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EA 027 574

Quellmalz, Edys; And Others

School-Based Reform: Lessons from a National Study. A

Guide for Sctool Reform Teams.

SRI International, Menlo Park, Calif.

Department of Education, Washington, DC. Office of

the Under Secretary.

ISBN-0-16-048415-4

95

LC90035001

85p.

U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of

Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC

20402-9328.

Guides Non-Classroom Use (055) Reports

Research/Technical (143)

MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.

*Educational Change; Elementary Secondary Education;

National Surveys; *School Based Management; *School

Districts; *School Effectiveness; *School

Restructuring; State Action

This guidebook was designed to be used as a resource

by teachers and school administrators interested in implementing

school-based reforms. It provides examples of promising reform

strategies and lessons learned from a national study of school-based

reform. The congressionally mandated study of Effective Schools

Programs was conducted by an independent firm for the United States

Department of Education during the 1991-92 school year. Data were

obtained through a mail survey of 1,550 school districts, mail and

telephone surveys of administrators at all state education agencies,

and case studies of reform efforts in 32 schools in 5 states. The

states included California, Connecticut, Kentucky, South Dakota, and

Washington. Following the introduction, the recond section describes

the lessons learned from the case studies. The successful examples of

school-based reform shared a core set of characteristics: a clear

focus on creating more challenging learning experiences for all

students; a school culture in which teachers worked collaboratively

and had a voice in decisions that directly affected their ability to

improve classroom practice; and opportunities for teachers and

administrators to gain knowledge and build their professional

capacity. The third section provider more detailed examples of

schools involved in promising reforms. The fourth section discusses

what district staff Can do to support school-based reform: (1) serve

as an initial stimulus; (2) assemble resources; and (3) offer a

broader professional forum. Contains an annotated list of research

and how-to resources. (LMI) ***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best That can be made

from the original document. ***********************************************************************
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I
LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

A GUIDE FOR SCHOOL REFORM TEAMS

Edys Quelimals

Patrick M. Shields

SRI International

Michel:pi S. Knapp

University of Washington

With tho assistanco of:

Jorry D. Hamburg

Univorsity of Washington

Leo Anderson

Evelyn Hawkins

Laura Hill

Joan Ruckus

Choya L. Wilson

SRI International

.1J
Proparod for:

Planning and Evaluation Service

office of the I .nder Secretary

..S. Department ()f Education

Washinwon. D.C. 20202

199;

This report Was prepared by SRI International pursuant to Contract Number

I.C9003C001. U.S. Department of Education (Nancy IA)y, Project Officer).

The views expressed in this report. developed under contract to the LS.

Department of Education. do not necessarily reflect the position or policy

of the Department, and no official endorsement by the Department should

be inferred.

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Siipi'uhlkIliknI -I NK mem., Stall Swp %.01iingIon. DC .10402.4 INN 0-14-0411415 -4
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Acknowledgments

Section 1 - Introduction

vi

1-1

Federal Legislation 1-2

The Purpose of This Guide

The Study of Effective Schools Programs:

The Basis for the Guide 1-3

Key Features of Promising Reforms 1-3

How to Use This Guide 1-4

Section 11 - Practical Advice:

Key Features of Successful Reform Strategies 11-1

A Portrait of South Mission High School:

Building on the Effective Schools Model 11-3

Create Challenging Learning Experiences for All Students 11-6

1. Set High Expectations for All Students 11-8

2. Develop Challenging Curriculum 11-10

3. Consider Alternative Configurations of

Students and Teachers 11-12

4. Track Student Progress with a

Range of Outcome Measures 11-13

Build a School Culture That Nurtures Staff

Collaboration and Participation in Decision Making I1-16

I. Find Ways for Teachers and School

Staff to Collaborate on Significant

Changes Needed in the School II-17

2. Seek Ways to Reformulate the Roles

and Authority of Teachers and Administrators 11-18

3. Consider Reformulating Staffing, Resources, and

Time and Space to Increase Staff Collaboration 11-20

lit
Provide Meaningful Opportunities for Professional Growth II- )1

1. kkntily and Primittze the Topics and

Types of Staff Devek)pment That Will

Promote the School's Retbrm Goals 11-21

2. Plan a Coherent. Sustained Program tin. Professional Growth

That Will Provkle Time and Expertise Ibr Staff to

Acquire. Implement. and Reflect on New Approaches 11-25

3. Explore a Variety of Methods for

Developing Expertise 11-26

Summary 11-28

Section III Examples of Promising School-Based Reform Efforts HI- 1

Changing a School from the Classroom Out:

Cicely Elementary III-)

The Little Engine That Could: Arbor Elementar: 111-5

On the Way: Empire High School 111-6

Too Much. Too Quickly: Attempts to Change

Edgemont junior High 111-9

Slow Going: The Beginning of Change in

Petersburgh Elementary I11-10

Summary 111-12

Section IV Beyond the Schoolhouse:

What Districts Can Do to Support School-Based Reform IV-1

Providing Professional Development Opportunities IV-2

Setting and Waiving Requirements IV-3

Managing Forces and Conditions outside the

School's Control IV-4

Garnering Resources IV-7

Summary IV-8

It
,I.R.2.1r4.10111,77111rWr

.

INTIODUCTION

References RAppoodix: Resources sk-1

1 Research Resources A-1

Research on School-Based Reform A-1

Case Studies of Successful Reform A-4

11 1 low-To Resources A-5

Guidelines fc w School-Level Reform A-5

The Role of Principals in School Reform A-11

The Role of Teachers in School Reform A-12

The Role of Parents and the Community in

Schoc )1 Ref( wm A-14

Curriculum Reform A-15

Assessment Reti)rm A-20

P".
c:ASED REFOR., tION1 '1)

41. Cr St 311, W

We wish to acknowkdge the Naluable

contributions 4)1 the lumber, )1 ilk.

\\iwking (;naip for the !study I )1

Effective Scho(ils Pn)grams:

celesta Brandon. National Causortiuni

f Chapter .2 Vale Advisoo Committees

)I)en t. I ri.sil

Curry tichind

Richard . Elmore. Harvard 1 !liwisitl.

omilliate s'ainal of Education

.lov A. Frechtling. Westat

Flenore Freedman. cgarsuilant

Reverie catit..e Glenn.

1111VINily .SChogol (y Wm:it/ion

Anne T. I Ienderson. Natianal

umnnittee Citi:ens in Education

Nlichael Nlurphy. State of Idaho.

Department of Education

Fred NI. Newmann. National Ctmer

an Effi!ctive Secondaiy Schools

J( )an Shoemaker. State of Connecticut.

Depannwnt Ethic-anon

Thonlas A. Teewr. ilivervity

Arkansas at Little Rock

In addition. we would like 't( I thank

Richard I lardebeck of the Texas

Educaticm Agency, Austin. Texas. and

the li)llowing indivkluals froin the

I ',S. Depannlent of Ethication for their

helpful k'0111Mentti:

Carol Chelemer

Bathara Onites

Alicia Coro

'Humus (iMAS in

Terry l)(rzier

Julie Edmunds

Robert Kastner

Nancy Loy

Theresa Mahoney

Valena Plisko

Valerie Rogers

Zulla Miley

Z.. MI 20) GI 3112 3Nir Z

We also wish to thank the members of

the panel of pracfitioners who

reviewed the guide:

Mary Cassey-Goldstein. program coordinator. Centerjhr Schools.

truchingkm

Steve :happuis. Centml Kitsap School

Distria administrator and jOrmer swam/art. school principal

Cyndi Curran-Bamburg. special education teacher lacoina School District

Jack Dale. assistant superintendent.

Edmmuls .s.choal District

Linda Fishe. elemental). sclmol

Belletile Scho4d District

Jill I learne. elementaiy directm: Seattle

School District

Wanda Johnson. elementag principal.

Bellevue School Distrid

Gene Nledina. superintendent. Port

Townsend School District

anda Morrison. assistant high school

principal. South Kitsap School District

Liz Pearson. assistant high school principal. Snoquahnie School District

BEST COPY AVAILABLE
/ncreasingly, over the past decade. educational reformers have called fir fundamental shifts in what takes place in

classrooms and schools. These arguments follow from the now common

conclusion that our nation's schools are

failing to provide many students with the highquality education needed to become responsible citizens and productive workers: To

acldress this problem, reformers urge reconsideration of traditional notions of schools as institutions with isolated classmoms where students

spend fixed periods of time studying rigidly differentiated subjects. Instead, new institutions

need to be designed. from the bottom up. limited by neither previous practice nor burdensome regulations. Doing so, the argument continues. entails deregulating the educational system and transferring authority from the federal.

state, and even district levels to schoolsin

return for accountability for student results.

These arguments are reflected in nearly every

current reform effort. At the local level, there

are numerms experiments with school-based

I POD UCT ION

^

Thc lessons from this study

should bc useful in planning

and carrying out thc rcforms

envisioned in thc rcccnt

federal education legislation

and ongoing statc and local

school rcform efforts.

Vs.

management strategies (e.g., Dade County. Fla..

and Santa Fe, N.M.). At the state level, strategies as diverse as Kentucky's sweeping educational reform act (KERA) and South Dakota's

targeted reforms share this common focus on

school-based change. Nati(mally. there are a

series of coordinated effortsthe Comer

Schools, Accelerated Schools, and the Coalition
'iCrtOOtBAEC, .ESSON; A NATIONAL 7DY

( )1. ESsenti.a.I 4 I I I tat ..)CUS on the clever 6

()pment of +chool-level and school-specific

itnps etilent strategies.

Federal Legislation

supp n- school-level improvement has

long been .1 Illainst:ly ICtiCral education

agenda. Title I of the newly enacted Impro itig

Amerka's scho(ils Act t N% Inch amends

Chapter I I fl the Elmental). and Secondary

Education Act t ESEA). !,trongly encourages the

Ilse of its hinds h schoolwide impr()vement

efforts in schools with high concentrations (if

disadvanuged children. Other pn)grams authorized in the new legislation (e.g.. the Dwight D.

Eisenh()wer Professional Development

Program) emphasize schoolwide reform and

provide school staff with flexibility to design

and implement school-specific improvement

strategies. Goals 20(X): Educate America Act.

the federally supported framew()rk for educatk)n reform also enacted in 1994. encourages

and supports school-level change and directs

professional development resources to scho()llevel educators. Both pieces of legislation rec.-

ogie that individual schools are the necessary

targets of successful reform efforts and that

educators cbsest to the classroom are vital to

sustaining these efforts.

The Chapter 2 program. as reauthorized by

the 1988 amendmems to ESEA ( P.L. 100-29)

and again in IASA (Pt 103-382) in 1994. is

another example of kderal supp( rt fi)r schoolbased reform. The 1988 legislation required

that states use at least 20 percent of their

Chapter 2 allocations to support Effective

Schools Programs. This provision reflected

lessons from the research on unusually effecfive schools that identified a set of school-level

correlates or characteristics associated with

higher-than-expected student achievement.

The federal goal was to encourage states to

supp)rt scItool-based reform efforts consistent

1.1

with this research. he Chapter 2 program was

modified and renamed in IASA. Title VI

(Innovative Education Program Strategies)

maintains the sch(x)l-level fi)ccis ()I the earlier

chapter 2 pn)gram but eliminates the Effective

H Its PIllgrams requirement..

These are exciting experiments and innovative public policies that create new oppIrtunities for k teal educators to influence the course

()I change in tlieit! (iwn scho()Is. At the same

time. the place a great deal of pressure on

scho()I staff to undertake reform efforts for

which the often have neither the preparation

nor the resources. A,. with all change efforts.

new opportunities and pressures need to be

accompanied with !Appropriate assistance and

support.

Purpose of This Guide

This guide is meant to be a resource for

teachers and schc)ol administratcws interested in

undertaking school-based refcwms. It prcwides

examples of promising reform strategies and

lessons learned from a national study of schoolbased reform. The remainder of this introduction reviews how the study was conducted and

provides an Overview of the maim themes that

run through the rest of the document. It is

important to note that the research that informs

this guide predates IASA and Goals 2000. In

fact. the original study was commissioned in

order to learn less(ms abc)ut how to improve

federal support for elementary and secondary

education. The lessons from this study should

be useful in i)lanning and carrying out the

reforms envisk)ned in the recent federal education legislation and ong()ing state and local

school reform efforts.

(0
_The Study of Effective Schools Programs: The Basis for the Guide

The examples. ideas, and recommendations

contained in this guide reflect lessons funn a

congressionally mandated natkmal study of

Effective Schools Programs and other sc hootbased reforms carried out by SRI International

under contract to the Department of

Eclucation. e study resulted from the kderal

Chapter 2 legislation. which, as noted above.

sum( wted Efkctive Schools Programs. Data for

the study were collected during the 1991-92

sclux 1 year and included:

A mail survey of a nationally representative

sample Of 1.550 school districts, in which district administrators were asked to respcmd to

questions about district support for schoolbased reform efforts and about their imst

comprehensive school-level improvement

efforts.

Mail and telephone surveys of all state education agencies, in which state-level administrators were asked to describe reform efforts

in their states.

Case studies of reform efforts in five states.

16 school districts. and 32 schools. These

involved on-site visits of appnmimately one week, which included interviews with admin..

istrators and teachers. observation of classrooms and team meetings, and review of relevant documents. These case studies form

the basis for the vignettes described in the

second section of this guide.

The states visited were California.

Connecticut, Kentucky. South Dakota. and

Washington. These states were selected

because they covered the range of state school

reform strategies from traditional Effective

Schools Programs (e.g.. South Dakota's

Effective Schools Program) to change efforts

pr xnoting iwne fundamental ret)rganization of

schooling (e.g.. KERA in Kentucky). State roles

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

and involvement in schools also varied across

these states. The 16 school districts and 32

schools were located in these states and were

selected because they. like the sample states.

encompassed the full breadth of different

reforms and demographics. Moreover, states.

districts, and schools were selected with an eye

toward the lessons they could teach others

alxmt succes.gril reforms. By agreement with

the local educators who gave so freely of their

time and ideas, it was agreed not to publish the

names of any individuals, schools, or districts

involved in the study: therelme, the names

used in this document are fictitious. A list of

the teachers and administrators who reviewed

this report appears in the acknowledgments at

the beginning of the guide. The research findings and a detaiW description of the methods

used can be found in the formal technical

report (Shields et al., 1995).

Key Features of Promising Reforms

The national study showed that districts and

schools throughout the country were paying a

great deal of attention to school-based reform.

In fact, depending on how one defines reform.

somewhere between a fifth and two-thirds of

the districts reported having school-based

reforms under way. For example. 40 percent

of districts reported having reforms that focused

on increasing student learning, improving

teachers, and developing schoohvide problemsolving and planning capacity.

Yet, when the researchers actually visited

schools in the case studies, the amount of meaningful change taking place was (Alen much 1-ss

than advertisedsuggesting that these national

incidence figures may overestimate the amount

of reform that was actually txturring. In some

schools, reform translated into nothing mcge than

changes in teacher routines and meeting times.

In many, however, school reform meant something: a reorganization of school routines to
LE5:0'.5 " :M. A -t..:.-

supp(wt learning. new attitudes among teachers

t(Avard student al)ility. inure challenging classnn practicvs. and exciting learning experiences

1(w students. The case study data suggest that

the successfill examples of school-based retrm

-lured a set ( 4 core characteristics:

fear t( us 4 4n reating in, we 4. liallenging

learning experiences for all students.

A 5,-114)(41 culture in which teachers .A4 wked

collaboratively and had a voice in decisions

that direcdy affected their ability t(1 improve

lassr444)111 practice.

4 )PPUrt inn jes for te.ichers and administrators

to gain knowledge and build their Prolessic mai capacity in subject areas. classroom

pedawigy, and Lkcision-making strategies.

These three (haracteristics are used to structure much of the practical advice offered in the

second section of the guide.

Now to Us. This Guid

This guide is divided into ibur sections. followed by an annotated bibliography. The second section describes the basic lessons learned

from the case studies in 32 schools across the

nation, lessons that reform-minded school staff

should consider as they seek to improve their

own schools. This section is organized lw the

three characteristics oil promising reforms listed

above. The third section provides fuller examples of schools involved in promising reforms.

These portraits are meant to) help the reader

understand how the \ark nos haracteristics

reform work to )gether to) propd a schoo 41 t wward. The tburth section discusses what district staff can do to support school-based

reform. Finally, an appendix provides an

extensive annotated list of published resources

for practitioners and researchers alike.

.;EST COPYAVAILABLE
KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

PRACTICAL ADVICE:

KEY FEATURES OF

SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

rirel he schools studied orchestrated

their reform efforts in many

ways. The catalysts for change.

key actors, problems addressed.

strategies attempted. and

rest mrces used varied dramatically. Although each school's story unfolded in

unique ways. some common elements were

discerned. 'Iltis section extracts from the case

studies of 32 schoc As lessons that reform-minded schools might consider incorporating into

their improvement efforts. It is important to

note that in many schools that considered

themselves involvt'd in reform, little change

was taking place. In other sites, though,

school-based retintn has involved fundamental

changes in the daily lives of school staff. Yet,

change in some schools was not necessarily

pc)sitive. Without clarity of purpose. cotntnitment, collaboration, support, and leadership,

Without clarity of purpose,

commitment, collaboration,

support, and leadership, reform

cfforts may sputtcr and die.

Without sustainzd nurturing,

enthusiasm may fade

to burnout.
re torni

Vr.4,42M SSONS iPOM NA1ICA4.1.

Teachers held high

expectations for all

thcir students.

efforts Illa spLIIICE ,Ind Iii. Withoia

sustained nurturing, enthusiasm nia\ lade it,

burnout. lberefore. the prat nt .11 atI\ it c pro-

\ ided in this guide is Lira\\ n irimi the st

in which changes were both signii Rant an(t

effective.

In general. the successffil lk

reforms studied had three key features:

( 1) challenging learning experiences for

all students

(2) a school culture that nurtured staff

collaboration and panicipation in

decision making

(3) meaningful opportunities for

pr()fesskmal growth

The first feature, challenging leamtng experiences. tended to emerge from foil: coordinated

elements. First, teachers held high expectations f()r all their students, breaking the vicic nis

cycle of watered-d(mn curricula FA.

achieving students. They shared a visi()n of

what their students coukl achieve and li(Av the

sch()( l w()tikl promote success. Second. these

innovative prc)grams presented challenging

curriculum, often in integrated. interdisciplinary curricula. Third, the sclu)ols were expliging an exciting variety of alternative configurations of students and teachers. Founh. s()ine

of the schools were beginning to use a range'

of alternative measures to track students'

pr(wress. Although it is too soon. f( r the nu)st

part. to measure the impact of these reit Wills on

student achievement, schools were beginning

to document different, 111(11V productive interacBEST COPY AVAILABLE

tion patterns among students and teachers in

the dassr()om. Schools were also beginning to

report changes in equity and access for all students to high-quality instruction.

The second key feature observed is that the

inc)st successful scho()l-based reforms devek >ped

effective techniques for nurturing staff collaboration and participation in decision making. The scho( As created cultures of collegiality

lw finding ways l'or staff and the community to

work together on significant changes.needed in

their schools. Time and funding to supp(m

workint1 groups. access It) it were cornerstones

(If successful school-based ref()rms. Nually

important to shared decision making was the

reformuLation of the roles and authority

exercised by teachers and administrators.

Scale principals welcomed teachers' c(mtributionsi others gave up control grudgingly. These

new divisions of labor and clout created new

responsibilities and obligations for school staff

but also strengthened professionalism and

morale. Leadership for these change processes

came from a variety of sources: teachers, principals, and district or state personnel. The

advances in staff c(Alaboraticm and participat(wy

decision making Were often achieved by an

array of creative changes in staffing patterns and

allocations of resources. time, and space.

Providing meaningful opportunities for

professional growth is the third major feature

shared by successful school-based reforms. In

these schools. teachers set staff devel(pment

priorities keyed to their vision of the reform

goals in their schools. Typically, staff development topics related to technical areas such as

curriculum, instruction. and assessment. or to

managerial areas such as scho()Iwide planning

or collaborative decision making. In some

instances, teacher teams developed strategic

plans that selected staff devek)pment topics

and methods alkming sustained, coherent

immersion in an area. Forsaking a grab bag

of one-session workshops, teachers sought the

4
expertise and time necessary for the school

staff to acquire. implement, and reflect on innovations on an ongoing basis. The methods

used for staff development ranged fir and

wide. Trainer-of-trainers models created

cadres of teacher experts in the school: teaming and coaching arrangements allowed

school faculty to learn from experts and from

each other: visits to classes in their Own and

other schools allowed teachers to see new

ideas in action: alliances with universities

brought expertise to the schmls and oppt munities for growth and advancement to teachers:

some schools pooled resources to share training expenses and persohnel.

Descriptions of lessons learned from the 32

schools open with a view of one school's successful integration of the three key elements.

Following this complete portrait of one school,

the guide "zooms in" to sets of focused

vignettes that illustrate variations of these elements found in a number of schools during the

1991-92 school year,

A PORTRAIT OP SOUTH MISSION

HIGH SCHOOLs ROILDINO ON Tin

mums SCHOOLS MODIL

The reforms at South Mission High Sc lux)l

exemplify a successful adoption of the Effective

Schools model, which focused on the seven

correlates identified in the body of Effective

Schools research: (1) clear and specific purposes, (2) strong educational leadership, (3) high

expectations for students, (4) mastery of basic

skills, (5) frequent monitoring of student

progress, (6) positive climate for learning, and

(7) partnership with parents and community.

Taking advantage of the many instruments and

professional development oppcmunities based

in the Effective Schools research. school statT

implemented a number of key changes in the

school and established methods for continually

improving their work.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

- -----

The restructuring effirt at South Missitm High

represents a top-down strategy thatseemed to

be working. South Mission's superintendent initiated the refiwm process with a prepackaged

program of how the scht)ol improvement

process sliould prtweed. South MitiSiOn's

retbrms addressed seven wrals derived from the

seven correlates of Effective Schools detailed

above in the introduction to the school's portrait.

Seven subcommittees were set up to address

the goals, and structured instruments were

available to assess needs and progress toward

the w Ws. At first, the creation of the seven

correlate committees by decree left some committees floundering for lack of a recognized

need. Although he usually approved, committee recommendations, the principal made the

final decisions.

Support for professional growth throughout

the years, however, has paid off in teachers'

involvement and commitment to Effective

Schools tenets. In general, the teachers felt

good about the changes instituted through the

Effective Schools process and about their ability

to provide input in the process of identifying

problems and solutions.

11.3

Teachers at South Mission High

took responsibility for

effective instruction and

ongoing improvement.
P.A.ED .ESSONS F.?..-um A NATIONAL STUDY

The reforms at South Mission I Ugh permeated classrooms. creating challenging learning

experiences for all students. The school culture

was one of high expectations for students and

a belief that all students can learn. The school

climate and sense of pers(mal safety had

impr )ved. and the needs of the increasing limited-English-prt)ficient yulation Wert! being

addressed. There tv:ts still little evidence of

coordinated curriculum planning. but partidpation of teachers from various disciplines on the

correlate committees had lxigun to stimulate

interest in interdisciplinary collaboration. Some

teachers were not positive about eliminating

tracking. but they recc)gnized research supporting it and sought additional training in the

teaching l heten)genec pnpulat ions.

Context South Mission High School, with 2,200 students, is located in what once

was a predominantly rural, white, agricultural area that over the past decade

has experienced rapid growth, particularly in the number of Latino students (who

now make up a third of the district's enrollment). In 1987, the new

superintendent led the district into the Effective Schools process. The district has

reduced the number of district and school staff coordinators of programs and

passed categorical funds directly to the schools and teachers. At South

Mission High, federal Chapter 2 funds are used for tutorials and staff

development.

Creating

Chalenging

Learning

Situations

for a

Changing

Population

Making

Decision:

Together

The first set of reforms relate to classroom practices. A "Welcome Center"

has been created as a transitional period for new immigrant students to

expose them to basic English and the rules and procedures of American high

schools. These students also now have access to a series oi English as a Second

Language and bilingual classes. An extra tutoring session has been set up and

busing schedules adjusted to accommodate students who stay late for these

sessions. Teachers assert that the most rnportant change has been the

reaffirmation that all students can learn. Throughout the school, teachers hove

chosen to eliminate tracking, with the exception of the advanced.placement

courses and the Welcome Center. If students are not succeeding, it is the

responsibility of the teacher to modify his/her instructional practices. Teachers

report that classroom observations have focused the entire school on improving

instructional practices.

Despite the decline in average family income over the years, student scores on

the standardized tests continue to rise, with current performance in the 79th

percentile for reading and the 81st for math.

Teachers work together to improve South Mission by serving on seven teacher.

staffed subcommittees, each of which assesses how well the school is doing

regarding that committee's mission. They forward their recommended changes

1 6
Teachers at South Mission High took responsibility for effective instrucUon and ongoing

improvement. Tests of student achievement

supported the success of this refwm effort.

Learning

to

Chong.

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORm STRATEGIES

South Misskm I figh illustrates how one

school integrated the three key features of successful school-based relmm. The sections

below offer practical advice linked to each of

the three key features, and selected igneues

describe specific approaches used by the case

study scho(thi.

to the school council, then to the principal. The first set of reforms addressed

safety and school climate. To reduce the number of students out of class at the

same time, a split lunch period has been created. The campus is closed to

outsiders, and a student leadership team discusses concerns among different

student groups. Another vehicle for collaboration has been eight observations of

teachers by administrators per year. Teachers report that these have opened up

communication between the administration and teaching staff about classroom

matters.

Over the years, the superintendent has taken board members, building

administrators, district administrators, the teachers' union leader, one elementary

teacher, the high school Effective Schools council members, and department

chairs out of state to a four-day annual workshop on Effective Schools. All staff

ore required to go through Effective Schools training, and principals are

evaluated on the extent to which the seven correlates are present in their schools.

In the first year, administrators conducted eight classroom observations per year;

the second year, the school added a needs assessment; the third year, the

Effective Schools council and committees were established. Two-thirds of the

teachers now actively participate in either the council or the correlate

committees. Besides the Effective Schools summer conference, seven pupil-free

days are devoted to staff development each year. The topics for three of these

days are chosen by the school. Teachers have been trained in Effective Schools

correlates, particularly thc all students can succeed. They hove read research

on student grouping and the adverse effects of tracking. Teachers receive

release time to participate in the school council and funds for summer curriculum

development and participation in state pilot projects.

To provide practical examples of specific reforms such as mastery learning and

detrocking, teachers were given the opportunity to see such efforts in action at

other school sites.

JEST COPY AVAILABLE

II-s

1"v
,:1-10(7.1 bASED e:SONS NATIONA,

CREATE CHALLENGING LEARNING EXPERIENCES FOR ALL STUDENTS

1. Set High Expectations for All Students

2. Develop Challenging Curriculum

3. Consider Alternative Configurations of Students and Teachers

4. Track Student Progress with a Range of Outcome Measures

The hean of school reform is the improvement Nt Went learning. If school-l\v,vd

reform does not affect classroom practices. iII

elf(ms will he for naught. Although this claim

may seem obvious. according to the study, as

many as 20 percent of the reform eff(wts

nationwide do not appear to be changing students classroom experiences. however. in the

best examples of school reform. changes in

goals. curricula instrucUon and teaching. and

assessment were significant. Teachers were

queStioning their traditkmal approaches to

instruction and learning, and investing significant time and energy to design new methods

for reaching their students.

Schools placed increased emphasis on NWdents' acquisition of higher-order reasoning

strategies and computer literacy. Students with

Ncwcr curricula tended to

emphasize thc processes of

solving problems and thinking

critically rathcr than simply

gctting one right answer.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

these new curricuki fonind that they were

required to think in different ways alx)ut the

subjects they studied. More was required of

them than filling in the blanks on a mimeographed worksheet or answering the questions

at the end of the chapter. Rather than regurgitate facts, students analyzed significant phenomena. made extensive comparisons, developed interpretations. drew conclusions, and

evaluated issues. Newer curricula tended to

emphasize the processes of solving problems

and thinking critically rather than simply getting

one right answer.

Schools replaced traditkmal subject-matter

treatments with more integrated, engaging curricula. Thematic. interdisciplinary curricula and

extended blocks of time were being designed

to allow in-depth exploration of significant

themes and content.

Manipulative mathematics, hands-cm science.

issues-centered history:social science, literaturebased reading. and process writing have

brought with them new classr(xmiriteractions.

Instructional practices included all students in

active, collaborative activities. Cooperative

learning and clustering arrangements have revitalized the settings in which students learn and

the ways they work with one another.

Students in sites implementing these types of

changes did not spend the entire school day

working in isolation. Especially at the elementary level, students were seated, not in rows

kicing the teacher. but in clusters of lc Air or

16
five. Employing cooperative learning

approaches. teachers in these classrooms

assigned roles to individuals that would enable

their group to accomplish a task. At some of

the middle and high schools, groups of students shared four or five teachers. promoting

closer relationships than were possible in the

traditi(mal setting.

The design of the study did not all(m fc )1.

definitive evaluation of the impact of specific

classroom changes on students. l'nfortunately,

in nu)st Of these sites, assessnwnt issues were

still in flux, With staff at many schoi As skeptical

about standardiwd tests but not yet wedded to

alternative forms of assessment. There were

indkations, however, corroborating a growing

body of literature from other research, that the

Cooperative learning and

clustering arrangements have

revitalized thc settings in which

studcnts learn and the ways they

work with onc anothcr.

<EY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

major shifts these schools were struggling to

implement have zt high potential for positive

'effects on student learning. The most promising classroom practices focused on:

setting high expectations for

all students

devek)ping challenging curriculum

considering alternative configurafions of

students and teachers

tracking student progress with a range of

alternative outcome measures

Changes implemented by particular

schools are described on the following

pages.
100t EASED REFORM LtSSONS FROM A NATIONA,

1. Set High Expectations for All Students

High standards

Emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking

Flexible behavioral standards

Heterogeneous grouping

Deveiopmental appropriateness

Sch(K)Is were conveying their high expectations l( )r all students in a variety of ways.

Challenging perfonnance standards were being

No for what ail students slunild he ahle to do.

These perf()Fmance standards emphasized

strategic reasoning, rather than memorization of

(Invent knowledge. Rigid rules for silent. individual seatwork were being replaced by flexiNe guidelines for buzzing. interactive group

work. Tracking was giving way to heterogeneous groups of high- and low-achieving students workMg k)gether. Learning envinwiments

wen. beccnning more developmentally appropriate by easing the transition from singleteacher. self-omtained classrocnns.

Setting high standards is (me aspect of

scho()Is high expectations fm their students.

Successful reforms were integrating lists of discrete objectives and minimum competencies

into statements of what students slunild know

and be able to do. No longer were these

scho()Is promoting breadth of coverage Over

depth of inquiry. Performance standards were

being set that represented challenging, yet

attainable. accomplishment rather than minimum competency.

A hallmark of reform efforts is an emphasis

on problem solving and critical thinking.

Goals have shifted from emphasis on facts to

strategies for using inflymaticm to solve probk.ms and think critically. The call for addressing ream ming comes both fro An extensive test

results indicating that students are not pertrming well on complex tasks and fro nu

extensive research that indicates that all students can teat n strategies. In fact, relegating

lower-achieving students to -drill and killdenies those students opportunities to learn

strategies t'or reasoning. Consequently.

research supports teaching problem solving

and critical thinking to all students, as well as

integrating students of all achievement levels

into challenging curricula.

Changes in school staffs belief's were not

limited to raising expectations about- achievement. In some sites, flexible behavioral standards were revising standards kw -properclassroom behavk w and the conditions necessary for learning. Along with more challenging

learning goals, teachers were revising their perceptions of how students should behave. As

One teacher noted, -There's more a sense now

of making education more fun for kids.

Teachers are more likely to feel that it is okay

to be noisy in the classroom lwhen students are

collaNwating on a project!: Teachers were recognizing that behavioral expectations should be

flexible enough to allow for students to interact

as they learn.

School staff took seriously the research findings supporting the benefits of heterogeneous

grouping. Teachers involved students of

mixed achievement levels in collaborative

learning and peer tutoring activities. Schools

eliminated the long-used practice of placing

high-achieving students in groups or classes

separate from km-achieving students.

)(1 4 0
Another form of changing expectations is

the developmental appropriateness of

classroinn content and organization.

Particularly in middle schools, classroom environments and subjects were being reconfigured by combining subjects such as language

arts and social studies into two-hour core subjects or by creating "schools within schools- to

soften the often painful transitkm from elementary to secondary school and from childhoc xi to early ackAescence.

iigh expectations fm all students, then, are

evident in a variety of reforms. These include

emphasizing critical thinking, strategies for raising students' expectations for themselves. and

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

mechanisms for eliminating segregated and

diluted instruction for lower achievers. At

South Mission High School, teachers eliminated

tracking after studying theoiy and research,

then observing in schools where heterogeneous

grouping was being used. Teachers also reflect

high expectations by applying flexible behavk mil standards to fit the learning activity and

using appropriate teaching methods to support

students' devek)pmental needs.

The Cobblestone Elementary student population shifted over the past 10 years from

mostly white to 25 percent minority. The school is now a Chapter 1 site where most families,

although not on welfare, are "eking out a living." Although the district had a long history of

teaching "the three R's," it was rocked out of complacency by poor showings on the new

state mastery tests. These test results stimulated the staff to take a hard look at how they

were teaching. Despite their initial suspicion of any ideas promoted by the state,

Cobblestone staff responded so positively to a presentation of the Effective Schools reform by

state educators that the decision to adopt the initiative was unanimous bolstered by the

low cost to the school and the provision of technical assistance from the state.

The state facilitator recognized that the Cobblestone staff had been working hard to help

students achieve, yet found that they were working on outdated ideas. The state facilitator

served as a catalyst for teachers to rethink their views of students by presenting research evidence of the successful implementation of approaches such as cooperative learning and heterogeneous grouping practices. The staff began to look at the effects of environment on students and came to a consensus on the goal that high-risk students who spend five years at

Cobblestone will experience success.

Cobblestone defined a new mission statement: "G.R.E.A.T." became the acronym for

Grow, Respect, Educate, Achieve, Together, with Tony the Tiger as the sChool mascot. The

language arts program abolished its three-track reading groups, replaced basal readers with

high-quality children's literature, and is beginning to focus on strategic reading approaches.

As a result, 100 percent of the school's low-income students score above ihe remedial level,

compared with 53 percent in 1986. At first, the principal was surprised when the state facilitator claimed that the progress of the low-income students was the real measure of the

school's success. Now, the school is inundated with requests from visitors curious to see how

the school has managed to be successful with at-risk students.

II.9
Fr ORM ltSSONS FROM a 4AfICIP1it iTUDY

2. Develop Challenging Curriculum

Depth over breadth

"Integrated/interdisciplinary

Techrcioay

Curriculum reforms tended to emphasize

depth over breadth, 01.ten tils nigh interdisciplinary, integrated thematic units. These curricula also presented authentic activities in

which students applied concepts in meaningful

e4intexts. In ;I unit on local riveN and streams,

Ii ir example. 'students interweaved their study

(it science. mathematics. and sockil science as

they measured pollutants: considered economic. environmental, and social costs of alternative

solutions: and prepared reannmendations for

the water commission. These challenging curricula emphasized problem solving and critical

thinking, often having students synthesize their

inquiries in oral or written presentations. In

some schools, technology both presented

engaging activities and suppmed c(Alaboration

and writing.

Key to these successful

curriculum changes has been

the time and support provided to

tcachcrs for staff development

and release timc to plan,

develop, and observe.

BFT "'15YAVAILA

It-te

At Bridge Middle School, interdisciplinary

teaching teams and integrated curriculum are

two major components of the school's vision.

The formation of teaching teams with common

preparation times facilitated the development of

successful integrated curriculum units. While

considering how to reformulate existing units, the

social studies teachers recognized the potential

of the seventh-grade Renaissance unit for interdisciplinary teaching. One of the teams, consisting

of math, science, language arts, and social studies teachers, chose to develop the unit. Each

teacher took the lead in deciding how curriculum

goals for his or her subject could apply to the

Renaissance period. History text information

was augmented with a computer simulation of

the Black Death, filmstrips on the Middle Ages,

and videos on Newscasts from the Past and

Castles and Cathedrals. Language arts goals

were addressed by reading and performing

plays and skits, researching and writing reports,

developing timelines, and making crafts.

Students might read "A Proud Taste for Scarlet

and Miniver" or "The Door in the Wall," ballads,

and other poetry and short stories of the times.

In math, the major project was the construction

of castles to scale, requiring calculations such as

perimeters, areas, and volumes. In science, students studied health and hygiene, including

information on contagious diseases then and

now, and compared epidemics like AIDS and

the Black Death. Teachers from physical education, music, and art also participated by presenting activities in their subject areas related to the

Renaissance.

The unit culminated with schoolwide events

involving Renaissance activities. Students, teachers, and parents went for a night to a.commercial establishment called Medieval Times, where

they had a traditional medieval feast and were

treated to a jousting tournament. The seventhgraders also planned a Medieval Tournament

Day and a Medieval Faire Day. Tournament

events included Dress a Knight, Musical Chairs

with period music, Tug-O-War, Rescue a Damsel,
KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

880 Yard Joust (dash), a Sack Race, and Javelin sentations, and collaborative skills were improvToss. The Faire involved plays (English litera- ing and that students were becoming very active

ture), bartering of medieval items (math and and persistent in their learning activities. "They

social studies), and exhibitions of "creative approach things more logically than their peers

anachronisms" (science and social studies). In other classes," she remarked. The teacher

The authoring team piloted the unit, which plans to develop additional thematically integratwas so successful that all seventh-grade teams ed units and to make more use of videotaping.

are using it. The unit hos been modified to

accommodate student needs and share teacher A move middle school, MeA Ivey,

resources. For example, a language arts developed interdisciplinary units around the

teacher with a specialty or preference for a par- themes of Pride in Place, Uniqueness and

ticulor novel might switch teams to teach that Commonality, Communication, Independence

novel. and Dependence, Interdependence, and

Change. Students also worked on a

Heartland Elementary is developing the HyperCard-based (computerized) adventure

first computer-assisted classroom in its stote, fund- game in which they could be in one of five civied by a grant of $35,000 from the district. A lizations selected to reflect the ethnic/cultural

consultant from the state technology project, situ- backgrounds of McAlroy students. Students

ated in Heartland's city, periodically visits the worked in teams of two in social studies classes

classroom to offer assistance with hardware and to research the occupations, past times, governsoftware needs. ..,.A,... - : :.: 4, ment, lanc3uage, measurement systems,. trading

A randomly assigned group of fourth-graders Sistenii, homes, fOod, clothing, religion, dirnate,

started in the classroom in the fall of 1990 and geOgral forms of transportation, ; 11*..-..;- ..-:1

will stay together through the end of sixth grade. weapons tools, and historiclijures/*Sonti'Of

In the first year of the experiment, the teacher., ;4:each period. Inkmpage-arts claskiitticlents .1

abandoned basal readers and spelling and- '-''..".:riiiiiiir aiia iliscusied the elinentiOf tin elife .- .il

handwriting texts in favor of a literature-based !.-4:rdventite and created overall story lins, faiths

the computer, including other subjects as We as -:', k.' 14- 'Me Hipeirdirel incl.'''.

' reading approach. Students write extensiveW"on'..*' ri;i14ini4: .W.iiirli -Clalig 'Mks. 1

literature. .The teacher reported students' kei=.:".

boarding speeds of '30 words per minute,"Coiii:.

.st' 4 -. 1.;°.. :

, .4`.1.1.11 ' ....r,r

'1.'7.1)L.444

0 1, st;v4. :r.,K," Nigix ..-*J itc4

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..4 . pared with 10 hondWritten words per rnintisi: .,

'e, .1 10,-1 41::41A 4,:.i

f I: % u .. '" S

"". II 14

, n .',i

science, students Were using Voyage of the Mirni

...., ,... 110 44'.

r Ir.- I n: ws and writing about their studies. Som. studeins ''.14 . :t:A.71 . .

; ! Eq., :- . " 0^:44A VEA were using the coMputer simulation Logo Logo to

build machines such cis a merrygo-round, washing machine, ccinieiar belt, or robotic .arMi'AT

desktop publishing program allows students tO

develop creative presentations of their comPoii="

tions and projects.

Students have made significant gains on Stan- . .7

dardized achievement tests in all subject areai nn

and in comparison With a control group of the '51tri, icfkinal.

., 47 ,-...r ,,,,,,, ., ee- -',

school's same-grade noncomputer classrooMi. '..6'-' nificant 4 The teacher noted that students' writing, oral pre:' ''''' - .i.A.:,. ,: ,.4,1,4

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23

BEST COPY AVAILABLE
tAr.D REF'f'RFA .E::ONS FROM A NATO'4A1. UDV

3. Consider Alternative Configurations of

Students and Teaskors

Block Scheduling

Teom Teaching

Collaborative Learning

Along with new curricular apprcmches have

come new ideas alnnit (nganizing students and

teachers days. For example. block scheduling

was impletnented in several of the schools.

Rather than all(icating .to) minutes per day to a

Nubject. block scheduling reserves more time

(usually about two hours) for students to investigate topics in greater depth. This approach is in

concert with the Coalition of Essential Schools'

philosophy that "less is more": the school experience for students becomes less fragmented if

they concentrate on learning a few things well.

The extended time periods require students to

approach the curriculum in a different manner.

According to teachers at some of the case study

sites, block scheduling had worked well in

Cubberley Elementary has become a district demonstration site for a new learning

Center designed io serve mainstreamed students with special needs. The Learning Center

started as a district response to a state compliance review requirement to mainstream special education students. The school was chosen as the pilot site partly because the principal and a number of the staff were special

education certified personnel. As the major

spark for the change effort, the principal

arranged two days of in-service training for all

staff on the concept. The Learning Center has

four fulkime special education and unassigned

regular teachers known as the Teacher

Assistance Team (1m). These teachers teach

cooperatively with 11 of the 16 regular classscience, where they now had time to d( Inc we

than set up the lab equipment bk,.1( we the less( wo

vas (wen It had also worked \\.ell in language

arts. where students could read literature, discuss

their reactions and interpretations in depth. and

engage in thoughttill writing.

In most Of the instances of block scheduling.

teachers engaged in team teaching, w(wking

together in interdisciplinary teams. Often, students fn nn two grades worked together. Cicely

Elementary. for example. divided its students

into multiage -quads.- where f(nir teachers designated two rocnns for integrated thematic sdence curriculum, reserving the other two moms

for technology and science labs.

Collaborative learning and cross-age and

peer tutoringkey instructional strategies that

integrate students previously relegated to pullout programs such as Chapter I or special education into the "regular" classroomsprovided

another reconfiguration of students stimulated by

schools' commitment to challenging curriculum

for all students.

,r

11-12

room teachers, making it possible to reduce

dramatically the number of student pull-outs.

The TAT, which previously had a pro brma

fundion in referrals to special education, now

serves as a quick turnaround mechanism for

observing students with learning problems and

recommending interventions. Teachers and

administrators at Cubberley emphasize that

the Learning Center is available to, and used

by, all teachers and students as a learning

resource. After some initial resistance and

uncertainty, the faculty now seems to support

the new program. The program serves as a

prototype for the district. Two more schoolwere scheduled to adopt the program in

1992-93; all schools in the district were scheduled to have learning centers by 1993-94.
4. Track Studnt Progress with a Rang of Outsam. Measures

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT FEATURES

Authentic, integrated tasks

Multiple interpretations

Focus on process

Collaboration

Ongoing assessment

TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT

Portfolios

Projects

Investigations

In a few of the sites, school-level staff were

moving ahead with alternative curricula without

having developed appropriate alternative test

instruments, thereby creating difficulties.

Teachers were becoming conscious of the limits, uses, and impacts of traditional testing.

In particular. teachers appeared concerned

that limitations of standardized tests did not

allow students to fully demonstrate their knowledge. The complex, authentic, integrated tasks

in which students use inquiry and critical thinking tend to pose problems that allow multiple

interpretations, not one right answer.

Regular and critical analysis of

student 13rogress was built into

thc reform effort.

'IL777177, , KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

Furtherm(we. the thinking processes students

use have become assessment targets that are

not measured well by traditional tests. In many

of the new curricula, students collaborate and

make group presentations of what they have

learned. Consequently, collaboration and presentatk m skills represent additional assessment

targets not measured by traditional tests.

To measure the expanded outcomes of the

new curricula. teachers are seeing the need for

the inclusion of performance or alternative

assessments as well as frequent tracking of

progress. Although the maiority of the sites had

not yet obtained. designed. or implemented

these new assessments. some sites did have in

place student assessments that differed from the

traditkmal, standardized multiple-choice tests.

Building on the lead of large-scale writing

assessments, writing portfolios were becoming

more common as a method of assessing performance in language arts. The portfolios allow

ongoing assessment of student progress On a

range of projects and investigations throughout the year, rather than an annual, brief look.

In two of the case study states, statewide

performance assessments in mathematics, science. and social science were also under development. Portfolios of classroom assignments

were components of both of these assessment

efforts. In some of these sites, it was difficult

to ascertain whether the curricula led to the

assessment instruments or whether the assessment drove the curricula. Some local-level staff

were revamping curricula to align them with

the new tests. When interviewed, teachers and

principals praised the tests and stated that

-teaching to the test" was clearly desirable

because the tests measured the most significant

elements of the curriculum.

II13
CHOOL BASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

- _- - -__

Other forms of student assessment were seen

in some areas. Some teacher teams developed

more traditional forms of tests but tailored them

to their curricula. eachers using mastery

learning and outcome-based e(ucation pr()-

grams might take this appn xich. Qualitative

forms of assessment that call for more teacher

judgment were also being tried. Narrative evaluations rather than typical repcnt cards were

being developed in the elementary grades. In

these narrative report cards, teachers might

write comments about a student's progress in

reading mre challenging books as well as

check off proficiency levels that described the

student's reading along a continuum of categories ranging from emergent to developing.

competent. and independent reader.

Looking carefully at test results for various

groups of students was another tack taken by

some of the schools in the study. In particular,

progress of lower-income, special-needs. and

limited-English-speaking populations was being

examined to determine the impact of detracking and in-class service models. The case studies identified schools at three stages of assessment reform. In one set of schools, evaluation

and a focus on student outcomes were virtually

nonexistent. Their reforms were often just getting off the ground, and school staff had not

yet focused their efforts on evaluations. In a

second set of schools, teachers were conscious

of the need to assess student outcomes, but

they believed that the tests being used in the

schoolstypically standardized, multiple-choice

instrumentswere inappropriate to measure

the effects of their new approaches to instruction. Even when schools and districts were

experimenting with alternative forms of assessmentincluding portfolios of student work and

performance-based assessmentteachers were

struggling to understand and interpret these

new measures. In these cases, the focus on

student outcomes was often mirt. in discussions about appropriate measures. in a third

set of schools, regular and critical analysis of

student progress was built into the reform

effort. Many of these schools had begun by

following the Effective Schools model, with its

clear outcome focus and regular cycle of needs

assessment. planning, and evaluation. They

were beginning to use new forms of assessment as additional evidence of their students'

achievement, as the following examples

illustrate.

114 4

The first-grade report cards

have bcnchmarks that spccify

what students arc expected to

attain. The school is working to

implement rcport cards at all

grade levels that arc aligned

with thc curriculum goals.

26
At Ross Primary, approximately 110 children were randomly selected to participate

in a nongraded, multiage, developmentally

appropriate primary program. Five staff

members volunteered to teach the pilot program. The team is developing integrated

thematic units, whole language units, and a

curriculum monitoring/student assessment

tool, the narrative or continuous progress

record. The new report.cards focus on students' developmental progress. Students

are assessed on component areas within

each subject. language arts includes reading and writing, listening (following oral

directions and comprehending oral language), and speaking (expressing ideas in

complete sentences and contributing to discussions). Social studies includes comprehension of the significance of selected

events in history, identification of geographical concepts and facts, and demonstrated

understanding of the individual's role in the

family and community. Rather than receiving letter grades based on on average of

test scores, students aro rated "E" for emerging, "P" for progressing, or "M" for mastering. Also noted on the report card are

active participation in art, media, music,

and physical education, coupled with various indicators of social and emotional &vel .

opment, such as a positive self-image, interaction with peers and adults, and adaptation to changes in school routine. There are

sections for handwritten comments from the

classroom teachers and other special area

E 1, FEATURE& OF SUCCE5SFUl REFOIM STIATEGIES

teachers. The principal sent a draft of the

narrative report card home to parents and

held a meeting, which 25 to 30 parents

attended. Currentli, the school is instituting

a longitudinal por olio that will gather a student's work over the course of three years.

The tAcAlroy School (grades 6-8) teacher

teams have designed their own student assessment instrument to be used in lieu of the district

report card. The instrument takes into account

process as well as outcomes, and includes a

narrative description of student progress.

Students are assessed at the end of each thematic unitsix times during 1990-91. Pre and

post comparisons of McAlroy's first year

showed improvements in students' attitudes

toward school and learning.

Birch Elementary teachers break down

scores on districiwide tests by grade and

instructional area. The school uses the information to adjust its instructional program. In

addition, there are regular classroom assessments and quarterly report cards. The firstgrade report cards have benchmarks that

smtcify what students are expected to attain.

The school is working to implement report

cards at all grade levels that are aligned with

the curriculum goals. To provide information

on Effective Schools correlates and the

school's identified Essential Elements of

Instruction, the district administers an Effective

Schools survey annually. The results aro used

to identify areas that need attention.
SCHOn. BA(. OFFORM SSONS FlIOM A NATIONAL STUDY

.-

BUILD A SCHOOL CULTURI THAT NURTURES STAPP COLLABORATION AND

PARTICIPATION IN DICISION MAKING

1. rind Ways for Teashom and !WNW Waft I. Collabsrate

on SIgnifkant Changes Needed I. the Umbel

2. Seek Ways I. Ihsformelato the Roles and Authority of lbanhers and Administraton

3. Consider Reformulating Staffing, amens's, Thom,

and Space to increase Staff Collaboration

Perhaps the mo)st common compoment of

sclwol-based reform found in this study was

organized efforts to) increase interaction and

conmninication among teachers and between

teachers and school administrators. Collegial

collaboration, of course, is a central strategy of

the Effective Schools model, based on research

that shows that unusually effective schools are

marked by productive communication and joint

work among staff members.

The shift to shared decision making, responsibility, and authority creates new opportunities and pressures for many school staff. On

issues surrounding curriculum and instruction,

teachers bring their technical training and

classroom experience to the table. Strategies

for productive collaboration in planning and

teaching, however, pose a challenge for some.

Successful school-based

reforms deve/oped ways for

school staff and administrators

to focus on significant changes

needed in the school.

For issues of school governancei.e., running

the schoolteachers seek strategies for efficient management and shared decision making. Administrators contribute their training

and experience in these areas, but they struggle to share authority and facilitate conflict

resolution.

Three strategies seemed key to building a

school culture that nurtures teacher collaboration and shared decision making. First, successful school-based reforms developed ways

for school staff and administrators to focus on

significant changes needed in the school.

Second, the school reformulated the roles

and authority o: teachers and administrators

to facilitate shared decision making for goals,

plans, implementation, and monitoring. Third,

the schools designed quite different allocations of staff, resources, time, and space to

promote the joint work of staff.

When the pieces came together, teachers and

administrators reported newfound enthusiasm

and rapport. "We're a family." "We're in this

together." The advice below draws on their

experience.

11.1h

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

28
I. rind Ways for Tachers and Sawa Staff tee Collaborate en Significant Cleavages Needed I.

the Sawed

Informal arrangements Councils Committees

The ways staff collaborate may be informal

and unstructured, growing fixmn an innovation

piloted by a few enthusiasts. In other cases.

such as South \fission I ligh's Effective Schools

approach. formal committees and procedures

are created as part of a programmatic reform

blueprint. The creation of a leadership council

or some form of scho(il-based decision making

was quite common in the case study schools.

Committees and task forces focused on

KEY FE MIMI S OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

specialized areas of interest and expertise: The

format (4 interactions appeared less important

than the degree to which school staff felt ownershipthat they initiated or controlled the

change process. The surveys and interviews

revealed that two-thirds of sclux A-based reform

efforts were initiated at the state and district

levels. but the most successful ones were

designed and mirdinated on a day-to-day basis

by school staff. Certainly, the mere existence

of these mechanisms to stimulate interaction

does not guarantee that involvement will take

place, but the successful retbrms studied

devised a number of promising strategies.

Cicely Elementary's reforms began when ...he school year by a leadership team Of admin.

eight teachers volunteered to pilot an ahem& _rators, teochers, 'classified staff, and parents.

tive science curriculum. To participate in the

experimental pr. !ram, the program required Illiochers..4:0 tlearlicrd howl ongol.

that the entire agree to support the pilot .Z.:4:,7;OPpodunititis le; ailkiboroin `.. 7

teachers in their effort. The piindpal worked ,t0,:

get this commitment for the first eight teachers4i.Athe,introduction.uta.nety.appcoach- is for

The pilot teachers Made a ihree.year commit. 17,;twO teachers to ieek Spe-Cla4edliail ni in it

ment and began by participating in a twoweie thento pass th*.stratogiei on .to thtir cot.

training session in-the surnmer to develop the Slackers *sue training 4.4Sotkonities

theme for the year. The district augmented th. their own areas of interest. ooperaliy.

grant that funded the summer training with twO',.=,..:::4Jami for eXaMple was skirled and Tiis.

to three release days per month for additional, 'Aained by the efforts of two leachers serve

trainim and coaching. District staff develop. 114i COOperOtWiekorntiiileachisr

ment days were alio provided to school staffl??1or the rest:4164A Musteiy

for inservice training on related curriculum cog:2 -.newer effort, is this pit project of a leather and

tent and instructional methods. As th. pilot principal Th..$SOCher is piloting ..siveral .1 teachers developed their team oøroach, they. mastery learning units in Jar own clam; 11,e ;

spread word of the program to r c is enhating Other leathers to nd

leagues. ln the third year, over 70 percent in the. fain,:

the facuhy partiCipatul in the program. InstruCtiOnatila hiri!ilbeen mPor.

together with hvo retreats, which included sup!.... Teacheri discuss:pi* Weti an4: Ckely also has brought the-staff closer ,. mechanisnilat cOoidinating these

port staff and parents. Funded by a grant Iran- :storm about odsting *grOtis.. soiiPorting

a private corporation, the first retreat focused ...and channeling teacW -st,iergles offectItmly, the

on developing a school vision and ,building v .'Principal has assiMbled hicrissivo- foster of

consensus around a set of reform thitiatives. Change

These activities are carried forward throughont gial innovation and collaboration amø norm.

'4. '

. .

' 71: 444. ' lw- MST COPY AVALABLE
SCHOOL BASED RE'OiM LESSONS FROM NATIONAl STUDY

2. Seek Ways to Reformulate the Rehm and

Authority of Toadtors and Administrators

TEACHER VOICE IN:

Staff development

Curriculum and materiak

Budgeting

Personnel

Shared decision making

'Aimed school management

leam teachincj

Administrator.facilitators

The pattern of teacher involvement in

school-based decision making was made possible by a growing movement among districts to

devolve more authority to the school level.

More than half the districts in the national survey sample have given schools more authority

in the areas of staff development and selection of curriculum and materials. A relatively high percentage of districts have given

schools more discretion over scheduling and

student assessment: fewer than a third of the

districts, however, have been willing to hand

over authority in areas related to budgeting

and personnel action. A small percentage of

districts also grant schools waivers from various

district and state requirements. such as use of

ni )rm-referenced. standardized tests.

BEST nnov mfAll arm E

In most of the schools visited, the principal's

role vis-il-vis teachers, central office staff, and

peers was being redefined, in some cases with

a struggle. At South Mission High. although

teachers had an organized voice in the decision-making process. their input was considered solely a recommendation to the principal.

who had final authority. At one rural elementary school, teacher involvement in school

affairs was limited to the classroom. The principal was the organizational officer and shared

none (4* the administrative powers with the

teachers. In schools granted more authority by

districts, principals gained a greater degree of

control over important budgetary and personnel decisions. Authority to hire teachers gave

some principals a new opportunity to build

consensus and further their visions. At the

same time, school-based reform also often

diluted the principal's authority by giving teachers more responsibility for school-level decisions. Including teachers in shared school

management has helped them to feel more

professional and has raised morale.

Shared responsibility for student learning has

also changed the roles among teathers and

between teachers and principals. Teachers are

no longer the sole arbiters of what happens in

isolated classrooms: rather, team teaching

arrangements involve teachers in planning and

teaching together. In some schools, administrators were recast as facilitators with responsibility for supporting teachers.

Teacher input into school matters is not new,

of course, but charging teachers with responsibility for assessing needs, determining the

school's direction or focus, proposing changes,

and seeing that they work is far less common.

Furthermore, giving teachers authority to enact

their recommendations is a significant change

in the governance of many schools.

30
Arbor Elonontory has a long-standing

reputation for innovation. It was the first

school in the district to take on the Effective

Schools reform. The new principal spearheaded the shift to participatory management,

expanding the authority of the decision-making

team beyond that of the Effective Schools planning teams, which was limited to Effective

Schools objectives. According to the principal,

there is no facet of her job in which the team

is not involved, despite team members' initial

reluctance, even fear, at taking on roles with

increased responsibility. Over time, the team

has begun doing scheduling, budgeting, and

interviewing secretaries. The principal opened

the previously locked supply closets and said,

"This is your school. You run it." When the

More than half thc

districts in thc national

survey sample have given

schools more authority in

thc arcas of staff development

and selection of curriculum

and materials.

K E Y FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

principal delegated authority to hire a paraprofessional, she was challenged by the teachers. She explained that the staff would hove to

work with whoever was hired. She sat down

with them and helped to make up the interview

questions. Now the team routinely interviews

people for nonteaching positions, and the district will allow schools more voice in teacher

hiring next year. If the principal is off campus,

the team handles emergencies.

School staff volunteer or are nominated to

serve on the participatory management team.

The teachers report feeling completely involved

in their school's reforms. Although the districtwide committees make curricular decisions,

most of the Arbor teachers serve on one of the

committees.

11-19 31
SCHOOLBASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL ST%.:DY

.1_ _--

3. Consider Reformulating Staffing, Rsourcs,

and Time and Space to Increas Staff

Collaboration

Provide common planning time

Fund joint planning

Reallocate administrative budget

Reassign support staff

Share classrooms and labs

he third set of strategies for nurturing productive collegial interactions in school-based

reforms changed staffing patterns and resource

allocations. Teachers from different disciplines,

grades. and specializations were obtaining

Empire High School hos made major

changes in its administrative structure and

instructional arrangements. By coordinating

administration of both the high school and

the middle school, administrative positions

were reduced, and the remaining administrative posts were changed to facilitating

"coordinators." Also, some administrative

support staff were reassigned to help teachers with paperwork. This "flattened" hierarchy underscored the role of administration as

supportive of teachers and instruction, rather

than supervisory.

The reorganization of instructional arrangements hos increased the joint work of teachers

at Empire. Teacher teams work with two divisions of students. Four "core" teachers (math,

science, English, and social studies), special

teachers as needed, and rotating fine arts

common planning time. Reallocation of

administrative funds supported additional

joint planning. in some cases, administrators.

specialists, and support personnel were

assigned to support class mom teachers.

Teachers participated in deploying funds and

resources to meet reform goals. Class schedules were revamped to allow for extended

team teaching. Teachers shared classrooms

and resource rooms.

teachers work together and share a common

planning period. "Macro scheduling," a form

of block scheduling, will be implemented, with

two hours of history and Iwo hours of math

each day, followed in the second semester by

two hours of English and two hours of science.

At Cicely Elementary, administrative

changes and instructional rearrangements also

support teacher collaboration. When a viceprincipal position became vacant, the principal

created two parmime positionsa Coordinator

of Restructuring and a parent liaison. The

school also reorganized classrooms into

"quads" in which four teachers work with 100

students in a variety of teaming arrangements.

In each quad, two rooms are used to teach an

integrate:I science curriculum; the other two

rooms serve as science and technology labs.

11.2u 32
KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

PROVIDE MEANINGFUL OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

I. Identify and Prioritize the Topics and Typos of

Shoff Development That Will Promote the School's Reform Goals

2. Plan a Coherent, Sustahmd Program for Profssienal Growth That Will Provid Time and

Ixpertise fee Staff te Asquire, Implement, and Reflect on New Approaches

3. !Explore Variety of Methods for Developing Expertise

Prcw iding teachers with m(ne oppc nities

to think critically about their work with one

another and to help devise ways to improve

the schools often creates significant challenges

for them, some of which they may be ill prepared to tackle. Research findings about how

students learn have led to significant shifts in

desired outcomes, curriculum design. instructional strategies, and student assessment.

Moreover, site-based management draws teachers into decisions about school budget allocations, management, teacher hiring and evaluation, and working conditions. To deal with

these new and varied demands, many teachers

need to update their knowledge and acquire

new knowledge and skills.

In the national survey, the most common

strategy (used by 82 percent of the districts) to

support school-based reform efforts was the

provision of staff development for teachers.

Not surprisingly, instruction was the most common topic (86 percent of the districts), followed

by schoolwide planning (63 percent) and

shared decision making (56 percent).

The case study data suggest that, in some

schools and districts, professional development

not only was common hut was taking on a

broader definition. In addition to the traditional pattern of providing discrete, one-shot workshops, some schools were seeking new, more

flexible approaches to build staff knowledge

and skills. First, schools were developing priorities for the many staff development areas in

which they felt the need to develop new

approaches. Second, schools devek Ted plans

for coherent, sustained professional growth

programs that provided staff with access to

the time and expertise necessary to acquire,

implement, and reflect on new approaches

over a period of years. Third, schc)ols explored

a variety of methods for expanding staff

expertise. The most promising approaches for

providing meaningful opportunities for professional growth are highlighted.

Thc most common strategy

to support school-based

reform cfforts was the

provision of staff

development for teachers.

33
'ICHOOL BASED REFORM LESSONS fROm A NA7:0NAL STUDY

1. Identify and Prioritise the Topics and Types

a Shin Development That Will Promote the

Selma% Wenn Goals

PLANNING COMPONENTS

Develop vision and goals

Anaiyze needs and resources

Prioritize topics

Identify types of professional development

PLANNING MECHANISMS

Surveys

Retreats

Design Teams

Ongoing staff meetings

A host of promising information and practices can be identified in the areas of curriculum, instruction, learning, and assessment.

Studies of teacher effectiveness and professional growth have also yiekled productive

approaches for collegial interaction and capacity building. Participatory site-based management may ask teachers to learn both the

mechanics of running the school (e.g., supplies,

buses, special events) and administrative techniques (e.g., conflict resolution. supervision and

coaching. staff selection zinc! evaluation). In

the successful reform efforts. school staff and

members of the community found ways to

engage in strategic planning. They developed

a vision and goals for their reform effort, then

analyzed the school's needs and resources

to identify the staff devd( pment opportunities

they needed most for areas targeted for significant change. Mechanisms f(w identifying staff

devel()pment needs ranged fr()m formal surveys, retreats, and design teams, to informal.

ongoing staff meetings and targets of opportunity (e.g., a state-sponsored pilot program).

What seemed to distinguish successful efforts

from struggling initiatives was the systematic

analysis of school and staff development needs,

available resources, and staff receptivity and

capacity. These analyses enabled the school

staff to prioritize staff development topics and

identify the most suitable types of professional development. Not surprisingly, school

staffs that felt oppressed by mandates. overwhelmed by myriad demands, and reluctant to

change did not seek, participate in, or implement staff development supporting their

schools' reform goals.

1142

school staff and members of the

community developed a vision

and goals for their reform

effort, then analyzed the

school's needs and resources

to identify staff

development opportunities

34
South Mission High School followed

the Effective Schools process to identify needs

and set school and staff development goals.

Teachers reported that the classroom observations instituted the first year to monitor the status and progress of the Effective Schools

classroom variables focused the entire school

on improving instructional practices. A needs

assessment administered the second year provided input to the Effective Schools council

and seven correlate committees. As a result,

staff identified the areas of safety, school climate, and improving academic performance

as their highest priorities. Staff development

related to these areas included research on

student grouping and the adverse effects of

tracking, as well as opportunities to visit

schools that had eliminated tracking.

Empir. High School moved to longrange planning when its initial array of

improvement efforts proved inadequate. In

1989-90, a group of teachers, with the help

of the principal, sought to implement a number of reforms in the obviousY failing school.

These included a new writing program, new

computer lab, experimentation with teaming

arrangements among teachers, and creation

of a participatory management structure in

the school. By 1990, the teacher-leaders

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

realized that things were still not working and

that bolder changes were necessary.

Inspired by the ideas of the director of the

district's 13rofessional development academy,

the teachers adopted a more systematic

approach. The Design Team began with

three key components: (1) a planning year,

(2) a quest for outside resources, ond (3) an

interim administrative structure. The school

benefited from its previous experience with

participatory management, which produced

a cadre of teachers who had been involved

in the decision-making process. Also, the

Design Team was successful in obtaining outside resources ($375,000) to pay for release

time for teachers. In addition to the interim

administrative structure, the school adopted a

new curriculum structure that divided the

school into three divisions. Teacher teams

within each division share a common planning period and select staff development

offerings available through the district professional development academy, the Coalition of

Essential Schools, or a local university. The

teacher teams currently in place have begun

to experiment with team teaching, thematic

units, and cooperative learning.

continued on page 11-24
SCHOOL RASED WORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

continued from page 11-23

The professional development agenda at

Heartland Elementary has grown primarily out of teachers' individual interests,

spurred, at times, by opportunities offered by

the district or state. In some cases, funds and

topics were provided by a restructuring program. A computer-based classroom was initiated by district funds. In another program, a

teacher devised peer tutoring to help at-risk

students as part of her master's studies.

Generally, two teachers volunteer to become

resource people for a program and are

responsible for training the rest of the staff.

The biweekly instructional staff meetings serve

as the vehicle for coordinating these initiatives, considering new ones, and working out

the wrinkles of new programs under way.

Manfield Elementary's reform agenda

got off to a slow start. The school began its

Effective Schools process in 1986. The

Action Planning Team focused extensively on

school beautification and discipline, following the advice of a state facilitator who suggested that it might be safer for teachers to

"cut their teeth" in such a risky business venture as schoolwide decision making by first

addressing nonacademic issues. The rationale was that once the skills of collaborating

and sharing ideas with other teachers had

been honed and some barriers to communication had been bridged, teachers might be

willing to risk addressing their own roles in

promoting academics and preventing student failure.

Then, in 1987, the new principal expressed

interest in academic reform. At the same

time, the district hod hired an assistant superintendent who was interested in curriculum

reform, especially the development of integrated, multidisciplinary units. The school is

now initiating a home-school relations project, which includes a family mathematics

program. In addition, the school is making

some curriculum changes by integrating subject areas to create interdisciplinary units.

Although Manfield's largely veteran staff

already have a large academic repertoire,

they have selected staff development sessions

relevant to thematic instruction on such topics

as process writing, reading comprehension

strategies, and Chapter 1 services.

36
2. Plan a Chernt, Sustained Program for

Prefessional Orowth That Will Provide Tim.

and Rxportise for staff to Acquire,

implement, and Reflect n Now Approaches

Mulhyear plan

Related topics

Oncroing sessions

Follow-up coaching

Release time

The successful schools had been working on

their reform agendas for at least three years. In

general, the teachers were building their expertise through a coordinated set of formal staff

development sessions from experts and coaches, as well as from informal collegial interactions. The professional growth of the teachers

in the successful reform schools thus was

developing over a multiyear period. They

also had a voice in determining the topics of

formal staff development sessions. A significant

departure from the age-old "make and take"

workshops, the sessions might present a series

of related topics, promoting an in-depth

The teachers at Ckely Elementary

embarked on their curricular reforms four years

ago. The program required that teachers make

a three-year commitment, and it supports a fiveyear process for teachers to learn how to develop their own interdisciplinary instruction. In a

two-week training institute each summer, teachers develop the theme for the year. Teachers

receive two to three release days per month

from the district for additional training and

coaching. A separate grant supports training

for Cicely teachers in collaborative decision

making and leadership. The Leadership Team

is supported by action teams specializing in

areas such as curriculum, staff development,

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUt MOW STRATEGIES

understanding of an area, rather than a potpourri of unrelated, "hot" topics. For example,

elementary teachers might attend staff development sessions on literature-based reading, writing about literature, writing in the content

areas, cooperative learning, and methods for

assessing student writing. Furthermore, precious pupil-free staff development days might

not be devoted entirely to formal workshops

on new information but also to ongoing, follow-up working sessions focusing on teachers' experiences implementing new approaches in their classes. There was evidence that

the lecture (-sage on the stage") format was

being replaced by the coaching ("guide by

the side") format. In these sessions, teachers

learn from each other as well as from expert

coaches. Finally, release time allotted for

collegial collaboration and reflection was

becoming more common. Teachers had time

to develop new materials and approaches

together and to reflect on the strengths and

weaknesses of their efforts. Many of the staff

development programs and opportunities

described by the school staff clearly treated

teachers as professionals who could shape

their own growth.

and school organization. The district plans to

shift control of eight additional district-sponsored staff development days to the schools.

The Design Team at Empire High School,

inspired by the ideas of the director of the district's professional development academy,

planned a sustained staff development program. They obtained funding for release time

for teachers to do ongoing team planning. The

school also tapped three other sources of training: (1) the Coalition of Essential Schools,

(2) the district professional development academy, and (3) the local university.
SCHOOL RASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

3. Ropier* o Variety of Methods for

Dove loping Exportis.

Create cadres of teacher-leaders

Arrange for periodic visits to other schools

Build new relationships with universities

Pool Resources

The schools had devised an impressive array

of methods for promoting teachers professional

growth. The methods differed from the traditional scattering of workshops in two important

ways. First, many attempted to bring expertise

closer to the school, including helping teachers

to become the experts themselves. Second, the

methods were based on a vision of professional

development that is ongoing and dynamic,

designed to develop a continuing capacity to

meet unforeseen needs.

To ensure that all teachers in a school had

access to new ideas, some sites were creating

cadres of teacher-leaders. These individuals

received training from outside expens, and

then had responsibility for bringing the ideas

back to the rest of the teachers in the school.

This strategy helped teachers develop the

capacity to help each other. Furthermore,

advice from colleagues who were actually

using innovative approaches in their own classes was often considered more credible than

exhortations from researchers.

Advice from colleagues who

were actually using innovative

approaches in their own classes

was often considered more

credible than exhortations

from researchers.

At Sunset Middle School, reform

efforts began with the principal's selecting

five teachers to attend a summer institute on

the middle school concept at an out.of-state

institution of higher education. These five

teachers returned with -ome of the skills and

knowledge to begin leading the change

effort. One of the changes implemented

was the formation of the Program

Improvement Council (PIC). The PIC is made

up of administrators and teacher representatives and is the decision-making body of the

school. The PIC creates a structure and an

opportunity to build teacher-leaders who go

on to lead components of their school reform

efforts.

Although the principal has since left, the

original five teacher-leaders and new ones

have continued guiding the reform efforts at

their school. One of the original five is the

school improvement coordinator. Another

has been chairing the annual self-review

team for a number_ of years. The team annually reviews the school on state quality criteria and makes recommendations for

improvement. Funds received from the state

school improvement program are an important resource for Sunset's change efforts.

35
e.r,

.

Some schools and districts arranged for

periodic visits to other schools. Teachers

traveled to other schools that had already

begun experimenting with new ideas. In large

metropolitan areas, school visitations could be

accomplished during a staff development day

by simply driving across town. In other

cases, special funding could he obtained to

fund travel to more distant spots. Observing

innovations firsthand seems to overcome one

of the shortcomings of workshops given by

outside experts. Teachers frequently complain that the presentations of theory,

At Edgemont Junior High School, the

opportunity to visit and learn from the experiences of middle schools in other districts had

a profound effect. Edgemont teachers had

been reeling from the number of reforms

being initiated at their school. The teachers'

visits to other middle schools convinced them

that the schedule for Edgemont's dramatic

reform, transition to a middle school, was

much too rushed. The teachers' concerns convinced the principal and the district to rethink

the schedule and scale of middle school

implementation efforts.

After reading research about the effects of

grouping on student learning, South

Mission High School teachers hod the

opportunity to fly to another district that hod

successfully eliminated tracking. There teachers could see how colleagues worked with

heterogeneous groups and talk with teachers

about the obstacles they encountered and

overcame.

In ono Kentucky district, teachers had

traveled to Ohio, North Carolina, and Indiana

to observe schools that had implemented multiage groupings in the primary grades.

KEY FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL REFORM STRATEGIES

research, and recommendations often seem

too abstract. For many teachers, "show me

how it works" is the credibility test of a new

approach.

Some of the schools built new relationships with universities. They approached

local universities to develop ways teachers

could learn new techniques and receive credit

as well. In some cases, courses were held at

the school site.

Empire High School has developed a

close working relationship with the local university. University professors serve on the

Design Team, which is in charge of planning

the restructuring of both the high school and

the middle school. Furthermore, Empire has

formed a partnership with the university that

includes on-site teacher preparation for university students and on-site in-service for Empire

teachers at the school site.

Arbor Elementary has becomeCa "training camp" for aspiring teachers. Before their

student teaching experience, teacher candidates from a local university get an opportunity to work in the classrooms. The principal

views the candidates and their lessoni as

"new blood." 'We provide them with the

kids, and it gives the kids new faces and

keeps my teachers on their toes."

Arbor has also been making efforts to

recruit More minority teachers. Although ihe

student population is becoming increasingly

minority, Arbor curren4 has onty one minority teacher, who, because of the state fiscal crisis, has received a notice of possible terrninaNon. Through district collaboration, a

Historically Black College in a southern state

sent 25 Mican-American student teachers to

the district. The arrangement worked well.

11.17 39
SCHOOL.6ASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Schools also were finding ways to pool resources to build ongoing capacity. Many

schools reside within areas served by state- funded regional service centers, such as the

county offices of education in California. One

mission of these centers is to serve as prtites- sional development resources. Also, large districts may have their own staff development

departments. Federally funded regional labo- ratories and technical assistance centers are other possible resources t'or professional

growth. Schools planning their reforms can check the offerings of such agencies to see

whether the services offered meet the stalls

needs. In the study, a few schools and districts had banded together to support ongoing

consortia or centers for professional develop- ment. A few interested schools might also pool their resources to ensure the regular availability of technical assistance.

Empire High School is fortunate to

hove access to a professional development

academy housed in the district. The academy, supported by foundation funds, has a

strong director, a restructuring team, and a

commitment to school-based, teacher-directed staff develOpment. The facility offers an

auditorium,o well-atocked professional library, and 'various conference and seminar

rooms. Staff of the professional development academy serve on the Design Team,

which leads Empire's restructuring efforts. The academy provides expertise and techni- cal assistance on a regular basis from staff

that the school faculty trust.

Summary

The lessons drawn from the schools in the

study can provide some basic guidelines for schools embarking on site-based reform. As

noted at the beginning of this section, three

features were found to be pivotal components of the successful stimol-based reforms:

challenging curriculum for all

students

a collaborative school culture

meaningful opportunities for

professimal grt mth

Although schot its created varied approaches

for implementing these features, their presence

and integration characterized successful, dynamic reform. The next section provides examples of schools that have, to various

degrees, incorporated these lessons into their

reform efforts.

IWO

Three features were found

to bc pivotal components of the successful school-based

reforms: challenging

curriculum for all students,

a collaborative school culture,

meaningful opportunities for

professional growth.

4 0
EXAMPLES OF PROMISING SCHOOLIASED REFORM EFFORTS

r"1I a c,3 IL gm as

EXAMPLES OF PROMISING

SCHOOL-BASED REFORM EFFORTS

11his section returns to the big picture. For readers interested in

how more of the case study

schools pursued their reform

agendas, additional portraits are

presented to illustrate how

schools orchestrated their reform strategies, as

seen during the 1991-92 school year. These

portraits place the reader inside the case study

schools to experience the variety of ways that

school-based reform occurs. The portraits

point out how each school has enacted key

features. Views of two successful schools are

balanced with portraits of schools pursuing, but

not yet reaching, their goals.

The individuality of the reforms encountered

in the study cannot be overstated. At each

school, the context, vision, precipitating events,

key paAicipants, goals, conflicts, and attempted

resolutions varied. The effective effons, however, shared commitments to improved student

learning through staff ci4laboration, responsibility, and growth,

4 1
SCHOOL CASED 11E1011061 liSSONS 'NOM A NATIONAL STUDY

Ztt:i

Changing a lishoel from the Classesons Outs Ckely Elementary

Cicely Elementary's reform contrasts in interesting ways with South Mission High's restructuring story. At Cicely. the reform process

began with changes in classroom practice

among a small group of teachers. These

changes in turn led to shifts in working conditions. staffing arrangements. and governance

structures throughout the school.

Everyone interviewed at Cicely agreed that

this was an institution different from the one of

four years betbreand a much better one.

Most fundamentally, what took place in the

classroom between teachers and students, as

well as among students, had shifted to a more

challenging, integrated. problem-solving, hands

on. real-life-based approach to learning.

Teachers expectations for all students had

increased; the school sought to create bilingual

and biliterate students. Classrooms are being

Context Ckely Elementary serves about 800 students in an agricultural region. Over

85 percent of the students are from Latino backgrounds, 60 percent are

classified as limited English proficient, and a third of the student population

come from families who migrate with the seasonal crops. Twenty-one of

Cicely's 28 teachers hold bilingual credentials.

Deslining Thema*

Craiculum

and

Education

In 1987, Cicely's reform was stimulated by the superintendent's interest in an

innovative science curriculum. Funded by state and private grants, this curricular

reform engendered far-reaching systemic reformnot only in Cicely Elementary

but in the entir district.

The major curricular reform is an interdisciplinary, thematic approach to teaching

science. Teaching and materials are bilingual. Teachers have learned to use

cooperative learning and create a corner or space that is "healing," to develop

a sense of home in the school. Multiage student groupings will be instituted to

create "family" groups. Four teachers will establish quads: two rooms for the

integrated thematic curriculum, the other two for labs (technology and science).

A key component of the multiage grouping is cross-age and peer tutoring.

Although Cicely students have low scores on standardized tests, older students'

scores are improving. The school sfaff feel that these tests do not measure what

Cicely students really know, so the school is looking for other types of

measurement. Instead of report card grades, Cicely teachers are piloting

narrative conference forms based on language arts portfolios and teacherdeveloped authentic assessments.

Teachers The principal of Cicely, there for nine years, has had to change his style to allow

INIMUillikle more shared decision making with the teachers and parents. When a vice

Change principal position opened up, he replaced it with two part-time positions, a

Coordinator of Restructuring and a parent liaison.

1114 42
Community support for thc

instructional program, school

leadership, and approach to

discipline was overwhelmingly

positive.

Learning

I. Mon

and Work

Tfiefthei

EXAMPLES OF PROMISING SCHOOlIIASIG RIFORM IFFORTS

transformed into home-like environments for

students. Among this highly mobile student

population, truancy and absenteeism were

down, as was vandalism. Community support

for the instructional program, school leadership,

and approach to discipline was overwhelmingly

positive.

Cicely teachers have a variety of collaborative strategies. The science program

has a strong coaching element and requires that the entire staff agree to support

the pilot teachers in their efforts. Now over 70 percent of the staff participate.

The entire Cicely staff, joined by parents and support staff, attended a three-day

summer retreat lost year to develop a shared vision for change in the school. As

a result, the school has a Leadership Team of administrators, teachers, classified

staff, and parents to monitor the restructuring process. Soon the district will shift

control of eight additional district-sponsored staff development days to the

schools.

_ - Four years ago, following a districtwide awareness session about the alternative

science program, eight Cicely teachers decided to participate. Teachers make a

three-year commitment and participate in a two-week training each summer

where they develop their theme for the year. They receive a stipend plus funds

for purchasing .materials. Recognizing that significant curriculum reform takes

time, the science program supports a five-year process. The district provides

each participating teacher with two to three adclitional release days per month

dna -eight more days for other staff development activities. A three-year,

$250,000 grant from a private corporation funded the summer institutes, where

all Cicely staff received training in leadership, consensus building, and

developing a vision. To plan and monitor reforms, the Leadership Team is

supported by action teams specializing in curriculum, staff development, student

assessment, partnerships, and school organization. Further support for the

restructuring effort came from a state planning grant. In addition, the district has

sponsored information dissemination sessions on topics such as authentic

assessment, multigraded classes, creating a community school, and the process

of organizational change.

43
SCHOOtslIASED REFOIIPA LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Teachers had access to a rich menu of staff

development opportunities and consumed

them with gusto. The three-day retreats

increased staff capacity for problem solving

and collaboration. Teachers had substantial

control over what took place in the school. .

Staff repeatedly commented on teacher-initiated reform, acknowledging that the district

helped with big ideas but stating that teachers

drove implementation in the classroom.

Teachers also felt that Cicely could change

faster, but that they needed to wait for the

Context Arbor Elementary is one of nine elementary schools in a suburban district

serving 5,500 students. The demographics of the area are changing rapidly;

about half of Arbor's 350 students are from African-American, Hispanic,

or Asian backgrounds. The principal describes the families as "extremely

needy." She has been in the district 24 years and is in her fifth year of

principalship at Arbor. She believes that teachers must be involved in school

management and is described as laid back." She enjoys good relations with

the union. Parent involvement is high and Visible.

In keeping with the school's reputation for innovation, Arbor's teachers voted

to be the first involved in Effective Schools in 1984-85. Despite feeling

overwhelmed occasionally, they maintain their enthusiasm for improving their

school.

Concluding

and

Simarn

Curriculum

Arbor staff are fully involved in the district's dual curricular thrusts,

interdisciplinary curriculum and design of common goals and standards. The

school is in the midst of mapping curriculum to eliminate overlap, - -Mg a

conceptual approach to mathematics incorporating manipulatives, a moving

away from basal* to trade books, charts, and process writing. Student*

engap in oral activities in both language arts and mathematics. Teachers

have Nogun using cooperative groups and problem-solving strategies. A

combination of Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 funds have been used to purchase

multicultural material. Assertive discipline methods have been adopted to

maintain a productive classroom environment. For siudents with special

learning needs, Arbor has instituted a collaborative/consultation model to

work directly with the classroom teacher, reducing the amount of unnecessary

referrals for special education services.

The school staff communicate to students that they can achieve. On test days,

students wear special tee shirts that road: "Do not disturb. I'm testing."

Before testing, teachers recount to students the story of "The Little Engine That

Could." Teachers have woven emphases of the state testing into their

curriculum. In the first two years of the state testing, the school did poorly,

partly, the principal thought, because the tests did not reflect the curriculum.

;4-

44
district to catch up. What began as an experimental curriculum had stimulated schoolwide

and districtwide reform.

EXAMPLES OF PROMISING SCHOOlIASED REFORM EFFORTS

The Little Engine That Cod*

Arbor Illementary

Arbor Elementary's reform drew energy from

the school's history of innovation. Their

approach evolved from attention to a few,

Now the school ranks at or above the state average. Motivated partly by the

goal to extend common goals to kindergarten, the district is beginning to

investigate alternative assessment methods for all the primary grades.

Pioneering At the vanguard of the Effective Schools movement in their district, Arbor

Partners teachers voted to begin their reform efforts in 1984. Working with a state

facilitator, the first action planning team, composed of the principal and

several teachers, identified two Improvement goals: a safe and orderly

environment and improved tudent performance in basic skills. With input

from the rest of the school OA they developed a plan and worked On the two

goals. In 1988, the new Orincipal -launched another surveyof the staff to

ascertain progress on previous goals and set the neW.goals of cOminUnication

and Curriculum clarificatiorand articulation. The secorid Odic* planning team

changed to a participatoriOanagement system to allow ongOing input: The

staff began doing scheduling, budgeting, and interviewing secretaries. The

eight elected members of the decision-making tearn meet every TuescktY to

discuss change efforts, along with agenda items subinitted bY the staff 'during

the week. Although the dibriet hires teachers, the school will have Moil voice

in decisions next year. Ciiericular decisions are handled through distrietwide

committees, yet all of Arboesitaff are involved. -11:4 ,4t . Growing Arbor has an older staff, aii#44 whom hold master's degreei:'The priiipaI

with the wants to change the staffing to reflect the student diversity, since Only' one new

Job teacher is African-American. Meanwhile, the veteran teachers are in the midst

of learning how to serve ci itudent population different from the one they were

trained to teach. ReportedlY, the staff development prograM is Changing from

the high-priced, one-time session to an ongoing approach. Now each school

has the same amount of funding available to select its own offerings.

In addition, Arbor hosts many aspiring teachers from a nearby university.

The principal reports that the student teachers bring many new ideas and

much enthusiasm. Along with formal staff development opportunities, the

principal expends considerable energy "walking teachers through new roles

and responsibilities."

45
5CI400L.BASED REFORM. LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

nonthreatening goals to an ambitious array of

initiatives. Throughout their journey, the principal and staff built on close, effective communication and collaboration.

Arbor presents the opportunity to k)ok at a

change of leadership in the Effective Schools

Program and its impact on the school reform

effort. In 1984, Arbor's principal agreed to be

the first in the district to attempt the Effective

Schools process. The current principal supported by the staff, perpetuates the school's

reputation that "We at Arbor will try it."

In accord with a management style characterized as -fluid." the new principal continued the

school's reform efforts but moved them to a

more dynamic, interactive process. She felt that

the structured action planning teams wcre too

limited by their assigned roles and procedures,

so she designed a more fluid, responsive decision-making process.

The curriculum reforms appeared to be

changing classroom practice. Although districtwide committees directed curriculum

efforts, the Arbor staff served on the committees. The staff were incorporating effective

instructional and curricular strategies such as

math manipulatives, children's literature,

process writing, and cooperative student learning groups. The purchase of multicultural

materials indicated the staffs awareness of the

need to make learning activities relevant to students' backgrounds and to help students learn

about cultures other than their own.

Achievement test scores for Arbor students indicated that the instructional program was

preparing students for the state tests. The alternative assessment methods the school was just

beginning to explore will be another source of

evidence of student progress.

Teachers at Arbor had also assumed a much

more prominent role in the school's daily management. Not only did the decision-making

team meet w-ekly to discuss progress on

school goals and issues brought up by the staff,

the team dealt with scheduling, budgeting, and

interviewing. The principal felt comfortable

leaving the team to handle unforeseen emergencies as well as ongoing issues. Arbor teachers seemed to have developed a sense of ownership and responsibility, and a good working

rapport. One teacher observed, "There's a lot

of teamwork here...everybody comes through.

Teachers come with a shared responsibility to

see students achieve." Another teacher said.

"The principal makes it her business to let you

know you're doing a good job. This whole

staff reacts to that."

Arbor teachers had a variety of opportunities

to grow professionally. The principal guided

the decision-making team through many of the

managerial tasks. The school could also

choose the substance and form of staff development that met its needs.

The major pieces of the reform puzzle

seemed to be in place at Arbor. The teachers

were able, willing, and experiencing progress.

Leadership and support fueled "The Little

Engine That Could."

On An Way: ihnpiro Nigh School

Empire High School based its reform efforts

on Effective Schools processes. Reform began

at the schoolwide governance level, then

moved to more site-based management. Major

changes in the organization of the school were

under way, but shifts in teaching and learning

were only beginning to result from these

efforts.

During the study, Empire was in the process

of radically restructuring its administration and

its academic program. For those teachers

active in school-based management and the

teaming arrangements, life in the school was

dramatically different. Yet these changes were

in their early stagesduring the 1991-92 school

year, only 20 percent of the students and teachers were in teaming arrangements, and many

W4
EXAMPLES OF PROMISING SCHOOL-RASED REFORM EFFORTS

Context Empire High School is in a highly innovative large city system. Following

desegregation legislation of the mid-1970s, the predominantly white student

population has shifted to 60 percent white, 30 percent African-American, and 10

percent Asian-American. Empire is trying to change its reputation as the school

ranking last or next to last on every indicator of success used in the district.

The reform was stimulated by a special assistant to the superintendent and head

of the district's professional development academy, who was also an ex-principal

in the district. He is an extremely progressive educator who seems to be taking

on this school as a model project to show what can be done. The reform effort

began in 1989, when a group of teachers, with the help of the principal, sought

to implement a number of changes in the obviously failing school. Despite new

curriculum programs, participatory management, experimentation with teaming,

and involvement in the Coalition of Essential Schools, teachers recognized by

1991 that bolder initiatives would be necessary to reach their goals. At the

same time, the assistant to the superintendent had been looking for a secondary

school to try a plan he had for restructuring. He and the teachers agreed on a

process for initiating three key components of what came to be known as

the Empire initiative: (1) a planning year, (2) a quest for outside grants, and

(3) an interim administrative structure. :

Revamping Vie design team promotes a new vision of the school that views it as a Iasi ;headquarters for learning, not the only place learning can happen. Building on

Div Wons qcouple of attempts at grade-level teaming, the traditional grade and subjectmatter structures are being revamped to create three divisions: (1) a

.preparatory division for 9th- and 10th-graders, grouping them into teams of 125

stu&nts with five teachers presenting interdisciplinary instruction; (2) a transition

division for llth- and 12th-graders focusing on preparation for college and the

work force; and (3) an alternative division for students who can't attend school

every. day.

In the 1991-92 school year, the preparatory division sot up two teams, one at

10th and one at 9th_grade, to serve as a model for the entire teaming effort in

1992-93. The 125 students will be located in the same physical area. The

teams will consist of four "core" teachers (math, science, English, and social

studies) plus one or two special teachers (English as a Second Language,

Chapter 1, special education) whose services will be used as the team decides.

Another set of teachers (art, music, foreign language) will rotate in and out

of the teams (staying for 12 weeks each time). Finally, during each team's

common planning period, students will go to a set of "related" teachers (e.g.,

business and orchestra). Empire plans to shift to "macro" scheduling, where

students have hvo hours of history and two hours of math each day for one

semester, with two hours of science and two hours of English the following

semester. Another team has just begun to integrate math and English, using a

thematic approach.

continued on page 111-8

W-7
SCHOOLBASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

continued from page 111-7

Teachers The reform-minded teachers at Empire High School hove forged a participatory

at the governance structure guided by teachers. In the 1991-92 planning year, a

Ham Design Team made up of school staff, administrators, community members,

parents, and university staff took charge of designing the joint restructuring of

both the high ichool and the middle school. In a makeover of the administrative

structure, the number of administrative positions was reduced and the remaining

positions were changed from top-down decision-makers to facilitating

"coordinators." Moreover, some administrative support staff were reassigned to

help teachers with paperwork. At Empire, the participatory management

committee has decision-making authority for the high school; a series of

subcommittees focus on areas such as co .4...ulum scheduling; the teacher teams

have a fair amount of authority over how they structure their courses.

Learning The teachers at Empire ore attempting to accomplish a great deal, but most of

to the teachers feel positive about the process and support. The staff entered the

planning phase better prepared than those at many of the schools in the study.

First, the school had a participatory management structure in place for a couple

.of years, so a cadre of teachers and parents exist that have been involied in the

'decision-making process. Second, the outside resources secured by the Design

Team from grants ($375,000 this year) pay for release time for teachersio do

team planning. The three administrative positions eliminated also freed Up funds

for plannina,time. Third, because the school is a Coalition of Essential Schools

participaM,Iiiti Or three of the staff have had extensive training at Brown

Mniversity, arid others have been trained by local CES staff. Fourth, the change

effOrt is iupPoited by the district's professional development academy, led by the

administrator whose basic ideas shaped the reform design. Finally, the school .. ,kcis faiMed a partnership with a local university that provides for omit*

grackiate courses for the teaching staff.

classrooms and teachers were functioning as

they had for years. The curricular initiatives in

progress, however, held great promise. A writing program, computer lab, integrated thematic

curricula, extended time blocks to allow study

of subjects in depth, cross-age groupingall

represent research-based effective practices. It

is too early to assess the effects of Empire's

instructional reforms on teaching strategies, students classroom experiences, and academic

achievement. But there are data to support the

positive feelings voiced by teachers and parents

interviewed in the study. Parent and community involvement in the school was at an all-time

high; the sale of school jackets and tee shirts

increased dramatically as students were no

longer embarrassed to be alsociated with the

school name; student absenteeism and suspensions were reduced.

48
EXAMPLES OF PROMISING SCHOOLSASED REFORM EFFORTS

. _ .

Context Edgemont Junior High School serves nearly 1,000 students, grades 7-9, in

a small city that is the hub of a large agricultural and cattle-ranching area. Both

the students and faculty are predominantly white. The principal has been at the

school for 20 years. Under pressure from the district, he has been unsuccessfully

trying to guide his staff toward a transition to middle school. Over the past

three years, the school has become involved in a statewide Effective Schools net

work, begun to participate in a state-initiated restructuring program, undertaken

plans to move to a middle school model, and started to implement a series of

district-developed curricula that follow the Outcome-Based Education (OBE)

model. Individually, each of these reforms has led to some promising changes; in

combination, they seem to have swamped the staff in a blizzard of ideas.

Outcome The adoption of the Outcome-Based Education philosophy is a district-mandated

Rased decision. The idea is to change what is taught to match what the district expects

Education students to know, and then to ensure that students reach a mastery level in those

skills. This school year, the district has implemented new curricula in mathematics, spelling, and physical education. Other new curricula will be instituted in

subsequent years. An important by-product of OBE has been a greater degree

_of coordination across grade levels and subject areas. The middle school

sivitch is forcing the staff to rethink instructional delivery in anticipation of

teaming next year. The principal feels that the staff are lagging behind in

.developing challenging and interesting tasks and in devising alternative assessinent tools for their classes. To date, the school has achievement data only frbm

standardized test information.

continued on page III-10

Empire's most dramatic changes were in the

organization of the school governance. The

administrative pyramid was "flattened" by creating a management team. The new role of

administrators was reflected by their designations as "coordinators" and their temporary status on one-year contracts. All building administrators knew their jobs were on the line. At

Empire, leadership was diffused among a

young interim principal and a couple of

teacher-leaders. The elimination of administrative positions and allocation of the funds to

team planning by teachers further underscored

the trend toward lean management and

increased support for teachers.

Teo Much, Teo Quickly: Attempts to Champ IdgemeRt howler High

Edgemont Junior High School is an example

of a less successful reform effort that began

with adoption of the Effective Schools model.

Here, a variety of district- and principal-initiated

reforms overwhelmed teaching staff, and there

was only minimal evidence that the changes

were improving the school.

From the interviews and observations, it was

clear that Edgemont teachers were overwhelmed by the volume of change they were

experiencing. This feeling was especially acute

in connection with the middle school transition,

which had a very short timeline. The district
SCHOOL-BASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

continued from page 111-9

Top Down Teachers at Edgemont have had little input into the school's reform programs.

The involvement with the Effective Schools process constituted the first reform

effort. Beginning in 1989, the school become involved in a state-sponsored

program as a result of the principal's desire to formalize a planning structure in

the school. Committees were formed and a survey was administered, resulting

in modest changeseach teacher committed to calling two students' parents per

week to improve home-school communication. Neither did the teachers initiate

the move to the middle school model; it was a district decision to relieve

overcrowding. Similarly, Outcome-Based Education was initiated by the district.

The Effective Schools teams did give the teachers some voice in the school's

agenda. The Edgemont teachers hove recognized the rushed timeline for the

middle school transition and were successful in convincing the principal and the

district to consider a more thoughtful pace.

Developnunt State restructuring funds have provided Edgemont staff with opportunities to seek

by Fiat new ideas and information. Teachers visited other middle schools to see how

they restructured their curriculum. A related priority, Outcome-Based Education,

included staff development that resulted in changes in math instruction, spelling,

and physical education. In general, however, staff seem to feel oyerwhelmed

with the pace and number of changes expected of them.

was exerting pressure for speedy adoption of

all reforms and expected the principal to make

it happen. The principal had not been successful in protecting his staff from outside demands

or in regulating the pace of the many meetings

and reports required as part of the reforms.

With reluctant teachers on one side and an

insistent district administration on the other, the

fragile authority of the principal started to

erode. Amidst the turmoil, only minor changes

could be seen in classroom activities.

Slow Going: The Beginning of

Change in Petersham,' Blementery

Our last portrait is of a khool swept rather

reluctantly into state and district reform initiatives. The principal had been slow to relinquish control, leaving teachers frustrated in

their attempts to move scarce resources to

improve classroom conditions.

The experience at Petersburgh Elementary

illustrates that attempts to restructure schools

do not always lead to promising organizational

changes. The school did not transform as a

result of its early efforts. Communication had

111.10 50
EXAMPLES Of PROMISING SCHOOLlASED REFORM EFFORTS

Context Located in a relatively poor forming

than 200 students, community, Petersburgh serves fewer all white, with a staff of 8 teachers and a principal. Traditionally, the school has not been one of the most attractive to parents, and communication between the veteran principal of 20 been strained. years and the teachers has

Over the past year, the school has become

program that provides for involved in a state-initiated reform

reforms, and school-based decision making, calls for curricular imposes new assessment mechanisms. In addition, at the district's request, the school joined

technical assistance

a network of Effective Schools programs that offers and training.

Minimal The Effective Schools

Classroom Two instructionally Programs have had little impact on classroom practice.

Clang, for reading and a new homework policy.

related changes were implemented: an incentives program

As a result of the reform new state-initiated program, a few curricular

beginning to changes have started. Teachers are use writing portfolios and to teach more writing. grades 1-3 Teachers in are using a new'manipulatives-based,

Upper-grade teachers will be trained process-thinking-oriented text.

next year. Despite changes low going into in the state effect for the

One period primary grades, the school is not mixing ages. per day, some *students switch teachers.

.

. Guarded The first major change resulting from the school's Garstukalia Schools participation in Effective was the institution of regular meetings and an increase of regular communication between teachers and the principal. Second, initiated a formal the school has needs assessment

surveii:111. procep, including parent and teacher surveys uncovered three building, -poor problems: physical problems with the communication with parents, and little teacher policy. As input into school a consequence, a bus lane was installed, a new teacher lounfie built, and the school was cleaned up.

installing Communications were improved by a suggestion box whose

meetings. Also, contents were read at school council

fundamental changes,

progress reports were prepared for parents. When it came to however, the principal wanted instructional guarded his turf. Teachers aides, but the principal vetoed their personnel decisions request, indicating that were only within the purview of the principal and the superintendent.

Professional The Effective Schools process with its ready-made Growth provide mechanisms structure and surveys doss for teachers to pinpoint their heard. At the concerns and have them same time, the teachers do not have access to outside to address larger resources problems.

51
SCHOOL-SASED REFORM. LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

improved, staff were thinking about ways of

improving the school, and some cosmetic

improvements were made. Yet there had been

no organizational changes that really affected

the balance of power in the school. Teaching

and learning in the classrooms had changed

very little.

There had been no

organizational changes

that really affected the

balance of power in the school.

Teaching and learning

in thc classrooms had

changed very little.

Summary

Taken together. the portraits illustrate the

range and complexity of reforms under way in

the nation's schools. Improving schools can

involve changes in allor fewaspects of

daily life: how staff interact, authority relations.

the organization of work and learning, and the

content of learning. The portraits also demonstrate the limitations of labels for various

school-based reform efforts. Some reforms

begin with adherence to the Effective Schools

model and evolve in new directions; some

begin as classroom-level reforms that blossom

into schoolwide cnanges; others begin with

bold plans to restructure the school, only to

result in superficial changes. The portraits suggest, then, that there are no "off-the-shelr models for schools to follow, but that the key elements presented in Section II do seem to contribute to successful school-based reform

efforts.

There arc no "off-the-shelf"

models for schools to follow.

r.;

A
WHAT DISTRICTS CAN DO TO SUPPORT SCHOOL-BASED REFORM

BEYOND THE SCHOOLHOUSE: WHAT DISTRICTS

CAN DO TO SUPPORT SCHOOLAASED REFORM

he course of educational change

necessarily is directed by the

teachers and administrators who

work within the walls of the

school building. Successful

reform turns on the ability of

school staff to develop sufficient capacity and

willingness to alter the process of teaching and

learning and their traditional patterns of authority and interaction. Yet schools do not exist in

a vacuum; they must negotiate their efforts with

the outside worlddistricts, states, and local

communities. To garner the support needed to

advance their reform efforts, schools must

make use of resources outside the school. The

study found that the district (and, less directly,

the state) can play a key role in helping

schools overcome the barriers to change and

take advantage of external support.

This section shares lessons on what district

central staff can do to support school-based

reform. The section describes how districts can

effectively provide professional development

/ opportunities, offer schools sufficient authority

and flexibility, build and manage community

support, and garner needed resources.

IV.'

%",
SCHOOL BASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUD'y

Providing Professional Development Opporhmities

A central finding of our national study is that

successful school-based reform requires all (or

most) school staff to improve their daily work

and to assume tasks for which most are not at

all prepared. For example. teachers who had

been trained for and had succeeded in teaching

a self-contained classroom of 25 5-year-old students using a standard district curriculum were

being asked to meet with a team of other

teachers to develop a new curriculum for teamtaught. multiage primary classrooms. It is a

rare teacherand a rarer school staffthat has

the expertise to take on such challenges without some outside assistance.

Regardless of the district's overall approach

to supporting reform, the central office can be

one important provider, convener, or facilitator

of the professional development opportunities

teachers need to meet the challenges of school

improvement. The district can play various

roles in providing professional development

support; it need not be the only trainer or the

one that defines what is to be done. Some

alternative patterns of professional development

are summarized and illustrated below, arranged

in rough order from the greatest to the least

control by the district over the staff development offered.

The professional development center.

One district exemplified this approach to

professional development assistance by creating a "professional development academy"

with the aid of outside foundation funding.

Expert trainer. A less ambitious variation

on the theme of the professional development center occurred in instances where the

district staff development director or others at

the central office possessed expertise in areas

related to the school-based reform effort.

Definer of a menu of professional development options. The district might not

possess the expertise required to provide

staff development directly, but instead might

define a series of acceptable options for staff

development, as found in several cases in the

study.

Professional development broker. Rather

than set out a menu of possibilities, the district could act as an intermediary between

schools and outside experts or other sources.

such as professional societies or universities.

Source of professional development

resources. The district is also one source of

funds to support staff development activities

devised by the school, and it may simply

provide the wherewithal for school people to

arrange for their own professional

development.

1V4

It is a rare teacher

and a rarer school staf f

that has the expertise to

take on such challenges

without some

outsidc assistance.

54
\Whatever their r()le in staff devekTment. districts are most effective when their efforts.

enable school people to acquire skills, knowledge, and ideas that are appropriate to the

school-based reforms in which they are

engaged. The lack of fit between district-provided in-service training and what school people want has often been documented. and the

potential for such an outcome is clearly present

as the district becomes more heavily involved

in staff development of various kinds.

other forms of technical assistance (e.g.. with

grant writing. troubleshooting. materials, and

technology) are also important, but arguably

less central than direct professional devel()pment of teaching staffs. Such technical assistance can involve fairly mundane operational

details of reforme.g., determining whether

waivers are required for a change in the school

day schedule and helping the school process

the waiver request. On the other hand, school

people often need help addressing more fundamental matters, such as determining the most

appropriate mmie of assessing major changes

in practice. Where it possesses the expertise

or knows how to get access to itthe district

can be very helpful with these kinds of

challenges.

771-"r"Pswr7,77777.1r4Y"7- 77.

Sorting and Waiving Requirements

Successful school-based reform calls for a

balance between top- down and bottom-up

control of the change process. Often, the

reform agenda is advanced when districts provide schools with greater flexibility and authority over key decisionsand subsequmtly, when

principals share authority with teachers. Yet

district requirements (some of which may originate from the state or federal level) can also

encourage school improvement by stimulating

schoc staff to consider changes and by guiding

the direction of those changes.

WPM DISTRICTS CAN DO TO SUPPORT SCHOOLRASIO RIFORM

Often, the reform agenda is

advanced when districts provide

schools with greater flexibility

and authority over key

decisionsand subsequently,

when principals share

authority with teachers.

Finding the appropriate balance between district and school control is a difficult and evolving process. The study identified two general

guidelines for policy makers to consider in

deciding when top-down policies are called for.

First, it is important to tie requirements clearly

and directly to learning goals. Examples

include districts that specify the content that

students need to be exposed to or to describe

the competencies students should possess in

each subject area, instead of specifying the

number of minutes of instruction that students

must receive in a certain content area each and

every day.

Second, it is important that district requirements or mandates respect the variability that

exists across schools. The study found that

many schools had to struggle with district mandates that specified the exact makeup of a

school council. A better policy might be to

require that schools have a formal method of

including teachers. staff, and community members in key decisions and then give schools

flexibility on how to do so.

IV.3

r 5
SCHOOLtASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

-

Staff in many of the schools visited in the

study felt that they profited from being freed

from normal school scheduling regulations.

cumbersome rules about the use of school specialists. or requirements to use only districtapproved textbook series. In other sites. especially in those where the vision or reform originated at the district level. requirements worked

to catalyze improvement efforts by requiring

detailed long-range improvement plans. a new

curricular emphasis. or an expanded and more

helpful tbrm of instructional supervision.

The loosening ot' regulationsespecially

through the use of waivers on a case-by-case

basisdoes not ensure that the district provides

a flexible environment for school-based reform,

however. The process of considering and

granting waivers can be cumbersome and, from

the schools' point of view, is often a mixed

blessing. In one large urban district in the

study, district respondents reported spending

inordinate amounts of energy researching and

processing waiver requests from school staff in

a network of state-funded schools engaged in

school improVement. In many instances, it was

not easy to determine exactly what requirements applied and where they originated. As

often as not. there was no formal requirement

that pertained to a particular situation, only the

perception by mid-level managers in the central

office that something was required.

Managing Forcs and Conditions outside 6. School% Control

By formal responsibility and position. the district stands between the school and various

potentially powerful groups outside the

schoolrepresenting other schools and educators in the district, advocating the interests of

certain community segments, or making policy

at the regional or state level. In particular. the

local teachers' union, advocacy groups. and

business interests in the local community. and

the state education agency are likely to exert

various pressures. both positive and negative.

on school-based reform efforts. Whether they

want to or not, district officials are forced to

mediate between school-based reformers and

these different groups. The way in which the

district carries out its mediating role has a great

deal to do with the ability of school-based

reform efforts to thrive and be sustained.

Managing external forces and conditions

includes a variety of roles: buffering school

people from the outside world; interpreting and

adapting the demands of the outside to make

them less burdensome for the schools; and cultivating outside groups for the advantage of

schools. Below are discussed issues related to

the dynamics of working with the teachers'

-union, community, and state government.

Engaging the Teachers' Union

Especially in larger districts, teachers' unions

play a vital role in school reform. In some

sites, teachers' unions are at the forefront of

reform efforts by encouraging teacher leadership and professionalism. In other sites,

unions work with district administrators to

advance the reform agenda. In some cases,

however, the union is seen by schools as
Thc way in which the district

carries out its mediating role

has a grcat deal to do with

thc ability of school-bascd

rcform efforts to thrive

and be sustained.

representing a series of constraints, chiefly in

the areas of hiring, extra duties and assignments, and other matters pertaining to working conditions in the schools. In particular,

the seniority-based hiring systems in many

districts' contracts reportedly made it extremely difficult for schools to recruit the kinds of

teachers who are sympathetic to a particular

reform effort.

Because the union represents teachers on a

districtwide basis, individual schools are inherently at a disadvantage in eliciting union support or cooperation for a particular reform

effort, unless school people happen to have

close personal ties to the union (as was the

case in several schools visited during the

study). Because of this disadvantage, the district central office can play a pivotal role.

WHAT DISTRICTS CAN DO TO SUPPORT SCHOOL,RASID IIEFOIM

Successful mediation in this role requires that

districts and unions progress beyond an adversarial labor vs. management model of collective

bargaining to one emphasizing collective professional responsibility for educational improvement. For example. some districts in the study

renegotiated contracts to give schools more

flexibility regarding aspects of the union contract while affording teachers more involvement

in school-based decisions. In this way, flexibility is exchanged for authority, and administrators and teachers become clearer partners in

improving schools.

District leadership can be proactive in engaging union leaders in the substance and philosophy of a given reform effort. This process was

most clearly illustrated in South Mission Unified

School District, in which the superintendent

took the union leader, along with district . administrators, board members, and school

administrators, to four-day workshops on the

Effective Schools process. His intention in

doing so was to expose the union head to the

philosophy that he hoped would guide all

reform efforts in the district.

Overall, school-based reform poses a dilemma for active teacher unions and for district

and school administrators. The emphasis of

reforms on increased teacher professionalism

and greater teacher authority at the school level

fulfills long-held goals of the unions while

threatening the traditional authority of administrators. Concurrently, the move toward greater

school-based authority and autonomy threatens

traditional union support for uniform work

rules and hiring criteria while giving administrators new flexibility. In the end, the success of

school reform requires that districts and unions

find an amicable middle ground that protects

their interests while promoting the reform

agenda.

5"
SCHOOL.BASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

One effective strategy

(at both thc district and

school levels) to deal with

communities concerns

is to bring the community

and thc school together

as much as possible.

Cultivating the CommunityLike teacher

unions, communities can be both allies and

opponents of school-based reform efforts.

Unlike unions, communities are rarely well

organized or able to articulate collective and

concrete visions of what schools should look

like. The national study found many instances

in which the community exerted a general

pressure for better test scores, lower dropout

rates, or more attention to this or that group,

but it was unusual for a community to be a

major motivating force directing schoOls to

adopt schoolwide comprehensive reform efforts

of the sort that are the focus of this guide.

Districts (and schools) often have to "sell" or

explain the idea of the reform approach to the

community. Current reforms, especially in the

areas of curriculum and instruction, represent a

stark departure from the experiences of most

adults in the community. Block scheduling and

field-based learning experiences are new concepts for most parents. Teacher and parent

decision-making teams require a new kind of

participation on the part of adults. The use of

more integrated approaches to compensatory

and special education programs often seems

like a threat to parents who have fought hard

to establish special services for low-achieving

or special-need students.

Therefore, district staff should undertake

active campaigns to enlist the support of key

constituencies within the community. The

study found that One effective strategy (at both

the district and sch()ol levels) to deal with communities' concerns is to bring the community

and the school together as much as possible.

Thus, parents in one rural district came to support a new hands-on curriculum as the district

made arrangements for students to visit local

farms and small factories to learn directly from

local residents.

Interpreting State Requirements and

MandatesForces at the state levelespecially

those emanating from the state education

agency, the governor's office, the legislature,

state professional associations, or combinations

of these groupsare an ever-present feature of

the reform landscape in most districts.

Inescapably, the district acts as intermediary by

either ignoring or interpreting reform ideas,

resources, and requirements from the state

level. Key roles the district can play here

include:

translating and making sense of the array of

state requirements for schools so that school

staff are not required to read and understand

for themselves each proclamation from the

state capitol

communicating the concerns of school staff

regarding state requirements to the appropriate state-level audiences

brokering state waivers and exceptions,

thereby providing schools with a critical form

of support for the reform efforts in question

53
Key roles the district can play

include: translating and malcing

sense of the array of statc

requirements, communicating

the concerns of school staff to

thc appropriate state-level

audiences and brokering statc

waivers and exceptions

The degree to which and the way in which

districts can manage state forces impinging on

school reform efforts depend a great deal on

the political culture of the state and the tradition establishing the degree to which the

districts must pay heed to the state. For example, the Kentucky state reform bill mandates

deep restructuring of educational programs in

all schools. This situation contrasts sharply

with those in other states that provide for more

local control over educational matters, such as

Washington's Schools for the 21st Century, a

5-year demonstration program offering $250,000

and greater flexibility under state requirements

to a selected group of 30 schools and school

districts across the state.

,,meT7F,

WHAT DISTRICTS CAN DO TO SUPPORT SCHOOL-RASED REFORM

Garnoring Resourcos

School-based reform efforts often call for

additional resources, for greater discretion by

school people over the use of resources, or for

both. Accordingly, the financial health of the

district, the availability of discretionary

resources at the district level, and the district's

policies regarding school-level budgeting are

intimately involved in the story of reform.

The district can play various roles in this

regard. The study encountered districts contributing resources to school-based reform

efforts in a variety of ways. among them:

creating special programs targeted to schoolwide improvement efforts of various kinds

helping schools secure external grant funding

from the state, foundations, or private-sector

firms

reallocating resources in the overall district

budget to provide greater assistance to

school-level reform efforts

transferring budgetary authority to schools to

make it easier for them to concentrate

resources on key reform goals

59
oSCH001.SASED REFORM IESSONS FROM A NATIONAl STUDY

Ilestmery

Districts are important players in schoolbased reform. One way or another, schmls

depend on their districts for many things: good

will, tolerance and or permission for experimentation, resources. pnaection nn hostile

external fi wces, and the creation of supportive

organizational structures, to name only smne of

what districts can provide.

There is dearly no one "best" role for districts to play. Rather, the optimum form of district supp(wt depends on the fit between district- and school-level visions of reform and on

the resolution of the inevitable authority issues

that are involved. On balance, the odds of sustaining promising school-based retbrms over

the long term are probably better in districts

that assume an active role in support of these

reforms, creating a clear vision of change and

providing needed resources.

But if there is no "best" way to support

reform at the school level, there clearly are

ways for districts to stand in its way, even

when they intend to help. District policies.

actions, and conditions can seriously impede

school-level initiatives. In particular, overly

strict interpretation of state and federal compliance requirements, insistence on uniformity

across schools, unwillingness to grant schools

greater decision-making authority, and inflexibility about district procedural requirements are

among the ways that central office officials

thwart the designs of school-level reformers.

The findings from the national study suggest

a number of concrete steps that districts can

take to support reform.

( 1) The district can serve as the initial stimuhis for school-based reform. Although this

may seem inconsistent with the concept of

school-based reform, manyperhaps a

majority ofschools that are receptive or

susceptible to reform do not spontaneously

imagine new and better missions. organizations, curricula, and approaches to instruction. Something must catalyze the reform

process. and in many cases the initial catalyst came from the district level.

(2) The district can assemble a critical mass of

resources (including funds, knowledge,

materials, and specialized forms of assistance) that school-based reformers need and

are hard pressed to come up with by themselves. School-based reform is hard, laborintensive work, and the study found that

school people engaged in this process

appreciated the resources that often came

their way from the central office. Moreover,

professional development sponsored by the

central office is often a source of key

reform ideas, even leadership, for the

schools.

(3) The district offers a broader professional

forum for reform ideas, in which the staff

of one school might interact on an intense

and regular basis with other school staffs in

developing their thinking.

However, the analyses suggest that, to play a

consequential role, the district often needs to

change the way it does business. In this sense,

the ultimate conclusion is that the district is

important to the success of school-based

reform in proportion to its willingness to

reform itself. Otherwise, wittingly or unwittingly, it may indeed undermine what school-level

people do to improve schooling.

-1V41 60
31M- ..1E° m NIL JIM Mir a In Si

Shields. P. M., Anderson. L.. Bamburg, J., Hawkins, E. F., Knapp, M. S.,

Ruskus. J. R., & Wilson. C. L. (1995). Improving Schools from the

Bottom 1p: From Igfrctive Schools to Restructuring. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Education.

U.S. Department of Education. (1993). Improving America's Schools Act .

of 1993. Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education

Act (H.R. 3130). Washington, DC: Author..

United States Congress. House of Representatives. (1994). Improving

AmericaS Schools Act (Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 6),

Report 103-761. September 28. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

United States Congress. (1994). P.L. 103-227 (Goals 2000: Educate

America Act). Washington, DC: Author.

61
I. RISIAIICH RESOURCES

MINIM ON 110100L4ASID WORM

David, J. L. (1989). Synthesis of Research on

School-based Management. Educational

Leadership, 46(8), 45-53.

Noting a limited amount of empirical

research on school-based management, the

author describes the main purposes, elements, and shortcomings of school-based

management in practice. David draws on

research from school improvement to corporate innovation to identify the factors

necessary for school-based management to

succeed as a reform strategy. In addition to

increased authority and flexibility at the

school site, significant school improvement

requires strong district and site leadership

that empowers others and the time and support for school staff to acquire new knowledge and skills and put them to use.

62

A.1
SCHOOL-RASED REFORM: tESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Edmonds. R. (1979. October). Effective

Schools for the Urban Poor. Educational

Leadership, 37. 15-24.

Edmonds' work arose as a counter to

research that absolved schools of responsibility for student achievement. This article

called for equity, a commitment to bring the

skills of poor children up to mastery of basic

skills. Edmonds framed these concerns as

politicaladdressing the equitable distribution of goocls within a society. He believes

in the educability of all children, with the

school's treatment of children as a critical

factor in students academic success.

Factors within the purview of schools that

could lead to academic success for poor children were enumerated:

(1) strong administrative leadership

(2) a climate of expectation that children

would succeed

(3) orderly school atmosphere

(4) primary emphasis on student acquisition of basic skills

(5) school energy and resources focused

on basic skills

(6) frequent monitoring of pupil progress

Glickinan, C. D. (1993). Renewing America's

Schools: A Guide for School-Based Action.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The author takes the position that the primary goal of U.S. public schools is to ensure

an educated citizenry in a democracy. As a

result of losing sight of this goal, schools

have become fragmented, without a clearly

defined purpose. Glickman states that recapturing this goal will revitalize or renew educators and students. In Part One, he lays out

a framework for supporting school renewal,

which includes schoolwide participation in

the development of a covenant or principles

for learning, a charter or rules for governance and participation in that governance,

and a critical-study process in which data are

collected to aid in setting learning priorities.

Part Two focuses on the administrative tasks

that a school must accomplish: curriculum

development, staff development, coaching

work, instructional program development,

student assessment, and instructional budget

management.

Levine, D. U., & Lezotte. L. W. ( I990).

Unusually Igfrctive Schools: .1 Review and

.4nalysis qf Research and Pwctice. Madison,

WI: The National Center for Effective

Schools Research and Development.

This monograph is a comprehensive

review of school effectiveness by two prominent researchers in the field. The authors

discuss existing research on correlates of

effectiveness, processes for creating effective

schools, achievement criteria for determining

the success of these efforts, and contextual

issues.

The analysis points to the limitations of

correlate-oriented prescriptions for improving

schools. Instead, the authors place this

responsibility with teachers and administrators. Successful efforts will result from the

ability of these groups to overcome legal

obstacles and to face other profound dilemmas underlying the school reform process.

Levine and Lezotte also recommend a dual

research emphasis on effective teaching

(instructional features) and effective schools

(organizational features).

Murphy, J. ( 1991). Restructuring Schools:

Capturing and Assessing the Phenomena.

New York: Teachers College Press.

This book was written "to capture what

we have learned to date about restructuring

schools" and is a good source for obtaining

an overview of the most current ideas in

educational reform. The author lays out the

various ways in which current restructuring

reforms challenge the traditional methods of

schooling. It contains an extensive reference

list of books, articles, and documents on

restructuring in particular and educational

reform in general.

6')
Purkey, S. C., & Smith, M. S. (1983). Effective

Schools: A Review. The Elementary School

Journal, 834), 427-452.

The authors critically review early school

effectiveness literature. They focus on

school-level factors, but also keep an eye on

the broader context of education (e.g., the

district "above" and the classniom "below").

They examine both contentidentifiable

characteristics of (effective) schoolsand

processesthe ways schools actually operate

and change. The authors criticize the many

reviews and studies that don't consider the

process of becoming more effective. In so

doing, these studies convey a tacit assumption that all findings are generalizable to

other settings.

Purkey and Smith examine three main

types of study: outlier studies, case studies,

and program evaluation studies. They

include specific critiques of each type's methods, sample size, and data analysis and interpretation techniques. They praise the intuitive logic and common sense underlying

most of the existing research. The limitations

of the overall literature should not prevent

attempts to combine effectiveness factors

with each other or with other research (e.g.,

on classrooms or on school culture) to learn

how to make schools more effective.

Eschewing closed lists of effectiveness

attributes, the authors discuss clusters of

organizational structure variables and of

process variables. Given their interest in the

process of school effectiveness, they also

treat change processes, teacher "ownership"

of them, and the role of administrative

leadership.

RESOURCES

Samson, S. B. (1991). The Predictable Failure

of Educational Reform. San Francisco:

jossey-Bass.

Current reforms and recommendations

made by commissions are doomed to failure

as long as they avoid confronting existing

power relationships that inform and control

persons in the educational system.

Reformers must also recognize that the education of children is influenced not only by

what occurs within a school or classroom but

by decisions made within the larger society

and its beliefs and needs. While educators

share responsibility for schooling, they do

not own this process.

Tyack, D. (1990). 'Restructuring' in Historical

Perspective: Tinkering toward Utopia.

Teachers College Record, 92(2), 172-191.

Anyone interested in the history of reform

and the place of the current movement for

restructuring will find this article useful.

Tyack notes that the term "restructuring" is

vague and all-encompassing and cautions

that policy discourse alone will produce little

change in schools. In the past century,

reformers made calls for changes that are

similar to calls for restructuring today:

greater decentralization in governance,

increased teacher autonomy, collegial decision-making, increased attention to the development of students' abilities to think critically, and more parental involvement.

However, long-term historical trends have

moved in opposite directions with increased

centralization, movement toward loge high

schools, increased differentiation of the curriculum, the growth of principals and nonteaching staff. The persistence of historical

trends despite vigorous attempts to fundamentally alter the character of schools should

cause today's reformers to take note and

develop different strategies in order to truly

make an impact on schools rather than to

repeat mistakes of the past.

64
SCHOOL.SASED REFORM LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

CA111 STUDIO OP SUONISSFUL INFORM

Meier, 1). (1987, June). Central Park East: An

Alternative Story. Phi Delta Kappan. 753-757.

The author, who is also the founding

principal, gives a brief history of Central Park

East, which is located in East Harlem in New

York City's District 4. She and others were

given an opportunity in 1974 to organize a

school based on more progressivist ideas.

Central Park East and the network of four

schools that grew out of it focus on creating

a democratic community, giving teachers

greater autonomy in the running of a school,

giving parents a voice in what happens to

their children in schools, and promoting a

family orientation. In 1985, these ideas were

extended to a high school settingCentral

Park East Secondary School. Meier and others are learning how to mesh an already successful "formula" with such high school

issues as the New York State Regents

Examination, course requirements, college

pressures; and adolescents' needs.

Council of Chief State School Officers on

Restructuring Education. (1989, November).

Success for All in a New Century.

Washington, DC: Author.

This report documents some of the

changes taking place in states that are

restructuring in order to improve learning for

all students. State and district initiatives are

examined in four areas: (1) school governance; (2) the nature and organization of

curriculum and instruction; (3) new professional roles for educators; and (4) accountability. The final section provides descriptions of some nationwide projects to restructure schools such as the Coalition of Essential

Schools, the National Board for Professional

Teaching Standards, and the National

Network for Educational Renewal.

Lezotte, L. W., Taylor, 13. 0. (Eds.). (1990).

Case Studies in Effective Schools Research.

Madison, WI: National Center for Effective

Schools Research and Development.

This report presents case studies of successful school improvement in 12 districts

across the country. It shows how Effective

Schools reform can be adapted to various

types of school contexts. The practitioners

involved each wrote their case study,

describing the process of implementation in

their local settings. Lezotte and Taylor then

draw some common lessons from all of the

cases.

McLaughlin. M. W., & Talbert, J., with Kahne, J.,

& Powell, J. (1990). Constructing a

Personalized School Environment. Phi Delta

Kappan, 72(3), 230-235.

This article favors the creation of r

alized, caring school environments as

means to encourage student commitment and

engagement in learning. It reports fmdingS

from a study of three schools with such environmentsan affluent, independent high

school, an inner-city performing arts magnet

school, and an electronics academy (vocational high school). Components fostering

and sustaining personalization are discussed:

student and teacher choice to be at the

school, relatively small scale, school-level

communication, collective problem solving,

broader roles and responsibilities for teachers, teacher flexibility in instructional style,

strategies that support and revitalize teachers.

The authors conclude that personalization is

a matter of conscious organizational design

rather than of individual teachers' values and

practices.

65
Weber, G. (1971). Imter-City ebildren Can Be

Mught to Read: Four Successfid Schools.

Washington. DC: Council for Basic

Education.

This monograph is a pioneering study of

the processes at work in effective inner-city

schools. By systematically analyzing student

achievement in reading and examining other

features of third-grade classrooms in the sample. Weber posited eight characteristics that

distinguished these schools from less successful schools (both sets served inner-city populations). These characteristics included additional reading personnel, use of phonics, and

individualization, among others. He also

determined factors that were not associated

with high reading achievement: small class

size, achievement grouping, and physical

facilities.

The study lacked specific observations of

ineffective schools, including one of the sample schools whose effectiveness had deteriorated over time. However, it stimulated

much further research by leading the way in

analyzing school process measures.

MOURCIS

U. HOW-TO RESOURCES

OUIDILINNS FOR RIPORM

Elementary Level or General

Poplin. M., & Weeres. J. (1993). Voices from

the Inside. A Report on Schooling from Inside

the Classroom (Pail One: Naming the

Problem). Claremont. CA: Institute for

Education in Transformation at The

Claremont Graduate School.

This report was generated by -people who

work inside the schools and the parents of the

students who study in those schools." The

researchers found that national studies have

failed to address directly issues of major concern for those working in the classrooms.

They conducted their own study to articulate

the problems of schooling by designing and

using research processes that allowed members of the school community to name their

experiences inside schools. Their position is

that "the heretofore identified problems of

schooling (lowered achievement, high

dropout rates and problems in the teaching

profession) are rather consequences of much

deeper and more fundamental problems."

The report focuses on issues of human relationships, race, culture and class, values,

teaching and learning, safety, physical environment, and despair, hope, and the process

of change as the major areas to be addressed

in school reform.

Lezotte, L. W. (1992). Creating the Total

Quality Effective School. Okemos, MI:

Effective Schools Products, Ltd.

Lezotte finds a "kinship" with W. Edward

Deming's total quality management (TQM)

and the basic operational tenets of the

Effective Schools movement. Comparisons

between the two are drawn in Part I. In

Parts II and III, Lezotte lays out plans for

developing and implementing a "blueprint"

for the "total quality effective school,"
77,7.:5:;(4744fivykr740754FP''.',7","'w 7'1,7 7717.7r$",710e.""

SCNOOL-SASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Lezotte. L. W.. & Jacoby, B. C. (Eds.). (1991).

Effective Schools Practices That trbrk.

Okemos, MI: Effective Schools Products, Ltd.

This book documents the success that

teachers across the country have had in

addressing a wide variety of problems related

to student achievement. Principals, teachers,

and other school staff members have provided in this text short descriptions of their

school demographics, the problein(s) faced,

and the new practice(s) implemented, with

results and comments. A contact person is

listed for each new practice for those wanting to obtain additional information.

Madden, N. A., Slavin, R. E., Karweit, N. L., &

Livermon, B. J. (1989). Restructuring the

Urban Elementary School. Educational

Leadership, 46(5), 14-18.

Baltimore's school board posed a question to researchers at The Center for

Research on Elementary and Middle Schools

(CREMS) at Johns Hopkins: "Forget about

cost, about regulations, about the way we've

always done things.... What would it take to

see that every child in an inner-city Baltimore

elementary school will succeed?" (p. 15).

CREMS staff designed a program, "Success

for All," with two underlying principles:

(1) prevention, and (2) immediate, intensive

intervention. The bulk of the article

describes the program: (1) intensive, oneon-one reading tutoring; (2) ability grouping

in reading; (3) individual academic plans and

reading assessments; (4) half-day preschool

and full-day kindergarten; (5) family support

team; (6) on-site program facilitator; (7) special education; and (8) an advisory committee. Year-end evaluation showed that students in the program scored significantly

higher on achievement tests than a control

group. This superior performance held

across grades one through three. Assessment

and program revisions are still under way.

National Center for Effective Schools Research

and Development. (1991). A Handbook pr

hnplementing School Impromment. Madison,

WI: University of Wisconsin.

The Center presents a coordinated set of

readings that elaborate On the process of

implementing successful practice based on

findings from Effective Schools research.

Each reading is prefaced by a section that

lists the rationale for its inclusion in the

handbook and the goals and objectives to he

met through reading the article. An extensive reference list follows each article.

Topics include an overview of the history of

U.S. schooling and the need for change, the

research base of Effective Schools reform,

leadership and empowerment, the creation

and communication of a school mission, the

role of the district, and building-level implementation.

Stedman, L. C. (1987). It's Time We Changed

the Effective Schools Formula. Phi Delta

Kappan, 69(3), 215-227.

Stedman criticizes the Effective Schools

formula because the schools touted as effective perform below grade level and because

other studies have challenged the six-factor

formula. He proposes instead a new synthesis based on case studies of schools that

have achieved grade-level success with lowincome students. He puts forth his own

nine-category formula of effective practices:

ethnic and racial pluralism, parent participation, school governance shared by teachers

and parents, academically rich programs,

skilled use and training of teachers, personal

attention to students, student responsibility

for school affairs, an accepting and supportive environment, and teaching aimed at preventing academic problems. He closes his

article with a warning that schools cannot

serve as the sole instrument for social policy,

but are only a part of a broader political

agenda for revitalizing urban areas.
Secondary Level

Farrar. E., Neufeld. B.. & Miles. M. (1984).

Effective Schools Programs in High Schools:

Social Promotion or Movement by Merit?

Phi Delta kappan. 65(10), 701-706.

The authors note the problem of generalizing Effective Schools results obtained in

elementary settings to secondary schools.

The reliance of the research on student

achievement creates problems within the

high school context, which has several equally important goalssocial, personal. vocationalbesides academic. Salient measures

for secondary schools include good discipline, lack of vandalism, and good attendance. Implementation of Effective Schools

programs in high schools encounters difficulty because of decreased collaboration and

increased complexity and resistance, compared with elementary schools. Secondary

school teachers also find their students, who

pursue their own agendas, much less malleable.

Farrar et al. propose an Effective Schools

design for secondary schools, focusing on

four areas: high school organization, faculty

involvement, students' reactions, and

parental/community involvement. They raise

the issues of fragmentation and departmental

conflict at the close of the article.

Firestone. W. A., & Herriott, R. E. (1982).

Prescription.4 for Effective Elementary Schools

Don't Fit Secondary Schools. Educational

Leademhip, 40.3), 51-53.

This often-cited article argues that

Effective Schools constructs developed in elementary school contexts need to be modified

when applied to secondary schools: (1) "climate"because less agreement about teachers' role exists at the secondary level than at

the elementary level, and (2) "instructional

leadership," which may be more facilitative at

the secondary level. Departmentalized

RESOURCES

arrangements, teachers as subject-matter specialists, and large staff sizes all militate

against the type of leadership deemed effective at the elementary school level.

The authors compare staff relations in an

elementary school to those of a work group,

while relations at the secondary level

approach those of members of a complex

organization. Likewise, elementary school

principals perform like head coaches of

sports teams and secondary principals like

chief executive officers of corporations.

Levine, D. U., & Eithanks, E. E. (1989).

Organizatic mai Arrangements of Effective

Secondary Schools. In Herbert J. Walberg &

John J. Lane (Eds.), Organizing for Learning

(pp. 41-49). Reston, VA: National

Association of Secondary School Principals

(NASSP).

The authors explore "organizational

arrangements" for improving student performance in secondary schools. They are concerned about restructuring discussions that

lack concrete examples, so they use specific

cases of reorganized secondary schools to

establish their points. They summarize the

experience of several schools from around

the country that are succeeding.

Levine and Eubanks conclude with an

enumeration of the different kinds of

changes that schools must be prepared to

make to improve radically: implement strong

and consistent discipline policies and alternative institutions for highly disruptive students,

"leveling" of different ability groups to ensure

that low-performing students achieve necessary learning skills (this contrasts with both

homogeneous grouping and tracking), and

insisting on and supporting higher levels of

performance for students.

68

A.?
SCHOOL.IIASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Louis, K. S.. & Miles, M. 13. (1990). Improving

the I 'rban High School: What cmcl

Why. New York: Teachers College Press.

The core of the book is a set of five case

studies of urban high schools undergoing

improvement efforts in the mid-1980s. In

addition, the authors present the main results

of their survey of principals of 207 urban

high schools attempting major reforms based

On the Effective Schools literature. The primary finding from the survey is that few

principals cite aspects of teaching and learning as central to their efforts; climate, discipline. and high expectations top the list of

factors emphasized. In terms of effects,

Effective Schools programs have greater

impact on the cosmetic and administrative

side of schools than on student achievement.

Following the case studies of the five

high schoolstwo deemed successful, two

struggling, and one unsuccessfulthe

authors extract cross-cutting themes that suggest what is needed to manage successful

change efforts in urban high schools. They

conclude that five issues are key: the history

of the school and its current relationship to

the district (change is facilitated when the

district is less bureaucratic and yields latitude

to the school); "evolutionary" planning that

involves key leaders and quickly connects

planning to action; building and creating

consensus on a vision and promoting leadership by teachers; obtaining and reallocating

resources, especially time and training; and

the presence of coping skills for managing

day-to-day problems of change efforts.

McLaughlin. M. W., Talbert, J. E.. & I3ascia, N.

(Eds.). (1990). Me Contexts of Teaching in

Secondaiy Schools: Teachers' Realities. New

York: Teachers College Press.

This book addresses the setting of the

high school as distinct from the context of

the elementary school. It calls for a rethinking of the meaning of "context" by taking a

look at the multifaceted influences or

"embedded contexts" that have effects on

teachers' work. The authors build the case

for constructing an understanding of teachers'

work from teachers' own perspectives.

There are three parts in this book. Part I

focuses on sociocultural contextssocietal,

professional, community and social class cultures. Part II looks at the organizational and

policy contexts within schools. This includes

a chapter on workplace reforms and a chapter on the significance of high school departments. Part III focuses on three "levers" for

improving secondary schooling: professional

development, school improvement, and curriculum reform.

National Center on Effective Secondary Schools.

(1990). Bibliography of Research Related to

Secondary Education. Madison, WI:

University of Wisconsin-Madison.

This source provides a good overview of

research related not only to secondary

schools but to educational reform in general.

Books and journal articles covering a wide

range of topics are included, such as school

choice, class size, restructuring, school climate, cooperative learning, increased graduation requirements, staff development, and

testing and evaluation procedures. One section of this bibliography presents a list of references related to projects conducted at the

National Center. These projects include the

Adolescence Project, the At-Risk Student

Project, the Higher Order Thinking Project,

and the Quality of Teachers' Work Lives

Project. All references are annotated.
Rutter, M.. Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., &

Ouston. J., with A. Smith. (1979). Fifteen

Thousand Hours: Secondaty Schools and

Their Ellkts on Children. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

This is an empirical study of 12 inner-city

secondary schools in London. The authors

sought the answers to two questions: Why

do schools differ with respect to student

behavior and attainment? How do schools

influence students' progress? They employed

four assessment measures in their evaluation

of schools: (1) intake measures to establish

baseline characteristics of student academic

ability, parental occupation, and teacherdescribed student behavioral characteristics;

(2) school process measures developed within the research group because none existedstaff interviews, pupil questionnaires,

and fieldworker observations; (3) outcome

measures of what schools saw as their main

tasks, namely, behavior, attendance, examination success, employment, delinquency; and

(4) ecological measures that included classification of geographic areas by social status,

balance of Intake (meaning the concentrations of students in terms of their academic

ability, parental occupation, behavior, and

ethnic background), interaction effects within

schools, and parental choice of school.

The authors found a greater Incidence of

low attendance and early school leaving

among low-ability or low-SES students, that

differences between schools remained stable

over time, and that, even after controlling for

external factors, significant school effects

remained. The authors also found crucial

ecological differences even within a single

local authority and between schools serving

in an inner-city area. The two key contributions of this research : (1) intake characteristics of students did not fully account for persisting differences among schools; and (2)

the school's functioning as a social organization accounted for essential differences

between schools.

RESOURCES

Wilson, B. L., & Corcoran, T. B. (1988).

Successfill Secondary Schools: l'isions of

Excellence in American Public Education.

London: Palmer Press.

The authors reviewed the Effective

Schools literature, developing their own conception of an effective school based on

Purkey and Smith's 13 variables. They conducted an empirical study of 571 schools that

had received national recognition. Wilson

and Corcoran compared and contrasted their

findings gleaned from observation with those

stated in the Effective Schools literature.

Successful secondary schools promoted collaboration and collegiality among their faculties, focused on and improved workplace

conditions for teachers, sought to motivate

students by setting high standards and expectations, and involved the community in various activities and partnerships. By examining the institutional vitality, the authors

added to the literature on the process by

which ineffective schools change into effective ones.

44

70
SCH00L11ASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Reform from the District Perspective

Corcoran. T. B., Walker, L. 5., & White. J. L.

(1988). Working in Urban Schools.

Washington, DC: Institute for Educational

Leadership.

The authors report findings from a study

of working conditions in urban schools in

five districts. The study team observed and

interviewed school staff in 31 schools as well

as district staff, union officials, and board

members. Overall, they found that most

urban schools are difficult and demoralizing

workplaces, which negatively affect teaching

and learning.

Schools providing the best working condition.s, defined by teachers' assessments, had

a constellation of conditions that together

resulted in high morale and effort of teachers: strong, supportive principal leadership;

good physical working conditions; high levels of collegiality; high levels of teacher

influence on school decisions; and high levels of teacher control over curriculum and

instruction. The absence of one or more of

these conditions was associated with considdrably lower ratings.

David, J. L. (1989). Restructuring in Progress:

Lessons from Pioneering Districts. National

Governors' Association, Center for Policy

Research.

This document reports the results of case

studies of four districts that have acted on

restructuring agendas: Jefferson County

Pt.blic Schools (Louisville, KY), Dade County

Public Schools (Miami, FL), Poway Unified

School District (CA), and New Orleans Public

Schools. The report presents information

about five other districts that are also restructuring but that were not included as part of

the formal case study sample: the ABC

Unified School District (Cerritos, CA);

Cincinnati, OH, Public Schools; District 4,

East Harlem (New York City); Hammond, IN,

Public Schools; and Rochester, NY, Public

Schools. Insights from the four case study

sites and the other five inform three summary themes expressed in each of the districts.

First, the goal of restructuring is comprehensive change guided by a belief that schools

can be stimulating workplaces and learning

environments. Second, school staff need the

skills, authority, and time to assume new

roles and responsibilities. Third, restructuring requires new coalitions of support and

new conceptions of accountability.

Hill, P. T., Wise, A. E., & Shapiro. L. (1989).

Educational Progress: Cities Mobilize to

Improve Their Schools. Santa Monica, CA:

RANI).

The premise put forth in this booklet contends that all cities have resources/assets that

can be mobilized to improve urban education: an educated middle class(black,

Hispanic, white, etc.), well-managed businesses, financial institutions, universities,

local foundations, political and religious leaders. However, a failing educational system

can turn around only if the entire community

unites on its behalf.

Six big-city school systems showing

promise of improvementSan Diego,

Memphis, Cincinnati, Miami, Atlanta, and

Pittsburghwere studied for factors that

(1) contributed to their success, and (2) were

reproducible at other sites wishing to

improve. Case studies identified four major

actors in the community and strategies for

improvement. Successful cities reached out

to involve the larger community, made information about student performance and

school resources broadly available, created

community-wide agreement and understanding about educational goals, and made major

changes in the dynamics of school administration.

A.10

71
House Committee on Education and Labor.

I990). Improving Education: School

Districts Implementing the Effective Schools

Model. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

This report documents the committee's

investigation of nine districts and one county

education office that are pursuing Effective

Schools projects. Questionnaires with seven

open-ended items were used to gather data

from sites whose activities conformed to the

effectiveness correlates of the reauthorized

Chapter 2 program (ESEA. P.L. 100-297).

Information on goals, implementation, indicators of success, and costs are compiled on

districts in Caldwell, ID; Clovis, CA; Joliet, IL;

Kansas City, MO; La Joya, TX; Pittsburgh, PA;

Prince Georges County, MD; San Diego

County, CA; South Harrison, MO; and

Spencerport, NY.

MS ROL' OP PRINCIPALS IN SCHOOL RIFORM

Bossert, S. T.. Dwyer, D. C., Rowan, B., & Lee,

G. V. (1982). The Instructional Management

Role of the Principal. Educational

Administration Quarterly, 18(3), 34-64.

The authors present a framework for

understanding the complex instructional

management role of the principal, which,

they assert, affects student learning both

directly and indirectly. They posit that principals must exercise leadership in two

domains to maintain a successful school:

instructional organization and climate.

Personal characteristics, district influences,

and social environment shape and constrain

leadership by the principal. They also examine research on instructional organization,

including teacher behavior and school- and

classroom-level issues, for ways in which

behavior of the principal can shape it and

vice versa. The authors acknowledge the

lack of a precise definition for the ubiquitous

variable "school climate." The authors

include a brief literature review, along with

questions for further research. The end of

RESOURCES

the article focuses on the dynamics of principals' influence, power, and authority. The

authors note that urban elementary school

environments most constrain principals, yet

have spawned some highly effective ones.

Cartwright, M.. & D'Orso. M. (1993). For the

Chikiren: Lessons fronz ci Visionwy Principal.

New York: Doubleday.

The principal of an inner-city elementary

school in Philadelphia shares insights into the

role that she and her staff played in transforming a troubled school. This includes a

strong emphasis on reaching out to the community through frequent visits to children's

homes as well as communicating with other

important persons around the school

grounds, guarding teachers' classroom teaching time, and understanding the inner workings of teacher unions and the state education lobby. The author, who has spent more

than 30 years in the School District of

Philadelphia, beginning as an elementary

school teacher, comments on the effects of

local, state, and federal policies on schools,

with particular emphasis on inner-city

schools. She ends the book with a discussion about the effects of crack cocaine on

the current generation of schoolchildren and

recommendations for confronting this

problem.

72
F, SCHOOLI1ASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Hollinger, P., Murphy. J., & Hausman. C.

(1992). Restructuring Schools: Principals'

Perceptions of Fundamental Educational

Reform. Educational Administration

Quarterly, 2g3), 330-349.

Those interested in principals' opinions

and concerns about restructuring will find this

article useful. A small sample of elementary,

junior/middle, and high school principals in

urban, suburban, and rural areas were interviewed in depth about the potential impact of

restructuring reform on teachers, administrators, parents, and students. They also envisioned operating in a restructured school and

speculated on how conditions at the school

and classroom level might then change. . These interviews revealed, among other

things, that some of these principals are skeptical about new ways to improve schools, that

they tend to interpret any reform as restructuring, and that they have strong concerns

about issues of performance accountability in

shared-decision-making settings.

TH1 SOLI OP TUMORS IN SCHOOL REFORM

Cohen, D. K., McLaughlin, M. W., & Talbert, J.

E. (Eds.). (1993). Teaching for

Undetstanding: Challenges for Policy and

Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

By "teaching for understanding," the

authors and contributors mean the promotion

of students' critical thinking skills, deeper

understanding of subject matter, and an

active engagement in learning. Classroom

teachers have engaged in teaching for understanding with university researchers and their

experiences in collaboration (or "co-laboring)" are jointly reported. The second half of

the book focuses on policy considerations,

beginning with the perspectives of classroom

teachers, emphasizing the need for fieldbased research on the multiple contexts of

teaching. There is also a call to refine concepts and measures to reflect teachers'

realities.

Duke, I). L.. & Gansneder. B. (1990). Teacher

Empowerment: The View from the

Classroom. Educational Policy, 4(2), 145-

160.

Kappa Delta Pi surveyed 3,000 teachers in

100 schools regarding their thoughts about

increased involvement in school governance.

The survey found: (1) teachers vary in their

involvement, depending on their perception

of school leadership and the principal;

(2) teachers may perceive that the costs of

involvement outweigh the benefits;

(3) involvement does not necessarily mean

influence over school policies. The authors

also distinguished two types of decisions:

managerial (traditionally made by administrators, such as hiring teachers, allocating budgets, evaluating teachers) and technical

(focused on students and instruction). The

authors found that teachers prefer involvement in technical decisions.

Johnson, S. M. (1990). Redesigning Teachers'

Work. In R. F. Elmore and Associates,

Restructuring Schools: The Next Generation

of Educational Reform (pp. 125-151). San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Johnson argues that education reform

cannot be unilaterally imposed on teachers

and schools. Teachers must endorse new

roles and responsibilities, and be provided

time and resources to Implement reforms.

Schools depend on cooperation and interdependence among staff members, so plans for

comprehensive change must be consistent

with existing norms. There also must be

supportive conditions such as leadership

among teachers and administrators, labormanagement cooperation, and willingness on

the part of administrators to cede some of

their authority to teachers.

73
Little.j. W. (1993, Summer). Teachers'

Professional Devek)pment in a Climate of

Educational Reform. Educational Evaluation

and Polky Analysis. 15(2), 129-151.

Little contends that current staff development models cannot help teachers to handle

the complex reforms being implemented.

The dominant model works when specific

skills or practices need to be transferred.

However, the current reforms require teachers to be "intellectuals," to grapple with ways

to implement ideas and principles into the

midst of their day-to-day work. Little identities five "streams" of reform that present

unique challenges to teachers. For instance.

subject matter reforms that call for less

reliance on traditional textbooks will require

teachers to be able to integrate subject content as well as to organize learning experiences for their student's. Calls for alternatives

to standardized assessment require teachers

to obtain the skills and resources to construct, evaluate, and incorporate these new

assessments. Little suggests four alternatives

to the current training models: (1) teacher

collaborations and other networks; (2) subject matter associations; (3) partnerships targeted at specific school reforms; and (4) special institutes and centers.

Little, J. W. (1989). Assessing the Prospects for

Teacher Leadership. In A. Lieberman (Ed.),

Bulkling a Profrssional Culture in Schools

(pp. 78-106). New York: Teachers College

Press.

Drawing from four different studies of

teachers in leadership roles, the author examines the conditions for teacher productivity in

schools. Little identifies five conditions as

particularly likely to advance or erode the

prospects for teacher leadership: define

leadership tasks that are important, not trivial; invest leadership roles with dignity, not

simply power over others; have organizational incentives for collaboration; avoid agreements that protect the separate interests of

RESOURCES

teachers and administrators; and have district

policies that support teacher leadership,

especially those on recruitment, selection,

placement, and evaluation of principals.

Sykes, G. (1988, November). Inspired

Teaching: The Missing Element in 'Effective

Schools.' Educational Administration

Quarterly. 24( ), 161-469.

Sykes puzzles over the absence of outstanding teaching in effective schools. The

research identified successful schools, yet

much of the teaching within such schools

remains pedestrian and uninspired. Viewing

teaching as the core activity in the school

organization, Sykes questions whether effective schools proponents have stated their

aims of education too narrowly.

He proposes norms of conduct and standards of practice based on dialogue and

close observation of teaching. Such practices

and activities would include teachers producing curriculum materials, teachers experimenting with new practices, teachers opening their classrooms to scrutiny to develop

understanding among colleagues, residencies

for new teachers with experienced teachers,

recognition of teacher expertise through

mentor teacher programs, and school-university collaborations that could include adjunct

status for some master teachers.

74
,)

SCHOOLI1ASED REFORM. LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

TICK ROLE OP MINTS AND TIM COMMUNITY IN

SCHOOL RIPORM

Corner, J. P. (1988. November). Educating

Poor Minority Children. Scientific American.

255). 42-48.

Comer developed a reform model in 1968

based on two premises: (1) develop theories

of change from direct observations of

schools, and then (2) intervene over long

periods of time. He chose two inner-city K-4

schools with 99 percent black population. 70

percent of whom received AFDC. One year's

observation yielded two major areas for

change: (1) the schools lacked structure; and

(2) sociocukural misunderstanding between

home and school underlay the schools' academic and disciplinary problems.

He chronicled the deterioration of black

parents' faith in schools that led him to an

intervention strategy that simultaneously

reduced alienation and encouraged psychological bonding to the school. This entailed:

(1) overcoming staffs resistance to change;

(2) reducing destructive interactions between

parents, teachers, and administrators; and

(3) bringing cohesiveness and direction to

the school's management and teaching.

School staff created a governance team peopled by parents, teachers, mental health specialists, and support staff, headed by the

principal. Parents participated in three areas:

shaping policy, contributing to daily school

activities, and attending school events.

When beter relations had been established, Comer tackled the problem of social

misalignment by designing and implementing

a social skills curriculum with the following

subjects: politics and government, business

and economics, health and nutrition, and

spiritual and leisure activities. The New

Haven project produced significant results,

and more than 50 schools around the country are currently implementing it.

Comer, J. P. ( 1980). School Power

Implications qf an Intervention Project. New

York: Free Press.

Corner describes a 10-year collaborative

undertaking between a private university

center, a public schoo system, and a community of teachers and parents. University

clinicians had the opportunity to observe,

record, and study children in two primary

schools in Head Start settings. In exchange,

the clinicians provided consultations with

teachers regarding individual children, seminar discussions of child development literature, meetings focused on child-rearing patterns. and sessions on child development

issues in curriculum planning. With the permission of the parents, children also received

appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic care

in the schools. Teachers, scholars, and parents were involved in an effort to address a

crisis in education that only partly involved

academic. achievement. The power of the

school and its community was drawn upon

to emphasize importance of the moral, social,

and psychological development that young

children need to receive. This lays the

groundwork for academic achievement in

both the near- and long-term future.

A-14

75
Committee on Policy for Racial Justice. (1989,

Fall). Visions of a Better Way: Improving

Schools for Black Children. Equity and

Choice. 60), 5-9, 49-54.

This review makes recommendations similar to Corner's (see Corner, 1988) with its

emphasis on parent and community involvement as a critical factor in the improvement

of education for black children. It also raises

the issue of social distance between the culture of the school and that of black children.

Black community organizations churches,

fraternities, social groupsmust enter into

partnerships with the educational system to

provide a full range of social services to

children.

Concluding recommendations to educators interested in. quality education for black

children fall into three categories: (1) central

emphasis on human relations and personalization; (2) eliminating barriers to effective

teaching and learning, including recruiting

more black teachers and developing sensitive

curricula; and (3) mobilizing physical and

political resources to address issues such as

pervasive unemployment, low levels of literacy among black adolescents, and structural

isolation of low-income youth from more

successful adult figures and jobs.

Swap, S. M. (1987). Enhancing Parent

Invokonent in Schools. New York: Teachers

College Press.

The author, who is both a parent and a

teacher, presents a manual explaining why

collaboration between the home and school

is difficult to achieve and how barriers to

involvement can be overcome. She views

teachers, who traditionally have lower status

and less community support today, as natural

allies with parents, who themselves are

increasingly facing difficulties such as

divorce, isolation, unemployment, and troubled children. Some of the bathers to effective collaboration include limited time for

parent-teacher communication, communicatRESOURCES

ing only during crisis 8ituations (which puts

all parties on the defensive), and parent and

teacher personal histories that can hinder

genuine trust. The author suggests two basic

ways to promote parent involvement:

increasing the quality ot' contacts by creating

varied opportunities for parent-teacher contacts and increasing the number of parents

who interact with the school by making

more of an effort to find out what parents

want and need from the school as well as

involving parents in solving problems and

making decisions at the school.

CURRICULUM REFORM

ThematIc/InterdisciplInary

Fogarty, R. (1991). Ten Ways to Integrate the

Curriculum. Educational Leadoship, 49(2),

61-65.

One purpose for integrating the curriculum is to help students see that knowledge

has connections. The author describes a

continuum of curriculum models toward this

goal, with 10 models ranging from a fragmented curriculum to a fully networked curriculum. She first explores the fragmented,

connected, and nested models in which subjects or disciplines are taught separately. The

next four modelssequenced, shared,

webbed, threaded, and integratedincorporate several disciplines into the curriculum.

The immersed model describes the point

when the learner begins to internalize the

subject matter and pursue it on his or her

own, creating a natural integration. Finally,

the pursuit of learning becomes more external and is shared across networks of learnersthe networked model.

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76
SCHOOL-RASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Jacobs, 1i. H. (1991). Planning for Curriculum

Integration. Educational Lea( lei:chip. 45(2).

27-78.

This article presents a four-phase action

plan for creating and successfully implementing multidisciplinary units. The first phase

involves teachers taking a close look across

the school at what units and subjects are currently being taught and bringing these units

into alignment. During this phase. teachers

also begin to look at other work outside of

the school that may be sources of ideas for

integrating the curriculum. In Phase H,

teachers develop a proposal for creating a

multidisciplinary unit, most often by upgrading an existing unit. PhaSe HI occurs during

the second year of the plan. Here, the interdisciplinz ty unit is piloted, implemented, and

monitored. Finally, in Phase IV, the new unit

is adopted and becomes a permanent part of

the school's curriculum.

Multicultural Education

Council of Chief State School Officers. (1990,

February). School Success for Limited English

Proficiozt Students: The Challenge and State

Response. Washington, DC: Author.

With a grant from the Carnegie

Corporation, the Council of Chief State

School Officers (CCSSO) undertook an

inquiry into state educational agencies and

their role in educating limited English proficient (LEP) children. This report presents

their findings and lays out tasks to be accomplished to provide quality education for LEP

students. A lot of statistical data is provided.

Policies and efforts to meet the needs of LEP

students are highlighted, often specified by

state. The report concludes that much

remains to be done to improve educational

services to LEP students, and some recommendations are made in light of these

findings.

'7g'rr'"*Srl.17'""1"71Mf'MgP79-".'t.

Noordhoff, K., & Kleinfeld, J. (1993).

Preparing Teachers for Multicultural

Classrooms. Teaching and Teacher

Education. .5(1), 27-39.

For those interested in designing a preservice program to enable teachers to be effective with students from different cultures, the

description of the Teachers for Alaska (TFA)

program in Alaska will be helpful. This

approach to multicultural education does

more than rely solely on adding one or two

courses to the traditional teacher education

sequence. Rather, practical experiences are

integrated with research and theory. Student

teachers learn experientially about students

and their families by visiting schools (apart

from their practicum), "shadowing" students,

engaging in activities that require them to

seek assistance from students and the community, and taking roles outside of the classroom. Student teachers also present case

studies of their practicum experiences, highlighting the central cultural and contextual

issues confronted and lessons learned.

Sleeter, C. E. (1992). Keepos of the American

Dream: A Study of Staff Development and

Multicultural Education. London: Falmer

Press.

This text describes a staff development

project with 30 teachers that included observations of teachers in their classrooms and

interviews over a period of 2 years. The

schedule of topics and activities for each year

is listed and described in detail, as well as

teachers' experiences. Those wishing to

design a multicultural staff development program or to conduct classroom research on

multicultural education will glean understanding of some of the issues and dilemmas

teachers and others face in the attempt to

equalize both access and outcomes for students who are members of oppressed

groups.

77
Tiedt. P. L.. & Tiedt, I. M. 1986).

Multicultural Teaching: A Handbook qf

Activities. Infirmation, and Resources (2nd

ed.). Boston. MA: Allyn & Bacon.

This is a good introductory text as well as

a resource book for teachers who want to

understand the cultures of their students.

This text is written for teachers and provides

historical information as well as updated

research and beliefs about what is appropriate and inappropriate in various cultures.

References for further understanding and

activities for use in the classroom are also

provided.

literacy

Graves. D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachem and

Children at Wbrk. Exeter, NH: Heinemann.

This is a book for teachers about the writing process and children's development as

writers. The author portrays both writing

and teaching as ucraft processes" that are

intertwined in the classroom. Based on

research conducted on the composing

processes of public school children ages 6

through 10, the book consists of many classroom anecdotes and conversations with

teachers and children as they engaged in

learning to write and learning to teach

writing.

Harste, J. C., Short, K. G., & Burke, C. (1988).

Creating Classrooms for Authors: The

Reading-Writing Connection. Portsmouth,

NH: Heineman.

Billed as a "conceptual starter kit," this

book presents a curricular framework for

classroom reading and writing experiences

and how they relate to reasoning and learning. The book opens with a theoretical

framework, followed by guidelines on how

to start an authoring circle and strategy

lessons with full lesson plans. Teachers have

written a series of feature articles presenting

their insights and experiences in how to

develop classroom activities and how to use

RESOURCES

"kidwatching- guides to assess students. The

book is linked to a videotape series with

viewing guides based on three Indiana classMOMS.

Kirby. D.. & Liner. T. ( 1981). Inside Out:

Developnwntal Stmtegies fbr Teaching

Writing. Portsmouth. NH: Boynton/Cook.

This book describes methods for creating

classroom environments and developing

activities. Chapters present techniques for

student journals, poetry, writing about literature, and expository writing. Also included

are chapters on students' tuning their voices

and sense of audience, students as editors,

publishing, and evaluation and grading,

Strickland. D. S., & Morrow, L. M. (Eds.).

(1989). Emerging Literacy: Young Children

Learn to Read and Write. Newark, DE:

International Reading Association.

This book contains chapters on oral language development, family storybook reading, literature for young children, emergent

writing, and the assessment of emergent literacy for seven aspects of literacy development. A core experience curriculum is proposed, including inquiry, reading aloud and

responding to literature, shared reading and

writing, and independent reading and

writing.

Science

Aldridge, B. (1992). Scope, Sequence and

Coordination of Secondary School Science:

The Content Core. Washington, DC: National

Science Teachers Association.

The document criticizes current courses

where there is insufficient time for the introduction of concepts, moving from an experiential base and leading to abstraction and

formalization. The project recommends that

biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science

be taught each year from grades 6 to 12.

Ar17

7 8
SCHOOL.SASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

American Association for the Advancement of

Science. (1989). Science fin- All Arno icons:

A Project 2061 Report on Literacy Goals in

Science. Mathematics, and Technology.

Washington. DC: Author.

This report includes chapters on the

nature of science, mathematics, and technology, basic knowledge in six content areas,

common themes, habits of mind, and recommendations for effective learning and teaching. The six content areas are: the physical

setting, the living environment, human organisms. human society, the designed world,

and the mathematical world.

Mathematics

Mathematical Sciences Education Board. National

Research Council. (1990). Reshaping School

Mathematics: A Philosophy and Frwneuvth

for Curriculum. Washington, DC: National

Academy Prem.

This Philosophy and Frameuvrk focuses

on important issues that must be clarified

wherever curriculum reform is to take place

and is intended as a complement to

Everybody Counts and the NCTM Standards.

Several changes currently push the reshaping

or reconceptualization of mathematics.

These changes include a greater need for

mathematics in an information-age world,

changes in how mathematics is used,

changes in the role of technology, demographic shifts in the U.S., new understandings from cognitive science about how students learn, and international competitiveness. The document itself lists several principles that should guide the reshaping of mathematics. Examples of such principles

include: (1) Mathematics education must

focus on the development of mathematical

power. (2) Calculators and computers

should be used throughout the mathematics

curriculum. (3) Mathematics instruction at

all levels should foster active student involvement. (4) Curricular choices should be consistent with contemporary standards for

school mathematics. Finally, the Philosophy

and Frameuvrk sets forth goals that are consistent with constructivist, active learning in

mathematics.

McKnight. C. C.. Crosswhite. E. J.. Dossey. J. A..

Kifer. E., Swafford. S. 0.. Travers, K. J., &

Cooney. T.i. (1987). The Underachieving

Curriculum: Assessing S. School

Mathematics front an International

Perspective. Champaign. IL: Stipes

Publishing.

This text compares the mathematical

achievement of students in the U.S. with that

of students in about 20 other countries. On

the basis of the data, the authors believe that

now is the time to renew school mathematics

in the U.S. A chief finding is that while

teachers in the U.S. take the same number of

courses in mathematics content and pedagogy, their attitudes about teaching and the

status accorded to teaches are below those

of teachers in other countries. Three areas

are identified as targets for reform: the mathematics curriculum, the preparation of teachers, and the status and working conditions of

U.S. teachers.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

(1989). Curriculum and Evaluation

Standards for School Mathematics. Reston,

VA: Author.

This document presents consensus standards for high-quality mathematics education

for K-12 students. The document urges the

development of mathematical power for all

students, including the ability to explore,

conjecture, and reason logically; to solve

nonroutine problems; to communicate about

and through mathematics; and to connect

ideas within mathematics and between mathematics and other intellectual activity.

Mathematical power is also defined by students self-confidence and dispositions to

seek, evaluate, and use mathematics.

All 79
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

(1991). Prglissional Standards firr Teaching

Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

This document spells out what teachers

need to know to teach toward new goals for

mathematics and how teaching should be

evaluated for the purpose of improvement.

The image of mathematics teaching requires

curriculum and a learning environment very

dgerent from much of current practice.

Teaching proficiencies include: selecting

mathematical tasks to engage students; providing opportunities to deepen understanding; orchestrating classroom discourse to promote investigation; using, and helping students use, technology and other tools; seeking, and helping students seek, connections

to previous and developing knowledge; and

guiding individual, small-group, and whole

class work.

National Research Council. (1989). Eivryhody

Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future

of Mathematics Education. Washington, DC:

Author.

This .document charts a course for the

future of mathematics education.

Mathematics is described as a process of

searching for patterns. Chapters contrast

myths with reality to underscore how the

mathematics curriculum must change to

develop mathematical power, how the teaching of mathematics must change, and how

the field must mobilize for curriculum

reform.

RESOURCES

Willoughby S S (1990). Mathematics

Education fir a Changing W'orld.

Alexandria. VA: Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development.

This book begins with the rationale for

changing mathematics and reasons why "new

math" did not work. Four steps are recommended for improving mathematics education: (1) derive mathematics from the learner's reality; (2) use the. power of abstract

thought; (3) practice; and (4) apply mathematics to interesting material. Chapters provide advice on implementing recommendations, problem solving, technological development. making connections, and fostering

change.

Social Science

National Commission on Social Studies in the

Schools. (1989). Charting a Course: Social

Studies for the 21st Century. Washington, DC:

Author.

In this report, the Commission's

Curriculum Task Force presents goals for

social studies education for the early primary

grades (K-3), the later elementary grades (4-

6), and junior high (7-8) and high school (9-

12). Part II of this report focuses on findings

from developmental and cognitive research

that have application for the teaching of

social studies. For example, the notion that

students cannot deal with social studies

abstractions until grade four is discredited.

Social studies teachers must understand and

deal with students' faulty and private misconceptions about social phenomena. They also

must understand that cooperative learning is

an essential medium of study and learning in

the social studies classroom. In the final section of this report, social science associations

representing various disciplinesanthropology, economics, geography, politics, psychology, and sociologypresent the key concepts,

skills, and basic themes that any social studies curriculum should contain.
, SCHOOL.RASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Parker. W. C. (1991). Renewing the Social

Studies Curriculum. Arlington. VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Children do not know Social studieshistory, geography, civicsfor the simple reason that these subjects are not taught. The

author presents five essential learnings in

social studies: the democratic ideal, cultural

diversity, economic development, global perspective, and participatory citizenship. Three

commitments pervade this text: (1) Social

studies should he genuinely thought-provoking for all students. (2) Social studies should

concentrate on the essential learnings treated

in depth. (3) Democratic education requires

students to learn how to deliberate, to carefully consider issues in order to make

informed decisions. The author also seeks to

renew the curriculum through local or

"home-grown" curriculum planning among

those who actually must implement social

studies in the classroom. Finally, there is a

discussion of authentic assessment in social

studies where tests require students to think

and to demonstrate that they are capable of

sound analysis and judgment.

Quigley. C. N., et al. (1991). Civitas: A'

Frameuork for Civic Education. Calabasas,

CA: Center for Civic Education.

This book presents goals and characteristics of a social studies curriculum. Sections

describe curricula for grades K-3, 4-6, 7-8,

and 9-12. The author presents the research

base for curriculum choice and separate

chapters for the perspectives of the social science associations: anthropology, economics,

geography, American and world history,

political science, psychology, and sociology.

ASSIIISMINT WORM

Darling-Hammond. L. (1992. July). Standards

of Practice fbr Leariwr-Centerect Schools.

New York: National Center for Restructuring

Education, Schools. and Teaching, Teachers

College, Columbia 17niversity.

This paper critiques the performance statistics approach to holding schools accountable and explores the notion of "genuine

accountability." The author calls for an

examination of school practices along with

student outcomes. An argurrient is made for

improving schools by implementing reforms

that are learner-centered and knowledgebased rather than procedure-oriented and

rule-based. There are also discussions of

equity and multiple assessments of students.

Navarrete, C., Wilde, J.. Nelson, C.. Martinez. R.,

& Hargett, G. (1990). Informal Assessment

in Educational Evaluation: Implications for

Bilingual Education Programs. Washington,

DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual

Education.

The authors raise questions about the

appropriateness of standardized tests for

assessing the progress of bilingual education

students. Because a bilingual education program is built on objectives unique to the

needs of its students, many of the items on a

standardized test may not measure the objectives or content of that program. A standardized test may have low content validity for

specific bilingual education programs. Some

tests may not be sensitive to actual student

progress. The authors explore alternative or

"informal" assessment techniques, as contrasted with "formal" or standardized tests, and

present some guidelines for ensuring adequate validity and reliability. There is a short

discussion about portfolios and their use in

the evaluation of bilingual education

programs.
General Approaches to Akernadve Msessinent

Herman, J. L., Ashbacher, P. R., & Winters, L.

(1992). A Practical Guide to Alternative

Assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

This book opens with an overview of

shifts in conceptions about the role of assessment. Separate chapters provide guidance

for determining assessment purposes, selecting assessment tasks, setting criteria, ensuring

reliable scoring, and using alternative assessment for decision-making. Chapters present

useful tools such as checklists and charts.

Haney. W., & Madaus, G. (1989. May).

Searching for Alternatives to Standardized

Tests: Whys, Whats, and Whithers. Phi

Delta Kappan, 7(X9), 683-687.

The authors point out that the education

community needs to adopt a more critical attitude toward assessment and its effects on

teaching and learning. They address four criticisms about testing: (1) Tests give false

impressions about the status of learning in

schools. (2) Tests are unfair to various

groups. (3) Tests reduce teaching and learning to mere preparation for testing. (4) Tests

focus time and energy away from higher-order

skills and more creative endeavors.

Alternatives to standardized testing are

explored with the caveat that the unreliability

and lengthiness of individual teacher and

committee evaluations in the past led to standardized tests and multiple-choice items as

solutions. The authors see some promise in

the use of computer technology and the applications of findings from cognitive science for

the creation of better means for assessing students' skills. The overall point, however, is

that the education system should not be in

search of any single instrument. Standardized

tests are currently being used for too many

purposes. Instead, the authors call for a more

thoughtful selection of different kinds of

assessments for different purposes.

IISOURCES

Portjblio Mws. San Dieguito Union High

School District, 710 Encinitas Boulevard,

Encinitas, CA 92024.

This is a newsletter published quarterly

by the Portfolio Assessment Clearinghouse.

Each issue contains reports of individual projects and discussion of current concerns in

portfolio assessment. It also provides periodically updated abstracts of portfolio projects

in schools, districts, and organizations around

the country.

Assessment in Specific Subject Areas

Genishi, C., & Dyson. A. H. (1984). Language

Assessment in the Early Years. Norwood, NJ:

Ablex.

This book explores the assessment of language and communication of young children

between birth and age eight. The authors

take an interactionist and developmental

approach to language acquisition with particular attention to the sociolinguistic contexts

in which it occurs. Communication is examined in a variety of settings: the home, day

care, preschool, and the primary grades.

There is also some discussion of the theories

underlying the study of language acquisition.

82
SCHOOLSASED REFORM: LESSONS FROM A NATIONAL STUDY

Gentile, C. (1992). Exploring Neu, Methods for

Collecting Students' School-based Writing:

iVAEP's 1990 Portfolio Study. Washington,

DC: Office of Educational Research and

Improvement.

This report summarizes a study of the

feasibility of conducting large-scale assessments using schcol-based writing. The study

explored procedures for collecting classroom

writing samples from children around the

country, developing methods for describing

and classifying the variety of writing submitted, and creating general scoring guides that

could be applied across papers written in

response to a variety of prompts or activities.

A nationally representative sample of fourth

and eighth graders was asked to work with

their teachers and submit a sample of their

best writing efforts. The report summarizes

lessons learned about portfolio assessment.

Kulm, G., & Malcom, S. M. (1991). Science

Assessments in the Service of Reform.

Washington, DC: American Association for

the Advancement of Science.

This volume presents papers by curriculum and assessment specialists, psychologists,

researchers, and teachers. Articles describe

why, what, and how new forms of assessment are in sync with science curriculum

reforms. Chapters present examples of alternative assessments of science achievement,

including features of science portfolios.

Raizen, S. A., Baron, J. B., Champagne, A. B.,

Haertel, E.. Mullis. I.V.S., & Oakes. J. (Eds.).

(1989). Assessment in Elementary School

Science Education. Washington, DC:

National Center for Improving Science

Education.

This is a panel report presenting a range

of problems and recommendations for

assessinwelementary students' science

achievement. Chapters include issues in

assessment, what student outcomes to assess

and how to assess them, and ways to evaluate program features. Each chapter includes

many examples.

Valencia. S. W., McGinley, W., & Pearson, P. D.

(1990). Assessing Reading and Writing. In

G. G. Duffy (Ed.), Reading in the Middle

School. Newark, DE: International Reading

Association.

Presents assessment procedures that

examine students' ability to use reading and

writing for a variety of purposes. Assessment

is characterized as continuous, multidimensional, collaborative, grounded in knowledge,

and authentic. Authors provide a framework

for analyzing assessments according to their

focus (infritstructure/skills, reading and writing processes, and context), structure, mode,

content, and intrusiveness. A number of

assessment examples are analyzed, including

story retelling, holistic and analytic guides for

rating writing, and a checklist for component

writing processes, functions of writing, quality of writing style, fluency, and mechanics.

A22

83
Vermnt Department of Education. (1992).

Looking novmd "The Answer': Vermont's

Mathematics Portfirlio Assessment Program.

Pilot Year Report 1990-7991. Montpelier. \T:

Auth(w.

This booklet describes Vermont

Department of Education's first attempt to

use portfolios to assess mathematics. The

report presents a history of changes under

way in mathematics education and an

overview of the structure cf the project. It

describes how best pieces of student work

are used to assess problem solving and mathematical communication skills. Criteria and

levels of performance are described and samples of student work are presented. Also

included are an overview of the pilot year,

how student work was scored, the data collected, what was learned, and factors that

will influence the success of the program.

Yancey. K. B. (1992). Portfolios in the Writing

Classroonz. Urbana, IL: National Council of

Teachers of English.

This book contains chapters on the issues

in the content, purposes, and use of writing

portfolios throughout the grade levels. Many

examples are provided of student work and

teacher response to it.

S 4

t2.4

RESOURCES
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ISBN 0-16-048415-4

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