Natural Background a

Man-made Radioactiv

Professional Training Programs

Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Objectives

 To discuss the major sources of radi

exposure

 To become familiar with the organiz

th t id i f ti b t di that provide information about radia

exposure

 To summarize and compare worldwi

exposures to radiation to exposures U.S. and Canada
Introduction

 Two common sources of information about 

background radiation are the National Council Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRPthe United Nations Scientific Committee on thof Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).

NCRP Repo t No 160 “Ioni ing Radiation E pos 

 NCRP Report No. 160, “Ionizing Radiation Exposur

Population of the United States” 

 UNSCEAR 2008 Report, “Sources and Effects of Io

Radiation”

 This lecture will present information from both sources, highlighting sections of each report separately and summarizing sections as neede
Introduction

NCRP Report 160 Ubiquitous Background 

Exposure

 Medical Exposure of

UNSCEAR 2008 Medical Exposure Public Exposure

 Natural Sources

 Medical Exposure of

Patients

 Consumer Products and 

Activities

 Industrial, Security, 

Medical, Educational and Research Activities

 Occupational Exposure

 Enhanced Sources Man-made for Peace Man-made for Militar

 Occupational Rad

Exposure

 Natural Sources Man-made for Peace Man-made for Militar
Introduction – Principal Radiation 

Quantities used in NCRP Report 16 Effective dose (

E) – (DT,R)*(w

R)*(w

T

)

 mSv, μSv, mrem, μrem

 Collective effective dose (

S

)

 person-Sv

 Average effective dose to an individual in 

exposed to a specific source (

EExp

)

 Person-Sv

 Effective dose per individual in the U.S. 

population whether exposed to the specifisource or not (

EUS

)
Ubiquitous Backgrou

Exposure

Medical Exposure of Patients

Consumer Products and Activities

Industrial, Security, Medical, Educational and 

Research Activities

Occupational Exposure
Ubiquitous Background Radiati

 Space Radiation Terrestrial Gamma Radiation Radon, Thoron and Their Short-Live

Decay Products

 Radionuclides in the Body
Space Radiation

 Solar energetic particles (solar even Anomalous cosmic rays (interstellar 

space)

 Galactic cosmic rays (outside the so

system)

 Extragalactic cosmic rays (beyond o

galaxy)
Space Radiation

 “The earth is continually bombarded 

high energy particles that originate outer space.” (UNSCEAR-2000)At h i i t ti d

 Atmosp

heric in

teractions pro

duce a 

cascade of reaction products.

 Cosmic ray exposures decrease in 

intensity with depth in the atmosphe
Space Radiation Component

 Cosmic Rays

 Primary

 Nucleonic (98%)

 Protons (85.5%) Alpha Particles (~12%)

Alpha Particles (~12%)

 Heavier Nuclei (~1%)

 Electron (2%)

 Secondary

 Cosmogenic
Primary Cosmic Rays - Solar

 Composite ima

multiple solar fon the sun

 Ener

gies – 10

3 

(avera

ge)

 Source: 

science.nasa.g

 Image credit: J
Primary Cosmic Rays - Solar 
Primary Cosmic Rays - Solar

 “According to their 

analysis, the next Solar Maximum should peak around 2010 with a sunspot number of 160 plus or minus 25. This would make it one of the strongest solar cycles of the past fifty years—which is to say, one of the strongest in recorded history.”

 Source: science.nasa.gov
Primary Cosmic Rays - Solar

Source: UNSCEAR-2008
Primary Cosmic Rays - Galac

 Galactic Cosmic Rays 

(GCR) – highly charged particles originating outside of the solar system. 

 Energies 10

8 to 1011 eV

 According to the National 

Space Biomedical Research Institute, GCR is the dominant radiation to be dealt with on the International Space Station and on Mars missions.

 Source: nsbri.org
Primary Cosmic Rays -Extragal

 Optical (left) and X-ray (right) images of SN 2006gy. Th

source at lower-left is the nucleus of the host galaxy. Thsource at upper-right is the stellar explosion. 

 Energies 1017 to 1020 eV Source: science.nasa.gov
Primary Cosmic Rays

 So...we have established that the ea

being bombarded with high energy sgalactic and possibly extragalactic radiations.

 How do we survive? 
Primary Cosmic Rays

 We are protected in part by the eart

magnetic field.

 We are also protected by the interac

We are also protected by the interac

that take place in the atmosphere converting primary radiations into leharmful secondary radiations.
Primary Cosmic Radiation

 Sourc

RadiaGroupSpace 

 The primary radiations, composed of cha

particles, are influenced by the earth’s mfield.
Primary Cosmic Radiation

 The earth’s magnetic field reduces the inte

of cosmic radiation reaching the upper atmosphere...”



“ only particles of higher energies can pe

...only particles of higher energies can pe

at lower geomagnetic latitudes...”

 “This produces the ‘geomagnetic latitude e

with intensities and dose rates minimal at equator and maximum near the geomagnpoles.” (UNSCEAR-2008)
Secondary Cosmic Radiation

 The primary radiations interact in th

upper atmosphere to produce seconradiations.

 Those radiations can interact to prod

additional secondary radiations creacascade effect.
Production of Secondary Cosmic 

Radiation

 Sourc

DeparPhysicAstronGeorgUnive
Secondary Cosmic Radiation

 Upper atmosphere –protons, neutro

and pions (cosmic particle with a maabout 280 times that of an electron) 

 Earth’s surface – muons (elementar

particle, classed as a lepton with 20times the mass of an electron) electand gamma rays
Components of Dose Equivale

SourcUNSCFig. I
Altitude and Latitude

 Dose rate will change with both altit

and latitude.

 Obviously, the dose rate will increas

Obviously, the dose rate will increas

increasing altitude.

 The dose rate will also increase as w

move toward the geomagnetic poles
Altitude

Altitudinal Dependence on the Dose Equiva

Rate

Altitude (ft) Dose Equivalent 

Rate (mrem/yr)

Exampl

( y)

Sea Level 31 Los Ange

5,000 55 Denver

10,000 137 Leadville, 30,000 1900 Normal Airp50,000 8750 SST Airlin80,000 12,200 Spy Plan

Source: Gollnick 1988
Space Radiation

False-color plot of Cof annual cosmic ra(microsievert) in N(Grasty and LaMarReport 160, pg. 34
Cosmogenic Radionuclides

 A minor contribution 

to the overall dose is generated from interactions of cosmic radiations in the 

N

n

p

1

1

1

0

14

7

+

→

atmosphere that produce radionuclides.

 Examples include 

3H, 

7Be, 14C and 22Na.

N

n

H

3

1

1

0

14

7

+

→
NCRP-Summary

TABLES 3.14 NCRP Report 160

Annual Effective Doses to U.S. population from vari

background sources

SOURCE mSv/yr mrem

Cosmic 0 33 33

0.33 33

Cosmogenic 0.01 10

Terrestrial

Inhaled

In the Body

Rounded Total
Terrestrial Radionuclides

 Series

 Long-lived parent 

decays through a series of steps until a stable isotope is reached

 Non-series

 Decays to a st

isotope directly

 K-40: T1/2 = 1

years

 Rb-87: T1/2 = 4

years
Series Terrestrial Radionuclid

 Uranium Series

 Parent – 238

U

 Stable Isotope – 206Pb

 Thorium Series

 Parent – 232Th Stable Isotope – 208Pb

 Actinium Series

 Parent – 235

U

 Stable Isotope – 207Pb Source: Lockheed M

Chart of the Nuclide
Series Terrestrial Radionuclid

 Contains members with atomic num

of 82 (lead) and higher

 Tend to exist in secular equilibrium Contains a radioisotope of the inert 

radon
Terrestrial Radionuclides

 The three terrestrial radionuclides th

contribute the most significant exterdose to the human body are 238U, 23

and 40K.

 NCRP Report 160, reports the avera

annual effective dose from terrestriaradionuclides to be 0.21 mSv.
Terrestrial Gamma Radiation

Plot of gamabsorbed-from USGbeing the 1) and lav(>83 nGy 2005). (Npg. 42)
Radon, Thoron and Their Short

Decay Products

The most significant dose from natubackground radiation results from thshort-lived deca

y

products of radon 

y p

thoron gas.
Radon, Thoron and Their Short

Decay Products

NCRP Report 160, pg. 27
Radon, Thoron and Their Short

Decay Products

NCRP Report 160, pg. 26
A. Cracks in concrete slab

B. Spaces behind brick ve

walls that rest on uncahollow-brick foundatio

C. Pores and cracks in co

blocks

D Fl ll j i t

Radon, Thoron and Their Shorlived Decay Products

Entry ways for radon gas. Source: USE

D. Floor-wall joints

E. Exposed soil, as in a suF. Weeping (drain) tile, if 

to open sump

G. Mortar jointsH. Loose fitting pipe peneI. Open tops of block walJ. Building materials such 

some rocks

K. Water (from some wel
Radon, Thoron and Their Short

Decay Products

EPA map o(EPA, 200developed to determpotential: measuremaerial radipermeabiltype. (NC54)
Radon, Thoron and Their Short

Decay Products

On average, a member of the public United States receives an annual effdose of 2.12 mSv 

(212 mrem

) from 

( )

exposure to radon decay products a0.16 mSv (16 mrem) from exposure thoron decay products. 
Radionuclides in the Body 

Primordial radionulcides

 Uranium Thorium Radium

Cosmogenic Carbon-14

 Radon Polonium Bismuth Lead Potassium-40 Rubidium-87
Radionuclides in the Body 

Enter the body by ingestion of food, and water or by inhalation

Source Annual effective do

(mSv)

K-40 0.15

Th-232 and U-238 series 0.13

Other: C-14, Rb-87 0.01
NCRP-Summary

TABLES 3.14 NCRP Report 160

Annual Effective Doses to U.S. population from vari

background sources

SOURCE mSv/yr mrem

Cosmic 0 33 33

0.33 33

Cosmogenic 0.01 10

Terrestrial 0.21 21

Inhaled 2.28 228

In the Body 0.28 28

Rounded Total 3.11 311
Ubiquitous Background Radiati

NCRP Report 160, p
Ubiquitous Background Radiati

Collective effective dose (

S): 

930,000 person-Sv

Subcategories:•Internal, inhalation (radon a

73%

•External, space – 11%•Internal, ingestion – 9%•External, terrestrial – 7%

Mean effective dose for the exposed group (

EExp): 3.1 mSv

Group characteristics: members of the populathe United States

EUS: 3.1 mSv
Ubiquitous Background Radiati

NCRP Report 160, p
Medical Exposure o

Patients

Ubiquitous Background Exposure

Consumer Products and Activities

Industrial, Security, Medical, Educational and 

Research Activities

Occupational Exposures
Medical Exposure of Patients

 Computed Tomography Conventional Radiography and 

Fluoroscopy

 Interventional Fluoroscopy Nuclear Medicine Radiotherapy (External Beam)
Computed Tomography

Number of CT procedures per year in the (millions), 1993 to 2006. Average growth(NCRP Report 160, pg.91)
Computed Tomography

Percent covarious CT total num(67 million(NCRP R (NCRP

Re

pg.95)

67 million CT scans in 2006
Computed Tomography

Rangdose cateeffecthe c2006 effec

CT Category Range for 

Effective

Dose (per scan) 

(mSv)

Effective Dose 

(per

scan) Used in the

Calculation (mSv)

Head 0.9 – 4 2

Chest 4 – 18 7

effec

valu(NCR88)

Abdomen and pelvis 3 – 25 10

Extremity 0.1 – 1 0.1

Virtual colonography 5 – 15 10

Whole-body 

screening

5 – 15 10

Calcium scoring 1 – 12 2

Angiography: head 1 – 10 5

Angiography: heart 5 – 32 20

Other scans 1 – 10 5
Computed Tomography

Perceof vacateg(440 (440,for 2Repo

440,000 person-Sv in 2006
Computed Tomography

Number of CT 

scans per 

category (Total 

= 67 million)

Collective 

Effective Dose

Effective Dose 

per Scan

Effective Dose

(440,000 

person-Sv)

U.S. Population 

(300 million)

EUS from 

2006 US 

mSv
Conventional Radiography and 

Fluoroscopy

Percent various conven

293 million procedures in 2006

radiogrfluorosto num(293 m(NCRP pg.104
Conventional Radiography and 

Fluoroscopy

Percent various conven

100,000 person-Sv in 2006

radiogrfluorosto S (1Sv) for Report 
Interventional Fluoroscopy

Percent various interve

16.7 million procedures in 2006 fluoros

procedprocedfor 200160, pg
Interventional Fluoroscopy

Percent various interve

128,000 person-Sv in 2006 fluoros

proced(128,02006. (pg.115
Nuclear Medicine

Percent cvarious snuclear mto numbe(17,220,

(NCRP Re

17.2 million procedures in 2005
Nuclear Medicine

Percent cvarious snuclear mto S (2202005. (N2005. (Npg.132)

220,500 person-Sv in 2005
Radiotherapy (External Beam)

 Estimated 871,783 radiotherapy pat Collective Effective Dose (S): 354,16

person

-Sv



EUS: 1.18 mSv

 Per patient: 0.41 Sv

NCRP Report 160, pg. 1
Medical Exposure of Patients

Collective effective dose (

S): 

900,000 person-Sv• CT: 440,000 person-Sv• NM: 231,000 person-Sv• IF: 128,000 person-Sv• CR&F: 100,000 person-Sv

Subcategories:•Computed tomography– 49%•Nuclear medicine– 26%•Interventional fluoroscopy– •Conventional radiography an

fluoroscopy– 11%

Average effective dose for the exposed group (

EExp): Not known, numbers of patients not known 

only numbers of procedures

Group characteristics: fosituations, skewed to higgroups and often to patiserious health condition limited remaining lifespa

EUS: 3 mSv
Medical Exposure of Patients

EUS=1.5 mSv

EUS=0.8 mSv
Medical Exposure of Patients

EUS for CT 2006: 1.47 mSv

EUS for Medical 2006: 3.00 mSv

EUS for CT 1987: 0

EUS for Medical 19
Consumer Products a

Activities

Ubiquitous Background Exposure

Medical Exposure of Patients

Industrial, Security, Medical, Educational and 

Research Activities

Occupational Exposure
Consumer Products and Activiti

 Television Receivers and Video Term Sewage Sludge and Ash Radioluminous Products (Tritium) Commercial Air Travel Commercial Air Travel Tobacco Products Glass and Ceramics Building Materials Other Minor Contributors
NCRP Report 160: Table 5.8 – Summary of number o

exposed, average annual effective dose to an exp

individual and annual effective dose for consumer p

and activities

Source # of people 

exposed (millions)

EExp (μSv) S (p

Cigarette smoking 45 300 

Building materials 150 70 

Commercial air travel _ _ 

Mining and 250 10 Mining and

agriculture

250 10

Other sources _ _ 

Combustion of fossil 

fuels

455 5 

Highway and road

construction 

materials

6 40 

Glass and ceramics _ _ 
Consumer Products and Activiti

Collective effective dose (

S): 39,000 person-Sv

Subcategories:

•Cigarette smoking – 35%, Building Mate•Commercial air travel – 26%, Mining and •Other sources – 3%, Combustion of foss•Highway and road construction materials •Glass and ceramics - <0.03%•Television an video; sewage sludge and illuminating signs - negligible

Average effective dose for the exposed group (

EExp): Not determined; variation: 

0.001 to 0.3 Sv

Group characteristicsrelatively large numbindividuals, exposed doses

EUS: 0.1 mSv
Consumer Products and Activiti

Percent of varioexposurconsumand act(39,000 for 2006Report 
Industrial, Security, 

Medical, Educational a

Research Activities

Ubiquitous Background Exposure

Medical Exposure of Patients

Consumer Products and Activities

Occupational Exposure
Industrial, Security, Medical, 

Educational and Research Activ Nuclear Power Generation U.S. Department of Energy Installations Decommissioning and Radioactive Waste Industrial, Medical, Educational and Resea

Activities

 Security Inspection Systems
NCRP Report 160: Table 6.1 – Summary of annual co

H

E to the regional population normalized to a 1 GWe 

operating at full capacity 80% of the time (i.e., 0.8 

Facility Annual 

Collective H

E

(person-Sv)

Basis of Estima

Mining 0.94 Weighted for 2 types of m

[1/2 (open pit) + (3 (und

Milling 0.25 0.4 (model millConversion 0.0003 Weighted for 2 plants (6Enrichment 0 0001 Paducah plus Oak R

0.0001 Paducah plus Oak R

Fabrication 0.00004 Weighted for 7 plaNuclear-power plants 0.048 1980 data for 47 plLow-level waste storage - No estimate availaTransportation

Incident-freeAccidents

0.0710.054

Excludes decommissioni

Total per 0.8 GWe 1.36

Total for 90 Gwe

(estimated 2006 production)

153
Nuclear Power Generation

Locatminethe Uas of 2005 (NCRpg. 1
U.S. Department of Energy Installa

Location of DOE sites (location within eacis not to scale) (DOE, 2006b). (NCRP Rep160, pg. 178)
U.S. Department of Energy Installa

 Exposures are estimated based on measu

effluent data and direct dose at the site bo

 Members of the public residing >80 km fro

DOE facility DOE facility – negligible dose negligible dose

 Members of the public residing <80 km fro

DOE facility – range of annual values for asites - <0.001 to 0.6 μSv
Decommissioning and Radioac

Waste Waste sites – 3 sites Decommissioning TENORM (Technologically-Enhanced Natur

Occurring Radioactive Material) Waste Dis

 Soils in the United States Geothermal energy waste Oil and gas production waste Water treatment waste Waste water treatment waste Aluminum production waste Coal and coal ash

 Copper production w Phosphate productio Rare earths Titanium ores Uranium mining ove Uranium in situ leach Zircon
Industrial, Medical, Educationa

Research Activities

NCRP Report 160: Table 6.3 – Derivation of estimateannual collective effective dose to members of the pfrom medical, industry and commerce, and educatioresearch activities

Source Estimate of 

Ex

posed 

Average Dose per 

Person 

(mSv

)

Co

Effect

p

Population

(

)

(per

Medical 74,000,000 0.0016 

Industry and 

commerce

1,300,000 0.002 

Education and 

research

840,000 0.0018 

Total S for members

of the public
Security Inspection Systems

 Cabinet x-ray systems Nonintrusive inspection (NII) equipm

(Cargo scanners) (Cargo scanners)

 Personnel security systems
Nonintrusive inspection (NII) 

equipment (Cargo scanners) Dose equivalent to individual inadvertently 

exposed (hidden) in container

 X and gamma ray systems – 0.025 to 0.53 μSv Linear-accelerator (electron beam) system – 11 PFNA (p y ) y ulse fast neutron anal

ysis

) s

ystem – 31

 CBP, 2004: maxium dose rate of 0.5 μSv/

2,000 hr/y as the maximum time of exposlimits inspectors and members of the pub1 mSv.
Personnel security systems

 General use: effective dose 0.1 μSv 

less per scan

 Typically utilize backscatter technology 

effective dose ~0.03 μSv per scan

 Airport screenin

g

 Limited use: deliver an effective dos

μSv but are limited to 

≤10 μSv per 

 Primarily used to scan prisoners
Industrial, Security, Medical, 

Educational and Research Activ

Collective effective dose (

S): 

1,000 person-Sv

Subcategories:• Exposure from Nuc. Med. patie• Nuclear power generation– 15%• Industrial, medical, educationa

activities– 13%

• DOE installations, decommissio

waste, security inspection syst

Average effective dose for the exposed group (

EExp): Not determined, magnitude: 

0.001 to 0.01 mSv

Group characteristicsmembers of the pubproximity to these ac

EUS: 0.003 mSv
Industrial, Security, Medical, 

Educational and Research Activ

Percenvarious exposu

industrmedicaand res(1,000 2006. (160, 19
Occupational Exposu

Ubiquitous Background Exposure

Medical Exposure of Patients

Consumer Products and Activities

Industrial, Security, Medical, Educational and 

Research Activities
Occupational Exposure

 Occupational Exposure from Medical Pract Commercial Aviation Industry and Commerce Industry and Commerce Commercial Nuclear Power Industry Academic Institutions Government, DOE and Military
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Medical Monitored 

workers

1,957,088 2,220,861 2,352,976 

Workers with recordable dose

690,661 735,400 693,941 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

508 559 546 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

0.74 0.76 0.79 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Aviation Monitored 

workers

000

# of airlinecrew

177,000 180,000 176,000 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

543 553 540 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

3.07 3.07 3.07 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Commercial Nuclear 

Monitored workers

109,990 110,290 114,344 

Power Workers with 

recordable dose

55,967 52,873 57,566 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

120 104 115 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

2.14 1.97 2.00 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Industry and 

Monitored workers

360,069 556,325 579,864 

Commerce Workers with 

recordable dose

112,671 133,926 125,257 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

98 114 117 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

0.87 0.85 0.93 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Education and 

Monitored workers

351,309 504,948 514,267 

research Workers with 

recordable dose

79,901 88,125 81,732 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

43 73 51 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

0.54 0.83 0.62 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

Government, DOE,

Monitored workers

265,570 289,979 301,498 

military Workers with 

recordable dose

36,559 26,788 33,934 

Collective effective dose (person-Sv)

44(24) 49(27) 38(17) 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

0.66 0.73 0.5 
Occupational Exposure

NCRP Report 160: Table 7.3 – Summary of occupatiofor U.S. workersCategory # of workers 

and doses

2003 2004 2005 

All Monitored 

workers

3,044,326 3,682,403 3,862,949 

Workers with recordable or estimated dose

1,152,759 1,227,112 1,168,430 

Total collectiveeffective dose (person-Sv)

1,356 1,452 1,407 

Averageeffective dose (mSv)

1.16 1.17 1.19 
Occupational Exposure

Collective effective dose (

S): 1,400 person-Sv

Subcategories:• Medical – 39%• Aviation – 38%• Commercial nuclear power– 8%• Industry and commerce – 8%• Education and research – 4%• Government, DOE, military – 3

Average effective dose for the exposed group (

EExp): 1.1 mSv, variation: 0.6 to 3.1 mSv

Group characterisadults

EUS: 0.005 mSv
Occupational Exposure

PercencontrivariouS for oexposperson2006. Repor205)
Summary – NCRP Report 16

Percof vaexpocolledose dose 

perstotaper U.S. mSv(NCRpg.1
Summary – NCRP Report 160

Medical Exposure 

of Patients –

3 m

S

v

Consumer 

Products and 

Activities –

0.1 mSv Industrial, Security

Medical, Education

and Research 

Activities –

EUS: 

6.2 mSv

Ubiquitous 

Background – 3.1 

mSv

3

S

0.003 mSv

Occupa

0.00
UNSCEAR 2008

Annex A

Diagnostic Radiology

Nuclear Medicine

Radiation Therapy
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: Medical 

Radiation Exposures

Health Care Level Numbers of phy

I At least 1 per 

II 1 for 1,000 to 

III 1 for 3,000 to 1

IV 1 for more than 
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: 

Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Med
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: 

Radiation Therapy
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: Summ
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: Summ
UNSCEAR 2008 Report: Summ
UNSCEAR 2008

Annex B

P bli E P

ublic 

Exposure

Natural Sources

Enhanced Sources

Man-made for Peaceful Purposes

Man-made for Military Purposes

Occupational Radiation Exposure

Natural Sources

Man-made for Peaceful Purposes

Man-made for Military Purposes
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / Nat
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / Enh

 Metal mining and smelting Phosphate industry Coal mining and power production f

coal

 Oil and gas drilling Rare earth and titanium oxide indus Zirconium and ceramics industries Applications of radium and thorium
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / 

Man-made for Peaceful PurposeNuclear power production

 Uranium mining and milling Uranium enrichment and fuel fabricatio Nuclear power reactors Fuel reprocessing Globally dispersed radionuclides Solid waste disposal
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / 

Man-made for Peaceful Purpose Transportation of nuclear and radioa

material 

 Land Sea Air

 Other

 Production of radioisotopes Research reactors Consumer products
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / 

Man-made for Peaceful Purpose
UNSCEAR 2008 – Public / 

Man-made for Military Purpose Nuclear Tests

 Global Fallout Underground Tests Nuclear weapons production

Nuclear weapons production

 Residues in the environment

 Nuclear test sites Sites contaminated by non-nuclear test
UNSCEAR 2008 – Occupationa

Natural Cosmic ray exposures of aircrew and 

space crew

 Ex

posures in extractive and 

process

p p

industries

 Gas and oil extraction Radon exposure in workplaces other 

mines
UNSCEAR 2008 – Occupationa

Natural
UNSCEAR 2008 – Occupationa

Man-made for Peaceful Purpose  Nuclear power production Medical uses of radiation

Medical uses of radiation

 Industrial uses of radiation Miscellaneous
UNSCEAR 2008 –

Summary on Occupational
UNSCEAR 2008 –

Summary on Occupational
Summary – UNSCEAR Report 
Summary – UNSCEAR Report 

Medical 

Exposure of 

Patients –

Enhanced 

Sources –

? mSv Man-made fo

Peace and 

Military–

EGlobal: 

3 mSv

Natural 

Sources–

2.4 mSv

0.6 mSv 0.007 mSv

Occup

– 0.00
References

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure

NCRP Report No. 160 Ionizing Radiation Exposure Population of the United States (2009).

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of 

Radiation UNSCEAR 2008 Report Sources and EfRadiation. UNSCEAR 2008 Report, Sources and Ef

Ionizing Radiation (2008).