSI'ER (DAI'E- DMI'M) Ihrough CofS and ASA (M&RA) 10 DASD (M&RA)M I'I'. 

28 Dec 73. 'lIb, Repeal of Cerl:oin So."(; lions of Tille 10. U.S. Code. ODWAC Ref File. Disch:lfgc_ 

l'rcgn;lIIcy. CMH. 

o Ihid .• :nnl DA M<g 2720HZ D.:c 7J 1<) ,,11 <.;<)Om":Ollds. SlIh: Ch:mg.:s in Polky for Dis<.:1H1rge of 

E,,1i ~lcd Women by Hca"on of Marriage aud l'regllmlcy. ODWAC Ref File. Disclmrgc- PrcgnallC)·. 

CM IL 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 305 

The DeSPER also elimi nated parenthood as a basis for discharge fo r 

women officers, single or married. The Army conside red the officers to 

be fi nancially and psychologically capable of fulfilling child-care responsibilities. However, it debated extending the same provision to enlisted 

women,lO 

These changes technicall y eliminated involuntary discharge on pregnancy and parenthood by allowing married and unmarried women who 

became pregnant or who became pa rents to request retention on active 

duty. To the DeSPER, General Rogers, and the DWAC, General 

Bailey, the new policies represented a reasonable alternative, which, they 

expected, would satisfy the deputy assistant secreta ry of defense. It did 

not. After General Benade and his staff had gathered and studied the 

impact statements submitted by the services, they decided, over objections from all the services, that the laws and regula tions autho ri zing 

involuntary discharge o n pregnancy and parenthood should be repealed. 

General Benade directed the services to cease invoking such policies and 

to develop uniform policies regardi ng these matters. He provided sixteen 

policy changes. I I 

Genera l Bailey was astounded. She could not believe the Defense 

Department wo ul d reject the policies the Army had proposed. l n a fo urpage memo rand um to General Rogers o n 22 August 1974 entitled, "Maternity, Mobility, and Mission," she presented the case fo r retaining authority for involuntary discharge on pregnancy and pa renthood. She 

asked the DCSPER to stand fast o n the pOlicies and not make any further 

changes un less ordered to do so by court action. "It appears incomprehensible," she wrote, "that the Army's mission, recruiting requirement, 

and mobility of its membe rs would not be fairl y considered in a court 

action." And, she added that "preferential treatment of mothers in assignments would discriminate against fathe rs and single personnel. " She 

voiced her fear that unmarried pregnant women would abuse the system 

by remaini ng in service for " securit y, protection, and the entitlements" 

and then request discharge on pa renthood. 12 

The DCSPER agreed that single preg nant women and unma rried 

mothers would be a problem to the Army, and in his reply he told 

General Benade that the Army's latest policy changes had already eliminated involunta ry separation on pregnancy by providi ng a retention procedure and that discharge o n parenthood had been abolished for officers . 

• 0 DA M~gs 22114SZ Jan 14 to all com mands. sub: Changes in A R 635- 100 and A R 635- 120. and 

0513 15Z Sep 14. sub: l1l1 erim Change to A R 635- 120, Volllnt:,ry or lnvollinlary Discharge of 

Omeers on I'arenlhood Eliminated, ODWAC Rcf File. Discharge- l'regn:"lcy. CM H. 

"Memo. DASD (M&RA)M PP to the Asst St-.;retaries of lhe MilitMY Depts (M&RA). 7 J un 14. 

sub: ltwolUnlary Separation of Women for Prcgll:lllcy :md Parenthood, ODWAC Ref File. Diseharge/W:,ivers- I'regllancy, Parenthood, Dcpendc1I1s, CM H . 

.. Memo, DWAC 10 DCS PER, 22 Aug 74. sub: Maternity. Mobility and Mission. ODWAC Ref 

File. Disch~lrge Wnive l'regr\a ll cy. Parenthood. Dependents. CMH. 
306 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Nonetheless, in an effort to coope rate. based o n the sixteen suggested 

c hanges, the Army would make additional modifications: 

- Women who became pregnant and could not complete their 

requ ired tra ining wo uld be in voluntarily discharged but would 

receive maternity ca re benefits. 

- Commanders would be required to counsel pregnant women 

who had been granted a waiver for retention on active dut y 

o n their obligation to complete their enlistment and, after 

deli very, to accept worldwide assignment witho ut expecting 

special consideration. 

- T he maximum postpart um absence would be six weeks unless 

the surgeon general of the Army approved an extension. 

-A ha rdship discharge would be provided single parents (men 

or women) who could not sa tisfactoril y perform their milit ary 

duties o r parental responsibilities. 1 3 

Again the A rmy's reply did not sat isfy the Defense Department. General Benade retired in September 1974; his replacement, Vice Admiral 

John G. Finneran, told the DeSPER that he. General Rogers, had 

misunderstood the 7 June 1974 memorandum. Admira l Finneran stated 

that the memo had not suggested changes, but had tra nsmitted to the 

se rvices a DOD-directed policy that women wo uld not be in voluntaril y 

sepa rated fo r pregnancy or parenthood; that women would be au tomatically retai ned unless they requested volunta ry separatio n because of pregnancy or parenthood; and that the sixteen changes would be uniformly 

integrated into the services' policies. He requested that the DeSPER 

send him copies of the Army regulatio ns implementing these new policies. 14 

A few days later, the secreta ry of defense's ge nera l counsel appoin ted 

the A rmy as the executive agent to develop uniform pregnancy and 

parenthood policies throughout the se rvices and to d raft the legislation 

req uired to repeal the offending sections of law. 15 Like the A rmy, the 

'~Me o. DeS I'Eft (DA I'E- MPE. Lt Col Shirley M. Ba rnwell. Action Officer) through Cors 

and ASA (M&RA) to DASD (M& RA)MPP. 5 Nov 74. sub: Involuntary S<:paralion of Women for 

I'regn:mey and I'lIremhood. ODWAC Ref File. Dis<;harg<:/Waivers- Pregn:mcy. Parenthood. Dcpendeills. CMH. DA Msg 061400Z Jun 75. sub: Interim Chnnge to Chnplers 6 and 8. AR 635- 200 

and the T rainee Discharge I'rogr:ulI. implementL-d the policy c h:>nges.. 

,. Memo. DASD (M&RA)M I'I' 10 ASA (M&RA). 2S Nov 74. sub: Invohmt,uy Separation of 

Women for I'regn:mcy und l'arenlhood. O DWAC Ref File. Discharge/Waivers-Pregnancy. I'arelll· 

hood. Dcp.endenlS. CMH. 

,. Memo, Offiee of the General Counsel. Dir. egi~ I~live Referel1<.:e Scrvke. DOD. to SL-cArrllY. 

Alln: Chief of Legisl:>live Lbison. 29 Nov 74, sub: Mis<;. 1425, proposcrl legislation "to amelld title 

10. Unilt.-d Stales Code. '0 repeal provisions allthorizing involunl~ry separ~lion of women for 

prcgn:mcy and p~rentl](x)(I." ODWAC Ref File. Dis<;h"rgc/W"ivcn;- I'regnancy. I'arenthood. Dcpendents. CM H. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 307 

other services had also interpreted the 7 June memo as guidance; In fa cl, 

they had not yet responded to it. And like the othe r services, the Army 

deeply resented DOD's intrusion into its personnel policies. But DOD's 

goa l was to eliminate all the d ifferences in personnel management that 

could be attacked as discriminatory whil e an all-volunteer force was 

needed. With no c hoice. the Army moved to compl y. The judge advoca te general prepared the draft legislation. The DeSPER, now LI. Gen. 

Harold G. Moore, met with representatives of the other services at the 

Pentagon on 15 Janua ry 1975 to align their policies. On 28 Ma rch, 

General Moo re wrote Admiral Finneran that the services' policies we re 

as similar as possible; the Air Force had conrormed to the DOD g uidance 

that month, and, as soon as DOD revised its directive o n admin istrative 

d ischarges (DOD Directi ve 1332. 14, Administrative Discharges), the 

A rmy, Navy, and Ma rine Corps would issue their implementing instructions. I 6 

This move also appeared to Admiral Fin neran to be root-d ragging. On 

I I April. his principa l deputy, John F. Ahea rne, wrote to the assistant 

sec retaries (M&RA) or the Army and or the Navy and asked them to 

publish and impl emen t their new polic ies not later than 15 May 1975-

without waiting ror revision or d irective 1332.14. "Publi cat ion or changes 

in the 000 Directive will not," he wrote, "alter the decisions and policy 

rev ision approved herein." I 7 

With this, General Bailey aga in jumped into the rray. In a memo sent 

throug h channels to Sec reta ry or the Army Callaway, she ex pressed her 

proround concern over the impending loss or the invo luntary d ischa rge 

authorit y and the impact it would have on Army readiness, the deployabilit y o r women, the lives or unmarried pregnant women and thei r children, and the morale or soldiers who would be requi red to ca rry the 

work load or pregnant women. '" recommend," she wrote, "that this ra rreachi ng policy change be rurth er addressed prior to the Army's acceptance or th is DoD imposed requirement.'· I S Assistan t Secretary or the 

," MenlO. DCSPER (DAI'E- MI'E- I'S) lhrough CofS alld ASA (M&RA) 10 DASD (M& RA) 

M I'!'. 28 M:lr 75. sub: InvoluIII"r)' ScparaliOll of WOlllen for l'rcgllanc), and I'arcnl hood: DF. 

DeSPER (DAI'E- MI'E) through Office of Legislalive Liaison 10 Arm)' J AG. 12 Dcc 74. sub: 

Memo. DOD General Counl'c! 29 Nov 74. Misc. 1425. proposed 1cgislalioll ID amend Tille 10. Uniled 

51,,1;.-;; Code. 10 Repeal Provisions AUlhorizillg Ill volunlaf)' 5cp"r"lioll uf WOlllen for Pregnanc), and 

I>" re.uhood; DF. DCS PER (DAI'E- MI'E) 10 Cdr. Arm~' Personnel Cenler. 7 Mur 75. sub: An· 

1I0llllcemCIII of I'olic)' Changes. PrcgJHlllC),. Hardship. (md Medical DisqulIlificalion. DOD Direclive 

1332.14. Adminislr;llive Disch"rgc "nd Sel,armioll. 20 Dee 65. Copies ill ODWAC Ref File. Dis· 

ch;.rgc/W:livcrs- l'regn'InC)'. I'arcnlhood. DcpcndcllIs. CM H. 

17 Mcmo. DASD (M&RA)MPP (lsi John F. Ahcurlle) 10 Assislanl Secrel..rics uf Ihe DcplS of 

Arm)' and NiIV)' (M&RA ). II Apr 75. sub: Illvo lunl"r)' Scpa'llliu" of Womcn for l'regn,mc)' and 

l'ure"lhood. ODWAC Rer Fik. Discharge/Waivers- Pregnane)'. I'",.cllihood. Dependen(s. CMlI. 

U Memo. DWAC Ihrough DCS PER and Cors (0 SecArm),. 18 Apr 75. sub: Relcnlio n of 

I'regnalll Women. ODWAC Ref File. Discharge/W .. ivcrs_ Prcgnanc),. Parenthood. Dcpcndellis. 

C MI-I. 
308 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

A rmy (M& RA) D onald G. Brotzman also w rote to the secretary: "This 

di rected policy change has caused Generals Moo re, Putnam, and Bailey 

to seck o ur assist ance in rescinding the policy. We apparentl y have 

become the vic tims of the ERA without the benefit of properl y assessing 

the impact." HI 

Upo n receiving these memos, Secretary Callawa y wrote Assistant Secreta ry of Defense (M&RA) William K. Brehm and cited his objections: " I 

am conce rned that we arc ove rreacting to special int erest social pressures 

and are fa iling to recogni ze Army defense requirements . ... Military 

service requires a service member (male or femal e) to be abl e to move 

without notice, to be prepared to work long and irregular ho urs without 

relief in order to mee t unit mission requirements, and to li ve under 

adverse conditions. These wo rk conditions are no t suited for advanced 

stages of pregnancy nor for the care of mino r dependents." 20 But Secretary Brehm had little sympath y fo r the A rmy's pro bl ems. Making it clear 

that he spoke fo r the secretary of defense. if no t the administration, he 

replied, "The determi nation ... that we will no t separate women for 

pregnancy o r p<lrenthood is one whi ch we have accepted in o rder to best 

appl y the concepts of equal opportunity fo r our people." He ag reed, 

howeve r, to review the impact of the new policy after the se rvices had 

had a year's experience impl ementing il. 21 

In the ensuing twelve mont hs, General Moore coll ected statistics, 

eva luations, and costs resulting from impl ementi ng the new policies. A 

review of the da ta revealed that repeal was warran ted, and he requested a 

reve rsal of the policy in light of its ad verse impact on readiness, deployability, and mission accompl ishment. The Defense Department did not 

respo nd. Finall y, in April 1977, General Moore sent ano ther memorandum with updat ed info rmation, reminding Secretar y Brehm thal he had 

promised to review the policy. This time, however, the paper got no 

farther than the new secretary of the A rmy, Clifford L. Alexander, who 

had been appointed by President James E. Cartel" on I I February 1977. 

Secretar y Alexander refused to support the Army's position and sided 

with the Defense Department. Si nce the new sec retar y's views o n ensuring equal opportunit y and improving the quality of life for all mino riti es 

within the Army were well known, his stand came as no surprise. Before 

the end of the month, General Moore withdrew the Army's request to 

reinstate in volullt<lry sep<lration 0 11 pregnallcy.22 

'" /l. lcmo. ASA (M& RA) 10 SccArmy. 1M Apr 75. sub: Sep,mllioll of Women for Pregnancy "",I 

l'"rcnlhoo.:i. O DWAC ~cf File. Discllilrgc/W,livcr5 l' regn~ncy. P"Tcnlhood. DCl'endelllS. eMU. 

o Memo. St"\:ATmy 10 ASD (M& RA). 6 May 75. sub: lnvolun lary Scpa ra,ion of WOlllcn for 

I'regnancy ami 1'" rem hood. ODWAC Ref File. Discharge/Waivers- l'regnnncy. I'arenlhood. Dc· 

pcndcnls. C/l.1H. 

'Mcmo. ASD (/l.l&RA) 10 Sc<.:Army. 28 M"y 7~. sub: [lIvolUlllary Separation of Womcn for 

l',.cgl1:",<.:Y '1I 1<[ l'"rem h'K'MI. O DWAC Ref File. Disch"rgc/W"ivcrs- l'rcgn:lncy. l'aTclllhoo<1. De· 

(lCn.:icnl,. CM Il . 

"2 Mcmos. DCSPER Ihmugh Cors a",1 ASA (M&RA) 10 GCllcra l Coun$C1. DOD. Alln: Legisla· 

live RcferclI<':c Serv;":c. :10 JUII 76. sub: [llvolumary SepanlliOlI of Women for I'rcgn'lIIc)' and 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 309 

In a few years' time and over the objections of the D eSPER, DWAC. 

and major Army commanders, discharge policies for women had taken an 

abrupt turn. Married and unmarried pregnant women could now remain 

on active duty for any number of pregnancies, with time away from d ut y 

to include four weeks prenatal sick-in-quarters time, an unrestricted 

number of days for hospitalization d uring childbirth, and six to eight 

weeks of postpartum convalescent leave. Commanders were directed to 

certify thai they had advised pregnant women of the options-to remain 

on duty or be discharged- and of the responsibilities and benefits of 

remaining o n duty. Pregnant women could not be senl overseas as individual replacements or as members of a unit; temporary deferments from 

overseas duty ex pired six weeks after childbirth or the termination of a 

pregnancy. Balancing this ru le for active d uty women was a long-standing policy that allowed se rvicemen whose wives were in an advanced 

stage of pregnancy to request a twelve-week deferment from overseas 

dut y to be with their wives until deli very of the child. Single and married 

military members with minor dependents remained elig ibl e for overseas 

duty.23 

When personnel were first assigned to new units, their commanders 

attempted to ensure that those with custody or responsibility for minor, 

aged, infirm, or handicapped dependents had arranged for their care in 

the event of absence or deployment overseas. Personnel who had dependents and who had less than three years' service subm itted a dependent 

care plan fo r app rova l. If an individ ual could not make satisfactory 

arra ngements, if the dependent's needs interfered with performance of 

dut y, or if a dependent suffe red from lack of ca re, a commander could 

recommend that the soldier, male or female, consider req uesting a hardship discharge. When unsatisfactory situations persisted, the commander 

could recommend involunta ry discharge for unsuitability or unfitness. In 

overseas commands, when events dictated evacuatio n of dependents and 

no ncombatants, under Army policy, women in the eighteenth or later 

weeks of pregnancy were to be evacuated. Other pregnant women would 

be evacuated based upon the advice of medical officers. No other military 

wome n were to be evacuated from an area that was designated a hostile 

fi re zone. 24 

1'l,rel1lhoOO (Misc. 1425); ASA (M&RA) 10 AS D (M&RA), 26 J ul 76, me sub: alld DCSPER 

Ihrough CofS 10 ASA (M& RA). 29 Apr 77, same sub. All in ODWAC Ref File. Discharge/ 

Waivers- I'regnnncy, Parenthood, Dependents, CMH. 

IS OF. DeSPER (OAPE- MPE-PS) to Cdr. MILPERCEN. 13 May 75, sub: Study of WAC 

I'regnancy Cases and Female Personnel with Dependem Children. and Information Paper. Offiee of 

the Surgooll Gellern1. 13 May 75, ODWAC Ref File, Discharge/ Waivers-l'regnallCy, Parenthood, 

Dependents. CM H; A R 635-5. I Jun 15. Leave. Pass. Administrative AbscllCe al1d Public Holidays, 

C MI·I Libmry. The surgeon gellCrnl repor1t:d thaI. durillg 1974, 1.560 active dUly women were 

trealed ror pregnallCy worldwide: 525 delivered a chitd: gJ5 had aborlious: 200 cases were pending. 

u AR 220-1. 15 J un 18, Unit Readiness. Appendix B. and AR 6 14- 30.16 Jan 16, Overseas Service, 

CMII Libmry; DA Msg 141JOOZ Oct 17, sub: Interim Change \0 AR 635- 200. ODWAC Ref File, 

Dischargc/Wnive rs- l'regnancy. Parellihood. Dependents. CMH. 
310 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Despite its efforts to reduce time lost because of pregnancy, the A rmy 

continued to experience difficu lty. A 1978 DeSPER study, "Evaluation 

of Women in the Army" (EWITA), showed that of 45,237 enlisted 

women on dut y in FY 1977, 6,895 became pregnant-39 percent deli v~ 

ered a c hild, 36 percent had abortions, and J 5 percent requested discharge. Of those who remained o n active d uty after they had delivered a 

child, approxima tely 40 percent requested discharge after the expiration 

of six weeks' postpartum leave. T he average amount of time lost in 

carrying a pregnancy to full term was 105 days; time lost for an abortion 

was 3 days. The cost for time lost due to pregnancies was estimated at 

$ 10,762, 150.25 As the number of women in the Army increased, so did 

the number of days lost, the cost, and other problems associated with 

retentio n of pregnant women. Yet, later studies requested by DOD indicated that, except fo r the Air Force, enlisted men generall y had a hig her 

ra te of lost time than women. Me n's time was lost primarily because of 

desertion, AWOL, 0 1' alcohol and drug abuse; women's for pregnancy 

and medical care. 26 T he Army (a nd the other services) abandoned their 

efforts to regain the authority to discha rge women involuntari ly for 

pregnancy and accepted the attendant costs in time and money. Even the 

coll ection of time-lost statistics was not pursued diligentl y after DOD 

showed that, considering all causes, men lost more time from duty than 

women. 

Elimillate the Corps? 

On 7 March 1973, the secreta ry of the Army, then Robert F. 

F roehlke, th rough his assistant secretary for manpower and reserve affairs, Hadlai A. Hull, had given the Army staff these directives: 

- Immediately prepare legislation to eliminate the lega l requirement for a sepa rate WAC Corps. 

- Prepare long-ra nge plans for integrating WAC officers into 

normal assignment patterns and into the A rmy Promotion List 

for promotion and ma nagement. 

-Study eliminating gender indicators on manpowe r documents 

by making all noncombat jobs " interchangeable" and requ irmg 

commanders to justify no nintercha ngeable spaces. 27 

~~ Scud),. us Arm)' Adminiscracive Ceruer. "Evaluacion of Women in che Arm),:' Mar 78. pp. 2-

68.2- 72, ODWAC Ref File, Studies. CM H. 

U BiHkin and BaddVomell /lmllire Mililary. p. 60: Slud)" AS D (MRA& L). Background Review. 

Women in Ihe Militar)', Oct 81. p. 18. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. CM H. 

U Memo. ASA (M&RA)!O xe. General ScatT. 7 Ma r 13. sub: Women in Ihe Arm)'. ODWAC Ref 

File. Discoruinuance of the WAC. CM H. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC J 11 

T he cornerstone for the action was an April 1972 memo in which Assistant 

Secretary of Defense (M&RA) Roger T. Kelley had said, "Separate 

organi zations and restricted assig nments do not provide adequate ca reer 

opportunity for women."28 

T hree reasons further buttressed the decision for the directed actions. 

First, separate corps stat us prevented WAC o ffi cers from being assigned 

to other branches in which they q ualifi ed fo r du ty. Second, having a 

separate promotion list gave WAC officers an adva ntage ove r their male 

peers. Third, the 364 WAC officers and 1,166 enlisted women w ho 

worked in WAC administrative and support positions CQuid be "more 

productively utilized in the rca l work of the Army." The memo concluded with a prediction that the Equal Rig hts Amendment would be ratifi ed 

in 1973 and such ratifica tion would require eradication of the Corps, the 

promo tion list, and manpower gender indicators. 29 

None of the issues raised was new. They had surfaced in ea rli er 

studies. Gene ral Bailey had ag reed to elimination of the separat e promotion list, once permanent transfer to other branches had been accomplished and WAC officers had acquired the traini ng a nd experience to 

compete equit ably with their male peers for promotion. And, of course, 

she had never objected to makin g all possible Army positio ns interc hangeable. However, she and her staff we re incensed over the immediacy of the sec reta ry's directive eliminating the Corps and his stated reasons 

for doing il. 

In General Bailey's absence, Col. Maida E. Lambeth supplied General 

Roge rs, then the DCSPER, with strong arguments aga inst it. Appointment in WAC branch, she noted, had rarely hu rt a. woman office r's 

career. The current law prevented o nl y regula r office rs from being appointed to o ther branches, but consistency demanded that reserve WAC 

officers be similarly treated. Thus, both regular and reserve officers freq uentl y spent one o r more tours with o ther branches, coming back to the 

Corps to maintain their branch qualifica tion and mobilizilt io n readiness. 

Women who we re lawyers received appointments in the WAC, but we re 

permanently deta iled to the Judge Ad vocate Gcneral's Corps. WAC 

officers with special int erests and talents were able to enter career specializat ion and thus develop their ca ree rs alo ng a func tio nal line (logistics, 

resea rch and deve lo pment, etc.). Autho ri zin g the transfer of regul ar officers to o ther branches and eliminating the sepa rate promo tion list did not 

req uire elimination of the WAC. The Corps gave women an identity. 

some visibil ity, and a unify ing symbol in an otherwise all-male A rmy. 

Already, ea rl y news sto ries about eliminating the Corps we re being interU Memo. ASD (M& RA) 10 ASSI Sccro!tllriC!> (fo.'I&:. RA ) of the Military Dcpts. 6 Apr 72. sub: Equ"l 

Treatmenl of Service Women. ODWAC Rer File. Disconlinuance of the WAC. Cfo.U 1. 

U Memo. ASA (M&RA) 10 Sec. Qcnenll Slarr. 7 Ma r 73. tlb : Women in lhe Army. ODWAC Ref 

Fili:, Disconlinuullcc of lhe WA C, CMH. 
312 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

preted among enlisted women as an exampl e of the Army's denial o f the 

achievements of the WAC. If these misconceptio ns continued, the deput y 

director wa rned, they could adversely affect WAC reenlistment, retention, ancl mora le, and the whole ex pansio n effort. WACs took grea t pride 

in theil" past accomplishmen ts, their performance, and thei r organizations, 

all rep resent ed by the Pallas Alhcnc insig nia that would be lost if the 

secretary elimi nated the Corps. 

Colonel Lambeth rese rved her strongest words to rebu t the secretary's 

statement thai women who were performing WAC cadre, recruiting. and 

tra ining duty could be "more productively utili zed in the real work of the 

Army," AI best, the st atement was thought less; at worst, it was male 

chauvinist insensitivity. Men o r women pe rro rming these duties were, she 

decla red, doing the "real wo rk " or the Army. These jobs had to be done 

and whet her men o r womell did them was irrelevan t. She concluded by 

noti ng that the po pularity or the ERA had raded and its rati fi cat io n was 

no longer ce rtain, If it were to pass, the Army wo uld have ample time to 

make any needed changes. 3o 

When General Rogers responded to the direc ti ve, he used some o r the 

deputy direc tor's arguments. Arter pointing out that the proposed Derense Orficer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA) included sections to 

eliminate the sepa rate WAC promotion list and to permit women to be 

appointed in any Regular Army branch, he no ted that the sec reta ry or 

derense had directed that 11 0 separate legislation be rorwarded ir its goa ls 

would be accomplished by passage or DOPMA. In view or this, the 

DCSPER sa id that ir DOPMA passed, he would then prepare any additional legislation required to comply wit h the sec retary's direc tive. He 

also described the Plateau Plan and the manner in which it would improve WAC administra tio n and utilization in a measured and orde rl y 

manner and included a copy or it. 3 1 

The DCSPER's response sa tisfied the assistant sec retary that eve rything the Army starr could do ror the present was being do ne. Genera l 

Bailey and her depu ty drew sighs o r relier as the c risis seemed to pass. 

But their reprieve was sho rt-lived. While revising DOPMA in Sept ember 

1973, the st udy grou p prepa ring the pro posed legislation inserted a paragra ph repealing three sectio ns or Title 10, U.S. Code: 

-Section 307 1, whic h authorized the WAC as a separate corps, 

its director, deput y direc tor, and additional orfice rs ror administration and training; 

~u l)cl' ()WAC. COllllllent 2, 21 M i,r 73. 10 ()F, Dir.xloraic or Pl:u", I'rogfllll". a"d Budgl"l 10 

()WAC and olhcr ODCSPER d,rCCI()r.llo:.""<. 15 M!lr 73. ,ub: Women III 1100:: Artily. ODWAC ReF File. 

D' '>l:nlllillu:LlLce of the WAC, CM II . 

.1. ~klllo. DCS PER Ihrough Cors 10 ASA (~ &RA). 5 Apr 7.1. ~"b: WOI1l('" ill the Army. 

ODWAC Ro::f File. Dis..:oLllinu"lLcc M Ihe WAC. CMI I, 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 313 

- Section 3580, which authorized the secretary of the Army to 

prescribe the command authority WACs could exercise; 

- Section 38 18, which autho rized the Army to discharge Regular Army women for pregnancy and other causes not authorized by law for the d ischarge of men. 

The only section in which all could concur was 3580 because the 

secretary had recently used his regulatory powers to give WACs authority to command men except in combat units. Repealing the other sections 

presented problems. 

Assigned to assess the DOPMA revision, the director of military 

personnel management (DMPM) prepared a reply and sent it to the 

DW AC and other d irectorates for comment. He first addressed Section 

3580 and concurred in its repeal. However, he fi rml y stated that Section 

38 18 could not be repealed because it was the only law the secretary 

could use to involuntaril y discharge Regular Army women who were 

pregnant or had mino r dependents. It was, in fact, irreplaceable because it 

balanced another law under which the secretary could similarly d ischarge 

women in the reserve components. T he th ird section under discussion, 

Section 3071, could be repealed because it created a separate corps (the 

WAC) based solely on gender, and the secretary could disestablish "a 

category of personnel (that was] based primarily on sex and [was] therefore discriminatory." And, he continued, "It is anticipated that the position and functions of the D irector of the Women's Army Corps will be 

redesignated by Secretarial authority." 32 

General Bailey disputed the DMPM's proposed reply rega rding Section 3071. She argued that eliminating the Corps through the repeal of 

Section 307 1 would neither end discrimination nor give women equa l 

opportunity. The Corps had a mobilization mission and other responsibilities that needed the leadership of a d irector, depu ty d irector, and other 

WAC officers. Repeal of Section 307 1 could not and should not be 

recommended, she said, until it had been thoroughly stud ied to determine 

its fu ll impact. In an earlier meeting, Chief of Staff Abrams had personally assured her that he would not yield to outside pressures unless any 

proposed c hanges had been determined to be right for women and right 

for the Army.33 

General Rogers considered General Bailey's opinion, but, in the end, 

he supported the recommendation to repeal Section 307 1: "I have approved action to su pport its repeal basicall y for two reasons: because I 

believe such action to be consist.ent with long range officer personnel 

n Memo. DMI'M , ODCSPER, to DWAC ~nd other directorates, 17 Scp 73, sub: Women in the 

Service-Defense Officer Personnel M(ln"sement Act. ODWAC Rcf File. Discontinuance of the 

WAC,CMH. 

aa Memo, DWAC to DMPM, 19 Scp 73. sub: Nom;ollcurrcnce- Repeal of Sections 3071 and 3818. 

Tillc 10. U.s. Codc. ODWAC Ref File, Discontinuance of thc WAC, CMH. 
J \4 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, \945- \978 

management goals; and because inclusion in the DOPMA package provides a timely vehicle fo r such a legislative position without undue 

publicity and fanfare." He did not anticipate that repeal of Section 307 1 

would result in the "precipito us disestablishment o f the Women's Army 

Corps," but believed that it would continue unde r secretarial autho rit y 

unless a stud y indicated that this wo uld no t be prudent. 3 4 

The De SPER's words did not soothe General Bailey. She was so 

displeased with his decision that, with his approval. she obtained an 

appointment with General Abrams o n 18 October 1973. In their ninetymi nute confe rence. General Bailey o utlined the need fo r a complete stud y 

o n repeal and forecast that witho ut such a stud y, the Army would incur 

adve rse reactions from veterans, parents, and the public; that WAC rec ruiting could be jeopardized; that provisions had to be made to protect 

WAC assig nments, promotions. and train ing opportunities; and that witho ut the WAC and a directo r of the WAC, women's issues would be 

neglected. She said that fo r thirty-one years women had had to accept 

discrimination and exist o n mo tivation, innovation, and pride, even 

tho ugh they were highly qualified, underutili zed. and slighted o n resources. Today's women. more vocal and militant, would no t be satisfi ed 

as the women of Wo rld War II had been. They would demand the same 

opportunities men had. She concluded by saying that the WAC and its 

director were needed to ensure that the Army li ved up to its promises 

and commitments to women. Before changes were made. the promised 

stud y to determine impact was needed. 3 5 

General Bailey persuaded General Abrams. The day after their conference, the chief of staff asked General Rogers to withdraw the Army's 

conc urrence in repealing Sectio n 3071. In a memo randum on his conversatio n with General Abrams. General Rogers wrote that he had advised 

the chief of staff that the Defense Officer Personnel Management System 

(DOPMS) legislation was at the Office of Management and Budget 

(OM B) and had info rmed him of "the M&RA int erest [both Defense and 

Army1 in Sec. 3071." Even so, he believed Ihat the Army "could pull 

bac k the applicable part of the DOPMS legislation." 36 In accordance 

with the chiefs wishes. General Rogers w ithdrew the A rmy's approval. 

Meanwhile, General Abrams obtained a strong all y for his position after 

discussing the issue with Secretary of the Army Callaway, who had 

H Memo, OCS PER to DWAC, DMPM, and DPPIJ, 26 Scp 7), sub: Women in the ServiceDefense Officer Personnel Management Act (OOPM A). O DWAC Rer File. Discontinuance of the 

WAC, CM II. 

U MFR. DWAC. sub: DWAC Conference with Chief of Staff (18 Oct 73). ODWAC Rcf File. 

Discont inuance of the WAC. CM H. 

II MFR, LiGen Rogers. 19 Oct 73. sub: Repeal of law establishing a separate WAC. and 55, 

DCSPE R to Cors and ASA (M&RA), 2S Oct 73. sub: eve s.~1 of Army I'osition 011 DO I' MA 

Coneernillg Management of Femnle l'ersonne1. ODWAC Ref File, Discon(inuan(;c of the WAC, 

CMH . 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 315 

replaced Secretary F roehlke. 37 For the WACs, General Abrams' decision 

was a moralcwbuilding event; because he was supported by the secretary, 

the A rmy staff might d islike but could not challenge his decision. 

For almost a year, the director's office heard no more on eliminating 

the Corps or the position of director. Then, o n 4 Octobe r 1974, the WAC 

losl one of its strongest supporters with the death of General Abrams. 

About the same time, an Army War College research study proposing 

several new ideas for consideration by the secretary of the Army made its 

way through the Army staff, who commented on it, to Mr. Callawa y. He 

was impressed with it: "This study represents the kind of original thinking 

that I believe we must have in Today's Army .... I, unfortunately, note a 

degree of negativism in some of the StafT comments." One of the " new" 

ideas proposed was elimination of the WAC as a separate corps of the 

Army. Evidently forgetting his 1973 commitment, on 7 October 1974 he 

directed the Army staff to ex plore the idea: "Women should no longer be 

looked upon as a separately managed g roup with a limited role but must 

be recognized for what they are, full and equal membe rs of the Army in 

every sense. Elimination of the WAC is part of such recognition in my 

view." 38 In a year's time, something- perhaps the administration's views 

o n eliminating differences between men and women in the armed forceshad changed Secretary Callaway's mind. 

A few days after the secretary's directive arrived in ODCSPER, 

General Bailey responded with her familiar proposa l that a detailed stud y 

be made to examine all aspects of a phase-out of the WAC. The impression that the WAC was being prec ipitously abandoned would give the 

women's movement the additio nal leverage it sought to force the Army 

into "admitting women to USMA and permitting women to perform in 

the combat role." An in-depth study would provide time to develop, if 

necessary, a step-by-step program to implement the proposal She emphasized that many "important actions must be accomplished before any 

phase-out of the WAC." It would be impossible to eliminate the Corps 

witho ut jeopardizing many careers. 39 As a result of advice from the 

OW AC and other ODCSPER directorates, General Rogers obtained a 

few mo nths' hiatus to stud y the sec retary's proposal before replying. In 

the interim, the director of military personnel management prepared a 

reply, o n which General Bailey commented, and on 30 January 1975, the 

DCSPER told the secretary that the Plateau Plan for the improved 

~. [n an MFR, LlCol Lorraine A. Rossi, Exec Officer. ODWAC, on ) Dec 73, nOled, "LaIc 30 

Nov 13, SA ISecAmlyJ and CS [Cotsl discussed 301 1. SA said would stand w/ Abrams position." 

ODW AC Rer File, Discontinuance or Ihe WAC, CM H. 

Sf Memo, SecArmy to Dir, Army StafT, 1 Oct 74, sub: U.S. Arm)' War College Sludy: Selected 

Approaches ror Maximizing Comool Arms Nonprior Service Accessions.. ODWAC Ref File, Discon· 

tinuance or Ihe WAC. CMH. The sludy proposed a Chailenger· I'ul"Suil Volunteer System, a Civilian 

ErnplO)'ll1cntlTrnining Enlislment Oplion. Hnd Phase·out of the WAC. 

n Memo. DWAC 10 MajGcn !'lItnam, DMI'M. ODCSI'ER, II Ocl 74. sub: Memorandum re: 

Elimilll1lion of the Women'S Arm)' Corps, ODWAC Rer File, Discontinuunce of Ihe WAC, CM U. 
316 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

utilization and administration of the WAC was being implemented to 

provide " for the integration/ phase-out of the Women's Army Corps. " 

Optimum utilization of women in the Army was, he wrote, both feasible 

and consistent with phasing oul the Women's Army Corps as a separate 

entity. He told the sec retary that many milestones of the plan had been 

executed: integration of training and housing, disestablishment of WAC 

units, integration of the staffs of the WAC Center and School, WAC 

officers sitting as primary (not alternate) members of all officer boards. 

On 1 July 1974, all WAC officers had been permanently detailed to other 

branches (combat excepted) and were being managed by those branches. 

Women officers were participating in the new officer personnel manage· 

ment system. He noted that DOPMA would eliminate the WAC promo· 

lion list; meanwhil e, WAC orficers were receiving traini ng and assign· 

ments in new branches to ac hieve a competitive position with men. He 

went o n to point out that the separate corps, however, would be eliminat· 

ed by the ERA only if proof emerged that " the existence of the WAC 

deprives women of equal o pportunity. Disestablishment of the WAC, if 

the proposed ERA passed," he wrote, "would depe nd upon proof that its 

existence does in fact serve to discriminate against women. " If the direc· 

tor's job were eliminated, the placement of a senio r female officer in a 

prestigio us, visible position would, in the future, provide a focal point for 

women and ensure "continuatio n of the traditions and heritage, the esprit 

and pride" of women in the Army. 4o 

In her comments, General Ba il ey recommended that if the Corps were 

phased out by passage of the ERA, the term "WAC" be retained to 

disting uish ma le from fema le soldiers; that the Pallas Athene insignia be 

worn until an MOS was ea rned; and that the WAC anniversary, 14 May 

1942, continue to be recognized. Like the DCSPE R, she recommended 

that a senio r female orfice r be retained in a visible position to represent 

women, advise on women's matt ers, and serve as a spokeswoman for 

women. 41 

A masterpiece of bureaucratic ambiguity, the DMPM/DCSPER reply 

was interpreted differently by Secretary Callaway and General Bailey. 

The memorand um from the DCSPER assured the secretary that between 

the Plateau Plan and DOPMA, the Women's Army Corps, for all practica l purposes, wo uld undoubtedly be eliminated within a three-year timeframe. In going along with the reply, the director had hoped to gain time 

in which anythi ng could happen- DOPMA mig ht no t pass, the ERA 

might no t be accepted by the states, a new c hief of staff or Army 

sec reta ry might come along and rej ect discontinuance of the Corps, or 

40 Mcmo. DCSPER Ihrough Col'S and ASA (M& RA) 10 Sc<:Arlll)" 30 Jan 75. sub: Phasing oul of 

Ihe Women's Arm)' Corrs. ODWAC Ker File. Discominuance of Ihe WAC, CM H. 

41 Ibid .. T ab C. Memo. DWAC 10 DCS PER, 17 Jan 75, smne sub, ODWAC Ref Filc. Disconlinu. 

!1I!ccof rhc WAC.CMH. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 317 

the success of the WAC ex pansio n mig ht convince everyone the Corps 

should be retained. The secreta ry approved the DeSPER response on 7 

February 1975 and did not direct any further action rega rding the WAC. 

Agai n, Genera l Bai ley had some mon ths to breathe easi ly be fo re a new 

storm erupted. This time it began in J une 1975, du ring heari ngs on 

DOJ>MA before a subcommittee of the House A rmed Services Committee. On the fi rst day of the hearings, Samuel S. Stratton of New York and 

Marjorie S. Holt of Ma ryla nd both asked why the A rmy retained a 

separate corps for women under a bill "which purports to remove discriminatory provisions fo r women." 42 

When the DOD witness did not provide a satisfactory reply. the 

Army's rep resentative at the hearing, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the 

Army (M&RA) Paul O. Philli ps, knew that the Army would be asked the 

same quest ion when its turn came at the heari ngs. In a memorand um for 

the Army staff, he said it appeared to most of the subcommittee members 

that the Army used the WAC "as a cover to provide the o pport unity for 

continued discrimination." He asked that General Abrams' ru li ng in 1973 

that the WAC must not be eliminated under the DOPMA legisla tion be 

reversed, so that ;'we can admit to the Committee that we no longer see 

the need for a separate WAC." 43 

General Moore, who had replaced General Rogers as the DCSPER at 

the end of 1974, discussed the memorandum wit h Genera l Bailey and, 

wit h her concurrence, asked the secretary of the A rmy to approve the 

deputy assistant secretary's recommendation. He wrote : " In view of the 

progress being accomplished in establishing women equities comparable 

to men, it is bel ieved that conti nuatio n of the Jegal statute (Title 10, USC, 

Section 3071) to provide fo r a sepa rate Women's Army Corps, director 

and deputy director is no t justifi ed. However, there is foreseen a need for 

a full time senior female officer to act as ad visor to the Sec reta ry and 

Chief of Staff o n WAC matters and to be a spo keswoman for women in 

the Army. This senior fema le ad viso r and spokeswoman is necessary to 

guide the continued ex panding use of women in the Army." 401 

Again General Bailey viewed her conc urrence as a mea ns of gaini ng 

time. Discont inuance of the Corps and the office of the director was tied 

to whether the DOPMA passed, and she knew fro m her experience in 

legislative liaison that the bill could be debated in Cong ress fo r yea rs 

before it passed or was she lved. 45 T he drive to ratify the proposed Equal 

~1 Mel1lo. DASA (1\'I&RA) I'aul O. Phillips 10 Oir. Army Starr. 12 Jun 75. sub, COlltinu;ttion of the 

WAC. ODWAC Rcr File. Dis.:ominu:mce of the WAC. C MIi . 

~" Ibid. 

H Memo. DCSPER through CofS and ASA (M&RA) to SceArmy. 17 J un 75. sub, Repe;tl of 

Section 3071. Title 10. United Stales Code nnder Proposed Legisl;l1ion: DefclIse Officer Persolilie l 

1\1:onagcmem Ae t (DO I'MA) (HR 7586)- Decisiol1 Memornnd ll11l. ODWA C Ref File. Dis.:Olltillllanee of the WAC. CMH . 

• ~ lnterl'. BrigGen Blliley with Lleol Rhoda M. Messer (Senior Officer Debriefing I'rogrnill. US 

Arm}, Milit ~ry History Ilistitlltc). Oct 78. p. 30. O DWAC Ref File. Directors. WA C. IlO Bailey. 

CMH. 
318 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Rights Amendment had already sta lled, and it appeared the amendment 

would not be ratified by the necessary thirty-eight slal es. 

When the subcommitt ee reconvened the fo llowing week to discuss 

DOPMA, the sec reta ry of the Army informed the committ ee that the 

Army would no longer object to deletion of the WAC as a separate 

corps. The bill, however, did not pass in 1975. It was rewritten fo r 

introduction in the next session of Congress and included a provision for 

elimination of the WAC as a sepa rate corps two years after passage of the 

bill, but the Ho use Armed Services Committee recommended that the 

Corps be abo lished ni nety days after enac tment o f the bill : 

The committee believes that having a separate corps is a vestige of the time 

when women were not trea ted equally and that such a corps is inconsistent with 

the insistence on equal treatment. ... The bill ;IS submiu cd by the Department of 

Defense would have provided fo r the abolition of the Women's A rmy Corps but 

would have allowed two years for the change. The committee believes ;In 

ex tended period is not required, and, therefore, has sel a 90-day termination 

limit. 0I6 

T he committee's amendment eliminated the Corps, the offices of the 

direclOr and deputy direc to r, the appointment o f women officers in the 

WAC, the separate WAC promot io n list, the secrclary's responsibility to 

prescribe the au tho rit y to be given women, and separate retirement and 

mandalOry separatio n procedures fo r women o ffi cers. 4 7 

The hope of reta ining the WAC as a separate corps had ended in June 

1975 when the sec reta ry o f the Army to ld Congress that the Corps was 

no lo nge r needed and that its removal would ensu re full integration of 

women into the Army. Congress ag reed. In the 1948 hearings, Congress 

had no t pe rmitted wome n to be integ rat ed into the Regular A rmy un less 

they had a corps of their OWII. Thirty yea rs later, with the help o f 

women's rights advoca tes, Cong ress said women could not be fu ll y integrated un less it dissolved the sepa rate corps status of the WAC. Disestablishing the Corps proved easie r than establishing it. 

Women Ellier lite u.s. Miliuuy Academy 

Another objective o f the women's rights movement was to open the 

doo rs o f the serv ice academi cs to women. T his question became the most 

bitterly contested o f the issues conce rni ng women a nd equa l opportu nit y 

in the armed fo rces d uri ng the 19705. In 1972, Secrctary o f the Navy 

Jo hn H. Chafee denied admission to the U.S. Nava l Academy to two 

womcn nominated by Senato r Jacob Javits of New York and Congressman Jack McDonald of Michigan. The legislators responded by introd uc-

~o IlR(11. Refilm of /It" C<)lIIl11il/('(' 011 Am,,,d Si.'fl'ict'$. lIoust' of Rrp"'.i<'ll/(ui", .. -s /0 Acrolllpm,y IIR 

/J9J8. ~pl 1295. 941h Congo 2« -.c~s. 24 JUIl 76. P(1. 34 3~ . 

H Ibid. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 319 

ing bills in both houses to make it illegal fo r the services to deny 

admission to the academies o n the basis of sex. 48 

This was not the fi rst time that legislation regard ing women and the 

academies had been introduced in Congress. In November 1944, Congressman Eugene E. Cox of Georgia introduced a bill that would appoint 

a commission to plan a service academy for women as an initial step to 

giving women permanent military slatus,49 The bill d ied in committ ee. In 

June 1945, Congressman James G. F ulton of Massachllsetts introduced a 

bill to establish an academy for aviators and another for mili ta ry 

women. 50 This bill also fai led. In February 1955, Senator Dennis Chavez 

of New Mexico introduced a joint resolution to establish a women's 

armed services academy. At the time, Congress was considering a bill to 

establish an Ai r Force academy. In recommending passage of the bill for 

a women's academy, Senator Chavez said, " It is now fitt ing and proper 

that the opportunities for education and training afforded to selected 

young men in our seve ral service academies be now ex tended in full 

measure to our young womanhood w ith the same purpose and objectives 

in view." 51 The bill to establish the Air Force Academy was approved, 

the bill fo r the women's services academy was not. Sur prisingly, the idea 

was resurrected in 1972 by John W. T hompson, Jr. , a c ivilian a ide to 

Secretary of the A rmy F roehlke. "With the emphasis o n women in the 

service." said Thompson, "1 am wondering if the time has not come to 

establish a Nationa l Defense Academy for Women to develop women a t 

the officer level simila r to the th ree milita ry Academies and the Coast 

Guard Academy." The secretary replied that such an academy was "unnecessary since sufficient women are coming into the Army under existing programs." 52 

Proposa ls to include women at the military acad emies made little 

progress during 1972 and 1973. The 92d Cong ress adjo urned in 1972 

before action could be taken on the bills introduced by Senator Javits and 

Mr. McDonald. In 1973. a new bill, H.R. 10705, was introduced by Pierre 

S. DuPont of Delaware in the 93d Cong ress. but hearings on it we re 

de fe rred until 1974. A t that time the proposal was opposed by the Department of Defense, the th ree services. and the chairman of the House 

Armed Services Committee. F. Edward Hebert,53 Meanwhile, in Septem-

~~ Sen. Javils inlroduced Senate Concurrent Resolu!ion 71 011 28 Mar 72: Rep Boylan inlroduced 

House Concurrent Resolution 578 on 12 Apr 72. Rober! J. Boylau. "Annapolis Under Siege," So'lJ 

l'oM·cr. 23 Mar 72. pp. 15- 19. 

~n liJ Res 314, CongrcssiOlwl Rl!(;ord. ludex 1944. p. 550. 

o ]-IR 3403. COll8rt:.uiol!fll Rrrori/. ludex 1945. p. 891. 

~'US Congress, Seml! e. ConuniuC(! on Armed Services. 5J Res 48. 84!h Cong, Is! scss, 21 Feb 55: 

Congressiollal Rerord. 21 Feb 55. PI'. 1545-46. 

62 L!r. John W. Thompson 10 S~~Army. 9 Aug 72, aud reply. SecArmy !o Thompson, 2 Oct 12. 

ODWAC Ref Fi!c. Academy. CMH. 

& 3 "Women Cllde!s Avoided Agaill." Army Times. 13 Mar 74. 
320 THE WOME N'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

CARTOON BY JOH N STAM I'ONE, 15 M AY 

1974. (Courlesy of Army Times.) 

her 1973, the women who had been denied entry to the Naval Academy 

fi led sui t in Federa l Distric t Court, Washington, D.C., c harging that their 

civil rig hts had been denied. T he court ru led in J une 1974 that because 

the law precl uded women from serving in combat, no need existed for 

them to attcnd the academy. A federal appeals court overt urned this 

ruli ng later in 1974 and o rdered the case to trial. 54 But, when Congress 

decided the ma tt er in 1975, the cases were dro pped. T he DACQWITS 

was also acti ve on the matt er and, beginning in 1973, repeatedly recommended to the sec reta ry of defense that in the interests of eq uality, 

women should be admitted to the service academies. But Sec retary of 

Defense James R. Schlesinger was adamant, telling members that un til 

such time as Cong ress o r the public decided that women sho uld enter 

combat, the services wo uld educate only men at the nation's mil itary 

academies. 55 

Duri ng this time period, another gove rnment-sponsored academy set 

an example. The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New 

York, o pera ted by the Maritime Administra tion of the Department of 

Commerce, opened its doors to women in Jul y 1974. After the second 

session of the 93d Cong ress began ·in 1974, no fewer than fi ve separate 

bills, endo rsed by thirty-three members of Congress and pro posing that 

.H "WOl1lo;' lI Lose Ilid 10 ACl.dcmie,." WfIS""',g/Ql/ full. 15 J uu 74; "ACl.dctn)' Suil Due Flill T rial:' 

" rlll)' Time$. 4 ~'\: 74. 

n /'.Iin. DACOWITS Mig. Spring 1975. p. 11- 6. DWAC Rer File. DACOW ITS. eM il. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 321 

women be admitlcd 10 the se rvice academies, were under consideralion. 60 

During hearings before a subcommittee of the Ho use Armed Services 

Committee that summer, all the se rvice secretaries. the c hiefs of stafT, and 

the c hief of na va l o pera tions ex pressed their stro ng opposition to the 

legislatio n. Secretary o f the A rmy Howard H. Call away, a West Point 

graduate, argued, "The United States Mili tary Academy is dedicated to 

the development of combat leaders:' To accommodate women, he sa id, 

the U.S. Military Academy at West Point would be required to adopt less 

demanding standards, which would lower the standards fo r men and 

dilut e the quality of the male g raduates. He warned, "Admitting women 

10 West Point wi ll irrevocably change the Academy. And ... the change 

can o nly be for the worse."57 No further hearings were held on the 

se rvice academies bills in 1974; Cong ress and the natio n became preoccupied with the action to impeac h President Nixon that resulted in his 

resignation. Vice President Gera ld Ford became president o n 9 August 

1974. 

Momentum toward ac hi eving the academy goa l grew, When the 94th 

Congress opened in Januar y 1975, six bills to ad mit women to the service 

academies we re introduced- five in the Ho use, o ne in the Senat e. 58 

Because no Ho use committ ee hea ri ngs were sched uled, Congressman 

Stratton attached an amendment to open the academies to women to the 

Defense Authorization Bill of 1976 in May 1975, In arg uing for approva l 

of the amendment, Mr, Stratton c ited a Gencral Accounting Office 

(GAO) report showing that of 30,000 servicc academy g raduates o n duty 

011 I Octobe r 1974, 3,777 (12.3 percent) had never held a comba t assig nment. The report also incl uded the judgment that women who mel the 

physical requirements for entry into the serv ices could sllccessfu ll y accomplish the rigo ro lls physical traini ng programs at the academies. The 

report convinced Stratton and many other members of Congress that 

women could compet e in all aspects of academy training and, if 12 

percent of academy graduates held noncombal positio ns, that adequate 

assignment possibilities existed for women in all the services afler g raduatiol1,M) The services continued to arg ue that laws a nd regulations ex-

'" ltep Pierre S. OuPonl inlr\ld\l c~'{ 1 III{ 15338 011 12 JUIl 74 nllt! HI{ 1652 1 o n 21 Aug 14 

iCtllIgt't'_lIimwl/l'.wml, Index. PI'. 1809. IIIS I): hi~ Hit 10105 W:L~ , Iill ['!Cll dillg. ~as Itcr Alall W. 

Slec!nlitll inlroduced HI{ 15'n<) 011 IH Allg 14 (ibid .. r. 1832). ssach ll ""!1~ Rep JoJIU J. O;lldey' s 

11K 9S.U. inlruducL'{1 ill Aug n. was :11"0 pcnding (ibid .. p. ZI44) . 

.. SWI/'III<'111 by Ihl' Ifwwmhle 1I00'Ylflf II. CIIIIII ... tly. San'IlI,>, of Ihe Army. bc:fim.' Suhrommillt'/' 1. 

" ,111 .... • A"!/{'ff &m'ct ... COmmil/(1' (}d .",st., 9)1/ COl/gr .. ) Jill U. 01/ ,fdminioll of 11'0111('1/ 10 I/II! Ullil,'f/ 

SllIl,or ,l Mrlory I lnl(/rmy. QDWAC Ref File. Academy. eMil. 

IIK 14bl. inlmduccd by Iter Curl I' cr~",s. KY. 15 Jan 15. '\ S .(iCIlIICl.I 10 11K 9S32 from Ihe 

'Ud Cung (COIIg"'uWtwl RITf/Td. IlI de~. p. 1772). S .\34 w"" I1llrodIlC(-'d by Sell Willil'Ul I). I1 l.1haw"y. 

"IE. 2.1 J:", 15 (ihid .. p, 11.>32): li lt 1051. h)' ReI' 51r,,1I011. 15 Jan 15 (Ibid .. p. 1162): Hits 38.11. 3S38. 

:lIld .IS39. by Itcr 0,,1'0111, 27 Feb 75 (Ibid .. r . 1856) . 

. 'Q US C.lIIgn .. ". II0II,-,\,. r\lilil(lry " a"lIft' 111111 f)of) ,l lIIllOfizlllioll fo, "pprop'itllio"~ for FY 1976, PII" 

I. 1I('(lfIlIg" /1,10'" lit,> Commill.'/' oil If'III"" S('''·i("(' ~. 941h COllI:. ls. ~e ... ,. j·IAse Rpl 94- 8 (W:L~hi"S' 

Inll. DC: 1975): Phil SIC""'''. ··SlflIllon Il il.' A,,:l(lemy Comb:oI 'M}',h: "II ,IIIY 1"i",(>~,. 30 Apr 75. 
322 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

eluded women from serving in combat and that the traditional mission of 

the se rvice academies was ll mal e combat tra ining. They insisted that 

Congress resolve the question of whether women should serve in combat 

before voting on the academies amendment. Their a rgument, however, 

was declared irrelevant. According to an article in Army, "Efforts to 

settle th is aspect before proceeding with debate on the admissio n amendment were beaten back and deno unced by the measu re's supporters as a 

'red herring.' "GO 

One aspect of the dispute, the process of branc h selection of academy 

graduates, was more complex than either side admitted. It was true that 

not all West Point grad uates entered the combat arms (In rantry, Armor, 

Field Anille ry, Air Derense A rtille ry, and Engitleers) or the combat 

support a rms (Signa l, Militar y In telligence, and Military Police). Since 

1965, men who became physically d isqualified ro r combat o r combat 

suppo rt aner ente ring West Point had been able to request assignment to 

o ne or the administra tive or technical branches (e.g., Transportatio n, 

Ordnance, Adj utant Gene ral, Finance, Chemical). T he policy was aban* 

dOlled ane r 1972, w hen women we re fi rst nominated to the se rvice 

academies, because it detracted rrom West Point's combat posture. 61 

Regardless, Mr. Stratton'S a rguments and the GAO report persuaded the 

majority o r members that the academies were not solely devoted to 

prod ucin g combat o fficers. O n 20 May 1975, the House voted 303 to 96 

to approve the amendment to the Derense Authorization Bill or 1976 to 

admit women into the service academies. On 6 J une, the Senate ro llowed 

suit with an approving voice vote. On 7 October 1975, President Ford 

signed the bill into law.62 

T he women's rights movement had won anothe r battle. Many men in 

the military services were stunned . The impossible had happened, and 

they had 11 0 recourse but to carry out orde rs. T he superintendent or the 

U.S. Milita ry Academy at West Point considered resigni ng but changed 

his mi nd. In an open lett er to the grad ua tes o r the academy he w rote: 

"Since it is the will or Cong ress and the President, we are welcoming 

women cand idates as we welcome men candida tes to West Po int. We 

expect to make this c hange smoothl y and efficiently."63 

Ane r the bill was signed, the Army ga lvanized its resources to prepare 

to admit women to West Point. The academy's starr rev ised and implemented its contingency plan (USMA OPLAN 75- 1, 15 Sep 75) ror the 

60 J'''nes Binder. "The Wayward Carl- Collgrcss and a Coed Wesl Poinl :·,-IrlllY. Jul 75. p. 6. 

ft. Slalemenl. US Milililry Academy Board, "On the AdmiUIIIlce of Women 10 Ihe Uniled SImes 

Mililury AC3demy." Ma r 73, ODWAC Ref File, Academy. CMH. 

~2 COlIgressiQl/(lf Reran!. 20 May and 6 J UII 75; PL 106. 941h Cong. lsi scss. 7 OCI 75. In lhe 

summer of 1975. lhe conllll'l11danl of Ihe US Coa~1 Gu;o rd Acadcmy announced thaI women would be 

admilll-d to Ihal academy in New London. CT. beginning in July 1976. Coa~1 Gu"rd Shapes Up." 

Army Times. 13 Aug 75. 

63 Llr. LlGell Sidney E. Derry. Superinlendenl. USMA. 10 graduates and friends of lhe Acadcmy. 

Assembly Magllzine, Dee 75. p. I. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 323 

training, administration, ho using, and c lothing of women. The A rmy 

hired Fashionaire, a subsid iary of Harl, Schaffner and Marx, lowest of 

five bidders, to deve lop a uniform fo r women cadets. II also launched a 

national publicity campaign to attract women applicants for entry into the 

Class of 1980. The DeSPER, General Moore, formed a committee, 

headed by Brig. Gen. Phi lip Kaplan, deputy director of the Military 

Personnel Management Directorate, to resolve policy issues and g uide the 

admissio n, enrollment, and administration of women at West Point. T he 

committee incl uded the director of the WAC and representatives from 

ot her Army staff offices-DCSLOG, TAG, Chief of Info rmatio n, Surgeon General, and the Judge Advocate General.64 The law stated that 

requ irements for men and women would be alike concernin g appoint· 

ment, admission, training, g raduation, and commissioning except "for 

those minimum essential adjustments in such standa rds req uired because 

of physiological differences between mal e and fema le individ uals."6 5 As a 

result, standa rds were identical except for the physica l aptitude tests- no 

pull·ups fo r women- and for physical training- no wrest ling o r boxing 

for women. Women participat ed in the fu ll academic program and in field 

training, in clud ing parachute school, helicopte r fl ig ht school, and no rt h· 

ern wa rfare and j ungle wa rfare. Ranger training, a combat course, was 

not open to women.66 Brig. Gen. Ma ry E. Clarke (then DWAC) and her 

staff pa rtici pated in the discussio ns, inspections, and dec isions and provid· 

ed advice during and after the entry of women into the academy. 

More women office rs were soon assigned to the academy staff and 

facult y. In Ju ne 1973, 1st LI. Vi rgi nia K. Fry had been assig ned to the 

facult y; she taught geography to first- and second-year students until 

Septembe r 1976. In the summer o f 1976, ten mo re women officers arri ved 

at West Point. Five taugh t, o ne became a tac tical officer (i.e., troop 

leader), and four served in administrative positions on the academy sta fr. 

In September 1979, Col. Mildred P. Hedberg was assig ned as chief of 

staff for the Corps of Cadets and se rved in that position until 1981, when 

she was selected for promotion to brigadier general and assigned to 

Germany.67 

6" MFRs. ODCS I'EH (DAPE- MPO- H). ~ub; Meeling of Slnrr CommilU:c on Women Cadels at 

Wesl Poilil. 28 Aug 75. ;ond ODCSI'ER (DAIlE- MIlO- R), sub, US MA In·Process 1'1:lIl1!ing Confercutc,;I SCI" 75. O])WAC Ref File. Acndemy. CM H. 

6. I'L 106. 941h Congo lsi sc~s, 7 Ocl 75. 

6~ Fnel Shce!. Offite of I'ubl ic Am.irs, USMA. OCI 75. sub: Admission of Womcn 10 Ihe Uni led 

Sl~ll-S Mi1il;.ry Atadcm)'. O DWAC Ref File. Acadcmy. CM H. 

61 Supcrililendeni. USMA. AI/JllIIII Reporls, FYs 74. 75. 76. and 79. CM U Library; Imervs. Maj 

Virginia K. Fry ami BrigGeil Mildred I', I-Iedbcrg ",ilh the aut hor, 14 Al'r 72. T he "'OlnCil officcrs 

assigned 10 Ihe USMA in 1976 were Maj Mary C. Willis. 0'1'1 Linda Bird. Cal'l Palriei:1 Hickerson. 

C;opl Uonnie I'enniuglon. Capt Laura Trollingcr. 0'1'1 Dr.rbarn YOSI. Capl Alilm Youllg. LI Barrn.ra 

Doornink. LI Eileen ]01tttSIOIl, and Lt M;orgc Nitka (LtT. M<Lj Mliry C. Willis. USMA, 10 DWAC, 2J 

Aug 7(,. ODWAC HefFile. Academy. CMH). 
324 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

C LASS OF 1980 Cadets Carol A. YOllng, 

Gregory Stephens, alld Kathryn A. Wildey 

al West Poil/I. December /976. 

Despite di re predic tions that women wo uld low e r standards and disrupt cadet life at West Point, the "long grey line" admirably survived the 

e ntry of wo men. A re po rt prepa red at West Point after g raduation o f 

three classes thaI included wo men (classes of \ 980, 198 1, a nd 1982) 

showed that wOmen received lowe r ralings than me n in physical training, 

leade rship, military scie nce, and some applied science courses, but tha t 

they did bette r than men ill the huma ni ties, social sciences, and be haviora l 

science courses. End uring common hardships a nd rigorolls trai ning led to 

some development or camaraderie, but a strong antiremale bias pe rsisted 

all the campus and inc reased the wome n's hardshi ps. Despit e Ihal, Ihe 

repo rt conc luded with o ptimism: "Art e r three yea rs of coeducation, it 

ap pea rs that the majority o r male cadets understand that coeduca tion c an 

and w ill wo rk al West Point. This rea lislic view will he lp prepare all 

grad uates 10 lead in an A rmy w hich requires the ru ll, in tegrated se rvices 

or men and women." 68 

GCI/cral Bailey's Deparlllre 

In May 1975, G eneral Bailey anno unced she wo uld re tire upon compl etion o r fou r years in ortice on 3 1 July. A few weeks la ter, the Senate 

confirmed the nomi na tion o r CoL Mary E. Cla r ke ror promotion to 

aM Rpl. /I'b j Jcromc Ad,tIllS. The Admission of Womcn 10 Ihc U.S. 1\'\ iliHlrr AC~ldclllY l' rt}j~'C1 

Alhcllc III). I JIII1 79. ODWAC Ref Filc. Academy. CM H. 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 325 

brigadier general and appointment as director of the WAC. General 

Bailey's to ur had been highlighted by the successful WAC expansion, 

introduc tio n of innovative unifo rm items, and. as she wrote, " more 

changes in law, regula tio ns, and policies concernin g uniformed women 

than in the entire preceding twenty-eight years." 69 Man y of the changes 

had major impo rlance: 

-All MOSs were opened to women except those in volving 

direct combat. 

- Women entered the Army's ROTC programs. 

- WACs were authorized to command men except In combat 

units. 

-Servicewomen received dependency entitlements. 

- Assignment constraints were removed on utili z,l(ion of 

women. 

- WAC units were combined with those for men. 

- Ho using was combined fo r men and women, but pnvacy was 

main tained. 

- Mandatory discharge o n pregnancy and parenthood was eliminated; voluntary discharge on marriage was eliminated. 

- Women were permitted 10 enlist at age 18 witho ut their parents' consent and at 17 with their parents' consent. 

- WAC officers were permanently assig ned to o ther branches. 

- Ma ndato ry weapons training was initiated fo r e nlisted women 

and officers. 

- Army aviation and airborne training were opened to women. 

- An optional mint-green summer uniform, black be ret, Army 

green pantsuit, fat igues, and black rai ncoat were added to 

women's uniform wa rdrobe. 

General Bailey's public relations talent and hard work had contributed 

to the success of the WAC expansion. Because of the need fo r women, 

the secretary of the Army had inc reased the direc to r's travel fund s in 

respo nse to the DCSPER's desire that she devote a large part of her ti me 

and energy to promo ting WAC recruiting and monito rin g the impact of 

WAC ex pansion in the fi eld. As a result, Genera l Bai ley visited WAC 

uni ts in CONUS and overseas twice during her fou r-year tour of dut y; 

fund s allotted to the fo rmer directo rs had allowed o nl y one visit to each 

of the commands. General Bailey welcomed the oppo rtunit y to travel, to 

inCrelJSe the public's knowledge of the WAC, 10 visit the women and 

ex plain the expanded WAC policies to them and 10 commanders in the 

field. She promoted recruitment, improved the morale of the enlisted 

women, educated male members of the Army On WOmen's rol e, ancl 

n fo,l emo. DWAC lhrough Cors 10 Se<.:Army. 28 JuJ 75. $11 0: End of Tour Rellor!. ODWAC Ref 

File, Directors WAC. Bailcy. En(1 or Tour I{ cP0rl . CMIi . 
326 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

eva luat ed the progress of the expansion. She laler estimated thai she spent 

approximately 80 percent of her time traveling and away from her desk at 

the Penlagon. 70 

In her end of tour report, General Bailey expressed satisfaction with 

the progress made in recruiting, tra ini ng, and utilizatio n of women, but 

she also noted her concern about matlers left unresolved. Principal among 

these was the negati ve altitude of male soldiers lowurd women in the 

A rm y. Though much had been done to provide equal opportunity, disc rimination lurked behind many doors and wo uld continue to deprive 

qualified women of o pportunities to succeed. She recommended ",raining 

programs for all Army personnel that will create awareness and under· 

standing." 7 I 

She pointed out tha t altho ugh the enlisted women's streng th had tri· 

pled during her tour, the number of women office rs lagged. She recom· 

mended that officers be selected on a "best qualified basis without regard 

to sex" o nce the Army had obtained adequate numbers of combat offi· 

cers. She recommended that the inequality in awarding ROTC scholar· 

ships be in vestigated with a view to increasing women's share of the 

6,500 available scholarships. General Bailey reserved her g reatest misgiv· 

ings fo r the change in po licy that allowed pregnant women and women 

with minor children to remain on duty. The role of mother affected a 

woman's assignment fl exibi lity and mobility and her unit's mission accom· 

piishmcnt and readi ness. Al most 8 percent of the enlisted women on duty 

had minor children, and 2.2 percent (approximate ly 650 women) were 

single pa rents. She predic ted that their number wo uld inc rease substa ntial· 

Iy over the years bec:'H1se sin gle parents received g reat er support, stabili· 

ty, und securit y in the Army than in c ivilian life. 

She asked the secretary to delay integration of women officers o n the 

Army Promotion List until they had ac hieved a degree of competitive· 

ness with their male peers; to resist efforts of the women's rights o rgani· 

zatio n to give women a combat rol e and lower enlistment sta nda rds; to 

contin ue to provide women with a stylish uniform o f good fabric; and, if 

the position of director were abolished, to retain a senior woman offi ce r 

adviser at high level 0 11 the Army stafr. She concluded her report by 

saying: "The yea rs immediat ely ahead will no t be headline makers for 

Army women as the past li ve have been but a peri od of implementation, 

analysis, and assessment of prog ress. The calm voice of reason is needed 

to carry o ut o ur goa ls." 72 

.(> Inler .... BrigG cn U:ule), \\"uh Ihe :.ulhor. 18 Apr 82 . 

•• ~"h n1 . DWAC Ihrough CofS 10 $ccArltl)'. 211 Jul y 75. sub: End o r Tour Keport. ODWAC Kef 

Filc.l)irecloN WAC. B~ilc)'. End Or Tour Keporl. e MU. 

7Z lhid . 
THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE WAC 327 

The Army held General Bailey's retirement activities at the WAC 

Center and School. T hey included a fo rmal evening reception, a retirement review, and a brunch. Lt. Gen. Bernard W. Rogers, Commander, 

U.S. A rmy Forces Command (FORSCOM), personall y presented General 

Bailey with the Disting uished Service Meda l fo r her pe rformance on duty 

as director of the WAC from 1971 to 1975. At her retirement parade on 

30 July 1975, Genera l Bailey told the women of the Corps, "you can 

maximize women's contributions to the Army's mission; accelerate 

progress and enhance the position of womanki nd if you are willing to 

establish goals which transcend personal interests; be realistic as well as 

idea listic; accept the hazards of equality as well as its obvio us attractions; 

are persevering, dedicated, and willing to work for a cause." 73 

General Bailey's end of tour report encouraged General Moore to 

rev iew the unresolved issues she had noted. After the review, he inc reased the programmed number of women line officers for FY 1981 

from 3,336 to 3,540. Although he did not agree with deferring in tegration 

of women officers into the A rmy Promotion List, he established a system 

to monitor each promotion board's results to ensure equit able treatment 

of women officers. He saw no need to permit continuing pressure from 

the women's rights movement to change Army policy regarding women 

in combat o r to lower women's enlistment standa rds. The DCSPER 

directed the commander of the Military Personnel Cen ter to gather statistics to assist in determin ing whether an ind ividua l's dependents affected 

unit readiness o r deployability, and he directed the commander of the 

Personnel and Administra ti ve Combat Developments Activity to plan 

supportive trai ning programs "to minimi ze human rela tions problems associated with the WAC expansio n." The DCSPER assured the chief of 

staff that he would continue to emphasize improvement in women's 

uniforms, and he increased the number of ROTC sc hola rships fo r women 

from 80 in 1975 to 225 in 1976. He did not discuss elimination of the 

Corps o r the office of the director of the WAC. 74 

When the new director arrived at the Pentagon in August 1975, she 

knew she was ascendi ng a shaky thro ne. It seemed that only a miracle or 

.11 turnabout by Congress could prevent her from presiding over the 

demise of the Corps, or allow her to compl ete a full four-year term of 

office after the DOPMA passed. The momentum of the ex pansion, however, was a bright aspect of her new position, providing hope fo r new 

opportunities for women in the Army. Meanwhile, the fate of the command she had just left- WAC Center and SchOOl- hung in the ba lance 

and its destiny had to be sett led. 

13 Rel1lMks. BrigGen O~ ey. DWAC, Retirement CerCI'>Ol1;CS. Ft McClc llan. 30 J ul 75. ODWA C 

RerFite. Directors WAC, Bailc)'. CM H, 

H Memo. DCSPER to CofS :11\(1 St.-cArmy. 31 Aug 75. sub: End or Tour Report. BG Mildrcd C. 

Billie)'. ODWAC Ref File, Direc ~ WAC, I);.iley. End of Tour l(epon. C MH . 

CHAPTER XII 

WAC Center and WAC School 

Nowhere were the changes shaking the Corps fe lt more severely than 

at the heart of the training program, the WAC Center and WAC School. 

The 1954 move from Fort Lee to Fort McClellan had placed these 

organ izations under the jurisdi ction of the commanding general of the 

Third U.S. Army, Fort McPherson, Georgia. The WAC Center commander's immediate supervisor, however, was the post commander at 

Fort McClellan, and doctrine and policy for enlisted and office r courses 

came from the Continental Army Command, Fort Monroe, Virginia. 

Within that organizational structure, the training of new officers and 

enlisted women had flo urished. I 

The WAC Training Battalion processed basic trainees, reenlistees, and 

reservists as it had do ne at Fort Lee. The WAC School operated the 

basic and advanced courses fo r officers and added a typing and clerical 

procedures course and a stenography course. In 1957 the WAC College 

Junio r Course, too, became part of the c urric ulum. Headq uarters and 

Headquarters Company housed and administered the enlisted women who 

worked thro ugho ut the WAC area and at post headquarters, Noble Army 

Hospital, the dental clinic, and the Chemical Corps Training Command. 

The 14th Army Band (WAC) ho used and administered its members. The 

WAC Center commander controlled and directed all four activities. To 

staff them and her own headquarters, she had approximately 100 officers 

and 260 enlisted women but no civilians. Except fo r the periods of WAC 

expansion- 1967, for Vietnam, and 1972, for the all-volunt eer Army- few 

c hanges occurred in these figures. 2 

After moving into their initial 2 1-building complex, the WACs had 

made the area their own. To mark the 27 September 1954 dedication of 

the center and school, the WAC Officers Associatio n installed a large 

plaque mo unted on a marble slab in a triang ular area between the parade 

'OA GO 38. 26 May 54. established WAC Center as a Class I Activity under HQ. Third US 

Army. Fort McJ'herson. under TO 63- 3460- 3- lhe T D number eh,'llgcd to 63- 3465 on 25 J un 57, to 

63-3176 Oil I Jail 59. :lnd to 3A- 3176 ill Jun 67. WAC School carne under operation,,1 (."()ntrol or 

CONA RC in Jlln 64. The words "United Slatcs" were added to the organization lilies by Llr. 

TAG(AGAO-O) (M) 322 (19 Oct 56) to all 'lr111i es. 13 Dec 56, sub: Rcdcsignmioll or T able or 

Dislribution Units. In 1973. HQ. T hird Ar",y. W:lS deactivated. and conlrol or WAC Cenl er and 

WAC School was assllm(.'(1 by n Q. Training and Doctrillc Comnmud. Fort Monroe. rormcrly 

CONA RC, ODWAC Rcf Filc. WAC C&S TDA & Reorganiza1ion. CMH . 

• Hisloric,,1 Reports. WAC C&S, 1954, 1955. 1957. 1967. "'I(I 1972. i~loric,,1 Collection. WAC 

Museum. 
330 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

ground and the site of the WAC chapel. The WAC detachment in Japan 

contributed a Japanese stone lantern in October 1956, and it was placed in 

this area, known as the WAC T riangle. 3 

A ground-breaking ceremony for the WAC chapel on 18 June 1955 

had brought Brig. Gen. Frank Tobey, Chief of Chaplains. and Col. Irene 

O. Galloway, DWAC. to the center. The chapla ins at Fort McClellan 

provided a silver-plated spade for the event and later presented it to the 

WAC Museum. A few months later, on 28 September, at the ceremony 

for the laying of the cornerstone, a copper box containing items used by 

WACs was encased in the stone. The WAC detachments in the Fifth 

Army area donated a set of canto chimes to the chapel and Chapter I, 

Chicago, WAC Veterans' Association, contributed a bronze dedication 

plaque, unveiled at the dedication on 12 May 1956. Several years later 

(1964), the then chief of c haplains, Maj. Gen. Charles E. Brown, Jr., 

allotted $20,0<X> from the Chaplains' Fund to install sta in ed~g ass windows 

in the chapel-the high, stained-glass window in the back of the chapel 

includes a large Pallas Athene insignia and the coat of arms of the WAC 

School. 4 Because of its large seating capacity, the chapel became the site 

of orientation and graduation exercises for basic trainees, clerical students. 

and student officers. And. even though attendance at church services was 

voluntary. the chapel attracted capacity crowds. Enlisted men found the 

chapel a pleasant place to attend services and to become acq uainted with 

the women. On 4 November 1978, the post comma nder (Maj. Gen. Mary 

E. Clarke) issued a general order officially naming the c hapel the WAC 

Memorial Chapel. tI 

The post engineers added a reviewing stand to the WAC parade 

ground in October 1958 in time for a regimental parade welcoming the 

visit of Col. Kim Hyun Sook, Director, Women's Army Corps, Republic 

of Korea. In 1960, the parade ground was named in honor of General of 

the Army George C. Marshall, who had requested the formation of the 

Corps in 194 1. The next year, the engineers built a corner fence made of 

native Alabama fieldstone on the southwestern edge of the parade ground 

for the name plaque, "George C. Marshall Parade Ground." 6 

Buildings and other landmarks honored the memory of other individuals who had contribut ed to the success of the WAC. WAC School 

Headquarters (Building 1081) was named for Brig. Gen. Don C. Faith, 

who had commanded the First and Second W AAC Training Centers at 

a Historiclll Reports. WAC C&:S. 1954 and 1956. Historical Collection. WAC Museum. The WAC 

Triangle: was designed by Charles Clemmons. Alabama State: LlUldsc(lpc Architect. in 1955. In 1968. 

Col RftSrnuson donllted a Grecian Sun Dial and dCCQl'lItivc cement bcnclu,,'S to the area (Memo. UQ 

Training Brigade. IJ Mar 78. sub: Invcnlory of Buildings. Lund Markings and h ems Wilhin Areas 10 

and 20. ODWAC Ref File. Mernoriali7.lltion. CMU) . 

• Historical Report. WAC C&'S. FY 1962- 1964. Historielll Collection. WAC Museum. 

a Annual History, Military Police SchoollTraining Or &: FOri McClellan. 1978. CMH Ref Br. 

e l'lislorical Reports. WAC C&S. 1958. and 1960- 61. Historical COlIl:ctioll. WAC Museum. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 331 

Fort Des Moines and at Daytona Beach, as well as the W AAC Training 

Command, during World War II. General Faith's widow, Katherine 

Faith, attended the ceremony on 23 November 1963. The serenity of the 

event was marred by the news of the death of John F. Kennedy. A 

memorial service for the president had been held at the chapel on the 

night of the 22d. 1 

On 13 May 1957. Rice Road, running from Fort McClellan's North 

Gate to WAC Center Headquarters (Building 1060), was named for Lt. 

Col. Jessie P. Rice, the deputy director of the WAC from March 1944 to 

April 1945. In 1963, Col. Irene O. Galloway succumbed to cancer, and 

Fort McClellan's North Gate and North Gate Road, which led directly 

into and through the WAC area, were renamed Galloway Gate and 

Galloway Gate Road. The only WAC to have a building named for her 

was Sgt. Maj. Florence G. Munson. The headquarters and classroom 

building for the WAC Training Battalion (Building 2281) was dedicated 

in her honor on 29 October 1965. She died in 1964, after serving as 

sergeant major of the battalion from 1959 to 1964. Through this process 

of naming buildings and roads, bonds of tradition and shared memories 

graduall y enveloped the WAC site at Fort McClellan. 8 

WAC Organizatiol1s 

In 1952, WAC officers at Fori Lee had organized the WAC Officers 

Association as a nonappropriated fund activity (i.e., not supported by 

government fu nds) to raise funds to accomplish morale-building projects. 

The association's members suppo rted its projects through membership 

dues, white elephant auc tions, and fund-raising parties. The association 

moved with WAC Center to Fort McClellan. In 1971, the group changed 

its name to the WAC Association and accepted as members enlisted 

women in the top four grades. For twenty-four years, the association 

served recreational, social, c haritable, and mo ra le needs at WAC Center 

and School. It bought furniture, air conditioners, cooking utensils, and 

o ther equipment to improve enlisted and junior officer quarters, and it 

paid for nice-to-have items for special ceremonies and parties for the 

women at WAC Center and School. Members dissolved the group in 

1976 when the WAC Center and School deacti vated and voted to transfer its assets to the WAC Foundation to help construct the WAC 

Museum building. 9 

7 Historical Rcport. WA'C C&S. FY 1962- 1964. Mrs. Faith gave the gc ral' ~ dress blue unirorm to 

the WA C Museum . 

• Histork:al Reports. WAC C&S. 1957. FY 1962- 1964. 1965. Historical Collection. WAC Museum . 

• "WAC Officers Association." Historical Reports. WAC C&S. 1954- 197 1. lIud "WAC Association." Historical Reports. WAC C&S. 197 1- 1976. l'listorical Collection. WAC Museum. The associa_ 

tion raised most of its funds li t an annual white elephant auction at which fl few items were returned 

to be sold yea r ol'ter ye;tr. Most fHmous or these items was a targe oil p~inting cHtt cd "Julie." whose 

~l cs accumulated over 52.500 ror the ssociat io . "Julic" now resides in the WAC MU5Cllln. 
332 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Another organization that frequently contributed to projects for increasing morale at the WAC Center and School was the National WAC 

Veterans Association. The idea for this group came from the National 

WAC Mothers Association that had chapters in sixty c ities throughout 

the United States during Wo rld War II. On 14 May 1946, a board 

appoi nted from members of the Chicago chapter formed the Chicago 

WAC Veterans Association. Women in Cleveland, Columbus, Milwaukee, 

and Pittsburgh soon followed the lead of the Chicago veterans. Membership g rew, and members held their first conve ntion in Cleveland in 

March 1947. Four years later, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes Brown Groover, a 

lawyer and a WAC reservist, presented the articles of incorporatio n fo r 

the national association to Esther Bentley, the association's president. The 

National WAC VETS Hono r Guard. established in 195 1. still regularly 

represents WAC veterans at ceremonies in Washington and other cities 

thro ughout the United States. The organizatio n's bimonthly newsletter, 

the Channel. keeps members info rmed not only of meetings, but of V A 

benefits, WAC activities, and other items of interest. I 0 

The WAC VETS Association promotes the general welfare of all 

veterans but concentrates on assisting veterans of the WAAC and the 

WAC, particularly those in adverse circumstances. Many chapters devote 

their activities to providing services for veterans in Veterans Administration hospitals. The association also supports a number of nonprofit organizations, including the WAC Foundation; the WAC Veterans Redwood 

Memorial Grove, Big Basin Redwoods State Park, California; the Hospitalizt!d Veterans Writing Project (creative writing for recreatio n and 

therapy); and the Cathedral in the Pines Memorial, Ringe, New Hampshire, a memorial to the dead of World War II. On 30 Oc tober 1984, 

President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4966 givi ng the WAC VETS 

Association a federal charte r and national recognition as a veterans' 

o rganization. II 

The third organization of importance to the WAC is the WAC Foundation, established as a nonprofit corporation under the laws of the state 

of Alabama in Jul y 1969. Authorized by the post commander to operate 

at Fort McClellan, the WAC Foundation succeeded in raising almost 

$400,000 to build the WAC Museum. After the building was constructed 

and dedicated on 13 May 1977, the WAC Foundation gave it to the 

Army which now operates it with government funds. The WAC Foundation continues to raise money to purchase equipment and services for the 

WAC Museum and to educate the public o n the past and present role of 

women in the Army. It issues a biannual newsletter, the Flagpole. and 

conducts a WAC Museum Reunion in May of every even year. t 2 

H' '' lIistory of the Nalioll31 WAC VCleralls Association." ODWAC Ref File, WAC VET S, C MH. 

,. Ibid. 

y of the WAC Foundntion," ODWAC Ref File, WAC Foundnl ion, CM H. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 333 

WAC Cel/ler-Organizational Structure 

In size and mission, WAC Center with its subord inate acUvltlesWAC School, WAC Training Battalion. and Headquarters and Headquarters Company- was the equivalent of a regiment o r a brigade and was 

organized along brigade lines. The 14th Army Band (WAC) belonged to 

T hird Army but, operationall y. it also came under the center commander. 

The commander's stafr included a deputy commander, an 5- 1 (personnel 

officer) and adjutant; an 5- 2 (intelligence officer) combined with the 5- 3 

(training officer); an 5- 4 (supply officer); a management officer; and an 

information officer. The staff developed and implemented. plans and policies to manage and distribute the commander's resources to perform her 

various missions. Each staff member had a counterpart in the school, 

training battalion, and Headquarters and Headquarters Company. Because 

of the need to encourage young officers to enter the Regular Army. and 

to groom other Regular Army officers for the positions of director and 

deputy director, WAC, the Corps usuall y filled the staff positio ns with 

regular rather than with reserve officers o n extended active duty. The 

WAC Center was the only Army command of brigade size that required 

and assigned women in such staff and command positions, and women 

prized assignment in them. Col. Dorotha J. Garrison was the only reserve 

officer to command WAC Center (1970- 1972). 

WAC Center did differ from most Army brigades in one way- it was 

commanded by a lieutenant colonel until 1968. After the elimination of 

restrictions on women officers' promotions in 1967, the WAC Center 

commander's position was elevated to the grade of colonel, along with 

the positions of deputy commander of WAC Center and assistant commandant of WAC School. 

Few men filled WAC Center or WAC School positions until 1973. 

Occasionally, male cooks worked in the mess halls, and during one year 

(1962), a male NCO, Sgt. 1st Cl. Harold Fitzgerald, taught in the WAC 

Typing and Clerical Procedures Course at WAC School. Only the chaplain assigned to the WAC Center chapel provided a continuing male 

presence. The women took great pride in their ability to operate the 

center and gave up these spaces to men as reluctantly as men gave up 

such positions to women. Only the WAC expansion that began in 1972 

finall y forced the center to requisition male NCOs to fiJI vacancies. On 5 

September 1973, the first male drill sergeants were assigned to the 2d and 

3d WAC Basic Training Battalions. In 1974, WAC Center accepted its 

first male staff officers. 1 3 

13 HiSlorica[ Reports. WAC C&S, FY [962- 1964. 1973. and 1974. 
334 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

LT. COL. E LEANORE C. SULLIVAN (J952-1955) rums Qver command of WA C 

Celller alld WAC School, Fort McClellan, to Lt. Col. F. Marie Clark (/955-

1956) all 24 Jlllle 1955. 

Center Commanders: Command alld Training Roles 

In the WAC hierarchy, the dual position of commander of the WAC 

Center and commandant of the WAC School held importance and prestige second onl y to the position of the director of the WAC. Of fifteen 

WAC Center commanders between 1948 and 1976, two, Elizabeth P. 

Hoisington and Mary E. Clarke, and one deputy commander, Mildred C. 

Bailey, adva nced to the director's position. 14 

Perhaps no WAC Center commander had g reater responsibilities than 

Lt. Col. Eleanore C. Sullivan. She and her staff carried o ut the move to 

Fort McClellan, a job that included moving personnel and equipment, 

commencing training at the new site, establishing community relations in 

the A nniston area, entertaining hundreds of visitors at the new facility, 

participating in parades and ceremonies, and keeping up the morale and 

welfare of WACs at both sites. On 20 January 1955, the colors flew for 

the first time from the flagpole at WAC Center headquarters. Colonel 

Sullivan also launched a three-yea r landscape beautification program and 

,. L! Col ire'le O. Gallow>! )' has noc been included as she held lhe posiCion or WAC Center cdr 

for onl), one mOllth before being selected 3S DW AC in 1952. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 335 

LT. COL MARJORIE C. POWEH LT. C OL LUCILE G. OORERT 

established the WAC Museum. The museum at first occupied one room 

of her headquarters building and later was moved to a wing of the basic 

trainees' classroom building, where each trainee and student could pass 

thro ugh and see photographs, un iforms, paintings, and documents that 

told the history of their Corps. 15 

Lt. Col. F. Marie Clark, who succeeded Colonel Sullivan in 1955, 

streamlined the organizational structure by eliminating some d uplicative 

positions in subo rdinate activities. She activated a reception company in 

the WAC Training Battalion and gave it responsibility for welcoming, 

orienting. outfitting, and processing newly arrived WAC recruits. Thus, 

fo r the first time since World War II, the recruits entered a reception 

company befo re being assigned to their basic training unit. Lack of space 

fo rced the center to suspend this system in 1957, but i.n January 1963, it 

was rev ived with the creation of Headquarters and Receiving Compa ny, 

WAC T raining Battalion. These functions remained in the battalion until 

February 1973, when the post commander activated the U.S. Army 

Reception Station. 

U Historical Reports. WAC C&S, 1954. 1955. Col Sullivan was reassigned to Germany in mid1955 and retired in February 1957. 
JJ6 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

In the spring of 1956, Colonel Clark reintroduced WAC field training, 

which had been suspended since 1953. when heavy storms destroyed the 

outdoor training area at Fort Lee. By far the most popular phase of basic 

trai ning, it taught recruits first aid, map reading, camoufl age, civil defense, and familia rity with the Ml carbine. In 1961, fi eld training was 

expanded to include overnight exercises. Thereafter, unit commanders 

happily noted that the women returned from fi eld training with a g reater 

feeling of team spirit and will to succeed than they had had before. 16 

During Lt. Col. Frances M. Lathrope's tou r, field testing of the new 

Army green cord summer uniform began and fitting tests got under way 

on the women's Army green winter uniform. Colonel Lathrope, who 

served as WAC Center commander from 1956 to 1958, boosted the 

morale of members of WAC Training Battalion's cadre and staff by 

allowing them to wear a distincti ve yellow cotton scarf with their winter 

duty uniform. Battalion members became so fond of the scarf that in 

1959, the then center commander, Lt. Col. Lucile O. Odbert, obtained 

official approval for it. The College Junior Program commenced at WAC 

School on 14 J uly 1957 as nineteen cadets entered the first class. Also 

women officers of foreign military armies began attending officer courses 

at WAC School beginning in August 1956. Between 1957 and 1972, when 

the WAC Officer Basic Course was discontinued, 11 2 fo reign students 

attended the course as well. I 7 

Between 1958 and 1960, the number of recruits entering WAC basic 

training jumped from 2,7 15 to 3,220. As usual, the input peaked between 

June and October, driving the trainee load over the programmed level for 

these months- a challenge to Lt. Col. Marjorie C. Power, who om~ 

manded WAC Center in 1958 and 1959. The WAC Center historian 

described the emergency. "The housing shortage was only one of the 

problems. The battalion mess had to feed in shifts. Training facilities were 

overtaxed and trainers overworked. Battalion was forced to borrow ~ 

sonnel from Headquarters and Headquarters Company and the WAC 

School to act as cadre." ls One of the major problems that Colonel 

Power encountered was the shortage of the brow n and white seersucker 

exerc ise suit. Both recruits and clerical training students wore this un ~ 

form (shirt, shorts, skirt) to classes daily. As an emergency measure, the 

quartermaster general substituted a blue exercise suit worn by the WAFs. 

Later in 1958, the WACs' newly designed tan, three~p ece, cotton exer~ 

cise suit became available and was issued at WAC Center. Thus, after 

'6 Historicill Reports, WAC C&S, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1963, and 1973. Col Clark resigned ill 1956 to 

return to civilian lire. 

17 Historical Reports. WAC C&S. 1956, 1957. 1958, 1972. WOnlCIl fronl the following countries 

(number trained) attended the WAC Officer Basic Course: Burma (16), Canada ( I), Republic of China 

(foiwan) (4). Indonesia (6). Japlln (4). Korea (29), Paraguay (I). Philippines (1). Republic of Vietnam 

(50). Col Lathrope retired in 1958. 

18 Historic:11 Repor1. WAC C&S, 1959, p. 18. 
LT. COL. SUE LVNCH LT. COL. EUZ,\ BETI·I H. BRANCH 

COL. SHIRLEV R. H EINZE COL. LORRAINE A. ROSSI 
338 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

1958, it was not unusual for a unit in training to have women dressed in 

brown, blue. or tan. The combination led some to describe the center's 

appearance as "molting." In March 1959. the Army green cord summer 

uniform was issued, adding yet ano ther shade to the assortment of colors. 

A year later, however, uniformity returned. Trainees and students now 

wore the tan exercise suit to classes and the green cord to parades and 

inspections. At WAC School, Colonel Power shifted the emphasis from 

lecture to student participation in the WAC Office r's Advanced Course 

and organized a section to develop WAC training films fo r WAC basic 

trainee, cle rical student, and student officer courses. 19 

Colonel Power retired in September 1959 and was succeeded by LI. 

Col. Lucile G. Odbert. To increase the prestige of enlisted women, she 

enlarged the WAC NCO Advisory Council, which had been established 

in November 1955, and included on it all WAC E- 8s and E- 9s assigned 

to Fort McClellan. T he senior NCO at WAC Center headquarters, in 

1959 M. Sgt. Julia Vargo, chaired the council. The council developed 

ideas to improve the operation of WAC Center and WAC School, operated the W AC-of-the-Month program, and promoted the sports program. 

The latter included intramural and regional competition in softball, basketball, volleyball, golf, lennis, bowling, small games, and marksmanship. 

WAC Center, with more women to select from, frequently won top 

sports prizes within Third A rmy area. In 1960, fo r example, WAC Center 

won first place in the Third Army Golf Tournament for the second 

consecutive year; 1st Lt. Sallie L.E. Carroll won first place in the Slow 

Fire .22-Caliber Rine Matches at Tampa, Flo rida; and a team including 

Lieutenant Carroll, lSI Lt. Joyce W. Q'Claire, Sgt. 1st Cl. Marian C. 

Jamieson, and Sgt. Credessa W. Williams took first place in the sharpshooter events at the Central Regional Pistol Matches at Fort Knox, 

Kentucky, defeating male teams in the .22- and .45-caliber team matches. 

The advent of proficiency pay presented a problem for women assigned as cad re and instructors at WAC Center because they were no t 

eligible for proficiency pay while in those positions. Colonel Odbert set 

out to resolve the difficulty. In March 1960, she wrote to the adjuta nt 

general (TAG), through channels, and asked that women who qualified 

for profi ciency pay in their primary MOSs be a uthorized to receive it 

while assigned at WAC Center and WAC School. TAG denied the 

exception because it mig ht invite others and, instead, advised that women 

who would lose proficiency pay not be assigned to the center. Colonel 

Odbert had already rejected that solution. Such a practice would have 

excluded some of the best WAC NCOs and denied them promotion 

opportunities. TAG tried to develop a standard MOS for WAC trai ni ng 

cadre and military subject instructors but, when this proved to be impractical, advised the center commander to assign women in personnel and 

Hi toric,,1 Reports. WAC C&S. 1958. 1959. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 339 

administrati ve MOSs to the instructor and cadre spaces. Most women 

held these MOSs and could continue to receive proficiency pay if assigned in them. This complex arrangement continued until December 

197 1, when the DeSPER authorized WACs to attend the A rmy D rill 

Sergeants School. There WACs could earn the MOSs req uired for assignment to instructor and cadre spaces. 20 

Under the next center commander, Lt. Col. Sue Lynch, the WAC 

School took a more prominent role in the fo rmulation of doctrine and 

policy in WAC traini ng matters. A n educator in civ ilian life, Colonel 

Lynch broadened the faculty train ing program and improved the quali ty 

of instructors and instruction at the center and school. Faculty members 

responded by revising their lesson plans to present their material in more 

interesting and more understandable ways and by improving their training 

aids. In May 1962, CONARC gave WAC School the authority to ap· 

prove changes in the basic training prog ram. In 1963, WAC Center hired 

its first civilian, a librarian for the WAC School. Throughout the period, 

WAC School's Doctrine and Literature Division, headed by Lt. Col. 

Mary Charlotte Lane, prod uced a prodigious amount of stat.istical anal y· 

ses, trai ning films, historical studies, handbooks, and a text entitled The 

Role of the WAG. When Colonel Lynch retired, she had served lo nger as 

commander than anyone before or after her. LI. Col. Eli zabeth P. Hoising ton replaced her on 1 October 1964. 21 

Colonel Hoisington further imp roved the training prog rams fo r recruits and studen t officers and the fa cilities at the WAC Center. To the 

field training program she added a silent night march, mo re realistic air 

defense and civil defense exercises, and a two-hour course on unarmed 

self-defense. The latter served at least in part to replace the weapons 

fami liarization and fi ring course . That course had been deleted by 

CON ARC from the fi eld training program in 1963 on the grounds that 

the new M 14 ri ne, which had replaced the ca rbine and weighed one 

pound more, was too heavy for women. That. change had eliminated 

weapons training from the women's program. To the Leadershi p Orienta· 

lion Course, initiated in 1963 to develop leaders among recruits, Colonel 

Hoisingto n added two more hou rs of theory; in 1973, the course was 

replaced by the Special Leadership Prog ram that had the same objectives. 

In March 1966, CONARC introduced an A rmy training test (ATT 21-3, 

Individual Proficiency in Basic Milita ry Subjects, WAC) that measured 

the level of learning achieved by each trainee in each basic trai ning 

subject. And, also beginning in 1966, WAC School accepted male stu20 HislOr;clll Reports. WAC C&S. 1960- 61 and 1971. Also S(:e Itrs in ODWAC Rcf File. Drill 

Scrge~llts, CMH. Col Odberc became deputy DWAC upon leaving WAC Center in 196 1. 

2 1 AR 350-170. 23 JUIl 55. T he WAC School. rev 14 Dec 56 and II Apr 60; Indcx of Training 

Films. DA I'am 109- 1: Indcx of Training l'ublicalions, DA l'am 310- 3: ~I islorical Reports. WAC 

C&S. 1961 - 62. 1962- 64. Chllrlol!e Sail \Vas WAC School Librarian. Nov 63- J ul 65: Sybil p;.rkcr. J ul 

65- Dec 76. 
340 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

RETREAT CEREMONY AT H OISINGTON WALK, WAC CENTER, 10 July 1970. 

Brig. Gen, Elizabeth P. H oisi1lgtoll wilh Cols. Maxell e B. Michl, Dorotha J. 

GarriSOll. alld Georgia D. Hill (left 10 right). 

dents in the enlisted clerical courses when class space was available. The 

men lived in barracks on main post but ate their noon meal with the 

WACs. 

At Colo nel Hoisington's insistence, the post commander built a cement 

walk down the steep incline from her headquarte rs to the baualio n area 

in November 1965. Officiall y named South Walk, the post engineer put a 

sign at the bottom and unofficiall y desig nated it "Hoisington Walk. " But, 

in addition to introducing new ideas into the WAC Center and the WAC 

School and causing new walkways to be built, Colo nel Hoisingto n also 

continued traditio nal acti vities suc h as march-out on Tuesday mornings, 

regimental parades on Saturday mornings, WAC-of-the-Quarter (formerly 

of-the-Month) selectio ns, the annual WAC anniversary torchlight parade 

from the batta lion to the Hilltop Service Club, the WAC Drill Team, and 

the sports program. She added an Arbor Day tree planting. a cost-
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 341 

conscio usness program, and a more active social and sports program for 

the officers. 22 

[0 1966, after Colonel Hoisington left to become director of the WAC, 

Lt. CoL Elizabeth H. Branch, then assistant commandant of the WAC 

School, replaced her. A new discharge regulatio n issued that year created 

disciplinary problems from which the center bad virtuall y been free since 

it opened. T he new regulation required recruits who were unsuitable for 

additional training to be "recycled" (turned back to repeat their earlier 

training) before any discharge actio n could be initiated . Heretofo re. the 

battalion commander had decided whether a recruit's performance and 

attitude warranted additio nal training. When the new regulation was 

implemented at WAC Center, many of those scheduled for recycling 

went AWOL rather than partic ipate in additio nal training when all they 

wanted from the Army was a discharge. T he WAC Center histo rian 

wrote: "The AWOL rate amo ng WAC trainees was negligible from 

January th rough July 1966 (.31%). Upon implementation of the new 

recycling requirement, it rose to ... 18.7%." 23 The AWOL rate continued to rise, and Colo nel Branc h recommended, through channels, that the 

regul ation be modified so that recycling could be waived for obstreperous 

or unmotivated trainees. The Department of the Army agreed, and in 

October 1968, the regulation was revised so that, upon the recommendation of a judge advocate general, the commander could waive counseling 

and recycling procedures for certain recruits. The WAC Center's AWOL 

rate fell from 31 percent to 8.3 percent for the third quarter of 1968 and 

to 2.26 percent in the fourth quarter.

24 

Secretary of the Army Resor's decision in May 1967 to increase WAC 

strength by 35 percent to support the Vietnam War had caused the 

number of new arri vals to soar at the WAC Center and WAC School. 

T hroughout her tenure, Colonel Branch and her starr continuo usly developed and revised plans to train more recruits, clerical students, and 

officers than ever berore. T he addition or another basic training company 

(Company E) in 1968 relieved overcrowding, but, thro ughout this period, 

the instructors and cadre had to manage do uble loads or recruits and 

students. A WAC NCO Leadership Course was inaugurated at WAC 

School in January 1968 to obtain more trained NCO leaders ror duty at 

Fort McClellan and in the WAC fi eld detachments. This rour-week 

course prepared women in grades E-4 and above as cadre and as supervisors. The training battalion dining hall that could seat 400 women at one 

time began operating on shifts during the summer and set a record on 1 

September 1968 by reeding 1,340 women at one meal. T he Headquarters 

n Hislorical Rcports, WAC C&S, 19M, 1966, The WAC Drill T ellm, organized by SgllslCI 

Mildrcd C. Kelly, perrormed .-1 marCh'OUIS, ~porls evenlS, and parades bclWCCIl 1964 Hlld 197 1. 

U Historical Report, WAC CAS, 1967, p. 67. 

U Hislorical Report. WAC C&S. 1968; AR 6)5- 212, 15 Jul 66, Enlisted Discharge for Unfitness 

and Unsuitabilit y, rev Oct 68. CMH Library. 
342 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

and Headquarters Company mess hall frequentl y fed the overnow from 

the training battalion dining hall. 25 

Despite expansion problems, the WAC Center celebrated some special 

occasions in 1967. Over thirty members of the OACOWITS arrived in 

April to tour the fac ilities. They were followed by a training inspection 

team from Third Army that reported " instructor and supervisory personnel [at WAC School] were both knowledgeabl e and enthusiastic," and 

that "the heavy training overload is being managed effectively ... [with] 

no adverse effect on the quality of training." 26 On 14 May. four WAC 

directors, Colonels Hallaren, Rasmuson, Gorman, and Hoisington, joined 

a week-lo ng celebration marking the twenty-fifth anni versary of the 

Corps. Highlighting these events was a retreat ceremon y at the foot of 

Hoisington Walk that featured fifty trainees lining the walk holding their 

state flags whil e the garrison flag was lowered and the WAC Band 

played the nationa l anthem. The center histo rian wrote : "The 1200 members of the Women's Army Corps who participated in this retreat ce remo ny realized that sharing the ex perience wit h the present and former 

directors of their Corps made it a special and unusual occasion." 27 On 18 

July of that year, Fo rt McClell an celebrated its fiftieth anni versary, and 

on 25 September, the WAC School marked its fifteenth year as an Army 

school. 

Lt. Col. Maxene Baker Michl replaced Colo nel Branch in August 

1968. Colonel Mi chl had served in Vietnam ( 1966- 1967) and most recently had been the WAC staff adviser to the Fourth A rmy (1 967- 1968). 

When she arrived at WAC Center, the program to expand the WAC was 

in full acceleratio n. The heavy input o f trainees was overloading classrooms, instructors' schedules, transportation facilities, and barracks. 

Closed-circuit TV was insta lled in classrooms a nd barracks and soon 

helped reduce the instructors' platform time and the cadre's night working ho urs. Colonel Mic hl also introduced a one-ho ur evening stud y hall 

to ensure quiet time in the overcrowded barracks; g ro up stud y replaced it 

the following year when rev iew lessons were shown o n barracks televisions. And, although the WAC had not experienced any drug problems, 

Colo nel Michl added a two-ho ur block on drug abuse to the basic 

training c urriculum, Before the end of 1968, she also introduced self. 

paced instruction in the enlisted courses, and by May 1969, this method 

had replaced the conventio nal instructo r-taught methods in the Clerical 

Typing and Procedures Course (MaS 71 B) and the Stenography Course 

(MOS 7IC). It was also used in the Personnel Specialists Course (MaS 

.. Hislorical Reports, WAC C&:S, 1967, 1968. SgtlstCI Gwendolyn Gibson and SSgl Audrey 1. 

Allen were Ihe WAC T raining I)n rn~~ slewards during Ihe Vielnarn e~pansio : Sgt lslCl Eileen 

Shnw was mess steward al ~I Q and IIQ CO. 

~· lIi lorical Reporl. WAC C&S, 1967, 1"'. 12. 

IT Ibid., p. 47. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 343 

THE FIRST WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL COMMAN DER/COMMANDANT to hold the rank of /111/ colollel. Col. Maxene B. Mich l's silver eagles are 

pi"ned 0 1/ by Mo). Gen, Joseph R. Russ. Depllty Commol/der, Third Army, alld 

Col. William A. M cKean, Commal/der. ForI MeClellol/, 4 December 1968. 

71 H), whic h was added to the school's schedule of courses in September 

1969. 28 With too many students, the school was obliged to make the 

students their own instructors. 

A surge of racial protests and disturbances in U.S. cities in 1968 led 

Colonel Michl to introduce a series of lectures and seminars on blac k 

studies in the officer courses. A black WAC officer, Lt. Col. WiJliemae 

M. Oliver. Director of Instruc tion, developed and conducted the initial 

program. Colonel Michl also established an ad hoc Committee o n Race 

Relatio ns at WAC Cente r and WAC School in January 1970 and added a 

three-hour course in race relatio ns to the WAC basic training program in 

May.29 

Several conspicuous individual firsts also occurred at WAC Center 

during Colo nel Michl's tour. On 30 March 1968, Sgl. Maj. Yzetta L. 

Nelson, assigned to WAC Training Battalio n, became the first WAC 

n 11 islorical Reporls. WAC C&CS, 1968, pp. 40. 94, and 1969. p. 44, Upon (,.'(lUlplclion of her WAC 

Cenler lour. Col Branch was assigned to the Office of the JCS. 

u l'listorical Reports. WAC C&CS, 1968. p. 15. llml 1970. pp. 7,49. 
344 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

NEWLY PROMOTED COM O. SGTS. MAJ. 

YZETIA L. NELSON AND CURTIS S. 

RAMSAY, Fort MCfel1all, 8 April 1968. 

promoted to the new rank of command sergeant major. On 31 July. the 

sergeant major of WAC Center, Elaine I. Slewitzke, became the second 

WAC to achieve that rank. In a ceremony at the WAC Center audito rium o n 4 December 1968, Colonel Michl was promoted and became the 

first WAC Center commander to hold the ra nk of colonel. 30 The next 

year, in July, Colonel Michl formed the WAC Foundation, and, in September, she obtained approval from the Department of the Army to 

publish the WAC Journal to disseminate news and information of ca reer 

interest to WAC officers and enlisted women.3 1 

In 1970, Col. Dorotha J. Garrison, who had been deputy commander 

at the WAC Center for a year, succeeded Colo ne l Michl. The innux of 

trainees continued, increasing each yea r during the Vietnam buildup. The 

number of basic trainees jumped from 4, 124 in 1967 to 7,139 in 1972. In 

consequence, shortages of cadre, instructors, cooks, and housing plagued 

the center. To alleviate these problems, Colonel Garrison and her staff 

initiated a number of actions. Selected privates, first class, and corpora ls 

received traini ng to be assistant platoon sergeants; the battalion gave 

cadre and instructor training to women newly assig ned these duti es; and, 

at the center commander's request, the Department of the Army approved conversion of all the E-7 (sergeant, first class) platoon sergeant 

30 Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1968. p. 15. 

31 [bid. [969. p. 55. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 345 

positions to E-7 drill sergeant positions in that MOS. Thereafter, women 

ordered to fi ll these positions first attended drill sergeants' school. 32 

Other changes included sending new recruits directl y to their basic 

tra in ing units during peak periods, rather than processing them at He ~ 

quarters and Receiving Compa ny. WAC Center's Headquarters and 

Headquarters Company moved to a larger building on post (Building 

3131) in January 1971 and turned over its former quarters to the training 

battalion, which then, in February, activated its sixt h unit, Compan y F 

Provisional. 33 To relieve the mess hall problems, KPs continued to report 

for duty in two (rather than one) shifts (0400 to 1230 and 1030 to 19(0); 

the battalion opened another mess hall for trainees (B uilding 2203); and 

later, in 1972, after a stud y proved it more economical, the Army hired 

cooks on contract to replace military cooks at Fort McClellan.3 4 In 

anticipation of further WAC expansion, the post commander, Col. William A. McKean, instructed Colonel Garrison to prepare a plan to accommodate thousands more recruits beginning in 1972. Colonel Garrison 

proposed creating a second and later a third basic training battalion and a 

reception station apart from the battalion. CONARC and the Department 

of the Army approved both concepts and later provided funds to construct or rehabilitate buildings to accommodate them. WAC Center activated the 2d and 3d WAC Basic Training Battalions in September 

1972.3 :1 T hat year, CONARC ordered discontinuation of the WAC Officer Advanced Course, the clerical training courses, and the NCO leadership courses. 36 These changes further alleviated o vercrowding, and, 

thereafter, women received this training at other centers and schools. 

At the peak of this activity, the last WAC Officers Advanced Course 

class (XIX) graduated o n 7 July 1972, with sixteen WAC officers and 

seven foreign students (four from Vietnam, two from Indonesia, and one 

from the Philippines). WAC officers thereafter attended advanced courses 

at other branch schools. Speaking to the g raduates, Maj. Gen. Ira A. 

Hunt, Jr., who had been deeply involved in the training aspects of the 

WAC expansion, outlined the changes occurring in the Corps and explained the reasons for them: 

n Ilisiorical Reports. WAC C&'S, 1970. p. 27. and 1972. p. 2: Msgs, CONA RC 10 DCSPER 

1921 12Z Oct 71, sub; WAC Drill SergelllllS in Basic Trailling, and DA (ODCSPER) 302115Z Nov 

71. Sjlme sub. ODWAC Ref File, Drill Sgls-WAC. CM H. On 6 Apr 72, 5i); women gmduatoo from 

Class 119. Drill Sergeants School. Fori JackSOll. SC; SgtlslCI Sylvia M. Dobson and SSgl Ladina L. 

Moore. distinguished graduates, remllinoo'l the school 10 help Irain more WAC$. On 26 May 1972, 

si); more graduated; SSgt Diane Oppedal. the honor graduate. laler donated her silver-plated saber to 

the WAC Museum. 

n Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1971. p. 26. 

. 11 istorical Reports, WAC C&'S. 1971. p. 27, and 1972. p. 61. LtCoI Elizabeth P. Wilde. S-4, 

WAC Center, participated in the contracting process. 

35 Historica] Reports. WAC C&'S, 1972, pp. 2-3. Imd ]973. p. 8. 

u !-l iSloriCRl Report. WAC C&S, 1972, pp. 63. 66. 
346 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

COMD. SGT. MAJ. BETry J. BENSON, 

olle of the first WA C graduates of the 

Sergeants Major Academy, FOri Bliss. 

June 1973. 

We have opened avenues to women across the boa rd to insu re that they can gel 

the trai ning wh ich will make them competitive with men. Because no matter 

what you say, if the women don't have the training, they can'l get out and 

perform the job. So, in summary, ... we can say that the Army is breaking the 

barriers to full participation by women ... that discrimination is out; that institu· 

tional barriers are being removed; and having done this, hopefully, ingrai ned 

inhibitions will be eroded. 31 

T he last class (X) of the WAC NCO Leadership Course graduated 4 1 

students o n 17 May 1972. Between 1968 and 1972, 380 women had 

graduated from the course. Thereafter, enlisted women participated in the 

Noncommissioned Officer Educational System that provided progressive 

training at service schools and NCO academies at all skill levels. Both the 

Department of the Army and the major commanders scheduled enlisted 

personnel for resident, extensio n, and on-the-job training courses, ranging 

from primary technical courses to the sergeants major course. The first 

WACs to graduate from the U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy at 

Fort Bliss, Texas, were Class I (June 1973), M. Sgt. Betty J. Benson; 

Class III (June 1974), M. Sgts. Helen l. Johnston and Dorothy J. Rechel. 

All later achieved the rank of command sergeant major, the highest 

enlisted grade in the Army.3s 

37 Address. MajGen Hunt. "Address to the Last WAC Officer Advanced Class 011 7 J uly 

1972." WAC Jouma/4(1973):6- 8. Two WAC officers anended the Infanlry Officers Advanced Cour.;e 

(Capt Patricia 1·lickerson. Capt Theresa H. Netherton); al10thcr attended the Field Arli1!cry Ad· 

vanced Cour.;e (Capt Roberta Jordan). All were married. all graduated it) JUl1e 1973. None experi· 

enced any academic or physical problems; however. their a!1endance was e~pcr menlal. and because 

women could not be assigncd 10 these branches, no others aHendcd these advanced courses. 

38 AR 614-200. 4 J un 70, Selection at)d Assignment of Enlisted Soldiers for Training and Assign· 

ment. with changes. CM H Library; "History of the U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy I July 

1972- 31 December 1974," C~ I ReF Dr. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 347 

On 23 August 1972, the rema ining students graduated from the WAC 

Clerical Typing and Procedures Course (MOS 71 B). the Stenography 

Course (MOS 7IC), and the Personnel Specialists Course (MOS 7tH). In 

the future. WACs attended these MOS courses at other Army training 

centers and schools to qua lify in these skills. The Cle rical Training Company was deactivated on 5 October 1972. 39 

An eleven-week WAC Officer Orientation Course (WaDe) for student officers and officer candidates replaced the WAC Officer Basic 

Course/Officer Candidate Course (WOBe/DCC) on 1 January 1973. 

Upon completion of the o rientation course, the women attended an office rs basic branch course at anot her service school (Quartermaster, Mili. 

ta ry Police, Signal, etc.). T he average length of the courses was ni ne 

weeks. The last WOBC/OCC Class (XLII), 159 student officers and 7 

officer candidates, graduat ed on 15 December 1972. 40 

D iscontinuance of the courses at WAC School provided office, bar· 

racks, and classroom space for the 2d WAC Basic Training Battalion, 

which immediately occupied the vacated buildings. The 3d WAC Training Battalion was activated in September t 972 in the area vacated by 

transfer of the Chemical School training activities to other stations. A 

former officers mess in the basic training area was opened to provide an 

additional facility to feed up to 400 more trainees at a sitting. The WAC 

presence now occupied mo re area of the post that it ever had before or 

would again. 

Racial Strife, 1971 

While somewhat insulated from the racial strife which confronted the 

country in the 1960s and early I 970s, WAC Center and WAC School 

renected society at large. On Saturday, 13 November 197 1, those institu· 

tions experienced racial connict. 4 I Near mid night a g roup of black and 

white enlisted women (primarily clerical training students at WAC 

School) and enlisted men from vario us units on post left the Enlisted 

Men/Enlisted Women's Club (EM/EW Club) and repa ~ to board 

Army buses to retu rn to their barracks. As the group boarded a bus, the 

white milit ary driver alJegedly said he would not take any blacks on the 

bus. The blacks left and boarded the second bus, where they allegedly 

demanded that all the whites get off. By this time, the first bus had left, 

and the whites would have had no transportation. An altercation ensued. 

A military police car, standing by to escort the club manager to the bank 

with his deposit, radioed for assistance. 

31 ~l toricl1 1 Report. WAC C&S, 1972. pp. 197- 98. 

<0 Ibid., p. 65. 

<. A complete re(;ord or the incident- reports. documents. clippings, etc.- is in ODW AC Ref File. 

Racial I'lcident. CM H. Ulllcss otherwise noted. all inrormation in this sl,.'(:tion is from this file. 
348 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Before assistance arri ved, a group of about sixty black men and women 

Jeft the area on foot, shouting and chanting. They marched through the 

main section of the post, damaged some cars along the route, and general· 

ly impeded traffic. A car that pushed its way thro ugh the crowd inju red 

several marchers who had refused to move out of its way. An ambulance 

removed the inj ured, and the c rowd followed it to the post hospital about 

a half-m ile away. They left when hospital officials assured them that none 

of their friends were seriously injured. The crowd then moved to the 

WAC School area, another half-mile away. A number of the black 

women entered the women's barracks, awakened the sleeping women, 

and encouraged them to join the g roup. Many did. T he group contin ued 

this process through the WAC area. Several MP cars followed the group 

but did not impede its progress as it continued a noisy march around the 

post. About 0400, the demonstrators tired and returned to their barracks. 

The next afternoon, they met at the Hilltop Service Club near the WAC 

area, discussed the night's events and their problems. They posted g uards 

who kept white men and women from entering the club. Late in the 

afternoon, they moved en masse to the EM/EW Club and refused to 

leave it when ordered at 2130 hours, but they left vol untarily an hour and 

a half later. 

The next morning, Monday, approximately thirty black students at 

WAC School refused to report to their c lasses. Instead, they wal ked to a 

baseball fie ld near the center of the main post where they j oined many 

other black enlisted pe rsonnel. The group refused to disperse and demanded that the post commander and unit commanders meet with them 

to discuss a list of grievances. While this meeting was in progress, a white 

female reporter from the local newspaper was assaulted by a group of 

black WACs because she refused to stop taking notes d uring the meeting. 

At this point, the post commander used 700 troops to apprehend and 

arrest approximately 139 demonstrators; 68 were black enlisted women. 

T he Anniston city jail accommodated the women until 16 November 

when the military police moved them back to the post to a makeshift 

confinement barracks guarded by WACs. The men were confi ned in the 

post stockade and other jails in the area. 

Within a month, the post commander and WAC Center commander 

disposed of the c harges. Of the 68 women confined, 2 were promptl y 

released because they had not been involved in the incident; 9 were 

discharged; 46 were transferred from WAC Center or WAC School; and 

II remained at WAC School to complete their clerical courses. 

An investigation revealed that earlier confrontations had preceded the 

demonstration. On Saturday, 7 November. about 100 black enlisted men 

and women had met with managers of the Hillto p Service Club to ask 

why that club, predominately patronized by black service personnel, did 

not hire black dance bands, had no soul music in the jukeboxes, and did 

not have a black service club directo r. When the club employees could 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 349 

not provide satisfactory answers, the g roup asked fo r a conference with 

the post c haplain. When he arrived for the scheduled meeting. however, 

they refused to talk to him because he was white. They did, however, 

discuss their grievances with a male black major who accompanied the 

chaplain at the request of the post commander, Col. William A. McKean. 

The g roup discussed with the major the many inequities they suffered, 

particularly rega rd ing promotions and milita ry justice, and they reported 

that their unit commanders did not respond to their requests for information or assistance. They asked for a meeting with the post commander. At 

that meeting. on the afternoon of 13 November, Colone l McKean listened 

to their g rievances and promised to provide them with answers to their 

questions and resolve their problems at a meeting scheduled for 16 November. The inc ident at the EM/EW Club occurred a few ho urs later. 

Immediately after the incident, Colonel McKean ordered racial committees established in every unit, male and WAC, at Fort McClellan. 

Each unit sent representatives to councils established at battalion, school, 

and center levels where complaints could be aired, investigated, and 

resolved. WAC Center had established such a council in 1970. 

At the time of the incident, the WAC School's Clerical Training 

Company (the unit home of most of the women demonstrators) held 373 

women of whom 20.8 percent were black. T he ba rrac ks were full but not 

overcrowded. Because training was conducted under the se lf-pace 

method, in which each student progressed at her own rate, it was difficult 

to develop a unified class spirit, the basis for good morale. (The inability 

to generate such feeling was a frequent criticism of the self-pace method.) 

The company was supervised by a commander, executive office r, first 

sergeant, supply sergeant, and five platoon sergeants. The investigation 

report stated: "At least two weeks prio r to the incident almost complete 

racial polarizatio n was effected amo ng the students in CTC, resulting in a 

complete breakdown of discipline and worsening racial tensions. Blac k 

leaders undoubtedly contributed to the problem." Although the unit commander and her staff knew the situation, the report continued, they had 

taken no effective corrective action. D uring the demonstration, unit officers and NCOs had failed to control the women, to establish dialogue 

with the dissidents, or to show concern for their welfare. T his lack of 

action had worsened the situation. As a result of this repo rt and her 

personal investigation of the events, Colonel Ga rrison relieved the unit's 

commander. executive officer, and first sergeant and replaced them. 

The report concluded that throughout the events preceding, d uring, 

and after the incident, the post commander and WAC Center commander 

had acted with compassion, restrai nt, and concern and were held blameless fo r the incident. The loca l newspapers and radio stations received 

frequent. open, and detailed reports of the demonstration but had insisted 

upon admittance of a reporter. The incident received meager national 
350 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

pUblicity. The Third Army report summed up the cause and solution to 

the incident: 

From the onset of the Fori McClellan experience, it became forcefully selfevident that the good will. good intentions, and lotal commitment of sen ior 

commanders 10 assuring equa l trealmen t for personnel me not enough to eliminate the racial problem. Many necessary actions were indicated as a resull of the 

racial d isturbance but of all the lessons learned or relearned, the need to improve 

communications upwards as well as down with the young soldiers, and especially 

the young black soldiers, through the chain of command, is most apparent." 42 

Commanders During the Expansion and Reorganization 

On 1 October 1972, Colonel Garrison retired and the director of the 

WAC selected Col. Mary E. Clarke, a forme r WAC Training Battalion 

commander, to be the commander/commandant of the WAC Center and 

WAC School. By this time, the WAC expansion campaign was well 

under way. New arriva ls during 1971 had averaged 360 recruits a month 

but rose during 1972 to 590 a month. The success of the new recruiting 

effort pleased Army planners, but at WAC Center, where ho using, classrooms, and personnel resources were strained to the limit, it was a time of 

controlled panic. A parody composed and sung by the training center 

cadre told the story. 43 

The WAC Center Lament 

(To the tune of "On Top of Old Smokey") 

Down here at WAC Center, in August last year 

T he general told us, "Expansion is here." 

She smiled and said, "00 it. I do not care how. 

It must be done quick ly, SO get started now:' 

Headquarters is buzzing, with orders and such. 

OA gives direction bu t not very much. 

USAREC sends us trainees, they come by the pack. 

Last week we were busy, so we sent them all back. 

41 Rpt. 11Q. US Army SchoollTraining Center. Fort McClellan. A L. to Cors of the Army. 

through CO. Third Army, 28 Jan 72. sub: Case Study Racial Incident, ForI McClellan. A L. 13- 15 

Nov 11. with 1st Ind. Corso Third Army. Fort McPherson. GA. to CG. CONARC, 8 Feb 72. and 2d 

Ind. HQ CONA ~C to DA. 25 Feb 72. ODWAC Ref File. Radill Incident. eM I .. . Post i'lformatioll 

officer. LtCol Ruby R. Stauhcr. kept Ihc press informed. On 14 Nov 11. the DCSPER, Gen Kerwin. 

ordered Gell Bl'i1cy 10 WAC Center. T he DWAC new to Alubllrna. but she left Ihe s.mne day she 

arrived after deciding thai her presence might inflame the situalion rather Ihan show her conceTil. 

43 "WAC Center Lament:' WAC JOII",014(1913):29. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 

T here's one NCO here fo r each tho usand troops. 

Is it any wonder they all have the "droops?" 

For eigh teen hours dail y they toil at their task. 

Just how they can do it, I'd rat her no l ask. 

There are no replacements for those of us here, 

So we've all been extended for at least len morc years. 

So come all you women, come listen to me. 

lt will be better in sevent y-three. 

We' ll know what we're doi ng. wc'll get the job d one. 

T hen we' ll look back and laugh and say "Wasn't it fun?" 

[At the end, all responded wit h a heartfe lt and lo ud, "NO!"] 

35 1 

T he huge influx of trainees forced the new WAC Center commander 

10 relocate more units and offices. WAC School, reduced now to the 

College Ju nior Course and the WAC Officer Orientation Course, moved 

its offices, classrooms. and student ho using to buildings vacated by the 

Chemical School. Meanwhile. the 2d WAC Basic T raining Battalio n. 

activated 17 September 1972, took over the WAC School (Faith Hall) for 

its headquarters and c lassrooms, and the recru its moved into the quarters 

of the Clerica l T rai ni ng Company. The battalio n consisted of fo ur companies, each with fi ve platoons. Ten days later the 3d WAC Basic T rai ni ng 

Battalion o pened with five companies, fo ur platoons each. It was located 

approximately one mile from WAC Center headquarters at a site where 

the Chemical Training Command had conducted ad vanced individual 

training and ho used its students. Named "Tigerland," the area contained 

old. one-story, wooden barrac ks that the women sc rubbed, painted. and 

beautifi ed to the best of their ability with the help of ma le volunteers 

from the 548th Service and Supply Battalion. Another major uni t, Headquarte rs Battalion. was activated in January 1973 in the WAC area. It 

supervised the Staff and Faculty Compan y (permanent party instructors 

and administrative staff). the Special Training Compa ny that conducted 

remedial instruction for trainees, the Student Officer Company that administered and o ut-processed women who failed to graduate from one of 

the courses, and the 14th Army Band (WAC). Although the band moved 

to a fo ur-story building on post in September 1973, it remained under 

Headquarters Battalion.44 

As a result of a major reorga ni zation of the Department of the Army 

in 1973, several c hanges occurred in the relationships between WAC 

Center, Fort McClellan, Third A rmy, CONARC, and the Department of 

the Army. On I J uly 1973. the U.S. A rmy Tra ini ng and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) abso rbed CONARC and the Combat Developments 

Command. A new command, the U.S. Forces Command (FORSCOM) at 

H 11islorical RcporlS. WACC&S. 1972. 1973. 
352 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Fort McPherson, Georgia, absorbed the missions of the Third U.S. Army 

and CONARC's readiness and reserve component responsibilities. 

CONARC and Third Army were deactivated. Meanwhile, al Fort 

McClellan a decision by the chief of staff to merge Chemical and Ordnance branc hes caused discontinuance of the Chemical Center and School 

and dispersal of its training and functions to other posts, primarily Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. 45 

In the midst of the reorganizations and WAC expansion efforts, the 

Defense Depa rtment threatened to close Fort McClellan as pa rt of a 

program to reduce the number of military installations commensurate 

with the red uction in military forces. Initially, in April 1973, the chief of 

stafT announced that the Military Poli ce activities at Fort Gordon, Georgia, would move to Fort McClellan and that one WAC basic training 

battalion would move to Fort Jac kson, South Caroli na. But, in July, a 

new study recommended that Fort McClellan be closed; that MP activities remain at Fort Gordon; that WAC basic tra ining be dispersed to 

other traini ng centers; and that the WAC School be deactivated. The 

women's direct commission program would be discontinued and WAC 

officer candidates would be trained with male officer candidates at Fort 

Benn ing, Georgia. 46 

The threatened c losure of Fort McClellan generated complai nts to 

Secretary of the Army Howard H. Callaway from the citizens of Anniston and its congressional representatives, principall y Congressman Bill 

Nichols in whose district Fort McClellan was located. General Bailey and 

Colonel Clarke fought to keep Fort McClellan open. General Bailey 

emphasized the WAC identification with the post: "The women have 

been encouraged by seeing that they are now receiving some prio rity in 

the Army policies and planni ng. T heir perception that the Army now 

wants to close their 'home' facilities will negate these favorable reactions. " 47 For her part, Colonel Clarke also opposed the closing: .. It 

seems to me that the middle of a WAC expansion is poor timing for the 

discontinuance of the USWACCS [WAC Center and School]. Particularly do I feel this to be true when I look back on the tremendous record of 

achievement made by th is overtaxed, understaffed o rganization in the 

tu rbulent year just passed." 48 After almost a yea r of indecisio n, Secre-

.. DA GOs 16 (18 May 73). 29 (7 Sep 73). and J3 (lOcI 73). C MU Library; IiQ Third Army GO 

241 (18 May 73). Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1973. 

~~ DA Msg (Cots) 171600Z Apr 73, to Maj Coms. sub: !lase Realignment Actions, and CONARC 

Msg 311 509Z May 73 to Cdr. Fort MeCk!!;LIl. and other post cdrs, sub: Relocation of Military I'oli<.:e 

CommunilY to Fort McClellan. ODWA C Ref File. McClellan Closure. CM H. 

H OF. OWAC 10 Cots. 30 Nov 73, sub: Initilll Evaluation of CONCISE Proposals. Action #3, 

Military Police School. OOWAC Ref File, M<.:Clclian Closure. C MI1 . 

~8 Llr. Cdr. WAC C&S, 10 Oep Cdr. TRAOOC, 12 Nov 73. no sub. OOWAC Rcr Fi le, 

McClellan Closure, CM U. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 353 

lary Callaway announced on 8 February 1974 that DOD had decided to 

retain Fort McClellan as an active post and to relocate the Military 

Police training and school activities there in July. WAC School continued to be slated for deactivation in 1976, ending separate training for 

women officers. 49 

Despite the threat of closure. life had gone on at Fort McClellan. The 

Army reorganizations brought changes that had to be implemented. Between January and July 1973, WAC Center absorbed WAC School; their 

statTs combined and a new organization emerged titled WAC Center and 

School. sO On 1 July 1973. the new organization became a subordinate 

command of TRADOC rather than of Third Army. Fort McClellan. 

however. continued to provide logistical and other support services. 

Third Army established the much needed U.S. Army Reception Station 

and attached it to the WAC Center on 30 January 1973 for command and 

support services. 5 1 The director of instruction for the newly formed 

WAC Center and School established the Civilian Acquired Skills Program (CASP) in August to provide two weeks of active duty training for 

reserve enlisted women in one of the basic training companies. 52 To get 

enlisted women into the replacement stream faster, TRADOC reduced 

the length of women's basic training from eight to seven weeks beginning 

2 July 1973 and focused training emphasis on learning "by doing" rather 

than learning from lectures. That year WAC School initiated an instructor training course and opened an Individual Learning Center in which 

trainees received remedial instruction. In 1974. rec ruits began a sixteenhour basic riOe familiarization course on the M 1 6 rine. Although firin g 

the weapon was voluntary, trainees attended and participated in the 

weapons training classes. Over 90 percent of the women opted to fire. In 

the field training program, the day march increased from one to two-anda-ha lf miles; the night march from one to three miles. The time devoted 

to physical training increased from twenty-five to thirty-five hours. 53 

WAC Center complied with expansion directives to provide training 

for 7,()(X) basic trainees in FY 1973. But the o riginal directives and WAC 

Center's efforts were not enough; over 9.()(x) trainees arrived that year. 

Shorlages-housing, classrooms. trainers. and uniforms-again plagued 

the center. Because the Army badly needed the additional WACs. the 

DCSPER, General Rogers, had allowed the U.S. Army Recruiting Command (USAREC) to exceed its monthly quotas. The overOow placed an 

•• DA Historical Summary. 1974. p. 32. ODWAC Ref File. McClellan Closure, CMH. 

60 WAC Center TDA 3AW1GVAA, changes 9 and 10, ODWAC Ref File. WAC CAS. TDA A 

Reorgani zations, CM H. 

61 TD TC1GAA Ind HQ Third Army GO 81,16 Feb 13, ODWAC Ref File. WAC CAS, TDA A 

Reorgani'l8tions, CMH. 

U Historical Report, WAC C&tS, 1973, p. 45. In Jan 74, CASt> b.:cllme the responsibility of 3d 

WAC Tng BII. and, in Dec 74, when 3d BI1 closed, CAS P went to HQ Bn; ill 1976, CASt> moved to 

ld Bn (BD where it remained unlil diSCOnlinued in 1981. 

.~ Historical Rcport, WAC C&tS. 1974. p. 8- S. 
354 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

almost unbearable strain on the personnel and fac ilities at WAC Cente r 

and School. Relocations provided additional ho using and classrooms in 

the WAC area, but problems mo unted in maintaining hig h-qualit y training 

and morale. 

Higher headquarters placed a seemingly unending stream of demands 

on the WAC Center and School staff for new and revised plans, trai ni ng 

programs, statistics, and reports. Colonel Clarke and her stafT developed a 

new expansion plan to accommodate 12,000 trainees annually. They reorganized the WAC Center and School, revised or prepared new lesson 

plans fo r enlisted and officer training courses, revised Role 0/ the WAC 

for use in male training courses, and provided countless statistical resumes 

and reports to post, TRADOC, and ODW AC. When Colonel Clarke had 

an opportunity to ask TRADOC to extend some of its sho rt suspense 

dates and eliminate a few requirements, she received some sympathy but 

no relief. The TRADOC commander replied, "As you stated, considered 

sing ularly or as a group, your requirements are formidable but I have no 

doubt that you will complete each task in an exemplary manner." 54 

As the expansio n progressed, a d rastic shortage of uniforms developed. 

In particularly sho rt suppl y was the three-piece exercise suit worn by the 

trainees, but other unifo rm items were also affected. Many women left the 

center without a compl ete issue of uniforms, dispe rsing the problem to 

posts throughout the continental United States. The shortages continued 

because the Recruiting Command exceeded its WAC enlistment objectives in FY 1973, 1974, and 1975, and the DCSPER could not provide 

the Army Clothing Depot at Philadelphia with adequate lead time to 

manufact ure the thousands of uniforms needed. And, as all these expansion-related problems were being resolved, the effort at WAC Center and 

School attracted high-ranking visitors. They wanted to see, firsthand, the 

results of the highly successful WAC recruiting and training program. 55 

By the fall of 1973, Colonel Clarke had made progress in managing the 

heavy trainee input and the administrative burdens by g raduall y realigning the organizational structure and by relocating units. Hope for a 

respite, however, vanished in October 1973 when the chief of staff approved a plan to double WAC enlisted strength by the end of FY 1979. 

Because WAC Center had reached its capacity, General William E. 

DePuy, the TRADOC commander, direc ted Maj. Gen. Robert C. Hixon, 

the commander of the U.S. Army SchoollTraining Center, Fort Jackson, 

South Carolina, to establish a WAC training brigade with two battalions 

to train approximately 8,000 WAC recruits ann ua ll y. The post also received the mission of providing seven weeks of basic tra ining for approxiU LIOO, Cdr. WAC C&S 10 MajGen Hunt, DepCofS for Individllal Training. 27 Dec 72, MajGell 

Ji llnl to Col Clarke, II Jan 73, O DWAC Rer File, E~pansion 197 1- 1972, CMH. 

u liistorieal Reports, WAC CotS. 1972, 1973, 1974. WAC recrui1ing objectives versus recruits 

I'C(;cived; 1973- 8,500 vs 8.701; 1974_ 14.400 vs 15,41'; 1975- 17.200 V5 19.21 1 (Slfellglh o[lhl! Army 

IlcjIOn (DCS I'ER 461. ParI I. Gains and Losses, 30 J un or years cited). 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 355 

mately 3,000 reserve women recruits. When basic training began at Fort 

Jackson, the 3d Basic T raining Battalion at WAC Center would be 

deactivated. TRADOC also began planning to conduct additional basic 

training for WAC recruits at other Army training centers-Fort Leonard 

Wood, Missouri, and Fort D ix. New Jersey.56 

WAC training was quickly organized at Fort Jackson. On I October 

1973, the 17th Basic Training Battalion (WAC) was activated with nine 

basic trai ning companies and a Special Training Company (remedial trai ning). In hOllor of the occasion, General DePuy attended the command's 

activation, unfu rled the battalion's colors, and presented them to the 

commander of the new battalion, Lt. Col. Joanalys A. Bizzelle. Training 

began 9 January 1974. The 5th Basic Training Brigade and the 18th Basic 

Training Battalion (WAC) were activated on I July 1974. The 18th, 

commanded by Lt. Col. Doris L. Caldwell, took four companies from its 

sister battalion and began training immediately. The brigade provided 

command and control over the battalions. Its first commander was Col. 

Edith M. Hinton. Fort Jackson conducted the women's basic training 

course for three yea rs. Then, in 1977, TRADOC combined basic training 

for men and women and deactivated the women's brigades and battalions 

at Fort McClellan and Fort Jac kson.s7 

During the two years that Colonel Clarke commanded WAC Center 

and School, its look and pace had c hanged significantly. By the end of 

September 1974, she commanded a center with four battalions rather than 

one, a school with two courses (WCOC and College J uniors) rather than 

seven, and an Army reception station. (See Chart 5.) Command and 

operational control of the 14th A rmy Band (WAC) had passed to the 

commander of the Special Troop Command, Fort McClellan, on I May 

1974. The commanders of the 1st and 2d Basic Training Battalions had 

moved into new headquarters office buildings in February 1974, and the 

3d Basic T raining Battalion prepared for deactivation in December. Construction was under way in the WAC area to enlarge the clothing issue 

warehollse, the dispensa ry, and the post exchange and to build a small 

headquarters for Headquarters Battalion. The post engineer was also 

renovating mess halls, barracks, and classroom buildings so the WAC 

Center could accommodate twice as many recruits. In September 1974, 

when Colo nel Clarke prepared to leave Fort McClellan, she wondered 

about the future of the WAC Center and School. Indications were still 

that it would close and basic training would be reduced to two battalions. 

Her fears were well founded. In November, the TRADOC commander 

'855. ODC51'ER to Cors, 24 Scp 74. sub: I'l~n ror Expansiou of Ihe WomCl1's Army Corps, 

Approvcd 6 Oct 73 by Col'S. ODWAC ReF File, Expansion WAC 1972- 3. CMH. 

n Annual Histories. Fort Jackson, SC, 1973. 1974. 1975. CM H Ref Elr. Col Marilyn J. Russell 

comrnalldcd 51h Bde (1975- 1977); LtCol Gwen Gibson replaced Coloncl Bi7.1.clie as Cdr, 17th BT On 

(WAC) (1975- 1977), lilld LICol Lenore G. Roberts replaced Colonel Caldwell as Cdr. 18th Iff Eln 

(WAC) (1975- 1977). They trained 40,000 WAC recruits. 
356 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

C HA ItT 5-WAC CENTER AND SOIOOL, FORT MCCL ELLAN OIl.GANIZATION, 

1974 

I '".~ h> COM .... NIX" COMMANDAN ' 

DE ..... ,. CO.,.,.,N",," COM"ANO"'" !O<JC"'IONAl"'O~':roo I I COMMAND S(RGMNI M.uoR r-- ICIl"Vi O"IC£" 

I 

I I I I .... ~.«~ " ... G£MENT II SiCA!' .. RY 

& 811DG1il 

I ' ...... M'''~''~ "I/<fG" lOOC4lKlN I I l)IR!CIOI'OOl' II '>OC IRIMIlIRAW."" \ 

lOGlS"CS OtVllOf''''NlOW'SIOt< 

I 

I """' I H["'[)QUA.'ERS B.o."AUON I ~C("oON 5, .. ,101< S._" 

S, .... 

.... 

"' 0"_ 

'00:,,", 

c_, 

C""-,, .. SA"Al>ONS ~,. .. '" ~ SDo<", ',_C_ C ...... [)o""_, 

y-,., .. ARM. SAND I 

SOl/ree: Historical Reporl, WAC C&S. 1974, p. ii. 

o rdered Fort McClellan to reorgani ze and place all its activities under 

one command, eliminating WAC Center and School, the Milita ry Police 

School, and the U.S. Army School! Training Center (USASTC).58 

14th Army Band (WAC) 

In 1975, the Army ended the 32w year tradition of an all-fema le band in 

the Army and the unique career of the 14th Army Band (WAC). Although other services had women's bands from time to time, none had a 

long or continuous history. The 14th Army Band (WAC), activated on 16 

August 1948, received title to the lineage and honors of the 400th Army 

Service Forces Band (WAC) that had begun its ca reer in 1943 as one of 

the five WAC bands organized during Wo rld War II. After activation, 

the 14th Army Band (WAC) tra ined fo r six months at Fort George G. 

Meade for its role as the WAC training center band. On 5 March 1949, 

the band's first ten members and its warrant officer bandmaster, Miss 

Katheri ne V. A llen, were we lcomed to Camp Lee by the WAC training 

center command. In the next three months, sixteen more bandswomen 

58 HQ. USASTC. Fort McClellan. GO 28. 18 Apr 74; Historical Report. WAC C&S. 1974; Ur. 

Cdr. USASTC. Fort cC ell~ LIl. to Cdr. WAC C&S. 26 Nov 74. \lb: USASTC and USWACCS 

Realignrncm/Reorgalli7.atioll. ODWAC Ref File. WAC C&S TDA & RCQrganil.alion. CM H. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 

W 

A 

C 

B 

A 

N 

D 

357 

DANCE BAND OF THE 14TH ARMY BAND (WAC), WAC Celller, Fort McClel· 

lan, 1965. 

joined the unit, and the band began its routine of pJaying for parades, 

marc h-ouIS. orientations, graduations, receptions, conferences, and dances. 

It also gave concerts o n post, in the local communit y, and at nearby 

Veterans Administration hospitals. When the unit acquired its fu ll complement of thirty-four women, Miss Allen, a graduate of the Juilliard 

School of Music, forn ,!d a number of small internal gro ups-a dance 

band, a D ixieland jazz combo. a barbershop quartet, and others-to provide a variety of musical entertainment. 59 

U In Jan 44, J·IQ. ASF. fornUlll y aClivl,lcd .he five WAC bands organized and operaling in 1943 III 

lhe WAAC, IDler WAC, training etrs. They we re the 400th ASF Band (WAC), First WAC Training 

Center. Fort Des Moines; the 4015t ASF Band (WAC), Second WAC Training Cenli":r, Daytona 

Ileaeh, F L; the 402d ASF Band (WAC), Third WAC Training Center, South POSt, Fort Oglethorpe; 

the 40.kl ASF Hand (WAC) at the T hird WAC Training Center. North Post, Fort Oglethorpe 

(originnlly at the Fifth WAC T raining Center, Cllmp Rustou, LA); lind the 404th ASF Band (Cld)·, 

at the First WAC Training Center. Fort Des Moines. The abbreviation "Cld'" stood for '"colored;' 

the asterisk for WAC; both were part of the baud's titl e. Allthcsc bands were deactivated between 

1945 and 1941. The twO other women's bauds were the Women Marinc:o; Baud :11 Camp Lejellue 

(1943-45), led by MSgt CharlOlle Plummer, and the S34th USAF Band (WAF) at Lacklaud Air 

Fo rce Base ( 19,.- 59), led by Capt M3rY lkll o: Nissly. who had served with the 4{X)t h ASF Band 

(WAC) in World War II. Copies of unit histories of the ASF bauds are in CMH Org3ni1.Ulional 
358 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

THE 14TH ARMY B AND (WAC) ill parade /ormatiQI/. 1970. 

In 195 1, the 14th Army Band (WAC) began touring. To assist the 

campaig n to build WAC strength during the Korean War, the band 

toured the First, Second. Fifth, and Sixth Army Areas in 1951 ; the Third 

A rmy Area in 1952; and previously unvisited states in the Fifth Army 

A rea in 1953. After moving to Fort McClellan with the WAC Center in 

1954, the band continued to make special trips and conduct concert tours 

with community ac tivity program funds provided by the A rmy's Info rmation Office, CONARC. Third Army, or Fort McC lellan. Its special trips 

ranged from appearances at the World's Fair in New Yo rk in 1956 to 

marching in th ree presidential inaug ural parades (1953, 1957, and 196 1). 

After the 269th A rmy Band at Fort McClellan was deactivated in September 1960, the WAC band functio ned as the post band, provided 

buglers for military fune rals in Alabama and Mississippi, performed its 

duties at WAC Center, and contin ued to make tours. Tours between 1951 

and 1973 took the band th ro ugh almost every sta te in the Union and, in 

November 1972, to Puerto Rico, where it spent a week on a recruiting 

concert tour. On its travels, the band played at hig h schools, coll eges, 

civic centers, and for communit y events (festi vals, fairs, races, football 

games, parades). Personnel at Fo rt McClellan greatl y missed the band 

while it was on these trips; they had to endure recorded music at parades 

and o ther ceremonies. Rec ruiters meanwhile welcomed the band into 

Hislory Br. Also see WAC T raining Center histories for 1948 and 1949. Unless olherwise noted. 

infon nalion in this seclion is frol1\ WAC Il:Ind chaplers ofl he lIisloric:l1 Reporls. WAC C&S. for Ihe 

years diSl:usscd. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 359 

their areas where its appearances inc reased public awareness of the Corps 

and boosted WAC recruiting. 

The bandmaster commanded the women and was the ir musical instruc· 

tor and director until 1964. A rter Miss Allen completed her tour in 1952, 

she was repl aced by 2d Lt. (later Captain) Alice V. Peters, who remained 

in this position until 1961. A series of officers served in the position 

thereafter, usuall y for a two-yea r to ur. In 1964, after diffic ulty fi nding a 

full y qualified warrant or commissioned woman officer, the grade and 

nature of the position changed. The job of commande r/ bandmaster was 

upgraded to capt ain, and an enlisted band leader (E- 7) was added to 

direct the band and provide instructio n and technical guidance. To fill 

this key band leader position, the center commander selected Sp6c. 

Ramo na J. Meltz, an accomplished musician, director, and instructor, and 

a nine-year veteran of the band. A natural leader, Specialist Melt z quickly 

gained the respect and support of the other members of the band . During 

the ten-year period she held the position, she contin uously sought promotions, awards, improved housing, and better equipment for the women. At 

the same time, she was their severest critic and taskmaster in musicianship 

and attention to d uty. Her leadership developed an esprit de corps amo ng 

the members of the band that was unparalleled among WAC units. 

Because o rganizational bands had no cadre positions authorized, the commanders usually assigned the additional duty of first sergeant to the 

women who served consecuti vely as drum major fo r the band between 

1950 and 1973- M. Sgt. Janet Helker, Sgt. Eva J. Sever, Sgt. 1st Cl. Jane 

M. Kilgore, Sgt. 1st CI. Rose lla Collins, and Sgt. 1st Cl. Margaret R. 

Clemenson. In 1966, a bass ho rn musician with administrative skills, Sgt. 

1st CI. Patricia R. Browning, accepted the additio nal duty of fi rst sergeant and held it until she transferred to another band in 1974. 

Initiall y, the band was housed in a combined barracks and rehearsal 

hall in the basic training area at Fort McClellan. In 1967, when the WAC 

expansion for Vietnam began and the battalio n needed more room for 

recruits, the band moved into a building vacated by Headquarters and 

Headquarters Company (WAC). This building was small, but the band 

remained there until September 1973. It moved to a four-level building in 

the main post area where, for the first time, it had adequate space for a 

rehearsal hall, library, practice rooms, instrument repair room, admi nistrati ve and supply offices, and comfortable li ving quarters for the bandswomen. 

Ove r the years, the band increased its stature and pTOminence. In 1966, 

more women began to attend the bandsman's course at the U.S. Naval 

School of Music. Up to then, only five women had attended, primarily 

because the attendees' services were lost to the band for twenty-three 

weeks. This situation was alleviated in 1968 when the band increased in 

size from fort y-three to sixty members. In the 1960s, the band appeared 

o n national television, in the movies, and in Army training and informa-
360 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

tion films. The band played at the White House in 1967, when President 

Joh nson signed the bill (PL 90- 130) that removed promotion restrictions 

on women officers and in the Rose Bowl Parade in January 1969. It also 

made a number of records and in 1973 won Best Military Band award for 

the fifth consecutive year at the Veterans' Day Parade in Birmingham, 

Alabama. Through the years, the band expanded its versatility by adding 

more special groups-swing band, choral group, rock combo, countryand-western groups, and a chamber music quartet. 

At WAC Center, the band was an integra l part of life for recruits, 

students, and permanent party personnel. It was a part of every official 

and unofficial ceremon y that look place, and it boosted morale by voluntarily initiating events like marching from unit to unit during the Christmas season singing and playing carols. giving a spring and fall concert for 

the trainees. and se renading various officers and NCOs on their birt hdays. 

Band members had a special place in the hearts and li ves of the WACs at 

Fort McClellan. and. for their pa rt. band members develo ped such unit 

esprit that few requested transfer. Women who auditioned for the band 

knew from the beginning that they would serve continuo usly in the band 

unless they requested reenlistment and training in another MOS. Most 

elected to remain wit h the 14th Army Band (WAC) througho ut their 

service. 

The band was at the peak of its development when. despite efforts to 

avert the change. the A rmy ordered the unit to be integrated with male 

personnel. In July 1972. the WAC Center commander. Colonel Garrison, 

moved to preserve its all-female status by requesting that it be designated 

a Special Band. The intervening commands and the director of the WAC 

concurred. but the Army staff disapproved because it could not spa re the 

eighty-three additional spaces required. 60 The next year, an Army-wide 

reduction in force required the band to trim its strength from sixty-fo ur to 

an aut ho rized twenty-eight members. The losses devastated morale. Members went to other bands in CONUS and overseas; some retired. In 1974. 

several male bandsmen requested assignment to the band at Fort McClellan. but the 14th Army Band (WAC) did not accept men. In 1975, the 

adjutant general advised the Department of the Army's General Officer 

Steering Committee fo r Equal Opportunity that "ma intenance of the 14th 

Army Band (WAC) as a female-only unit appears to be in conflict with 

EEO [Equal Employment Opportunity] policies relating to discrimination 

based on sex." 61 When asked to comment on integrating the band, the 

Gil Ltr. ACSFOR DA 10 TRA DOC. 12 J UII 73. sub: Special Band Request. ODWAC Ref File. 

Hand. CM Ii . 

GI DF. T AG to General Officer Steering Commiuec. Equal Opportunity. 12 Aug 75. sub: Followup Actions 011 TAG Suix:ommillee Recommclldalions GOSCEO Report. QDW AC Ref File, Band. 

CM H. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 361 

Army's c hief information officer had no objection. The commander of 

TRADOC felt it should take place as a matter of equity. The commander 

at Fort McClellan agreed in principle, but reminded TAG that the band 

annually drew great public acclaim through hundreds of appearances. It 

gave visibility to women serving in the Army, and its effectiveness in 

WAC recruitment, especially during the current expansion, was unparal· 

leled. If integrated, the commander pointed out that "the 14th Army 

Band would become just another installatio n band ... its uniqueness 

would ceasc."62 The WAC director agreed with those comments and 

recommended that integration at least be delayed until 1977 to ensure 

" the least adverse impact on morale." 63 The steering committee, therefore, directed that the band be fully integrated by I January 1977, the day 

after the training brigade al Fort McClellan would assume most of the 

functions of the WAC Center and School. After that edict, integration of 

the band began, and the acronym WAC in parentheses was removed from 

the band's title effective I July 1976.64 

Other changes also occurred. Master Sergeant Meltz, although she had 

been selected for promotion to sergeant major (E- 9) in 1973 after the 

position was raised to that grade, decided to retire. She received the 

Legion of Merit fo r her performance of duty between January 1962 and 

November t 973. Lt. Paula M. Molnar became the last woman officer to 

serve a full tour of duty as commanderlbandmaster (1973- 1975). After 

some temporary commanders, a male warrant officer was assigned as 

bandmaster in September 1976, and, thereafter, the band had male bandmasters and enlisted bandleaders. 6 5 

Beginning in 197 1, the U.S. Army Field Band included WAC vocalists 

in its tours, and in 1973, the first WAC was assigned to the U.S. Army 

Band at Fort Myer, Virginia. 66 Thereafter women served interchangeably in these special bands, the U.S. Army Chorus, and in bands at other 

installations and activities. Deactivat ion of the 14th Army Band (WAC) 

closed a chapter in the history of the Women's Army Corps and left 

Corps members with fond memories of marching behind the band at 

parades, Arbor Day plantings, Christmas caroling, torchlight processions, 

concerts, orientations, and grad uations at the WAC Center and School. 

The pride of the WACs, the 14th Army Band (WAC), had had a long 

n Ibid .• Inel J. Cdr, USAMI'S/ TC. Fort cC ll . 

u Ibid .. Inel4. DWAC. 

u 2d Ind, TAG to Cdr TRADOC, 22 Oct 15, to Llr. TAG to TRADOC. 27 May 15, sub: 

Maintenance of AII·Female Ibnd. and HQ TRADOC GO 82. 18 Feb 76. ODWAC Ref File. Bnnd, 

CMH. 

U MSgt Melt..: W~IS replaced by MSgt Bernice R. Goldstein. who retired JI Jan 75 and WM 

replaced by SglistCI Barbarn L. Graham. who. in HITn. was replaced by MSgt Otis W. Whil1inglon 

in Jul y 1976. CW4 Victor F. Owens became b.1ndmaster on 10 September 1976. 

II WAC vocalists assigned to the US Army Field Band in 1971 were SP4 Mildred L. ChriSlian Hnd 

prc Johnnie B. Riser. Thc firsl enlis.cd woman as~igned 10 Ihe US Army Band. Fort Myer. VA. was 

Pfe Eli1.~lbelh l'Iolslius. 
362 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

and illustrio us career as an all-female band. And while its integratio n was 

both inevitable and unwelcome, the band did survive the c hange. 

Basic Trainillg Changes alld Illaclivatioll 

When Col. Mary E. Clarke completed her IOU f as commander of 

WAC Center, she ex.changed positions with Col. Shirley R. Heinze, who 

headed the WAC Advisory Branch (forme rl y WAC Ca ree r Management 

Branch) in Alexandria, Virginia. The change of command ceremony was 

held on 4 September 1974 at Fort McClell an. Colonel Heinze was the 

first g raduate of the Army War College (Class of 1968) to command the 

center. Like Colonel Michl. she had compl eted a t O Uf of duty in Vietnam 

(1966- 1967). 

Because the expansion caused mally women to move into non traditional jobs that required knowledge of defensive tacti cs and weapons, these 

subjects became mandatory in WAC basic training. Even cooks and 

bandsmen assigned to certain units and locatio ns had the secondary mission of helping their unit perform rear area security (guarding against 

enemy attac k or infiltration). On 25 Marc h 1975, upon the recommendation of the DCSPER and TRADOC, Secretary Callaway an no unced that 

this traini ng would be mandatory for women enlisting or reenlisting after 

30 June 1975. At TRADOC's direction, Colo ncl Heinze and her staff 

revised the basic training program and officer training course to include 

weapons qualification and defensive techniques, suc h as digging foxholes. 

Male trainees and student office rs had to qualify on the M 16 riOe before 

they co uld graduate from basic training. Beginning in December 1976, 

women had to do the same. During field exercises, an individua l's entire 

unit had to qua lify on ils basic weapons to pass readiness inspection.67 

Ea rlier that year, at TRADOC's directio n, Colonel Hein ze had expanded the weapons training program to include additio nal sma ll arms 

weapons. Up to Ihis point, women had trained on the M 16 riOe. In Jul y 

1976, TRADOC added training on the light antit ank weapon (LAW), the 

40-mm. grenade launcher, the Claymore mine, and the M60 machine gun. 

Women bcgan traini ng on the hand grenade in the spring of 1977 after a 

test conducted at Fort Jackson determined that wo men had the shoulder 

and arm strength to throw a hand grenade accurately.68 To develop the 

.. Msg. TR ADOC 141 432Z Feo 75 to DCS PER DA. 5uO: Weapons Trainillg ror Womell: Msg. 

DCSPER l7 1930Z Mar 75 to TR ADQC, same SUO; DA Msg 26l832Z Mar 75 to Maj Corns. SilO: 

Public AiT:,irs Guidance Dcfcmlc WcaPOlls T raiuing for Enlist<.'{j Womcn; DA Msg 09 1902Z JaIL 76 

10 Maj Coms. sub: WCl' pons Training for Fcmalc Soldicrs. Activc Army, Army Nalional G uard and 

Reservc. Copil""S in ODWAC Ref File. Weapons T raining. CMIl. 

e8 DA Msg JO l 545Z Jun 76 (DA I'E- MI'T) to Maj Conls. SilO: Wcapons Training for Fcmale 

Soldiers. Active Army. Army National Gllard. and Army Reserve. O DWAC Rcf Filc. Wcapons 

Trnining. CMIl. 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 363 

women's strength and stamina, physical traini ng was expanded to include 

more exercise, and the day march was lengthened from two-and-a-half to 

six-and-a-half miles. Also, at a surprise point along this march, the unit 

would receive a light dose of smoke that simulated tea .. gas and required 

the women to put o n their gas masks quickly and disperse in the woods 

to hide. In 1976, helicopter familiari zation added interest to the fi eld 

training course. With the increased emphasis o n physica l training, field 

training, defensive techniq ues, and weapons training, the women's training d ut y uniform at WAC Center c hanged from the famili ar three-piece 

exercise suit to the heavy-duty fatigues, helmet liners, and combat boots 

worn by men in basic training. 69 

In September 1975, Army Chief of StafT Frederick C. Weyand visited 

WAC Center and School to observe women's training. Maj. Gen. Joseph 

R. Kingsto n, commander of all training acti vities at Fort McClellan, 

suggested a consolidated basic trai ning course for me n and women. A 

trained infantry officer, General Kingston had seen how quickly the 

women had adapted to changes in their trai ni ng program, had become 

proficient in weapons train ing, and had increased their physical capabilities. He had seen their confidence improve. He was convinced that this 

new lype of training, similar to the men's, had made women feel for the 

fi rst time that they were part of the whole Army, not just the Women's 

Army Corps. By the end of the visit, General Kingsto n and Colonel 

Heinze had persuaded the chief of stafT to this view. When he ret urned to 

the Pentago n, he directed that a plan be develo ped to consolidate basic 

training for men and women.70 By the end of December 1975, T RADOC 

had completed an experimental six-week course entitled Basic Initial 

Entry Training (Army Training Program 2 1- 11 4 Test). The course was 

essentiall y the basic combat training course given men.7 t 

The DCS PER and the other members of the Army staff approved the 

pilot program, and the T RADOC commander in itiated ac tion to test the 

course. He assigned General Kingston the responsibility for cond ucti ng 

the test, analyzing its results, and preparing recommendations for the 

chief of stafT. He directed the commander of the Army Training Center 

at Fort Jackson, then Maj. Gen. Willi am B. Caldwell III, to provide the 

so Hislorical ReporlS, WAC C&S, 1975, 1976, 

10 "He ICofSl is prepared to approve :;ame PO I for basic training for WACs liS for males. Gen 

DePuy states he is prepared to go along with this but needs DA Sla/fGuidallct!'." Tasking Memo, Maj 

Elliott G. Fishburne (Aide to the CotS) to DCS PER. 19 ScI' 75. sub: WAC Trllining, CSA 

Comments. ODWAC Ref File, WAC Basic Training_DIET. CMH . 

., MFR, Col Sidney Davis. Chief. Special Actions Team. 10 DCSPER (DAI'E- I'BI'), 24 Scp 74, 

sub: Telcon with Maj Gen ns-~ on, ConHnnnder. Fort McClellan, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Basic 

Training- HI ET. C MIi . The projecl officer 10 coordinate developmenl of Al'l' 21- 114. Test &liliol1. 

Basic Training of Male and Female Personnel without Prior Service (Six Weeks), December 1975, 

was Col Kill M, MaeMiehael, Dir. Training and Education, US WAC School (1974-1976). In an 

inlerv with the author on 16 Jul 81 she stilled : "General Kingslon was strongly influenced by 

Colonels Shirley einze, Lorraine Rossi and myself in this mailer [eommol! basic lruining] ... bUI he 

spcnrhe:ldcd lhe action totally. We just helpo:..'d make him" believer in the woman soldier." 
364 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

test site and the supporting troops, equipment, and facil ities. Upon Colonel Hein ze's recommendation, General Kingston appointed Col. Mary 

Jane G rimes, then the director of training and education at WAC Center 

and School, as the test directo r. Her test committee included men and 

women from the TRADOC Combined Arms Test Activity, the Army 

Infantry School, and the training staffs at both Fort McClellan and Fori 

Jac kson. Four companies (two male and two WAC-approximately 880 

recruits) completed the test basic training course between 17 September 

and t 1 November 1976. Some of the major differences between the 

women's basic training course and the test course are shown in Table 

28,72 

Table 28- COMPARISON, SELECTED COURSES 

Hours in Hours in 

Subject AT!' 21- 121 AT!' 21- 114 

(1975) IllET Test 

Basic Ri ne Training ........................................................... . 47 62 

Hand Grenade Trai ning .................................................... . 0 6.5 

U.S. Weapons Familiarizalion ........................................... . 2 8 

Tactical Training Techn iques .................. ..... ............. ..... .. . 3 7 

Fire and Maneuver ............................................................ . 0 6 

Defensive Training ............................................................ . 5 10 

Confidence Course ............................................................. . 0 4 

Physical Readiness Traini ng ............................................. . 35 39 

Source: USAM I'SITC & FM, Test Report. Basic lllitial Emry T raining (Ill ET). 30 Dec 76, 

App 0 - 1. ODWAC Ref File. Basic T mining (m ET). CMIl. 

At the conclusion of the test involving the 880 recruits, General 

Kingston reported to the chief of staff that " the female g raduates met the 

standards in every area except the Physica l Readiness Training Program," 

which, he believed, could "be modified for the women without changing 

the co ntent of the tra in ing or reducing the value of the trai ni ng received." 73 On 17 Februa ry 1977, the chief of staff approved initiation of 

consolidated basic training for men and women using the modified basic 

initial entry training course. Colonel Hall aren's 1950 proposal for it had 

been too progressive for its time. Now the time was right, and consolidat12 Llr. DeSPER to Cdr, T RADOC. 6 Apr 76. sub: Women in the Army Study. ODWAC Ref 

File. WAC Basic T raining· m ET. CMU . 

13 Msg, T RADOC Ol0224Z May 76 to Cdr. Fort McClellan. Fort J ackson, and others. sub: Basic 

Initial Entry T raining Test, and Rpl. Basic Initial Elltry Training (IlI ET), IllET T cst Directorate, US 

Army Military Police Schoolffrnining Center. Fort McCkll:Ul. A L. JO Dec 19.76. O DWAC Ref 

File, Bask: Training_ lJI ET TEST. C MH . 
WAC CENTER AND WAC SCHOOL 365 

ed training began at Fort McClellan and Fort Jackso n o n 1 September 

1977 and at Fort Dix and Fort Leonard Wood in October 1978.14 

In addition to consolidating basic training for men and women, in 1977 

TRADOC combined basic and advanced individ ual MOS training at 

installations where it was feasible. In the program, ca lled o ne-station unit 

trai ni ng, recru its learned some MOS skills while undergoing basic training 

at posts that also cond ucted branc h advanced indi vid ual training in specific MOSs. After completing the basic training program, the trainee remained in the same unit to receive advanced individ ual training in the 

MOS he or she had selected upon enlisting in the Army. T his system 

reduced training time, improved use of training facilities, and eliminated 

the travel costs usuall y incurred by moving an individ ual from a basic 

train ing post to another for advanced individ ual training. For example. a 

woman who enlisted in MOS 958 , Military Policema n, received basic 

training and advanced individual training at Fort McClellan, the home of 

the Military Police Corps. If she enlisted in MOS 72B. Teletype Operator. she completed basic and advanced individual training at Fort 

Gordon, Georgia. the home of the Signal Corps. One-station unit training 

(OSUT) contin ues in the Army today.75 

Another major reorganization had occurred at Fort McClellan after 

the Military Police School moved there in the summer of 1975. 

TRADOC directed a reorgani zation to place all post activities under one 

command. This eliminated the WAC Center and School and the U.S. 

Army School/Training Center and placed the Military Police School and 

the other activities under the same command. F rom November 1974 until 

the summer of 1976, the WAC Center staff worked with the other 

headquarters staffs on detailed plans for the transfer of functions, units. 

and personnel to the centrali zed command, the U.S. A rmy Military Police 

SchoolfTraining Center and Fort McClellan (effective 4 October 1976). 

In the midst of the reorgani zation planning. Colo nel H einze completed 

her tour as commander and was replaced on 2 June 1976 by Col. Lorraine A. Rossi, who had been deputy commander for over a year and 

who. as a lieutenant. had helped move WAC Center from Fori Lee to 

Forl McClellan.76 

14 Memo. DCSI'ER 10 Col'S. 16 Feb 77. sub: Basic Inilial Enlry Training (BIEn ror Male and 

Female Soldiers, approved VCol'S 11 Feb 77. ODWAC Rer File. WAC Basic Training- IlI ET, 

CMII. 

11 Annual Rpl. Se<:Army. 1977. p. 23. CMII Rer Br. 

U Ltr, Cdr, USASTC. Fori McClellan, 10 Cdr, WAC C&S. 26 Nov 74. sub: USASTC and 

USWACCS Realignmelll/Rt'Organiv.lioll. and HQ TRAOOC l'ermal1ent Order )4-1. 14 Oct 76. 

ODWAC Rer File. WACC&S TDA & Roorganiv.tion. CM H; Annual Historical Summary. US 

Army Military l'olicenraining Cenler and For. McClellan. 1976. CMH Rer Sr: Hislorical Reporls. 

WAC C&S. 1975. 1916. Col Hcin7.C was reassigned as chief of staff of the Army Recruiting 

Command. For. Sheridan. IL Col ROlisi served in Vietnam ( 1968- 1969) and was a 1974 graduate of 

Army \Vu r College. 
366 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

The completed operationa l plan, entitled OPLAN CONSOLIDATE, 

was issued 1 July 1976. The training brigade of the new centra lized 

command absorbed the two WAC basic traini ng battalions on 1 December 1976 and assumed control over the WAC Officer Orientation Course, 

the Staff and Faculty Company, and the Student O fficer Company. Company F of Headquarters Battalion that cond ucted the Civilian Acquired 

Skills Program (USAR) became part of the 2d Basic Training Battalion 

(WAC). and Headquarters Battalion was deactivated. Colonel Rossi and 

her staff transferred their property, functions, and personnel to their 

counterpart activities o n post or in the Training Brigade. On 31 December 1976, the U.S. WAC Center and School ceased to exist. 77 

The year 1976 brought other milestones in women's tra ining. With 

congressional approval, 11 9 women entered the U.S. Military Academy at 

West Point (Class of 1970) o n 7 July. T he first women graduated from 

Army ROTC programs and were commissioned in May and June 1976. 

The WAC Student Officer Program ended with the graduation of 108 

students in the last College Junior Class (XIX) on 1 August 1975. T he 

program for enrolling women in ROTC proved so successful that the 

WAC Officer Orientation Course was discontinued with the graduation 

of 129 students in Class XVII on 27 September 1977. A fter t October 

1976 women trained with male officer candidates at the U.S. Army 

Officer Candidate School at Fort Benning, Georgia. 7 6 

The WAC Center and School ceased to exist twenty-two-and-a-half 

years after it had opened at Fort McClellan. Until Congress eliminated 

the WAC as a corps within the Regular A rmy, however, women conti nued to be enlisted and appointed in the Women's Army Corps. And, as 

expansion continued, tho usands of women arrived for the now combined 

basic training at Fort McClellan. But the mess halls at WAC Center no 

lo nger rang solely with the sounds of women talking and laughing; the 

streets no lo nger resounded with their chanting the "Jod y" tunes to keep 

in cadence; the torchlight parade no longer held silence in the air; and the 

drum and cymbals no longer echoed off the hills as the WAC band 

played and the women sang: "Duty is calling you and me; we have a date 

with destiny .... " 

.. OPLAN CONSOLIDATE. USASTC & Fort McClell:ln, I luI 76. with Chal\ge I, I Scp 76. 

ODWAC Ref File. WACC&S TDA & Reorganization, CM H: HQ TRADOC Permanent Order 34-

l. I Apr 77, and HQ USAM I'SITC&FM l'ermanent Orders 72- 8. 72- 9, 72- 20, and 72- 21. in Annual 

History. USAM I'SrrC&FM. Fort McClcll~n, 1976. CMH Ref lIr. Col Rossi remaint-d 011 post as asst 

dep cdr until 30 Jun 77 when she was reassigned as dir of the Army Equal Opportunity Progmms. 

ODCSPER. DA. 

18 1'L 94- 106. Military Authori1-1ltion Act of 1976, 8 Oct 75: Historical ReporlS. WAC C&S. 1975, 

1976. South Dakota Siale Univ, on I May 76. was the first to graduate women in Ihe ROTC 

program. or )4,296 women ill ROTC in Dt'(; 77, 738 held ROTC scholarships. 
CHAPTER XIII 

Women in the Army 

When General Clarke became director of the Women's Army Corps 

on 1 August 1975, the question concerning dissolution of the Corps was 

no lo nger if, it was when. In Ju ne, d uring hearings on the proposed 

Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA). the Army had 

told Congress that it would no longer insist upon retention of a separate 

Corps and director. It would, however, need a "full-time senior female 

officer to act as advisor ... and spokesman for women in the Army." 1 

When the Defense Department rev ised the bill after those hearings, it 

eliminated the WAC as a separate corps and the position of director of 

the WAC. The bill already deleted the separate WAC promotio n list. It 

did not contain a provision for the senior woman adviser deemed necessary by the Army, but it did contain other highly controversial provisions 

which generall y ensured that DOPMA would not be approved by Congress for several years. 

Mary Elizabeth Clarke ente red the A rmy at age 20 and, in August 

1945, attended the last World War II WAC basic training class at Fort 

Des Moines. In September 1949, she grad uated from WAC OCS at Camp 

Lee. Her assignments into the 1960s included detachment commander, 

WAC recruiting, and staff positio ns in personnel and intelligence. After 

spending a year at the Office of Economic Opportunity, Washington, 

D.C. (1966), and two years as commander of the WAC Training Battalion ( 1967- 1968), she was assigned to ODCSPER for three years (1968-

197 1). She then served as the WAC stafT adviser at HQ, Sixth Army, 

until September 1972 when she assumed command of the WAC Center 

and WAC School. She was chief of the WAC Advisory Branch at the 

time of her selection as director of the WAC. In seniority, she was the 

third-ranking eligible officer, and, li ke her predecessors, she was selected 

to head the Corps based on her demonstrated leadership, executive ability. and public relations skills.2 

1 Memo. DCSPER. through Cots and ASA (M& RA). to $ccArmy. 17 JUII 75. sub: Repeal of 

Sectioll 3071, Title ]0. United States Code under Proposed Legislation: D efense Officer Personnel 

M3nagement Act (DOPMA) (HR 7586). ODWAC Ref File. Discontinuallce of the WAC. CMU. 

2 0DWAC Ref File. Directors WAC, CMH . Gcn Clarke gr~d ll~l d rrom Ihe WAC Officers 

Advanced Coursc, Personnel Officers Managemcnl Course. WAC Officer Recruitiug COUTSC. Inlelligence Officers Course. Army Management School. and Managemelll in the Departmenl of Defense 

COUTSC. 
368 T HE WOME N'S A RMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

C OL. E Drnl M . H INTON, D EPUTY DIRECTOR, WAC {/975- 1978}. 

On I August 1975, Acting Secretary of the A rmy Norman R. Augustine and Vice Chief of Staff Walter T. Kerwin, Jr., pin ned general's stars 

o n the ninth director whil e members of her family. friends, former directo rs, and members of the Army staff looked on. Adjutant General Verne 

R. Bowers administered the oath of office.3 That evening at the Fort 

McNair Officers Club, the c hief of staff hosted a formal reception hono ring the outgoing and incoming directors. 

General Clarke's staff was a mixture of new and old members. Well 

before her selection, two members had submitt ed their papers to retire on 

31 Aug ust- Col. Maida E. Lambeth, the deputy director, and Lt. Col. 

Elizabeth A. Berry, the executive officer. General Clarke selected Col. 

Edith M. Hinto n to be her deputy. A grad uate of Army War College 

( 1972), Colonel Hinto n had been training directo r at WAC Center and 

School (1973- 1975) and commander of the 5th Basic Training Brigade 

(WAC) at Fort Jackson (1974- 1975). Lt. Col. Pa tricia A. McCord replaced Colonel Berry. 4 

3 DA SO 194, 1 Aug 75, CMII Library. This order promOied Col Clarke to brig gen, err 31 J ul 75, 

and announced her appointment lIS OW AC, err 1 Aug 75. 

4 LICol McCord went to the National War College in J un 76 and was replaced by LICol Virgini a 

L. Heseman who had served as the last chief of the WAC Advisory Office, MI LPERCEN. T he 

plans offi cer. Maj Thomas K. Newell. Jr., left in Apr 77 when the positioll was deleted. Mary 

Larrick, a civilian, continued as secreta ry to the DWAC. The E- 9 position was filled by MSgt Lois 

J. Willilum until J un 77 when she was replllccd by SgtMaj Beverly E. Scott. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 369 

MAX WAC and Other Studies 

No stranger to the need for adequate planning, General Clarke had 

assumed command of the WAC Center and WAC School as the WAC 

expansion effort had begun. There she had seen the results of an ove up ~ 

ply of rec ruits and an undersupply of troop housing, cadre, instructors, 

uniforms, and classrooms. Now, as directo r of the WAC, with responsi~ 

bilities as a to p planner, she would spend a major proportion of her time 

working on the continued expansion and o n studies dealing with the 

expansion's impact on the A rmy. 

During the first years of the expansio n, the WAC Expansion Steering 

Committee's overriding concern had been recruiting. T he committee di~ 

reeted the opening of more MOSs, enlistment o ptio ns, and training 

courses to increase the attractiveness of enlistment and reenlistment in the 

WAC. T hey overcame sho rtages in uniforms, ho using, and cadre by 

taking special actio ns- awarding bonuses to manufact urers to produce 

women's uniform items, sending teams A rmy-wide to find potential cadre 

members and to inspect housing. Policies that in the past had impeded 

utilization or assignment of women had been banished. The result, a 

steadil y inc reasing number of WACs, convinced the committee that expansion was their best hope of eliminating the manpower shortage in the 

Army. 

In late 1974, Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) M. David 

Lowe turned the committee's attention to the consideration of new concerns. He asked them to think about the effect that a hig her percentage of 

women would have on the Army and o n its ability to fight. He told the 

DCSPER, "We do not have a clear answer to the question, 'how many 

women do we want in the Army-unit by unit, MOS by MOS?' ... until 

we can nail this down, we may be setting objectives that are meaningless." 5 The assistant secretary's representative on the committee, Clayton 

N. Gompf, warned members of the consequences of unrestricted WAC 

enlistments and assignments, saying, "A Category II unit, such as an MP 

company, could end up with 80 percent women." 6 The implication, 

which no o ne disputed, was that this would render the unit unfit to 

accomplish its mission. 

After deliberation on the question, the members of the committee 

presented two recommendations upon which the DCSPER acted. F irst, 

he directed the commander of the Mili ta ry Personnel Center (MILPERCEN) to develop a computer model to answer the question, "How many 

enlisted women do we need, MOS by MOS?" Second, he asked the 

commander of the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) to ana5 Memo, ASA (M&RA) 10 DCSI'ER, 7 Nov 74, no sub. ODWAC Ref File, Woman's Enlisted 

Expansion Model (WEEM), CM H. 

11 Min, WAC Expansion Sleerillg CommiHec, 24 Sel' 74. p. 5. ODWAC Ref File. E~pan ion

Steering Commil1cc Minutes ( 1974), CM H, 
370 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

lyze the Army's manpower requirements to answer the question, "How 

many enlisted women can a unit hold withou t degrading its ability to 

perform its mission?" 7 

To execute its task, MILPERCEN designed two computer models. 

The first, the Women's Enlisted Expansion Model (WEEM), was completed in October 1975. It determined women's MOS requirements by 

subtracting from total Army enlisted requirements all comba t authorizations and developed a ratio of spaces for male promotion, rotation. grade 

distribution, length of overseas tOUf, and career development. This process revealed that up to 8 percent (54,400) of the Army's enlisted MOS 

spaces could be fi lled by women.s The second model, the Women Officers Strength Model (WOSM), was patterned on WEEM and based in 

part on a TRADOC study. It showed that approximately 16 percent 

(26,400) of the officer spaces (including medical depafl ment officers) 

could be filled by women. 9 

TRADOC completed its report, WAC Content in Units, in April 1975. 

T his work established the percentage of women that could be assigned to 

TOE units (combat support and combat service support). The percentage, 

ranging from zero to 50 percent, was based on how close to the battlefield a unit normally operated . For example, a unit that would not leave 

the United States in time of war could have women fi lling 50 percent of 

its spaces; a unit that would operate within the combat zone could have 

no women at all. As distance from the battlefield increased, so did the 

percentage of women a unit could have. T he system applied only to 

conventional war situations in which zones could be established. (I n a 

nuclea r wa r, it was assumed, whole continents would become the battlefi eld.) In forwarding the report, the TRADOC commande r, Genera l 

William E. DePuy, acknowledged its limit ations: "There is no perfec t 

way to arrive at a maximum ceiling on the number of women who can be 

assigned to TOE units .... The determination of specific percentages to 

express ceiling limitations is largely a subjective exercise." 10 

The DCSPER, Lt. Gen. Ha rold G. Moore, sent the TRADOC report 

to major commanders. He asked them to evaluate the recommended 

percentages against actual units of the same type then o perating in the 

field. The commanders reported that the TRADOC-recommended percentages of women for TOE units appeared acceptable. They also indicated that women could occupy the majorit y if not all spaces in TD units. 

Several commanders, however, noted that in dealing with TOE units, 

1 Ltr. DCSI'ER (OAI'I'E- MPE-CS) to Cdr. TRADOC. Fort Monroe. VA. 13 Dec 74. sub: WAC 

Content in TOE Units. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. WAC Content iu Units. CM H. 

~ Study, DCSPER, Womcn in the Army (WITA). Dec 76. eh 5 and 6. ODWAC Ref File. Studies, 

CM"'. 

9 Study, TRADOC, Women Officer Content iu TOE Units. ODWAC Ref File, Studies, CMI .. . 

10 Ur. Cdr. TRADOC, to DCSPER. 9 Apr 75. sub: WAC Content in TOE Units. OOWAC Ref 

File, Studics. WAC Content in Units. CMH. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 37 1 

their comments should be considered conj ecture beca use they had had 

little experience with sizable numbers of women in these units. I I 

With this qualified acceptance of the TRADOC stud y, General Moore 

tried another tack. He asked MILPERCEN to use the TRADOC formula 

in the computer model WEEM to determine the requirements for enlisted 

women by MOS and by unit. 1 2 The resulting figure, 91,000 enlisted 

women, was higher than the DeSPER anticipated or liked. He already 

believed that the DOD-directed expansion goal of 50,400 was too high 

and that a further expansion goal based on the new figure would o utstrip 

the Army's ability to perfo rm its mission. He had some support from 

General Clarke, who had kept close track of the reports, their review, 

and the comments returned by the commanders. She did not favor expanding WAC numbers to any extent that would require lowering WAC 

enlistment standards. When the DCSPER sent the estimate to Assistant 

Secretar y Lowe's successor as ASA (M&RA), Donald G. Brotzman, he 

recommended that the results of the WEEM not be released to the news 

media. T ime was needed, he wrote, to conduct a fie ld test of the 

TRADoe formula. The results were not made public. 13 

The task of field testing the TRADOe form ula went to the Army 

Research Institute (ARI) and the U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM). A RI spent a year desig ning and preparing the test entitled 

Women Content in Units Force Development Test and known as MAX 

WAC. In October 1976, forty combat service and combat service suppo rt 

units (Medical, Military Police, Maintenance, Signal, and Transportation) 

at nineteen posts in the continental United States and Hawaii participated 

in the first part of the test. During a three-day fi eld exercise, ARI and 

FORSCOM representatives conducted interviews and tests to evaluate 

how well each unit, with a female content ranging from to to 35 percent, 

perrormed its mission. Six month later, the three-day fie ld exercise and 

tests were repeated in the same units using a differe nt percentage of 

women in the units. 

In Jan uary 1977, the preliminary findings indicated that a content of 

up to 35 percent women had no adve rse erfect on a unit's ability to 

perform its mission. Leadership, training, and morale we re the factors 

that influenced resu lts. The commander of the U.S. A rmy Operational 

Test and Evaluation Agency (OTEA), Maj. Gen. Julius W. Becton, Jr., 

however, had disputed those ini tial results. He tho ught that the methodol-

" Llr, DCSPER (DAPE- MPE-CS) 10 Mllj Coms, 9 J UI1 75. sub: WAC Content in Units, and 

Responses. ODWAC Rer File. Studies. WAC Content in Units. CMH. 

13 Min. WAC E~pan n Steering Comminee. 14 Oct 75, ODWAC Ref File. Expansion- Sleering 

CommiHcc (1975). CMH. 

13 Memo. DCS I' ER (DAI'E- PI3M). through CofS. to SceArl1l)', 30 Apr 75. sub: Maximum 

Number of En1i tcd Fema lf..-s the Army Could Usc. O DWAC Rer File. SlUdies. WA C Conlcnl in 

Unils, CMH. 
372 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

ogy was faulty and that the data did not support the findings. 1 4 When the 

second test confirmed the initial findings, the c hief of staff directed 

General Becton to analyze the methodology, design, and findin gs of 

MAX WAC. General Becton's stud y showed that the units could only 

suppo rt an upper limit content of 20 percent women, and he recommended that women's perfo rmance be tested in a two- or three-mo nth fi eld 

ex.ercise under morc realistic conditio ns. I S 

The D eSPER, then Lt. Gen. D eWitt C. Smith, Jr., published the final 

results of the MAX WAC test in October 1977 and included OTEA's 

analysis as an appendix. In his foreword to the report, the D e SPER gave 

MAX WAC faint praise and noted that a fu rther study would be conducted under prolonged fi eld conditions. "The MAX WAC stud y was 

extremely useful and provides some insight to the U.S. Army in evaluating the role of women. The MAX WAC test in itself does 110t provide an 

empirical basis to objecti vel y establish an upper bo und on the potential 

number of women in support roles. " 16 

General Smith had also authorized A RI to test the TRADOe formul a 

d uring the Army's annual REFORGER (Repositioning of Forces in Germany) exerc ise between Jul y and October. 1 7 Two hundred and twent y- nine 

women accompanied the REFORGER 77 troops to Europe where A RI 

observer teams closely evaluated the women's pe rformance in their MOSs 

and their ability to adapt to fi eld conditions. T hey were assigned to 

Signal, Transportation, Medical, Maintenance, and Military Police units. 

No unit had a female content higher than 10 percent. On 9 November, 

ARl reported its findings to the D CSPE R and the Army staff. The team 

fo und that the addition of women had no adve rse impact on unit missio ns. 

T he women were profi c ient in their MOS duties and generall y performed 

them as well as or better than men. The women, however, did not 

perform as well as men in the use of weapons o r tactics, nor did they 

exhibit a desire to learn to fight. Some women had minor problems 

adapting to sani tation and billeting in the fi eld, and, th roughout the 

exerc ise, some men had diffic ult y accepting women's participation in the 

exercise. I 8 

I. Lt r. ARI to DA StufT. 21 Jan 77. sub: T ransmittal of III-Process Review I'ac k<>ge for Women 

Content in Units. alld lst Ind. OT EA to Cdr. ARI. II Feb 77. OOWAC Ref File. St udies. Womell 

Contcnt in Units Test (MAX WAC). CMl-l . 

" LI m. CofS to Cdr. OT EA. 16 J un 77. no sub. and Cdr. OTEA. to Oir. Army Staff. 8 Aug 77. 

sub: MAX WAC. with Ind : OTEA Review and Evaluation of MAX WAC Study; A RI. MAX 

WAC. In-Process Review. II Aug 77. All in ODWAC Ref File. Studies, WAC Content in Units Tf,.'$t 

(MAX WAC). CMII. 

"Study. ARI. Women Content in Units. Force Development Tf,.'1't (MAX WAC). J Oct 77. 

ODW AC Ref File. Studies. CM Ii. 

n Ltr. DCSPER (DAI'E- MI'E- DR) to ARI. 27 J un 77. sub: REFORGER 77- hllp'lct of 

Womcn. ODWAC Ref File. $tudi<.'S. REF WAC. CMH . 

\I Brierlllgs. ARI to DCS I'ER. 4 Aug and 9 Nov 77. sub: REFORGER 77- lmpact or Women. 

nlld Rpts. ARI. Women Contcnt 111 the Army- REFORGER 77 (REF WAC 17). JO h n and 15 Mpr 

78. O DWAC Ref File. REF WAC. CMH . 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 373 

With tbe REFORGER report, REF WAC 77, the DeSPER now had 

three studies. Each recommended a different optimum percentage of 

women in units- 35 percent, MAX WAC study; 20 percent, OTEA 

rev iew; and 10 percent, REF WAC 77. While the next step could have 

been a study on the three studies, the DeSPER generall y accepted the 

TRADOe's 35 percent maximum as a guide because both the MAX 

WAC and the REF WAC 77 studies had confirmed its basic premises. 

Women ill the Army Studies 

While the MAX WAC stud y was in progress (1975- 1978), successive 

assistant secretaries of defense (M&RA)- William K. Brehm, John F. 

Ahearne, David P. Taylor, and John P. White- continued to press the 

Army to meet its numerical objectives and fill the manpower gap. At the 

end of December 1975, the A rmy was understrength by 16,200 enlisted 

men. Meanwhile, WAC numbers surpassed their FY 1975 goal by 5,800 

women, and, by the end of the next fiscal year, the Corps exceeded its 

higher programmed strength by 3,000 enlisted women. 1 9 It was not hard 

for General Moore, then the DCSPER, to guess that the continuing 

success of the WAC expansion would lead the Department of Defense to 

direct another big increase in women. He, however, was convinced that a 

higher density of enlisted women would undermine Army readiness, even 

though no stud y had proven this- the WEEM, TRADOC, and MAX 

WAC studies supported up to 35 percent in TOE un its and almost 50 

percent in TD units. On 6 January 1976, to prepare for another Defense 

Department request to increase WAC strength, General Moore directed 

his staff to "revalidate the program for the expanded utilization of women 

in the Army." 20 

The study was published in December 1976 and was known as the 

Women in the Army (WITA) Study. It examined the expansion, women's 

policies and procedures, and research on women. The stud y group reviewed old opinion surveys and also sent major commanders a questionnaire on personnel policies that affected utilization of women. In their 

responses, the commanders reported that to date neither pregnancy nor 

single-parent policies had presented problems. They recommended that 

women be permitted as close to the battle zone as necessary to perform 

their noncombat duties. They also felt women needed additional physical, 

weapons, and tactical training. Some thought that women could fill 

MOSs in some of the Category I (combat) units- units that did not enter 

the battle zone. Only physical strength, in their opinion, appeared to be a 

differentiating fac tor between the performance of men and women. They 

19 DA Histo rical Summary, FY 76, p. 35. 

20 OF, DCSPER (DAPE- MPE-CS) to directorates, ODWAC, and OA stalT divisions, 6 Jan 76, 

sub: Women in the Army Study. OOWAC Ref File. Sl\Jdies. Women in the Army, Ot'C 76, CM H. 
374 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

also agreed that men accepted women in leadership roles when they 

demonstrated supervisory and physical competence. 2 1 

As part of the WITA studies, the Army Center of Military History 

(CMH) reviewed historical instances of women in combat and in combat 

leadership roles. Its report covered conventional as well as guerrilla wars 

and nine foreign countries, among them Russia, France, Italy, Great 

Britain, Israel, and Vietnam. Each of the countries chosen for the stud y 

had experienced times when women had entered combat to help their 

country repel attack or resist occupation by a foreign power. Russian and 

Israeli accounts showed that women had been successful leaders as tank 

commanders and infantry platoon leaders. but such instances were rare 

and no sto ries of unsuccessful female leadership could be fo und. In Israel, 

after the 1948 War of Independence, legislation had established a separate 

women's corps and also banned women from combat tasks on the battle~ 

field. The legislation was based on statistics that showed higher casualty 

rates in mi xed as opposed to all~ma e units. The eMH study concluded 

that insufficient evidence existed to determine whether women would be 

successful in combat o r as combat leaders. 22 

Completing its work in August 1976, the WITA stud y group found 

that the two computer models. WEEM and WQSM, provided "sound 

approaches" to establishing recruiting objectives. training, and MOS e~ 

quirements for women. However, the issues of pregnancy and single 

parenting needed more data before any changes in policy could be considered. and additional research was needed to evaluate the physiological. 

psychological, and sociological factors affecting women in no ntraditional 

roles and their reaction to combat stress. The group recommended that 

six of the MOSs in volving combat support then open to women be closed 

to women and that thirteen others be temporarily closed until rotation 

and some g~ nge ca reer programming problems could be resolved. 

The WITA report concluded that "while there is considerable work left 

to do, the Army is on the right track. The current [WAC expansion} plan 

for women is acceptable and will not lead to an organization which will 

be ineffective in time of wa r." In December 1976, G eneral Moore distrib~ 

uted the 322~ pa ge report th roughout the Defense Department, the Army, 

the other services, and interested former military personnel. He disbanded 

the WAC Expansion Steering Committee and, on I January 1977, replaced it with the WIT A Review Committee. 23 

~l Ibid.: Study, DCSPER. Women in the Army Study, I Dec 76. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. 

CMH. Study cited hereafter as WITA Study. 

nCMH . "Women in Comb;it and as Milita ry Leaders: A Survey," \978. CM H LibrMY. 

U WITA Study: DF. Asst DCSPER to O DCS I'ER Directorates and O DWAC, 6 ~'C 76. sub: 

Women in the Army (W ITA) Review. O DWAC Ref File. Studies. WITA Issue$. c~nl . 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 375 

The Feud OYer Increasing the Number of WACs 

In November 1976, the WITA study helped General Moore convince 

Secretary of the Army Martin R. Hoffmann that the women's strength 

objective should remain at 50,400 enlisted women and 2,84 1 women line 

officers. However. incoming President James E. Ca rter brought in a new 

secreta ry of defense, Harold Brown, who o rdered his assistant secretary 

for manpower and reserve affairs to determine where military personnel 

economies could be effected. Because past studies had shown that women 

cost less to sustain than men, the assistant sec retary asked the services to 

study their utilization policies and to state whether they could do uble the 

strength of their women's components by the end of FY 1982.24 

Such an inc rease meant a WAC enlisted strength of approximately 

100,1XX>; women line and medical officer streng th, 10,000. But the Army, 

rev iewing its women's utilization policies and streng th, decided that it 

had gone as fa r as it could o n both counts. Noting that it had accomplished a fourfold increase in the number of women since 1972, the Army 

wanted time to evaluate the impact of that inc rease before initiating 

another major jump. Its ongoing research projects and field tests, to be 

completed in the next two years, would provide the data to guide further 

decisions on inc reasing enlisted women strength beyond the programmed 

50,400 by the end of FY 1979. T he A rmy, however, felt it could increase 

the total women officers prog ram from 4,800 to 9,IXX> by the end of FY 

1982. 

Genera l Clarke did not concur in the reply that the DCSPER proposed to send to DOD. She now believed that the recruitment of enlisted 

women could sustain its momentum without lowering enlistment standards and that the Army's failure to increase its annua l WAC accession 

targets and the five-year end strength would be a disaster. In fact, failure 

to inc rease accessions would result in WAC streng th's being lower than 

50,400 by the end of FY 1982. She wrote: ''This has no t been an effort to 

see if we could use 100,000 women; the effort has been to prove that we 

could not." 25 General Moore noted Genera l Clarke's nonconcurrence 

but overr uled it, statin g that to agree to any increase in the enlisted 

women's strength would compromise the strong position he wished to 

take on the assistant secretary's proposal. Though his own statistics and 

studies proved otherwise, the DCSPER believed a higher content of 

women would dilute the Army's ability to perform its missions. He told 

It Memo. ASD (M&RA) to ASSI St.'C5. Military Services, 10 Fcb 77. sub: SllIdy for Secretary 

Brown 011 UtiliUllion of Women in the ArmL"<I Forces. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. Usc of Women ill 

the Army. CMH. DOD added Logistics to Manpower and RL'Serve Affail"$ in JUlie 1977, c hanging 

the title and abbreviation to MRA&'L. 

u Memo, DWAC 10 Dir. Military PCl'liOllIlel Management Directorate. 7 Mar 77. sub: Study for 

Secretary Brown on Utili1.3II0n of Women in the Armed Forces. ODWAC Ref File. Studies. Usc of 

Womell ill ihe Army. C MH. 
376 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

the assistant secretary, "We sho uld err on the side of nationa l security 

until such time as we have confidence that the basic mission of the A rmy 

can be accomplished with significantly more female conten t in the active 

force." 26 

Among the services, o nly the Marine Corps submitted a plan to do uble 

the size of its women's component by the end of fiscal yea r 1982. (See 

Table 29.) However, the data presented by the Navy and Air Force 

convinced Secreta ry Brown that problems in managing rotation meant 

that the number of women in those services could not be do ubled until 

Congress removed restrictions on women serving on ships and planes. 

The A rmy did not fare as well. 

TABLE 29- PROPOSED INCREASES, WOMEN IN THE SERVICES 

[In T housandsl 

ARMY NAVY A IR FORCE MARINE CORPS 

Actual For Actual For Actual For Actual For 

" M "a "M "a "M "a "M "a 

Officer ............. 4.8 9.0 3.5 4.8 4.8 8.6 0.3 0.6 

Enlisted ........... 43.9 SOA 19.2 28.5 29.2 48.2 3.1 6.7 

Total .......... 48.7 59.4 21.7 33.3 34.0 56.8 3A 7.3 

S(mru: DOD Rpt. Backgroulld Study. Usc of Women in the Military. May 77, pr. J2. 40, 42, 

ODWAC Ref File, Studies. CM H. 

In evaluating the Army's plan, the assistant secreta ry of defense 

(M&RA) told Secretary Brown that he fe lt the Army could have programmed a g radual increase in enlisted women. To him, it appeared that 

the A rmy was "over-controlling" enlisted women's accessions and manpower positions thro ugh the Women's Enlisted Expansion Model 

(WEEM) and that relatively small adjustments in the WEEM ratios for 

promotion, rotation, and other factors could significantl y inc rease projections for increased utilization of enlisted wome n. T he WITA Study, 

enclosed in the Army's respouse, documented that women lost less time 

from duty than men for all causes except pregnancy and that women had 

higher retention ra tes than men. Preliminary reports from the MAX 

WAC study indicated that unit performance was no t affec ted with up to 

35 percent women. "It appears," the assistant sec retary wrote, "the Army 

can use more enlisted women. They will help make the all-volunteer 

force succeed and will save money." Then he added, "but the g rowth 

26 Memo. DCSPER (DA PE- ZB). through CofS and ASA (M&RA). to ASD (M&RA). S Mar 77. 

s.1me sub, ODWAC Ref File. Studies. Usc of Women in the Army. CM H. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 377 

must be watched to ensure that the fighting capabilit y of the Army is 

strengthened, not weakened by additional enlisted women." 27 

At the lime of the stud y. women constituted 5 percent of the total 

a rmed forces. Costs o f recruiti ng female high school graduates were 

lower than those for recruiting male high school graduates. Women had 

higher overall retention rates than men, in addition to lower loss rates in 

their first year of enlistment. Even though involuntary discharge on 

pregnancy and parenthood had been eliminated by DOD two years 

earlier in 1975, pregnancy remained a major cause fo r discharge of 

women from military service. But studies showed that men lost more time 

from duty than women, considering all causes. Major causes of lost time 

for men included alcohol and drug abuse, AWOL, and desertion. Disciplinary problems among women were rare. 28 "The average female rec ruit was about a year o lde r than her male counterpart ... had the same 

propensity to be married ... was less likely to be black ( 16.1% versus 

18.5%), and more likely to have graduated from high school (91.7% 

compared with 62.9%). She scored about ten points higher on the entrance tests. Seventy percent of the women accessions during the period 

{FY 1973- 76] were still on active duty at the end of June 1976. as 

compared with 64% of the male accessions." 29 

After reviewing the information provided, the assistant secretary o f 

defense made his recommendatio ns- that the plans affecting growth presented by the Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps be accepted, but that 

the Army be directed to develop a plan to increase WAC enlisted 

strength grad ually. He w rote, " In view of the reduc tion in the number o f 

young men expected in the labor market in the 1980's and 1990's, it 

would seem prudent that the Army should pursue a more ambitio us 

program to find ways to use more high quality women to meet their 

enlisted requirements. It would appear that more realistic constraints in 

their programs would pe rmit significantly la rger inc reases by 1982." 30 

Once again the DeSPER was overruled on plans for women in the 

Army. 

Few unclassified matters remain a secret very long in the Pentagon. 

The assistant secretary of defense's recommendations were not published 

until May 1977, but Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) 

Paul D. Phillips heard in Marc h that the Defense Department would 

reject the Army plan and direct an inc rease in women's strength- to 

100,000 by FY 1983. To be prepared to argue against this and to offer 

new ahernati ves, Secretary Phillips directed General Moore to develop 

the best possible estimates of the impac t of such a decision. The 

n DOD Rpl, Background Study. Usc of Women in the Military, May 77, p. 37. O DWAC Ref 

File, Studies. CMH. 

n Ibid .. pp. 24, 28. 

10 Ibid .. p. 22. 

so Ibid., Conc lusions, p. 46. 
378 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

DCSPER promptly appointed Maj. Gen. Cha rles K. Heiden, commander 

of the Military Personnel Center (MILPERCEN). to head a general 

officer steering committee, which included General Clarke, that would 

direct the work of a task fo rce in completing such a study by 30 June 

1977. 3 1 

The MILPERCEN task force was to evaluate the impact of ex panding 

the numbers of women in the Army to three levels: 60,000; 80,000; and 

100,000. Under an extensive data collection plan, the g roup evaluated 

information on recruiting, training, assignment, promotion, deployability. 

and unit readiness for the three force levels. In its re port. the group stated 

that at the 100,000 level (85,000 enlisted, 15,000 officers), the Army could 

achieve the enlisted level by FY 1983 by increasing accessions from 

15,000 to 26,000 annuall y. However, such a rapid expansio n would, the 

task force warned, have the "most severe impact" by causing overages in 

year group strengths which, in turn, would c reate promotion, assignment, 

distribution, and rotation problems. Only by accessioning women at a 

steady rate of 15,000 annuall y could these conseque nces be avoided. The 

advent of more precise data, they admitted, might c hange this estimate of 

the situation. No problem was seen in increasing the strength of women 

officers, including those in the Medical Departme,nt, by 1983. The task 

force developed formulas that also showed how the numbers of women 

could be increased to 60,000 and to 80,000, but its final recommendation, 

made at the end of June, was that the Army sho uld not commit itself to 

any specific force level for women. 32 

The report seemed certain to arouse a disput e. Between Jul y and 

November 1977, the task force's report was circulated through the Army 

staff and finally arrived in Secretary of the Army Cliffo rd L. Alexander's 

office late in the year. By then, the secretary had also received the results 

of "The Content of Women in Units" fi eld tesls. In mid·December, 

Sec retary Alexander avoided a confrontation with DOD by announcing 

new strength goals fo r FY 1983: 80,000 enlisted women and 15,000 

women officers includi ng those in the Army Med ical Department. (See 

Table 30.) Within the Army staff, he circulated for comment the follow· 

ing new policies: 

- Men and women would be equally deployable. 

- Doctors could disqualify pregnant women fro m traveling. 

- Parents would file a c hild care plan that included temporary 

custodianship and care of minor dependents during absence 

from their home d uty station. 

11 Memos. Aetg ASA (M&RA) to Oir, Army StalT. 11 Mar 77. sub: Utilization of Women in the 

Army, and Cdr. MILPERCEN. to MIL1'ERCEN directorates, 11 Mllr 77, same sub. ODWAC Ref 

File, Studies, MI LPERCEN Task Force Utilization of Women in the Army, CMH. 

~2 Rpt, Task Force, MILPERC EN, 30 J un 77, sub: Final Task Force Report. Utilization of 

Women in the Army. ODWAC Ref File, Studies, CMH. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 

S ECRETARY OF THE ARMY C LIFFORD L. 

ALEXANDER, JR. (1977-1980), 

- Women who remained on active duty after pregnancy and its 

termination would be obliged to accept assignment anywhere 

in the world. 

- Men and women fou nd to be nondeployab\e for unresolvable 

family problems would be involuntaril y separated. 

379 

These policies were staffed, approved and included in appropriate 

A rmy regulations. 33 

TABLE 30-WOMEN IN THE ARMY, STRENGTH OBJECTIVES 

Fiscal Year 

Officers (All branches) ............. . 

Enlisted Women ........................ . 

1979 

8,890 

52,132 

1980 

10, 178 

58,620 

198] 

12,702 

67,566 

1982 

13,842 

77,218 

1983 

15,000 

80,000 

Source: Rpl. Task Force. MILI'ERCEN. 30 Jun 77. sub: Final Task Force Report. Utilization 

of Women in the Army. 

Although it appeared to many that the Army had enough studies on 

women upon which to base decisions, General Moore directed prepara33 Memo, MI LI'ERCEN to DCSPER. 7 Jul 77, sub: Utili zlllion of Wo mcn in the Army- Final 

T ask Force Rcport; OF. ODCSI'ER (DAPE-MPE-CS) to DWAC and ODCSI'ER directorates, 20 

Jul 77. sub: MILl'ERCEN Final Task Forcc Report. Utilization of Women in the Army. and 

comment 2 by ODWAC XO, 29 J ul 77. concurring in the Task Force Report for ODWAC; Memo. 

DCSPER to ASA (M&RA) and Cdr. MILI'ERCEN. 12 Dec 77. salllC sub. wilh Incl: Decisions on 

the Final Task Force Report, Utili 7.a tion of Women inlhe Army. All in ODWAC Ref File. Sludies. 

MILPERCEN Task Force Report. CMH. 
380 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

lion of still another study as soon as the task force submitted its report in 

June 1977. T he DeSPE R wanted a defi nitive study on how many women 

the Army could absorb witho ut adversely affecting the accomplishment 

of its worldwide missions. In his statement of need for the stud y, he 

wrote: "There is great pressure on the Army sig nificantly to increase the 

number of women in the Army. T herefore, the A rmy must evaluate its 

units to determine how many women by MOS (or specialty for officers) 

and grade can be assigned without red ucing the units' or the Army's 

ability to accomplish its g round combat mission." 3 4 

Chief of Staff Bernard W. Rogers assigned the new study. the Evaluation of Women in the Army (EWIT A) Study, to Maj. Gen. William L. 

Mundie, the commander of the Army's Administrative Center (ADMINCEN). Fort Benjamin Harrison. Indiana. General Mundie appointed Lt. 

Col. G race L. Roberts. a member of his staff, as study director with a 

team of twen ty-eight military and civilian men and women to complete 

the project by I March 1978. General Rogers a lso named a twentymember general officer steering committee, headed by General Mundie, 

to guide, review. and mo nitor the study group's prog ress. General Clarke 

was named to the steering committee. 3s 

For six mo nths, the EWIT A study group gathered info rmation, reviewed policies, interviewed commanders overseas and in CONU S, and 

evaluated its data. Periodicall y, it briefed the general officer steerin g 

committee on its progress and obtained guidance in proceeding with the 

stud y. The group presented some interesting fi ndings. Theoreticall y, 

women could fill 48,300 officer, 8,600 warrant officer, and 159,700 enlisted MOS positio ns, but this would require recruiting women with lower 

mental. physical, and educatio nal qualifications. T he stud y group adamantl y opposed this. On the other hand. the stud y showed that the Army 

could achieve a strength of 75,000 enlisted women by FY 1983 without 

lowering standards. T he study g roup recommended this course of action. 

It also recommended that the D CSPER establish gender-free strength 

requirements for each MOS; that a strength test be developed for use at 

the Armed F orces Examining and Entrance Statio ns to determine MOS 

capability; and that physical fitness training for recruits be tailored to 

enhance MOS capability o n a job. In lieu of usin g pe rcentages to limit the 

number of women in units, as TRADOC proposed, normal supply and 

demand sho uld be allowed to regulate the male/female personnel balance 

in units. The gro up offered o ther innovati ve proposals. It suggested that 

H Ll r. TAG (OA I'E- MI'E-CS) to Cdr, ADM INCEN, Fort Denjamin Harrison, IN. 10 Aug 77. 

sub: Directive for Evaluation of Women in the Army (EWITA) Study. ODWAC Ref File, Studies. 

Evaluation of Women in the Army (EW ITA), CM H. A DMINCEN, established in 1973, operated 

under the CG, TRAOOC. 

31 Memo, O DCSPER Dir. Mil Per Mgmt, 10 EWITA Steering Committee Members. 4 Oct 77. 

~lIb: ADMI NCEN's EW ITA Progress Report No.1. ODWAC Ref File. Stud iC$. Evaluation of 

Women in lhe Army (EWITA). CM H. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 38 1 

expectant mothers be offered two choices-involuntary separation or a 

leave of absence without pay during pregnancy. It also recommended 

that the combat exclusion definition be simple-that women be excluded 

from positions whose primary function was the crewing or operation of 

direct and indirect fire weapons. 36 

The study g roup's report thus contained creative solutions to the 

problems emerging as the content of women in Army units increased. 

But, at the final briefing, dissension grew. The group had considered the 

steering committee's guidance, but its recommendations were its own. For 

her part, General Clarke opposed the recommendation to offer o nl y 

involuntary separation or leave of absence without pay to expectant 

mothers. "Neither of these options," she wrote, " is considered to be 

realistic or desirable. Both options are discriminatory and fail to recognize 

that pregnancy is a temporary disability." 37 

The study's greatest foes, however, were Assistant Secretary of the 

Army (M&RA) Robert L. Nelson and the DCSPER, Lt. Gen. DeWitt C. 

Smith, Jr. Of the stud y's forty-nine recommendations, they nonconcurred 

or voted to defer action on nineteen. Army stafT agencies objected to 

another twelve. Four of the recommendations were counter to policies 

announced by the secretary of the Army- his policies concerning discharge on pregnancy, combat exclusion, women's strength goals for FY 

1983, and percentages of women in units. Nonetheless, the study group 

had been successful in presenting an objective report, and fourteen of its 

recommendations were approved for implementation. The report was 

released to the public on 22 May 1978.

38 

The Combat Exclusion Policy 

Secretary Alexander's combat exclusion policy, a response to congressional in terest, was developed during the same period that the EWITA 

study group was meeting. In May 1977, Senator William O. Proxmire 

proposed an amendment to the defense authorization legislation for FY 

1978 that would allow women to serve on noncombat ships and give the 

secretary of defense, rather than Congress, the authority to decide whether and how women could be assigned to combat duty. Many senators 

e Rpt. ADMINCEN, Fort Benjamin Harrison, IN, Final Report- Evaluatiou of Women in the 

Army, O DWAC Ref File. Studies. Evaluation of Women ill the Army (EWITA), CMH . In late 1911. 

the Army Infantry School and the Army Research Institute for Environmental Medicine initiated a 

study to identify the strength and cndurance required for each MOS aud specialty to establish 

physical fitness and test standa rds based on job rcquiremeills rather Ihnn SCll or age. See TRA DOC 

Annual Historical Review, FY 1919. C MH ReF Dr, 

3 1 OF, ODWAC to ODCSPER (DA PE- MPE- SS). 6 Mar 18, sub: E~eclltive Summary: Evaluation of Women in the Army (EWITA). ODWAC Ref File, Studies, EWITA E~eculivc Summary, 

CM H. 

38 Memo. DCSPER through CofS 10 SecArmy. 24 Apr 18, sub: Evaluation of Womcn in the 

Army (EW ITA) Report, ODWAC Ref File. SllIdics. EWITA E~ecutive Slllnmllry, CM U. 
382 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

opposed the amendment because it raised controversial issues that could 

consume weeks of debate and impede passage of other key legislation. 

T he amendment was therefo re reworded to require the Defense Depa rt· 

ment to defi ne the term "combat" and to propose any legislation needed 

to obtain wider utilization of military women by 30 January 1978. The 

latter was clearly an invitation to submit a bill tha t would eliminate the 

combat restrictions on women.39 

As the bill was being debated, Chief of Staff Rogers directed the 

DeSPER, General Moore, to begin work on a definition of "the combat 

role from w hich women would be excluded," 40 T he DeSPER staff 

developed the specifi cation and sent it to the Army staff and the major 

commanders for review. It excluded women from 

positions in combat arms uni ts with the function of parlicipating in sustained 

armed conniet in a tactical role with the primary mission of killing, capturing o r 

destroying an enemy force by fi re and maneuver. Specifi cally, these combat arms 

units consist of Infan try and Armor battalions/sq uadrons, Armored Cavalry 

Regiments, and the support arms and services (assigned o r attached) which 

operate in the same battlefi eld zone of responsibility to accomplish the aforementioned combat mission.4t 

The DCSPER staff also proposed revising the definition o f a Category 

I (combat) un it to break it into two categories: IA (Nonfemale) and IB 

(I nterchangeable). Category IA units included: Infantry battalions, Armor 

battalions, Armored Cavalry regiments, direct support Field Artillery 

battalio ns, Air Defense Artillery CHAPARRAL/VULCAN battalio ns, 

Combat Engineer battalions, and Airborne divisions. 42 

Wit h few exceptions, the A rmy staff and major commanders concurred in the proposed defi nitions of combat exclusion and Category IA 

and IB units. General Clarke questio ned exclud ing women from Airborne 

d ivisions, which had many positions women could fill in noncombat un its 

that operated far from the battle zone. And, upon reconsideration, General Moore deleted Airbom e divisions from the list. 43 

Meanwhile, Assistant Secretary of Defense (MRA&L) John P. White 

sent the services two approaches to consider. Under the fi rst. each service 

would define combat based on the nat ure of its mission (air, sea, or 

ground) and include an accompanying combat exclusion pol icy. Under 

"~COIIgressiOJlol Record. 17 May 77. pp. 7785- 90; I'L 95- 79. 30 luI 17. Defense Authorization Aet. 

FY 1978 . 

• 0 Memo, Dir, Army Slaff. 10 DCSPER. 2 lUll 77. sub: Women;n Ihe Army. ODWAC Ref File. 

Comb.ll Exclusion Policy. CMH . 

• , DF. DCSPER 10 DWAC. olher ODCSI'ER direClor;'les, and DA siaff divisions, 14 Jun 77. 

sub: Womell in Ihc Army. ODWAC Ref File, Comb.ll Exclusion Policy, CM H. 

U DA Msg 281247Z J UIl 77, DA (DCSPER) 10 Maj Corns. O DWAC Ref File. Combat Exclusion 

Policy, CM I·!. 

.~ DF, DWAC 10 Dir. Military Personncl Policy Direclorale (DAI'E-M I'E-CS). 17 Jun 77. sub: 

Women in Ihe Army. ODWAC Rer File, Combat E~elusion Policy. C MH. AI Ihis lime. the 101s1 

Airborne Div. Fori Campbell. KY. had 337 enlisted women and 16 womell officers aSl;igned. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 383 

the second, the Defense Department would provide Congress with a 

general definition of combat and one of the following combat exclusion 

policies: 

- that no one be barred from combat based on sex (the services 

would use physical strength and other nonwsex factors to dctermine elig ibility for combat duty); 

- that the secretary of defense be authorized to determine which 

positions would be open to women subject to review by 

Congress (the services would support the needed legislation); 

- that the services submit a list of combat positions that Congress would close to women under a new Jaw.

44 

The Army elected to use the first option and forwarded Secretary 

Alexander's combat exclusio n policy and this definition of combat: 

Any person serving in a combat zone designated by the Secretary of Defense is 

considered to be in combat. Female members of (he Armed Forces of the United 

Slates may be assigned to duties in combat. They may not be assigned to job 

classifications where they wou ld face the rigors of close-up combat as a regu lar 

duty and not as the incidental or occasional requirement of other duties. 

The Army further proposed that the secretary of defense designate job 

classifications from which women could be uniformly excluded by all 

services. 4s 

After receiving the replies from the services, Deputy Secretary of 

Defense Charles Duncan, on behalf of Secretary Brown, submitted the 

required definition to Congress. The term "combat" re ferred to "engaging an enemy or being engaged by an enemy in armed conflict." However, because the term involved geographic perimeters, hostile fire designations, and other complex factors, the deputy secretary recommended that 

the definition not be used as a basis for greater utili zation of women. 

Army commanders, he wrote, "employ women to accomplish unit missions throughout the battlefield. The Army accepts the fact that women 

may be exposed to close combat as an inevitable consequence of their 

assignment, but does not now assign women to un its where, as a part of 

their primary duties, they would regularly participate in close combat." 

The Air Force, he noted, assigned women in all its military occupatio ns 

except aircrew member positions that were closed to them by law. "The 

Navy, however, is severely limited by current law .... The Navy cannot 

increase female [utilization or] strength ... unless 10 U.S.c. 6015 is repealed or modified." In conclusion, the deputy sec retary urged Congress 

to give the secretary of defense the authority to decide how military 

H Memo. ASO (MRA&'L) to ASA (M&.RA) and Ihe other service secretaries. 21 Nov 71. sub: 

Definition of Combat as Related 10 Women. OOWAC Rer File. Comtmt Excl usion Policy. CM H. 

4 5 Memo. ASA (M&.RA) 10 ASD (MRA&.L). 15 Ot.-c 71, sub: A Definition or Combal ror Fen13le 

Job Cll'SsHiCalions. OOWA C Ref File. Cornblll E~elusion Policy, CMH. 
384 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

women would be utilized and to repeal the current laws that prohi bited 

women of the Air Force and Navy from serving on combat ships and 

planes. 46 

Congress, however, did not approve Secretary D uncan's proposals. 

Instead, it passed H.R. 7431 which modified sectio n 6015 of Title 10 to 

allow Navy women to serve, on permanent d uty, on hospital ships and 

transports and to serve up to six: months' temporary d uty on other Navy 

shi ps no t expected to be engaged in combat. T he law continued to 

preclude women from assignment to ships or aircraft that participated in 

combat missions. Cong ress retained control over utilization of women in 

combat. 47 

On 21 December 1977, a few days afte r he had sent his rep ly on the 

women-i n-combat issue to the Department of Defense, Secretary of the 

Army Alexander officiall y anno unced the Army's exclusion policy. It 

applied to all women in the A rmy-Regular Army, A rmy Reserve, or 

Army National Guard. An all-Army message stated: 

Combal Exclusion Policy. Women are authorized to serve in any officer o r 

en listed specialty except those listed below, at any organizational level, and in 

any unit of the Army, except in Infan try, Armor, Can non Field Artillery, 

Combat Engineer, and Low Altitude Air Defense Artillery units of battalion! 

squadron or smaller size. 48 

T he excepted list included those MOSs and specialties that had always 

been closed to women, such as infantryman, combat engineer, tan k crewma n, field artillery commander, combat aviation officer, etc. However, 

the changes now permitted enlisted women to serve as crew members at 

long-range missile and rocket sites (PERSHING, HAWK, HERCULES), 

as Smo ke and Flame Specialists (MOS 54C), Field Artillery Surveyor 

(MOS 82C), and in nuclear security duties not involving recovery. 

Women officers could be assigned to specialties that in volved long-range 

missiles and rockets and any aviation position except attack helicopter 

pilot. Both enlisted women and women officers could be assigned to some 

positions in the 82d Airborne Division- then an all-male division. Altogether the new policy opened fo urteen new MOSs to enlisted women, 

eight specialties to women officers, and sixteen to women warrant offi4G Ur, Dep SecDef (0 Speakcr, House of Represenlalives. and Presidelll pro-lcm. Senalc, 14 Fcb 

78, no sub, ODWAC Ref File, Combal Exclusion Policy. CM H. 

H HR 7431, illlrodu(,~-d in lhe 95(h Cong, 2d sess. 10 permit women (0 serve 011 noncombat ships, 

became PL 95-485 in Dcl 78. In Nov 1979. a t'lonse Armed Scrvic($ subcommillcc hcld hcarings on 

a DOD-sponsored bill 10 allow womcn on combal ships "nd lIircrafl. The bill died ill commillcc. 

os DA Msg. 2l2l28Z D,-'C 77, to all Army aClivities, sub: Policy on Exclusion of Women from 

Combill. ODWAC Ref File, Combat Exclusion l'olicy, CMH. Sce also Army Pcrsonnel Llr. No. 2-

78, Feb 78, "Policy 011 Exclusion of Womcil frOnl Combal." s;uue filc. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 385 

eeTS. For the first time, women officers could be detailed in the Field 

Artillery and Air Defense Artillery branches of the Army.40 

Women still could not serve in battalion or lower units of Infantry, 

Armor, Cannon Field Artillery. Combat Engineers, or Low Altitude Air 

Defense Artillery, nor could they serve on Special Forces or Ranger 

teams. This prevented women from obtaini ng experi ence at the lowest 

working levels of the Army where men gained basic knowledge of an 

MOS or specialty. The rule kept women from acq uiring some prerequi· 

sites for higher·level training and MOS assignments, and it effectively 

kept them from being exposed to direct contact with an enemy. 

In his policy guidance to the field, the DeSPER, General Smith, 

directed commanders to amend their manning documents so that women 

could promptly be assigned into new units and MOSs. He provided initial 

recruitment and training quotas for the new MOSs as well as procedures 

for women officers who wanted branch transfers to the F ield Artillery or 

Air Defense Artill ery. He asked the commander of the 82d Airborne 

Division to forward a plan for infusing women into his division beginning 

in February 1978.50 

While the new policy allowed women to be assigned to the 82d 

Airborne Division at Fort Bragg. North Carolina, a prerequisite for 

assignment to the division was airborne (parachu te) training. Up to this 

time only women in MOS 43E, Parachute Rigger, had received that 

training, and another policy, issued in 1974, had barred MOS 43E as an 

in terchangeable MOS.5 1 T hese rules had effectively kept women out of 

the 82d Airborne. After the new combat exclusion policy was issued. 

Genera l Smith advised the division that only those MOS positions that 

actually required jump training could be identified as airborne positions. 

Non·airborne positions could and would be identified as interchangeable 

positions in combat support and combat service support units as in any 

other division.52 The decision was a blow to many associated with the 

82d. A few retired general officer al umni of the division publicly voiced 

their objections to the new policy. One said he believed that casualties 

would increase in the division because women could not withstand the 

fatigue of a combat environment. Another declared, "When 12 percent of 

the Washington Redski ns are female, I'll reconsider my decision." Despite 

H Ibid. The number or MOSs closed to enlisted women dropped from 29 to 16; specialties closed 

to women officers. from 16 to 8; pnd speciallies closed to worn cn warrant officers, from 18 to 2. 

(Enl isted MOSs. Changes 8 and 9, I) Jun 77 and 2 Jan 78. AR 611 - 20 1; officers. Changes 4 and S. 12 

Scp 77 and IS JUI! 78. AR 611 - 10 1; warrant on-.ccrs, Chauges 28 and 1.26 May 76 and IS Oct 78, 

AR 611 - 11 2.} 

.0 0A Msg (OAPE-MPE) 262J42Z Jan 78. sub: Policy Oil E:o.clusion of Women rrom Combat. 

OOW AC Rer Filc. Combat cl n Policy. e M H. 

U OF (Comment 2). DCSPER (OAI'E- MI' E·CS) to ACSFOR (OAFO- OAO- AC). 18 Jan 74, 

sub: Airborne Interc hangeable Documented Positions. OOWAC Ref File. Combat. Women in. CM I·1. 

51 OA Msg (SAPA-CI) OJ I44JZ Jail 78 to all Army activities. sub: Mo re MOS Open to Womcn. 

OOWAC Ref File. Assignmcnl. CM~ . 
386 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

such objections, women were assigned to the 82d Airborne Division 

beginning in June 1978.53 

Dissension on the policy was not limited to the 82d Airborne Division. 

It was widespread. To quiet it, Chief of Staff Rogers sent a message to all 

commanders to emphasize "the Army's commitment to the integration of 

women." General Rogers made it clear that women would share the risks 

and hardships of the Army and that they would deploy and remain with 

their units to serve in the skills in which they had been trai ned. In the 

event of war, women would not be evacuated to CONUS. He closed 

with the words: "The burden which rests on leaders at every level is to 

provide knowledgeable, understanding, affirmative. and even-handed 

leadership to all our soldiers." 54 Although the explanatio n eliminated 

public objectio n to the policy, few men in combat units reconciled themselves to the more liberal policies affecting assignment of women. 

A Senior Military SpokeslVoman 

Knowing she was the last director of the Women's Army Corps, 

General Clarke felt a deep sense of responsibility to the women she 

represented, past and present. She wanted to ensure that someone would 

follow her on the Army staff to speak for women's interests. Later she 

said, "I tho ught it imperative that the Army continue to have a senior 

military spokeswoman somewhere in the hierarchy to ensure that policies 

take into consideration women's status, special needs (particularl y uniforms), and their opportunities to have viable careers." 55 Therefore, soon 

after she took office in 1975, General Clarke had taken the initiative to 

establish a positio n for a woman general officer o n the Army staff to 

serve as adviser and spokeswoman when the director's position vanished. 

T he DCSPER, then Lt. Gen. Harold G. Moore, agreed to let her prepare 

a plan for this purpose. 56 

General Clarke submitted several proposals for accomplishing her 

goal. Her first plan proposed establishing an additional position, that of 

deputy, with the rank of brigadier general, in the Directorate of Military 

Personne l Management, ODCSPER, to be filled by a woman officer. The 

primary, but not sole, duty of this deputy would be to head a Women's 

Advisory Branch located within the directorate that, li ke ODW AC, 

would assist the Army staff in preparing, advising, or speaking on 

women's issues, except those in volving the special branches: the Medical 

50 Jay Finegan, "Singlal,lb Blasts Women in 82d:' Army Timt$. 19 Jun 78, p. 5; BrigGen Andrew J. 

Gatsis (Ret), "Women Not Fit for Combat," ConsenYllil"l! Digest. Feb 18. 

H DA Msg (DCSI'ER- MI'E) 0J2222Z Mar 18, ROGERS SENDS to all Army commands and 

activities, sub: Women ill the Army. O DWAC Ref File, Assignment, CMU . 

n Interv. MajOen Clarke with the author, .1 Nov 82. 

U Memo. DWAC to DCSPER. 29 Sci' 15, sub: Planning for Disestablishment or the Women's 

Army Corps Structure, ODWAC Ref Filc. Disestablishmcnt of the ODWAC, CM H. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 387 

Department, Chaplain's Branc h, and Judge Ad vocate General's Corps. 

This woman would also assist in developing personne l policies for both 

men and women. On women's matters, she would have direct access to 

the secretary of the Army and to the c hief of staff. General Clarke's plan 

thus retained a women's adviser, involved the adviser ill both men's and 

women's personnel management, and placed her in an ODCSPER directoratc. If she had recommended the women's adviser be in a renamed 

directorate, little c hange from ODWAC would have been apparent. If 

she had recommended the position be located in the only other appropriate ODCSPER directorate, Human Resources, the adviser's duties CQuid 

have become entangled with those of the director of Equal Opportunity 

Programs. To allow time to have the new arrangement in effect before 

DOPMA passed, she recommended the change take place on I October 

1977- approximately twenty months away.I'i7 

Before circ ulating her plan, General Clarke took it to Maj. Gen. John 

F. Forrest. the director of the Military Personnel Management Directorate. To her dismay, General Forrest did not want another deputy, and he 

said that if he did he "would have diffic ult y defending two brigadier 

general officers to subsequent manpower surveys." He recommended that 

the position of the senior military woman adviser be placed in the Directorate of Human Resources or be located in the Army's Military Personnel Center, Alexandria, Virginia. 1I8 Without General Forrest's support. 

General Clarke knew that neither the other directorates no r the 

DCSPER would approve the plan. She withdrew the proposal. 

In a few months General Clarke came up with another plan. This lime 

she proposed a senior woman office r and a small staff to be called the 

Office of the Adviser for Women in the Army to replace the WAC 

director and her staff. With o nl y a change in title, the ODWAC would 

remain intact with its duties, responsibilities, and stafT. General Clarke 

also considered merging ODWAC with the Office of Equal Opportunity 

or making the new office a separate di vision within the Human Resources 

Directorate. but she rejected these ideas because they diminished the role 

of the women's adviser. [;g T his time, she distributed copies of the plan to 

the ODCSPER direc torates and the Office of the Assistant Secretary of 

the Army (M&RA) for comment. It was not well received. The director 

of human resou rces call ed it an attempt "to perpetuate the myth that onl y 

a senior woman officer can advise o n women's affairs" and said it negated 

U Drafl Mcmo. DWAC to ODCSPER through Dir, Milita ry I'cl'5OlInc1 Management. 24 Feb 76, 

sub: Discstablishmcnt of the OffICe of the Director of WAC, ODWAC Ref File. Disestablishment of 

the ODWAC, CM H. 

U Routing slip, MajGen Forrest to llrigGen Clarke, 2 Mar 76, no Sub. O DWAC Ref File, 

DisestOblishmenl of the ODWAC, CM H. 

U Draft Memo, DWAC to DCSPER direc torates. OASA (M&RA), allel DCS PER, 17 May 76, 

Sub: Dise$tablishrnel1l of lhe Office of the Director WAC, ODWAC Ref File. Disestablishment of the 

ODWAC,CMH . 
388 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

the Army's efforts to full y integrate women in the A rmy.60 T he director 

of military personnel management said it simply contin ued OD W AC 

under ano ther name, and he questio ned the necessity and desirability of a 

full-time adviser for women in the post-DOPMA environment. Women's 

views would be considered equall y with men's under the DeSPER's 

management system. Another director felt the new office would emphasize the adviser's preoccupatio n with women's affairs when she should be 

involved in actions regarding men and women. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) also dissented, but it did recommend 

a dual-hat position for a woman general o fficer as directo r or deputy 

directo r of a DCSPER directorate and as adviser to the Army staff on 

women's matters. By the end of 1976, the plan to replace ODWAC by 

renaming it had gathered so many nonconc urrences that General Clarke 

withdrew it. 6 I 

T he " lame duc k" status of ODW AC made it progressively harder for 

General Clarke to influence action, and compo unding that hindra nce was 

the resentment many male staff officers fe lt toward women entering the 

U.S. Military Academy and other all-male bastions like the 82d Airborne. 

As study followed stud y on women in the Army, many officers felt too 

much of their time had to be devoted to women's actions, too little to 

men's. Nonetheless, General Clarke and her staff did influence a number 

of policy changes. One, in November 1975, decl ared that women who 

were pregnan t were ineligible for overseas assignments as indi viduals o r 

as members of a deploying unit. Another required commanders to provide fo rmal counseling to pregnant women and to personnel with dependents to ensure they knew their options and responsibilities. 

By April 1977, the directo r's office was able to put together a purposeful symposium, "Women in the Army," during whic h representatives 

from all major commands, the other services, and the Office of the 

Secretary of Defense d iscussed women's issues and their resolution. As 

o ne result of such pressure, and the director's specific request, TRADOC 

initiated a complete review of requirements fo r women's fi eld clothing 

and equipment, including sizing and modification o f the current patterns. 

For the DCSPER, General Clarke and her staff he lped develo p a childcare program for implementation in the United States and overseas. 

On an even more fundamental issue, in 1976, the director had assisted 

TRADOC in develo ping a rape prevention lesson plan, which was later 

distributed to all major commands fo r presentation to female military 

so Memo, Dir. Human Resources. 10 DWAC, 7 J un 76, sub: NonCOllcurrellce on Diseslablishmcnt 

of the Officc of thc Direclor WAC, ODWAC Ref File, Diseslablishment of (he ODWAC, CM H. 

61 Memos, Dir. Mililary Pcrsonnel Management,!o ODWAC, 28 JUIl 76. Sub: Nonconcurrence on 

Disestablishmenl of the Office of Ihc DircclOr WAC; Dir. Programs and !Judgc!. \0 ODWAC. 17 

Sep 76. sub: Discs\'lblishment of O DWAC; and OASA (M&RA). Chicf. Military I'erson nel Policy 

Div, (0 DWAC. 15 Oc\ 76. SlIme sub. All in O DWAC Ref File. Diseslablishmclll of the O DWAC, 

CM H. 
WOMEN IN T HE ARMY 389 

personnel along with a commercially produced training film, Rape, A 

Preventable Injury. TRADOC also developed Army policies and proced ures for the treatment of rape victims with consideration for the lega l, 

medical, and law enforcement aspects of these cases. 

The director's office also helped to establish a program for confinement of female felo ns with sentences of imprisonment fo r less than six 

mo nths. Confinement locations for women included the U.S. Army Retraini ng Brigade, Fo ri Riley, Kansas. The program was later expanded to 

include women offenders sentenced to prison for six months o r mo re. 

T hese women could be confined at the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks, Fort 

Leavenworth, Kansas, beginning in February 1978. 62 

Despite interruptions for stafT visits around the wo rld, WAC recruiting, work on women's studies, and other policy matte rs, General Cla rke 

continued her attempts to establish a general officer woman adviser to 

succeed her. After further deliberation with her staff about the placement 

of the ad viser, General Clarke went back to her original proposal. Her 

original pro posal had been rej ected by the directo r of the Military Personnel Management Directo rate, but she decided that, with a few revisions, it was the best pl an. On I February 1977, she c irculated the plan 

for comment. The plan recommended that her functio ns be transferred to 

the Directorate of Military Personnel Management a nd combined with 

those of the existing deputy director of that office. The deputy director, 

designated for " fill by a woman only, " wo ul d be given the added title 

Senio r Adviser on Army Women (except those in spedal branches), and a 

WAC Advisory Office, made up of the ODWAC staff, wo uld assist the 

deputy in fulfilling these duties. In future years, when women's matters 

no longer occupied suc h a large share of the deputy director's time, the 

positio n could be declared interc hangeable. General Clarke did not recommend that this deputy have direct access to the secretary of the Army 

and the chief of stafT on women's matters.

63 

T he new proposal fared no better than the others. The new chief of 

military perso nnel management, Maj. Gen. Paul S. Williams, Jr., did not 

want his deputy directo r perfo rming the functions of the director of the 

WAC nor did he want a Women's Advisory Office in his directorate. 

Instead, he recommended that the director's personal d uties- giving 

speeches and representing the Army in women's matt ers- be assigned as 

an additional d uty to the senior woman officer o n the Army stafT. The 

director's other functions could be distributed amo ng appro priate 

branc hes within his directorate. General Clarke tried to dissuade him 

from the latter by ad vising him that the extensive wo rk load of her office 

61 ODIYAC NOles. Jan 78, O DWAC Ref File. DirectOT WAC Notes/The View from Here, CM H. 

as Drafl Memo, DWAC through ODCSI'ER di ector t~'S 10 DCSPER, Cors, and 8ccArmy, J Feb 

77, sub: i~lablis men l of ODWAC, ODWAC Ref File. Discslablishmclll of lhe ODWAC, CMH. 
390 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

could be managed morc easil y from a central point than if it were 

dispensed thro ughout a directorate. He was not convinced. 6 <1 

Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) Phillips recommended that a woman general officer fill the next vacancy in an app ropriate 

general officer position in ODes PER and that she be named Senior 

Adviser 011 Women in the Army (less those in the Medical Department). 

As the senior adviser's tour ended, the next woman general to be assigned 

to a directorate within OOCSPER would be named as the adviser. The 

Women's Advisory Office would follow her to whatever directorate she 

was assigned. Though the concept was good, it required moving the 

Women's Advisory Office, at least organizationally, to wherever the 

senior adviser was. General Clarke thought it was too risky to proceed 

with a plan dependent upon general officer vacancies that could disappear 

overnight. 65 

Genera l Clarke deliberated at length on the alternatives proposed but 

she would not revise her plan. She strongly believed the senior Army 

woman and her staff needed to be located in the Directorate for Military 

Personne l Management where personnel plans and policies were written. 

She regrouped and prepared a new campaig n for her plan. Before she 

began, however, the chier of starrs management director, Maj. Gen. 

Richard G. Trefry, plucked the matter from her hands. 

Disestablishment of tire Office of the Director, WAC 

General Trefry had been directed to review the genera l officer spaces 

o n the Army staff with a view to reducing them. In early April 1977, he 

told the chief of staff that it was " difficult to ratio nalize o r justify the 

continuance of the [OW AC] office as it is now constituted." He referred 

to the fact that all WAC officers had been transferred to other branches, 

that WAC detachments had been integrated with male units, that the 

WAC Center and School had been deactivated, and that most personnel 

and administrative procedures were alike for men and women. He be· 

lieved that women genera l officers should no t be confined to the 

ODW AC, that the time had come for the Army to "make more normal 

use of this general officer space," and that there were "several billets 

wherein a female general could be usefull y employed." 66 Chief of Stafr 

Frederick C. Weyand agreed. On 23 April 1977, he directed the 

DCSPER to prepare legislation to eliminate the OW AC position. In his 

memo he noted that he believed that " the Army should now take the 

u Memo, OM I'M to DWAC, 17 Fcb 77, sub: ConUllCllts 011 thc Proposed Reorganization of 

ODWAC. ODWAC Ref File. Discslnblislnnenl of the ODWAC. CM H. 

U Memo Routing Slip, OASA (M&RA). Military Personnel Polic y Div. II Feb 77. sub: Disestablishment of OOW AC, OOW AC Ref File, DiSl..'S tablishmcnl of Ihe oow AC, CM H. 

n Memo. Office Corso Dir of Management. 10 Dir. Army StafT, no date, sub: Status of the OW AC 

alKl DWAC orrocc, OOWAC Ref File, Disestablishment or the ODWAC, CMII. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 39 1 

positive actions necessary to officiall y lay the WAC 10 rest and fo rmali ze 

its members' integration in the Army. Gen. Kerwin is amenable." 67 A 

former DeSPER and former commanding general of both TRADOC and 

FORSCOM, Genera l Kerwin had been vice chief of staff since October 

1974. 

T he DeSPER, th rough the director of military personnel management 

(DMPM), asked the legislative liaison chief to prepare legislation to 

disestablish the Women's Army Corps and the offices of the director and 

the deputy director and 10 delete portions of the law that precluded 

women from being assigned to o ther branches of the Army and any other 

laws that impaired equal treatment of Army women. Surprisingly. the 

DeSPER now ig nored earlier advice received from the Defense Department not to initiate any new legislation that was a lready included in 

DOPMA. To indicate the high priority on the project, the DMPM told 

the chief of legislative liaison, " During a staff principals meeting on 15 

May 77, the Chief of Staff directed earliest feasible disestablishment of the 

WAC." 68 

When the proposed legislation was sent to the Army's judge ad vocate 

general, Maj. Gen. Wilton B. Persons, for comment, he suggested a 

means to rapidly accomplish the goals of the legislatio n. He cited a law 

that permitted the secretary of defense to transfer o r vacate a statutory 

position o r fUllction simply by notifying Congress of his intentions. If 

Congress did no t object within 30 days while in session, the secretar y's 

reorga ni zatio n order was considered approved. OJ) Sec retary of the Army 

Alexander passed the idea o n to Secretary of Defense Brown. Secretary 

Alexander also noted that the director of the WAC and her staff would 

be transferred to other duties and that their functions and personnel 

spaces would be distributed within ODCSPER. A senior woman officer 

in ODCSPER would advise the Army staff on women's matters (except 

those in the special branches-Medical, Chaplain's, and JAG).70 

T he Army's memo reached Sec retary Brown at an opportune time. He 

had just prepared a reorganization o rder, using the procedure suggested 

by the JAG, to eliminate six assistant sec retaries wit hin the Department 

of Defense. He simply added the positions of the director and deputy 

directo r of the WAC to the o rder, attached legislatio n to eliminate the 

.. Memo. Cors to DCS I'ER, 26 Apr 77. ODWAC Ref File. Disestablishment of the ODWAC, 

CM II. 

II OF. DCSI'ER (OM I'M) to Chief, Legislative Liaison. ATIN: J. Naler. 23 May 77. sub: 

Disestablishment of the Women's Army Corps (WAC). ODWAC Ref File. Discontinuance of the 

WAC.CM H. 

II OF. JAG (DAJA- AL) to DCSPER (DA1'E- MPE-CS). 24 Jun 77. sub: Utili7.l1tion of ODWAC 

Spaces, DOW AC Ref File, Discontinuance of the WAC. CM H. 

10 Memo, DCSPER through Cors to SccArmy, 26 J ul 77. sub: Utilization of Offiee of Director, 

Womeu's Army Corps (ODWAC) Spaces. ODWAC Ref File. Discontinuance of the WAC. CM H. 

This memo included a proposed memo for SeeDef; Sec Alexander ullProyed and forwarded Ihe 

memo 10 Sec Brown Oil 17 Aug 77. 
392 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WAC as a separate corps, and had an emissary discuss the entire package 

with members of the Senate Armed Services Commitlee. From this he 

learned that an overcrowded agenda would prevent the committee from 

considering the package before Congress adjourned in December 1977.7 1 

On 7 March t 978, Secretary Brown fo rmall y forwarded to Congress 

his reorganization o rder abolishing the eight positio ns. However, he withheld the legislation to eliminate the WAC. Regardin g the WAC positio ns, 

he wrote: "This action which was recommended by the Secretary of the 

Army, renects the integratio n of women in the Army's activities and is 

consistent with current arrangements in the Navy, A ir Force and Marine 

Corps. It recognizes the role of women as full partners in o ur national 

defense, with full opportunity 10 progress with their male counterparts." 

He also nOled that the other serv ices had abolished their women's director positions.72 

On 20 April, thirty consecutive legislative days afte r Congress had 

received the reorga ni zation order and during which time it had made no 

objectio n, the order went into effect. The Army immediately issued a 

general order abolishing the positions of the director and deputy director 

o f the WAC and the Office of the Director, effecti ve 20 April 1978. 

Secretary Alexander made the announcement on 24 April, and the director's o ffice planned the disestablishment ceremony.7:1 

The ceremon y was held on 28 April in the DOD press room at the 

Pentagon. Several members of Congress, three or four former directors of 

the WAC, members of the defense and Army staffs, and representatives 

of the news media attended. Secretary Alexander was the principal speaker. After a few remarks, he ca lled on General Clarke. Her words carried 

the news that the change would increase opportunities for women. "This 

action today in no way detrac ts from the service of WACs who have 

been pioneers- in fa ct it hono rs them. I view this action today as the 

culmination of everything the members of the Women's Army Corps 

have been striving for for thirt y-six years. The significance of the abolishment of the Office of the Director ... is the Army's public commitment 

7> Memo, ASD (MRA&L), Mililnry Personnct Policy. 10 ASA (M&RA). 28 Noy 77. sub: Abolishmenl of Ihe SllIlulory l'osilion5 of DirOClor and Deputy Director of the Women·s Army Corps. 

ODWAC Ref File. Discominuance of Ihe WAC, C MI-I. 

11 Llr, SeeDef to Speaker of the ~I o\lse of RepresentalivCl;, the I'rt:sidcnt of Ihe Senllte, Chairman 

of the House Armed Seryices Commillee. and Chairman of Ihe ScmtlC Armed Services Cornrnillee, 

no sub, 1 Mar 18. ODWAC Ref File. Diseslablishment of Ihe O DWAC, CMH. The CNO had 

yacated the posilion of Special Assistanl for Women, OffICe of Ihe Chief of Naval I'crsonncl. in Mar 

13 when Capt Quigley was transferred. TIle Air Force had discontinued Ihe position of Diroclor of 

Women in Ihe Air Force on 31 Jul 16. the dale Ihe lasl incumbent, Col Ocatrice D. T rimcloni. 

relired. The Marine Corps had discominued the posilion of Director of Wonlen Marincs on I Jul 11, 

and Ihe incumbenl, Col Margarel A. Brewer, was promoted and reassigned wilhin HQ. USMC, as 

Ihe Direclor of Informacion. 

7. DA GO 1, 25 Apr 78. CMI·1 Library; Memo, DWAC IhrOllgh CofS to SeeArmy. 12 Apr 18, 

sub: Ceremony for Disc~ nblish t1l nl of the Office or Ihe DirL"Ctor WAC (ODWAC), ODWAC Ref 

File, Disestllblishrne11l of the ODWAC, C MI·I. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 393 

. .. to the tota l integration of women in the United Sta tes Army as equal 

partners." 74 

At the conclusion of her talk, Secretary Alexander took the floor. This 

time he announced that General Clarke would be reassigned as the 

commanding general of the Military Police SchoolfTraining Center at 

Fort McClellan on 18 May; it was the first time a woman had been 

named to command a major Army post. And because she would replace a 

major general, it appeared that she would also become the first two-star 

woman general in the Army or the other services. News of the assignment and an ticipation of her promotion helped remove some of the 

sadness, if no t resentment, felt by man y WACs upon losing the director's 

positio n. 

Altho ugh no poll was taken, probably 50 percent of the WACs favored dissolutio n of the Corps and the office of the director. They 

believed this wo uld free them from an inferior status and increase their 

value as career soldiers. Predictably, the older WACs held a mo re sentimental view. They wanted to retain their Corps, their insignia, their 

directo r, and their histo rical image as WACs. To them. the ceremony 

signaled the end of an era- their era . 7 5 

Gelleral Clarke Is Reassigned 

In her End of Tour Report G eneral Clarke praised the Army's co ntinuing progress in Obtaining and utilizing the services of women. She 

recounted progress in increasing the streng th of women in both the acti ve 

and reserve compo nents. in assigning women to no ntraditio nal MOSs. in 

o pening ROTC and the U.S. Milita ry Academy to women, in combi ni ng 

basic traini ng for men and women and one-station unit training, and in 

developing combat exclusio n guidelines. During her tenure the Army had 

standardized enlistment age, military obligations, o verseas-tour lengths, 

ho using c ri teria, and disciplinary and co nfinement policies. She had personall y ensured the implementatio n of policies affecting pregnant women 

and women with dependents, including fo rmal counseling and child-care 

programs. 

General Clarke's final recommendations to the chief of staff and the 

secretary of the Army reiterated her concerns. Catch-up training should 

be given women in defensive weapons training to overcome reported 

deficiencies. A new physical traini ng program held promise of inc reasing 

14 Address. DWAC, " Remarks by Brig Gen Ml.ry E. Clarke, DWAC, on the occasion of the 

ODWAC Disestablishment Ceremony, 28 April 1978," O DWAC Ref File, Disestablishrnent or the 

O DWAC, CM H. 

U Ll TS to the Editor. Army Times, 16 hu, 6 Feb, and 20 MDr 78. A major debate concerned 

whctller women should be call ed WACs, wOll1cn. or soldiers. In llll ed itorial . " Is 'WAC' Divisive?" 

(7 Feb 78). Army Tim~ promised to lISC the terms imerchangewbly and prcdiclc.:d that "WAC" like 

"Gr ' would remain in the soldier vernacular ror .1Ia11Y yea rs. 
394 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

GENERA l. CLARKE speaks 01 her retiremellf reviel!', WAC Celller, Fort 

McClellol/, 31 Dc/aber 1981. 

ASSISTANT SeCRET ARY 01' THE 

ARMY (M&RA) HARRY N. WALTERS 

at reliremelll ceremOl/ies for Gel/eral 

Clarke. 31 October / 981. 

women's fitness level. but it needed to be monitored. Many pregnancy 

and single-parent problems remai ned unsolved; more time was needed to 

develop innovative solutions to them. Men as well as women should 

receive instruction in sex ed ucatio n, birth control, and rape prevention to 

help lessen these particular problems. She also asked the sec retary to be 

vigilant against a decli ne in women's command positions and a further 

limiting of the number of colonel and brigadier ge neral promotions given 

women. 76 

Upon General Clarke's departure, the DCSPER dissolved the directo r's office and transferred her staff. The personnel spaces went to the 

branches withi n the Directorate of Military Personnel Management that 

would perform the resid ual functions of the ODW AC staff. The chief of 

staff's management office reduced the grade of the director's space to 

colonel before transferring it to DMPM. The Army Uniform Branch in 

the Directorate of Human Resources Development received the enlisted 

(E- 9) space and its incumbent, Sgt. Maj. Beverly E. Scott. 77 

a Memo. DWAC. lhrough Corso 10 SeeArmy, 27 Apr 78, sub: End of T ollr Repo rl. ODWAC Ref 

File. Disconl irulllllCc of lhe WAC, CM II. 

n Memo. DeSPER (DA I'E-M I'E- SS) 10 Oir. Army Sillfl'. 17 Apr 78. sub: Transfer of Office o f 

Direclor, Women's Army Corps (ODWAC) Spaces 10 ODCS I'ER. ODWAC Ref File. Disconlinuonce Oflhe WAC, CMH. Dep DWAC Himoll was reassigned as lhe pcl"$Ol1l1el officer in Ihe Office of 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 395 

The DeSPER d id not appoint a senior woman officer as adviser on 

women's matters. T he speaking engagements and representatio nal duties 

formerly assigned the DWAC went to Col. Lorraine A. Rossi while she 

was in ODCSPER as direclOr of the Army's equal opportunity programs 

(1977- 1980). Several other women colonels assisted her.78 Meanwhile 

both the military and the civilian communities welcomed Genera l Clarke 

back to Fort McClellan. this lime as commander of the U.S. Army 

Military Police SchoollTraini ng Center and Fort McCle llan. Promoted to 

major general o n I November 1978, she served as post commander for 27 

months. In August 1980, she was transferred back to the Pentagon to be 

the d irector o f the Human Resources Development Directorate in 

ODCSPER. When she retired o n 31 October 198 1, after serving over 

thirty-silt years o n active duty, she selected Fort McClellan, the fo rmer 

home of the Women's Army Corps, as the site for her retirement ceremonies. As friends, fam il y, former WAC comrades, and over 3,000 soldiers 

and civilians at Fort McClellan participated in her retirement parade, 

Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) Harry N. Walters presented 

Genera l Clarke with the Distinguished Service Medal. "I am," she told 

the gathering, "a fortunate soldier. I have the same love for the Army 

today as I had the first day 1 put on my uniform as a p ri vate at Fort Des 

Moines in 1945 .... I leave the Army today feeling that I have been all 

that I could be." The Army's recruiting theme, "Be All That YOll Can Be 

in the Army," never had a mo re appropriate representative. 79 

Discontinuollce of the Corps 

Between 1973 and 1978, separate WAC training and command elements had vanished so gradua ll y from most Army posts that their absence 

was slightly noted. If these events, including the loss of the Office of the 

Director, WAC, had occurred within o ne year, they mig ht have aroused 

an o utcry by WAC members, but the lapsed time diffused the impact. 

Through correspondence and speeches, Genera l Clarke, li ke her predecessor, kept the members of the Corps and the former directors advised 

of the Army's intentions and progress of those plans. [n December 1975, 

she to ld a g roup of active and retired WAC and othe r branc h officers, 

"Plans are being developed to phase out the Office of the Director, 

WAC, and to repea l the legislation which established the Wome n's Army 

Corps as a separate entit y. T his should occur within two years."80 Few 

women complained to General Cla rke. wrote letters to their cong ressmen, 

the Dir, ANG; LtCol He:scman, the ODWAC executive offieer went to the Army Review Councii; 

and Mary Larrick, the director's secretary. was transrerred to the Orftee of the ACors. intelligence. 

78 ColoncJs Ann O. Smith. Mary Ruth Williams. EvcJyn P. Foote. Myrna M. WilJiamson, Miidred 

E. I' . Hedberg. and Edith M. Hinton llilSistcd in those duties. 

" ODWAC Ref Fi\C. Director WAC-Ciarke. Mary E .. CM i1 . 

eo Addre$5. BrigGen Clarke. 7 o..'C n. ForI Me Nnir. Washington. DC. 
396 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

or to the service journals or newspapers. Genera l Clarke had tried to 

obtain an official position for a women's adviser at the Pentagon but had 

been unabl e to do so. Later, in 1980, she initiated action to obtain a 

service ribbo n for members of the WAC to wear who had served in the 

Corps. The c hief of staff disapproved it because he felt that other existing 

service awards covered the same period and the proposed ribbon would 

d uplicate them. 8 1 

In July 1978, Secretary of Defense Brown sent Congress the draft 

legislation, which he had held back earlier, to discontinue the Women's 

Army Corps and delete related existing laws. The proposed DOPMA 

contained similar provisions, but that legislation had become controversial 

and its passage in the near future was doubtful. (It became law in 1981.) 

In an effort to hasten discontinuance of the Corps, Secretary of the Army 

A lexander wrote Senator William O. Proxmire on 23 September, urging 

action on the proposal. "This letter is to reconfirm my persona l support 

for the proposed legislation to amend Title 10, United States Code, to 

abolish the Women's Army Corps (WAC). T he WAC legislation is of 

greatest importance to the Army in achieving full utilization of men and 

women to the maximum extent of their tal ents." 82 

With this strong encouragement, Senator Proxmire proceeded. He 

proposed an amendment to the FY 1979 Defense Procurement A uthorization Bill which would delete the appropriate sections of Title 10 and 

accomplish the actions requested by Secretary Brown. Senator Proxmire 

reassured the Senate Appropriations Committee that the amendment 

would not permit women to be assigned to the combat arms or go into 

combat, but it would eliminate a long-existing unrairness in the law. 

"Imagine," he asked, "a separate personnel system ro r Blacks o r Catholics 

or Chicanos. The country would not stand for such a thing .... The 

Women's Army Corps is the last vestige or a segregated Military 

Establishment. ... There is no separate corps for female Naval personnel 

or Air Force personnel. All that the Army is asking is that it be allowed 

to streamline its system as the other services have done." The senator 

concluded his argument for the bill with praise for the members or the 

Corps. "WACs have served this country with great courage and efrectiveness. Women will continue to serve o ur country in the military- but 

in the mainstream of the Services, witho ut restrictio ns on their service, 

without special privileges, or special obstacles to their advancement." 83 

Senators John C. Stennis (Mississippi) and John G . Tower (Texas), 

members or the Armed Services Committee, objected to the WAC issue's 

II Mcmo. Dir, Homan Resoorces Directorate. to DCSI'ER, 1& Jol &1. sob: Award of thc Women's 

Army Corps Medal, ODWAC Ref File. Awards and Decorations. CM ... . 

.. U r, SccA rmy Alcxander to William O. I'roxmirc. Senate AppropriAtions Cornmilh .. -e, 23 Sep 78, 

uo sub. ODWAC Ref File. Discontinuance or the WAC. CMI1 . 

113 COligress;ollul Rerom .. 95th COllg. 2d~, 26 Scp 78. pp. 3 1516- 17 .. 
WOMEN IN THE ARMY 397 

WAC MUSEUM, FORT MCCLELLAN (Courtesy 0/ H. K. Bamett). 

being lifted out of other pending legislation and being attached to the 

appropriations bill. A motion to table the amendment, however, was 

defeated. The committee, by voice vote, passed the amendment and it 

was added to the bill.84 The Senate approved the FY 1979 Defense 

Procurement Authorization Bill on 26 September, and the House approved it on 4 October 1978.

85 

On 20 October 1978. President Carter signed the bill into law. PL 95-

584 abolished the Women's Army Corps as a separate corps, the positions 

of the director and deputy director, the separate WAC Regular Army 

promotion list, officer assignments only in WAC branch, and other policies and programs based on a separate women's corps. The Department 

of the Army then issued General Order 20 which discontinued the 

Women's Army Corps, effective 20 October 1978. 86 

The elimination of the Women's Army Corps ended the charge against 

the Army that it discriminated against women by keeping them in a 

separate corps. The women no longer had a separate and distinctive 

identity with their own corps, their own directors, their own insigniathe Pallas Athene. Thirty years after integrating women into the Regular 

Army, the women were fully assimilated into the permanent establishment. 

8 0 Ibid., p. 29678. 

U lbid., pp. 3IBO. 3JS44 . 

.. DA GO 20, 21 Noy 78, C MH Library. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Conclusions 

AR- 600-J. The Watnel's Army Corps- General Provisions, was revised for the lasl 

time ill Jlllle /976. As a result of the changes in the mission, composition, and 

administration of the WAC. AR- 600-3 was Cllt down to two pages. AR-600-J was 

rescinded all 1 May 1979 by OA IJamphlet 310-1. I May 1979, p. 61. 

Between 1942 and 1972, the Corps- WAAC and WAC- made stead y 

progress. During World War II, 140,000 women joined the Corps. Once 

in service, they adjusted easily to A rmy life and proved themselves well ~ 

disciplined. effective workers. After V -J Day. most- never thinking the 

WAC would become permanent- returned to civilian life. By 1948, 

Corps strength had fallen to 4,699 enlisted women, including 1,453 

women serving with Air Force. That year a worsening world situation 

and strong urging from General Eisenhower and Colonel Hallaren persuaded a reluctant Cong ress to admit women into the Regular Army and 

Organi zed Reserve. But Congress ensured that the women would not 

engage in combat duties, be promoted above lieutenant colonel, or command men. During the Korean War, WAC strength climbed to 12,000 

officers and enlisted women, but, thereafter, decli ned to 9,000. The Vietnam War during the 1960s again inc reased the Corps to 12,000. Despite 

these numbers, the Army, obtaining the bulk of its manpower through the 

draft, had relatively few women. WACs made up less than 2 percent of 

overa ll Regular Army strength. For its part, the WAC leadership, fearing 

the possibility of lower enlistment standards, did not press for many more. 

The great change came after Vietnam. WAC strength did not follow the 

expected falling-off pattern of prcvious wars; instead, loss of the draft 

inspired the Army to initiate an expansion campaign that increased the 

WAC to 53,000 by the end of 1978 and gave no hint of slowing. The 

reasons for the expansion were clear: men were slow to volunteer; 

women did not hesitate; women cost less than men to train and maintain. I 

Through the years the WAC successfull y achieved its primary mission, 

which was to provide the Army with a small group of well-trained 

women who could serve during mobilization as a cadre to train tho usands 

morc women volunteers. T he mobilization mission often obscured the 

day-to-day missions of filling personnel requisitions and providing salis-

'A World War II siudy sho wed Ilml a WAC (.'OSI lhe Army $71 less per year Ihan a man; in n 

Mnn;h 1973 siudy a woman COSI $348 less Ihall a man; by 1978, II womlill COSI $621 less Ihan a man. 

including mediclil and rCliremc ru COS1S. ODWAC Ref File. COSIS, CMII. 
4()() THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

factory careers for the women. Because the Army did eve rything by 

branch, the WAC became a special branch- by reg ulatio n, not law-so 

that it CQu id fit into the A rmy system and perform its missions. Unlike the 

other branches, however, the Corps did not manage a particular Army 

function. Instead, it provided personnel to the other branches. But no 

matter what the branch or MOS, the WAC Career Management Branch 

held assignment jurisdic tion over every WAC officer, except the director, 

and commanders of WAC detachments held command jurisdiction over 

the enlisted women. Through the WAC Career Management Branch and 

through her innuence on Army policy regarding WAC matters, the 

director controlled the missions and women of the Corps until 1974. The 

WAC Career Management Branc h was then discontin ued and the officers 

reassigned to other branches. By 1975, most WAC detachments had been 

absorbed by mal e units. T he primary WAC mission was now the expansion campaig n, guided by a general officer steering committee. Women 

now filled interchangeable spaces, and other branches and divisions in the 

Military Personnel Center controlled the careers of the enlisted women 

and officers. 

From the beginning, the Corps' insistence upon high entry and retention standards kept it one of the elite groups of the Army. To perform its 

missions and maintain a good reputation, the Corps accepted only women 

who were well educated as well as being physically and mentally fit and 

who had high moral standards. These entry and retention qualifications, 

the career obstacles and assignment restrictions, and the contin uing battle 

for acceptance by the men had a bonding effect on the women. Mandatory discharge of pregnant women and mothers decreased costs for the 

Army and strengthened the career image of the Corps. Women w ith 

behavioral problems were discharged, and the Corps seldom received 

unfavorable pUblicity. Whether they remained in the Corps for one tour 

o r for a career, the women knew the constraints and difficulties of 

working in a man's world, but they fou nd satisfaction in their work, 

travel, and camaraderie. They became dedicated to the Corps and to the 

A rmy. 

Art er the expansion began, the standards of enlistment and retention 

for women were reduced one by one until, by 1979, they matched those 

of male volunteers in every respect. The quality of the women in the 

A rmy did not, however, fall to any perceptible degree-unemployment 

rose in the late 1970s and ea rl y 1980s and the Army could set relatively 

high enlistment qua lifications for both men and women. 2 

~ Ullcmploymcll! ra!cs: 1974. 5.6%: 1975,8.5%; 1976,7.7%: 1977. 7%: 1979. 5.8%: 1980,7. 1%: 

1981. 7.6%: 1982,9.7%. US Burcau of thc CcnSlls, Slol;sl;col Almrocr of lire Vllired Sillies (Washillg_ 

ton, DC: G I'O, 1982), p. 375. 
CONCLUSIONS 401 

Progress in training and wider utili zatio n of women was slow between 

1942 and 1972, but changes did occur. By the end of Wo rld War II, 

enlisted women who had initiall y been assigned o nly as c lerks, cooks, 

drivers, and telephone operators could serve in almost every MOS, provided that it did not involve combat. This situation c ha nged somewhat 

after the Corps was accepted into the Regular Army in 1948. Thereafter, 

few women were trained and assigned in maintenance and repair MOSs 

associated with heavy labor, dirty work. or safety-toe shoes. The Corps 

wanted to project a ladylike, junio r executive image fo r women working 

in administration, medical care, and communications. In the 1960s the 

need to provide mo rc di versified jobs led to the o pening of repair, 

maintenance, and technical MOSs, but women still wo rked in clean environments using machines such as data processors. missile master computers, Oi ght operations devices, office machi nes, and communications equipment. After 1972. when all but 48 MOSs opened to women, they were 

again, as at the end of World War II, trained and assigned in all MOSs, 

clean or dirt y, except the combat MOSs. 

The officers initially worked only with WAC troops o r recruiting. but 

by the end of World War II they, like enlisted women, performed duty in 

all but the combat MOSs. Arter 1948. their assignments were limited 

primaril y to administrati ve duties, but after the Ko rean War, they received more military training and could specialize in a number of career 

fi elds. After the WAC Career Management Branch was discontinued in 

1974 and after the combat exclusion policy was established in 1977, WAC 

officers could be assig ned to an y branch except Infantry and Cannon 

Field Artill ery and in an y MOS fo r which they could qualify. For WAC 

office rs, too, utilization had come full circle. 

Progress was apparent in WAC uniforms and ho usin g and in the 

removal of career obstacles. Women received a stylish taupe-colored 

uniform ensemble in 195 1 to replace the olive drab World War II unifo rms. Unfo rtunately, the new unifo rm was less comfo rtable than the old 

o ne. Hence, after men were authorized a g reen unifo rm in the late 1950s, 

women pushed fo r and in 196 1 received a similar, modern, Army-green 

uniform of their own. In 1954, the Corps obtained a permanent training 

center and " home" at Fort McClellan, and women in the field detachments g raduall y moved into rehabilitated or newly constructed buildings. 

Between 1948 and 1972, the WAC directors succeeded in persuading 

Congress to give military women c redit for W AAC and continued service, to allow them promotions above the grade of lieutenant colo nel. and 

to au thorize them the same moneta ry allowances fo r dependents that men 

received. After 1972, Congress passed laws that autho rized women to 

enlist at age seventeen with their parents' consent; to se rve an obligatory 

te rm of six yea rs o n active dut y o r in a reserve component as men did; 

and, beginning in 1976, to enter the U.S. Military Academy. A change in 

Army regulatio ns in 1973 permitl ed women to comma nd men except in 
402 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

combat units. These and other policy changes over the years eliminated 

most of the career obstacles and assignment restrictions under which the 

WACs had served. 

The women who directed the WAC were outstanding leaders. role 

models, and advisers o n women's matters. Perhaps the only thing the 

directors had in commo n was their individuality. T hey came from differ· 

ent backgrounds, had varying primary interests, and displayed a di versity 

of personal skills. Most took a conservative approach in advancing the 

goals of the Corps because such an approach matched the teno r of 

traditional Army leadership. But whether conservative or reform minded, 

none hesitated to oppose Army policies they believed would jeopardize 

the interests of the Corps. 

Because the Corps was comparatively small and its problems few, the 

chief of staff and the DCSPER usually gave the director of the WAC the 

final decision on WAC policies and procedures. Nonetheless, the directors did not always get their own way. Colonel Ha llaren could not 

eliminate the separate promotion list; Colonel Gorman did not win the 

ho using battle; and General Hoisington lost the fight for a "no waiver" 

policy. In most instances, major commanders also accepted the advice of 

the director as well as that of their own WAC staff advisers in day-to-day 

management of Corps personnel and policy. T hrough her network of 

WAC staff advisers and detachment commanders, the director enjoyed 

excellent communications at all levels and knew w hat was happening in 

the Corps and how Army and WAC policies affected the women. Each 

director required that women who served as WAC Center commanders, 

WAC staff advisers, and unit commanders take a personal interest in their 

subordinates' careers and in resolving any problems they had. As a result, 

the enlisted women received an abundance of counseling and supervision 

and participated in morale-building activities which resulted in unparalleled spirit and camaraderie within the Corps. Communications, personal 

interest, and esprit de corps were the keys the directors held in the 

successful management of the Corps. 

Each director had her share of success and disappointment, and the 

Corps' goals were advanced slowly but surely until 1972. T hen national 

and world events disrupted this quiet progress: the United States left 

Vietnam without achieving victory; the draft ended; the women's rights 

movement achieved full stride. The unpopularity of the Vietnam War 

forced the admi nistratio n to end the draft, creating a manpower gap. To 

help fill it, the Army initiated the VOLAR Proj ect and the WAC expansion campaign, both of which were successful. At the same time, continued heavy public criticism of the war, the military, and the economy 

forced the administratio n to appease many groups. 

T he women's movement comprised a number of diverse groups 

throughout the United States. Its spokeswomen achieved popularity and 

media attention by supporting a wide range of issues, including affirma-
CONCLUSIONS 403 

tive action programs. abortion rights, gay rights, civil rights, student and 

child welfare, and antipoverty programs. Its most fervently pursued goal 

was passage of the pro posed Equal Rights Amendment. The movement 

attracted supporters among men and women of all ages and walks of life. 

It attracted women in the armed services. including WACs. They liked 

not only the movement's goals for women in general, but also those that 

affected women in the military. Among those goals were the registering 

and drafting of women, equali zation of enlistment qualifications and retention regulations, combat service for women, elimination of separate 

women's organi zations within the military, admission of women to West 

Poin t, and retention of pregnant women and mothers on active duty. T he 

movement's large following and political influence on Ford and Carter 

administration appointees in the Pentagon enabled it to accomplish most 

of its goals affecting military women. T he goals not attained included 

registering and drafting women and allowing women in combat. After the 

movement failed to obtain ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, 

its popularity waned. It had, however, helped to bring about some of the 

notable changes which were making military careers attractive to women. 

Well before the draft was ended, the Army initiated several major 

actions to ensure its ability to replace draftees with vol unteers to meet its 

req uirements after June 1973. First, from 1970 to 1973, it conducted the 

Experimental Program for a Volunteer Army (Project VOLAR) that 

eliminated some unattractive features from Army life and raised the 

standard of living and the quality of life for Army people. The project 

improved recruitment and reenlistment rates. 

The second major action was the WAC expansion that inc reased 

WAC strength from 12,780 to 53,000 in its first six years, 1972-1978. The 

Corps lost its director and separate status in the midst of the project, but 

the expansion continued un til 198 1. The success of the expansion resulted 

in women's bein g distributed mo re evenly between the United States and 

overseas, being assigned in a wider range of MOSs including many that 

were nontraditio nal, and being freed from man y assig nment and location 

restrictions that dated back to the I 940s. By 1977, the success and continuing momentum of the expansion led the secretary of the Army to 

direct that the streng th of women officers, all branches, be increased to 

15,000 and that of enlisted women to 80,000 by the end of FY 1983. 

The expansion, however, was both good and bad, depending upon 

one's view. A result that pleased almost everyone was that the fo urfold 

increase in WAC strength between 1972 and 1978 helped to close the 

manpower gap created by the elimination of the draft. This did not please 

those who believed that a draft kept the services racially balanced and 

gave them better educated, more physicall y fit, and more trainabl e servicemen than the all-volunteer system. But the draft was gone, and the 

addition of 41,000 women was tantamount to receiving three divisions, a 

gift any army welcomed. 
404 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

On the negative side, the roller-coaster speed with which the WAC 

expansion proceeded took everyone by surprise and created new difficulties. The detailed plans fo r the ex pansion had pro vided for uniforms and 

housing to keep pace with the expected recru itment. But when enlistments exceeded th is planned-for pace, lead times for suppl ying these items 

to the training center and detachments evaporated. Nevertheless, cadre at 

the WAC Center and School, the Army service schoo ls, and the women's 

first d ut y stations managed the deluge with exceptional effort and ingenuity. The Army was swamped with women enlistees, but no one wanted to 

slow the surge. The Army urgently needed the manpower, and, after 

waiting thirty years to show that the WAC cou ld mount a successful 

recruiting effort, its leaders did no t want to halt the momentum. Two 

yea rs after the expansio n began, however, recr uiters were forced to 

suspend enlistments when, from time to time, they exhausted their quota 

of school commitments. Fortunately, this did not halt the momentum, and 

enlistments recommenced as soon as school quotas became available. The 

magic behind the momentum appeared to be in the opening of all but 

fo rt y-eight MOSs to women, a high unemployment rate, and the hopeful 

spirit aroused by the women's rights movement. 

As the Army exploited the success of the expansion, difficulties continued to plague its progress. Expansion planners had anticipated some help 

from the WAC mobilization plan. The plan ca lled for opening another 

training center on the West Coast to receive women who were enlisted 

west of the Mississippi. In 1974, however, this idea could not be impl emented because ERA suppo rters wo uld have construed it as an action to 

continue segregating women. Instead, the Army opened additional basic 

training battalions for women at several existing Army training centers. 

The mobilizatio n plan also directed that a stockpile o f women's uniforms 

be located in depots close to existing and proposed training centers. But a 

survey revealed that women's uniforms were being distributed as fast as 

the manufacturers could produce them. To obtain the needed uniforms 

quickly, the Army gave clothing manufacturers bonuses to produce them 

in record time. Mobilization plans also called for post commanders to 

provide housing for increased numbers of women by double-decking beds 

in WAC barracks o r by leasing civilian facili ties until they could rehabilitate old buildings o r cOllstruct new ones. Ex pansio n consumed space so 

rapidly that a new housing policy was needed in 1973 to allow commanders to combine housing and administration for enlisted men and women, 

provided they could provide privacy for each group. Though the mobilization plan provided little help in the expansion, it inspired some innovations in solving traini ng and housing shortages ror women. However, 

other challenges initiated by the expansion awaited men and women in 

the Army. 

As thousands of WACs moved into jobs and units that had neve r 

before held women, history began to repeat itself. The women entered 
CONCLUSIONS 405 

and sought acceptance as the WAAC pioneers had, and ma ny men in the 

Army objected to or ig nored their presence as thei r fathe rs had in 1942. 

Adjustment was not easy on either side. Male commanders and NCOs in 

the 19705 had not yet become accustomed to volunteers instead of draftees when women ente red in large numbers, an event for which they had 

little wa rning and no prepa ration. When they attempted to manage them 

as they managed men, they found that the old techniques did not work. 

Most women required more informat ion, privacy, and counseling than 

men; women complained abou t harassment, disc rimination, and poor 

housing; women got pregnant, needed child-ca re facilities, and, without 

trainin g, could not lift heavy objects or make a six-mile run. The adjustment was just as hard on the women. Progress in ac hieving unit cohesiveness depended upon the commander's acceptance of women and his 

ability to communicate a favorable attitude to the men of the unit. It also 

depended upon whether the women's response was hostile or understanding. G raduall y, as more women entered the formerly all-ma le units and it 

became obvious they would stay, rapprochements evolved and men and 

women learned to wo rk together more easily, even if not wholly approving of each other. 

At the Pentagon, as the manpower gap closed, the hierarchy began to 

queslion whether the Army was enlisting too many women and whether 

the hig h percentage would affect missions. To find the answers, the Army 

launched so many studies that their numbers were ridiculed. Yet most 

fulfi lled a se rious purpose. As the number of WACs increased, successive 

DCSPERs became convinced that more than 50,000 enlisted women (6.4 

percent) in an A rmy of 780,000 would adversely affect missions and 

readiness. But neither studies nor tests proved this supposition, and the 

politica l appoin tees in the Pentagon would not curtail the enlistment of 

women because unemployment was high, women needed jobs, and the 

politicians needed women's votes. Clearly, some Army leaders wanted to 

stuff the expansion genie back in the bottle and control the composition 

of the Army. Secretary of the Army A lexander, for o ne, would not let 

them do it. In 1977, he directed that expansion goals be doubled in orde r 

to reach a strength of almost 100,000 women by FY 1983. In 1981 , 

however, the Reagan administratio n directed that the Army, as it had 

requested, "pause" in the pursuit of these goals at 65,000 enlisted women 

and 7,200 women office rs. This allowed the Army staff to halt the rapid 

rate of inc rease and to announce in 1983 new goals of 70,700 enlisted 

women and 12,900 officers for FY 1988. 

By early 1978, the expansion and changes in law, regulation, and 

policy had almost eliminated everything that was distinctively WAC. 

With the abolition of the WAC detachments and staff advisers, the 

commun ications system was gone. The loss of the officer corps ended 

close command supervision and many mo rale-building factors. New policies c hanged the composition of the Corps: women remained on dut y 
406 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

after they became pregnant or became mothers; women no lo nger had to 

spend a year gaining experience on duty in CONUS before they went 

overseas. The WAC expansion steering committee had diffused the influence of the director of the Corps, and, in 1975, Congress had extracted a 

commitment from the secretary of the Army to concur in the dissolution 

of the Corps and the office of the director and in other statutory changes. 

The admittance of women into ROTC and the U.S. Military Academy 

eliminated the WAC officer procurement programs. The opening of basic 

training battalions for women at other Army training centers ended the 

unique fu nction of the WAC Center and School which was absorbed by 

the training division at Fort McClellan. 

The WAC had little left other than its traditions, pride in its achievements, and its Pallas Athene insignia. Without any support on the Army 

staff and no General Marshall, Eisenhower, o r Abrams to come to its 

rescue, the Corps was doomed. In April 1978, the Army discontinued the 

Office of the Director, WAC, and reassigned the inc umbent and her staff. 

In October, the WAC as a separate corps of the Army was disestablished, 

and the women removed the Pallas Athene insignia that had proclaimed 

their identity and individua lity. 

After all was said and done, it remained unclear whether the success 

of the ex pansion had destroyed the Corps or whether, by 1978, the Corps 

stood in the way of progress and had to go. Women in the Army are no 

longer described as segregated or identified as WACs; they are known 

simply as women in the A rmy. The loss of a woman general officer to 

advise the Army staff on women's matters and to serve as a spokeswoman 

and role model for women was, to many, a significant error, though one 

that could be reversed if a future secretary of the A rmy desired to do so. 

During its thirty-six years, the WAC was the means of entry for 

women into the rank and file of the Army. It created a tradition of 

dedicated service, high standards, and loyal teamwork in every command. 

Its directors, officers, NCOs, and enlisted women had a spirit of mutual 

esteem, cooperation, and affection for each other that grew as the Corps 

did, and, as long as they and their successors live, that spirit will be 

preserved. Because of their effort and dedicated duty, the future may 

someday include a woman as c hief of staff or secretary of the Army. 
APPENDIXES 

Appendix A 

PERSONNEL STATISTICS 

TABLE I - STRENGTH OFTI-IE WAC, 1942- 1978, AND WOMEN I N 

THE ARMY, 1979- 1984 

End of Moni h 

Dec 42 ................................................................ . 

Jun 43 ................................................................ . 

JUII 44 ................................................................. . 

Jun 45 ................................................................. . 

JUII 46 ................................................................. . 

Jun47 .......... ....................................................... . 

JUII 48 .......... .......... ............. ................................ . 

JUII 49 .......... ....................... ... .......... ....... .. .. 

JUII 50 .................................... ....... ..... . 

JlIll 5 1 ....................................................... . 

JUIl 52 ................................................................ . 

JUIl 53 ................................................................. . 

JUII 54 ................................................................. . 

Jun 55 ................................................................ .. 

Ju n 56 ............ ........ ............................................ .. 

Ju n 57 ................................................................ .. 

J un 58 ............ ........................................... .......... . 

J UIl 59 ................................................................. . 

J un 60 .... .. ......................................................... .. 

J UII 61 .............. .................................................. .. 

Jun 62 ........... ..................... ................................ .. 

JIIII 63 ........................ ........ .......... ............ .......... .. 

JUII 64 ................................................................ .. 

JUIl 65 ................................................................. . 

JUIl 66 ................................................................. . 

Jun 67 ................................................................. . 

Jun 68 ................................................................. . 

~~:: : ~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ] 

TOla] 

12,767 

60,24] 

77,152 

95,957 

17,896 

8, 1] 4 

5,]52 

4,909 

7,259 

11 ,9]2 

11 ,456 

9,924 

7,803 

8,640 

8,66 1 

8,CX)? 

7,85] 

8,608 

9,053 

9,369 

9,549 

9.056 

8,7]4 

9,285 

9,958 

10,592 

11 ,604 

11 ,675 

12,518 

COlllmis' sioned 

1,545 

4,9 17 

5,855 

5,73] 

1,79] 

1,0]5 

6 11 

626 

686 

l.01O 

1, 171 

1, 109 

964 

876 

847 

808 

740 

732 

73 5 

771 

780 

724 

739 

742 

757 

8 17 

866 

934 

1,029 

Officers 

Warral1l En '(l 

0 11 ,222 

0 55,326 

10 71 ,287 

44 90,180 

18 16,699 

5 7,094 

42 4,699 

23 4,260 

22 6,55 1 

39 10,88] 

57 10,228 

55 8,760 

52 6,787 

48 7,7 16 

44 7,770 

43 7, 156 

39 7,074 

39 7,8]7 

39 8,279 

38 8,560 

48 8,721 

40 8,292 

37 7,958 

23 8,520 

22 9,179 

34 9,741 

27 10,7 11 

20 10,721 

13 11,476 
410 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE I - STRENGTH OF THE WAC, 1942- 1978, AND WOMEN IN 

THE ARMY, 1979-1984-Continued 

Officers 

End of Mont h T 01UI COIl101issioneu Warrant Enlisted 

lUll 7 1 .................................................................. 12.78 1 937 19 11.825 

Jun 72 .................................................................. 13,269 90 1 19 12.349 

Jun 73 .................................................................. 17,55 1 1,073 2 1 16,457 

lUll 74 .................................................................. 27,596 1,249 19 26,328 

Jun 75 .................................................................. 39,171 1,446 22 37,703 

Sep 76 ................................................................. 46,4 13 1,921 31 44,461 

Sep 77· ......... ...................................................... 48,548 2,409 45 46,094 

Sep 78 ......................... ..... .......................... ......... 52,996 2,636 68 50,292 

Sep 79 ................................................................. 57,9 19 3,010 9 1 54,8 18 

Sop 80 ................................................................. 64,9 16 3,454 11 61 ,35 1 

Sop 81 ................................................................. 69,011 4,009 18 64,884 

Sop 82.. ............................................................... 67,480 3,703 45 63,632 

Sop 83 ............................................................. ... 71,154 5,050 63 65,941 

Sop 84 ................................................................. 72,250 5,408 15 66,627 

"End of fiscal year changed from 30 June to 30 Septcmber 111 1977. So"r~: Slreng{" of {l,e Army UrpoflS (STM- 30) June 1942- 1959 & (DeSPER 46) J une 1960-

1984. 

TABLE 2-ACCESSIONS OF WOMEN'S ARMY COR PS PERSONNEL 

1942- 1978 

Officer.; 

l'criod TOIal Commis· 

sioned \Varrmll Enlisted 

luI 42-Jun 45 ..................................... .. 145,642 6,751 37 138,854 

FY 1946 ............................... . ·2,854 272 0 2,575 

FY 1947 ................................ . ·2,635 58 0 1,416 

FY 1948 ....................................... . "609 29 4 1 539 

FY 1949 ....................................... . 4,762 401 4 4,357 

FY 1950 .............................................. .. 3,820 159 4 3,657 

FY 1951 ............................................... . 7,456 392 18 7,046 

FY 1952 ............................................... . 4,262 315 26 3,92 1 

FY 1953 .............................................. . 3,476 151 0 3,325 

FY 1954 ............................................... . 3,050 99 1 21950 

FY 1955 ............................................... . 4,575 53 0 4,522 

FY 1956 .............................................. .. 3,406 116 0 3,290 
APPENDIX A 411 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

FY 

TABLE 2-AcCESSIONS OF WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS PERSONNEL 

1942- 1978-Continued 

Officers 

Period Total Commissioned WBrraut Enlisted 

1957 ................................................ 3, 184 87 0 3,097 

1958 ...................... .......................... 3,494 96 0 3,'398 

1959 ................................................ 4,205 80 0 4, 125 

1960 ................................................ 4, 151 83 0 4,068 

1961 ................................................ 4,176 102 0 4,074 

1962 ................................................ 4,635 95 12 4,528 

1963 ................................................ 3,945 94 1 3,850 

1964 ................................................ 4,354 114 4 4,236 

1965 ................................................ 5, 199 118 0 5,081 

1966 ................................................ 4,960 125 5 4,830 

\967 ................................................ 5,531 179 13 5,339 

1968 ................................................ 6,0 18 194 6 5.8 18 

1969 ................................................ 6,267 190 1 6,076 

1970 ................................................ 7,393 358 0 7,035 

1971 ................................................ 7,693 178 0 7,515 

1972 ................................................ 7,756 287 2 7,467 

1973 ................................................ 10,745 359 0 10,386 

1975 ................ .... ................... .... ..... 18.375 ··403 2 17,970 

1975 ................................................ 22,932 434 2 22.496 

1976 ................................................ 19,826 566 2 19,258 

7T··· .............................................. 4,630 264 4 4,362 

1977 ................................................ 15,969 752 12 15,205 

1978 ................................................ 24, 145 706 17 23.422 

TOlal .................................................. 380,032 14,301 173 365,558 

"Does not include rccnlistel."" or recalls. 

"After 1 Jul)' 1914 WAC Branch strength ligures were deleted rrom most ODCS1'ER strellg th 

tubles. Officer st rength ligures here include onl), those formerl), idelltilied as WAC officel'!l. 

···Congress changed the end of the fedcral liscal )'car from 30 June 10 30 September in 1977: 

the transition months (Jul)'. August. and Scptcmbcrl976) arc designated FY 1T. 

SollfU: Smltglll 0/1111' Arm}' Rrports (STM- 30) Jun 42- JUll 59 and(DCSPER 46) Jul 6O-Sep 78. 
412 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

T A BLE 3-ENLISTED WOMEN S EPA RAT ED F ROM THE ARMY BY CAUSE 

(FY 1946 THROUGH FY 1980) 

Retired Family Considcrnlions 

To Physical- Non. Accepl Fiscal Total Danle Commis- Physical Non- I, 

Yea r Dea,hs sion or D iSllbil· O isabil- Disqunli- Preg- Ma r- Paren.-

Warranl il )' i.)' lied nancy riage hood 

1946 ............ 78.403 )) '" • • 2,553 3.401 .. ............. ..... ......... 

1947 ............ 12.367 10 4l • • 67 '" .... .. , ........ ............... 1948 ............ 2.798 • J8 • • J8 ]0, ................ ............... 

1949 ............ 4.232 1 31 • • 18 141 49 ......... 

I'''' ........... 1,365 2 % I. • )) 218 }68 . .............. 

1951 ..... ..... 2.121 , .. n • 108 840 '" . ........... 

1952 ........... 4.613 " 120 2J 0 121 1.096 1,635 .. .... 

1953 ........ ". 4,820 1 J4 J4 0 I OJ '" I,Bl ... . .......... 

1954 ........... 4.874 ) 29 J6 0 " 141 8IJ .... . ......... 

1955 ........... J.581 • 18 23 0 60 ............. (·)1.021 ............... 1956 ............ 3.670 1 12 23 0 18 ............. I.SJ7 .. .... 

1957 ............ 3.15 1 ) 23 11 0 41 ............. 1.601 ............... 1958 ............ 3.417 II III I. 0 ). ............. 1.275 ............... 

1959 ............ 3.359 • 160 " 0 46 ............. 1.294 ............... 

1960 ... ........ 3.69] , 180 " 0 40 ............. ].482 ............... 196 1 ........... 4.060 , 306 22 0 42 ........... 1.571 ....... 1962,. ...... 4.288 II m II 0 l8 . ........ 1,775 

1963 ........... 4.332 , lJ8 28 " 40 ........... 1.749 ..... .. ....... 1964 . .......... 4.559 , 249 31 2]0 J1 . ............ 1,670 . .............. 

1965 ..... ...... 4.430 • 449 42 241 40 ............. 1.630 ........ ...... 1966 ........... 4.605 I '60 20 94 " 1,063 608 , 

1961 .......... 4.374 I 448 21 " J1 1.0 10 m 22 

1968 ........... 4.825 I 63' 28 .2 46 1,2 10 2" 

1969 . .......... 5.860 " • 841 " 13 " 1.444 443 24 

1970 ........... 6.590 II .54 J8 11 " ],446 88. 20 

197] ......... 7.32 1 II '"' 31 91 " 1.4 12 is) II 

1972 ........... 6,860 " ". " 10) '" 1. 166 .. , 12 

1973 ........... 6.197 12 m " 60 18 1,034 ." 22 

1974 ........... 7.55 1 " '" )) 10 '" 1.129 828 2S 

1975 ............ 10.849 26 488 61 18 )00 1.598 .. , II) 

1976 ............ 13.626 J8 401 " 68 )89 U51 391 Il) 

197T(<) ....... 4.903 • "2 l4 11 "2 412 .. 80 

1977. .......... 19.156 2S 23. 124 " '" 1.720 2" 391 

1978 ............ 19.127 48 11. 12) 44 411 2.046 18 ' 60 

1979 ..... ..... 18.867 J4 128 13. .. 492 2.791 10 '64 

1980 ............ 23.367 42 '" 111 " 19) ].279 ) )" .. :I. lnciud(.,(] unde r' Olher Causes (sec STM- 30. Slrcnglh of the Army Report. Losses of 

Enlisled WomclI by Cause. 31 J uly 1948; and DCSI'ER 46, Strength of the Army Rcporl. Losses of 

Enlisted Womcn by Calise. 31 December 1955). 

b. From December 1955 to J uly 1966. losses for marringe. pregnancy. and parcnlhood were consolidatcd under " Family Considc rulions" (sec STM- JO. LOlises of Enl iSlcd Womcn by Cause, 31 

December 1955). 
APPENDIX A 413 

Dependt lleyor Ilardship 

,OJ 

'OJ 

(OJ 

'0) 

20 

84 

" 

22 '" 

" " JO 

" " " J6 

17 

" J1 

23 

JJ 

26 

JO 

J8 

37 

44 

47 

28 

41 

91 

416 

14J 48. 

44' 

4" 

262 

TABLE 3-ENLISTED WOMEN SEPARATED FROM THE ARMY BY CAUSE 

(FY 1946 THROUGH FY 1980)-Continued 

Experli- Dis- B,d 

Coo- lious or c harge duct Inapt or Trainee Homo- la D bT Other Undetcr_ Dropped "d FisUnsuit- D is- E r CAlO 1 'la- (rom the ,,' sexual -n 15\ lion or ETS Causes mined Dishon- able charge ., Rolls orable Year 

Pro- Reen- Disgrams list c ha rges 

'" ...... ........ 'OJ 0 )),549 )7,661 0 0 ". " .. 82 ... ........... '0) 0 10.435 1, 159 0 0 36 1947 

)8 ... ........ ' .. 'OJ 0 IS48 79. 0 0 29 194' 

16 ............... (OJ , 1.499 2,413 0 1 JO 1949 

122 ........ ...... ,OJ 282 48 " 0 0 49 

219 . ............. 'OJ 188 "'" '" 137 0 • 100 ]951 

187 ..... ... .. ,-, ' 0) 177 973 28 0 )8 ", 1952 ,''' .... .......... (OJ '''' 1,848 '" J J1 110 195) 

120 .. __ .. ........ ,OJ 210 2.661 48 19 " 98 1954 

14J ............... 'OJ '" 1,367 " 17 21 " 1955 

2119 , ............. (OJ '''' 973 46 13 29 147 1956 

~!' ........... __ .. (OJ 444 1,130 " 20 20 1JJ 1957 

204 ............... 'OJ 492 1,(107 " , JO '" 1958 

320 .............. '0) 134 1,1 19 " " 34 147 1959 

,,. ............... r) "2 1,057 JJ 16 J6 84 1960 

487 ............... 69 ,., 1,255 54 14 26 28 1961 

'" .... .......... 67 18J 1,251 41 63 " 19 1962 

4>4 .... .......... 74 127 1.285 71 46 61 JJ 1963 

lJ6 ...... ........ 94 ", 1.335 46 31 78 26 1964 

472 ............... 48 26J 1.006 28 44 77 " 1965 

>69 ... ........... 68 J47 720 '" 183 74 >6 1966 

'16 ...... ........ 41 '" .44 222 207 114 79 1967 

1m ... ........... 27 246 1,134 17 • 

"' '''' 87 1968 

m ............... 24 268 1.318 264 JJ J42 10' 1969 

66. ............... J8 " . 1,620 

"' 12 '" 142 1970 1.248 ............... 32 681 827 292 '" J76 162 1971 

1,039 " ............ 42 619 63' 697 68 1 272 122 1972 

879 ..... ......... 27 974 '" 146 lJ8 274 123 1973 

"4 ............... 19 1.309 817 1,190 '18 '" 161 1974 

918 . ............. J8 1.764 1,081 2.447 J97 JJ7 241 1975 

'" (d)3,541 61 1,964 2.89 1 40 929 231 247 1976 

" 878 22 797 1.757 19 142 101 68 197T 

264 2.60 1 78 4,)72 6.345 141 94. 40J 167 1977 

JJJ 2.638 104 4.519 6,))5 " 619 4119 241 1978 

417 2.691 104 4.269 5.299 '" ' 19 440 231 1979 

469 3,564 139 '.404 5,973 2,585 1,,052 720 J90 1980 

c. New Federal fiscal year begms-I October through 30 September; IT desIgnated for the 

changover months (July. August. September 1976). 

d. Tftlinee Discharge Program (para 5- 39. AR 635-200) and E~peditiolls discharge Progftlm (paftl 

5-37. AR 635- 200) initiated in FY 1916; losses ror these progftlllU during FY 1974 and 1915 are shown 

under "Other Causes." 
414 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 4-WAC 1 REENLISTMENT RATES, 1949- 1984 

[In Percentages) 

Fiscal Year 

1949 .............................................................. . 

1950 .............................................................. . 

1951 .............................................................. . 

1952 .............................................................. . 

1953.. ............................................................ . 

1954 .............................................................. . 

1955 .............................................................. . 

1956 .............................................................. . 

1957 .............................................................. . 

1958 .............................................................. . 

1959 .............................................................. . 

1960 .............................................................. . 

1961 .............................................................. . 

1962.. ............................................................ . 

1963... .......................................................... .. 

1964 .............................................................. . 

1965 .............................................................. . 

1966 .............................................................. . 

1967 .............................................................. . 

1968 .............................................................. . 

1969 .............................................................. . 

1970 .............................................................. . 

1971 .............................................................. . 

1972 .............................................................. . 

1973 .............................................................. . 

1974 .............................................................. . 

1975 .............................................................. . 

1976 .............................................. ................ . 

1977 .............................................................. . 

1978 .............................................................. . 

1979 .............................................................. . 

1980 .............................................................. . 

1981 .............................................................. . 

1982 .............................................................. . 

1983 ............................................................. . 

Overall WAC First- WAC Termers 

65.2 (') 

84.3 

94. 1 

59.1 

27.5 

18.7 

35.6 

36. 1 

28.2 

37.9 

45. 1 

41.2 

48.9 

53.2 

48.0 

50.0 

54.6 

55.9 

50.6 

47.5 

34.8 

27.3 

35.1 

30.6 

53.0 

6 1.6 

63.3 

45.9 

44.5 

45.2 

50.8 

58. 1 

6 1.8 

66.8 

58.8 

27.3 

27.6 

37.5 

33.8 

34.8 

45.6 

49.9 

4 1.9 

39.4 

27.7 

24.5 

33.9 

28.2 

54. 1 

59.8 

64. 1 

41.9 

40.4 

42.5 

45.5 

56.2 

55.4 

63.2 

47.6 

I WACs were called Women in the Army after 1978. 

2 Statistics in these categories not available until 1960. 

WAC 

Carcerists 

(') 

69.5 

80.3 

85.3 

82.5 

79.0 

76.2 

75.4 

72.6 

71.7 

62. 3 

60.3 

60.0 

56.6 

67.0 

66.' 

61.3 

57. 1 

56.0 

49.8 

55.6 

56.7 

60.6 

67.8 

64.2 

Source: Strength oj the Army Reports (STM-30) 1949- 1960, Losses; Strellgth 0/ tile 

Army Reports (DeSPER 46) 1960-1965, Losses; and Slrfmgt" 0/ the Army Reports (DeSPER 46) 1965- 1983, Part II, Gains and Losses. 
APPENDIX A 415 

TABLE 5-ST RENGTH OF BLACK MEMBERS OF THE WOMEN'S ARMY 

CORI'S, 1945- 1978 I 

End of Fisc,1I YC:lr TOlal Officers WIlHan! Enlisted Officers 

1945 ................................ ...................... 3,849 117 0 3,732 

1946 ....................... 673 15 0 658 

\947 ............................................. 319 9 0 310 

1948 ........... 125 4 0 121 

1949 .......................... 352 12 0 340 

1950 .............................. . ............ 648 18 629 

195\ \,046 30 1,015 

1952 . .................. .................................. 1,332 40 I \,291 

1953 ..... ................ 1, 169 38 0 1, 131 

1954 ....... . ......................................... 869 31 0 838 

1955 .......................... 983 29 0 954 

1956. 1,061 32 0 1,029 

1957 ......................... 965 28 0 937 

1958 ... ...................... 933 24 0 909 

\959 ............... . .................. 1,042 27 0 1,015 

1960 ....................................................... 1, 183 28 0 I, I 55 

1972 .......... .................... ..... ........ .. 2,453 52 5 2,396 

1973,. .............. 3,188 56 4 3, 184 

1974 ................... ................................... 5,5 19 63 6 5,450 

1975 ...................................................... 8,122 85 6 8,031 

1976 .. 9,785 98 6 9,681 

1977 ... ............................... ................... 11,537 236 8 11 ,293 

1978 ................. .................... 14,688 264 12 14,412 

'No SI:o I,SI,es m,nnl"nK-d on bl"ck Army p·c rsonncl from 1961 - 1971. 

SOll,ce: Slr(,1I8111 of 11r(, Army U CporlS (STM- 3(). 1945- 1959 and (DCSPE R 46), 1960- 1978: Rpl, 

ODCSI'ER. Tcn yc:,r c\'icw of Equnl Oppo rlunily in Ihe Army, 10 DL'C 74. Tables 9. 17: T hird 

Annual Assessmenl of Arm~' Equal Opportunily Programs. Mnr 79. 

Appendix B 

MOSs AND TRAINING 

TABLE 6-DUTY MOSs HELD BY WAC OFFICERS, DECEMBER 1963 

MOS 

0210 

0500 

20 11 

20 15 

2025 

21 10 

2 120 

2136 

2145 

2 162 

2167 

2200 

2210 

2260 

2265 

2310 

2402 

2421 

2500 

2520 

2548 

26 10 

2622 

270 1 

2728 

2800 

2900 

4000 

4010 

4015 

4222 

4320 

T itle 

Signal Officer ...... ......... ............. . 

Radio Officer ......... . 

Secretary of the Gcne,,"1 Sta rr .................................................... . 

Congressional Liaison Offi cer .................... ........ .................................. . 

Major Department Chief or Director .................................................. . 

Adjutant or Adjulant Gcneral .............................................................. . 

Administrative Officer .......................................................................... . 

Non-Iactical Un il Officer ...................................................................... . 

WAC Slaff Adviser ...................................... ........................................ . 

Operalions and Training Slaff Officer ................................................ . 

Research and Development Coord ina lor ............................................ . 

Personnel Officer .................................................................................. .. 

Personnel Managemenl Officer ............................................................ . 

Personnel Slaff Officer .......................................................................... . 

Manpo\ver Conlrol Officer ................................................................... . 

Recru iling Officer ................................................................................. . 

ADI'S Plans and Operalions Officer .................................................. .. 

Military Hislorian ................................................................................. .. 

School Commandant.............. . ................................................... . 

Training Officer............................. .. ..................................... .. .. 

Training Aids Officer... . .............................. . 

Management A nalyst .................... .. . . ................................ . 

Trainin g Center Unit Officer............. .. ...................... . 

Nonmilitary Subjects Instl·uctor...... . .. .................. .................. . 

Military College Facult y Member ..................................................... .. 

Comptroller ............................................................................................ . 

Headquarters Unit Commander ........................................................... . 

General Supply Officer ......................................................................... . 

Suppl y Staff Officer .............................................................................. . 

Quanermaster Staff Officer ...................................... ........................... . 

Sales Officer ........................... . ........ ............... . 

Procu rement Officer ......................................................... . 

Number 

1 

8 

2 

7 

59 

75 

25 

" 19

2 

15 

12 

56 

5 

62 

6 

1 

16 

1 

3 

28 

" 3 

86 

2 

13 

2 

2 
418 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE 6-DuTY MOSs HELD BY WAC OFFICERS, DECEMBER 

1963-Continued 

MOS Tille Number 

SOOO Special Services Officer .............................. ............. ............. . .............. 6 

524 1 Army Band Officer ............................................................................... . 

5400 Publications Officer ............................................................................... . 

5505 Information Officer ................................................................................ 44 

610 1 Accounting Officer ................................................................................ 2 

6201 Finance Disbursing Officer.................................................................... 2 

6302 Budget and Fisca l Officer ......................... ..... ........................................ 3 

7010 Engineer SlaffOfficer ...................................................................... . 

7314 Chemical Staff Officer .......................................................................... . 

8101 Legal Officer .......................................................................................... . 

8103 Judge Advocate................................. .................................................... 2 

8104 Civil Affairs Officer ............................................................................... 2 

85 10 Pictorial Officer ...................................................................................... 1 

9300 Military Intelligence Officer .................................................................. 8 

9301 Combat Intelligence Staff Officer ......................................................... 8 

9307 Installation Intell igence Officer............................................................. 2 

9308 Strategic In telligence Officer ......................................................... ....... I 

93 10 Inspector General................................................................................... 6 

9666 Classified Intelligence MOS ........ ............................................... 2 

Total ............................................ ..................................................... . 631 

SDllfCI': ODCSPER Study. Tub N, WAC Requirements. t964. O DWAC Rer FIle. Studies. 

CM lI. 
APPENDIX B 419 

TABLE 7-DUTY MOSs HELD BY ENLISTED WOM EN, DECEMBER 

1963 

MOS 

16H 

358 

7IB 

72B 

72C 

73C 

74B 

76A 

81B 

83A 

84G 

91 B 

91E 

91J 

92B 

94B 

97 B 

970 

02 

058 

05G 

OOE 

09E 

Tille 

Air Defense Radllr Opernlor ............................... . 

Electronics Devices Repairman ........................................................... . 

Clerk-T ypist ........................................................................................... . 

Communications Center Operator .......................................... . 

Telephone Switchboard Operator ....................................................... . 

Finance and Accounting Specialist ...................................................... . 

Data Processing Operator .................................................................... . 

Suppl y Spccilliist ... .................. .............................................................. . 

Draftsma n ........................... .................. ........ ....... ... ....... ....................... . 

Printing Specia list .................................................................................. . 

Photograph y Laboratory Specialist ..................................................... . 

Medic al Care and Tre:llme rlt Specialist .............................................. .. 

Prosthetic Appliance Mai ntenance and Repair ................. . 

Physical T herapy Specialist .................................................................. . 

Medical Laboratory Specialist ............................................................. . 

Food Service Specialist .................................................................. . 

Military Inte lligence Specia list ............................................................. . 

Gene ra l Intelligence Specia list ..................... ............. ... ... .................... . 

Bandsman ............................................................................................... . 

RlIdio Operator .................................................................................... .. 

COnlmu nic ations Security Speci alist ........................ ..... ...................... . 

Recruiting Specia list ......................................................... .................... . 

Trai nees and OCS Candida tes .............................................................. . 

fu~ .................................................... .................. . 

Sollm:: S""mglh 0/ rllll Arm)' Ht'porl (DeSPE R 46). 30 June 1%3. 

Number 

24 

3 

3,059 

713 

19 

190 

154 

279 

21 

I 

39 

1,743 

15 

41 

160 

135 

49 

21 

50 

9 

2 

133 

1,404 

8,264 
420 THE W OMEN'S A RMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 8-BASIC TRAIN ING FOR FEMALE M ILITARY PERSONNEL 

W ITHOUT PREVIOUS SERVICE, 196 1 

[Active Duty: 8 Weeks, 343 Hours; Reserve Components; 44 Hours) 

Hours 

Subject Active Reserve 

duty components 

Achievements and T raditions of the Army ............................. . 8 2 

Army Administration ................................................................ . 13 8 

Army and Civil Defense ........................................................... . 3 2 

Character Guidance .................................................................. . 7 • Comlnander's T ime ................................................................... . 56 10 

Company D uties ........................................................................ . 44 0 

Drill and Ceremonies ................................................................ . 38 10 

Field T rai ning ............................................................................ . I. 2 

First Aid ................................... ............................................ ...... . 9 3 

Food Service .............................................................................. . 2 0 

Geneva Conventions and Code of Conduct. ........................... . 2 2 

Individual Protective Measures Agai nst Nuclear Warfare 

and C DR I Attack ................................................................. . 10 6 

Inspections ............................................................................. _ ... . 16 2 

Intelligence Training ....................................... .......................... . 4 2 

Interior G uard ........................................................................... . 2 I 

Maintenance, Supply Economy, and Cost Consciousness ..... . 5 2 

Map Readi ng .............................................................................. . 6 4 

Military Customs and Courtesies ............................................. . 14 2 

Military and F ield Sanitatio n .................................................... . 3 0 

Military Justice ..................................................................... ..... . 7 I 

Organization of the Army ........................................................ . 8 2 

Orientation ................................................................................. . 7 • Personal Standards and Group Living .................................... . I I 2 

Physical T raining ...................................................................... . 25 8 

Social Hygiene .................................................. .................. ....... . 4 I 

Profi ciency and GMS:.1 Tests ................................................... . 7 0 

T roop Information .................................................................... . 9 2 

Weapons Familiarization and Firing ........................................ . 9 6 f------'-t--

Total ................................................................................ . 

I CDR- Chemical, Dacteriological. Rad iological. 

a GMS- General Military Subjects. 

343 

Source: Army Training Program 21- 121, 20 Ser. 1961 and Appendill Y, 

Report, WAC C&S, 1960-61. p. 134, ODWAC Ref File, Basic Training, CMH. 

88 

Historical 
APPENDIX B 

TABLE 9- WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS NCO LEADERSH IP COU RSE 

51OF3, 1971 

jl'c;,cclimc: 4 wL-.:h. 176 hours; Mobilil.<l lio n: 4 "'Loc ks. 192 hours] 

l'lours 

421 

5ubjL"C1 

C~CC Mobiliz:lliol1 

Academic Subjects: 

Administration ...................................................................... . 5 5 

Army in the Field .................................................................. . 6 4 

Command Information .......................................................... . 3 3 

Domestic Emergencies..................................... . ........... ... . 2 2 

Dl'illllnd Command ............ ............... . ........ ........ . 10 10 

Effective Writing ................................................................... . 8 8 

In telligence and Sec urity ..................................................... .. 3 3 

Land Naviga tion .................................................................... . 5 5 

Supply and Main tenance Proced ures ................................... . 5 4 

Met hod s of Instructioll .......................................................... . 19 19 

Military Customs and Courtesies .... .................................. ... . 3 0 

Military Justice and Admin istrative Boards ....................... .. 8 8 

Military Leadership ................................. ............................. . 20 19 

Office Management ........................................ .............. . 2 2 

Pcrso nllcl M<l lIagcment .............................. . II II 

WAC I3 nl llc h Dul y ... ..... .......................... . 25 25 

EX<l1l1irl;ltion ;md Critiq ue ................ .. .................... - 4 4 

Subtowl ...................................... . .................. .. ~ 139 132 

Nonacademic Subjects: 

Inproccssing ......... ........................................... ...................... . 8 4 

Ou t processing ....................................................................... .. 8 4 

COlllmandant's ·rime ............................................................. . 16 35 

Open Timc ...... .. .............. . .... . - 5 17 

Subtotal ..... e==== 37 60 

Tot" I ...... 176 192 

50111'('(': WAC School Progr:om or n~ rtJ(;r . COUfsc 510FJ. At,ril 197 1. ODWAC Ref Fik. I'rogn.tn, or n~r UCli()Il. Cf\tl-1. 
422 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

T A BLE to- WAC O FFICER BASIC COURSE/WAC OFFICER 

C A NDIDAT E COURSE, 1962 

[Peace time: 18 Weeks. 792 Hours: Mobilizmioll: 12 Weeks, 576 Hours) 

H our.; 

Sllbjt"Ct 

Peace Mobiliz3- tion 

Academic Subjects: 

A rmy Information Program ... .. 17 17 

Army Management ............ ..... . 12 12 

Chemical and Biological Operations ............... ... .... . 10 10 

Combined Arms ..................................... . 

Air G round Operations 7 7 

A rmy Aviation ................................... . 2 2 

Battlc Indoctrination.. . ......................................... . 5 5 

Foreign Armi es Organi zation ........................... ............... . 2 2 

Command and Staff 

Command and StafT .............................................. .. . 5 5 

01/5 I Personnel and Administration .. . ........ ... ....... . 29 29 

02/52 Intelligence ...... .. ...... ... . .. 12 12 

03/53 Operatio ns........ . .......... ............... .. ......... .. 

G4/54 Logistics.... ... . .. ... ..... ................ ........................ . 3" 5 3" 4 

G 5 Civil Affairs .................... . 4 4 

Company Administration ............ . 12 12 

Domestic Emergencies ........... .... . 6 6 

Drill and Command..... . .. ... ..... .. . 77 61 

Emergency Medica l Care and First Aid .. . 16 16 

Examination and Critique .. ............... ....... . . .. ... ..... .. 14 

Geopoli tics .............. .. ........ ..... ... ............. ................... . 12 1" 2 

Joint Civilian Orientation Conference ................ . 24 0 

Map and Aerial Pho tography Reading ..... .. ... . .. ..... ..... . 25 25 

Met hods of Instruction............. . .. ... ..... ............ .. 15 15 

Military Customs and Cou rtesies ...... ....... ............................ . 12 12 

Milit ary History... . ....................................... . 15 15 

Milit ary J ustice and Administrati ve Boards ........................ . 25 25 

Military Leadership .......................... . .. ..... ... ..... ......... . 18 8 

Military Writing.......... ....... .. ....... ....... ... ... . ... .............. . 38 38 

Nuclear Weapons Employment .. ... ............................ . 14 14 

Oral Communications ............ .............. . 21 21 

Organi zation for National Defense ...... ............... . 13 13 

Ph ysica l Training... ... . .................... . 30 30 

Ro le of the WAC ......... ..... ............................ .. 17 10 

Signal Communications .. ............................ .... . 5 5 
APPENDIX B 

TABLE IO-WAC OFFICER BASIC COURSEIWAC OFFICER 

CANDIDATE COURSE, 1962-Continued 

[peacetime: 18 Weeks, 192 Hours; Mobilization: 12 Weeks. 576 Hours) 

Hours 

423 

Subject 

Peace Mobili7.alion 

Survival, Evasion, and Escape ... . 

Techniques of Modern Warfare .. 

WAC Branch Du ty ...................... , ....................................... . 

WAC Exercise .................................................... .................. . 

Weapons Familia rizatio n .. . 

Subtotal ........................................................................... . 

Nonacademic Subjects: 

Processing, Cou nseling, Commandant's T ime, Open 

T ime ........ ..................... . 

Total ........................... , ........................................... .. 

2 2 

10 10 

88 0 

12 0 

8 8 

680 522 

11 2 54 

792 576 

Scurce; Appendix AF- 3. HlslOnclIl Repor!. WAC CelUer lind WAC School. 1962- 1964. p. 406, 

ODWAC Ref File, WAC Cen!er, C MH . 

TABLE I I- A sSOCIATE WAC C OMPANY OFFICER C OURSE, 19 52 

[13 Weeks. 624 Hours] 

Subject 

Orientation .................................... , ........... , .... , ......... , ......... , .............................. .. 

Basic Techniques: 

Public Speaking .... ... ..... ................ ............................................................ , .... . 

Basic Psychology & Psychiatry .. 

Methods of T rai ning ............... ....... . 

Officer Indoctrination: 

Military Customs and Courtesies ..................... , ......... , ............. ...... .... . 

Leadership ................ , ...................... , ..................... , ............ , .................. ... . 

Professional Ethics and Philosoph y of Command ....................................... . 

WAC Career Management ........ ..... . . ...................... .. 

General Military Subjects: 

Organ ization o f the Army and Department o f Defense ........ ........... . 

Map and Aerial Photography, Camounage .................... ..... ....... . 

Military Sanitation. . .................... , ........... , ......... , .. , ....................... . 

Military History .............. ... ...................... ....... . ....................................... . 

Hours 

7 

36 

8 

40 

18 

6 

6 

10 

13 

5 

6 
424 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TA8LE II - AsSOCIATE WAC C OMPAN Y OFI;ICER C OU RSE, 1952-

Continued 

Subjt'Cl 

First Aid .......................................................................................................... . 

Social Hygiene ........................................................................................ . 

T roop Information and Education Program ................................................ . 

A rmy School System ..................................................................................... . 

Use of M otor Vehicles ................................................................................... . 

Admin istratio n: 

Army Adlninistration ....... .......... ............................................... .. . 

Cornp.lny Administration ................................................. .................... .. . 

Character Guidance Prognun ........ . ............. ..... ... ..... ........ .......... ..... .. ........ .. 

Food Service ................................................... ..... ..................................... ...... . 

Geneva Conventions o r 1949 ......................................................................... . 

Milit ary Courts and Boards .................... ....................................................... . 

Personnel Proced ures and Management ....................................................... . 

Public inro rnlatioll .......................................................................................... . 

Suppl y ............. ................................. ....... ..... ..... ..... ................................ .......... . 

Milit ary Intelligence and Securit y .................. ....................................... .......... . 

COlllrnunications (Signal).............. . ............................................. ........ . 

Dercnse Against Chemical, Bio log ical and Radiologic" l Warrare; Psychological Warrare and Civil Derense ....... ........................................................ . 

Physical Training ............................................................................................... . 

Drill and Command .......................................................................................... . 

Ceremo nies and Fo rmatio ns .............................................................................. . 

Practical Wo rk ................................................................................................... . 

Comprehensives and Critiques ........ .. 

Commanda nt's Time ......................................................................................... . 

G raduation ...... .......................... , .... , .................... , ................. .......................... ... . 

Total, ........................... , .. , ... ,., .... , ...... ........................................ ...... ........ . 

t·lours 

10 

5 

14 

29 

26 

2 

16 

3 

23 

30 

2 

42 

9 

9 

18 

38 

73 

19 

60 

6 

28 

4 

624 

Soure.:: Appcnd ~ D. AnnUlIl HisTory. WAC Tmining CcnTe r. 1952. HisTory Coll eCTion. WAC 

Muscum. ForI McClell:III. 
APPENDIX B 425 

TABLE 12- W AC OFFICER CAREER C OURSE, 1960 

(Peacetime: 20 Weeks, 880 Hours; Mobilization: 12 Weeks, 588 Ho urs] 

Hours 

Subject 

Peace Mobilization 

Academic Subjects: 

Army Information Program . . .................................... . 3 3 

Army Management ..... .......................................... ........ . . 27 18 

Chemical and Biological Warfare ........................................ . 10 10 

Combined Arms......... ............................... . .................... . 32 30 

Command and StafT: 

T he Commander and His Staff ......................................... . 6 6 

O tlSI Personnel ..... ........ ............... ............ ............. ....... . 42 24 

02/52 Intelligence ....................................... ...... ... ..... ... . 31 21 

G 3/S3 Operations ..... .......... .................................. ........ . . 36 33 

G4/S4 Logistics .... ...... .......... ... ............. ...... ............... .. 59 57 

GS Civil Affairs ........................................................... .. 12 12 

Congressional Relations ... ..... ... . .. ..... ........................ . 2 2 

Domestic Emergencies .......................................................... . 9 9 

Examination and Critique ..................................................... . 31 31 

Field Engineering and Mine Warfare .. ... ....... ..... ................. . 6 6 

Geopolitics ............................................................................. . 54 54 

Joint Civilian Orientation Conference .............. .. 24 0 

Methods of Instruction ....................... .............................. ..... . 21 7 

Military Justice and Administrative Boards ...... .................. . 18 12 

Nuclear Weapons Employment ............................................ . 72 60 

Organization for National Security ..................................... .. 12 8 

Public Speaking ... .................................................................. . 66 58 

Role of the WAC ..... ................ ... ..... ..... ............................... . 15 3 

Signal Commun ications ...... ............ . ........ ....... ... ........ ........... . 21 9 

Staff Writing ......................................................................... . 54 36 

Survival, Evasion, and Escape ........................................... . . 3 3 

Theater Army ...................................................... . 45 18 

Subtotal ........ ............. ... ..... ..... ..... ..... . ...................... ~~~~ 611 538 

Nonacademic Subj ects: 

Physical Conditioning .................................................. ........ . . 50 12 

Optional Film Program ......... ................................................ . 22 0 

Commandant's T ime, Open Time.. . ............................... . 60 27 

Processing, Graduation .... . .. ..... ............................... 1---=+----'-' 37 11 

Subtotal ............ ... ....................... . 169 50 
426 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 12-WAC OFFICER CAREER COURSE, 1960-Continued 

[Peacetime: 20 Weeks, 880 Hours; Mobilization: 12 Weeks, 588 Hours) 

Subje<:1 

Total ........................................................................ . 

Hours 

880 

Mobilization 

S88 

Source: Appendix AJ- 2, Historical Report, WAC C&S, 1962- 64, p. 429, ODWAC 

Ref File, WAC Center, eMH. 
Appendix C 

KEY PERSONNEL 

TABLE I3- DIRECTORS AND D EPUTY DIRECTORS, W OMEN'S ARMY 

CORPS, 1942- 1978 

~ s..:rvcd 

Directors 

Col l Ovcla Culp Hobby ....................... 16 May 1942- 11 Jut 1945 

Col Westrny Battle Boyce ..................... 12 lui 1945-4 Mar 1947 

Col Mary A. Hallaren ........................... 5 Mar 1947- 6 May 1947 (Acti ng) 

7 May 1947- 2 Jan 1953 

Collrcnc O. Galloway .......................... J Jan 1953- 2 Jan 1957 

Col Mary L. Milligan Rasmuson .......... 3 Jan 1957- 31 lui 1962 

Col Emily C. Gorman ........................... 1 A ug 1962- 31 lui 1966 

BrigGen Elizabeth P. Hoising ton ......... 1 Aug 1966-31 lui 197 1 

BrigGen Mild red l. C. Bailey .............. 1 A ug 1971-3 1 lui 1975 

BrigGen Mary E. Clarke ................ ....... 1 Aug 1975- 28 Apr 1978 

Deputy Directors 

LtCol Jessie P. Rice ............................... I Mar 1944-27 May 1945 

LtCol Wcstray Ballic Boyce ................. 28 May 1945- 11 Jul 1945 

LtCoI I'lelen M. H. Woods ................... 12 Jul 1945- 28 Feb 1946 

Vacant. .................................................... 1 Mar 1946-19 Jun 1946 

LtCol Mary A. Hallaren ....................... 20 Jun 1946-4 Ma r 1947 

Vacant... .................................................. 5 Mar 1947-4 A ug 1947 

LtCol Mary L. Milligan ........................ 5 Aug 1947-4 Aug 1952 

Vacan t ..................................................... 5 Aug 1952- 2 Jan 1953 

LtCol Emil y C. Gorman ....................... 3 Jan 1953-2 Jan 1957 

LtCol Anne E. Sweency ....................... 3 Jan 1957- 2 Jan 196 1 

LtCot Lucile G. Odbert ........................ 3 Jan 1961 - 2 Jan 1963 

LtCol Mary E. Kell y ............................. 3 Jan 1963-3 1 Jul 1967 

Col Maric Kehrer .................................. I Aug 1967- 31 Jan 1971 

Col Bettie J. Mordcn ............................. I Feb 197 1- 31 May 1972 (Acting) 

Col Maida E. Lambeth .......................... I J un 1972-31 Aug 1975 

Col Ed ith M. Hinton ............................. I Sep 1975- 28 Apr 1978 

, Rn"k sholl''' is highest grade held in Ihnl posilion. 

Source: Key WAC PerSOnnel. ODWAC Ref File. e MU. 
428 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 14- WAC STAFF ADVISERS, MAJOR COMMANDS 

Firsl US Army, Governor's Islal/d, NY 

l Ull 48 .................... ............................. Maj Charlee L. Ke ll y 

Jan 53 .................................................. LlCol Lillian F. Foushee 

Aug 56 ................................................. LlCo! Norma M. Flachsland 

lUll 58 .................................................. LICol Et hel C. Munson 

Sep 62 .................................................. LICo! Annie G. Lancer 

Jan 66 .................................................. First and Second US Armies consolidated as 

First US Army at Fort Meade, MD 

Jan 66 ..... ..... ........................................ LlCo] Virginia R. D ead y 

Jun 67 ..................... ..... ........................ LtCol Frances M. Yoniac k 

Jun 69 ... ..... .......................................... LtCoI Edith M. Hinton 

Ju l 71 ................. ... ............................ ... Col Frances M. Yo niack 

May 73 ............... ................................. Position Deletcd 

Secolld US Army, Fort George G. Meade, MD 

Mar 47 ................................................ . 

JuIl 48 ................................................. . 

May 51 ............................................... . 

Apr 53 ................................................ . 

Dec 55 ................................................ . 

Jul 58 .................................................. . 

Oct 60 ............................................ ..... . 

Dec 62 ................................................ . 

Dec 64 ........................ ........... .. . 

Jan 66 ................................................. . 

Third US Army, Fort M cPherson. GA 

JUII 48 ................................................ . 

Oct 52 ................................................ . 

Fcb 54 ....... ......... ..... .......................... .. 

Aug 54 ...... ......................................... . 

Nov 57. 

Capt Catherine J. Lyons 

Maj Sue Lync h 

LtCol Emily C. Gorman 

Maj Pauline V . Lillc h 

LtCol Nora G. Springfield 

Maj Cora M. Foster 

LlCol Eunit y F. Eld erdice 

LtCoI Maribeth C. Simpson 

LlCol Virg inia R. Deady 

First and Second US Armies conso lidated as 

First US Army at Fort Meade, MD 

LlCol Mary M. Pug h 

Maj Rebecca S. Parks 

LICol Verna A. McCluskey 

Maj N. Margaret Young 

LICol Lillian F. Foushee 

Mar 60 ... ... . .............................. LlCo! Helen F. Brecht 

Ju162. . ........ ..... ......................... LlCollrcnc V. MUllster 

Aug 63 .............. .................................. LlCo! Bell y T. McCormac k 

OCI 65 ................. ................................. LICo! lona S. Connol1 y 

Aug 68 ................................................. LICol Ruth M. Isham 

Nov 72 ................................................. LlCol Angelina J. Previto 

Jul 73 ................................................... Third US Army disestablished 

Fourth US Army, Fort Sam 110uStOIl, TX 

Mar 47 . . ................................. Capt Sara L. Sturg is 

Jun 48 .. .............. ... ....................... ....... Maj Sel ma L. Hcrbe rt 
APPENDlXC 

TABLE 14-WAC STAFF ADVISERS, MAJOR COMMANDSContinued 

Jan ~ ................................................. . 

M.ar 52 ................................................ . 

Mar 54 ................................................ . 

Dec 57 ................................................ . 

Det 60 ............................ ..................... . 

Feb 63 ................................................. . 

Aug 65 ................................................ . 

Aug 66 ................................................ . 

Mar 68 ................................................ . 

Aug 68 ................ ........... ... ................. . 

Apr 71 ............................................... .. 

Maj Robin Ell iott 

LlCo! A nne E. Sweeney 

LICol A rlene G. Scheidenhelm 

LICol Lois W. Ochoa 

LtCo] Ol ive E. Mills 

LlCoI Catherine H. Foster 

LiCol Marjorie E. Schulten 

LICol Emma M. Baird 

LlCoi Maxene M. Baker 

LlCol Lou Ann Moon 

LlCo! Mary J. Sansing 

429 

Jul 71 .................... ..... ........................ . Fourth and Fifth US Armies consolidated as 

Firth US Army al Fort Sam Houston , TX 

Fifth US Army. Fori Sheridall. IL 

Mar 47 ..................... ........................... . 

Jun48 ................................................. . 

Aug 49 ................................................ . 

Jan 53 ................................................. . 

Aug 56 ............................................... .. 

Jan 59 ......................... ........... . 

Sep 62 ..... ............................................ . 

Feb 64 .. ....................... ... ..................... . 

Jul 66 ................................................. . 

Maj Evelyn A. Ro throck 

Capt Mary J. Rega n 

Maj Virgi nia M. Mathew 

LlCol Marjorie C. Power 

LICol Sara L. Sturgis 

LtCol Elizabeth A. Ru tl edge 

LlCol Maxene M. Baker 

LlCol Irma V. Bouton 

LlCol Elizabeth A. Harth 

Jul 67 ................................................... LlCol Helen D. Sleir 

Jan 69 .................................................. LlCol Helen F. Dinneen 

Sep 70 .................................................. LlCoI Angelina J. Previto 

JuI 71.............. .. ..................... Fourth and Fifl h US Armies consolidated as 

Fifl h US Army at Fort Sam Houston. TX 

Jul 71 .............. .. ........................ LlCol Mary J. Sansing 

Jul 73 ................................................... Position Deleted 

Six th US Army, Presidio oj SOI/ Francisco. CA 

Mar 47 ................................................. Maj Helen H. Hart 

JUI1 48 .................................................. Capt Verna A. McCluskey 

OCI 48 .................................................. Maj. Ruby E. Herman 

Dec SO ................................................. Maj Harriet N. Moses 

Apr 54 ................................................. LlCol Elizabeth C. Smith 

Apr 55 ................................................. LtCol Anne E. Sweeney 

Sep 58 .................................................. LtCol Lenore M. Price 

Aug 6 1 ................................................. LlCo l Hope W. Metzger 

Ocl 65 .................................................. LlCol Muriel J. Janikula 
430 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 14- WAC STAFF ADVISERS, MAJOR COMMANDSContinued 

Oct 67 ........................... ................... .. 

Aug 69 ... . 

Mar 71 .... ......... .......... . 

Aug 72 ....... .............. .. . 

Dec 74 ................... .......... ................. . 

LICol Eli zabeth A. Harth 

LtCol A. Nora Howes 

LICol Mary E. Clarke 

Col Frances Weir 

Position Deleted 

Miliwry District of Washingtoll, Fort Lesley 1. McNair. Washingtoll, DC 

Feb 47 .. .............................................. . Capl Elizabeth Mac hen 

JUIl 48........................................... Capl Vera E. VOII Stein 

Feb 49 ............................................. ..... Maj Cloe Doyle 

Feb 51............................... .. ............... Maj Annie V. Ga rdner 

Oct 52 .................................................. Maj Mary E. Kell y 

Jan 55.................................... . LlCol A lice A. Parrish 

Ju l 57................................. LtCo! Luta C. McGrath 

Sep 59............................. ........ LtCo! Sue Lynch 

Dec 60.................................... LtCo! Mary S. Blake 

Nov 62 ..................... ............ . 

Aug 65 .......................... ....... . 

Jan 68 ........................... ... . .. 

Sep 69 .............................. . 

Oct 72 ............. ................... .......... ...... . 

Jul 75 .. 

LtCo! Patricia E. McCormic k 

LlCo! Carol M . Williams 

LlCol Sarah F. Niblac k 

LtCoI Janet E. Zieg ler 

Col Margaret J. Madden 

Posit ion Deleted 

US Army, Europe, Frallkfurl (/943- 1948) & Heidelberg, GermallY (1948- / 976) 

May 46 ..................................... Maj Frances Sue Cornick 

Ju l 48....... .. .................................... Maj Irene O. Galloway 

Sep 52 ................................. LlCol Mary L. Milligan 

May 56 ........ .......................... . LtCo! Margaret A. Kimplon 

Sep 58....................................... . LlCol Nora G. Springfield 

Jan 61 .......................... LlCol Anne E. Sweeney 

Oct 62.... ................ LlCol Marie Keh re r 

JUIl 64.... ................. .. ................ LlCol Mary G . McDonald 

Jan 67 .... .. ............... ................... LtCol Do rotha J. G arrison 

Jun 69 .............. ............... ...... ........... .. 

Apr 71 ................................................ . 

Jul 72 ........................ . 

Mar 74 .................................. . 

Aug 75 .................................... . 

May 76 ................................ .. 

LICol F rances M. Yo niack 

Col Mary J. G uyette 

Col Frances V. Chaffi n 

LICol Jocelyn A. Whit e 

LICol Colleen L. Brooks 

Position Deleted 

US Army, Pacific, Toyko, Japan (1946- 1959) & ForI Shafter, HI (1959-1974) 

Nov 46... .. ........................................ LICol Pauli ne V. Linch 

Nov 48 ..... ... . ................................ ....... LlCol Mary K. Moynahan 
APPENDIXC 

TABLE 14- WAC STAFF ADVISERS, MAJOR COMMANDSContinued 

Jan 50 ................................................. . 

May 52 ............................... . 

Apr 54 ................................................ . 

Dec 56 ................................................ . 

Oct 58 ................................................. . 

May 60 .............................................. . 

OcI63 .......... . 

JUIl 66 .............................. .................. . 

Aug 68 .. ................ ............................. . 

Mar 70 ............................................ . 

Ju l 71 .................................................. . 

Aug 74 .......................................... . 

LlCol F. Marie Clark 

LlCol Lillian Harris 

LlCol Helen H. Bouffier 

LlCol Annie V. Gard ner 

LlCol Sue 8. Trulock 

LtCol Catheri ne J. Lyons 

LlCol Martha M. BOllnel' 

LlCol Leta M. Frank 

LlCol Eu nice E. Shanaberger 

Col Judith C. Bennett 

Col Alice A. Long 

Position Deleted 

WAC Advisers to (lie Republic of Korea Army, Seoul, Korea 

Feb 56 .................................................. LICol Lenore M. Price 

Feb 57 .................................................. Maj Georgia H. Smilh 

Feb 58 .................................................. Maj Charlolle I. Woodworth 

Mar 59 ................................................. Maj Margot L. Harris 

Mar 60 ................................................. Maj Helen D. Steir 

Feb 61 .................................................. Maj Mildred M. Ferguson 

May 62 ..................................... LtCol Ru lh D. Thompson 

Aug 63.... .. ........... LlCol Mary J. Guyette 

Sep 65..... ................................. LICol A lice A. Long 

Jul 67........................................ LlCol Bell y R. Fraser 

JuI68 ................................................... Maj Claire A. Archambault 

JuI70 ................................................... LtCol Mary J. Sansi ng 

Jul 71 ................................................... LICol Arlene G. Burbank 

Aug 72 ................................................. Maj Flora O. Thompson 

Jun 73 .................. .. ........... Position Deleted 

US Army Air Defense Command, Colorado Springs, CO 

Oct 56 .............................. Maj Cynth ia J. Van Auke ll 

Dec 59................... LICol Margaret R. Wharton 

Feb 63.................. LICol Anne E. Sweeney 

Dec 63................... Maj lona S. Connolly 

Nov 65................. Maj Helen L. Peterson 

Dec 67 ................................................. Maj Mary E. Edwards 

Ju l 69......... . ................................. Capl Ma ry C. Willis 

JUIl 70 ................................................ Maj Rose A. Ral ph 

Jun 72 ......... .............. . .............. ....... ... Position Deleted 

US Army Contil/el/tal CommOl/d, Fort Monroe, VA 

Jan 57 ................................................. LtCol Emily C. Gorman 

431 
432 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

TABLE 14-WAC STAFF AOVISERS, MAJOR COMMANOSContinued 

lui 60 ................................................. . 

lui 62 ............................... ..... .. . 

lui 63 .. 

Jun64 ... 

Sep 67 .," ................... ............... ..... ..... . 

LlCol Irene M. Sorrough 

LlCo! Helen F. Brecht 

LICol Margaret A. Long 

LlCol Rosa T. Lawton 

Position Deleted 

SollfC(,: ODWAC Reference File, Key WAC Person nel. eMf!. 

TABLE I5-WAC CENTER COMMANDERS A N D ASSISTANT 

COMMANDANTS, WAC SCHOOL 

WAC Gel/ler Commallders 

ForI Lee, Virginia 

Maj Annie V. Gardner ......................... . 

LICo! Elizabeth C. Smith ................. . 

LlCol Ruby E. Herman. .. . . ............. . 

LtCol lrene O. Galloway ... ................. .. 

LtCol Eleanore C. Sulli van ................. .. 

ForI MeClellal/. Alabama 

LtCol Eleanore C. Sulli van .................. . 

LtCol F. Marie Clark ........ 

LtCol Frances M. Lathrope .......... ....... . 

LtCol Marjorie C. Power ..................... . 

LlCol Lucile G . Odbert ....................... . 

LICol Sue Lynch ................................. .. 

LtCo! Elizabeth P. Hoisi ngton ..... . 

LtCol Elizabeth H. Branch .................. . 

Col Maxene B. MichL ......................... . 

Col Dorotha l . Garrison .................... .. 

Col Mary E. Clarke .................. . 

Col Shirley R. Heinze ..... . 

Col Lorraine A. Rossi ......................... .. 

Dales Served 

14 lun 1948- 3 Aug 1948 (Acting) 

4Aug 1948- 3 1 Jan 195 1 

I Feb 1951- 23 Nov 1952 

24 Nov 1952- 25 Dec 1952 

26 Dec 1952- 9 lun 1954 

10 lUll 1954- 18 lun 1955 

191un 1955- 10 Oct 1956 

11 Oct 1956- 30 May 1958 

31 May 1958- 30 Sep 1959 

I Oct 1959- 2 Jan 196 1 

3 Jan 196 1- 31 Oct 1964 

I Nov 1964- 14 lui 1966 

15 lui 1966- 29 Aug 1968 

30 Aug 1968- 14 Aug 1970 

15 Aug 1970- 14 Sep 1972 

15 Sep 1972- 4 Sep 1974 

5 Sep 1974- 1 lun 1976 

2 lUll 1976- 30 Dec 1976 

Assistal/l CommondanlS. WAC Schoof 

ForI Lee, Virginia 

Capt Margaret M. Thornton ..... 

Maj Billie L Murray ........ 

Maj Sue Lynch ... 

Maj Lau ra M. St. Clair .. .. ................ .. 

Fort McClellan. Alabama 

Maj Lau ra M. St. Clair . . ................. .. 

LlCo! Beryl M. Simpson .................... .. 

LlCo! Charlotte E. Rhodes ................. .. 

LICo! Kath ryn 1. Royster .................... . 

10 Aug 1948- 12 Sep 1950 

J3 Sep 1950- 11 lUll 195\ 

12 lun 1951 - 15 Apr 1953 

30 Apr 1953- 9 lun 1954 

10 lUri 1954- 28 Aug 1955 

29 Aug 1955- 14 May 1956 

15 May 1956- 31 Oct 1958 

31 Oct 1958- 16 Sep 1960 
APPENDIX C 

TABLE IS-WAC CENTER C OMMAN DERS A N D ASSISTA NT 

C OMMAN D ANT S. WAC SCHOOL-Continued 

Lleol Margaret E. Brewslcr. ............... . 

Lleo) Beatrice L. Burke ....... . 

LlCoI Rosa T. Lawton ........... . 

Lleol Marie Kehrer. .................... ........ .. 

LICol Elizabeth H. Branch .... ..... ..... .... . 

Lleol Eunice E. Shanaberger. ............ .. 

L leol Maida E. Lambeth ......... ....... . 

Col Georgia O. Hill ........... . 

Col 10all M. Ulrich ........... . 

Lleol G race L. Roberts .......... ............ . 

Col Edith M. Hinton .... 

Lleol Margaret M. RaidmclS ....... .. ..... . 

Col Kill M. MacMichael.. ............ ........ . 

Col Mary J. Grimes .. ........ ......... . 

LICol Mary E. Edwards ..................... .. 

17 Sep 1960- 12 Mal" 1962 

12 Mar 1962- 21 Dec 1962 

21 Dec 1962- 19 J UIl 1964 

20 l Ull 1964- 23 J UIl 1966 

24 JUIl 1966-9 A ug 1966 

JO A ug 1966- 5 Jul 1968 

6 Jul 1968- 30 Jun 1970 

1 Jul 1970-29 Jan 1972 

30 Jan 1973-30 Jul 1973 

31 Jul 1972-12 Sep 1973 (Acting) 

13 Sep 1973- 22 M.1Y 1974 

23 May 1974- 8 Sep 1974 (Acting) 

9 Sep 1974- 11 Jun 1976 

12 Jun 1976- 12 A ug 1976 

13 A ug 1976-3 1 Dec 1976 

ScI/ret: ODWAC Ref File, Key WAC Personnel, e MI-!. 

433 
434 THE WOMEN'S ARM Y CORPS, 1945-1978 

TABLE 16 - BATIA LION COMMANDERS AT THE WAC C ENTERS 

Fort Lee. Vi/gillia 

h;r Battalioll 

Maj Annie V. Gardner ....................................... " ................ . 

Maj Verna A. McCluskey ....................................................... . 

Maj Emily C. Gorman ................................................................... ...... . 

Maj Lula C. McGrath .................................................................. . 

Maj Ethel M. Hooper. . ................................................... . 

Maj Kat hryn J. Royster ..................................... .......................... . 

Maj Charlotte L Woodworth ............................................... . 

(Title changed to WAC Training Battalion, 13 Sep 1953) 

2d Balfalioll 

Maj Ruth S. Reece ... 

Maj Emil y C. Newell 

Maj Cha rlotte E. Rhodes .. ........... .... . 

Maj Kathryn J. Royster ... . 

(2e1 Battalion inac ti vated, 10 Apr 1952) 

3d Baltalioll 

Capt Verna A. McCluskey .......... . 

Maj Marga re t R. Wharton ................................................ .... . 

Maj Lillian P. Foushee ............ ............................................................ . 

Maj Edmce S. McGhay . ............... . . ..... ................... . 

(3d Battalion inac tivated, 25 Jul 1951) 

Fori McClellall, Alabama 

WAC Training BlIIlaiiOIl 

Maj Cha rlotte I. Woodworth ........ .. . 

Maj Jimmie B. Dollahite ................. . 

Maj Mary L. Sullivan ..................... ........ . ......... ... ...... ......... . 

LICol Ho pe W. Me tzger ... ................................................................... . 

LlCol Kath leen B. Harris.... . . ........ ...................... . 

LtCol Martha C. Eliker ....... . 

LlCol N. Margaret Young ..... ................ . ............ . 

Maj Doroth y L. Watson .... ................................................... . 

Lteol Beltie J. Morden .... . ............. ... ......................................... ........ . 

Maj Eleano r C. Hutchins .... . 

LlCol Mary E. Clarke .... ..... . ........ .... . 

LtCol Mary R. Wil liams ... . 

LlCol Audrey A. F ishe r .................. ... ........... ..... ... ... ...... ..... ........ . 

1948- 1949 

1949- 1950 

1950- 1950 

1950- 195 1 

1951- 1952 

1952- 1953 

1953- 1954 

1948- 1949 

1949- 1950 

1950- 195 1' 

1951 - 1952 

1948- 1949 

1949- 1950 

195 1- 195 1 

195 1- 195 1 

1954- 1955 

1955- 1957 

1957- 1959 

1959- 196 1 

196 1- 1962 

1962- 1963 

1963- 1964 

1964- 1965 

1965- 1966 

1966- 1967 

1967- 1968 

1968- 1970 

1970-1972 
APPENDIX C 435 

TABLE J6- BATTA LION COMMANDERS AT THE WAC CENTERSContinued 

Lleol Edith M. Hinton .... 

(Title changed to \sl Balla lion, 1 luI 1973) 

lSI Bat/alion 

Lle ol Vash ti V. JeITeries .... ........... . 

Lleo] Ann B. Smith ... 

Lleo] Marguerite L. Capacio .. . . .............. .................................... .. 

Lleo! Eu nice M. Wright . .. .......... ..................................... . 

Lleol Myrna H. Williamson ......................... ..... .................................. . 

(1st Battalion transferred to Trai ning Brigade. US Army Military Police & Chemical Schools/Trni ning Center, Fort 

McClellan, 1 Dec 1976) 

2d HallaliOIl 

Maj Carolyn H. Cain . . .. ..... ........................................ . 

Lleol Claire A. Archambilult ........................ .. 

LlCo] Mary J. Grimes 

LlCol Arlene G . Burba nk 

Lleol Evelyn P. Foote .............................. .. 

(2d Battalio n transferred to Training Brigade, US A rmy Military Po lice & Chemical Schools/Training Center, Fort 

McClellan, 1 Dec 1976) 

3d BalfaliOIl 

LtCo l Nelda R. Cade .............................. .. 

(3d Battalion inactivated, 31 Dec 1974) 

SOIl/W: ODWAC Rer File. Key WAC Person nel. eM I·1. 

1972- 1973 

1973- 1975 

1975- 1976 

1976- 1977 

1977- 1977 

1977- 1979 

1972- 1972 

1972- 1974 

1974- 1976 

1976- 1977 

1977- 1979 

1974- 1974 

Appendix D 

WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS UNIFORMS 1942- 1978 

Olive Drab and Khaki Vlllforms, 1942- / 95/ 

When the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was established 

in May 1942, the Army accepted Director Ovela Culp Hobby's recommendation that women's unifo rms be of the same mate.-ials and colors as 

the men's. This kept uniform costs low and helped women blend into the 

Army scene al posts and camps th roughout the Uni ted States and overseas. 1 While the Corps remained an auxi liary, the Army issued unifo rms 

to WAAC officers and enlisted women free of charge. However, after 1 

September 1943 w hen the W omen's Army Corps (WAC) became an 

integ ral part of the Army of the United States. WAC officers and wa rrant 

officers had to buy their own military clothing, initially using a one-time 

uniform allowance given them by the Army. En listed women continued 

to receive their unifo rms free as did enlisted men.

2 Neithe r ma le soldiers 

nor WACs (a fter 1 September 1943) could wear civilian clothes off dut y 

until Septembe r 1946. 3 By the end of 1944, the Army Nurse Corps had 

adopted the WAC service unifo rm, raincoat, overcoat, and accessories. 

The ANC cap, handbag, insignia, off-dut y dress, and hospital d uty uniform remained distinctive items of wear for the nurses. 4 

In this discussion of uniforms, warrant officers are included in the term 

officers unless specifi cally excluded. But, whether WAAC o r WAC, 

commissioned, warrant officers, or enlisted, the women wo re the style 

unifo rm approved for their era. Officers' uniforms in general had several 

distinctive featu res that set them apa rt from the unifo rms wo rn by enlisted personnel. For example. officers' uniforms had shou IdeI' loops o r tabs 

o n o ute r-wear items such as coats, jackets, and shirts so that rank insignia 

could be attached. Officers' uniforms also had a quarter-inch wide strip of 

black bra id sewn four inches above the cuff of their winter uniform 

jackets and overcoats; khaki bra id was sewn o n their summer unifo rms. 5 

I Mallie E. Treadwell. The WOIII<'IIS Army Corps. Uniled Slales Army in World W<lr [I Series 

(Washington. DC GPO, 1954) p. 37. 

2 Ibid .. r.Bl. 

3 WD Cir 281. Sec VII. 20 Sep 46. CMH Library. 

4 Erna Risch. A Wardrobe for Womell ill (he Army. QMC Historical Studies. No. 12. Oct 45. Office 

of the Qu~rlertl13Sler Gener;}l. p. 109. eM 1-1 Library . 

• Th,> Officer:. GI/ide (Harrisburg. I'A: Mililary Service Publishillg COl11p~ny. (944). pr. 141 - 42. 
438 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

And because officers purchased their own uniforms, they usually had a 

choice of fabrics in which they could have their uniforms made. On 

ga rrison caps, orticers (male and fema le) wore an edging braid of gold 

and black; enlisted personnel wore a braid with their branch colors, 

which, for the WAC, we re moss g reen and old gold. G 

T he World War II WAC winter service uniform consisted of a wool, 

o live-drab skirt, jacket, and cap with visor, commonl y called "the Hobby 

Hat" (Plate I). A bel t originall y issued with the uniform (summer and 

wi nter) was eliminated in late 1942 because it wore o ul the material 

beneath it. The summer service uniform was identical in style to the 

winl er uniform but was made of 8.2-ounce colto n material in the khaki 

shade (Plate 2).7 

Few c hanges occurred in the WAC se rvice uniform until 1944. T hen, 

in August, the women received a garrison ca p, commo nl y called an 

"overseas cap," as a rep lacement for the Hobby hat that was difficult to 

c lean, bloc k, and store. T he o li ve-drab plastic butto ns imprint ed with the 

distinctive WAAC eagle- sometimes ca lled the "WAAC buzzard" because of its lopsided appearance- were replaced by gold-colored metal 

buttons with the United States coa t of arms imprinted on them. T he hat 

insignia also changed from the WAAC buzzard to the U.S. coat of arms. 

And, because the heavy cotto n material of the summe r unifo rm wrinkled 

easil y, buckled, and rode up, a tropical worsted fabric was substitut ed 

that was dry cleanabl e, wri nkle resistant, and light in weigh t fo r summer 

wear (Plate 3).8 For o ff-dut y wear, WACs rece ived a uniform dress- o ne 

for winte r that was a horizon ta n (g rayish-pink) colo r in a wool crepe 

fabric (Plate 4), and o ne fo r summer that was a pa le c ream beige in a 

rayon-shantung fabric (Plate 5).9 Issue o f the off-duty d resses was discontinued in June 1949, but their wear was authorized until June 1954 when 

all World War II women's uniform items were declared obsolete. 10 A lso 

in 1944, WACs stationed in Europe received a waist length, o live-drab 

wool jac ket, called a "batt le jacket," that could be worn with matc hing 

skirt or slac ks that were already in the supply system (Plate 6).11 In April 

1945, the batt le jacket was aut horized for opt ional purchase and wear by 

officers and en listed WOmen in the continent al Unit ed States (CONUS). 12 

WAC officers lIsuall y purchased their summer service unifo rm in the 

tropicat worsted mat erial. For w inte r, they usuall y chose the popular 

"pin ks and greens" combination that included a se rvice jac ket in a da rk 

o li ve-d rab (fo rest green) shade in a wool barathea o r elastique fabric and 

• Risch. A Wordro«/or WOIIII'II ill Ilw Army. p. 17. 

1 Ibid .. pp. 42-44. 

• Ibid .. p. 48. 

• Ibid .• pp. 56- 57. 

'" WD Cir 258. 24 Jun 47. and Sit 600- 37- 2. Change 4. 12 J uu 53. C MII Librar~·. 

"AR 600-39. 5 Jan 44. CMIl Library. 

R 600- 37. 16 Apr 43, CI'.Ul Libmry. 
APPENDIX D 439 

a skirt in a light oli ve-drab shade (pinkish g ray) In a wool twill fabric 

(Plate 7).13 

T he only dress uni form for formal wear thai was authori zed WAC 

office rs du ri ng World War 11 and the postwar period was the white 

uniform. It was made in the same style as the servi ce unifo rm and was 

worn with white accessories (cap, purse, shoes, gloves) and a black fourin-hand tie (Plate 8). 14 T he while uniform could be worn off duty or on 

duty for formal or ceremonial occasions during the summer months or 

year around in tropical climates. II was an optional pu rchase unifo rmthis mean t that the individ ual authori zed to wea r a certa in un iform could 

chose whether to buy it. T he while un iform was not authori zed for wear 

by enlisted women ull til 195 1 (optio nal purc hase). 15 

Accessories for the WAC service unifo rm for office rs and enlisted 

women included a lo ng-sleeved cotton khaki shirt, colto n khaki tie, russel 

oxfo rds wit h a o ne-alld-a-half-inch heel, and a russet, ma il-pouch style, 

leather handbag with a sho ulder strap. For out er wear the WACs had a 

wool, oli ve-d rab ove rcoat (Plate 9), an o live-d rab raincoat with attached 

hood, and an oli ve green utilit y (all-weather) coat wit h bulton-on parka 

(Plate 10). T heir wardrobe also included ankle-high fi eld shoes, call ed 

"Little Abners" by the women; tennis shoes; galoshes; seasonal brown 

leather and tan cotton g lo ves; an olive-drab, light wool scarf; a ta n 

ca rdigan sweater; summer and win ter khaki-colored nylon-trico t underwea r (bra, panties, g ird le, slip); cotton and Oannel paj amas; cotton and 

rayon stockings in a sun tan shade; and cotton lisle ankl ets in the khaki 

shade. 1 G 

On d uty, WAC officers usuall y wore the prescribed service unifo rm. 

Enlisted women whose d uties were administrative or light repair and 

maintenance wo re the season's service unifo rm (skirt, shirt, tie, garrison 

cap) with or without the sweater o r service j acket. Those enlisted women 

assig ned to med ical or denIal du lies initi all y wore a blue cotto n c repe 

dress, formerly worn by Army nurses. In 1945, howeve r, it was replaced 

by a short-sleeved, rose-beige cotton d ress (Plate 11). 17 T he wo rk uniform fo r enlisted women assigned as mechanics o r as c hauffeurs, bus, o r 

truck d rivers was a one-piece covera ll made of cotto n jean cloth in the 

khaki shade (Plate 12).18 Earl y in 1943, the coverall was repl aced by dark 

herringbone twill (HBT) tro users and shirt for year-ro und wear (Plate 

13).19 HBTs were also wo rn for fi eld trainin g and as an o utdoo r wo rk 

'" I{isch, II Wllrdrobe fur Wom('11 ill Ih<' Army. p. SO. 

" AR 600- 37, 16 Apr 45, CMH Library. 

I . SR 600- 37- 2. 16 Jul 51. CMH Library. 

16 AR 600- 39, 5 hn 44, eMil Library. 

" Risch, II Wardrob<! for Womell ill Ihl' Army. p. 96. 

~ Ibid .. p. 34. 

~ Ibid .. p. 138. 
440 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

unifo rm. In 1944 cotton khaki slacks, shirts. and caps became the standa rd 

issue fo r women assigned for d uty in the Southwest Pacifi c A rea and 

ot her warm weat her c limates (Plate 14),20 T he specia l d uty uniform for 

women assigned to o utdoor work or duty in cold weat her climates 

included olive-d rab wool serge slacks with wool shi rts, a fi eld jacket with 

a wool liner, wool g loves wit h leather oute r gloves, and an o live-d rab 

ga rrison cap. In hazardous areas, on fi eld exercises, or d uring alerts, a 

helmet liner und hel met were issued to the wome n (Plate /5).'1.1 

For ph ysica l training, sports, and fatigue d uties (kitchen police. etc.), 

enlisted women received a g reen and white seersucke r (Ia ler brown and 

white) d ress with matc hing bloomers o r shorts called an exercise suit 

(Plafe /6). With it, the women wore lennis shoes or fi eld shoes wilh 

collon or wool anklets, dependi ng upo n the season or occasio n, along 

wil h a fatigue hat Ihal had a wide brim and a crown that came to a 

peak.22 

During the postwar era ( 1945- 1950), wome n's un iforms c hanged 

little. In Ma rch 1946, women could buy and wear brown leather pumps 

of plain design (i.e., closed toe and heel, no decorat ive features) o n 

d uty.23 The wea ri ng o f pumps off d uly had been autho rized in March 

1944 (optiona l purc hase) to wear with the off-dUly d resses.24 In 1946, 

nylon hose were issued for the fl rsl lime to A rmy women.2S It was the 

fashio n of the day that women's hose, except cotton, had a seam down 

the back of the leg, and military women had to be diligent in ensuring 

that this seam was always stra ig ht. T he last uniform c hange in the 

postwar era was the substitutioll of a dark o live-drab tie in 1949 that 

replaced the cotton kh aki necktie. The change applied to bot h men's and 

women's uniforms. T he da rk tie provided a good contrast aga inst the 

khaki shirt and improved the overall appearance of the A rmy uniform. 26 

." Ibid .. 1'. 139. 

2 1 Ibid .. pp. 80, 126, 13 l. 

.~ AR 600- 39. 5 Jan 44. CI-IH Library. 

2~ AR 600- 37. Change 5. 10 Apr 46. CMH Librar)·. 

U WD Cir 47. C t-.Ul Lihr"r)" .5 AR 600- 37. Ch;lllge 5. 10 Apr 46. CMH Library . 

• 6 AR 600- 37- 1. IJ lUll 49. CMH Librnry. 
Pklle /. Enlisted woman in the winter ~c vicc unifoflll ( 1942- 195 1), a dark olived rab wool material wit h malching service cap (the " Hobby l·la."). Officers wore .he 

same uniform. 
P/rlle 2. WAC officer in Ihe summer service unifo rm (1942- 195 1),;1 h CllVy cOUon 

khaki clot h wilh matching service cap. Enlisted women wore the same unifo rm. 
PIMe 1. Enlisted woman in a Slimmer uniform and cap made of a lighter weight 

material (1944- 1951)- a tan tropical worsted cloth. Officers also wore this uniform. 
P/me 4. WAC offi cer in the winte r ofT-dut y dress ( 1944- 1951), a grayish-pink wool 

fllbric. E11listed women also wore this dress. 
\ 

--- • '-' 

P/mc 5. Enlisted woman in the summer off-dul Y dress (1944- 195 1). II creamy pearlwhite rayon shanlung material. Officers also wore this dress. 
Plate 6. Enlisted woman in the winter service uniform with the field jacket called 

the "battle jacket" or " Ike jacket" (1945- 1951), an o liye·drab wool material. Officers also wore this uniform. 
II 

Plule 7. Officer in the semi-dress uniform called the " pinks and greens" uniform 

(1 942- 1954), a dark olive-drab c]astique wool material fo r Ihe jac kcI and a 1igl1l drab 

wool skirt. Enlisted women did not wear this unifo rm. 
• 

Plale 8. Omcer in the while dress uniform (1942- 1951), a tropical worsted material. Enlisted women were authorized \0 wear the while dress ulliform in 1951. 
Plale 9. WAC o fficcr's OVCrCo.1t (1 942- 195 1), an o livc-drnb wool doeskin cloth. 

Enlisted womcn worc the s.1me style coat in a wool serge clo th wit ho ut the 

shoulde r tabs. 
Plate 10. Enlisted woman in [he lllt·weather utility coal (1942- 1951), un olive·drab 

tackle twill material with a liner and a button·on hood. The officers' utililY Co.1t had 

shou lder tabs for insignia of rank. 
Plme II. Enlisted woman in the hospital duty dress ( 1945- 1962 ). a rose-beige (later 

[an) lawn cotton ma[erinl, worn with m:llching garrison cap. This uniform was no[ 

worn by officcrs. 
I'la/(' 12. Enlisted woman in the one-pitte work suit or covcrall ( 1942- 1943). a 

khaki cotton jcan Illllleriai. This unirorm was worn by officers on ly during UllUStHlI 

circumstances. 
PI(lle IJ. Enlis[ed womun in [he two-piece work uniform (1943- 1969), n dark 

herringbone [will (H OT) matcrial. Worn primarily by enl isted womcn, i[ was worn 

by officers when required. 
Pfafe /4. Enlisled woman in lhe hOI weal her field ullifo rlll (1 943- 1954), a kllllki 

1.:0 11 0n poplin material. This uniform was also worn by offi l.:crs under some cirl.: ulll· 

stances. 
Plate 15. WAC omccr in the winter ficld uniform (1944- 1954), cOllsisting of olivcdrab slacks. wool sh irt (worn open or closcd) and field jackct worn with n wool 

serge garrison CHI'. Helmet lincrs and helmets were worn on field exercises. during 

alerts. or while working in hazardous areas. Enlisted women also wore this uniform. 
Platc 16. Enlisted woman in the ycar-round. secrsucker exercise suit worn ror 

Iraining clitsses. for l'IXlrtS. and for raligue dUlies (KP, CIC.), Officcrs (tlso worc th is 

uniform. 
APPENDIX D 457 

The Taupe Ullijorm, / 95 /- / 959 

Arter Congress authorized women in the Regular Army and the 

Army Reserve in 1948, the secretary of the Army app roved the development of a wholly new uniform for women. T he director of the WAC. the 

chief of the Army Nurse Corps, and the chief of the Women's M edical 

Specialist Corps advised representatives of the women's fashion industry 

on fabric and style requi rements. The experts then proceeded to design 

fashio nable new uniforms fo r women. Entries were submitted. and in 1950 

the directors and chiefs of the women's branches and the secretar y of the 

Army approved an ensemble of uniforms designed by Hattie Carnegie. 

one of the foremost women's fashion designers. 27 

Breaking away compl etely from the concept of havi ng women's 

uniforms resemble men's as much as possible, the new service uni fo rm 

featured a brown taupe color, distinctly femi ni ne lines, a nd a light-weight 

wool fabric fo r year-round wear. T he jacket had a round collar, closed 

lapels, fi ve buttons from neck to waist, a nipped-in waistline. slightl y 

padded hipline and shoulders, and two sets of decorati ve pockets (Plate 

17). The service hat had a molded c rown and an up-curving ha lf-brim 

rising on the left side. To balance the roll of the brim, the hat insignia 

was worn off center on the right hand side. The special duty uniform, 

worn for work Ihat requi red slacks, included a wool taupe battle jacket 

and wool taupe slac ks. taupe garriso n ca p, fie ld shoes o r cafe brown 

oxfords. The service uniform ensembl e also included two shirts- a rayon 

broadclot h and a cotton chambray- both lo ng sleeved. The shirts, sometimes called shirtwa ists or wa ists, were wo rn completely buttoned to the 

top; later a necktab was added (Plate /8). When a woman left her 

immediate office or work space, she was required to wear the wool taupe 

jacket. 28 

For summer wear the women received an open-collar, short-sleeved, 

cotton taupe dress with a matc hing garrison cap and tan cotton gloves 

(Plate 19). The dress had pockets in the skirt, antiqued bronze buttons, 

and shoulder loops. For best appeara nce, both dress and cap were lig htl y 

starc hed.29 

Cafe brown accessories- handbag, oxfords, leat her gloves- replaced 

those of fusset brown. Taupe shade hose replaced the brown shade 

nylons issued to enlisted wome n after World Wa r II. Outer garments 

included a wool serge taupe overcoat with bulton-in liner that could be 

worn in both the rai ncoa t and overcoat (Plate 20), a nylon-rayon ta upe 

IT Roll! oJ tl.e W"IC. Srecial T C.\I 35- 1 SO. US WAC CCilicr & School. Aug 7S. p. C- IO. 

aM SR b00- 37- 2. 17 Jul 51. CM II Libmry. 20 Ibid. 
458 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

raincoat with removable hood (Plate 21), and tan rayon c repe scarf with 

frin ged ends. Dull antiqued bro nze buttons and hat insignia replaced the 

shiny brass o nes. In the summer the women wore ta n colton gloves; in 

wi ntcr, cafe brown Icat her gloves. A laupe cardiga n sweater replaced the 

khaki-colored sweater. 30 

In 1949 a moneta ry clothing allowance system had been introduced 

to provide enlisted personnel with a maintenance allowance to replace 

worn -out clo thing. In 195 1 w omen began 10 receive an additional $30 to 

purchase lingerie and $12 to purc hase a pair of pumps o r dress oxfol"ds,3 1 

After Ihis, wome n no longer received lingerie as it ems of issue. Howeve r. 

they continued to receive six pairs of nylo n stocki ngs until 1964, when 

they received $3 to purc hase them instead.32 

T he uniform fo r enlisted women who worked in hospitals and cli nics 

changed in 1951 from the rose-beige cotto n dress to a light tan, lawn 

cotton dress of the same style. In 1958, a light taupe, th ree-piece exercise 

suit (colto n chambray shirt, denim ski rt, and shorts) replaced the twopiece brown and white seersucke r dress and shorts worn for fati gue 

du ties, physical traini ng classes, and spo rts (Plate 22). 33 

The women's whit e unifo rm was restyled in the same desig n as the 

tau pe service un ifo rm and was worn with white accessories but witho ut a 

tie or collar tab (Plate 23). In September 1952, an evening dress unifo rm 

was authorized for wea r by commissioncd and warrant officers. This 

optional purchase ensemble could be worn to formal social func ti ons. It 

consisted of a blue wool princess-style jacket. noor-Iength wool skirt , 

white silk blo use, blue tiara with gold th read embroidery, blue suede 

pumps, w hite kid gloves. and a finger-tip leng th blue wool cape wit h a 

gold rayon lining (Plole 24).34 Few officers other than the directo r of the 

WAC and the c hicfs of the Army's other women's branc hes purc hased 

this uniform because it was so ex pensive. In June 1957, a mo re affo rdable 

dress unifo rm, the Army blue uniform, was autho ri zed as an o ptio nal 

purchase uniform for officers and enlisted womell. Called "dress blues, " 

this blue wool uniform included a white shirt with blac k collar tab. It 

co uld be worn in place of the service unifo rm at offi cial and unofficial 

events when presc ribed. It could be worn with o r without a dark bl ue, 

fi nger-tip length cape with a gold satin lining (Plate 25).:Hi The women's 

dress blue unifo rm incl uded a sho ulder strap o n whic h officers wore their 

~o Ibid. 

~'S R 32- 20- 1. 27 Apr 49 ,ond 7 Dl"C 51. CMI-I Library. 

H A R 700-8400- 1. Change II. 21 Sep 64. p. 59. CM II Ubrary. 

nSR 600- 37- 2. 17 Ju151. CM H Library. 

u SR 600- 37- 10. 16 Sep 52. CMII Ubf:!ry. 

3& SR 600- 37- 2. Change 7. 13 Jut 57. C M ... Libntry. 
APPENDIX D 459 

insignia of rank, but in October 1959 the Army Uniform Board authorized 

women o ffi cers to wear shoulder boards with their insignia of rank as 

male officers did. 36 

T he taupe uniform proved unpopular from the moment it was issued 

in 1951. Orticers disliked giving up their beloved "pink s and greens" for 

the dull taupe shade. Enlisted women complained abou t working in a 

fitted jac ket and shinwaisl both of whic h had 10 be worll bulloned to the 

neck most of the time. The light-weight wool clo th shrank, losl its shape, 

and, aft er seve ral dry cleanings, wrinkled easily. It was too wa rm to wea r 

in the summer. The one-sided brim made the hat dirticult to wear correctly. And, despite the claims of the fabric manufac turer, the laupe ra incoat 

was not water repellent. Adding to those complaints, man y women 

missed the highly polished brass insig nia and buttons, a nd many thought 

that the taupe shade was unbecoming to their complexions. 37 In 1953, to 

alleviate some of the problems, women we re authorized to purc hase the 

taupe unifo rm in cooler and more wrinkle-resista nt fabrics (tropical worsted, etc.).38 In another concessio n, during the summer o f 1954 o nly, 

officers and enlisted women could wear the white uniform (optional 

purc hase) on duty wit h the cafe brown shoes, bag, gloves, and white 

hal. 39 T he most welcome re lief rrom the taupe uniform came in 1954 in 

the rorm o f a newly desig ned summer uniform as an optional purchase 

item for officers and enlisted women. The new uniform was called the 

Army beige uniform and could be worn on and o ff duty . Wo rn wit h a tan 

shirt and cafe brown collar tab, it consisted of a light taupe jacket with an 

open-lapel collar, ma tc hing skirt , and a garrison cap as well as a service 

hat (Plate 26).40 It was offered in a choice of tro pica l worsted, gabardine, 

or a rayon twill weave; most wome n preferred the tropica l worsted 

material. Accesso ries included the cafe brown handbag, oxfords or 

pumps, tan cotton gloves, and ta n rayon scarr. This uniform became very 

popula r and was dubbed the "Silver Taupe" by the women. In 1962, the 

Army g reen hat and black accessories began to be wom with it, and, in 

that same year, it became a mandatory item for purchase and wear by 

WAC officers. 41 A Ian vi nyl ra incoat was authorized for purchase by all 

Army women in May 1960, but it could not be worn in formalions. 42 

Despite the modificat ions, complai nts about the taupe unifo rm inc reased yearly. In 1954 when the Army announced that men would have 

a new Army g reen uniform to be worn with black accessories, the chiefs 

.8 AR 670_30. 20 Ocl 59. C MH Libr:tr)' . 

• , Rofl.'lJ[ I/I(· WA C. p. C- 4 . 

.. SR 600- 37- 2. Change J. 5 JllIl 53. CM H Librur)', 

. 9 SR 600-37- 2. Change 6. 13 May 54, C~UI Libmry. 

o Ibid. 

~1 AR 670-30. Change 4. S Ju162. C MH U brHr)·. 

2 DA Cir 670- 3. 12 M~ y 60. CM H Library. 
460 TI-IE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

of the women's services had grasped the opportun ity to ask fo r a match· 

ing women's green uniform. In March 1956, the A rm y Uniform Board 

had approved the concept, and w ithin a yea r the design for a women's 

green winler service uniform and a two-piece green cord uniform for 

summer had been approved. 4 3 

u ODWAC Chronologie;.1 History. 20 Ma r 56. 6 Dec 56. 7 Feb 57, O DWAC Ref File, Hislory. 

eMU. 
Plate 17. Officer in the year-round, wool tau pe service uniform (1951 - 1960), worn 

with t:1I1 shirtwaist, cafe brown oxfords or pumps, and matching service hat. This 

uniform WllS ulso worn by enlistcd womcn. 
Plate 18. Enlisted woman in the Ian cono n shirtwaist ( 195 1- 1960), worn wilh the 

wool laupe service uniform and the work uniro rm (HBTs). 
~"" 

, 

'--

• 

e 

• 

-d 

I • 

I .. 

) 

PI(I/e /9. Enlisted wamlill in the summer COIIOll dress ( 195 1- 1959), worn with 

m;Llching gnrrison cap, clifc brown pumps or oxfords. Ian colton gloves, and cafe 

brown handbag with strap worn over lhe left shoulder. Officers also wore this 

dress. 
Plate 20. Officer in Ihe double·breasted wool serge taupe overcoat ( 195 1- 1968), 

wit h bullou·in lining th(ll cou ld (llso be worn in the t(wpe raincoat. The CO:lt waS 

worn with thc wool t:llIpe hat or garrison C(lp. cafc brown lealher purse. cafe brown 

pumps or osfords, and gloves. EnliSlcd woman (ilso wore lhis ovcrcO<It. 
Pfafe 21. Officer in the taupe raincoat (1951 - 1966), a nylon-rayon cloth. This 

raincoat, also worn by enlisted women, had a removable hood ;md was worn with 

the button-in liner from the overcoat. If a scarf were worn, the coat could be 

unbulloncd to the second button. It was wo rn with cafe brown leather purse and 

gloves or, in summer, the tan cotton gloves. 
Plale 12. Enlisted womAn in the taupe three-piece exerc ise suit ( 195 1- 197 1), consisting of a cotlon chambray shirt and denim clo th skirt a nd shorts. Later blue, it 

was worn wit h white tennis shoes and cOllon taupe anklets for fatigue d uties (KP, 

elc.), physical training, and sports activities. Officers also wore this unifo rm. 
~ .. 

• 

• 

• 

" 

- If - ) , 

"/ale 23. Officer in the !-I at tic Carnegie style white dress uniforrn ( 195 1- 1960), II 

was worn with white long-sleeved rayon, nylon, or silk shirtwaist; no tic or cc kl lb 

since the jacket was worn completely bu[(oncd al all times; while leathe r or w hite 

fabric pumps or o:dords; and white cOllon or nylon fabric gloves. Begi nning in 

1951, enlisted women cou ld wear this uniform off duty. 
PI(I /e 24. Officer's evening dress uniform (1 952- 1969), conSisting of a blue wool 

jacket with gold bullion embroidered insignia of grade and branch on the sleeves. 

Ooor-length wool ski rt. cape with gold rayon lining and gold bullion shoulde r tr~lps 

with embroidered in!;ignia o f grade, and ,I headband wilh laurel leaf, gold bullion 

embroide ry. It was worn with H white silk shirtwaist. white kid gloves, and blue 

suede pumps. Th i.~ uniform was not worn by enlisted wome n. 
P/me 25. Enlisted woman in the Army blue uniform (l957- present), a wool barathea material, worn with black accessories. This uniform was also worn by officers. 
P/ale 26. Enlisted woman in [he optio nal purchase Army beige uniform (1954-

1968), made in a tropical worstcd o r gabardine fubric. This summer uniform was 

worn with c~ lfe browll accessories until 1962, when black accessories were prescribed . This uniform, somelim(.'S called '·the sil ver taupe," was also worn by 

officers. 
APPENDIX D 47 1 

The Army Greell Ullijorm, 1959- 1978 

T he fi rst item in the women's g reen uniform ensemble was the Arm y 

g reen cord suit, issued in March 1959. in time for the summer season. It 

was a two-piece, g reen and white stri ped, cotton polyester suit accented 

by a dark green cord trim 011 collars and cutTs and on the garrison cap 

(Plate 27). The women's winter Army green service uniform, issued 

beginning I July 1960, consisted of a wool serge skirt, jacket, ga rrison 

cap and service hat (Plate 28). The unifo rm was worn with a lo ng-sleeved 

tan cotto n shirt and a black necktab. The buttons and hat insig nia were an 

antiqued gold colo r metal. 44 In 1966, in addition to the wool service 

un iform, enlisted women received another in a tropical wo rsted fabric. 

This addition made the uniform suitable for yea r-ro und wear, and the 

Army beige uniform was then phased o ut of the women's wardrobe. The 

phase-out was completed on I December 1968. 45 

The changeove r from cafe brown to black accessories (shoes, leather 

gloves, handbag, neckrab) was completed in Aug ust 1962. For summer 

wear, the ta n cotton gloves and scarf we re repl aced in 1962 with graybeige items. A short-sleeved ta n shirt was added in t 966 and, begin ning in 

J 972, women could wea r a white shirt and bl ack collar tab with the green 

service unifo rm.

46 The Navy women's handbag was adopted as a standard item of issue fo r military women in 1965, but ils small size made it 

unacceptable to Army women and in 1969 the Army women's hand bag 

was reinstated as a substitute item.47 Beginning in 1960, women wo re 

seamless hose with their uniforms when not in military formati ons suc h as 

reveille and retreat. 48 In 1962, gold color metal buttons and hat insignia 

replaced the an tiqued gold insignia on both the g reen se rvice uniform, the 

green cord, and the beige unifo rms. In 1963, as an o ptional purchase, 

women could wear anodi zed aluminum buttons on their unifonns.49 The 

Army g reen service hat did not enter the supply system until Jul y 1963. 

In the in terim, and seasonall y, women wore the A rmy green cord or 

green wool ga rrison caps. It was still later, 1966 and 1967 respecti vely, 

when they received the Army green raincoat with butto n-Oil have lock 

(Plate 29) and the Army green overcoa t (Plale 30).50 

Though the phase-in period fo r the women's Army g reen wardrobe 

had been lengthy, by 1 Jul y 1970 all taupe uniform items were obsolete 

and women wore the green unifo rm exclusive ly. 

H AR 670- 30. 20 Oel 59. ~nd Change 3. 22 J III1 61. CMH Library. 

4. WAC SlalT Advisers Memo. 3 May 66. p. 3. ODWAC RcfFil e. ll1o~. CM f.! . 

4G AR 670-30. Change 1. 30 M;,y 60, ~l1d Chungc 4. 5 Jul 62. Appen{l .. pp. 63-64; O I)WAC 

Chronologic~1 HislOry. 2 J UI1 72. ODWAC Rer File. History. CMH. 

4T Ibid .. 8 Apr 65 and 15 Aug 69. 

~. AR 670- 30. Chunge 7, 16 D~"C 64. CMI-I Libr;o ry. 

4. 610- 30. Ch~ lI gc J. 22 Jun 61. and Change 6.2 Jul 6J, e MI-l Library. 

;;u 670- 30.25 Aug 66. CM H Libr;,ry. 
472 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

T he work uniform fo r enlisted women who held medica l o r dental 

MOSs (military ocCuptllionai spec ialties) significant ly improved in 1962 

when they were issued the white hospita l duty dress also worn by nurses 

and olher women officers in the Medical Depa rtme nt of the Army (Plate 

3/). When approved by their hospita l commanders, enlisted women could 

purchase and wear whil e oxfords. Some commande rs rese rved these items 

for wear only by women officers as a matter of ide ntity,5 1 In 1975, when 

pantsuits became a common item of wea r by American women, a while 

pantsuit (optio nal purchase) was added to the women's hospital duty 

uniform (Plate 32).52 

The work uniform for cooks and bakers (food handl ers) had few 

rev isions between 1942 and 1975. A yellow food-hand ler's uniform was 

tested at WAC Center in 1970, but was neve r adopted because the white 

color was overwhelmingly preferred by the enlisted women. 53 The basic 

d uty uniform was a white cotton dress with wrap-a ro und skirt that could 

be reversed as the uniform became soi led, an ap ron, and a chers cap 

(Plate 33). In 1963, a disposable paper cap replaced the chers colton 

cap. 54 In 1975, a white pantsui t with hip length tunic and slacks was 

added to the food hand ler's uniform. 55 

Between 1943 and 1969, the year-round women's field dut y uniform, 

usuall y called fat igues, continued to be the olive-drab herringbone twill 

(HBT) shirt, trouse rs, and garrison cap. Aft er the women's hot weather 

field unifo rm-cotton khaki slacks and shirt- had been declared obsolete 

in 1954, HBTs were WOI'll year-round. 56 Howeve r, after nurses and 

WACs were assigned to du ty in Vietnam in the 19605, HBTs proved to 

be too W,lrm for the climate. In 1969, women se rving in Vietnam received a new hot wetlther fi eld unifo rm consisting of a light-weight, oli ve 

g reen, cotton poplin shirt and slacks and utility (baseba ll) cap (Plate 34). 

In 1966, blac k service boots were issued for wear with the women's field 

uniform. 57 And, in 1969, the cold weather fi eld unifo rm c hanged from 

the ta upe wool jacket and slacks to an olive g reen, wool se rge jacket, 

slacks, skirt, and ga rrison C,l p, and a wool flannel o r colto n shirt. 58 

The taupe exe rcise suit was replaced in 1969 w ith a th ree-piece blue 

cotton chamb ray olLtfit. 5 1) In 1972, the exe rcise suit was renamed the 

train ing duty uniform and a new two-toned, g reen unifo rm was issued. It 

consisted of call a n poplin shirt, shorts, and skirt worn with the g reen 

cord or Army green ga rrison ca p. Also that year, women drill sergeants 

'A R /)70-30. Chan!:c 4.5 Ju162. CMH Libr.,ry. 

u AR 670- 30. 24 Oct 75. CMIl Libr:,ry. 

u ODWAC ChronologICal lIiSlor>'. 26 a>' 69. ODWAC Kef File. ll i~lory. CM I-I. 

~. AR 670-30. Change 6.2 Jul /)3, CM II Library. 

H AK 670-30. 24 Oct 7S. C~ 1I 1 Libmr>·. 

u SR 600- 37- 2. Ch~n!:e 6. IJ Mn>' 54. CMII Libr;.ry. 

Of AR b70- 30. 25 Aug 66. C~ I Libr.,ry. 

"A I{ 670-.JO. IJ May (,9. CMI-I !.ibn.ry. 

~" Ibid . 
APPENDIX D 473 

received a distincti ve hat that resembled the Australi an bush hat (Plate 

35).60 

During the late 19505 and 196Os, the style and number of women's 

d ress un iforms inc reased SO that they had one to correspond to each of 

the men's. T he style of the women's white unifo rm had c hanged in 1959 

to the open*collar style of the beige uniform (Plate 36).6 1 And the style of 

the blue. white, and beige hats changed in 1962 to that of the new Army 

green hat. In 1959. the shade of the women's Army evening dress uniform had changed from dark blue to the midnight blue of the men's 

evening dress unifo rm. 52 Then, in 1967, a major innovation occurred 

when the Army chief of staff approved a black evening dress and a white 

evening dress uniform for women. Each was worn w ilh a black noorlength skirt and either a black or a white mess jacket. The uniform 

included a white shirtwaist with black necktab and black cummerbund. 

The black evening dress uniform (Plate 37) was worn with black accessories-purse. gloves. pumps; white accessories accompanied the white 

evening dress un ifo rm (Plate 38). At the same time the chief of staff 

autho rized formal mess uniforms for women- the black mess (Plate 39) 

and the white mess (Plate 40) and the all-white mess uniform (no plate). 

Mess jackets and skirts could be interchanged with accessories to fit the 

occasion and proper unifo rm. The all-white mess unifo rm consisted of a 

white jacket, street-length white skirt, white c ummerbund, black necktab, 

and white accessories. A dark blue wool. fingertip-length cape or a black 

wool, street-length cape could be wo rn with the bl ack evening dress or 

black mess uniforms.63 In 198 1, enlisted women were authorized to wear 

the mess uniforms.64 

Anticipating a decline in male soldiers following the end of the draft, 

the Army initiated a major WAC recruiting campaig n in 1972 that increased by thousands the number of WACs o n dut y. T he overall expansion campaign for the new all-volunteer Army inspired the directo r of the 

WAC and the other chiefs of the women's branches of the Army to 

recommend the redesign of the summer uniform and changes in other 

items of the women's wardrobe. In June 1972, the A rmy chief of staff 

authorized for optio nal purc hase and wear with the A rmy green service 

uniform, a black beret. black raincoat, black patent leather pumps, white 

shirt, white scarf and gloves, and a small black clutch purse. At the same 

time, he modified Army traditio n by permitting women in uniform to 

carry black umbrellas when in uniform, but not w hile they were in 

military formations (Plate 41).65 In 1974, a black raincoat and overcoat 

.0 A R 670-30. Change J, 30 Jun 72 . 

• , A R 670-30,20 Oct 59, and Change 4. 5 Jul 62. CM H Library. 

n A R 670-30. 20 Oct 59, CM H Library. 

03 WAC Staff Adyisers Memo. 27 Apr 67, pp. 2- 3, ODWAC Ref File, Memos. CMH . 

•• A R 670-1. 15 Feb 81, CM H Library. 

U DA Msg, to all holders of A R 670- 30. 29 Jun 72. O DWAC Ref File, Uniforms, CM H. 
474 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

combination w ith removable liner and havelock was adopted to replace 

the g reen rai ncoat and g reen overcoat. 66 T he black be ret became an item 

of issue in 1975; it replaced the green hat in 1978 and the g reen garrison 

cap in 1980. 67 The while shirt, scarf, and gloves became items of issue in 

1975, replacing those Ian and g ray-beige items. s8 

By far the most drastic change in years in women's items occurred in 

1974 with the in troduc tion of a (then optional purchase) redesigned 

summer uniform- a mint green polyester kn it dress with a long-sleeved 

jacket. It was worn with the black be ret o r g reen hat, black oxfo rds or 

pumps, black handbag, white gloves and scarf. However, the princess 

style of the dress was not comrortable ror most wo rk situatio ns and it was 

not adopted. In its place, the Army tested and in 1975 chose a mint green 

polyester kn it skirt and jacket unirorm (Plate 42).6 9 Both long- and shortsleeved jackets were issued to give the women a choice. A shirl was not 

wo rn with this un irorm. It rep laced the green cord unirorm as an item or 

issue in 1975. The g reen cord was declared obsolete after I October 

198 1. 70 

Anot her majo r change in women's unifo rms occurred in 1976 with the 

issue or a green pantsuit. 7 I Women assigned military police duties we re 

the first to wear the pantsuit as a d uty unirorm (September 1976). It 

consisted or polyester wool gaba rd ine slac ks and jacket, worn with either 

a g ray-green sleeveless turtleneck tunic or a white shirt with black nec ktab (Plate 43). A w hite turtleneck tu nic was tested but not adopted. The 

green pantsuit became an item of issue in November 1977.72 

5G AR 670- 30. 24 Ck:l 75. CMU Libn1ry. 

~. AR 670- \, 5 Fcb 81. CMII Library. 

II AR 670- 30. 24 Del 75. C~H-I Libmry. 

" Ibid. 

7G AR 670- 1. IS Feb 81. CJ>.1I-1 Library. 

11 DA Msg 20 lS07Z Feb 76. to Maj Coms, sub: Army Womcn's i'anlsuil. ODWAC Rer Fill,:. 

Unirorms. Cf>..1I-1 . 

TO ODWAC Chronological ~I islory. I Dec 16. ODWAC Rer File. History. CM H. 
Plate 27. En[isted woman in the Army green cord unirorm ( [959- [980), or g recn 

lind white striped polyester and COlIon cord material. Worn initially wit h a malching grcen cord cap, it was [atcr worn with the Army green hili and the black beret. 

Officers also wore this unirorm. 
Plate 18. WAC nrt'icer in the A rmy green service nniform (1960- 198 1), :1 wool 

serge kirt . j;lckcl, garri!>On C:1p and hat. In 1966, in addit ion to the wool service 

uniform, enlisted wOl11en were issued a tropical worsted uniform. making this a 

ye:lr-round unirorm. 
P{me 29. Officer in the Army green raincoat (1966- 1985), with removable havelock but no lincr. Made of a watcr-repellant coHon-polyestcr poplin matcrial, this 

raincoat could be worn open at thc collar, with or without the gray-beige scarf. It 

was also worn by cnlisted women. 
Plate 3a WAC officer in the women" s grccn overcoat of wool gabardine wi th 

removable liner (1 967- 1985). The overcoat collar could be worn open or closed, 

with or without the gray-beige scarr. The overcoat was also worn by enlisted women. 
Plate 31. Enlisted woman in the while hospital duty dress (1962- 1975). Of cotton 

poplin, this uniform was worn with bhlck oxfords or optional purchase white 

oxfords when authorized. The women's green cardigan sweater could be worn on 

duty. Women officers in the Army Medical Dcpartment worc this uniform with 

C(lp. white stockings, (Llid o:..rords. Civil service employees performing patient care 

could also wear the white uniform. 
,'Iale 12. Elilisted woman in the hospita l duty uniform Pililtsuit iHlthorized m 1975 

(IS an optiona l purchase item- it Inler became an item o f issue. " ' omen officers in 

the Army Medical Depart ment also wore this uniform o n duty in lIu . .'d ical care 

facilities. 
Pla/e 33. Enlisted woman in the traditional food handler's un iform. This uniform 

had few mod ifications between 1944 and 1975, when a pantsuit was authorized fo r 

food handlers. Officers did not wear this uniform. 
Plale 34. Enlisted woman ill the hOI wealher fi eld uniform (1969- 198 1). Oli ve-green 

colton poplin shirt and slac ks worn with a utilit y cap. Officers also wo re this 

un iform. 
Plale J5. Drill sergcant in the yca r-round training dut y unifo rm ( 197 1- 198 1), a 

light green cOtlon poplin shirt ,mel darke r grccn cotlon shorts and skirt wo rn with a 

garrison cap or, as shown he re, with the distinctive hat worn onl y by women 

trained to be dri ll sergcants. Upon cert;lin occasions (instruc ting, ctc.) women 

officers also wo re thc training duty uniform. 
~ 

- A • 

- _ .... - ~ 

I 

I • 

\ 

I 

Plale 16. Officer wCllring the Army white ulliform in the OllCn colhlf style introduced in 1959. The strllight-brimmcd. matching rubric hal replaced the turned-down 

brim style of the taupe hal in 1962. Enlisted women also wore this uniform. 
I 

Plme J7. Officer wearing Ihe Army black evening dress uniform aUlhoriz(:d in 

1967. Enlis1ed wome n did 1101 we:ll" this uniforl11. 
/ 

Plale 18. Officer in the Army white evening dress unirorm (authorized 1967) with 

the optional, street.lengt h, black wool cape. Enlisted women did not wear this 

uniform. 
Plate 39. Officer in the Army black mess uniform (authorized I 967). Enlisted 

women were aut horized to wear all the mess uniforms in 1981. 
• 

PIOI/! 40. Officer in the Army while mess uniform. au thorized in 1967. 
I'll/Ie 41. Enlistcd woman in thc bind rainco,lt. black berel, whitc SClIrf, lind 

carrying thc black umbrella aUlhorizcd for womcn in 1972. Officers also wore these 

items. 
!'lalC 42. Enlisted woman in the minI green summcr uniform mndc or a polycstcr 

knit matcrial ( 1975- 1985). A lo ng o r short-sleeved jacket was worn with this 

uniform. 
Plale 43. En listed woman in the Army green pant!luit issued in 1976 10 women 

who performed military police duties and in 1977 to 11 11 cnl isted women. The jacket 

(Iud slacks were of a polyestcr wool gabardinc. A whi te shirt with bbck neck tab or 

a rib-knit gray-green turtleneck tunic was worn with Ihis uniform. Officers also 

wore this unirorm. 

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and 

Initialisms 

AAA 

AAF 

ACofS 

ACSFOR 

AFEES 

AFES 

AFQT 

AFWST 

AGCT 

AGF 

AMSC 

ANC 

ANG 

AR 

ASA 

ASA (M&RA) 

ASD 

ASD (M) 

ASD (M&RA) 

ASD (MRA&L) 

ASR 

ASU 

AUS 

AWCOC 

BIET 

Bn 

BOB 

BT 

Antiaircraft artillery 

Army Air Forces 

Assistant chief of stafr 

Assistant c hief of staff for force de ve op~ 

men! 

Armed Forces Examining and Entrance 

Statio n 

Armed Forces Examin ing Station 

A rmed Forces Qualification Test 

A rmed Forces Women's Selectio n Test 

Army General Classification Test 

Army Ground Forces 

Army Medical Specialist Corps 

Army Nu rse Corps 

Army National Guard 

A rm y regulation 

Assistant secretary of the Army 

Assistant secretary of Army (Manpower 

and Reserve Affairs) 

Assistant secretary of Defense 

Assistant secreta ry of Defense (Manpower) 

Assistant secreta ry of Defense (Manpower 

and Reserve Affairs) 

Assistant secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve Affairs, and Logistics) 

Adjusted service rating 

Army service unit 

Army or the United States 

Associate WAC Company Officers 

Course 

Basic Initial Entry Training 

Battalio n 

Bureau or the Budget 

Basic train ing 
494 

Bul 

Bur 

CASP 

CG 

CINC 

CINCUNC 

CiT 

CMH 

CNO 

CofS 

Comdr 

CONARC 

CONUS 

DA 

DAGO 

DACOWITS 

DASA 

DASA (M&RA) 

DASA (RA) 

DASD (M&RA) 

DASD (M&RA) MPP 

DCS 

DCS LOG 

DCSO PS 

DCS PER 

DepOir 

DF 

Dir 

Div 

DMPM 

DMPP 

DOD 

DOPMA 

DOPMS 

TH E WOM EN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Bulletin 

Bureau 

Civilian Acquired Skills Program 

Commanding general 

Commander in chief 

Commander in chief, U.N. Command 

C ircular 

Center of Military History 

Chief of naval operations 

Chief of staff 

Commander 

Continental Army Command 

Conti nental Uni ted States 

D epartment of the Army 

Department of the Army genera l order 

D efense Advisory Committee on Women 

in the Services 

Deputy assistant secretary of the Army 

Deputy assistant secretar y of the Army 

(Ma npowe r and Reserve Affairs) 

Dcputy assistant secretary of the Army 

(Rese rve Affairs) 

Deputy assistant secretary of Defense 

(Manpowe r 1.IIld Reserve A ffairs) 

Deputy assistant secre tary of Defense 

(Ma npowe r and Rese rve Affairs) military pe rson nel pol icy 

Deputy c hief of staff 

Deputy c hief of staff for Logistics 

Deputy c hief of staff for Operations 

Deputy c hief of staff for Personnel 

Deputy director 

Disposition fo rm 

Direc to r; directi ve 

Divisio n 

Direc tor, Militar y Pe rso nnel Management 

Director, Military Perso nnel Po licies 

Depa rlment o f Defense 

Defense Office r Pe rson nel Management 

Ac. 

Defense Officer Person nel Management 

System 
ABBREVIATIONS 

DOT 

D/PAD 

DPD 

D PPB 

DSM 

DWAC 

EEO 

EO 

EPD 

ERA 

ERC 

ETO 

ETS 

EWITA 

FECOM 

FM CR 

FORSCOM 

0 - 1 

0 - 2 

0 - 3 

0 - 4 

OAO 

OED 

OHQ 

00 

G PO 

HDoc 

HR 

HRpt 

Inc! 

(lid 

INSCOM 

IRR 

JAO 

JCS 

Directo r, Organiza tion ,md Training 

Director, Personnel and Administratio n 

Directo r, Procurement and Distribution 

Director, Plans, Programs, and Budget 

Distinguished Service Medal 

Director. Women's Army Corps 

Equal Employment Opportunit y 

Executive o rder 

Enlisted Personnel Directora te 

Equal Rig hts Ame ndment 

Enlisted Reserve Corps 

European Theater of Operations 

Expiration of time in service 

Evaluation of Women in the Army stud y 

Far East Command 

Fleet Marine Corps Reserve 

Army Forces Command 

Assistant c hief of starr, Personnel 

Assista nt c hief of staff, In tel! igence 

Assistant c hief of staff, Operatio ns; Assistant chief of stafT, Organizatio n and 

Training 

Assistant c hief of staff, Logistics 

General Accounting Office 

General educationa l development [t est] 

General headquarters 

General order 

Gove rnment Printing Office 

House document 

Ho use resolution 

HOllse report 

Inc losure 

Indo rsement 

In tell igence and Security Command 

Indi vidual Ready Reserve 

Judge advocate ge neral 

Joint Chiefs of SlafT 

495 
496 

LAW 

M&RA 

MAAG 

MACV 

Maj COrns 

MAX WAC 

MOW 

MFR 

M I LPERCEN 

Min 

MOS 

M P 

MPPD 

MPPSD 

MSC 

Mig 

NAACP 

NARA 

NATO 

NCO 

OCS 

OMB 

01'0 

OPLAN 

OPMS 

01'0 

ORC 

OSO 

OSUT 

OTEA 

PL 

PMDO 

PROVIDE 

THE WOM EN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Lig ht antita nk weapon 

Ma npower and Rese rve Affairs 

Milit ary assista nce advisory g roup 

Military Assista nce Comma nd , Viet nam 

Major commands/commanders 

Women Content in Units Force Deve lo pment Test 

Mi litary D istrict of Washington 

Memo for the record 

Mi lita ry Personne l Cente r 

Minut es 

Mili ta ry occupational specialty 

Mili ta ry police 

Military Perso nne l Policies D irecto rate 

Military Personnel Procurement Services 

Division 

Medica l Se rvice Corps 

Meeting 

Nationa l Assoc iation ror the Ad va ncement of Colored People 

Nationa l A rchives and Records Administra tion 

Nort h Atlantic Trea ty O rg.ani z<ltion 

Noncommissioned officer 

Officer Candidate School 

Orfice of Ma nagement an d Budget 

Orficer Person ne l D irectorat e 

Ope rations plan 

Officer Personne l Management System 

Orfice of Pe rsonnel Ope rat ions 

O rganized Reserve Corps 

Orfice of the Sec retary o f Defc nsc 

Onc-stat ion unit trai ning 

U.S. Army Openllional T est and Eva luation A gency 

Pub lic law 

Pe rsonne l Ma nagement Developmen t 

Office 

Project Voluntcer in D efense o f the 

Na tion 
ABBREVIATIONS 

RA 

REFORGER 

Reg 

Ret 

RG 

ROA 

ROK Army WAC 

ROPA 

ROTC 

Rpt 

S- I 

S- 2 

S-3 

S- 4 

SA MVA 

SecAF 

SecArmy 

SeeDer 

SecNav 

SMO 

SOS 

SPARS 

SPD 

SR 

SS 

SUE 

SWJ>A 

TA 

TAAOS 

TAG 

TAGO 

TO 

TJAG 

TM 

TO 

TOE 

TRAOOC 

TSG 

Regular Army; Reserve A ffairs 

Repositioning of Forces in Germany 

Regulation 

Retired 

Record group 

Reserve Officers A ssociation 

Republic of Korea Army Women's Army 

Corps 

Rese rve Officers Personnel Act 

Rese rve Officers' Training Corps 

Report 

Personnel officer 

Intelligence officer 

O perations/training officer 

Supply officer 

Special assistant for the Modern Volunteer Army Program 

Secretary of the Air Force 

Secretary of the Army 

Secretary of Defense 

Secretary of the Navy 

Siaff Management Division 

Services of Supply 

Women's Coast Guard Reserve 

Special Planning D ivision 

Special regulation 

Summary sheet 

Special unit enlistment 

Southwest Pacific Area 

Table of Allotment 

The Army Authorization and Documents 

System 

The adjutant general 

The adjutant gene ral's o ffice 

Table of Distribution 

The judge advocate general 

Training manual 

Table of Organization 

Tabl e of Organi zation and Equipment 

Training and Doctrine Command 

The Surgeon General of the Army 

497 
498 

USAF 

USAFFE 

USAFPAC 

USAR 

USAREC 

USA SA 

USASTC 

USCG 

USMC 

USMCR 

USN 

VA 

vears 

VOLAR 

WAAC 

WAC 

WACC&S 

WAF 

WAFC ARVN 

WASP 

WAVES 

WBOQ 

WCOC 

WO 

WOGO 

WOGS 

WEEM 

WITA 

WM 

WO 

WODC/OCC 

WOOC 

WOSM 

THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

U.S. Air Force 

U.S. Army Forces, Far East 

U.S. Army Forces, Pacific 

U.S. Army Reserve 

U.S. Army Recruiting Command 

U.S. Army Security Agency 

U.S. Army Schoolrrrainin g Center 

U.S. Coast Guard 

U.S. Marine Corps 

U.S. Marine Corps Reserve 

U.S. Navy 

Vete rans Administration 

Vice chief of staff 

Volunteer Army project 

Women's Army Auxil iary Corps 

Women's Army Corps; a member o f the 

WAC 

WAC Center and School 

W omen in the Air Force 

Women's Armed Forces Corps, Armed 

Forces of the Republic of Vietnam 

Women A ir Service Pilots 

Women Accepted for Volullteer Emerge ncy Service (USN) 

Women's bachelor officer quarters 

WAC Company Officers Course 

War Department 

War Department general order 

War Department General Staff 

Women's Enlisted Expansio n Model 

Women in the Army 

Women Marines 

Warrant officer 

WAC Officer Basic Course/Officer Can· 

didat e Course 

WAC Officer Orienlation Course 

Women Officers Strenglh Model 
Note on Sources 

The framework for this volume is the chronological history of the 

Corps maintained by the Office of the Director, WAC (ODWAC). This 

chronology is a part of the OOW AC Reference File held by the Army 

Center of Military History (eMH) in Washington, D.C. In published 

form, it is included in The Role of the WAC (ST 35- 150). a special text 

prepared by the WAC School, Fort McClellan, Alabama, to present a 

narrative history of the WAC, its training centers and schools. and its 

participation in the national defense effort. First issued in 1962. the 

volume was revised several times. 

Archival Material 

The bulk of the source material used in this volume is from documents 

that originated in the offices of the assistant chief of staff, G - I, (ACofS, 

0-1) and the director of the Women's Army Corps (DWAC). Beginning 

in 1944, the ODWAC was assigned to the ACofS, 0-1 (Personnel) on the 

Army general staff for administrative services including records management. Thus, correspondence, reports, and reco rds of permanent value 

originated by the DWAC are included with the ACofS, G - l, files, held 

by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) at the 

National Archives in Washington, D.C., or in its regional record centers. 

The files of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and the 

Women's Army Corps (WAC) 1942 through 1950 are in Record Groups 

(RGs) 165 and 319 in the Modern Military Branch, NARA, Washington, 

D.C. These record g roups also contain files retired by the various general 

and special staff divisions of the War Department and the Department of 

the Army (e.g., 0 - 1, 0 -2, 0-3, G-4, Budget Division, Information and 

Education, etc.). Record Group 165 holds WAC correspondence, administra ti ve reports, legislative background materia l, and the "Hobby files," 

which contain Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby's personnel fi les and W AAC 

records accumulated in 1942 and 1943. Record Group 319 occasionally 

overlaps RG 165, but it primarily contains correspondence between 1942 

and 1950, papers collected by WAC historian Mattie E. Treadwell, correspondence concerning the National Civilian Advisory Council on the 

WAC 1944- 1948, WAC recruiting campaign publicity 1943-1944, files of 

the special assista nt to the DW AC 1942- 1943, and records relating to 

WAC personnel and administration 1945- 1950. Record Oroup 3 I 9 also 

contains the files of the director of personnel and administration which 
500 TH E WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

include WAC records for the period 1950- 1954. WAC records after 1954 

are held in the Military Archives Divisio n, Washington National Records 

Cente r, Suitland, Maryland. 

In locating the ODWAC records it is usefu l to k now the vario us tilles 

held by the G- I (Personnel) after 1945. Between 1946 and 1950, he was 

known as the direc tor of personnel and administration (OPAD). Department of the Army. In March 1950, he reverted to the title assistant chief 

o f staff, G-I (AeofS, a - I) and held it until January 1956 w hen another 

reorganization gave him the title deputy chief of staff for personnel 

(DeSPER), the title he holds today. 

ODWAC Referellce Files 

The DWAC oft en initiated requests fo r new o r revised policies ec ~ 

ing women but, because her duties were advisory rather than functional, 

she seldom inilialed the officia l staff work that we nt to the chief o f staff 

o r 10 Ihe secretary o f the Army for approva l. For example, to change a 

recruiting policy, the DWAC would forward her recommendation o n an 

interoffice memorandum to the c hief of the DCSPER directorate having 

functio nal responsibilit y for enlisted procurement (Le., the Directorate for 

Procurement and Distribution). That directo rate would prepare the staff 

action and coordinate it wit hi n the DCSPER directorates, including the 

DWAC, and with other staff di visio ns or agencies having an interest in 

the action before sending it up to the chief of staff o r higher for approva l. 

This staff procedure was generall y followed when any divisio n o r 

agency wanted to c hange an Army policy. The directorate that prepa red 

the official staff work was responsible for maintaining and, later, retiring 

the fil e that accumulated o n a partic ul ar action. An o ffice that had a 

vested in terest in a pa rticular staff action was authori zed to collect co pies 

of the action as it progressed th roug h the staffi ng procedure. These fil es, 

known as "convenience" or " reference" fi les, could be retained as long as 

desired by an o ffi ce. Oft en the availability o f storage space determined 

the length of stay. In the ODWAC three o r fo ur fi le cabinets held 

reference copies of official staff work all the subject rang ing from "assignment " to "weapons training." Between 1948 and 197 1, as sto rage 

space diminished, each d irector would transfer some of her reference fi les 

to the WAC School for safekeeping. There, the director of doctrine and 

literature and, later, the school librarian integrated these files with 

reference fil es from the WAC Center commander's office and that of the 

assistant commandant of the WAC School; the coll ec tion became known 

as the "WAC Archives." Befo re the WAC Center and School was 

deactivated in December 1976, the WAC Center commander transferred 

the "WAC Arc hives" to the curator of the Women's Army Corps 

Museum. In 1977, the newly constructed WAC Museum building was 
NOTES ON SOURCES 501 

opened at Fori McClellan and these files were placed in the resea rch 

room where they arc available for use by se rious resea rc hers. The co ll ec~ 

lion occupies approximate ly eight steel fi le cabinets and is called the 

WAC Historical Reference Collection. In Ihis volume, the collectio n is 

cit ed as History Collection, WAC Museum. The WAC Museum also 

maintains a coll ectio n of WAC photographs, clippings, films, sc rapbooks, 

periodicals, regulations, books, and audio-visual items that may also be 

consult ed with the curalo r's permission. 

In 1978, the last DWAC transferred custody of her convenience o r 

reference files to the author at the Army Center of Military History. In 

Ihis volume. these files are cited as ODWAC Reference File, CMH, with 

a folder title. 

UII/Jubh"hed Monographs 

A number of unpublished mo nographs in the Army Center of Military 

History helped in the prepa ratio n of ea rl y chapters of the volume. Those 

covering World War II included "The History of Military Training, 

WAAC/WAC Training in the Army Service Forces" by Maj. Lavinia L. 

Reed, 1945; "The WAC Program in the Army Forces" by LI. Col. Bett y 

Bandel, 1946; and "The WAC in the Army G round Forces, World War 

II " by LI. Col. Gera ldine P. May, 1947. The last named conta ined 

numerous appendixes including an interesti ng and c<Uldid daily journal 

kept by the WAC plans officer, Lt. Col. An na W. Wilson, between 

August and November 1945. Info rmat ion 0 11 utilization and location of 

WAC personnel during the Korean War was found in " Personnel Polic ies 

in the Korean Conflict" by Maj. Elva Still waugh, 1953. "The History of 

Army Se rvice School Training in the Quartermaster Corps (1945- 1953)" 

by Thomas A. Joh nson contained information o n WAC specialists training during the period when the WAC Training Center was co-located 

with the Quartermaster Training Center at Fort Lee, Virginia . 

The Doctrine and Literature Division of the WAC School produced a 

number of st udies between 1955- 1965 that are reta ined in the WAC 

Historical Reference Coll ec tion. Among these are the "Feasibility of 

Establishing un NCO Academy fo r WAC Personne l" (1956), "WAC 

Nec rology 194 1- 1963," "WAC Decoratio ns and Awards" ( 1963), "Comparative Attrition Rates WAC OCS 1942- 1962" (1964). "Statistical Analysis of the College Junio r Program 1956- 1965" ( 1965), "Women in the 

Military Services of Countries Other than the United States" (1963), 

"WAAC/WAC Staff Conferences" (1963), and "Summary of Information 

on Negro Women Who Have Se rved o r Are Serving in the Women's 

Arm y Corps 1942- 1963 with Partic ular Reference to WAC Officers" 

(1963). Most of these studies were written or inspired by LI. Col. Mary 
502 TI-IE WOM EN 'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Charlotte Lane, who headed the Doctri ne and Literature Division between 1961 and 1965. 

Historical Reports 

The int ernal reports of histo rical acti vities prepared by commanders 

and chiefs of sta fr divisions at the WAC Center and WAC School 

provide a valuable source of info rmation o n WAC tra ining activities. 

These repo rts were furnished monthl y or quarterly 10 the WAC Center 

historian who prepared the semiannual, annual, or biennial summary of 

major events and problems fo r the command. Most of these annual 

reports are in the Reference Branch, CMH. A compl ete set of the reports 

( 1948- 1978) and the feeder repo rts prepared by the commanders and 

division chiefs afC preserved in the WAC Histo rical Reference Collection 

of the WAC Museum. 

Histo ries of WAC detachments in the field , prepared by the unit 

commander, were included in the summary of major acti vities of their 

next higher command, usuall y the commander of special troops or the 

headquarters commandant. Historical reports submitted by the latter 

were consolidated and included in the summary of majo r events and 

problems submitt ed by the post commander throug h channels to Department of the Army. 

The DWAC submitted her anllual historical report to the 0 - 1 (Personnel)lDCS PER, who then included it as a separate chapter in his 

overa ll sUlllmary of majo r events and problems. 

WA C COllferellce R eporls, Mel/lOS. NeIVs/ellers 

Colonel Hobby initiated the annual WAC staff ad vise rs conference. 

Beginning in 1950, lack of travel funds frequentl y prevented the DWAC 

from conve ning her staff ad visers that frequentl y. The directo r's staff 

prepared a report of each conference. During the e arl y years, the repo rt 

was a verba tim record of the talks and disclissio ns. After 1950, the report 

included an agenda fo r eac h day and copies of ta lks and repo rts made 

during the confe rence. To ensure a timel y now of informatio n to the staff 

ad vise rs, in December 1958, Colonel Milligan began sending them a 

mo nthl y memo randum contai ni ng news and reminders of A rmy and 

WAC plans and polic ies. Subsequent directors continued sendi ng the 

memorandums until January 1970. Thereafter, news for the staff advisers 

was included in the WA C Journal. a quart erly maga zine published by the 

WAC School until December 1975 when fund s for suc h publications 

were curtail ed. Whi le some of these records are in the ODWAC Reference File, CMH, a complete collectio n is maintained in the WAC Histo rical Reference Coll ectio n at the WAC Museum. 
NOTES ON SOURCES 503 

Other publications were also helpful to the author. The WAC Newsletter (1944- 1946) was published by the Information and Education D ivision 

of the War Department. A private national magazine. the WAC Journal 

(originall y titled Squeaky Crumbs), was edited and published between 

1946 and 1950 by a former WAC officer, Alva Christensen, and several 

friends. In 1949, the National WAC Veterans Associatio n began publishing a monthly newsletter, the Channel, to keep members informed of 

meetings, organization, and general WAC news. The Channel continues to be published loday. The WAC Foundation, a private corporation 

that supports the WAC Museum, publishes a semiannual newsletter, 

the Flagpole. Almost complete sets of these publications are on file at the 

WAC Museum. 

Army Publications 

The Army uses regulatio ns, circulars, memorandums, and letters (listed in 

descending order of permanence) to publish official policies and procedures. Until the WAC entered the Regular Army and Reserve in 1948, 

the adjutant general (TAG) issued circulars to publish directives affecting the WAC. Howeve r, Army regulation (AR) provisions were extended 

to include women by adding the sentence: "Whenever the term 'enlisted 

men' is used, it will be construed to include enlisted women of the 

Women's Army Corps unless obviously inappropriate." In 1949, TAG 

assigned a block of AR numbers "625" to the Women's Army Corps, as it 

did to other branches. Earl y in World War II, TAG had assigned the 

WAC a basic number, "35," to identify its fi eld manuals, mobilization 

train ing programs, and pamphlets. 

The first Army regulation devoted to the WAC was AR 625-5, 

Women's Army Corps Genera l Provisions, 25 January 1949; the fi rst 

special regulation (SR) was SR 625-5-5, Discharge or Officers and Warrant Officers on Marriage and Pregnancy, II January 1949. Special regulations, created in 1949, added detailed information to the basic polic ies or 

a parent AR. Usually an AR generated several SRs to explain any 

complex provisions. In 1955, the Army discontinued SRs and lumped all 

the information into the basic regulation. A few years later, the A rmy 

discontin ued the practice of assigni ng a series of AR numbers to each 

branch and, instead, assigned blocks of numbers by subject matter. WAC 

Regulations, General Provisions, were renumbered AR 601 - 110 on 8 July 

1958 and listed under "Personnel, General. " On 26 Jul y 1967, the WAC 

regulation was renumbered AR 600-3. 

The WAC regulation contai ned extensive information fo r the convenience of commanders and personnel officers who administered WAC 

officers and enlisted women. It contained the mission and organization of 

the Corps and described the duties of the director, WAC staff advisers, 
504 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

and detachment commanders. It o utlined poli cies and procedures (e.g., 

utilization, sepa ration, detention. trai ni ng, promotion, etc.) fo r WACs that 

differed from those for men and listed other regulations that affected 

WAC management, housing, uniforms, or investigations. 

When special regulations were discontinued, nine concerning the 

WAC were integrated into others fo r men on the same subject. Only two 

ARs pertaining to WACs (AR 600-3, Gene ral Provisions, and AR 670-

30, Uniforms and Insignia for Women in the Army) rema ined by 1960. 

An AR on the WAC Student Orticcr Program, AR 601-1 15, initiated in 

1967, was discontinued in February 1975. AR 6<X}-3 was discontinued 

directly after the Corps was disestablished in 1978. and AR 670-30 was 

absorbed by AR 670- 1, Army Uniforms and Insignia. February 1979. 

Oral Histories 

Between 1974 and 1978. students at the Army War College interviewed seve ral WAC officers as part of the school's oral history program. 

Interviews with Maj. Gen. Mary E. Clarke, Brig. Gen. Mildred I.C. Bailey 

(two volumes), Col. Mary A. Hallaren, Lt. Col. Hortense M. Boutell, and 

LI. Col. Lucy C. Bond were audio-taped, and, by 1984. all but. the latter 

had been tra nscribed and were ava il able to researchers at the Army War 

College, Carlisle Barracks. Pennsylvania. 

In 1981 and 1984, the WAC Foundation, located in the WAC 

Museum, prepared video-tape oral histories o n Colonels Hobby, Hallaren, 

Rasmuson, Gorman; Brigadier Generals Hoisington and Bailey; and Maj. 

Gen. Ma ry E. Clarke. T he Founda tion also video-taped interviews with 

dozens of other officers and enlisted women on a range of subjec ts 

including service in World War II, Korea. and Vietnam, recruiting duty. 

serving as cadre, in the WAC Band. in the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company. the move to Fort McClellan. and many others. These 

tapes are available for research at the WAC Museum. 
Index 

A code, 194 

Aberdt'ell Proving Ground, MD, 352 

Abortion policies, ]6, 138, 139.239-41 

Abrams, General Creighton W., Jr., 248 

death,315 

repeal of Section )071, 313. 314-15 

utilization of women, 272 

WAC expansion 1970s. 267 

WAC grade structure e~pansion, 20S, 209 

weapons training for women. 282 

women in ROTC, 287~88 

women's command authority, 274 

Academies. See Service academics; specific 

IJem/elllY by /lume. 

Adams, Sg\. Maj. Betty L., 18011, 19311, 242. 

24311,29911 

Adams, 1st Lt. Fae M., III 

Addison, Lt. Col. HaUilu While, 161, 161/1 

Adjusted Service Rating (ASR) points. 25, 

26--27,28 

Adjutant general. Army (TAG), 10, 7), 

160, 16 1, 179,338 

Adjutant General's Offi(;e (TAGO). uliliUl" 

lion studies, 166- 67 

Adjutant General's School, 73, 7311 , 12511. 

181 

Adjutant General's Training Center, 73 

Administrative Celller (ADM INCEN). 

commander. See Mundie, Maj. Gen. 

William L. 

Advanced Medical Tcchnicians Procedures 

Course, ISS 

Advertising, 98. 101. 102, 161. 224. 230 

Advertising agencies. 161 

Advisors. Ste Staff advisers; Women's 

Armed Forces Corps (WAFC). 

Affirmative action, 261 

Age requiremems. 5. 56. 58. 60. 114, 277. 

32~, 401 

Ahearne, John F., 307, 373 

Ailes. Stephen, 191,207 

Air crew, 20 

Air Defense Artillery, 385 

Air Force Academy. 319. See a/sa Service 

academics. 

Air Force Nurse Corps, 211 

Air Force Reserve, 48 

Air Force Review lJoHd. 297 

Air Force ROTC. 122,287 

Air Force. ass·t secretary of, 9~, 96 

Air Force, Dep1. of, 43. 95, 96, 203. 223. 

Sce also Air Force, U.S. (USAF). 

Air Force. se<:retary of, 203. 268 

Air Force, U.S. (USAF), 48, 56, 189, 310. 

Sec a/so Air Force, Dept. of; Women in 

the Air Force (WAF). 

discharge policies, 22111. 234. 23411. 307 

integration of women, 392 

women's command authority, 273 

women's strength and tili~ation, 265, 

297, 376, 377, 383 

Air forces, numbered. See a/so Army Air 

Forces (AAF). 

Seventh, 245 

Eighth, 22, 26 

Nimh, 22, 26 

Twelfth,22 

Air National Guard. 211, 211t1, 29411 

Air WACs, 20 

Airborne Corps, XV III. 273 

Airborne training, 272- 73, 288, 325, 385 

Airborne Training Course. 273 

Alaska, 6. 216, 248. 283 

Alaska National Guard, 295 

Alaska T erritorial Guard, 295 

Ale~3nder, Clifford L., 308 

combat e~cl sion policy, 38 1, 383, 384 

disestablishment of the WAC, 396 

elimination of DWAC, 39]' 392- 93 

enlist ment standards. 279 

policies and EWITA Study recommenda· 

tions, 381 

utilization of women, 378- 79. 405 

Ale~and ia. VA, 294 

Algeria, 12,22 

AII·volunteer Army, 229. 230, 237, 279. See 

afso Draft, end of and the WAC; 

Project VOLAR (Volunteer Army). 

Allen, Arthur W .. Jr., 210, 212, 220 

Allen, S.Sgt. Audrey I., 34211 

Allen, WO Katherine V., 81, 356-57, 359. 

See also Bands, 14th Army (WAC). 

Alley, WO Thelma L., 13411 

Allied Expeditionary Air Forces. 22 

American Chapel, 51. Paul"s Cathedral, 160 

American Civil Libert ics Union, 240,1 

American Expeditionary Forces, 4 

American Nurses Association, 212 

Ammunition specialist . 264 

Anchorage, AK, 295 

Andrews. Walter G., 45, 48- 50, 53 

Anniston, AL, 145, 151, 348 

Antiaircraft artillery (AAA), 28 

Antiaircral"t gun. 9Q·mm., 20 

Antiaircraft gunners, 94 

Appropriations Commince. Senate, 396-97 

Aptitude tests. 167. See also Utilization of 

women, abilities. 

Archambault, LL Col. Claire A., 431. 435 

Arizona State Univer.;.ity. 287 

Arkansas, 241 

Armed Forces Examining and Enlistment 

stations (AFEE5), 224, 22511 
506 THE WOMEN'S A RMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Armed Forces Examining and Entrance 

Station (AFEES), Detroit. MI, 274 

Armed Forces Examining Stations (AFES). 

86 

Armed Forces Police, 27 1 

ArmL-d Forces Qualification Test (AFQ1), 

141,279 

Armed Forces Reserve ACI. 1952,97 

Armed Forces Staff College (AFSe). 22111, 

Armed '" F'orces Women's ScIt..'(:lion Test 

(A FWSTj, 105-06, 141 - 42, 224. 225" 

Armed Services CommiuC(:, House, 43, 45. 

Sff u/Sf) Andrews, Waller G.; Heber!. 

F. Edward. 

discontinuance of the WAC. 317, J18 

longevity, 163 

Subt:ommil1cc #3. Set beloM' women's 

services inlcgratioll. 

UllIizlllioli of Military Womcnpower 

Subcommittee, 261 - 63 

women at the service IICDdcmics. 262, 

321 . S« Q/so III/de, House of Represent. 

atives. 

women's services integration. 43, 45. 46, 

48-52. SI!/! alw IIlII/c, I'louse of Rcprc· 

sen\1ltivC$. 

Armed !krvicC$ CommittCt:, !knate. Sn 

(Jlso Senate. 

diminution of DWAC, disestablishment 

of the WAC, 392 

elliistment st:andards, 279 

promotion rt'Strictions, removal, 211. 2 12, 

m 

women's service; integration, 43, 45- 46, 

48 

Am.iC$, numbered, 4), 32911 

First. WAC StalT advisers, 42& 

Second. 42& 

commander. 73, 82. See (JIst) Gerow, 

Lt. GCII. Leonard T . 

WAC stulT advisers, 42& 

Third. 57. 352, 3B 

commandcr. 151. 329 

WAC stalT advisers, 42& 

Fourth. WAC stalT advisers, 42&- 29 

Fifth. WAC stalT advisers. 429 

Sbth, WAC staff advisers, 429-30 

Seventh. commander. 284 

Eighth, 47, 10811 

Armor. 3&5 

Armour, 1st Sgt. Anna M .• 201 

Army, act'S ass't secretary of for manpow· 

er and reserve alTairs. See Allen. 

Arthur W .. Jr.; Phillips. I'aul D. 

Army. uct'g secretary of. See Augustine. 

Norman R. 

Army, aSS't !iCCretary of (ASA). 5N Johnson, Earl D. 

Army, ass't sec of for manpower and reo 

serve alTairs (ASA M&RA), 220". 267. 

3&&. See ufso Brot 1.mpl1, Donald G.; 

Hull. Hadla; A.; Korth, Fred; Lowe, 

M. D:.vid; Nelson. Robert L.; Walters. 

Harry N. 

Army, Chinese, &9 

Army. Department of. See (JI$O Army, se<:-

retary of; Army, U.S.; Reorganization. 

and GAO, 204 

utilization of women, 95, 96 

WAC strength increuse, 223 

Army, deputy ass't secretary of for manpower and reserve alTairs. See Phillips, 

Paul D. 

Army, deputy ass't secretary of for person. 

nel policy and programs. Sn Kester. 

John R. 

Army, deputy under secretary of for manpower and reserve alTairs, 22011. See 

also Allen. Arthur W., Jr. 

Army. North Korean. 89 

Army. secretary of. Sn (Jisc Alexander. 

Clifford L.; Ailes. Stephen; Ilrucker. 

Wilber M.: Callaway, l'loward H.; 

Frochlke, Robert F.: Hoffmllnn, Marlin 

R.: Pace, Frank, Jr.: Patterson, Robert 

P.; RC$OI". Stanley R.; Stahr, Elvis J., 

Jr.: Vance, Cyrus R. 

disestablishment of the WAC, 313 

promotion and staffing authority, 69 

utilization of lVomen, 95-96 

WAC uniforms, 162 

Army, U.S. See also Army. Department of. 

career management. 124, 126. See also 

Cart.'Cr management. 

combat exclusion policy, 382, 383, 3S4-86 

Cuban missile crisis, 189 

educationul standards. 279 

Equal Rights Amendment, 299-300 

fight for involuntary discharge authority, 

303-0& 

mental standards, 279 

reorganization. See Reorganiution. 

soci"1 chUIIge. 16 

strength. SI'/! Strenglh. Army. 

traditions, 15, 16, 58-59 

utilization of womeR. Sn Ale.ander, Clif. 

ford L.; Moore. Lt. Ocn. HumId G.; 

Utilization of women. 

women's command authority. See Comn\3nd authority. 

Army, under secretary of for manpowcr 

and reserve affairs. 22011 

Army, under secretary of. Sn Ailes, Stc· 

phen; Ileal. Thaddeus R.; McGiffert. 

David E. 

Army Air Defense Command, WAC staff 

advisers, 431 
INDEX 

Army Air Forces (AAF), 7, 4S, 56. See also 

Air Force, U.S. (USAF). 

commander, 32 

utiliution of women, 20, 22, 23, 26, 48. 

See also Women in the Air Force 

(WAF). 

Army Audit Agency, 122 

Army Aviation Center, Fort Rucker, 272 

Army Clothing Depot, 354 

Army Combat Developments Command, 

179 

Army Corps of Engineers, 200 

Army Council of Review Ooards, 235 

Army Enlistment Eligibility Activity, 218 

Army Exhibit Unit, 190 

Army Field Forces, 90. See also Army 

Ground Forces (AGF). 

Camp Lee, 18 

commander, 13, 14, 93, 115, 126. 155 

training responsibilities, 13 

Anny Finance Center, SI. Louis, 61 

Army Finance School. 181 

Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), 261 

commander. See Kerwin, General Waltcr 

T .. Jr. 

interchangeable spaces, 285 

MAX WAC, 311 

reorgani zation 1913.351 

Army General Classification Test (AGCT), 

10, lOn, 20, 31, 60 

Army General Qualification Test, 114 

Army Ground Forces (AGF), 1. See also 

Army Field Forces. 

commander, 32.43,45,72- 13, 74 

utilization of WACs, 20 

Army Infantry School, 364 

Army Infomlation School, IS] 

Army Management School, 18] 

Army Materiel Command, 119 

Army Medical Specialist Corps (AMSC). 

267 

chief. 162,212,260 

males appointed, 211 

National Guard, 29211 

promotions, 210. 21 I 

unifonns. 162,260 

Army National Guard (ANG), 109. 211. 

2 11 11 

Berlin Crisis. 113 

WAC expansion 1910s. 268 

women in. 292, 29211, 294-96 

Army-Navy Nurses Act, 1941,38,45 

Anny Nurse Corps (ANC), 4, 24, 33, 261 

chief. 64, 94, 162. 212. See also Blanch· 

field. Col. Florence A.; Bryant, Col. 

Ruby F.; Dunlap. Brig. Gen. Lillian; 

Hays, Brig. Gen. Anna Mae; Phillips, 

Col. Mary G. 

demobilization. 27 

Korean War, 94 

males appointed, 211 

military credit for contract time, 41 

Murphy General Hospital, 154 

National Guard, 29211 

promotions, 20811, 210, 211 

regular status, 3S 

uniforms, 162,437,472 

Army Personnel and Training Research 

Advisory Committee, 166 

Army Reception Station, Fort McClellan, 

335, 353 

Army Recruiting Command (USAREC), 

16111, 119, 219, 261. See also Army Recruiting Service. 

commander, 233, 278 

deputy commander, 281 

filling nontraditional MOSs, 280 

WAC expnnsion. 224, 281, 35)- 54 

women's movement, 233 

Army Recruiting Service, 10,93,21911 

commander. See Mire, Col. Paul O. 

Army recruiting stations, 224 

Army Regulations 

61 1- 203, Enlisted PeTSOnnel Selection 

and Classification, 156 

enlistment/retention slandards, 235 

revisions for equity, 235- 38, 240 

WAAC. See WAAC Regulations. 

WAC. See WAC Regulations. 

women and combaltraining, 14 

Army Rcscarch Institute (ARI), 311. 312 

Army Research IllsIitute for Environmental 

Medicine, 38111 

Army Reserve. See U.S. Anny Reserve 

(USAR). 

Anny School/Training Center, PorI Jackson, 354, 363 

Anny School/Training Cellter, Fort 

McClellan, 356, 365 

Army Security Agency (USASA), 210-11 

Army Service Forces (ASF), 611, 13.2], 32 

Army '15 I'ersonnel Concepl Study, 228- 29 

Army Signal School. 167 

Army Student Program for Potential WAC 

Officers. See WAC Student Officer 

Program. 

Army Suggestion Program, 194 

Army Times, 200 

Army training test, AIT 21 - 3, Individual 

Proficiency ill Basic Military Subjects, 

WAC, 339 

Army Unifonn Board, 162. 260 

Army Uniform Branch, 394 

Army of the United States (AUS), 46, 48, 

52. 154. 2201/ 

Army War College, 124.220-21,221/1 

Arnold. General Henry R. (Hap), 20 

Articles of War. ~. 12 

507 
508 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

AssignmCHt Division, TAG, 184 

Assignments. See Duty assignmellIs. 

Assistant chief of staff for personnel, 0 - 1 

(ACofS, 0 - 1). See 0 - 1 (personnel); 

Personnel and Administration, director 

of CD/PAD). 

Assistant chief of staff for operations, 0 - 3 

(ACofS, 0 -3). See 0 - 3 (operations); 

Organization and training, director of 

(DOn · As,~is'ant criminal investigator, 271 

Associate Command and General Staff 

Course, 126 

Associate WAC Company Officers Course 

(AWCOC), 118- 19, 423- 24. See also 

Direct commission programs. 

ASSOCiation of the United Stales Army, 2]2 

Atlanta, GA, 101 

Attache duly. 216 

Augustine, Norman R., 368 

Australia. 23 

Austria, 44, 67 

Automatic data processing. 249 

Au~iJiary status, 56 

Aviation training, 272, 297, 325 

Awards and medals. See Medals and 

awards. 

AWOL policies, 235 

AWOL ra te, WAC trainees, 341 

Ayers, Lt. Edith, 3911 

Oachelor officers quarters, women 

(WBOQ), 150, 198, 199 

Dailey, Drig. Gen. Mildred I. C., 256, 294. 

334, 35011, 427 

accomplishments, 325- 26 

age requirements, 277 

appointed DWAC, 257- 59 

assignme111 policies, 269- 70 

combat role for women, 262, 315, 326 

command authority. 274 

direct commission programs. 287, 288 

discontinuance of the WAC, 311, 315. 

316 

Distinguished Service Medal, 327 

duty assignments, 275 

ERA Commiuee, 29911 

Fort McClellan closure, 352 

goals. 51!(! below recruiting and retention 

plan. 

housing policies, 275, 276 

inspection tours. 253, 325 

interchangeable spaces, 285, 311 

milita ry womenpower hearings. 261, 262 

and Newell, 269 

overseas tour length, 283 

Plateau Plan, 301 

pregnancy and parenthood policies. 305, 

307, 326 

promotion list. 31 1, 326 

public relations, 325, 326 

rec ruiting and reteillion plan, 259- 61 

repeal of Section 3071, 3]4, 317 

retention of the lerm "WAC," 316 

retirement. 324, 327 

ROTC, 287- 88. 326 

slandards, 269. 278, 326 

uniforms, 259, 326 

utilization of women, 264, 265, 269 

WAC expansion 1970s. 264. 266, 267. 280 

WAC Exhibit Team, 191 

weapons training, 282 

women al the Military Academy, 262, 

26211 

Bailey, Roy, 25911 

Baird, Lt . Col, E. Marie, 18811,429 

Baker, Lt. Col. Maxene M., 18811, 429 

Balla, SI'5 [Delores A.], 251 

Bands 

141h Army (WAC). 173,214,216,356- 62 

Camp Lee, 78, 81, 8111 

Fort McClellan, 148, 329, 333, 35], 

m 

51st Army, 81 

2691h Army. 358 

400th Army Service Forces (WAC). 81, 

356, 35711 

40151 Army Service Forces (WAC), 35711 

402d Army Service Forces (WAC). 3S711 

403d Army Service Forces (WAC). 35711 

404th Army Service Forces (Cld)·, 357/1 

534th USA F Band (WAF). 35711 

restrictions, 19.2]6 

U.S. Army. Fort Myer, 361, 36 111 

U.S. Army Field, 361, 36111 

Womcn Marines Band, 35711 

Bane, Col. Mary E., 297 

Bar to reenlistment, 143 

Barracks. See al$O Ho using; Liviug condi. 

tions. 

Camp Lee, 76. 77. 78, 145 

conversion for WAC usc, 275 

design, 199,260, 285 

Fort McClellan. 148- SO 

joint occupaucy, 199,275.276 

PROVIDE,230 

Vietnam, 246, 247. 253 

Basic Initial Entry Training (BIEn test, 

363- 64 

Basic training, 7- 8, 83, liS, 336, 339, 342, 

343. 347. 352. 404, 420. See u/$O Battal· 

ions. 

14th Army Band (WAC), 81 

consolidated WAC/male, 355, 363-65, 

404.406 

Fort Jackson. 354 

Korean War expansion, 101 

length, 353,420 

racial segregation, 16-17.80,86 
INDEX 

reservists, 60, 82 

WAC expallsion 1970s, 267-68, 362, 363, 

404 

WAF,74 

weapons lraining, 282, Sff (I/so Weapons 

lraining. 

Dates, George M., 54 

Oates, T3 Vietla M., 51 

Baualions 

1st (Basic T raining), 78, 80, 83, 86 

lSI Basic Training (WAC), 366 

lsi WAC Dasic Training (USAR), 294, 

294, 

2d (Dasic T raining), 78 

2d Basic Training (WAC), ))3, 345. 347, 

35 1,35311,366 

2d Signal Service, 270 

3d (Basic Training), 79 

3d Basie Training (WAC), 333, 345, 347, 

35 1,3531',3H 

41h, 391h Infantry, 2SO 

I7Ih Basic Training (WAC), 3H, 355" 

18th Basic Training (WAC), 355, 35511 

S48th Service and Supply, 351 

SOOOth WAC, 47 

82251h WAC, 47 

Headquarlers, WAC Center, 35 1, 353, 

35311,366 

Scout, 297th Infantry (ANG), 295 

WAC Training, 177. 276, 329, 33 1, 335-

J6 

commanders. 434-35 

Bay of Pigs.. 173 

Bayh, Birch. 279 

Ileal, Thaddeus R., 235, 236, 237-38, 239 

Becton, Maj. Gen. Julius W., Jr., 371- 72 

Bell, Maj. Elizabelh G .. 14711 

Ilennde, Lt. Gen. Leo E., 234, 303-05, 306 

Benefits, 83, 124, 134, 143, 276. See a/so 

Child care program; Pensions; MaterniIy benefits. 

Bennett, Col, Judith C .. 24311. 431 

!Jenson, Comd. Sgl. Maj. Beny J., 246, 346 

Dentley, Esther. 332 

!Jerg, Drig. Gen. William W., 213 

Bergin, Maj. Gen. William E., 110 

Uerlin Crisis, 173- 76, 189 

Berlin Wall, 174 

Bernardini. M. Sgl. Sylvia R., 24311 

Berry, 1st Lt. Alma 0 .. 85" 

Ilerry, Lt. Col. Elizabeth A., 25911, 368 

Biak,23 

Bird, Cap!. Linda, 32311 

Birth conl rol, 394 

Biz7.elle, Lt. Col. Joanalys A., 355, 3H" 

mack enlistments. 16. 18. See (liso Basic 

t~aining, racial $Cgregation; Racial poliCle!;. 

mack sludies, 343 

Illaek Top, 80 

Dlack units, 18, 67, 80, 85- 86. See alS() 

Racial policies. 

Olake, L!. Col. Mary S., 430 

Olanchfield, Col. Florence A .• 38 

Blanding, Sarah G., 72 

Blall, Genevieve, 2 11 

Bliss, Maj. Gen. Raymond W., 45, 1S4 

Bolling. Lt. Gen. Alexander R., 151 

Bolte. General Charles L., 182 

Bolte Committee, 182. Set (lISQ Bolte legisla· 

tion. 

Bolte legislalion, 183, 186, 207, 210 

Bo]lon, Frances " .. 214 

Bomber Command, 9th, 22 

Bonner, Lt. Col. Marlha M., 43 1 

Bonu$e$, 143, lS6, 192,28 1,369 

Boone. NE, 80 

Booth, Lt. Gen. Donald P., 158 

Ilouffier, Lt. Col. Helen H., 110",43] 

Boutell, Lt. Col. Hortense M .. 11011, 126. 

127. 182, 18711,220 

Bouton, LI. Col. Irma V .• 429 

Bowers. Maj. Gen. Verne R., 368 

Boyce. Col. Weslray Daule, 186, 188, 224, 

421 

appointed DW AC. 25 

demobilization policy, 25 

Genera] and Special Slaff assignments. 

67- 68 

and Henry, 65 

inspection trips. 29. 31. 44 

and Paul. 32. 65 

postwar reu:ntion/reenlistment programs. 

36. 37 

postwar WAC. 25. 26, 28-29. 31-33. 41. 

racia " l policies. 85 

reserves, 28 

re tirement. 44 

special assistant ror wonlen's affairs position, 64 

training center site, 72 

WAAC aclive duty credit, 41, 163 

Bradley. General Omar. 50, 57. 70 

Urajkovich, Maj. Cotherine A .. 24311, 254 

Branch code, 194 

oranch immalerial positions, 129, 194- 95. 

See (lisa Inlerchangeable spaces; K 

code. 

Branch organizalion. 56, 58-59. 290. 322. 

Set a/so Women's Army Corps (WAC). 

as a branch. 

Dranch, Col. Elizabeth H., 220, 220", 34 ]. 

343", 432. 433 

orecht. LI. Col. Helen F .. 428, 432 

Brehm, William K .• 308, 373 

Brewer, Col. Margaret A., 392n 

Brewster. Lt. Col. Margaret E.. 433 

Brigades 

509 
510 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Sth Basic Training, 355, 355" 

Retraining, ForI Riley. 389 

Training, MP&CS/TC, ForI McClellan, 

366, 435 

Briggs, Lt. Col. Ruth, 127 

Brisbane, 23 

British servicewomen. 11 

Brochures and literature, 161 

Brooke General Hospital, 61 

Brooks, Lt. Col. Colleen L., 430 

Brooks. Lt . Gen. Edward H., 92, 94 

Selective Service for women, 97 

ntilization of womcn in Korea. 108 

WAC recruiting, 98 

WAC training facilities, 44~4S 

Brooks, Col. Harry W .. 261 

Brotzman. Donald 0., 308, 371 

Broughton, Lt. Col. Levin 1)., 2231/ 

Brown, Maj. Gen. Charles E., Jr., 330 

Brown, Harold. 375, 376, 383, 391 - 92, 396 

Browning, Sgt. lSI Cl. Patricia R., 359 

Bruce Construction Co., 146 

Brucker, Wilber M., 10911, 151. 112 

Bryant, Col. Ruby F., 111 

Budget, Bureau of the, 42, 211 

Bumper stickers, 101 

Burbank, LI. Col. Arlene G .. 431. 435 

Burke, Lt. Col. Beatrice L., 433 

Burns, Sgt. Maj. E1i1.3beth J., 21811 

Bush, Col. George E., 12, 7211 

Butler, Lt. Col. Jack R .• 229 

Butler, Lt. Col. Miriam L., 13111, 15711, 

18011 

Cade. LI. Col. Nelda R., 201. 435 

Cadoria, Maj. Shcrian G .• 254 

Cain, Maj. Carolyn 1 .. 435 

Cairo, 31 

Calcuua.31 

Caldwell, Lt. Col. Doris L.. 16111,355 

Caldwcll. Maj. Gcn. William B. Ill. 363 

California, 241 

Callaway. Howard H .. 266 

discharge on pregnancy/parenthood. 307, 

JOS 

discontinuance of the WAC, 315. 318 

Fort McClellan closure. 352-53 

WAC basic training, 362 

WAC expansion 19705,280 

WAC recruiting, 279 

repeal of Section 3071, Jl4 

women at the Military Academy. 321 

Cam Ranh Bay, 244 

Cambodia. lB. 24411. 253 

Cameron Station, VA. 190. 274 

Camp Bearcat. Vietnam, 250 

Camp Carroll, AK. 295 

Camp Drew. Japan. 10611 

Camp Gordon. GA, 67 

Camp Holabird. MD. 67 

Camp Lee, VA. Sf(! a/so WAC Training 

Center. Camp Lee. 

chosen as WAC training center site. 12 

post commander. See G raham. Orig. Gen. 

Roy C. L. 

Camp Lejeune, NC, 357/1 

Camp Osaka, Japan, 10611 

Camp RUSlon, LA, 9, 76, 357./ 

Camp Sagami, Japan, 10611 

Camp Sakai, Japan, 10611 

Camp Schimmel pfenning, Japan, 106" 

Camp Selldai. Japan. 106" 

Camp Stoneman, CA, 81 

Camp Zama. Japan. 10611 

Campbell, SP5 Nora J ., 29411 

Canol Zone. See I'anama Canal Zone. 

Cannon Field Artillery, 385 

Capacio, Lt. Col. Marguerite L., 435 

Career Incentive Act, 1957.20811 

Career management. 65- 66, 124-29, 133- 35. 

159, 164-65. See a/so Enlisted I'ersonnI'l Directorate; Officer Personnel Directorate; Officer Personnel Manage· 

ment System (OI'MS): Schools and 

training; WAC Cartocr Branch; 

Women's Army Corps (WAC), 8S a 

branch. 

Career mauagement fields. 155- 56, 17611. 

192 

Career Management Group, 65, 66 

Career specialties. SCI' Specialist programs 

Hnd training. 

Carlisle Barracks, PA, 73 

Carlson. Col. Lane, 220, 22011 

Carnegie, Hallie, 457 

Carpenter, 19 

Corroll, 1st LI. Sallie L.E., 338 

Carter, James E., 308, 375, 397 

Caserta, 31 

Cassidy, Lt. Col. John F .. 39# 

Casualties, Vietnam, 227 

Catano. 51'6 Thcresa A .. 24411 

Cathedral in the Pincs Memorial, 332 

Center of Military History (CMH), 374 

Central All-Volunteer Task Force, 265 

Centralized selection, 289 

Ceylon, 23 

Chafee. John 1-1 ., 262. 318 

Chaffin. Col. Frunces v., 221. 243", 252. 

430 

ellulIlIl'f, The, 332 

Chaplain Corps, 21 

Chnplain's ussistant, 264 

Chaplnin'$ Fund. 330 

Chuvez, Denis. 319 

Chel11ical Center and School, 352 

Chemical Corps Training Command, 329 

Chemical School. 146,276.347,351 

Chicago. IL, 101 
INDEX 

Chicago WAC Veterans Association. 332 

Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). See Denfel d, Admiral Louis E.; Nimitz, Fleet 

Adm. Chesler W.; Zumwalt, Admiral 

Elmo R., Jr. 

Chief of starT, Air Force. See Ryan. General 

John D. 

Chief of staff, Army. See also Abrams. General Creighton W.; Bradley, General 

Omar; Collins. General J. Lawton; 

Decker, General Goorge H.; Eisenhower, General Dwight D.; Johnson, 

Gcneral Harold K.; Lemnitzer, General 

Lyman L.; Marshall, General George 

c.; Palmer, General Bruce, Jr.; RidgW8y. General MaUhew 8.: Rogers. 

General Bernard W.; Westmoreland. 

General William C.; Weyand. General 

Frtoderiek C. 

consolidated WAC/male b.lsic training, 

364 

DWAC.I51 

interchangeable spaces, 195.224 

Korean War recall programs. 94 

ODW AC, 43, 65 

office of, 56 

regulatory aulhorily. 92 

reorganization. 1973. )52 

WAC officers on General and Special 

staffs, 68 

WAC service ribbon, 396 

women COlltent and mission performance, 

J72 

Child care policies. 304, 378. See aim Dependell! care plan; I'arenthood policies. 

Child care program. 388 

Childs, Capl. Jeanne G .. 85" 

Chino. 31.47 

Chh18, People's Republic or, 89 

China-Burma-India T heater. 15,23 

China Thealer. 23,47 

Choccolocco Mtns., 145 

Christio" SciellCf Mo"itor. 53 

Christian. SP4 Mildred L., 361" 

Chrones. Cpl. Christine F .. \08" 

Chungking, 23 

Civil Affairs School. 181 

Civil Air Patrol. 41 

Civil Operations and Rural Devclopmcnl 

Support Agency, 244 

Civil Righls Ael, 1964,232 

Civil rights movement. 165, 173 

Civil Service. S4 

Civilian acquired skills, 8. 9. 127. 167. 293 

Civilian Acquired Skills Program (CAS!'). 

293,29311.294. 296. 3D. 35311. 366 

Civilian position and recall. 95 

Clnrk. Lt Col. F. Marie. 107, 11011. 335-36. 

431 ,432 

Clark, General Mark W .. 22.108.115 

Clarke, Maj. Gen. Mary E .. 13111. 330, 

367/1,427,430.434 

accomplishments, 393 

airborne units, 382 

appointed DW AC. 324-25, 367 

CG. MPS/TC and Fort McClellan, 393, 

395 

disestablishment of the WAC, 395 

011 elimination of DWAC, 392-93 

EWITA study, 380 

ellpansion 1970s. 354. 355, 369, 371. 375 

Fort McClellan closure. 352 

pregnancy policies, 381,388 

relirement, 395 

senior military spokeswoman. 386-88. 

389- 90, 396 

standards, 371. 375 

TRADOC rape prevention training, 388 

WAC Center and School. 334. 350. 354. 

355, 362, 369, 432 

WAC service ribbon, 396 

women at the Mililary Academy, 323 

women's command positions. 394 

Classification programs, 1:55 

Clay, General Lucius DuB., 45 

Claymore mine. 362 

Clemenson. Sgt 1st CI. Margaret R .• 359 

Clemmons. Charles. 330" 

Clerical Training Course. 276 

Clerical training courses. 345 

Clerical T yping and Proctodures Course 

(MOS 7lB), 329, 342. 347 

Clerk-typist. 248 

Clerks, 4, 8. 19,20,22,84 

Clinical Psychology Course. 14111 

Clothing allowance. See Uniforms, allowance. 

Coast Guard Reserve,S 

Coast Gnard, U.S., 6. 39. See also SPARS. 

Cochran, Jacqueline, 95 

Cole. Brig. Gen. Earl F., 248 

Coleman, LI. Col. DorOlhea A., 3911, 4011 

Colglatier. Lt. Gen. Robert W .. 182 

College J unior Program. 119- 22, 1J2. 218. 

21811.219.329,336.351 

College military training programs. See College Junior Progranl; Reserve Officer 

Training Corps (ROTC). 

Collins, General J. Lawton. 110. ISS 

Collins, Lt Gen. ]ames F .. 175, 181 

Collins,Sgt 1st CI. Rosella. 359 

Colorado, 241 

Combat ubility. See Mission performance, 

women contell! and. 

Combat Developments Command, 351 

Combat Engineers. 385 

Combat exclusion policy. 381-84. 401 

e!Tect on MOSs, 384-85 

511 
512 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Combat leadership fUIlC\iolls. Sf!t! Strength, 

WAC, grade structure expansion. 

Combat, defined. 383 

Combat, women in, 166, 257, 271. 374. 396, 

403. See afso Combat exclusion policy; 

Mission performance, warnell content 

and: Noncombat stalus; Weapons tfaining. 

Combim:d Arms T est Activity. T RADOC, 

364 

Command and General Staff College, 125. 

126,135,22111,291 

Command authority, 4, 9. 14. 128.260,291. 

313,318,399,401 

dire<;lor, WAAC, 12 

direc tor, WAC, 12 

limits on, ]4,273- 74.289 

RcgulatioliS. 5 

women in combat, 374 

Women Marines. 297 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act. 1948. 56 

Commander in Chief. U.N. CommllUd 

(CINCUNC),89 

Commands, named. See specific commalld by 

/lame. 

Commands, numbered. See specific commaud by type alld //lImbe,. 

Commemorative stamp, 100 

Commerce. Depa rtment of, 320 

Commissioned officers 

advanccd courses, 124, 125- 27, 220-21. 

See afS(] x:ci~ list programs lind train· 

ing; specific school Of course by IUlmc. 

appointmenL qualifications, 56, 59, 114, 

118. Scc a/so Officer procurcment. 

branch training. See abo.·c advanced 

courses. 

carcer length, 114, 123 

career management. Se~ Career management. 

career progress, 129- 31 

inequities, male/WAC. 56. 57. 124, 125, 

164. See afS(] Career management; 

Command authority: Housing and 

housing policies; Promotions: Retire· 

ment. 

procurement. See College Junior Program: Direct commissioned program; 

Officer Candidate School: Officer procurement: Reserve Officers Training 

Corps (ROT C): WAC STUdent Officer 

Program. 

promotions. See Promotions. 

quarters, 197-99. Sce a/so Housing and 

housing policies. 

WAC, averagc age. 131 

WAC, permanently detailed to other 

branchcs. 289-91. 311. 316. 325, 401 

WAC, retention rate. 132 

Communications, 19, 21, 23, 249 

Companies 

48th AG Postal. 274 

149t11 WAAC Post Headquarters, 22 

A, 1st I1T Bn., 81, 86 

A, WAC Training En., ]48 

B, 1st BT Bn .. SO, g6 

C, 1st BT Bn., 86 

Clcrical Training, 347, 349 

D. 1st BT Bn .• 86 

E, 1st I}T Bn., 86 

E, WAC Training nn., 341 

F, Headqua rters Bn., 366 

F Provisional, WAC T raining On., 345 

HQ & HQ, WAC Center, 150, 329. 333, 

336, 345 

HQ & HQ, WAC Training Center, Camp 

Lee, 78 

HQ & R~eiving, WAC Training fin. , 

335, 345 

Special Training, 17th OT Bn. (WAC), 

Special '" Training, HQ 1111., 351 

StalTand FaCility. HQ Bn., 351, 366 

Student Officer, Headquarters Bn .• 35\, 

366 

Competitive Tour Program. 117 

Comptroller general of the U.S., 14, 276-77 

Conduct, certification of, 37 

Congress. See afS(] Armed Services Committee. House; Armed Services Committee. Senate: House of Representa tives; 

Legislatioll: Rogers, Edith Nourse; 

Sellnte: Smith, Ma rgarct Chase. 

abortion policies, 241 

l1erlin Crisis. 173, 175 

combat exclusion policy. See Combat ex· 

elusion policy. 

Cuban Missile Crisis. ]89 

dependents and del'Cndc",.:y policies. 276. 

401 

discontinuance of the WAC, 318. 396- 97 

drafting women. 24 

elimination of DWAC, 39 1- 92 

enlistment oonuses, 281 

enlistment requirements. 277. 281 

Fort McClellan WAC area construction, 

146 

Korean Wa r mobilization. 89-91 

Korean War recnll program. 94 

length of overseas service tour. 284 

Military Academy, women aI. 401. SIT 

u/SQ Service academies, women at. 

military housing, 197, 198, 199.200 

military obligations. 294 

military stntus for women. 4- 5, 11 - 12 

noncombatant status for women. 3. 5. 14. 

396, 399. See alsQ Combat. women in. 
INDEX 

postwar retention of the WAC. Su 

Women's Services Integration Act. 

1948. 

promotion restrictions. 182, 2 10, 401. Sn 

Q/sJJ l'romOlions. 

public information funding. 191 

reenlistmenl. 144 

regulnr stalus for medical women. 38 

Tri·service barracks funding. 20011 

\l1;li1.ulion of military women, 261-63 

veterans benefits, 109 

WAAC active dUly c redit, 163,401 

WAAC ceiling, 9 

WAC expansion 19705,264 

warrant officers, 133 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act, intent, 138 

Congresses 

77th,4 

78th. 6, 12, 14. 15 

79th, 38, 43 

80t h, 38, 43, 46 

8 lst. 59 

84th, 163 

85th, 163 

89th,212 

90th. 212 

92d,3 19 

93d. 319, 320 

94th. 321 

Connolly, Lt. Col. lona S., 191, 428, 43 1 

Connor, Lt. Gen. Albert 0" 220, 226 

Connor. Maj. Elinor J., 127 

Consent, parental, 58, 60 

Construction. 197. Su Q/w Camp Lee, 

living conditions; Port McClellan. (:onstmetion of WAC facilities; Tri-Serv. 

ice Enlisted Women's Barracks, Port 

Myer. 

Contenl of Women in Units field tests, 378. 

S« o/so MAX WAC (Women Content 

in Units Force Development Test). 

Cominental Army Command (CONARC), 

17<). Su o/Sf) Training ami Doctrine 

Command (TRADOC). 

commander, 207. 263 

consolidation of ndrninistrutive schools. 

181 

control of $(.'hooI5. 179 

course doctrine and policy, 329. 339 

rec:ruiting, 16111 

reorganiulion 1973.35 1.352 

WAC staff advisers. 431-42 

weapons training. 339 

Contract service, 4 

Contractor bonuses. 268 

Control tower operator. 20 

Cook. Maj. Gen. Ellrl P .• 212 

Cooking Course. 14111 

Cooks. 8. 230. 345 

Cooks and Bakers Course, 85 

Copenhagen. 160 

Cornick, Maj. Frances Sue. 48. 430 

Correctional specialist. 27 1 

Corthay, Lt Col. Helen Hart, 161, 16111, 

177 

Costs, WAC/ male. 122.21811.377. 399 

Counseling 

career, 143. 171. 201, 402 

personal. 143, 171 

Court-martial cases. 162. 216-27 

Courls. civilian 

abortion policies. 241 

civil rights. 165 

dependency policies. 276 

discharge policiC5, 234. 235 

felony conviction lind e111 ry/retention 

standards. 235, 238 

pregnancy politics. 234 

women at the Naval Academy, 320 

women's rights movement, 233 

Co~, Eugene E.. 3 19 

Craighil1. Dr. MargaTel, 71 

Crawrord. 1st Sgt. Marion C. 246 

Criminal Investigation Command. 271 

Crocker, Capl. Kelsey C., 147n 

Cryptanalytic specialist, 270 

Cryptography Course, 14111 

Cuba, 173 

Cuban Missile Crisis. 189 

Cully. MSgt. Dorothell 5 .• 10811 

Cultural unsuitability. 166 

Curry. SP7 Mary L .• 244" 

Curtis, Maj. Jean, 294" 

Cuthberl. TSgt. Mary E., 65. 6511 

Czechoslovakia. ~5 

DACOWITS. Su Defense Advisory COIIImillee on Women in the Services 

(DACOW ITS). 

Dating policy. 15 

Davis. James C., 54 

Davis. Lt. Col. Emily C .. 39, 40". 44 

Davis. Maj. Gen. Prank M., Jr., 236 

Dllvis, Maj. Rosemary L., 243" 

Davison. General Michael S .. 284 

Daytona Beach, FL, 9. 331. 357n. Sn Q/SO 

WAC training centers. 

DCSPER. ~ Personnel, Deputy Chief of 

Staff (DCSPER). 

Deady. Lt. Col. Virginia R., 428 

Death gratuity. 12 

Decker. General George H .. 178. 186 

Decontamination spcciulisi. 264 

Defense. US.~·I secretary of (ASD). Set 

Runge. Carlisle 1'. 

Defense. us't SI.'Cretary of for health and 

environment. 240 

513 
514 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Defense, ass'! secretary of for manpower 

(ASD[M]). See Morris. Thomas D. 

Defense, ass'! secretary of for manpower 

and personnd. See Rosenberg, Alina 

M. 

Defense, ass', secretary of for manpower 

and reserve affairs (ASD M&RA), 

315-77. See also Ahearnc. 10hn F.; 

Brehm, William K.; Kelley, Roger T.; 

Taylor, David P.; White, John P. 

military personnel policy, deputy for 

(DASD [M&RA] MPI'). See 

Henade, Lt. Gen. Leo E.; Berg, 

Brig. Gen. William W.; Finneran, 

V. Adm. John G. 

OcFcJlsc, ass', secretary of for manpower, 

reserve affairs, and logistics (ASD 

MRA&L), )75", 382 

Defense, Department of (DOD). 43. See 

u/w Air Foree, Department of; Army, 

Department of; Defense, assistall1 sec· 

retaries and secretaries of by lIame: 

Navy, Department of; Racial policies. 

base closures. 352- SJ 

combat exclusion policy, 382-84 

diseharge on pregnancy/parelllhood, 

303-08 

diserimination in dependency benefits, 

276 

and GAO, 204 

housing policies, 202. See a/so McNamara. Robert S. 

Personnel Policy lJoard, 70, 96, 97 

physical standards. 279 

private bills, ] 3411 

promotion restrictions, 183,211 

reorgani"l.3lion 1962, 179 

utili~ation of women, 70- 72, 9S- 97, 375-

77. See a/so Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services 

(DACOWITS); Rosenberg. Anna M.; 

Utilization of women. 

WAAC active duty credit, 163 

Defense, deputy secretary of. See Vance, 

Cyrus R. 

Defense. secretary of. See also Drown, 

Harold; Forrcstal, James V.; Gates. 

Thomas S .. 1r.; Johnson. Louis; Laird, 

Melvin R.; McNamara, Robert S.; Marshall, Goorge C.; Rumsfc]d, Donald H.; 

Schlesinger. James R.; Wilson. Charles 

E. 

combat exclusion policy, 383- 84 

DOPMA.312 

elimination of DWAC, 391 

housing slalldnrds, ]97 

Defense Advisory Committee on Women in 

the Services (DACOWITS) 

barracks design, 199 

established, 71. 72 

housing, 198 

promotion restrictions, 182-83. 210, 212 

recruiting, 100 

service acadcmies, womcn at, 320 

utilization of women, 167 

WAAC active duty credit. 163 

WAC Center and School. 342 

WAC grade structure expansion, 209 

WAC publicity, 224 

women general officers, 231 

women's serviccs expansion. 222 

Defense AuthoriUltion Dill, 1976,321- 22 

Defense Intelligence Agency. 179 

Defense Language Institute. 179,242 

Defense Officer Personnel Managemcnt Act 

(DOPMA), 312-14, 316, 317- 18, 367, 

391,396 

Defense Personnel Support Center. 267 

Defense Procurement Authorization 1Ji1l, 

FY 1979. See Legislation, abolishing 

the WAC. 

Defense Supply Agency. 179, 267, 268-69 

Defensive techniques training. 362 

Deferred taxes, 109 

Delaware, 241 

emobili~..ation 

post- Korean War, 109 

post- World War II, 24, 25- 28, 138. See 

a/so Boyce. Col. Westray Battle, postlVar WAC. 

postwar personnel shortages, 36, 44 

WAC officer positions, 67 

Dcnfeld. Admiral Louis E., 38, 49, 50 

Denholm, Maj. Gen. Charles A .• 270 

Densford, Katherine, 71 

Dental Assistant Cou rse, 141" 

Dental Laboratory Specialist Course, 141" 

Dcpendclll care plan, 309. See a/sQ Child 

care policies. 

Dependents and dependcncy policies. See 

(llso Discharge policies; Parenthood 

policies; Pregnancy policies. 

allowances, 14-15, 51, 54, 197, 276- 77, 

325,401 

counseling, 388 

dependent care policies, 309, 378 

enlistmcnt/rcenlistment. 51, 58, 60, 6011. 

278 

housing, 197 

incquities, 14- 15, 16, S7. 124, 139, 197, 

234-35,278 

resolved, 23S, 236,262,276-77,278, 

309,325,378-79,401 

officers, 57, 276- 77 

Organized Reserve, 60, 60" 

recall programs 95, 97 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

ACI, 1948, SI, 54. 138- 39 

DePuy, Gencral William E., 354, 3SS. 370 
INDEX 

Dese8:rcgation. 85-86. See also Racial poliCIes. 

Desc~tion, 238 

Delention for misconduct. 15 

Devers, Lt. Gen. Jacob L. 45, 72 

Dial central office rqmirman, 28 1 

Dickc, Maj. Diane. 2211/, 230" 

Diehl. Frances. 71 

Dietitians, 38. 41. 210 

Dietitians Corps, 33 

Dinh Quan. 250 

Dinneen. LI. Col. Helen E, 429 

Direct commission programs, 116-19, 132. 

287, 288. 293, 352. See also Associalc 

WAC Company Officcrs Course 

(AWCOC); WAC Company Officers 

Course (WCOe). 

Director, WAAC, 5. See also Hobby, Col. 

Ovcta Culp. 

Director, WAC (DWAC). 361. 402, 427. 

See alSQ Bailey. Brig. Gen. Mildred 

I.e.: lJoyee, Col. Westray BaHle: 

Clarke, Brig. Gcn. Mary E.; Din-etor. 

WAC. Office of (ODWAC); Galloway, 

Col. Irene; Gorman. Col. Emily C.; 

Ha!laren. Col. Mllry A.; Hobby, Col. 

Oveta Culp; Hoisington, Col. Elizabeth 

P.; Milligan. Col. Mary Louise. 

assigned 10 chief of staff, Army, 43, 56 

career management. 180 

and chief. WAC Recruiting Brancil, 160 

and chid. WAC Career Branch. 131 

and COllgress. 162 

and DACOWITS. 87. See alSQ Dcfeuse Advisory Commiuee on 

Women in the Services 

(OACOWITS). 

and O/PAD. 65 

elimination of. 312. 313- 15. 316. 317, 318. 

367, 390-93, 394. 406 

mnnuing document (TO # CS 8532), 208 

mission. 63- 64. 180 

and pregnancy Jesting, 303 

public relations. 157. See also Public rela. 

tions. 

rank. 12.51 - 52.56.212,231 

and staff directors, 66-67. 87 

training center authority. 75 

uniforms. 162. See also Uniforms. 

WAC officer specialties, 289 

Women's Armed Services Reserve Act. 

1948.52 

Director. WAC, Offiec of (ODWAC). See 

also Direclor. WAC (DW AC); 

Women's Army Corps (WAC). deputy 

direclor. 

abolished, 392. 394. 406. See also Director, WAC (OW AC). elimination of. 

Army reorganization 1962, 180 

Army '75 Study, 228 

assigned to chief of staff. Army, 43 

established, 13 

lame duck accomplishments, 388- 89 

mission and functions. 180 

overseas training, 82 

PROVIDE,229 

staff, 65- 66, 67-68, 110, 151.1, 18811,218, 

223,259,25911.368 

training requirements, 168 

WAC expansion 1970s, 263, 264, 266 

Disability benefits, 144 

Disbursing officers. 14 

Discharge appeals. 235 

Discharge policies. See alw Demobilitation. 

abortion, 239, 240 

administrative, 303, 307 

bad conduct. 16 

Berlin Crisis, 175 

compelling public interest, 234 

dependency, 16. See also ParelUhood poli· 

des. 

expiration of time in service (ETS), 16 

hardship. 16,306,309 

inaptilllde, 16 

involuntary, 303- 08, 313, 325, 400. See 

also Parenthood polides; Pregnancy 

policies. 

marriage. See Marriage policies. 

medical disability, 16 

mental disability. 16 

minority, 16 

mobili~ation, 93 

public relations, 140 

quick discharge program, 37 

recycling. See below unfitness; unsuitability. 

unfitlless, 16.309,341 

unresolvable family problems, 379 

unsuitability, 205. 226. 309 

waivers, 304 

Discharge rates, 202-05. 225-27. 228. See 

also Strength, WAC, losses. 

Disciplinary 8arracks, Fort Leavenworth, 

389 

Disciplinary code, 12. See a/so Army RegulatiOIlS; WAC RegUlations. 

Disciplinary problems, 377 

District of Columbia, 241 

Divisions 

1st Marine, FMCR, 297 

9th 1nfamry. 250 

80th (Training), USAR, 294 

82d Airborne, 384, 385- 86, 388 

IOlst Airborne, 38211 

Dobson, Sgt. 1st CI. Sylvia M., 34511 

Doering. Maj. Anne Marie, 242" 

Dog trainer. 264 

Dole. Roben, 23 1 

Dollahite, Maj. Jimmie B .. 434 

515 
516 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS. 1945-1978 

Dollatio. MSgt. Grace T., 108n 

[)Qomink, Lt. Barbara. J23n 

DOI'MA. oS« Defen!;e OffICer Personnel 

Management Act (D01'MA). 

Doyle, Maj. Cloe, 430 

Dran 

end or and the WAC. 228-30, 257, 263-

66, 270. 279, 292. 297, 399, 402. 403 

Korean War. 94, 106, 109 

peacetime and the WAC figh t for regular 

status, 55 

rec ruiting budgets, III 

wornell. 24, 92, 96-97, 403 

Draft laws, 91, 92, 97. 229, 2n 

Drill sergeants, Jack of lind WAC expansion 

19705.280 

Drill Sergeants School, 339, 345, 345" 

Drivers. 8, 14, 19,20, 22. 23 

DrunkcnllC!IS. 238 

Dual career track, 289-90 

Duncan, Charles, 383-84 

Duncan, b t Sgt. Mildred E., 254 

Dunlap, Brig. GCIl. Lillian, 259 

Dunlap, Marjorie S., 2)1 

Du l'onl. Pierre S .. 319, 32 1" 

Duran!. Capt. Kathleen Nash, 162 

Duly assignments. 128-29. 141, 194n, 216, 

40 1. $« al50 Branch immalerial spaces; 

Career managemenl; Inlerchangeable 

spaces; Military Occupalional SpecialIy/ies (MOS/5); Ulili7.8lion of women. 

enlisted, 1963,4 19 

and housing, 101, 17S 

oolated, 166 

limitalions on, 114, 169-70. See a/so abol'f! 

and housing. 

manning documents and requisitions, 9, 

18- 19. 131, 169- 70, 184, 191 

officers, 1963,417-18 

preference StDlcme111S. 131 

E code, 194 

E- 8. MSgt./ist Sge. , 144, 159 

E-9, Sgt. Maj .. 144, 159 

Eaker, LI. Gen. Ira C., 16 

East Dc rlin. 113 

East Germany, 174 

Eastern Kentucky Univcrsily. 187 

Edgerton, Maj. Gen. G len A., 57 

Edgewood Ar$Cnal. MD. 146 

Educational bencf"ils, 109 

Educalional standards, 10, S6, 58. 104...()5, 

114,179,11911,181 

Edwards. Maj. Gen. Idwlll H., 12 

Edwards, India, 11 

Edwards. Lt. Col. Mary E., 43 1, 433 

EfTerson, S. Sgl. Edilh L., 146, lSI 

Effic;ency reports. ISS, 156 

Egypt. 31 

Eisenhower, General Dwighl D. 

appoinled chief of 5lafT. 17, 31 

and Boyce, 31 

demobiliulion, 17, 18 

postwar WAC, 31, 33, 35, 39, 41-41, 45, 

46, 49-50, 65 

presidenl. 108, I II , 163 

status for women in Medical Depl .. 38 

utilization of W AACs/\VACs, 11. Sff 

a/Sl) North African Theater. 

on WAC conlribul ions, 16 

WAC deputy direclor position, 44 

Eisenhower, Mrs. Dwight D .. 231 

Elderdice, Lt. Col. Eunily F., 151", 418 

Eleven-gun salule for a woman general officer,BI 

Eliker, Lt. Col. Mart ha C., 434 

Elitabeth II, 111 

Elliot!, Maj. Robin, 419 

Elms, Col. George 0., 11 6 

Embassy Hotd, Saigon, 144 

Emoliollal disorders, 119 

Employment counseling, 19 

Engineers. See Army Corps of Engineers. 

Englalld,22 

Engler, Lt. Gen. Jean E., 145, 155 

Enlisted Assignmenl Division, M I'C. 168 

Enlisted grad~. 5, 11, 144 

Enlisted Men/Enlisted Women's Club 

(EM/EW Club), Fort McClellan, 347, 

348. 349 

Enlisted MOS Requirement Conferences, 

168, 169" 

Enlisted Open Mess, WAC T raining Clr., 

110 

Enlisted Personnel Directorate (EPD), 

16911. 179,192,19311,264 

inlerchangeable spaces, 194-96 

Enlisted personnel rllanagcmc111 syslem, 

155- 56. Set afro Career management 

fie lds. 

Enlisted Reserve Cor ps, 57, 59-60. See also 

Organized Reserve Corps. 

Enlistment bonu$CS, 28 1 

EnliSlmcnl eJlIcnsions. 94, 174, 175 

Enlislment options, 104,214,230 

Army Career G roup, 116, 116/1,168 

assignment policies, 110 

band. 168 

Buddy Basic T raining Plan, 168 

CASP, 293 

college, 160 

CONUS Sialion of Choice, 268 

Delayed Entry, 268 

inequities, WAC/ male, 140-41. 142 

oversea5 service, 140,181-83 

Reserved Seat, 140--41. 141" 

service school. 140-4 1, 14111,268 

special unit (SUE), 268 

Siripes for Skills, 268 
INDEX 

three year, 140, 141. 156 

training and travel, 268 

lwo year, 98,141. 156,268 

USA SA, 270 

Warrant Officer Flight Training, 268 

Enlistment qualifications. See Enlistment 

standards. 

Enlistment standards, 57- 58, 104-05, 177, 

205, 237, 238. 400. 403. See also Age 

requirements; Educational standards; 

Moral standards. 

and congressional action, 281 

dependents, 15. 51. 278 

inequities, 234. 277- 79 

physical, 9- 10, 53, 56, 58, 97, 166, 260, 

278- 79 

reserves, 60, 6011, 97, 98 

revisions and waivers, 239. 240 

standardization of, 235, 239, 277- 79 

WAC e~pansion, 1970s, 268. 269, 277- 80, 

400 

waivers, 233- 38, 278 

women's rights moveme111, 232-36 

Equal opportunity, 26111 

Equal Opportunity, Office of. 387 

Equal Opportunity Programs. Office of. 261 

Equal Pay Act, 1963,232 

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 232, 266. 

299- 300.316.317- 18,403 

ERA CommitWe. 299- 300 

Eritrea. 271 

Eslick, L1. Col. Joyce E., 24311 

Estabrook. wO Marcia E., 13411 

Europe. 94. 106.284 

European Theater. 15,22 

Evacumion policies, 309 

Evaluation of Women ill the Army 

(EW ITA) Study, 310, 380-8 1 

E~ccll1ive Orders (EO) 

9981 (prOhibiting racial discrimination 

and segregation in the armed forces), 

85 

10240 (discharge on parenthood), 140 

11246 (prohibiting se~ discriminmion in 

federal employment), 232 

11478 (equal opportunity), 26111 

Experimental Program for a Volunteer 

Army. See Project VOLAR. 

EXlendt.'d Field Service. 81 

Fact sheets. 101 

Fahey. Charles 0., 86 

Fahey Commil1~. 86 

Failh, Brig. Gen. Don C., 7, 330-31 

Faith. Katherine. 331 

Faith Hall. 351 

Far East Command, 107-08 

Farrell, Sg!. 1st CI. Louise M .. 108tJ, 24411 

Fashionaire, 323 

Fatigues. 244. 247. See olso Uniforms. 

Fea, Maj. Jennnie w., 193 

Federal civil service, 203-04 

Federal District Court. Washington, DC, 

320 

Federal income ta~. 109.244 

Federal Reformatory for Women, Alderson, WV, 162 

Felony convictions, 238 

Female felon confinement. 389 

Ferebee. Dorothy, 71 

FerguSOll, LL Col. Mildred M., 18811, 218, 

222,431 

Field Artillery, women in. 385 

Field Artillery Advanced Course, 346 

Field Radio Repairman, 167 

Field tra ining, 336, 339. 353, 362, 363 

Fifth WAC Training Ctr., Camp RustOIl, 

357JJ. See also Camp Ruston. LA. 

Fighter Command. 8th, 22 

Film clips, 161 

Finance and Accouming Specialist Course, 

141IJ 

Finneran, V. Adm. JOhll G .• 306, 307 

Finschhafen,23 

Fillllcane, James, 51 

F irst WAAC Training Center, Fort Des 

Moincs. See WAC training centers. 

Fort Des Moines. 

Fisher, Lt. Col. Audrey A., 223n. 244, 434 

Filzgerald. Sgt. 1st CI. Ha rold, 333 

Fixed plant equipment repairman, 28 1 

~'d station attendant, 167 

Flachsland. Lt . Col. Norma M., 428 

Flagpole. T he, 332 

F lannery, William, 11011 

Fleet Marine Corps Reserve, 297 

Flight simulator specialist, 168 

Flight Training Program. 272, 288 

Florida State University, 287 

Food inspection specialist, 168 

Foote. Lt. Col. Evelyn P .. 25911, 299IJ, 435 

Force development, ass't chief of staff for 

(ACSFOR).263 

Force Development, Office of the ACors 

for, 266 

Forces Command (FORSCOM). See Army 

Forces Command (FORSCOM). 

Ford, MSgt. Evelyn, 24JIJ 

Ford, Gerald R., 321, 322 

Ford administration, 403 

Forres!. Maj. Gen. John F .• 387 

Forrestal. James V" 38,49 

Forrester, Maj. Gen. Eugene 1'., 266-67 

Forsythe, Maj. Gen. George I .. 230, 257 

Fort Belvoir, VA, 67 

Fort Benjamin Harrison, IN, 181 

Fort Bcnning, GA. 11~. 145, 273, 288. 352, 

366 

Fort Bliss. TX, 67 

Fort Bragg, NC, 145. 273, 385 

517 
518 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Fort Buckner, Okinawa, 106 

Fori Campbell, KY, 273 

Fori Des Moines, lA, 7, 9, 17, 24. 81, lJO31, 35711 

FOrl Devens. MA. 9, 76 

Fort Dill, NJ, 67, 8() 

basic lraining. consolidated male/female. 

WA'" C basic training, 267. 3SS 

Fori Georgc O. Meade. MD, 73, 78, 8 1, 

159, )56 

ForI Gordon, GA, 167.271. 352 

ForI Huachuca, AZ, 165 

ForI Jackson. SC, 280, 352. 362 

basic training. consolidated male/female. 

361 

WAC basic training, 267. 268. 354 

Fori Knoll, K. Y, 67, 72 

Fori Leavenwort h, KS, 126 

Fori Lee, VA. 126, 2J l. 273, 329. See o/so 

WAC Trujlling Center, Camp Lee. 

Fori Leollard Wood, MO 

basic training. consolidated malc/fcmole, 

361 

WAC basic lraining. 267, 3SS 

Fori Lewis, W A. 67 

Fort McClellan. AL. ]45-46, 280, 40 1. See 

olso WAC Center; WAC Cenler and 

Schoo]; WAC SchooL 

Army Reception Station. ))5, 3S3 

basic " aining, consolidated male/remale, 

3" 

cl05ure, 3'2-53 

Military Police school, 3S2-SJ 

post commander, 329. SN also Halloran, 

Col. Michael; Clarke, Maj. Gen. Mary 

E.; Mc Kean. Col. William A.; Moore. 

Col. William T. 

reorganization, 356, 36S-66 

Special T roop Command, 3SS 

WAC area. 329-JI. 34S. 347, 3S I, 35S 

WAC move to, 146-48. 14811. 329. 334 

Fort Mc Nair, WashingtOIl, DC, 126 

Fort Mc Pherson, G A. S7, 3S2 

Fort Monmouth. NJ, 167 

Fort Monroe, VA, 179 

Fort Myc r, VA, 186,200 

Fort Oglethoq >e, GA, 9. 24. 76. 81. 351" 

Fori Ord. CA, 86 

Fort Rilcy, KS. 11 5, 14S 

Fort Rucker. AL, 178. 272 

Fori Sam Houston. TX, 67 

Fort Shafter, HI. 1M, 248 

Fort Sheridan. IL, 67 

Fort Sill, OK, I IS 

4' Report. Sn Inventory and Projection of 

Army Strength Report (CSGPA-4S). 

F05ter, Lt. Col. Catherine H.. 15711, 429 

Foster. Lt. Co1. COtll M .. 6S. 6SII. 76. 96n, 

110,428 

Fourth. SPS Rebecca J., 24411 

Foushee, Lt. Col. Lillian F .. 16711.428 

France, 22, 44 

servicewomen, 29, 30 

women in combat, 374 

Frank, Lt. Col. Leta M., 248, 431 

Frankfurt. Germany, 27, 162 

Frantz, SP6 Ann S .. 244" 

Fraser, Lt. Col. Belly R., 431 

Freedoms Founda tion, 192 

Froehlke, Robert F .. 251, 264, 265, 274. 

310,3 19 

Frontiero, Lt. Sharron A., 276 

Fry, 1st Lt. Virginia K., 323 

Fullbright, Lt. Col. Mary C .. Mil, [JIll 

Fuller. SPS ludy A., 299" 

Fulton, lames G., 319 

G- I (Personnel). 32, 140, See alsa Brooks. 

Lt. Gen. Edward H.; Henry, Maj. Gen, 

Stephan G.; Mc Auliffe. Lt. Gen, An· 

thony G.; Paul, Maj. Gen. Willard S.; 

I'ersonnet. depmy chief of staff for 

(DCSPER). 

AC&GSC space! for WAC officers, 126 

Manpower Cont rol. Sn Powell, Brig. 

Gen, Herbert B. 

mobilization planning, 93 

office of, 90 

Plans Branch, 39 

posiwar WAC Teeniistmelll, 3S 

quick discharge program, 37 

WAC o fficer requisitions, 132 

WAC o fficer strength ceilings, 123 

G- 2 (Intelligence), 32 

G-3 (Operations), 32, 90, 93, 126 

G-3 (Organization and TllIining), 63. Sn 

olS(} Organization and T raining, Director or (DOT). 

G-4 (Logistics), 32 

Galloway, Col. Irene 0., IS7, 186, 330. 

33411.427,430, 432 

accomplishments, I S6 

appointed DWAC, 11 0 

dealt! of, 331 

discharge policies, 137, 140 

officer procurement, 119, ]22 

President'S Commission on the Status or 

Women, ]83" 

recruiting progrHms, 140 

reenlistment programs, 142, 144 

utilization or women, ]S2, ]56 

WAAC active dut)' credit, 163 

WAC strength, 137 

WCOC, 117 

Galloway, LI. Col. Mera, 27-28, 4011 

Galloway Gate, 33] 

Galloway Gate Road , 331 

Gallup polls, 24 
INDEX 

Gardner, Lt. Col. Annie Y., 75, 78. 430, 

431. 432 

Garrell, Col. Pola L., 21811, 22311. 25911 

Garrison. Col. Dorotha J., 333, 344-45, 349, 

360, 430. 432 

Gates, Thomas 5., Jr., 229 

Gates Commission, 229 

Gender·free classification. Sec Intcrchangeable spaces. 

Gcneral Accounting Office (GAO), 202-04, 

l21 

General counsel, DOD, 306 

General Educational Development (GED) 

cenificate, 104 

General Educational Development (GED) 

T est, 58, 114, 177,27911 

General Federation of Women's Clubs, 71 

General Officer Steering Committee for 

Equal Opportunity, 360-61 

General officers, women appointed, 231, 

General '" Order 20 (discontinuing the WAC), 

397 

General Staff 

draft registration for women, 24 

DWAC, 180 

G- I (Personnel) and ODWAC, 13 

utilization of women, 4 

WAC officers assigned. 67- 68 

Geneva_ 173 

George Washin8ton Honor Medal, Freedoms Foundation, 192 

Georgia, 241 

Germany, 44, 67, 106, 162, 284. See also 

Berlin Crisis. 

Gerow, Lt. Gell. Leonard T.. 74- 75, 78 

GI Bill. 29_ 54 

Gia Ray, 250 

Gibson. Lt. Col. Gwen, 35511 

Gibson,Sgt. 1st Cl. Gwendolyn, 34211 

Gilbreth, Lillian, 72 

Gilham, Col. J. K.,236 

Gillem. Maj . Gen. Alvin. Jr., 57 

Goldstein, MSgl. Bernice R., 36111 

Gompf. Clayton N., 369 

Goodwin, Lt. Col. Katherine R .. 4011 

Gorman, Col. Emily C., 11011, 157, 342, 

427,428.431 

accomplishments, 216 

appointed OWAC, 186, 187 

discharge policies, 205 

Gelleral Accounting Office (GAO), 202 

goals_ ]88 

grade structure e~palls on, 206-10 

housing, 198. 199- 200.202,402 

inspection trips, 205 

incerchangeablc spaces, ]94. 195.216 

promotion restrictions. 206 

public relations, 205 

recruit screening, 205 

retirement, 211, 2 16 

twenty-fifth anniversary, 224 

WAC Center construction, 146 

WAC E~hibit Team, 189, 19] 

WAC military advisors, 241 -42 

WAC Student Officer Program. 218- 19 

Gould. Beatrice, 72 

G rade vacancies, pooling of, 155 

Graham.Sgt. 1st Cl. Barbara L., 36111 

Granl, Maj. Patricia E., 146 

Grallt , Lt. Comdr. Sybil A., 80 

Gray. Col. Phyllis 0.5., III 

Great Britain, women in combat, 374 

Green, WO Dorothy E., 1J411 

Green, SP5 Sheron L., 254 

Grenade launcher, 4Q.mm .. 362 

Grimes, Col. Mary Jane, 24911, 364, 433, 

415 

Groov.::r, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes Drown, 332 

Guantanamo Bay naval base, 189 

"Guide for the WAC Applicant," 205 

GUll crew, 9O-mm. AAA, 20 

Gurn'::y, J. Chandl.::r, 45 

Guyettc, Col. Mary J .• 220, 22011. 29911, 430, 

4)] 

Hall, 1st Lt. Ann Go> 80 

Hall, Lt. Gcn. ChllTles W .. 72 

~I all, Maj. Charlotte, 24311 

Hallaren, Co1. Mary A., 4011, 7], 186, 188, 

342,427 

a.::complishmcnts, 109 

appointed acting dir.::ctor, 44 

appointed deputy director. 40 

appointed dircctor, 44 

Camp Lee, 7211, 73, 75, 78, 80, 8] 

consolidat.::d WAC/male training, 98, 

145, J64 

drolft,92 

Fort McCldlall, 145 

inspection trip, 41 

1LIld Kelly, 110 

L.::gion of Merit. 109J/ 

and Milligan, 44 

mobitiution and .::xpansiOI1, 93, 94- 95, 

98- 99, 101 - 02 

offic.::r procurement, 114, 116, 117 

Organized R.::serve, 58, 64 

recall, 94- 95, 97- 98 

overseas training, 82 

promotion list, 402 

recruiting, 104-06 

regular status, fight for, 39, 44. 45. 46. 

48-49,51. 52, 55, 51 

reserve staws only plans, 53 

retirement, 109, 109" 

schools and training, 63 

standards, ]05-Q6 

staffing authority, 69 

519 
520 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

twenty-tinh anniversary, 224 

WAAC active dUly credit, 163 

WAC Officer Advanced Course. 126 

WAC PlallS and Policy Commillee, 68 

Halloran. Col. Michael, 151 

Hamblet, Col. J ulia E., 4911, 80. 111. See 

also Women Marines. 

Hancock, Capt. Joy Bright. 45, 48, 4911, 71, 

80, 111. See al50 Women Accepted for 

Volun(t'cr Emergency Service 

(WAVES). 

Hand grenade training, 362 

Hanmer, Maj. Gen. Stephen R., 193 

Hardesty. Maj. Elizabeth E., 39/r 

Harms, Maj. Dorothy, 3911 

Harris, General Hugh P., Jr., 207 

'·farris. Lt . Col. Kathleen I)., 434 

Harris, Lt. CoL Lillian, 11011, 127, 18111,431 

Harris. Maj. Margot L.. ]4711,431 

Hart, Maj. Helc" H .. 429 

Hart. SchalTner and Marx, 323 

Harth, Lt. Col. Elizabeth A., 429, 430 

Hatch. Lt. Elizabeth. 3911 

Hawaii, 6, 248 

Hawaii, University of, 287 

Hawthorne, Callie L., 80 

Hayes, Helen, 72 

Hays, Brig. Gen. Anna Mac. 231 

Hazing, 79 

Health, education, and welfare, secretary 

of,6.lll 

Heaton, LI. Gen. Leonard D., 210 

Hcavy equipment operators, 19 

Hebert, E Edward. 261. 319 

Hcdberg, Col. Mildred P., 323 

Henin. AL, lS I 

Heidelberg. 44 

Heiden. Maj. Gen. Charles K., 378 

Heill7.e, Col. Shirley, 13111, 221. 24911, 365, 

363/J,432 

consolidated WAC/male training, 363. 

363" 

utilization of women. 291 

WAC Center and School, 362 

WAC officer branch integration. 290 

Helicopter familiarization. 363 

Hciker, MSg\. Janet, 359 

Henderson, Maj. Margaret H., 9611 

Henderson Hall, 200 

Henry, Maj. Gen. Slephan G., 65 

Herald Trib'lIIe (New York), 53 

Herberg, Lt. Col. James C., 39n 

Herbert, Maj. Selma L .. 3911. 60, 428 

Herman, Lt. Col. Ruby E., 99, 101, 11011, 

429,432 

Herrick, Gcnevieve F., 44 

Hershey, Maj. Gen. Lewis 8 .. 92 

Hcsemall. Lt. Col. Virginia L., 13 1". 36811, 

394/J 

Hesse, House of. 162 

Hickerson, Qlpt. Patricia, 323", 346" 

Hickey, Margaret, 71 

High School Enlistment Option. 141 

Hill, Col. Georgia D., 274. 433 

Hilltop Service Club, 186. 347, 348 

Hinlon, Col. Edith M., 295, 355, 368, 39411, 

427,428,433,435 

Hinton, MSgt. Mary J., 243" 

Hixon. Maj. Gen. Robert C., 354 

Ho T hi Ve, Maj., 242 

Hobby, CoL Oveta Culp, 45, 187,214,216", 

427 

appointed director, WAAC, 6 

appointed direetor, WAC, \3 

appointed HEW secretary, 6. III 

assignments requiring weapons, 14 

command alllhority, 14 

DACOWITS. 72 

dependency allowances, 14 

disbanding the WAC, 25. 26. 65 

drafiing women, 24 

maternity care, 16 

military status for women. 12 

and O DWAC assignment to 0 - 1, \3 

recommends Boyce, 25 

regulations,S, 12-15 

resigns, 24 

standards. 9- 10 

twenty-fifih anniversary, 224 

uniforms, 437 

utilization, 19 

WAAC active duty credit, 4 1, 163 

WAC image, 19 

women's reserve, 28 

Hodson. Maj. Gen. Kennelh L 240 

Hoelscher, Leonard W .• ISO/J 

Hoelscher Committee, 18011 

Hoffmann, Martin R., 277 

Hoisington, Brig. Gen. Eli~abe h P., 110, 

11011,207.216,21711.252,342,427,432 

abortion policy, 240 

accomplishments, 255 

appointed brigadier general. 231 

appointed DWAC. 217- 18 

and Beal, 235, 237- 38 

discharge policies. 226, 228, 239 

enlistments, 227- 28 

goals, 218 

grade structure expansion. 21 \, 220, 255 

inspection tours, 224. 247- 51 

and Kester, 237- 38 

marriage policies, 252 

PROVIDE, 230 

public relations, 224, 231 

regulations, 234 

retirement, 255- 56 

ROTC program, 228 

senior service colleges, 220 
INDEX 

standards and waiver"$, 233- 34, 235- 39, 

255,402 

twenty·fiflh anniversary. 224 

WAC Center commander, 334. 339-41 

WAC Student Officer Program, 219 

women's movement, 236 

Hoisington Walk, 340 

Hollandia, 23 

Holm, Brig. Oen. Jeanne M ., 222, 262, 297. 

Set al$() Women in the Air Force 

(WAF). 

Holstius, Pre. Elizabeth, 361n 

Holt, Marjorie S,' 317 

Home loans. 109 

Honolulu soldiers' protest. 27 

Hoprenspirger, Maj. Nancy M" 126" 

Boran, 1st LI. Linda M., 27211 

Horton. Capl. Mildred McAfee, 72. 92 

Hospital ships, 384 

Hospitalized Veteralls Writing Project. 332 

Hospitals, 107-08. Set! a/I(} Fit1.Simmons 

Oeneral Hospitnl ; Lenerman General 

Hospital; Murphy General Hospital; 

Noble Army l'lospitnl ; Walter Ret'd 

Oenel1ll Hospitlli. 

312th Evacuation. 24511 

Hostile Fire Pay Act, 244" 

House of RepresentativC$. Sff ul$() Armed 

Services Commil\ee, House; Naval Af· 

fairs Committee. House, 

aoolishingt he WAC, 391 

Equnl Rights Amendment. 299 

military status for women. 4- 5, 12 

reserve stalUs only, 48 

WAAC, 3. Sff of$() Rogel"$. Edith 

Nourse. 

WAAC active duty credit, 163 

women at the service academies. 262, 

321 - 22 

women's services integration. 52- 55 

Housing lIIId housing polick'S. Set ofl(} Bar· 

racks; Quarters allowallCeS. 

duty assignment. 19, 166. 169. 192, 194 

inequities. 124. 197.262,276-71 

improvements. 196- 99.202,275- 77 

joint occul,ancy. 199- 200. 27S, 276, 285. 

325,404 

overseas. 283_84. See 0/1(} specific art'O. 

privacy. 192, 196. Sce a/so a/)Qve joint 0<;:. 

cupallcy. 

mcial policies, 16-18 

reenlistment rlltes, 192- 93. 196 

WAC expansion 19705. 275- 76,404 

Housing studies. 196, 198, 199 

HOUSton. LI, Col. i'auline V .. iJ1 1'. 157n. 

Sff also U nch. Lt. Col. Pauline V. 

Howe. TSgt. Catherine. 65/1 

Howes. Lt. Col. A. Nora, 127, 430 

Hughes. Capt. Bernice G .. 80. 8511 

Hull. Hadlai A., 310 

Human Resources Development Director· 

ate, 387, 395 

Hunt. Maj. Gen, Ira A .. Jr., 345-46 

Huong. Col. Tran Cam. 242, 248 

Hutchins, M,.j. Eleanor C,. 434 

Hyde Park. NY. 183 

I code, 195 

Illegitimate children/ pregnalley, 233, 234-

35. 236. Ser a/so Moral standards. 

Income tax nemptions, 244 

India, 22, 23, 31 

Indiana University. 287 

Individual Learning Center. 353 

Individual Proficiency in Basic Military 

Subjects. WAC (A IT 21- 3), 339 

Individual Ready Reserve. 294 

Industrial College of the Armed Force~. 

126. 182,220 

Inequities. WAC/ male. Ser Command · 

thorhy; Commissioned officer"$; Dis· 

h~rge policies. invollliitary; Enlistnlent 

options; Enlistment standards; Housing 

and housing policics; Longevity; Pro· 

motion; Reenlistment o ptions; Reenlist· 

ment standards; Reserve Officer T rain· 

ing Corps (ROTC); Retention stand· 

ards. 

Infantry, 385 

Infant ry Officers Advanced Course, 346n 

Infantry School. 38 1" 

Information. chief of. Ig9 

Inouye, Daniel K., 213 

Insanity, 238 

Inspector general, 169 

Integration. Sff Director, WAC (DWAC), 

elimination of; Officer Personnel Man· 

agement System (Ol'MS); Racial poli· 

cies; Women's Amled Services Integratio n Act. 1948; Women's Army Corps 

(WAC), discontinued. 

Intelligence. military, 14, 21, 249, 270- 71 

Intelligence and Security Command 

(INSeOM),271 

Ilitelligence staff officer. 128 

Intelligence standards. lOS, 279, 279". 281. 

See a/so Educational standards; specific 

test by IIIlme. 

Interchangeable officer spaces, 286. See a/so 

Branch immaterial spaces. 

Interchangeable spaces. 165, 184- 85, 193-

96. 216, 400. See a/so Branch immateri· 

al positions; Interchangeable officer 

spaces; Military occupationlll specialty/ 

ies (MOS/s). WAC list expanded; 

Weapons training. 

airoorne/nonairoorne positions, 385 

Category I (combat) units, 382 

law enforcement, 27 1 

521 
522 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

National Guard, 294 

PROVIDE. 230, 286 

WAC upilnsion, 225. 283, 285- 86 

women's command authority. 274 

lnterservice committee, utili7J1tion or 

women, 95- 96 

Inventory and Projection of Army Strength 

Report (CSG I'A-4S). 168-69 

Involunta ry enlistment e~ ensions. 90 

Isham, LI. Col. Ruth M., 428 

Israel, women in combat, 374 

"It's Your Future," 143 

Italy. 22, 3 1, 44, 314 

lzenour. Orig. Gen. Fnank M., 223n 

Jacksonville, AL. 151 

JAG. See Judge advocate general (JAG). 

James, Sgt. Maj. Carolyn n., 108n. 159- 60 

Jamieson, Sgt. 1st CI. Marian C, 338 

Janikula, Lt. Col. Muriel J., 429 

Japan, 47, 67. 106-08. 248. 271. 283, 284 

Javils, Jacob K" 262. J 18, JI9 

Jefferies, Lt. Col. Vashti V., 435 

Jennings, Lt. Gen. Hal D., Jr., 240 

Johnson, Earl D., 96-97 

Johnson, General Harold K., 221 

Johnson, Leroy, 51 

Johnson, Louis, 11 

Johnson, Lyndoll 11, 

regular status for women, 54 

rell1Qval of career restrictions. 213, 214, 

2" 

WAC gradc struc ture expansion. 201-08 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act. 1948, 51 

JohnSOll, Mrs. Lyudon 11.,214 

Johnson. Marie 8., 11 

JohllSon, MSgt. Mary K., 18011, 19311 

Johnston, Lt. Eileen. 323n 

Johnston, Comd. Sgt. Maj. Helen I., 346 

Joint Army- Air Force recruiting, 104-06 

Joint Chier, of StaIT, chairman of, 245 

Joint conferenee committee, Women's 

Armed Services IUTegration Act, 1948, 

54-55 

Jordan, Capl. Roberta, 34611 

J udge advocate geJleral, Air Force, 209 

Judge advocate general, Army (JAG). 121. 

See also HodsoJl, Maj. Gen. Kenneth J. 

discharge on pregnaney/parenthood, 301 

elimination of DWAC, 391 

WAC grade struelllre expansion, 181. 

206.208- 10 

women in Ihe Organi1.ed Rese rve, 58 

Judge advoca te general, Navy, 209 

Judge Advocllle General's Corps. WACs 

detailed to. 127- 28, 31 1 

"Julie;'}]ln 

Jurgevich, Capt. Nancy J., 253 

K code, 196 

Kacsong, Korea, 89 

KaMas, 241 

KaplaJl, Drig. Gen. Philip. 323 

Karachi,31 

Kehrer, Col. Marie, l51n. 218. 220, 22011, 

427,430.433 

Kellems, Vivien, 92 

Kelley, Roger T., 266, 213, 311 

Kell y, Lt. Col. Charlee L., 110.428 

Kelly, LI. Col. Mary E .• 12611. 187- 88, 193, 

200.211.218,222.427,430 

Kelly, Sgt. Maj. Mildred C .. 19311.34111 

Kennedy. John F .. 173, 116 

Army strength, 171 

Berlin Crisis. 113-15 

Commission on the Status of Women, 183 

Cuban Missile Crisis, 189 

death of, 331 

WAC anniversary, 186 

Kent State University, 253 

Keough, Capt. Naney N., 25411 

Kersey, Maj. Mary L., 65n 

Kerwin, General Walter T., Jr., 259, 3SOn 

affirmative action, 26 1 

DWAC. elimination of, 391 

Equal Riglus Amendment. 299 

FORSCOM commander. 285 

utilization of women, 211, 285 

vice chief of stalT. 368 

WAC enlistment/retention standards. 

235- 36 

WAC upansion 19705,263,265 

Kester. John R., 234-35. 231, 238, 239 

Khrushchev, Nikila, 108, 189 

Kilday, l'aul J .• 13411, 163 

Kilgore, Sgt. 1st Cl. l ane M., 359 

Kilgore. TX, 80 

Kim Hyun Soak, Col .. 330 

Kimba ll, Dan A., 96 

Kimpton. Lt. Col. Ma rgaret A., 430 

King, Lt. Col. Grace M., 29411 

Kingston. Maj. Gen. Joseph R., 363-64 

Kirk, Maj. Gen. Notnlan T., 37. 38 

Kilchen. Lt. Cdr. Etta Belle, 9611 

Kitchens. 196, 198,200 

Kitzingen, Germany. 67 

Klein, Maj. Gen. John A., 132 

Knight, Maj. Jere. 39'1 

Korea, 106. 108, 248, 272. 283. 284 

Korea, Republic of. Women's Corps. SN 

Republic or Korea Army, Women's 

Corps. 

Korean National Constabulary, 108 

Korean \Var 

armistice. 89, 109 

begins. 72. 89 

mobilization, 90-95 

Korth. Fred, 110 
INDEX 

Kronberg Castle, 162 

Kucher, Sgt. Katie, 80 

Kutsch, Joyce Ann, 213n 

Lackland Air Force Base, 74, 3S7n 

Lae,23 

Laird, Melyin R" 229, 230, 265 

Lambeth, Col. Maida E., I3ln, 259, 368, 

427,433 

and retention of the WAC. 311- 12 

Lancer, Lt. Col. Annie G., 428 

Landry, 1st LI. Catherine G., 80 

Lane, Lt. Col. Mary Charlone, 339 

Lane, Lt. Sharon A .. 245, 245n 

Laos, 113, 244n 

Larrick, Mary, 259n, 36811, 39411 

Lathrope, LI. Col. Frances M., llOll, 336, 

m 

Laundry facilities, 196, 198,200 

Law enforcement, 27 1. See alSf) Military 

police. 

Lawton, Lt. Col. Rosa T., 432, 433 

Lawyers, 127,311 

Leaders Course, 83-84. 115 

Leadership Orientation Course, 339 

Ledbetter, Lt. Col. Julia A., 16111,2231/ 

Legislation. S« alSf) Defense OlTlcer Pertonnel Management Act (DOPMA): 

&jual Rights Amendment (ERA); 

I'ublic laws. 

abolishing the WAC, 391-92, 396-97 

Armed Forces Reserve Act, 1952,97 

Civil Rights Act, 1964,232 

defense appropriations, 1974,28 1 

defen se aulhoriution, [976, 221 

defense authoriUltion, 1978, 381-82 

discharge on pregnancy/parenthood, 307 

education, 144 

eliminate DWAC, 391 

enlisled grades, 144 

Equal Pay Act, 1963,232 

B.R. 143 (VA benefits 10 WAACs honorably discharged on disability), 14411 

H.R. 1274 (eliminate promotion. relire· 

ment restrictions), 2 12 

B.R. 3054, See WAC Integration Act, 

1947. 

H.R. 3321 (W AAC actiye duty credil), 

163 

B.R. 4038 (women in the naval services), 

Ii." R . .5894 (remove promotion, retirement, strength restriclions), 2 12-13. S« 

also Public laws., 90-130. 

Ii.R. 59 15 (status of women in naval 

services), 38 

Ii.R. 7431 (women serving at sea), 384 

H.R. 9832 (women at the service academies),32 11l 

H.R. 10705 (women al the service academies), 319, 321n 

H.R. 14208 (eliminate promotion restrictions),211 

B.R. 15338 (women al the service academies),32 IIJ 

H.R. 15999 (women al Ihe service acade· 

mies),32 111 

".R. 16(X)O (eliminate promolion, retiremenl, strenglh restrictions), 2 11 - 12. S« 

alSf) abo~ H.R. 1274; H.R. 5894. 

H.R. 16521 (women at the service acade· 

mies),32111 

Hostile Fire Pay Act, 2441/ 

last draft extension bill, 2..51 

Military Pay Act, 1963, 198, 1981/ 

mililary stalus for women, 12 

National Security Act, 1947, 43n 

Officer Grade Limitation ACI, 1954, 181 

Officer PeT!lOnnel Act, 1941, 49, 4911, 50 

pay scales, 144 

postwar WAC status, Set WAC Integration Act, 1946; Women's Arnled Services Integration Act, 1941; Women's 

Armed Services Intcgntion Act, 1948. 

private bills, 134, 13411 

promotion restrictions removal, 21 1- 12 

reenlistment bonuses, 143 

regular officer strength, 123 

Reserve OlTlcers I'ertonnel Act, 1954, 

123 

S. 1103. See WAC Integration Act, 1941. 

S. 1527 (womcn in the navlII services). 

See Women's Armed Services Integration Act, 1947. 

S, 1641. Set Women's Armed Services 

Integration Act, 1941; Women's Armed 

Services Integration Act, 1948; 

Women's Armed Services Reserve 

Act, 1948. 

S. 3003 (equaliution of mental and edu· 

cational requircments), 219 

VA benefits to disabled WAACs, 14. 14/1 

WAAC active dUly cred it, 163 

Warrant Officer Act, 1954. 133 

women al the service academies, 318-19, 

320-22 

Legislative and Liaitol! Division, chicf of, 

l2 

Legislative Branch, chief of, 4 1 

Legislative Liaison. chief of. 391 

Lemnitzer, General Lymall 1-, 192 

Leonard, Lt. Col. Allan L .• Jr., 39 

Leslie, Col. West ray Doyce. S« Doyce, 

Col. Westray Bailie, 

Leiterman Gencral Hospital, i55 

Lever, TSgl. Mary F., 65,1 

Leyte,23 

Lichty, Maj. MariOl!, 3911 

523 
524 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Life insurance. government, 12 

Light antitank weapon (LAW), 362 

Light trucK driver, 168 

Linch, LI. Col. Paulillc Y., 428, 430. See 

also HOllston, Lt. Col. Pauline V. 

Link trainer instructor, 20 

Living conditions, 96~200, 202, 403. See 

(llso Housing and housing policies. 

all-volunteer Army, 230 

Camp Lee, 76-77. 145 

liberalized procedures and regulations, 

230,231 

and reenlistment rates. 193 

Southwest Pacific Area, 23 

Vielllam, 244, 247, 253 

Logistical Command, 1st, 244 

Logistics, deputy chief of staff for 

(DCSLOG). 182,263,266-67,275 

Logistics Career Spedalizaliol1 I'rogram, 

182 

London, 27, 160 

Long, Col. Alice A., 431 

Long, Lt. Col. Margaret A., 14711, 432 

Long Binh, 247-48, 25 1, 253 

Longevity, 12, 41. See also Women's Army 

Au~iliary Corps (WAAC), active duty 

crt.'(!it. 

Organized Reserve, 59, 60 student officers, 218 

time-in·grade, 164 

time·in·service, 165 

"A Look Ahead." 143 

Lord, Mary Pillsbury, 45, 49, 53, 70, III 

Los Alamos, NM, 21 

Lost time, WAC/male, 376, 377 

Louisiana Slate University and A&M Col. 

lege, 287 

Low Altitude Air Defense Artillery, 385 

Lowe, M. David, 369-70 

Luce, Clare Dooth, III 

Lund, Maj. Gcrtrude E, 147" 

Lynch, Lt. Col. Sue. 76, In 177,339,428, 

430,432 

proposed move of WAC School, 181 

role of WAC School, 181 

Lyons, Lt . Col. Catherine J., 110, 1101/, 

13111, 428,4JI 

MI,336 

M14, 282. 339 

M 16, 282. 353, 362 

M60,362 

McAghon. Lt. Margarel A., 9611 

MaCArthur, General of the Army Douglas, 

23,26,45.47,89 

McAulilTe, Lt. Gen. Anthony G .. 108, 109 

McCaw, Maj. Gen. Robert H .. 209 

McClellan, Gen. in Chief George B., 145 

McClure. Lt. Col. Kathleen. 39, 3911, 4011, 

44, 59, 68, 96 

McCluskey, Lt. Col. Verna A., 146. 428, 

429,434 

McCord, Lt. Col. Patricia A .. 368, 36811 

McCormack, Lt. Col. Beny T., 428 

McCormick, Lt. Col. Patricia E., 12611, 430 

McDonald, Jack, 318, 319 

McDonald, Lt. Col. Mary G., 430 

McGhay, Maj. &lmee S., 434 

McGilTcrt, Oavid E., 219 

McGovern. Maj. Gen. Donald H., 233 

McGrath, Lt. Col. Lula C., 15711,430,434 

Machen, Capt. Elizabeth, 430 

Machine Accounting Specialist Course, 

14111 

Mcintosh. Millicent Carey, 92 

McKean, Col. William A., 345, 349 

McLaughlin, Maj. Gen. John D., 231 

MacMichael, Col. Kin M., 12611, 36311, 433 

McNamara, Robert S. 

Berlin Crisis. 175 

Defense reorganization, 179 

housing, 198. 199 

women officer promotiOn restrictions, 

182,183,210 

women's services e~pansio , 222 

McOmber, 1st Lt. Adrienne M., 128 

Madden, Col. Margaret J., 430 

Male attitudes, 5-6, 11,24,38,79, 145, 170-

71,186,216,260.326.374.386-87,388, 

400,405 

Male officer in OOW AC, 269 

Mandatory retirement, 133, 134 

Manhallan Project, 21 

Manila, 23, 27 

Manning documents. 19, 194, See a/JO Table 

of Distribution (TO): Table of Organi· 

zation and Equipment (TOE). 

coding, 195 

interchangeable spaces, 196 

reenlistment rates, 192 

utilization of women, 169 

WAC MOS expansion, 168 

Manpower and reserve alTairs (M&RA). See 

Army, ass't secretary for manpower 

and reserve affairs (ASA M&RA); 

Army, deputy ass'! secretary of for 

manpower and reserve affairs (OASA 

M&RA); Defense. ass'! secretary of for 

manpower and reserve atTairs (ASD 

M&RA). 

Manpower Control Group. 65 

Manpower Management, Directorate of 

(DCSPER), 181 

Manpower shortages 3, 5, 19. See a/S() 

Draft, end of and the WAC. 

Manpower, Directorate of, 22311 

Mallpower. ODCSPER, director, 206 

Manual Cemral Office Repairman, 167 

Marine Aircraft Wing, 2d. FMCR. 297 
INDEX 

Marine Corps, U.S., S6, 265, 392. See also 

Navy, Department of; Women Marines; Women's Armed Services Integration Act, 1948. 

commandant of. Su Vandegrift, General 

Alexander A. 

discharge policies, 22711, 307 

reserves, 38, 45, 48 

utilization of women, 4, 5, 38, 297, 376. 

m 

Marinettes. 4 

"Mark of a Man," 98 

Marketing, 103 

Marriage policies. 15, H. 213, 235 

discharge, 93, 102, 137-38, 175, 205, 225-

26, 22711, 255, 304, 32S. See also Discharge rates. 

enlistment, 57, 58, 235, 278 

housing, 124, 197 

Organized Reserve, 59. 60 

recall programs. 95 

Vietnam, 252 

World War II- post- Korean War. IS, 

137, 139 

Marshall, General George C .• 31,186 

and Doyce, 25 

and Hobby, 6. 13 

military status for women, ] 1, 12 

National Civilian Advisory Committee on 

the WAC, 28 

reserves. 97 

utilization of women, 20, 33 

WAAC, 3. 6.10 

Marshall Parade Ground. 216. 256, 330 

Marston, R. "Muk-wk," 295 

Marston Foundation, 295 

Martini, Lt. Col. Carol A., 261 

Maryland, 24 1 

Mason, Maj. Isabelle A. G .• 15S 

Maternity benefits. IS, 16, 138, 139, 306, 

309 

"Maternity, Mobility. 3nd Mission," 305 

Mathew, Maj. Virginia M., 429 

MAX WAC (Women Content in Units 

Force Development Test), 37 1-72. 373. 

37' 

May, Col. Geraldine P., 40, 68, 71, SO. See 

also Women in the Air Force (WAF). 

Mechanic, 19,20,23,94. 107 

Mechanical aptitude tests for women, 95 

Medals and awards 

Air Medal. 20, 25, 2S4 

Army Commendation, 254 

Dronu: Star, 25, 254 

Distinguished Service, 25. 216, 21611, 256, 

327,395 

Joint Service Commendation, 254 

Legion of Merit. 25, 186. 18811, 218, 2S4, 

361 

Meritorious Service, 254 

Meritorious Unit Commendation, 21 

Purple Heart, 25, 254 

Soldier's, 25 

WAC service ribbon, 396 

Medical bcnefils. See Maternity benefits. 

Medical Corps, III 

Medical corpsmen, 107 

Medical Department, 210. See also Anny 

Nurse Corps (ANC); Medical Corps. 

demobili7.ation, 27 

enlistment and retention policies, 240 

postwar retention of women, 38 

status of medical women, 4, 42 

utihation of women, 19, 20, 107, 108, 

154, 370, 378 

Medical Department Readjustment Plan, 27 

Medical evacuation, 272 

Medical Laboratory Procedures Specialist 

Course, 14111 

Medical Technician Course, 14111 

Medical technicians/specinlists, 19-20, 38. 

41 , 107- 08,245,248 

Mediterranean T heater, 15 

Meltz, MSgt. Ramona J., 359, 361, 36111 

Menopause, 53-54 

Mental aptitude categories, 105 

Mental disorders, 279 

Mental standards, 279. See also Educational 

standards. 

Message Center Procedures Course, 14\1r 

Messer, Maj. Rhoda M .• 293, 299" 

Metzger, Lt. Col. Hope W., 429, 434 

Michl, Col. Ma~ene B .. 220, 22011, 342-43, 

344,432 

Middle East Theater, 15 

Middleswart, Maj . Gen. Wi11iam H .. 80 

Military Affairs Committee. House, 43. See 

also Armed Services Committee, 

House. 

Military Affairs Committee. Senate, 43. Su 

also Armed Services Committee, 

Senate. 

Military Assistance Command, Vietnam 

(MACV) 

commander, 24511. See also Westmoreland, General Wi11iam C. 

headquarters, WACs assigned to. 243-44 

WAC military advisors, 241 

Military Construction Program, Army, 197 

Military District, Washington, 274. 430 

Military intelligence. See Intelligence. 

Military Intelligence Group, 519th, 244 

Military obligation, 6-year, 294. 401 

Military occupational sp«;ialty!ies (MOS! 

s). See (1lso Career management; Civilian Acquired Skills Program (CASP); 

Interchangeable spaces; Mission performance, women content and; speciall)' 

by title: Ulili1.lltion of women; Women's 

525 
526 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Enlisted Expansion 

Women Officers 

(WOSM). 

Model (WEEM); 

Strength Model 

16K, air defcflse firc distribution system 

crewman, 270 

43E, parachute rigger. 272, 213, 38S 

54C, smoke and name specialist. 384 

nc, field artillery surveyor, 384 

9SB. military policeman, 27 1 

95<:, correctional specialist. 271 

950, ass', criminal investigator, 21 . 

2145, WAC stafTadviser, 290 

assigned, 196Os, 168-70, 192,417- 19 

combat c)(clusion policy and. 384-85 

mobi1iution,94, 166. 170, 193 

officer specialties. 128 

open to women, World War I. 4 

open to women, 19405, 8, 19- 20, 22. 24, 

401 

open \0 women, 19505, 166- 68,401 

open to women, 19605. 186. 193, 216, 40 . 

open to women, 19705, 264- 66, 268, 270-

n. 280-8 1, 325, 384-85, 385", 401. 403 

restructuring, 19505, 153, lH- S6. 176n 

strength requirements and. 380. 38 In 

technology, 128 

testing, ISS, 1S6 

wa rrant oITIcer.;, 1J3, 134 

Military Pay Act, 1963, 198, 19811 

Military Payment Certificates, 244 

Military Personnel, ODCSI'ER, director of, 

206 

Military Personnel Center (MI Ll'ERCI!N), 

266,400 

commander, 290, 378 

models. See Women Officers Strength 

Model (WOSM); Women's Enlisted 

Expansion Model (WEEM). 

OI'MS implementation, 289, 290 

women conlent levels, 378 

Military Personnel Management, Directorate of. 182 

director of (OM PM) 

and disestablishment of the WAC, 

313, 31S, 391 

and overseas tour length. 283 

and a senior military spokeswoman, 

387. 388. 389- 90 

Military Personnel Management Group. 6S 

Military Personnel olic~. Dire<::torate of, 

ODCSPER, 238 

director, 236 

Military Personnel Procurement Division, 

TAG, 160. 161. 176 

Military Personnel Procurement Services 

Division (MPPSD). chief of. 98 

Military police, 21. 27 1. See a/Sf) Military 

Police School. 

Military Police School, 181. 271. 3S2-SJ, 

3S6. 365 

Military Police SchoolITraining Center and 

Fort McClellan, commander. See 

Clarke. Maj. Gen. Mary E. 

Military Sea Transportation Service. 

WAVES serving in ships of, I I] 

Military stalUS, 4- 6. 11, 12. 19. 35- 36, 56. 

See also Regul ar status; Reserve status. 

Miller, Lt. Col. Dolores J., 294/1 

Miller. Maj. Gen. l.uther D., 4S 

Milligan, Alice G. (MT$. GCQrge V.). 1S7 

Milligan, Col. Mary L- (Rasmuson). 4011, 

48, Mil, 68, 110, 1S7", 187. 188, 224. 

3»1,342,427.430 

accom pl ishmenl~, 165, 170-72. 186 

and Addison, 160 

appointed deputy dire<::tor, 44 

appointed DWAC, 157- 58.172- 73 

Army Career GrollI' OptiOI\, 176 

Berlin Crisis, 17S 

Uolle Commil1ee report. 182 

colonels SP.1CC!i. IIU 

goals, 158 

on Hallaren. 109 

increased WAC strength, 177- 78 

interchangeable spaces, 184- 85 

marriage, 183 

and Odbert. 173 

postwar WAC status, 39. 44 

promotion restrictions, 206 

public relations. IS8- 61. 16S 

reappointment. See aool'f! appointed 

oWAC. 

recruiting ceiling, 177 

retirement. 186 

ROPA amendmen.,. 164- 65 

staff adviser.;. 1 S9 

TOE assignments for WACs, 184 

utiliution or women, 165- 68, 170 

WAAC active duty credit, 163 

Mills. Lt. Col. Olive E .• 429 

Minge. Col. Shirley 1.. 295 

Minnesota, Univ. or, women in military 

training, 1221/ 

Miscarriagc policics, 239 

Missile Master uuit. 159 

Mission performance, WOlllen content and, 

166- 67. 369- 74, 376-77. 380-8 1. 405. 

See 0/50 Moore, Lt. Gen. Harold G.; 

Smith. Lt. Gtn. DeWitt C., Jr. 

Mitsubishi CorporatiOrl, 47 

Mize. Col. Paul D., 2l8, 2 19 

Moaklty, John J .. 32 111 

Mobility. See Parenthood policies; Pregnon· 

cy policies. 

Mobilization. 90-93. 9S. 97, 109. Su a/50 

Recall progrllms. 

Modern Volunteer Army Program, 230. See 

olso Project VOLAR (Volunteer 

ArIllY)· 
INDEX 

special ass't to Sec Army for (SAMVA). 

!iff Forsythe, Maj. Gen. George I. 

Molnar, Lt. Paula M., 361 

Montague, Brig. Gen. Robert M., 265 

Moon, Lt. Col. Lou Ann, 429 

Moore, Lt, Gen. Harold G. Sn olJlO Person· 

nel, deputy c hid of 5taIT for, di!\Con· 

tinuance of the WAC. 

combat exclusion policy, J82 

dependents and readiness, J27 

discharge on pregnancy/parenthood. 307, 

30' 

human relations training, J27 

promotion lisl. 327 

repeal of Section 3071, J 17 

senior military spokeswoman, J86 

utilization of women, 377- 78, 382 

women Pt the Military Academy, 323 

women content and mission performance, 

370,371, 373,375- 76, J79-80 

women in combat, 327 

women officers strength, 327 

women's enlistment standards, J27 

women's ROTC scholarships, 327 

Moore, S. Sgt. Ladina L., 345n 

Moore, Col. William T., 151 

Moorhead, William 5 .. 211 

Moral standards, 56. 139,234,236,237,400. 

Sn ulJlO Enlistment standards; Reten· 

tion standards; Slander campaigns. 

references, 10 

society,23J 

WAC training. 82 

Morale, 171. 186. Sn also l'lousing and 

housing policics; I'reslige. 

basic training, 8J 

during the light for a pemlanent WAC, 

46-47,55 

married women, 226 

and recruiting/reenlistment niles. 143 

uliliUltion of women and, 152 

WAC Center and School and, 151 

Morden, Col. Beltie J., 2 18. 259, 29911, 427, 

434 

Morocco, 22 

MorOlai,23 

Morris, Thomas 0 .. 210, 211, 212 

Moses, Maj. Harriet N., 429 

Mothball Brigade, 95n 

Motor vehicle openllors, 107 

Moynahan, Lt. Col. Mary K., 11011, 430 

Mueller, Sgt. Maj. Grace L .. 193" 

Mundie, Maj. Oen. William L., 380 

Munson, Lt. Col. Ethel C., 428 

Munson, Sgt. Maj. Florence G., 33 1 

Munster, Lt. Col. Irene V., 428 

Murphy. Capt. Joanne, 251- 52 

Murphy General Ilospita], 154 

Murray, Maj. Dillie L., 432 

Mustering-out pay, 109 

Nanking,2J 

National Advertising Council, 101 

National Association for the Advancement 

of Colored People (NAA CP), 17, SO 

National Civilian Advisory Committee, 28. 

Ser also National Civilian Advisory 

Council. 

National Civilian Advisory Council, 44, 45, 

49, 53 

chairwoman. Sn Lord, Mary Pillsbury. 

National Council for Prevention of War, 51 

National Defense Academy for Women. 

319 

National Federation of Business lind Professional Women's Clubs, 92 

National Guard. Sf!/! Army National Gua rd. 

Nalional Military Establishment, 43. See 

also Defense_ Department of. 

Nutional Security Act, 1947, 4J, 74 

National WAC Mothers Association. JJ2 

National WAC Veterans Association, 2B, 

m 

National WAC VETS Honor Guard, 332 

National War College, 220 

Naval Affairs Committee, House, J8, 4J. 

See al$O Armed Services Committee, 

House. 

Naval AlTairs Commillec, Senate. 43. Sn 

olJlO Armed Services Committee, 

Senate. 

Naval Flight Training Program, 272 

Naval Forces, Vietnam, headquarters, 244 

Naval personnel. ass-t to the c hief of for 

women. Sn Womell in the Navy 

(WAVES), director of. 

Naval Reserve, 5. J8, 45, 48 

Navy, Department of the, J3, 43 

discharge policies, 22711, 307 

postwar status of women in naval service, 

38 

utilization of women, S, 95, 96, 20J-04 

women's componenlS strength increase. 

223, 265 

Navy, secretar), of the, 95. Set 01$0 ChlTee, 

John H.; Forrestal, James V. 

Navy, U.S .. 56. See olso Nav)', Department 

of the; Navy Nurse Corps; Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergenc)' Service (WAVES); Women in the Navy 

(WAVES). 

Cuban missile crisis, Ig9 

direct commission program, 116 

discharge policies, 22711 

integration of women in. 392 

ROTC. women in, 287 

status of women in, J8 

utiliUltion of women, 4, 11 1, 297, 316, 

J77, 38J, 384 

women's command authority, 273 

527 
528 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

Navy, under seo:.:relary of, 96 

Navy Nurse Corps, 38, III 

Navy Nurse Corps (Female). 4 

NCO Leadership Coursc. 276 

NCO leadership courses, l4S 

Nease, Maj. Inez L. 126.0, 

Necrason, Maj. Oen. C.F., 295 

Nelson, Robert L, 381 

Nelson, Comd. 5&1. Maj. Y~eUa L .. 343-44 

Netherton, Capt. Theresa H., 346.01 

"Never Wave at a WAC," 110" 

New Delhi, 23, 27 

New Quinea, 23 

New Mexico, 241 

New York City. 10] 

New York Times, 53 

Newell, Maj. Thomas K., Jr., 25911, 36811 

News media tlnd wcapons training. 14 

NcwsPl_pcr advertising, 101 

Niblack, Lt. Col. Snrah F., 430 

Nic hols, Dill, 352 

Nielsen, Maj. Louise M., 7211 

Nimitz, Fleet Adm. Chester W" 45 

"Ninety-Day Wondering," 143 

Nissly, Capt. Mary Iklle, 357/1 

Nitka, Lt. Marge. 323" 

Nixon. Richard M . 

abortion policies. 241 

all·volunteer Army, 229 

civil unrest, 254 

draft 229 

drafl roooction and end, 257 

equal opportunity, 26 1 

resignation, 32 1 

Vietnam, 227, 228 

women geneT'1lI officers, 23 I 

Noble Army Hospital, 329 

Noncombat status. Stt also Basic Initial 

Entry TT'1Iining (DlEl) test: Combat 

exclusion policy: Command authority: 

Mission performance, women content 

and: Service acadcmies, womcn at. 

Congress, ), 5, 6, 14. 262, 320, 396, 399 

custom and IT'1Idi tion, 14, 20, 92, tol, 130, 

262, 300 

regullltiorlS and policy, 14, 20, 41 _42, 53, 

56, 128, 134, 156, 166, 184, 206, 207, 

262, 264-65, 270, 285, 288, 289, 297, 

l21 

Noncommissiont'd Officer Educational 

System, 346 

Nort h African Theater, 12, 15,22 

North Atlantic Treaty Organiution 

(NATO), 106 

North Carolina, 24 1 

North Korea, 89 

North Vielnam, 221 

North Vietname5e Army, 22 1 

Novak, Lt. Col, lIe1en V., 14711 

Noclear security duties, 384 

Nurse Corps (Female), 4. Sn alSf) Army 

Nurse Corps (ANC), 

Nurses, lOS, 245. S« also Army Nul'$Cl 

Corps (ANC). 

Oak Ridge, TN, 21 

Occupation forces, post-World War II, 27, 

29 

Occupational areas, 156 

Occupat ional therapiSI, 38, 210 

Occupational Therapy Technician COUI'$Cl, 

14111 

Ochoa, LI. Col. Lois W., 429 

O'Claire, lst Lt. Joyce W., 338 

O'Connor, Maj. Gen. George G .• 250 

Odbert, Lt. Col. Lucile G., 1\011, 15], 187" 

deputy director, WAC. 173, 180, ]87, 

18811,427 

WAC Center com mandu, 336, 338- 39, 

432 

OOWAC, See Direc tor. WAC. Office of 

(ODWAC). 

Officer Candidate School (QCS), 59, 79, 84 

age waivers. I] 5" 

applicants, 113, 114-15. 116 

attrition, 115-17 

commandant. Stt Smith, Lt. Col. EJiu.· 

beth C. 

consolidated WAC/ male. 44. 288. 352, 

366 

distinguished graduate, 117 

and leadership, lIS. ] 16 

length of. I] 5 

racial policies. 17,85 

WAAC, 7. 8 

and WAC Officer Basic CoUI'$Cl. 119. 148, 

Stt also WAC O ffieer Basic Course, 

WCOC-AWCOC nlerger, 119 

WCOCmerger, 116-17 

Officer Candidate School, USAF, 74 

Officer Candidate Test, 114 

Officer candidates, 116. 148, 149. See alSf) 

Officer Candidate School (OCS), 

Officer G rade Limitation Act, ]954, ]81 

Officer grades, 5, 12, ]4. See also Promotions. 

Officer Personnel Act, ]947 (PL 80-38 1), 

49-50,69, ]2311, 182 

Officer Pel'$Onnel Directorate (OPO). 179, 

]80, ]8011,289.290 

Officer Pel'$Onnel Management System 

(OPMS), 287, 316 

and the Plateau Plan, 301 

WAC officer branch integration, 289-9]. 

2" 

warT'1lnt officers, 28911 

Officer Pel'$Onnel Management System 

(OPM S) Steering Commillee. 289 
INDEX 

Officer procurcment, 132- 33, 286, 406. See 

o/sc Associate WAC Company Officers 

Course (A WCOC); College Junior Program; Officer Candidate School (OCS): 

Reserve Officer Training Corps 

(ROTC); WAC Company Officers 

Course (WCOC): WAC Student Officer Program; Warrant officers. 

commander's nomination, 117 

competitive tour, 117 

cost of, 122 

direct commission. 116- 19, 132,287,288. 

293, 352 

distinguisht:d graduate, OCS. 117 

WACsourccs, 113- 14, 117 

Officers Rotary Wing Aviator Course, 272 

Officers' Reserve Corps, 59 

Ohio National Guard, 253 

Okinawa, 106-08,248,271 

Old!, Sg!. Suzanne, 29511 

Oliver, Col. John I'" 51 

Oliver. L!. Col. Wi11iemae M., 343 

Olson, Maj. Gloria A.S., 254 

Operational T est and Evaluation Agency 

(OTEA), 373. See ofso Becton, Maj. 

Gen. J ulius W., Jr. 

OPLAN CONSOLI DATE, 366 

OPMS. See Officer Personnel Management 

System (OPMS). 

Oppedal, S. Sg\. Diane. 34511 

Ordnance Corps, 21, 352 

Oregon, 241 

Organization and training, director of 

(DOT), 63, 72, 82, 90 

Organized Reserve Corps. See af$() U.S. 

Army Reserve (USAR): Recall programs; Women's Armed Services Integration Act, 1948. 

dri11 unils, 94 

inactive unils, 94, 95 

postwar WAC in, 28- 29, 31 - 33, 46, 56, 

37. 58- 60, 64, 97 

readiness. 97- 98 

renamed,98 

WAAC, 6 

WAC Section, 63, 64, 82. S~e ofso above 

postwar WAC in. 

Oro Bay, 23 

Orthopedic specialist, 168 

Overseas service,S, 12, 22. 270. See also 

COlliltry or theater by lIame. 

housing, 283 

Korean War, 102. 106-07 

marriage policies. 15,252 

post- World War II, 36-37, 44. 61 

pregnancy policies, IS, ]6,388 

recruiting/reenlistment rates. 143 

screening of candidates for, 36-37 

tour length inequities, 283, 284 

tours c~tended, 94. 174, 17S. 189 

training for, 81 - 82 

WAC ~pansion 1970s, 282- 84 

World War II, 5, 12,22-23,27 

Owens, CW4 Victor E, 36\11 

Oxford, AL. 151 

P code, 196 

Pace, Frank, Jr., 110 

Pacific area, 248 

Painter, 19 

Palaus,23 

Pallas Alhene insignia, 191. 312, 3 16, 406 

Palme r, General Druce. Jr., 236, 238, 239, 

248, 250, 299 

Panama Canol Zonc, 67, 283 

Pandit, Mrs. Vijaya, I] 1 

I'anmunjom, 89, 108 

Parachute rigger, 19,272 

Parachute Rigger's Course. 273 

Parental objection, 104 

Parenthood policies, 140, 228, 235, 240, 

378- 79. See olso Child care policies: 

Dependents and dependency policies: 

Discharge policies, involuntary: Illegitima1e children/pregnancy; Singleparent policies. 

discharge, 16, 137, 140, 228. 235, 304, 

305, 32S, 400 

enlistment. 235 

women's righ1s movement and, 302- 03 

Paris, 22, 21 

Paris peace talks, 257 

Parker, L!. Col. Mattie V., 274 

Parker, Sybil. 33911 

Parks, Lt. Col. Rebecca S., 110, 11011. 146, 

157".428 

Parrish. Lt. Col. Alice A.. 108,430 

Pasco, W A, 2] 

Patterson, Robert 1'., 44 

Paul, Maj. Gen. Willard S., 3 1, 94 

and Doyee, 32, 33, 36, 41, 64, 65 

Camp Lee. 72, 8\ 

DWAC location. 64- 65 

and Hallaren, 40, 44 

officer promotions, 69 

postwar WAC, 31, 32. 35, 39, 41, 45 

special assistant for women's affairs. 64 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act. 1947.45 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

AC1, 1948, 49- S] 

Pay, 5, 14, 124, 144, 156, 24411. See olso 

Pensions. 

basic training, 83 

COmbll\, 109 

longevity, 163. See also Longevi1y. 

mustering out, 109 

naval services, 6 

overseas, 12 

529 
530 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

profICiency. 11 4, 144,338-39 

recruiting/reenlistment rates. 142 

Peking.2J 

Pennington, Capt. Bonnie, J23n 

Pe nnsylvania State Unillcrsity. 287 

Pensions 

disability, 4-6, 144n 

retirement, 4- 6, 113, 123, 124, 163- 65 

Permanent detail. 127, 128. :iff also Officer 

Personnel Management System 

(OPMS). WAC offICer branch integral)on, 

Perry. Leslie S., SO 

PERSHING,384 

Personnel, acting deputy chief of SlafT for 

(OCSPER). See Lindeman, Maj. Gen. 

Philip F. 

I'ersollllc l, ass', chief of SllIfT fo r (O- I). Sa 

0 - 1 (Personnel); I'crsonncl, deputy 

chief of stafT for (DeSPER); Personnel 

and administration, director of (0/ 

PAD). 

Personnel, deputy chicf of stafT for 

(DCSPER). See also Booth, Lt. Gen. 

Donald P.; Collins, Lt. Gen. James F.; 

Connor, Le. Gen. Alber! 0.; G-I (Pe r-

_nel); Kerwin, LI. Gen. Waher T., 

Jr.; Lindeman, Maj . Gen. Philip F.; 

Moore, Lt. Gen. Ha rold G.; Richard. 

son, Lt. Gen. James L.; Roge rs, Lt. 

Gen. Bernard W.; Smith. Lt. Gen. 

DeWitt C., Jr.; ViUrup, Lt. Gen. Rus. 

sell L.; Woolnough, Lt . Gen. James K. 

consolidated W AC/male basic training, 

363 

diSCOntinuance of the WAC, 31~ 16 

elimination of DWAC, 390-91, 194 

interchangeable spaces. 194 

marriage policies. Vietnam, 2~2 

office of (ODCSPER), 181, 223, 263-64 

OPO,I79 

personnel requirement! studies, 369-70 

replacement system, 169 

senior military spokeswoman, )9~ 

utilization of women, 166, 168 

WAC enlistment waivers, 233 

WAC enlistment standards, 238 

WAC expansion, 223, 224, 263- 64 

WAC grade structure eXpAnsion, 181. 

,,..,,, 

WAC officer specialties, 289 

WAC Student Officer Program, 2 19 

W AQI at Drill Sergeants School, 339 

women content and mission performance, 

40' 

Personnel adminislration, 2 1 

Personnel and administration, director of 

(D/PAD), 43, 56, 64 6~. Set also G- I 

(Pe rsonnel); Paul, Maj. Gen. Willprd S. 

Personnel codes, 169, 184, 194-96, 28~. Set 

also Interchangeable spaces. 

A, 169, 194, 196 

E, 169, 194 

I, 195 

K,I 96 

L, I69 

0, 169 

P, 196 

V, I69 

W,I69 

X, 194, 9~ 

Personnel Management Development 

Office (PM DO), 264 

Personnel Management Specialist Course, 

141n 

Personnel management system. Set Military 

occupational $pecia lty/ ies (MOS/s), restructuring, 19508; Offi cer I'ersonncl 

Man8gcmclll System (OPMS). 

Personnel officer, 128 

Personnel Officers Conference, 19n, 104 

Personnel Operations, Office of (OPO), 179, 

ISO, 192-93,226, 264 

Personnel Policy Board. Set under Defense, 

Department o f. 

Personnel requisitions, 163-70, 194 

Personnel rOSters, 97 

Personnel shOTlages, 36, 107. Su also Draft, 

end of and the WAC. 

Personnel Specialist. 249 

Personnel Specinlists Course (MOS 71 H), 

276,343,347 

Persons, Maj. Gen. Wilton B., 391 

Peters, Capt. Alice V., 3~911 

Petersburg. VA. 80 

Peterson, Esther, 183n 

Peterson, Maj. Helen L., 431 

Pewin, pre. Patricia C., 246 

Philadelphia, PA. 354 

Philbin, Philip J., 211 

Philippines, 23 

Phillips, MSgt. Mary E .• 243n 

I'hillips, Col. Mary G., 71, 107- 08. See also 

Army Nurse Corps (ANC). 

Phillips. Paul D., 266, 3 17, 377, 390 

Photographer, 19,20 

Physical exams, 97 

Physical standards. ~6, ~8, 97. 166, 278-79 

Physical therapist, 38, 2 10 

Physical Therapy Corp" 3) 

Physical training, )~3, 363, 373. 380, 393 

Pike, Otis, G., 211. 212, 26 1, 263 

Pinkney. Cpl. Wanda E., 7~ 

Pistols 

.38,27 1 

.4~ automatic. 14 

PL. See Public laws. 
INDEX 

"Plan for the Expansion of the Women's 

Army Corps:' 264 

"Plan to Improve WAC Recruiting and Re· 

tention," 259- 61 

Plans and Operations, Office of the Director of. See 0 - 3 (Operations). 

I'lans, programs, and budget, direclor of 

(DPI'D). See Forrester, Maj. Gen. 

Eugene P. 

Plateau Plall, 301 -02, 312 

discontinuance oflhe WAC, 315- 16 

Plumber, 264 

Plummer, MSgt. Ch;lrlotte, 35711 

Pons, 1st Lt. Mildred E., 16711 

Pori Moresby, 23 

"Positions that may be Staffed by Colonels. 

WAC," 181 

POSt housing, 197, 198,202. S('(! IlISl) Hous· 

ing and housing policies. 

Postal workers, 19, 21, 22 

Posters, 98, 161 

Postpartum leave. 306, 309 

POW camps corlVerted for WAC training, 

76 

POW exercises. 272 

Powell. Adam Clayton. 51 

Powell, Lt. Oen. Herbert e .. 109/1, 137 

Power. Lt. Col. Marjorie C., 336- 38, 429, 

432 

Power generator and equipment mechanic, 

281 

Pral:tical nursing. 155 

Pregnancy. lost time alld COSt. 53- 54. 3\0 

Pregnancy polil:ies, \02, 138- 39. 234-36, 

239, 378- 79. See also Depclldellts aud 

depclldency policies; Parcnthood policies. 

Army '75 Study. 228 

counseling. 388 

courts. 234 

diseharge. 15- 16. \02. 138,213.226.228, 

234- 35. 238- 40, 252. 304-06, 309, 313. 

325, 377, 400. See al$O Discharge polil:ies. involuntury. 

enlistment, 234. 278 

EWITA study. 381 

mission pcrformnnce. 373 

overseas assignmenr, 3()9, 388 

retention. 304 

women's rights movement, 302-03 

World War II- post- Korean WH. 138-

40,140" 

I'regrmncy rates. 16. 53 

Pregnancy testing. 303 

I'n.osidcn1. U.S .. 29, 35. 89. 90. Sl'(' a/$O 

Carter. Jnmes E.; Eisenhower. Dwight 

D.; Ford. Gerald R.; 10hllool1. L~ ndon 

B.: Kennedy, John F.: Nixon. Richard 

1\'1.; Re:,gllU. Ronald; Roosevelt. Franklin D.: Truman. Harry S. 

Presidellt"s Commission on the Status of 

Women, 183, 18311.203 

Prestige, 124, 144, 151 

Previto, LI. Col. Angelina J .• 428, 429 

Price, Lt. Co\. Lenore M., 429, 431 

Prisoner of war status, 12 

Privacy. 192, 196, 198.200 

Pro pay. See Pay, proficiency. 

Procurement and Distributioll, Directorate 

for (01'0), 223. 223" 

Proficiency pay. See Pay. proficiency. 

Project 80, 179- 80, 180" 

Projcct VOLAR (Vohmleer Army), 23Q.-. 

31.402.403 

Project Volunteer Committee. 229, 230 

Project Volunteer in Oefellse of the Nalion 

(PROVIDE),229-30 

Promotional literature. 98, 99, 101 

I'romotions. See olsQ Officer Personnel Act, 

1947; Officer Personnel Management 

System (OPMS). 

compet itive promotions. 155, 156 

direct commission grade. 118 

enlisted opportunities, 171, 193 

gcneral officer selection, 231 

longevity, 4911. 163 

manning documents and requisitions. 169. 

192 

quotas, 220 

restrictions, 56. 69- 70. I [J, 124, 128, 164, 

181 - 82.183.291. 399 

restrictions removal, 1"24IJ, 183. 206-1 4, 

276.4Ol 

WAC list elimination. 300. 310, 311, 312, 

316,318.367 

PROVI DE. See Project Volunteer in Defense of the Nalion (PROV IDE). 

Provost marshal ger,ernl, 217 

Proxmire, William 0 ., 381 - 82. 396 

Public inFormation funding. 191 

Public infornl1ltion officcr, 128 

Public laws 

77- 554 (establish the W AAC). 5, 9 

77- 689 (womcn in the naval services). 5-

6 

78- 110 (establish the WAC in the AUS). 

12- 15,29.35.163 

78- 441 (WAVES. SPARS, Women Marines outside CONUS). 6 

80-96 (Army-Navy Nurses Act of 1947). 

38.45 

80- 381. See Officer Personnel Act. 1947 

(PL 80-381). 

80- 625. SI!(' Women's Armed Services In· 

tegrntion Act, 1948 (PL 80- 625). 

81 - 599 (draft law "'~tclIsion; Reserve and 

N"tional Guard activation). 91 

81 - 624 (involuntary enl istment extension), 

90 

53 I 
532 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

82-51 (strength restricliol1 on women in 

regular rorces suspended). 100 

83-773. See Reserve Officers Personnel 

Act (RO I'A). 1954 (I'L 83-773). 

84-845 (medical women in AmlY and Air 

National Guard), 211n 

85-ISS (Career Incentive Act, \957), 

20S/l 

90-130 (reduction of career Te$lriCliol1$ 

on servicewomen), 214. 220. SCi! also 

Legislation. lI.R. 5894. 

92- 129 (draFt law ClltcnsiOIl), 257 

95-584 (abolish the WAC). 391 

I'ublic rc alion~ 66, 157. \86. See also Ad· 

vertising: Recruiting. 

discha rge policies, 140 

move \0 Fori McClellan, 146. 151, 334 

WAC image, 104, 157, 158-59, 162.259. 

Sec 01,10 Milligan. Col. Mpry L., public 

relations; Slander campaigns. 

WAC recruiting campaigns, 101, 224, 266 

weapons training. 14 

Pugh. Lt. Col. Mary M., \JIll, 428 

Pulis. LL Col. Esther P., IIOt, 

Pusan, 89 

PUlnam. Maj. Gcn. Goorge W., 2SO 

Qualls, Col. Mildrt:d G .• 13111 

Quarles. Mrs. Donald. 183. 212 

Quarryman. 264 

Quarternmster Center. Fort Lee. 231 

Quartermaster Corps, 21.162 

Quartermaster's School. 8S 

Quarters. See o/so Housing and housing 

polidcs. 

allowances, 124. 191- 99,202.262. 27S 

assignments. 124 

Q ui Nhon, 244 

Quigley. Capt. Robin L.. 262, 297. 392" 

Quotas 

offlCcr promotions. 220 

raeil.l. 16. 18.85.86 

recall. 95 

recruiting and training, 98-99. 101. 193. 

353. 385, 4Q.I 

WAC allotmcnt. 19 

Racc Relations. COlllmitll."C on. WAC C&!:S. 

l4J 

Rnee rcl:lliuns eour$C. 343 

Raei:.1 polieic'5 

Arrny. 16-11. SO. 85. 86. 169. 170. 261 

E~ccuti"e Ordcr 9981. 85 

qu<)tus. SI!<! Quotas. noei:!!. 

Truman admiu;stration. 85- 86 

WAAC.17- 18 

WAC, 11- 18. SO. RO. 86.165 

War Departillenl. 16.85 

Ibcial ~tri fc 

fears or. 11 

WAC Center and School. 347-50 

Radar operator, 20 

Radio, 98, 161 

Radio operator. 19.20.94 

Radio re lay and carrier allendont, 281 

Raidme\s. Lt. Col. Margaret M .. 433 

Ralph, Maj. Rose A .. 431 

Ramsey, Maj. Gen. Lloyd 0., 211 

Ranger training, ROTC, 288 

Rangers. 385 

Rope. A Prt"!II/(Jbl~ flljllry, 389 

Rape prevention programs, 388. 394 

Rape victim treatment. 389 

Rasmuool1, Elmer E., 183 

Rasmuson. Col. Mary L. Mi11igan, 183. Se~ 

also Milligan. Col. Mary L 

Ready. Cap\. Peggy E .. 246. 251 

Ready Re$Crve. 174. 294 

Rcagan. Ronald .. H2, 405 

Rc:call programs. 36. 92- 9S, 99, 106. 109. 

174.115-16.189 

RL'<:cption rooms. 196 

Rechel. Comd. Sgt. Maj. Dorothy J., 346 

Recruit profiles. W AC/ma1c. 311 

RL'Cruit screening, 205 

Recruiters, 98. 99, 101-o-t 111.224 

assignments, 19411 

ceilings. 111 

controlled inpul. 98-99. 101 

enl st~'(I. 104 

Fort McClellan, 148 

offICers. 117. 119. 128 

1'ROVIDE. 230 

recruit personality evaluation. 205 

WAC Center and School. 15 1 

Recruiting. See olso Advertising: Enlistment 

st:mdllfds; 1'ublic relations; Quotns. fe· 

eruitil.g and traini ng. 

14th Army Band (WAC), 358-59 

budgets. III 

ceilings. 9, 117 

costs. 371 

Korean War, 93. 98-106. 108, 137 

male shortfall. 55. S« ul$O Draft. end or 

and the WAC. 

Vietnam, 224. 227-28 

WAC cxpansion 197Os, 266. 27~. 281. 

354-55, 369. 373 

world War 11 . 7. 9- 11. 24 

RL'Crui!ing Command. Set! Army R~'"(;ru i!;n g 

Con'malld. 

Recruiting programs. Sff Elilistmen! ortions. 

Reeflllting 1'ubliei!)' Branch. 161 

Rcdcniu~. U . Col. FrallL"'C'O V .. 16111 

RL'Cml'lo)'mcllt rights. 28. lOQ 

RL'Cllli,!ce training. 85 

Rccnli,trne li! ol'tio,,~ :md I'wgrams 
INDEX 

Army Career Group, 176. 17(~"" 192 

bonuses, 143, 1~6, 192 

college education. 144 

guaranteed assignmcnt, 142 

inequities in, 140, 142 

post-World War II, 3S-37 

specific school. 142, 192 

taking a short to re·up, 192 

unit offlCcrs. 144 

Projec t VOLA R, 230-31 

Reenlistment rates, 137, 142, 144. . 16~, 

176.192,193,26611.414 

Army Career Group Option. 176 

housing lind. 196. Sff (J/so Housing and 

housing policics. 

job satisfpction pnd. 152. 192- 93. See a/so 

Utiliution of women. 

I'rojcc;t VOLA R. 231. 403 

Reenlistment standards. See fllso Enlistment 

t~ndards; Moral land~rds; Retcntion 

standards. 

Army Reserve, 98 

bar to reenlistment. 143 

depcndenls. 15 

post-World Wllr II. 37, 58 

stonda rdiza tion of. 234-40 

waivers. Sa abOl'e standardiZlltion of. 

women's rights movcmCnl and, 232-36 

Rees, Edward H" 54 

REF WAC 77, 372- 73 

REFolIGEII 77. Sn REF WAC 77. 

Rcgan. Capt. Mary J., 429 

Registering women. Sff Draft. women. 

Regular status. 31. 33. 35. 84. 87, 109. 114. 

117, 123, 124. Sa Qlso Women's AmloCd 

Services Integration Act. 1947; 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act, 1948. 

equality of st31u$, ~6 

medical spccialist5. 38 

nurses. 38 

ODW AC ph.cement. 65 

political fight for. 52, 54. 55 

prestige of. 12411 

Reid. SI'5 Belly E" 24411 

Remediul reading course. 115 

Reorgani7.8tions 

1948. 7) 

1950.90 

1962,179 

1973, JS I- 52 

Repl;.cemcnt systent. 353. Sn a/:w Table of 

Distribution. 

Republic of Korea Army, Women's Corps. 

lOS. 336.0,. 431 

Reservc and ROTC affairs. cllecll1ivc for. 

53. 59, 64. Su Qf:w ROTC and reservc 

affairs. chief of. 

Reserve Co ponent~. offlCc of the chief of. 

266 

Reserve Enlistmcnt l'rogram. 292 

Reserve forces, 97-98. See Q/:W U.S. Army 

Reservc (USA R); Orgl nized Reserve 

Corps (ORC). 

Reservc Forces Policy Board. 292, 293 

Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC), 

28. 113 

cost of. 122 

scholarships for women, 326-27 

women in. 122- 23, 228. 287, 288, 293. 

325. 366. 406 

Reserve Officers Association (ROA). 51. 

207 

Reserve Officers Personnel Act (RO I'A). 

1954 (PL 83- 773). 123, 12311. 164-65 

Reserve only. See Women's Armed Serv. 

ices Integration Act. 1948. hearings. 

Reserve Policy Committee, 26. 28 

Reserve status, 26. 28. 30. 46, 87. 109. Set 

af:w Reserve Officer'S Personnel Act 

(ROPA). 1954 (i'L 83- 773); Women's 

Armed Services Integration Act. 1948. 

hearings. 

career length. 114. 123 

inequities, 186 

naval servicL'S. 6 

retirement. 113. 123, 164 

Reserved Seat Program, 141 

Resignations suspended. 174 

Resar, Stanley R .. 217, 220. 229, 23 1. 255 

Retention rates, WAC/male, 176. 377 

Retention standards, 234- 40, 269. 400. 403. 

See al:w Moral Slandnrds; Reenlistment 

standa rds. 

Retirement. 133. 174.211.216. SUQ/:W Pen· 

sions. retirement; Reserve Officers I'cr. 

soune! Act (ROPA). 1954 (I'L 83- 773). 

Rhodes. Lt. Co1. Chariotte E .. 432 

Ricc. Ll. Col. Jessie 1' .. 33 1. 427 

Rice Road. 33 1 

Richardson. Lt. Gen. Jam es L.. 195 

Richmond. Sgt. Maj. Mary E .. 21811. 25911 

Richmond. VA. 294 

Ridgway. General Mfttthew 0 .. 89. 151 

0 11 WAC training facilitiL'S. 144- 45 

Riley. Col. Emmlr J.. 163 

Riser. Pfe . Johnnie B .• 36 111 

Rivers, Mendel. 212 

Roberts. Lt. Col. Grace L .. J80. 433 

Roberts. Maj. Gen. J. Milnor. 293 

Roberts. Lt . Col. Lenore G .. 35511 

Roberts. LI. Col. Mary JUlllli1:1 D .. 207- 08 

Rogers. GClleral Bernard W .. 317, 327 

ase requirements. 277 

combat e~clus on policy. 382 

discharge on I'regIl3I1c)'/p.m.'nthood. 304. 

30'-06 

discontinuance of the WAC. J i l. 312. 

313- 14.315 

533 
534 T HE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

ERA posilions, 300 

inlcn::hangcable spaces, 285 

physica l standards.. 279 

J'lateau Plan. 301 

repeal OfSe<:lion 3071. 313- 14 

UliUl.a lion of women, 272. 380, 386 

WAC upansioll 1970s. 266. 268 

WAC recruiting. 280, 353 

women overseas, 282 

women in ROTC. 288 

Rogers, Edith Nourse, 186 

establishment of the WAAC, 3-4. 6 

establishment of the WAC, 12 

fight for regular status. 54 

mititar), SlalUS for women, 3-4, 12 

VA benefits for WAACs. 3-4. l44n 

Roleoflhe WAC, 339, 354 

Rome, 31 

RooscVl;!lt, Eleanor, 183. 18311 

Roosevcl1. Franklin D .. S. 6, 9, 12 

ROPA Amendments Act, 1960, 165 

R()$(':bcrry. I'fe. Alicc W., 80 

Rosenberg. Anna M., 72, 99- 100, 101, 102. 

10) 

Rossi, Col. Lorraine A., 243/1, 25911, 363", 

36511 

DWAC speakillS and reprcscntational 

duties. 395 

\\lAC Center and School, 365- 66. 432 

ROTC and reserve affairs. c hief of. 32. S« 

also Reserve and ROTC affairs. uccutive for. 

Rot hrock. Maj. Evelyn A., 429 

Roy. Capt. lIelen M .. 161" 

Royste r, Lt. Col. Kathryn J .. 183,432 

Rumsreld. Donald H .• 279 

Runge. Carlisle P., 183 

Russell. Col. Marilyn J .. 126".35511 

Russell. Richard S., 213 

Russia. women in combat. 374 

Rutledge, Lt. Co1. Elizabeth A., 429 

Ryan, WO l'lelen E.. 13411 

Ryan. Genellli John D., 23 111 

Ryukyus. U.S. defense of, 106 

Saigon, 217, 241. 243. 244 

51. Clair, Maj. Laura M., 14711.432 

Sait. Charlol1c, 33911 

Sab,:obryt, MSgt. Jane 0., 24311 

SAMVA (special ass't to Sc:cArmy for the 

Modern Volunteer Army )'rogmm). 

See Forsythe, Maj. Gen. George I. 

San Antonio, TX . 14 

San Francisco, 101 

Sansing, LI. Col. Mary J., 429. 4JI 

Scheidenhelm. Lt . Col. Arlene G .. 11011. 

429 

Schlesinger. James R., 320 

Schnabel. James F., 106 

Schneider, J. T homas. 71 

Schools and training, 1-9, 90, 353, 404. Sft 

alS{) Associate WAC Company Officers 

Course (A WCOC); Basic training; 

Career management; College Junior 

Program; Continental Army Command 

(CONARC); Officer Candidate School 

(OCS); Specialist training; Training and 

Doctrine Command (fRADOC): 

Training centers; U.S. Military Acade_ 

my; WAC Company Officers Course 

(WCOC); WAC NCO Leadership 

Course; WAC Officer Advanced 

Course: WAC Officer Basic Coursc: 

WAC School: Weapons training. 

advanced courses, 125- 26. Sn also below 

senior service colleges. 

branch courses, 125- 26. 345, 341. See also 

specific collrse or school by lIome. 

cornmil1ee system_ 101 

consolidated WAC/male training. 44_ 

145.216 

consolidation of administrative schools, 

lSi 

course doctrine and policy, 329. 339 

inequities, WAC/male. 124 

manning documents and requisitions, 169 

mobili1.ation planning, 93 

nontraditional, 19, 161 

one-station unit training (OSUT). 365 

reservists. 60, 98 

senior :;erviee colleges. 124. 125. 126. 

220-2 1, 255, 291. Sec also specific college 

by IIO/lle. 

Schriver. Maj. Agnes Schairer, 21811 

Schuchart. Maj. Martha F .• 121 

Schulten. Lt. Col. Marjorie E .. 429 

Schwcikcr. Richard 5 .. 21 1- 12 

ScOIl. Sgt . Maj. Beverly E., 36811, 394 

ScOtl. wa Irene. 3911, 4 11/ 

ScOl1. Dr. K. Frances. 11 

Seaman, 264 

Seamans. Robert C .. Jr .• 262 

Searchlight control. 20 

Seckcnheim School Center. 44 

Second WAAC Training Center. Set> Training centers. Daytona Beach. 

Second WAC Training Center. S<'e Training centers. Daytona Beach. 

Segregation, racial. S« Racial policies. 

Sedemann, Capt. Constance C .. 254 

Selective Service. and women. See Draft. 

women. 

SeIL-ctive Service Act. 1940. 16 

Self·defense training. 339 

Self·enhancement programs. 160 

Self·paced instroction. 342. 349 

Senate. !iN ulso Armed Services Commiuee 

(Senate). 

abo1i$hing the WAC. 396-91 
INDEX 

and Eisenhower, 3 1 

Equal Rights Amendmelll, 299 

H.R. 5894, 213 

military staws for women, 12 

regular status, 52 

Subcommittee on Military Demobiliza· 

tion,32 

WAAC active dllty credit, 163 

WAC grade structure e~pa sion, 208 

WAC Integration Act, 1946,43 

women general officcrs. 23 1 

women at the service academit$, 322 

Senior Enlisted Cont rol Division, EPD, 193 

Senior military spokt$woman, 64, 3 16, 31" 

326. 361, 386-88, 389- 90. 39 1. 395. 396 

Senior service colleges. Sn u/lde, Schools 

and training. 

Seniority and statutory posilions, 110 

Stolll, 108n 

Sergeants Major AClldemy, 346 

Service academies, women at, 262, 287. 

318-22. Ser Qlso specific Qcademy by 

nD/ne. 

Service Unit, 2004th, 73. Sn (llso WAC 

Training Center. Camp Lee. 

Services of Supply, 6-7 

Sever, Sgt. Eva J., 359 

Se~ edllcation, 394 

Shafer, Palll W .. H 

Shanaberger, Lt. Col. Ellni ce E .. 431. 433 

Shanghai. 23, 21, 3 1. 47 

"Share Service for Freedom," 101 

Shaw, Sgt. lSI CI. Eileen, 342" 

Shelley, Col. Mary Jo, 11 1 

Sheppard, Harry R .. H 

Ships, women assigned to, 38 1, 384 

Short, Dewey, H 

SigHal Corps, 21 

Simpson, Lt. Col. Beryl M ., 432 

Simpson, Lt. Col. Maribeth C" I3ln, 428 

Single manager concept, 179 

Single·parent polic;e:s, 278, 302-03, 313 

SkutM, Maj. Bernice C .. 167" 

Slander campaigns, 10, II. 20, 24, 37, 104. 

Sn (llso PlIblic relations. 

Slewit z.ke, Comd. Sgt. Maj. ElaiHc I .. 344 

Smilh, Brig. Gen, Albert H., Jr .. 7211, 233 

Smith, Lt. Col. Ann D., 218, 21811, 243,1, 

m 

Smith, Lt. Gen. DeWitt C. Jr .. 372-73, 

38 1,385 

Smith, Lt. Col. Elizabeth C .• 3911, 7211, 16, 

80. 110. 429, 432 

Smith, wO Elizabeth C .. 13411 

Smith, Maj. Georgia H .. 43 1 

Smit h, Margaret Chase, 52- H, S4, 96, 214 

Society and social C1l510.n5, 16, 232-33,240 

Solomon, Edith. ISO'1 

Somervell, Lt. Gen. Brehon n ., 10 

Sorrough. Lt. Col. Irene M., 3911, \94- 95, 

432 

Sollth Carolina, 24 1 

South Carolina State University. 281 

South Dakota Stale University, 287 

South Vietnam, 173, 345 

U.S. foret'S in, 217. 222, 227. 244, 244/1, 

254,2S7 

WACs in, 216. 241 -42. 242n, 244n, 248. 

24911,251,254,25411 ,255. Sn (llw Mili· 

tary Assist~nce Command, Vietnam 

(MACV); U.S. Army, Vietnam 

(USA RV); Women's Armed Forces 

Corps (W A FC). 

charities, 253 

pregnancy. 252 

South Walk. 340 

Solltheast Asia Command. 22-23 

Southeastern Signal School. 161 

Soulhwest I'acific Area, 15, 23 

Soviel Union. See (JIS() Russia, women ill 

combat. 

and Berlin, 173 

and Cuba, 189 

and Cuchoslovakia, 55 

nuclea r power, 111 

servicewomell. 29, 30 

SPARS (Sem~' P(JrQIII.I'- Always Ready), 

6, 10, 38, 163. See Qlw Stratton, Cap\. 

Dorothy C, 

Spatz., General Carl, 45 

Special assistant ror womcn, Office or the 

Chier or Naval Personnel. See Women 

in the Navy (WAVES), director or. 

Special assiStanl for women's affairs, 64 

Special Forces, 385 

Special Lcadership Program, 339 

Special servict'S officer, 128 

Special slaff divisions, 67- 68 

Special Support Division, O PD, 18011 

Specialist tra ining, 84-85. 125-28, 135. 141 , 

14111,290 

SpringrlCld. Lt. Col. Nora G., 127, 173, 428, 

430 

Squadron, 37415t WAF T raining, 74 

Staff advisers, 67. 159, 169, 290, 402, 428_ 

32. See (lIS() Slaff dircc.:IOrs. 

Staff advisers conferences, 60, 67, 101- 08, 

131, 159, 15911.205. Sl't Qlso Staff direc· 

tors conference, 1945. 

Staff directors, 13, 14, 2 1, 22, 66-67. S« 

Qlw Staff advisers. 

Staff directors conrerence, 1945. 29- 30. See 

alsa Staff advisers cOllferences. 

Staff ManagcrnCllt Division, OCS. 208-09 

Staffing regulation, 69 

Stahr, Elvis J., Jr., 175. 187 

Stalin, Joseph, 108 

Standards. See EnliSlmenl standards; Moral 

standards; Retcl1lion stal1dards. 

Standards and Systems Branch. 01'0, 205 

535 
536 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

Slauber. Lt. Col. Ruby R., 350" 

Sleel, Sgt. lSI CL Ellcn Il, 160 

Steelman, Alan W., 321n 

Slclr, LI. Col. Helen D., 429, 431 

Stennis, John C., 396 

Stenographer, 20, 22, 23, 94. 244 

Stenography CoUI'$e (MOS llC), 85, 141n, 

342,347 

Sternberg, Drig. Gen. Dcn, 241-42 

Stewart. Mrs. Alexander, 52 

Still Photography Course. 14111 

Stimson, Henry 1-, 9, 10 

Stoobs, Pre. Rhynell M., 246 

Strategic Air Forces, 22 

Slra1ton, Capl. Dorothy C., 7 1, 92, See alS(} 

SPARS (Semptr Parollls- Always 

Ready). 

StrallOIl, Samuel S., 262- 63, 317, 32 1 

Sirayhoru. Lt. Col. Elizabeth H" 39/1, 4011 

Streeter, Dorothy, 72. S« also Women Marines. 

Sirength. Army. 90, 94, 106, 109, 123. 166. 

279, 282, 373. Su also Drafl ; Mobilization; Rt'Ca ll programs; Strength. WAC. 

Slrenglh, dercnse, 266. 266,11 

Strength. WAC. S« afso Discharge poli· 

cies; Draft, end of and the WAC; 

Intcrchuugcablc spaces: Mission per· 

formance. women content and; Re· 

cruiting. 

194Os, 24. 25. 211, 4611. 56. 399 

1950s, 93, 98-99. 9911, 102,165. 17911. 1116, 

399 

196Os, 176. 179. 1116, 219. 223- 25. 255. 

399 

19705. 196. 227- 28. 255, 257. 263- 67. 279, 

325, 375. 399, 403 

accessions, 410-11 

authorizations and restrictions, 51, 55, 56, 

911, 100,121, 166.177- 711,2 11 .223 

Uerlin Crisis, 179, 189 

blacks. 85, 116, 41 5 

commissioned omcers, 56, 60. 114. 123, 

1l2, 227, 286. Su afso Women Omcers 

Strength Model (WOSM). 

Cuban Missile Crisis. 189 

grade structure expansion. Igl- 82, 206-

09.220 

losses, 4(m, 102-03. 226-211, 412-1l. Su 

afso Discharge policies: Discharge 

TatC$. 

PROVIDE, 230 

reserves, 60, 164.292,296 

Strength. Women in the Army, 327, 378. 

380,4 10 

Strong. Dr. Esther 0 .. 70 

Strothers, Orig. Gen. Dean C., 411 

Student Omcer Program. S« WAC Stu· 

dellt Omcer I'rogram. 

Student officers, 116. 148. 149. See afso 

WAC Company Officers Course 

(WCOC). 

Studies. Su a/so Bolte Commiuee. 

Army '75 Study, 228- 29 

Army War College, elimination of the 

WAC, 315 

Gates Commission, 229 

utilization, 375 

Central All·Voluntecr T ask Force. 

utilization of women, FY73-FY77, 

26' 

Evaluation of Women in the Army 

(EWITA) Study, 310, 380-81 

Inter·Service Working G roup, utili· 

zation of women, 1966,222-23 

MAX WAC (Women Content in 

Units Force Development Test). 

371- 72.373,376 

Medical Dept" 154-55 

MILPERCEN, impact of varied 

women force levels. 1977. 378 

I'rojoct Volunteer in Defense of the 

Nation (PROVIDE), 229- 30 

REF WAC 77, 372-73 

reserve components, 295 

"A Study of the Maximum Utitiza' 

tion of Military WOlllonpower." 

195 1, 95-96 

WAC Content in Units, 370-71 

Women in the Army (WIT A) stud· 

ies. 373- 74, 376 

Worn cn Officers Strength Model 

(WOSM). 370, 374 

Women's Enlisled Expansion Model 

(WEEM). 370. 371, 374, 376 

Studies alld Research Directorate, 

ODCSI'ER. 229 

"A Study of the Ma:dmum Utilization of 

Military Womanpower," 95 

Siull, Calli. Katherine, 39/J 

Sturgis. Lt. Col. Sam L" 1\011, 42g. 429 

Sullivan, LI. Col. Eleanore C., liOn, 117, 

147,15 1,335,432 

Sullivan. Maj. Mary L., 127,434 

Supply omcer, 128 

Supply specialists, 20, 22 

Supreme Court, 241. 276 

Supreme Headquarters, Allied E~pedition· 

ary Force, 22 

Surgeon General of the Army, 37, 45, 210. 

284. 303 

Survival e.ercises, 272 

SUllon. Macseen, 80 

Sweeney. L1. Col. Anne E .. I lOll. 157, 173. 

18711,427,429,431 

Switchboard operator. 22 

Table of allotment (fA). 19 
INDEX 

Table of distribution n'D), 19 

coding, 169. 170, 18.5, 194 

interchangeable spaces, 184-85, 193, 194-

96, 28.5 

manning documents, 192 

replacement system, 169. 170 

Table of distribution [fD) units, 184-85, 

370,373 

Table of organization [fO), 8, 19 

Table of organization and equipment (fOE) 

coding, 184-8.5, 196 

interchangeable spaces, 196, 28.5 

manning documents, 184, 192 

Table of Organization and Equipment 

(fOE) units, women in, 184, 370-7 1, 

m 

Category I, 18511,285,373, 382 

Calegory II. 18.511,285,369 

Category 111 ,18511,285 

Tacloban, 23 

Tactical training, 281, 373 

TAG. See Adjutant general, Army [fAG). 

Tail, Sgl. Maj. Frances M., 18811,21811 

Talley, Alice Parrish. See Parrish. Capt. 

AliceA. 

Tan Heip, 253 

Tan Son Nhut Air Base, 244, 24.5 

Taylor. David 1'., 373 

Taylor, Dr. Harold, 92 

Taylor, Lt. Gen. Richurd R .• 284 

Technology, and utilization or women. 166 

Telephone Opel"lltions Course, 141 11 

Telephone operatoT$, 4. 107 

Teletype Equipmcnt Repainnan, 167 

Teletype Operations Course. 14111 

Teletype opera toT$, 22, 107 

Television, 98, 161. 173,342 

Television production specialist. 168 

"A Tentative Plan and Proposed Bill on 

Establishing the Womcn's Army Corps 

ill the Regul ar Army and Organized 

Reserve." 39-42. Su also WAC Inte· 

gration Act. 1946. 

Testing, 167. Su alS(} Armed Forces Qualificntion Test (AFQT); Armed Forces 

Women's Selection Test (AFWST); 

Army General Classification Test 

(AGCT); Anny General Qualification 

Test; General Educational Development Test; Individual Proficiency in 

Basic Military Subjects, WAC (A IT 

21- 3): Officer Calldidate Test. 

Tel ofTensive, 1%8.244,25 1 

e~as Aoll UniveT$ity, 287 

Thailand. 173,27 ' 

T he rapists, 38. 41 

T hird WAC Training Center, Fort Oglethorpe, 81. Su alS(} Training cenl eT$, 

Fort Oglethorpe. 

Third WAC Training Cu., North Post, 

Fort Oglcthorpe. 351" 

Third WAC Training C tr., South Post, 

Fort Oglethorpe, 357" 

38th parallel, 89 

Thompson, Maj. Flora 0., 43 I 

Thompson, John W., Jr., 319 

Thompson, Maj. Martha J., 12611 

Thompson, Lt. Col. Ruth D., 431 

Thornton. ClIpt. Margaret M .. 432 

Thunnond, Strom, 2 11 , 21l 

Tige rl and, 35 I 

Time-in-service. See Longevity. 

T ime IOSI, men/women, 310 

Title 10, U.S. Code 

sec 307 •• repeal of, 312, 313- 15, 317. 396 

sec 3.580. repeal of, 313 

sec 3818, repeal of, 313 

sec 6015, modified, 384 

Tobey, Brig. Gen. Frank, 330 

Tokyo, 41, 106, 106/1, 107 

Tower, John 0 .. 396 

Traffic analyst, 270 

Training. Su Schools and ttailling. 

Training and Doct rine Command 

[fRADOC), 261 

basic training, 353, 3.5S, 362-65 

commander, 3.54, 35S, 36 1. 5ft also 

DePuy, General Willillm E. 

drill sergeal11S for WAC expansion, 280 

Fon McClellan roorglll1'Ultion, 35S-S6. 

365 

MOS training, 365 

rape prevention and victim treatment, 

388-89 

roorganiUlion, 1973,351 

utilization of women, 21 . 

WAC Center and School, 32911, 353-.54 

WAC direct commission programs, 288 

WAC officer training, 362 

women content and tmit mission, 369-71 

women's field clothing, 388 

Training center unit officer, 128 

Training cenleT$, 24. 82. 5ft also WAC 

Center; WAC School; WAC Training 

Center, Camp Lee. 

Camp Ruston, 9, 76, 357/1 

Daytona Beach, 9, 330-31, 357/1 

Fon Des Moines. " 9, 17,24.81,330-31, 

351n 

ForI Devens, 9 

Fort Obi. 61, 86, 267. 355, 365 

Fort Jackson, 261-68. 280. 352. 354, 362. 

36S 

Fort Leonard Wood, 267, 35.5, 36.5 

FOri Oglethorpe, 9, 24. 76, 81, 35111 

Training quoI~s, MOSs, 385 

T ran Cam Huang, Col. Su Huong. Col. 

Tran Cam. 

537 
538 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

T ranslators, ?4 

Trallsportaliofl management, 21 

Transports. )84 

Travel opportunities, 124 

Treasury Department. 39 

Trefry, Maj. Gen. Richard G" 390 

Tn-Service Enlisted Women's Barrach, 

Fort Mycr. 200-202 

Trimcloni, Col. Ikalrice D., 392" 

Trollinger, Cape. Laura, 323" 

Troop information lIud education officer, 

' 28 

Troopships., sunk. 22 

Truiu, Cdr. Beatrice M .. 198 

Trulock, Lt. Col. Sue B., 4JI 

Truman. Harry S. 

declares end of World War II. 38 

discha rge on parenthood, ]40 

draft laws, 92 

and Eisenhower, 31 

Fort McClellan, 146 

and MacArthur, 89 

mobilization, Korean War, 90 

peacetime dl1ln, jS 

racial policies, SS- 86 

recruiting, tOO-IOI 

Slate of emergency proclamation. 89 

utilization of womell in the services, 101 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act, 1948, 55 

Turkey, 211. 284 

Two.Jevcltraining, 10 1 

Tyler. Capt. Reba C .. 214 

Typing and Administration Course. 93 

Typists, 8. 19,20.22,23, 84 

U.S. Air Force. See Air Force. U.S. 

U.S. Army. See Army, U.S. 

U.S. Army. Europe. 284, 430 

U.S. Army. Pacific. 430-31 

U.S. AmlY, Vietnam (USARV) 

commander. 4~n 

WAC Detachment, 244. 24~-48. 2~1, 2n. 

254,2SS 

U.S. Army Central Support Command, 244 

U.S. Army Chorus, 361 

U.S. Army Forces, Fllr East (USAFFE). 41 

U.S. Army Reserve (USA R). 98. 109. Su 

a/so Organi7.cd Reserve Corps (ORC) 

Berlin Crisis., 113- 74. 175- 76 

College Junior Program. 120 

obligatory term. 401 

trainillg, 3n. 3SS 

WAC e~pans on 1970s, 268. 292- 96 

U.S. Forces in China, 23 

U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. 320 

U.S. Military Academy, 67. 113.22911 

cost of. 122 

OI'LAN 75- 1. 322- 23 

women at, 300. 322-24. 366, 388, 401. 406 

U.S. Naval Acndemy, women at, 262. 318, 

319- 20 

U.S. Naval School of Music. 3S9 

U.S. Navy. Su Navy, U.S. 

Ulrich, Col. Joan M .• 433 

Umbrellas, 260. 413 

Unfitness. Su Di5Charge policies. 

Unified rttntiting, 100-102, 104..()6 

Uniforms, 83, 85, 95 

accessories, 260. 439. 440, 451- 59, 411, 

413, 414 

allowance. 162, 437. 4~8 

Army beige, 459, 471 

Army green. 162, 186, 336, 401. 4~9-60, 

411. 413- 14. Su also below green cord, 

olive green field. 

bailie jacket, 438 

OOots, 363, 412 

coveralls, 23. 439 

dress, 413. See DIsc below drt'SS blues, 

white. 

dress blues, 113, 458, 459, 413 

dresses, 438, 439, 458. 412 

duty. 162n 

exercise suit. 336-38, 354, 440, 458, 412 

evening dress, 413 

fatigUes/field clothing, 363, 388, 472 

formal mess, 413 

green cord, 162, 244. 247. 336, 338, 460, 

471. 474. Su a/so obort! Army green. 

helmet liners, 363 

herringbone twill (HBT), 23, 439-40, 472 

issued. 437 

khaki, 23. 438-40. 472 

mint green. 325, 414 

off- duty, 431, 438 

officers. 437, 4)8 

olive drab, 401. 438-40 

olive green field, 472 

pantsuit, 472, 414 

pinks and greens, 438- 39 

service. 162" 

"Silver Taupe," 4~9 

taupe, 162. 401. 451 ~8, 4~9. 472 

training duty, 472 

Vietnam. 244, 247, 250 

WAAC, 12.437 

WAC cxpansion 1970s. 267, 268-69. 354, 

369,404,413 

white, 439. 458, 459, 413 

womcn cadets. 323 

Unit officer, 128, 143. 144,402 

United Council of Church Women. 71 

United Kingdom. servicewomen, 29, )0 

United Nations Commnnd, 89. 108 

United Nations Stturity Council. 89 

Unsuitability. Su Oi5Charge policies. 

Utilization of military womenpower study, 

195], 95-96 
INDEX 

Utiliution of Military Womenpower, subcommittee 011, 261 

"Utiliu!ioJL of Negro Manpower in the 

Army," 86 

Utilization of women, 4. 8-9. 19,32- 33,95-

97, 223, 401. oS« (lIS{) Army Air Forces 

(AAF); Army G round Forccs (AGF): 

Army Service Forces (ASF); Defense, 

Department of: Draft, end of and the 

WAC: Interchangeable spaces; Medical 

DepartnlCnt; Military occupational specialty/its (MOSh): Mission performance, women content and: Noncombat 

status: Officer PersonncJ Management 

System (OPMS): Plateau Plan: Rosenberg, Alina M.: Strength, WAC, e~pa

sian 1970s; Studies; Women's Anny 

Corps (WAC). discontinued. 

cost effectiveness. 53- 54. 122. 218,1. 310, 

375, 377. 399 

job satisfaction, 152, In. 159 

nontraditional n ainillg, 19, 167 

and reenlistment rates, 152, 192, 193 

Utilization of Womell in the Army Steering 

Committee. See W AC E~pllnsion Steer· 

ing Committee. 

V-J Day, 25 

Vallance, WOJO Jennie A .. 27211 

Van Auken, Maj. CYllthia J., 43 1 

Vance. Cyrus R., 187,211 

Vandegrift , General Alexander A., 38 

Vandenberg, General Hoyt S., 49 

Vargo, MSgt. Julia, 338 

Vavra, Harry, 264 

Venereal disease (V O), 233- 34. 235, 236, 

231 

Velerans AdminiSlllIlion, 29 

Veterans benefits, 4, 5. 29. 

educational, 109 

horne loons. 109 

hospitali...ation and disability, ]2, 144, 

144, 

reemployment rights, 28, 109 

Women's Armed ServicC$ Integration 

Act, 1948, 54 

Vicc c hief of staff, Army. See Abrams. 

General Creighton W.; Palmer, Gener· 

al Druce, Jr. 

Viet Cong, 22 1. 244 

Vietnam. 374. See also North Vietnam: 

South Vietnam. 

VietnAm. Republic of. See SOUlh Vietnam. 

Vietnam War, 217, 22 1- 22, 227, 25) 

Vinson, Carl, 263 

reserve status only. 48. SO 

women in naval scrvk:e. 38 

Women's Armed Services Integration 

Act, 1948. 50--5 1 

women's lives, 138 

Virginia. 241 

ViUrup, Lt. Gen. Russel L .• 17S, 181 

Dolte Committee, 182 

and Milligan. 182, 186 

WAC colonelspaccs, 182 

WAC strength, 171 

Vok:e intercepter, 270 

Voinche, Maj. Mono L .. 14111 

VOlunteer Army, 263. See /Jlso DllIft, end of 

and the WAC; Project VOLAR. 

Von Stein, Capt. Vera E .. 4JO 

Voyles. Capt . Martha A., 10811 

WAAC. Set! Women's Army Auxiliary 

Corps (W AAC). 

WAACCodeofConduct, 13 

WAAC Regul ations. S, II, 12- 1l, 15 

WAAC training centers. See Training centers. 

WAC, See Women's Amly Corps (WAC). 

WAC, continued use ortbe term, 316, 39311 

WAC Advisory Dranch, 29 1 

WAC Advisory Office, 389 

WAC Applicant Employment Record, 205 

WAC Applicant Personal Hislory QUC11ionnaire, 205 

WAC Applicant Scholastic Record, 205 

WAC bands. See Dands. 

WAC Cadre Club, 80 

WAC Career Management Oranch, 128, 

400, 401. Set! also WAC Advisory 

Dranch. 

chief, 0 1- 32. 289 

Korean War, 11 8 

OPMS,290 

lransfer to OPD. 180, 180" 

warrant orrlCers. 113 

WAC Center, 145. 148, 149. Set! (llso Fort 

McClellan, AL; WAC Center and 

School; WAC T raining Center, Camp 

Ltt 

anniversary celebrations, 186,224 

commander. 180. 207, 208, 329, 333, 432. 

Set! (lIst) Dranch. Lt. Col. Eliubcth H.: 

Clark. Lt. Col. F. Mllrie: Clarke. Maj. 

Gen. Mary E.; Garrison, Col. Oorotha 

1.; Hoisington, Drig. Gen. Eliuobeth P.: 

u thrope, Lt. Col. Franccs M.; Lynch, 

LI. Col. Sue; Michl, Lt. Col. Maxcne 

D': Odbert. LI. Col. Lucile G.: Power. 

Lt. Col. Marjorie C.: Rossi. Col. Lor· 

raine A.: Sullivan, Lt. Col. Eleanore C. 

construction, 146 

dedication, lSI 

headquarters. ISO 

males assigned. 333 

organization and contro l, 329, 32911. 333. 

335,351 

539 
540 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945-1978 

overcrowding, 176, 111, 3)6, 341-42, 

)44-45, 350~52, 353 

PROVIDE,230 

rcservist5. 293 

staff, 329. ))3 

WAC upansioll 1970$, 267, 275. Sa afro 

abo~ overcrowding. 

and WAC School. ISO,)53 

WAC Center and School, 353. See alsc Fort 

McClellan, AL; WAC Center; WAC 

School. 

commander. See Clarke, Maj. Gen. Mary 

E.; ein~e, Col. Shirley R.; Rossi, Col. 

Lorraine A. 

deactivation, 356, 361, 365-66, 406 

WAC e~pa sion 1970s, 3S4-SS. 362 

WAC C~"ltr LDmtnl, 350-5\ 

WAC Clerical I'rocedures lind Typing 

Course, 14]". 148 

\II AC Company Officers Course (WCOC), 

116-18, 119 

WAC Contcnl in Units. 370-1 1. Set also 

MAX WAC. 

WAC detachments, merged with male 

L1nits, 274, 275, 276 

WAC Drill Team, 340, 34 111 

WAC Exhibit T eam, Su WAC Exhibit 

Unit. 

WAC Exhibit Unit. 189- 92, 192" 

WAC EJlpansion Steering Comminee. 267, 

268,369,374 

interchangeable spoces, 285 

nontraditional MOSs. 280 

weapons ITlIining, 282 

WAC Founda tion. 33 1, 332, 344 

WAC Integration Act. 1946,42-44 

WAC Integration Act. 1947, 45. Su also 

Women's Armed Services Inlegration 

Act. 1947. 

WAC Jaumal, 159n. 255. 344 

WAC Memorial Chapel, 330 

WAC Memorial Triangle. 151 

WAC Museum. 255, 330, 332, 335 

WAC Muscum Reunion, 332 

WAC NCO Advisory Council. 338 

WAC NCO Assignment Adviser. EPD. 

193, 193n 

WAC NCO Lcade~hi p Course. &3. 255, 

341.346,421 

WAC Officer Advllneed Course, 125-26. 

134-35.243,276,289. J3t1, 345 

WAC Officer Basic Course, 276, 289, 336. 

Su also WAC Officers Orientation 

Course (WOOC). 

College Junior Program, 120 

established, 119 

foreign slUdents. 243, 3]6.0, 

Fort McClellan. 148 

WAC Officer Basic Course/Officer Candidate Course (WODe/OCC), 119, 341, 

422-23 

WAC OffICer Candidate School. Su Officer Candidate School (OCS). 

WAC Officer Career Course, 425-26 

WAC Officers Association, 186, 329. 331 

WAC Officers Orientalion Course 

(WOOC). 288, 289, 293. 294, 347. 351, 

366. Sff also WAC Officer Basic 

Course. 

WAC Personnel Specialists Course, 255 

WAC Plans and Policy Commiuee, 68 

WAC Recruiting Branch. 160-61 

WAC Recruiting Service, 24 

WAC Regulations, 12- 1S, 19, 6311, 269 

WAC School, 145. 148. 149-50. !in also 

WAC Center, WAC Center and 

School; WAC Trailling Center, Camp 

Lee. 

clO$Cd-circuit TV, 342 

commandanl, 180, 207, 208, 432-33. Su 

also Hoisillglon, LI. Col. Elizabeth P.; 

Lynch, Lt. Col. Sue; Odbert, Lt. Col. 

Lucile G.; WAC Center, commander. 

CONARC. 32911 

course doctrine and policy, 329, 339 

dcactivation, 276, 288, 345-47. 352, 353 

dedication, 151 

Doctrine and Literature Division, J39 

roreign Sludents. 336, 336n, 345 

librarian, 339 

male students at, 339-40 

males assigned, 333 

moves. 18 1,351 

overcrowding. See ""der WAC Center. 

PROVIDE,230 

rder",ist!, 293 

self·pace tTllining, 342. 349 

supervision and command over, 179-80. 

329.32911,339 

and WAC Center, ISO 

WAC Officer AdvHm;oo Course, 126 

WAC Section, Enlisted Reserve Corps. Su 

Enlisled Reserve Corp$. 

WAC Sectioll, O RC. Su Orgallized Re· 

serve Corps. WAC Section. 

WAC siaff advisers. ~ SlalT advisers. 

WAC Student Officer Program, 218-20, 

255, 366 

WAC Training Battalion. Su Batlalions.. 

WAC Training Center, Camp Ltt. 60, 72, 

16, 80, 87, 356. See also Fort McClcllall, AL; WAC Center: WAC School. 

basic training, 81 

commander, 75. See also Gllrdner, Maj. 

Annie V.; Hermall, Lt. Col. Ruby E.; 

Smith. LI. Col. Eliubeth C. 

controlled inpul, 98, 101 
INDEX 

inspections,8 1 

living conditions, 76-78 

missions, 81-82 

mobilization planning, 93 

organization, 73, 78 

public relations, 80 

racial policies. S« Racial policies. 

reservist training, 82 

staff, 78, 79 

training progams, 10 1,336 

WAC Training Center, Fort Lee. See WAC 

Training Center. C!lmp Lee. 

WAC training centers, 63, 79, 145. SN a/It) 

Training centers. 

WAC Triangle, 330. 33011 

WAC units integrated into male units. 325 

WAC Veterans' Association, 330 

WAC Veterans Redwood Memorial Grove, 

331 

WAC. 

Army life. 8,124. 134, 1S2-B, 171 

enlistment motivation, 103-04 

leadership positions" 171 

medical. S« Medical Department. 

Waivers. S« Enlistment standards; Reenlistment standards. 

Walter Reed AmlY Medical Center, 155 

Walter Reed General Hospital, 155 

Walters, Harry N .. 395 

War Department, 4, 6, 23. See also Army, 

Department or the. 

demobilization policy. 25 

marriage policy, 15 

postwar retention of WACs, 35, 36. S« 

also Eisenhower, General Dwight D.; 

Paul. Maj. Gen. Wi11ard S. 

racial policies, 16. 18 

H.'Qrgani 7.11t ion, 43 

WAC, 13,24 

War. secretary of, 14. Set also Stimson, 

Henry L. 

Ward masters, 107 

Warner, 1st Lt. Mary B .• 65. 65n 

Warrant Officer Act. 1954, 133 

Warrant Officer Aviation Program. 272 

Warrant officers, 36, 56, H. 133-34. 162. 

28911 

Wathaw, SP5 Nann 0 .. 24411 

Wa tson, Maj. Dorothy L., 434 

WAVES. S« Women Accepted for Volun· 

teer Emergency Service (WA VES): 

Women in the Navy (WAVES). 

Weapons training. 14,20. 156,271,276.325, 

336. 339, 353. 362, 373, 393 

Air Force. 297 

competitive shooting, 338 

mandatory, 281-82 

ROTC, 288 

Weather observer. 19,20 

Weaver, AL, 151 

Weight, 260 

Weir, Col. Frances, 18811,2 18, 430 

Welch, Col. John M .. 154 

West Berlin, 55, 173, 174 

West Germany, 173 

West Point. S« U.S. Military Academy. 

West. Maj. Harriet M .. 85" 

Westmoreland. General William C., 248, 

250 

affirmative action. 261 

all-volunteer Army, 230 

and Ib iley, 2H-58, 259 

and Hoisington, 256 

OPMS. 287, 289 

procedures and regulations" 230 

WAC expansion, 263 

WAC image, 259 

WAC list, 265 

WAC military advisors, 241 

WAC uniform, 260 

WACs in Vietnam, 243. 244 

women general officers, 231 

women in ROTC, 287 

Weyand, General Frederick c., 250, 363. 

390-9 1 

Wharton, Lt. Col. Margaret R., 43 I 

Wheaton, Anne, 7 1 

Wheeler, Geneml Earle C., 245 

Whelan. Maj. I'atricia W .. 29911 

Whitaker, j udith G., 212 

White Book Conrerences. Sff Enli5ted 

MOS Requirement Conferences. 

White Sands. NM, 178 

White. Capt. Hauilll C .• 80 

White, Lt. Col. Jocelyn A., 430 

White, John P., 373, 382-83 

Whittin8ton, MSgt. Otis W .. 36111 

Wilde, Capt. Louise K., 96" . III 

Wilford. Cpl. Elaine J., 108n 

Wilkes, Lt . Col. Kathleen I.. 242, 243" 

Wi11iams. Lt. Col. Carol M .• 15711, 188", 

430 

Williams. Sgl. Crectcssa W., 338 

Williams" Col. June E., 260 

Williams, MSgt. Lois J .• 368" 

Williams, Lt. Col. Mary R .• 434 

Williams, Maj. Gen. I'aul S., 389 

Williamson, 1st Lt. Doris 11 .. 80 

Williamson. Sgt. Ilarriet, 295" 

Williamson. Lt.-Col. Myrna H .• 295. 435 

Willis, Maj. Mary C .• 323n, 431 

Wilson, Lt. CoL Anna Wolker. 29-30 

Wilson, Charles E.. 142, 163 

Wireman, SI'6 I'auline, 24411 

Wise, Maj. Georgill A., 25411 

WITA Review Committee. 374. See also 

Women in the Arm), (W IT A) studies. 

Witsell. Maj. Gen. Edward F .• 73 

WOlooII, 1st Lt. Jeane W .. 167 

541 
542 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS, 1945- 1978 

WomollpoK'er (National Mallpower eOl.IR. 

cil). 165 

Womble, Rear Adm. J. P., Jr. 5u Womble 

Committee. 

Womble Corumiuee. 142-43, 116 

Women Accepted ror Volunteer Emergen. 

cy Service (WAVES), 6, 10, 45, 48, 

161. ~ also Women's Armed Services 

Integration Act, 1948: Women in the 

Navy (WAVES). 

director. See Horton. Mildred McAfee: 

Hancock. Capt. Joy Bright. 

Women in the Air Force (WAP). See al$O 

Air Force. U.S.; Women's Armed 

Services Integration ACI, 1948. 

deputy director. S« McClure, Lt. Col. 

Kathleen. 

director, 392, 392". See alS{) Gray, Col. 

Phyllis O.S.; Holm, Brig. Gen. Jeanne 

M.; May. Col. Geraldine P.; Riley, Col. 

Emma J.: Shelley, Col. Mary 10. 

housing, 200 

offil:cr procuremclll, 122 

recruiting, \04-05 

strength, 223, 228n 

training, 14 

utilization. See Air Force, DepartmeJlt of. 

Vietnam. 245 

WAAC active duty credit. 163 

Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), 

41 

Women in the AmlY, 393. 39311. 397, 405-

06. Sec also Army Nurse Corps (ANC); 

Women's Army Corps (WAC); 

Women's Medical Specialist Corps.. 

Women in the Army, Reserve Components 

Review Group, 295-96 

Women in the Army (WITA) studies. 373-

74, 37S. 376 

"Women in the Army" symposium 388 

Women Content in Units Force Develop· 

ment Test. SI't MAX WAC. 

Women Marines. 6, 10. 45. S« also Marine 

Corps, U.S.; Women's Armed Services 

Integration Act. 1948. 

active duty credit. 163 

oollege junior program. 119 

companies deactivated and integrated. 

291 

din..octor. 392, 39211. See also Hamblet. 

Col. J ulia E.; Streeter, Dorothy. 

housing, 200 

strength, 111.22811.376 

Vietnam. 222. 245 

Women in the Navy (WAVES). III. 200, 

223.228",245.272.273. SI't also Navy, 

U.S.; Women Accepted for Volunteer 

Emergency Service (WAVES). 

director, 297. 392. SI't also Hancock. 

Capl. Joy Bright; Quigley. Capl. Robin 

L.; Wilde. Capl. Louise K. 

Women Officers Strength Model (WOSM), 

370.314 

Women's academy. 3 19 

Women's Advisory Office, 389 

Women's Armed Forces Corps (WAFC). 

250 

director. See Huong, Col. T ran Cam. 

trainin8, 242-43. 336/1, 345 

WAC advisors, 241-41, 24311, 244 

Women's Armed Ser vices Integration Act, 

1947,45-46 

Women's Armed Services Integration Act, 

1948 (PL 80-625), 48, 56. 63. 68, 76, 

m 

hea rings, 49-5 1,138-39 

joint conference commiltt..'C. 54-55 

political fight for, .52-55 

promotions. 69, 181, 182 

Women's Armed Services Reserve Act. 

1948, .52, 54 

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC). 

SN also Women's Army Corps (WAC). 

active duty credit. 12, 163-64. 186. 401 

assignment of units, 9 

director, 5. See a'S/) Hobby, Col. Oveta 

Culp. 

equaliution of stall.S and benefits, 6 

established, 3-.5, 511 

organization. 9 

regula tions. Set WAAC Regulations. 

service in and postwar reenlistment, 36 

slander campaigns against. Su Slander 

campaigns. 

standllrds. 9- 10. See also Enlistmcnt 

standards. 

unirorms. 12,437 

veterans benefits, 144, 14411 

Women's Army Corps (WAC). See al$O 

Strength, WAC; Utiliution of women. 

advanced cour$es. S« Schools and tniin· 

ing. 

and blacks, 50. See afsa Racial policics. 

as a branch, 30, 4 1, 56, 58, 59, 124- 26. 

129.268,289-91, 300, 311-12. 318, 367, 

397, 400. S« afS() ~/ow discontinued. 

career planning, 113, 125, 128. See also 

Career management. 

deputy director, 110, 259. 312-13, 317, 

318, 427. S« ol~ Gonnan, Lt. Col. 

Emily C.: Hanaren, Lt. Col. Mary A.; 

Hinton, Col. Edith M.; Kelly. Lt . Col. 

Mary E.: Lambeth. Col. Maida E.; Mil· 

ligan, Lt. Col. Mary Louise; Morden. 

Col. Bettie J.; Odbert, Lt. Col. Lucile 

0.; Rice. Lt. Col. Jessie P.; Sweeney. 
INDEX 

Lt. 0,1. Anne E.; Woods, LI. Col. 

Helen Hamihon. 

director. See Director, WAC. 

discontinued, 294, 311 - 15, 318, 391- 92, 

395- 97,405-{)6 

ERA, 299- 300, 3 16, 317- 18 

established. 12, 312 

image, IS9, 162, 171. 186, 273. See alS() 

Moral standards: Public relations: Uni· 

forms. 

mission, 269, 298, 399- 400 

mobilization. See Mobilization. 

postwar disbandment, 25, 26, 28- 30, 32, 

3S. S« also Ooyce, Col. WCSlray 

Danle. 

postwar retention, 26, 29- 31, 33. See also 

Eisenhower, General Dwight D.: "aul, 

Maj. Gen. Willnrd S.: Regular status: 

Reserve status: Women·s Armed Services Integration Act, 1948 (PL 80-625). 

promotions. S« Promotions. 

staff advi$crs. S« Staff advisers. 

staff directors. $ft Staff directors. 

twent y·fiflh anniversary, 223- 24, 342 

"Women's Army o,rps 1942- 1967;' 22411 

Women's Commillce to Oppose Conscrip· 

tion,52 

Women's Confereucc, NATO countries, 

160 

Women's Enlisted Expansion Model 

(WEEM), 370, 371. 374, 376 

Women·, interest Section, War Dept. 

Publie Relations, 6 

Women's Medical Specialist Corps, 38, 94, 

154 

Women·s movement, 232- 33. 2H. 266, 299 

discontinuance of the WAC, 315 

enlistment standards, 233, 277. 279. See 

also Moral standards. 

service academies. 31S, 318, 322 

WAC, 299- 300, 312, 315. 316, 317- 18, 

402-{)3 

Woods, Lt. Col. Helen Hamilton. 29, 30, 

11,40, 4S, 427 

Woodworth, Col. Charlotte I., 14711, 220, 

220,.1, 431. 434 

Woolard, SP6 Florence I., 24411 

Woolrolk, 1st LI. Sally D .. 27211 

Woolnongh, LI. Gen. James K., 209, 216, 

2 19. See also Personnel. deputy chief of 

statT for (DCSI'ER). 

Working conditions, 19 

World Wpr I, and utiHtat ion of women. 4 

Wright, LI. 0,1. Eunice M., 435 

Wroth, Drig. Gen. lames W., 280 

X code, 194, 195 

X·ray technician, 94 

X·Ray Technician Course. 141" 

Xuan Loc.250 

Yalu River, 89 

Yeomanel1es, 4 

Yokohama, 47, 106, 10611 

Yoniack, Lt . Col. Frances M .. 428. 430 

Yost, Capl. Darhara, 32311 

Young, Capt. Anna, 323" 

Young, LI. Col. N. Margaret, 146, 428. 434 

Yuma Test Station, AZ. 178 

Ziegler, Lt. Col. Janel E., 430 

Zielinski, Edmund. 80 

Zucker!, Eugene M .• 96. 203 

Zumwalt, Admiral Ellllo R., Jr., 231, 272, 

m 

543