For reasons of economy, this document is printed in a limited number. Delegates are 

kindly asked to bring their copies to meetings and not to request additional copies.

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION

IMO 

E

MARINE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION 

COMMITTEE 

58th session 

Agenda item 2 

MEPC 58/2

 20 March 2008

 Original: ENGLISH

HARMFUL AQUATIC ORGANISMS IN BALLAST WATER 

Application for Final Approval of the Electro-Clean System (ECS) 

Submitted by the Republic of Korea 

SUMMARY

Executive summary: This document contains the non-confidential information related to 

the application for Final Approval of the Electro-Clean System (ECS) 

in accordance with the Procedure for approval of ballast water 

management systems that make use of Active Substances (G9) 

adopted by resolution MEPC.126(53) 

Strategic direction: 7.1 

High-level action: 7.1.2 

Planned output: 7.1.2.4 

Action to be taken: Paragraph 7 

Related documents: MEPC 53/24, MEPC 53/24/Add.1, MEPC 54/2/3, MEPC 57/2, 

MEPC 57/2/1 and BWM.2/Circ.12 

Introduction 

1 The ballast water management systems, which make use of Active Substances or 

Preparations containing one or more Active Substances, shall be approved by the Organization 

under regulation D-3.2 of the Ballast Water Management Convention. 

2 The Procedure for approval of ballast water management systems that make use of 

Active Substances (G9) contains the information that should be included into a proposal for 

approval and provisions for risk characterization and analysis. According to section 6 of 

Procedure (G9), the Organization should evaluate the information provided in the application. 

3 According to BWM.2/Circ.12, a document on the proposal for approval containing all the 

non-confidential data related to the respective ballast water management systems that make use 

of Active Substance should be submitted to the Committee. 
MEPC 58/2 - 2 - 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

4 The Republic of Korea has verified the application dossier and believes that it satisfies the 

data requirements of Procedure (G9) adopted by resolution MEPC 126(53). Therefore, 

the Republic of Korea submits the non-confidential data of the manufacturer’s application 

dossier. The complete dossier has been submitted to the Marine Environment Division of the 

Organization for review by the experts of the GESAMP-BWWG. 

5 The applicant has submitted its Final Approval application dossier to MEPC 57 for 

review by the GESAMP-BWWG. The GESAMP-BWWG has reviewed the applicant’s 

application dossier and has made recommendations in its report of the fourth meeting. 

The applicant has conducted the appropriate tests and has equipped the system to ensure the 

safety of crew and ship in accordance with the recommendations of the GESAMP-BWWG 

(MEPC 57/2, annex 4). 

6 This document contains the non-confidential information for Final Approval of 

Electro-Clean System (ECS) designed and manufactured by Techcross Inc. The applicant’s 

responses and the measures taken to comply with the recommendations of the GESAMP-BWWG 

are provided in the Final Approval application dossier and summarized in the introduction at the 

annex to this document. 

Action requested of the Committee 

7 The Committee is invited to consider the proposal for approval and to decide 

as appropriate. 

*** 
MEPC 58/2 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

ANNEX 

NON-CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION ON THE ELECTRO-CLEAN BALLAST 

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA) 

1 INTRODUCTION 

The Electro-Clean System (ECS), designed and manufactured by Techcross Inc., is the ballast 

water management system that has been engineered for the disinfection of micro-organisms that 

would otherwise be indigenous to the aquatic ecosystem. 

All of the information was presented to the IMO technical reviews on ballast water management 

technologies during the development phase. The availability of the electrochemical treatment of 

ballast water was first introduced in document MEPC 53/2/31. The “Ballast Water Management 

System Electro-Clean” technology has been presented at MEPC 54, MEPC 55, MEPC 56, 

and BLG 11 for its developing and testing procedures. The system also has been presented at the 

Oceans ’06 Conference IEEE in Asia Pacific, Singapore, ICBWM 2006 in Singapore, and 2006 

Lloyd’s List Conference on Ballast Water Management in London. 

The applicant has provided the application dossier for Final Approval, with appendices and 

references as follows:

– Application dossier: Application for Final Approval of Active Substances 

for ballast water management with Electro-Clean 

(Electrolytic-Disinfection) System submitted by

the Republic of Korea 

– Appendix 1 Recommendations of the GESAMP-BWWG and responses of 

the applicant that submitted the dossier for Final Approval 

– Appendix 2 Preliminary Report for The Type Approval Test Used by 

Electro-Clean Ballast Water Management System 

– Appendix 3 Analysis of Active substances and Relevant chemicals 

– Appendix 4 Key data summary of active substances, relevant chemicals and 

other component 

– Appendix 5 Installation and Operation Manual of Electro-Clean System (ECS) 

– Appendix 6 MSDS of Active Substances, Relevant Chemicals and other 

component 

– Appendix 7 Toxicity test report 

– Appendix 8 Corrosivity test report 

– Appendix 9 Data sheet of MAM-PEC and EUSES for risk assessment 

– Appendix 10 Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP)

– Appendix 11 Estimated results for ECS treated water by EPI and TOPKAT 

– References 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 2 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

The applicant’s responses to the recommendations of the GESAMP-BWWG mentioned in 

document MEPC 57/2, annex 4 (including the review on the first application for Final Approval) 

are summarized as follows: 

Responses to Recommendations of the GESAMP-BWWG, MEPC 57/ 2, annex 4 

Summary 0.4 

The discharge toxicity tests had been conducted on samples drawn from 

the G8 land-based efficacy tests (in the application dossier 6.2.1, Appendix 10). 

Summary 0.5 

Additional Land-based tests were conducted in appropriate conditions meeting salinity 

concentration and POC, DOC, TSS concentrations of G8 standard (Appendix 2). 

Summary 0.6 

Active Substances are categorized into HOCl (OCl-), HOBr (OBr-), O3, H2O2 and 

OH-, which means that they can be generated at operating ECS. This report also 

contains analysis results of 32 by-products, which can be generated at operating 

ECS (in the application dossier 3.1.2, Appendix 3). 

Summary 0.7 

Human exposure scenarios are prepared on individual Active Substances, Relevant 

Chemicals and other component. The human exposure scenarios on crew onboard are made 

on treated water, and the human exposure scenarios on inhabitants at discharging to marine 

environment are made on Active Substances, Relevant Chemicals and other component 

(in the application dossier 7.2, Appendix 9). 

Summary 0.8 / 0.12 / 0.13

Online gas monitoring system is installed in order to improve safety to ship and crew. 

Safety level is improved against gas upon installing de-aeration system. Moreover, the 

alarm system would work in case the gas concentration exceeds the limit level 

(in the application dossier 7.1, Appendix 5). 

Summary 0.9 / 0.14 / – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.4

The corrosivity tests, provided in the application dossier, are conducted on coated/uncoated 

test samples and pipe samples. Additionally, the corrosivity test is also taken with test 

samples from the ballast tanks in test barge, which are used for more than two years 

(in the application dossier 7.1.1, Appendix 8). 

Summary 0.10 / – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.3 / 9.4.1

Neutralization is executed with sodium thiosulfate at discharging with neutralizing system on 

ECS (in the application dossier 4.1.4, Appendix 5). 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.4.2 

As a neutralization system is installed in ECS system, discharged water has no TRO in 

treated water (in the application dossier 4.1.4.1.3 Appendix 4). 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.4.3 / 9.4.4 

Adequate input data value is provided for PEC/PNEC calculation based on MAM-PEC 

(VER 1.6) model. Furthermore, the evaluation also considered EUSES (VER. 2.1) model 

(in the application dossier 6.3.3.2, Appendix 9). 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 3 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.4.5 

Freshwater (<3PSU) is tested by ECS and Active Substances and Relevant Chemicals are 

analysed (in the application dossier 2.6, Appendix 1). 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.4.6 

The documentation of the quality control/quality assurance programme is provided 

(Appendix 10). 

This report contains information on individual Active Substance which composes Total 

Residual Oxidants (TRO). Oxidative Active Substances are generated during ballast water 

treatment by the ECS. The substances are composed of HOCl (OCl-), HOBr (OBr-), O3, 

H2O2 and OH- Radical (EPA, 1999) and these substances have been attributed to remove 

micro-organisms. Such a system can be greatly beneficial as it can eradicate 

micro-organisms inhabiting inside organic matters in a very short period of time 

providing comparatively short substance half-life. 

2 DATA-SET 

2.1 Identification

The Active Substances, Relevant Chemicals and other component in discharged water through 

ECS are shown in Table below: 

List of identified Active Substances, Relevant Chemicals and other component

Chemical name

Control 

water 

(μg/L)

Treated water

(μg /L) before 

neutralization

Treated water 

(μg /L) after 

neutralization

LOD* 

(μg /L) 

LOQ* 

(μg /L) 

HOCl (OCl-) N.D. ≤ 653 N.D. 10 40 

HOBr (OBr-) N.D. ≤ 4873 N.D. 2 6 

O3 (H2O2) N.D. ≤ 478 N.D. 20 60 

2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid N.D. N.D. N.D. 10 20 

Active 

Substances 

OH2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid N.D. N.D. N.D. 20 50 

Trichloromethane 0.20 ≤ 0.12 ≤ 0.13 0.006 0.02 

Dibromomethane N.D. ≤ 0.07 ≤ 0.06 0.006 0.02 

Bromodichloromethane 0.02 ≤ 0.10 ≤ 0.12 0.008 0.03 

Dibromochloromethane 0.02 ≤ 1.78 ≤ 1.97 0.006 0.02 

Tribromomethane 0.10 ≤ 43.58 ≤ 49.65 0.005 0.02 

1,2,3-Trichloropropane N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.006 0.02 

Relevant 

Chemicals 

2-Chlorotoluene N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.006 0.02 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 4 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

4-Chlorotoluene N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.006 0.02 

1,2-Dibromo-3-Chloropropane N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.009 0.03 

1,3,5-Tribromobenzene N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.011 0.03 

1,2,4-Tribromobenzene N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.011 0.03 

Trichloroacetonitrile N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.004 0.01 

Dichloroacetonitrile N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.003 0.01 

Bromochloroacetonitrile N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.004 0.01 

Dibromoacetonitrile 0.16 ≤ 21.11 ≤ 21.49 0.003 0.01 

2,4-Dibromophenol 0.01 ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.02 0.002 0.01 

2,6-Dibromophenol 0.01 ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.01 0.002 0.01 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol 0.01 ≤ 0.25 ≤ 0.38 0.002 0.01 

2-Chlorophenol N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.003 0.01 

2,4-Dichlorophenol N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.002 0.01 

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.004 0.01 

Pentachlorophenol N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.002 0.01 

Monochloroacetic acid 0.19 ≤ 1.31 ≤ 1.26 0.005 0.02 

Monobromoacetic acid N.D. ≤ 5.50 ≤4.99 0.006 0.02 

Dichloroacetic acid 0.06 ≤ 0.61 ≤ 0.64 0.010 0.03 

Trichloroacetic acid N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.011 0.03 

Bromochloroacetic acid N.D. ≤ 1.33 ≤ 1.28 0.011 0.03 

Dibromoacetic acid N.D. ≤ 17.21 ≤ 20.65 0.011 0.03 

Bromodichloroacetic acid N.D. N.D. N.D. 0.010 0.03 

Dibromochloroacetic acid N.D. ≤ 5.61 ≤ 7.00 0.009 0.03 

Tribromoacetic acid N.D. ≤ 98.49 ≤ 114.25 0.011 0.03 

Bromate ion N.D. ≤ 19.08 N.D. 0.11 0.37 

Other 

component Sodium thiosulfate N.A. N.A. 24000 - - 

*LOQ: Limit of Quantification (SD*10, n=7), *LOD: Limit of Detection (SD*3.14, n=7) = MDL 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 5 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.1.1 Active Substances 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure AS/RC/

OC 

Chlorine 7782-50-5 1017 70.90 AS 

Calcium 

hypochlorite 7778-54-3 2880 142.98 AS 

Hypochl

orous 

acid/hyp

ochlorite

Sodium 

hypochlorite 7681-52-9 1791 74.44 AS 

Hypobromous 

acid/hypobromite 7726-95-6 1744 159.82 AS 

Hydrogen peroxide 7722-84-1 2015 34.01 AS 

Ozone 10028-15-6 1956 48.00 AS 

Ozone 10028-15-6 1956 48.00 AS Hydroxyl 

radical Hydrogen 

peroxide 7722-84-1 2015 34.01 AS 

2.1.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.1.2.1 HAAs 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure AS/RC

/OC 

Monochloroacetic acid 79-11-8 3250 94.50 RC 

Monobromoacetic acid 105-36-2 1603 167.01 RC 

Dichloroacetic acid 79-43-6 1764 128.94 RC 

Dibromoacetic acid 631-64-1 3261 217.86 RC 

Dibromochloroacetic acid 5278-95-5 - - - 

Tribromoacetic acid 10028-15-6 1956 48.00 RC 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

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2.1.2.2 THMs 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure 

AS/

RC/

OC 

Dibromochloromethane 124-48-1 2810 208.28 AS 

Tribromomethane 75-25-2 2515 252.73 RC 

2.1.2.3 HANs 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure 

AS/

RC/

OC 

Dibromoacetonitrile 3252-43-5 1935 198.86 RC 

2.1.2.4 Phenols 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure 

AS/

RC/

OC 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol 118-79-6 2810 330.8 RC 

2.1.2.5 Ion 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure AS/RC/

OC 

Bromate Potassium 

bromate 7758-01-2 1484 167.01 RC 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 7 

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2.1.3 Other component 

2.2 Effects on aquatic organisms 

2.2.1 Acute aquatic toxicity 

2.2.1.1 Active Substances 

2.2.1.1.1 Fish-aquatic toxicity 

Several valid short-term toxicity data were available for each Active Substance in freshwater and 

seawater. The lowest toxicity endpoint was a 96hr-LC50 of 9.3μg/L for Oncorhynchus mykiss in 

ozone (US EPA, Ecotoxicology Database, 2008 for ozone). Hypochlorous acid was reported as 

toxic to fish from 96hr LC50 of 60μg/L in freshwater and from 96hr LC50 of 32μg/L in seawater 

(OECD SIDS SIAM 18, 2004). 

2.2.1.1.2 Crustacea -aquatic toxicity 

Several short-term toxicity test results for aquatic crustacean were available. The most toxic 

Active Substance was assessed as hypochlorous acid, which has the 24hr-EC50 of 5μg FAC/L 

for Ceriodaphnia dubia (ECB, EU Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite). 

2.2.1.1.3 Algae -aquatic toxicity 

Aquatic toxicity studies for algae were available for each Active Substance except for ozone. No 

data were available for aquatic algae toxicity study of ozone. Hypochlorous acid was evaluated 

as toxic substance from 24hr-LC50 of 75μg/L (growth rate) for Thalassiosira pseudonana

(ECB, EU Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite). 

2.2.1.2 Relevant Chemicals 

Most of the aquatic toxicity tests were conducted in neutralized medium (pH 7-9.6). As the pH of 

the medium is always above the pKa, HAAs, THMs, HANs and Ion are fully dissociated and can 

be considered as dissolved salt of water. 

2.2.1.2.1 Fish -aquatic toxicity 

Short term toxicity data were available for monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid and 

dibromoacetic acid among HAAs. No data were available for monobromoacetic acid, 

bromochloroacetic acid, dibromochloroacetic acid and tribromoacetic acid. Therefore, aquatic 

toxicity for these substances was assessed by toxicity for monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic 

acid and dibromoacetic acid. 

Substance name CAS No. UN 

No. 

Molecular 

mass 

Structure AS/RC/

OC 

Sodium thiosulfate 7772-98-7 - 158.09 Emulsifier 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 8 

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It is considered that among several data of HAAs, the most valid data was derived from 

dibromoacetic acid from endpoints of 96hr-LC50 of 69mg/L for Pimephales promelas 

(US EPA, Ecotoxicology Database, 2008). 

Valid THMs data for dibromochloromethane was available for 96hr-LC50 of 79mg/L using 

OECD TG 203 under GLP. 

The lowest endpoint of dibromoacetonitrile was 96hr-LC50 of 0.55mg/L for Pimephales 

promelas (US EPA, Ecotoxicology Database, 2008). 

Valid 2,4,6-tribromophenol data was available for 96hr-LC50 of 1.5mg/L using OECD TG 203 

under GLP. 

Acute toxicity to fish for potassium bromate was reported in several species. From the results, the 

lowest endpoint was 96hr-LC50 of 404mg/L for Morone saxatilis (Thomas H., 1997). 

LC50 value for Sodium thiosulfate was only reported for Gambusia affinis. The 96hr-LC50 was 

ca. 24,000mg/L (ECB, IUCLID, 2000). 

2.2.1.2.2 Crustacea -aquatic toxicity 

Valid endpoint among several data of HAAs was monochloroacetic acid from 48hr-EC50 

of 77mg/L for Daphnia magna (US EPA, Ecotoxicology Database, 2008). 

Valid THMs data for dibromochloromethane was available for 48hr-EC50 of 27mg/L using 

OECD TG 202 under GLP. 

No experimental aquatic crustacea toxicity study for dibromoacetonitrile and other 

halo-acetonitrile were available. Therefore, estimated data using ECOSAR was 

assessed. 48hr-LC50 of 3,897.8mg/L to Daphnia magna for dibromoacetonitrile was estimated. 

For 2,4,6-tribromophenol, two GLP studies were available. From the lowest result, 48hr-EC50 of 

0.26mg/L for Daphnia magna was assessed valid (ECB, IUCLID, 2000). 

For potassium bromate, one freshwater study and one seawater study were available. The lowest 

endpoint was 48 hr-LC50 of 179mg/L to Daphnia magna (Thomas H., 1997). 

2.2.1.2.3 Algae-aquatic toxicity 

Valid endpoint among several data was monochloroacetic acid from 72hr-ErC50 of 0.025mg/L 

for Scenedesmus subspicatus according to OECD TG 201 under GLP. 

Form dibromochloromethane, 72hr-EbC50 of 6.1mg/L to Selenastrum caprocornutum was 

studied according to OECD TG 201 under GLP; therefore, this data was valid. 

No experimental aquatic algae toxicity study for dibromoacetonitrile and other halo-acetonitrile 

were available. Therefore, estimated data using ECOSAR was assessed. 96hr-EC50 

of 2,231.3mg/L to green algae for dibromoacetonitrile was estimated. 

For 2,4,6-tribromophenol, two GLP studies were available for Selenastrum cappricornutum. 

The lowest value was 72hr-ECr50 of 0.4mg/L (ECB, IUCLID, 2000). 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

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For bromate ion, three seawater species were studied and test results were the same as 72hr-EC50 

of 13.6mg/L (Thomas H., 1997). 

2.2.2 Chronic aquatic toxicity 

2.2.2.1 Active Substances 

2.2.2.1.1 Fish -aquatic toxicity 

For Active Substances, chronic fish toxicity studies were available only for hypochlorous acid. 

The lowest NOEC was 5μg/L during 133 days to Ictalurus punctatus 

(OECD SIDS SIAM 18, 2004). 

2.2.2.1.2 Crustacea-aquatic toxicity 

Several chronic toxicity studies were available for hypochlorous acid and hydrogen peroxide. 

15d-NOEC of 6.2μg TRO/L for molluscs was the lowest endpoints among Active Substances 

(OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 18, 2004). 

2.2.2.1.3 Algae-aquatic toxicity 

There is only hypochlorous acid data for chronic algae aquatic toxicity. The lowest NOEC value 

for algae was 0.001mg/L during 21 days (ECB Risk Assessment Report for sodium 

hypochlorite, 2007). 

2.2.2.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.2.2.2.1 Fish-aquatic toxicity 

Fish chronic toxicity data were available for monochloroacetic acid, dibromochloromethane and 

sodium thiosulfate. The most valid NOEC was 3.2mg/L/21day to Oryzias latipes for 

dibromochloromethane according to OECD TG 201 under GLP. 

2.2.2.2.2 Crustacea-aquatic toxicity 

Chronic toxicity data for aquatic crustacea were available for monochloroacetic acid, 

monobromoacetic acid, dibromochloromethane and 2,4,6-tribromophenol. The lowest result was 

reported for Daphnia magna with NOEC of 0.1mg/L during 21days for 2,4,6-tribromophenol 

according to OECD TG 211. 

2.2.2.2.3 Algae- aquatic toxicity 

Chronic aquatic algae studies were not available for Relevant Chemicals. 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

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2.2.3 Endocrine disruption effects 

2.2.3.1 Active Substances 

2.2.3.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

Free chlorine is consumed upon contact with living tissues making measurement of 

biodegradation impossible and unnecessary. The chloride ion is actively transported by 

freshwater and marine organisms, typically being concentrated in freshwater species and diluted 

in seawater forms including some hyperosmotic and isotonic groups such as chondrichthys 

(sharks, rays etc). Free chlorine is very toxic to biodegrading micro-organisms and it may 

interrupt the biodegradation of other materials at levels of greater than or equal to 0.01mg/L 

(ECB, IUCLID, 2000). 

2.2.3.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

There are no data available on the full-life-cycle test on fish or amphibian metamorphosis assay. 

In human or animal clinical effects, endocrine system was not affected because of any adverse 

effects for 0.2mg/L test (HSDB, 2008). 

2.2.3.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

There is only one test available on long-term effects on fish. It is an 8-month dietary 

carcinogenicity test that shows the ability of H2O2 to enhance liver tumors on rainbow trout in a 

dose-dependent manner. In this test, however, unrealistically high concentrations of H2O2 were 

used. Fish were also treated with a tumor-initialising agent and an antioxidant simultaneously. 

Therefore, this test is not regarded as valid (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003). 

2.2.3.1.4 Ozone 

No information is available on endocrine disruption data for ozone. 

2.2.3.1.5 Hydroxyl radical 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as hydrogen 

peroxide. 

2.2.3.2 Relevant Chemicals 

There are no reliable data on the full-life cycle test on fish or amphibian metamorphosis assay. 

No instance has been reported for the endocrine disruptive properties of HAAs, THMs, HANs, 

Phenols and Ion. 

2.2.4 Bioaccumulation 

2.2.4.1 Active Substances 

Ozone exists as gas phase so that bioaccumulation potential would be low. 
MEPC 58/2 

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Active Substances have low Log Pow and BCF values and it is expected that Active Substances 

are not considered to be bioaccumulation on aquatic organisms. 

2.2.4.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there is no food chain concentration potential. Due to low 

Log Pow and BCF values, it is unlikely that these will be accumulated through the food chain. 

The octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow) (an index of the partitioning of a compound 

between octanol and water) range from -7.18 to 4.02. Estimated BCF of 3.162-9.18, using a 

Log Kow, suggests that the potential for bioconcentration in aquatic organisms is low. 

2.2.5 Sediment toxicity and Food web/population effects 

2.2.5.1 Active Substances 

Sediment toxicity testing is considered to be relevant only if log Kow >3. Active Substances 

have low Log Pow (ranges from -2.46 to 1.03) and BCF values so the substances are rapidly 

degraded in nature. Sediment toxicity and food web/population effects for Active Substances are 

not considered. 

2.2.5.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

Due to the calculated low Log Pow of hypochlorous acid (Log Pow = -2.46), it is unlikely that it 

will be accumulated through the food chain. 

2.2.5.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

For food web, there is no potential concentration of food chain. In a test using soil, liquid 

bromine spill site, bromine concentration in soil continued to decrease (ECB, IUCLID, 2000 for 

bromine). There is no reliable data of BCF testing but hypobromous acid will easily react with 

other substances so the potential for sediment toxicity and food web/population effects 

would be low. 

2.2.5.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

H2O2 is rapidly degraded in the environment (biotic and abiotic). Its half-life times are estimated 

to be < 1-5 days in surface water and sediment, one day in the air and from minutes to a few 

hours in soil. 

Hydrogen peroxide does not bioaccumulate (log Kow < -1). Hydrogen peroxide adsorbs poorly 

to sediment particles and is rapidly degraded; thus, accumulation in the sediment is also not 

expected (OECD SIDS Initial Assessment Report for SIAM 9, 1999). 

2.2.5.1.4 Ozone 

A study was done to examine the solubility and stability of ozone in shrimp-meat extract (SME) 

and the bactericidal effect of ozone on shrimp-meat micro-organisms (Chen et al., 1992, Hazard 

Text for ozone). 
MEPC 58/2 

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Ozone produced a decomposition rate of 2.7%/min in the SME from a saturated solution 

(1.4 mg O3/l) at 5 ~ 25oC. Nine bacterial strains were tested and Salmonella typhimurium was 

found to be the most resistant to ozone (Hazard Text for ozone). Ozone does not persist or 

concentrate in organisms; therefore, there is no concern of effect on any animal high up the 

food chain. 

2.2.5.1.5 Hydroxyl radicals 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as hydrogen 

peroxide. 

2.2.5.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.2.5.2.1 Monochloroacetic acid 

The Koc of monochloroacetic acid is estimated as 1.2, using a log Kow of 0.22 (Hansch et al.; 

Amer Chem Soc, 1995) and a regression-derived equation (Meykan et al.; Environ Toxicol 

Chem, 1999). According to a classification scheme (Franke et al.; Chemosphere, 1994), this 

estimated Koc value suggests that monochloroacetic acid is expected to have very high mobility 

in soil (HSDB, 2005). 

Monochloroacetic acid was used as an anti-microbiological additive in food and in tin coating for 

aqueous foodstuffs. However, in view of the low vapour pressure and high water solubility, 

monochloroacetic acid is expected to end up mainly in the water compartment (SIAM, 2004). 

2.2.5.2.2 Monobromoacetic acid 

The Koc of monobromoacetic acid is estimated as 1.201, using a log Kow of 0.41 with 

PCKOWIN v.1.66 (EPI). Monobromoacetic acid is not considered to be bioaccumulation 

(log Kow < 1). 

It is speculated that monochloroacetic acid may be found in meat and other food products 

(US EPA, 2003b). This would result from the use of chlorine in food production and processing, 

including the disinfection of chicken; processing of seafoods, poultry and red meats; sanitizing of 

equipment and containers; and oxidizing and bleaching in the flour industry (US EPA, 1994). 

2.2.5.2.3 Dichloroacetic acid 

The Koc of dichloroacetic acid is estimated as 1.895, using a log Kow of 0.92 with PCKOWIN 

v.1.66 (EPI). Dichloroacetic acid is not considered to be bioaccumulation (log Kow < 1). 

Dichloroacetic acid is adsorbed poorly to sediment particles and is rapidly degraded. Thus, 

accumulation in the sediment is also not expected. 

It is speculated that dichloroacetic acid may be found in meat and other food products 

(US EPA, 2003b). This would result from the use of chlorine in food production and processing, 

including the disinfection of chicken; processing of seafoods, poultry and red meats; sanitizing of 

equipment and containers; and oxidizing and bleaching in the flour industry (US EPA, 1994). 
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2.2.5.2.4 Bromochloroacetic acid 

The Log Kow of bromochloroacetic acid is estimated as 0.61, using KOWWIN v.1.67. 

Bromochloroacetic acid does not bioaccumulate (log Kow < 3). Bromochloroacetic acid poorly 

adsorbs to sediment particles and is rapidly degraded, thus accumulation in the sediment is also 

not expected. 

2.2.5.2.5 Dibromoacetic acid 

Dibromoacetic acid is rapidly degraded in the environment (biotic and abiotic). Its half-life times 

are estimated to be < 16.869days in air phase. 

Dibromoacetic acid does not bioaccumulate (log Kow < 3). Dibromoacetic acid adsorbs poorly to 

sediment particles and is rapidly degraded, thus accumulation in the sediment is also 

not expected. 

2.2.5.2.6 Dibromochloroacetic acid 

No information of sediment toxicity for dibromochloroacetic acid is available. However, the Koc 

of monochloroacetic acid and haloacetic acid family are estimated as 1.2 using a log Kow of 0.22 

(HSDB, 2005). According to the classification scheme, it may be suggested that 

dibromochloroacetic acid is expected to have high mobility in soil. There are no food web or 

population effects on dibromochloroacetic acid. 

2.2.5.2.7 Tribromoacetic acid 

The Log Pow value of tribromoacetic acid is 1.71 (EPI suit, EPA) and the Koc value of 

tribromoacetic acid is 0.437 (EPI suit, EPA). Therefore, the possibility of sediment toxicity is 

predicted to be very low. 

2.2.5.2.8 Dibromochloromethane 

Due to its Log Pow <3, dibromochloromethane is not considered to be sediment toxicity. 

Therefore, there is no toxicity because dibromochloromethane may be dissolved into water. 

2.2.5.2.9 Tribromomethane 

The Koc of tribromomethane is estimated as 35.04, using a log Kow of 2.4 with 

PCKOWIN v.1.66 (EPI). Tribromomethane is not considered to be bioaccumulation (log Kow <3). 

Tribromomethane is poorly adsorbed to sediment particles and is rapidly degraded, thus 

accumulation in the sediment is also not expected. 

2.2.5.2.10 Dibromoacetonitrile 

The log Kow for dibromoacetonitrile estimated from molecular structure is 0.47. Using this value 

of log Kow, it is estimated a BCF of 1.34, using a recommended regression equation. This 

indicates that dibromoacetonitrile will not bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms and is not 

considered to be a sediment toxicity on dibromoacetonitrile due to Log Kow <3. 
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2.2.5.2.11 2,4,6-Tribromophenol

The Koc of 2,4,6-tribromophenol is estimated as 4200(SRC), using a log Kow of 4.13 

(Hansch et al., 1995) and a regression-derived equation (Lyman et al., 1990). According to a 

classification scheme (Swann et al., 1983), this estimated Koc value suggests 

that 2,4,6-tribromophenol is expected to have slight mobility in soil. An estimated pKa of 6.0 

(SPARC, 2000), indicates that 2,4,6-tribromophenol will primarily exist as an anion in the 

environment. Anions are not generally adsorbed to organic carbon and clay more strongly than 

their neutral counterparts. 

2.2.5.2.12 Bromate ion 

Potassium bromate is nearly bioaccumulated (log Kow <-7.18). Potassium bromate is adsorbed 

poorly to sediment particles and is rapidly degraded, thus accumulation in the sediment is also 

not expected. However, it is a chemical oxidizing agent found in drinking water as disinfection 

Relevant Chemical of surface water by ozonation. 

2.2.5.2.13 Sodium thiosulfate 

The Kow and BCF of sodium thiosulfate are estimated as -4.53 and 3.162, respectively 

(PC KOCWIN v.1.66, EPA, QSAR program). Sodium thiosulfate does not have endocrine 

disruption (Log Kow -4.53). Sodium thiosulfate adsorbs poorly to aquatic organisms and rapidly 

degraded. Thus, food web/population effects are not expected. Also this substance has inorganic 

chemical property; very low bioaccumulation can be expected. 

2.2.5.3 Treated ballast water 

Sediment toxicity testing is considered relevant only if log Kow >3. No data were available for 

sediment toxicity in ballast water but Active Substances and most of other Relevant Chemicals 

have low Log Pow and BCF values, so the substances are rapidly degraded in environment. 

Therefore, sediment toxicity and food web/population effects for ballast water would be low. 

2.2.6 Determination of PNEC 

2.2.6.1 Active Substances 

The PNEC calculation results are summarized in the table below. 

The PNEC calculation results are based on data-set endpoints. 

 

Chemical name Information available Assessment 

Factor Endpoint PNEC

Hypochlorite 

Three L(E)C50 from fresh water or sea water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) + Three long-term 

NOEC from fresh water (algae, crustaceans and 

fish) + one long-term NOEC from an additional 

marine taxonomic group (molluscs) 

50 5ug/L 0.1ug/L

Hypobromite Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 1mg/L 0.0001

mg/L 
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Hydrogen 

peroxide 

Two L(E)C50 from fresh water (crustaceans and 

fish) + one long-term NOEC from fresh water 

(crustaceans) 

1,000 0.1mg/L 0.0001

mg/L 

Ozone One L(E)C50 from fresh water (fish) 10,000 9.3ug/L 0.0009

3ug/L 

Hydroxyl radical 

Two L(E)C50 from fresh water (crustaceans and 

fish) + one long-term NOEC from fresh water 

(crustaceans) 

1,000 30ug/L 0.03ug/

L 

2.2.6.2 Relevant Chemicals 

The PNEC calculation results are summarized in the table below. 

The PNEC calculation results are based on data-set endpoints. 

Chemical name Information available Assessment 

Factor 

Endpoint 

(mg/L) 

PNEC 

(mg/L) 

Dibromochloromethane 

Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) + Two long-term 

NOEC from fresh water (crustaceans and fish)

500 1.5 0.003 

Tribromomethane 

Three L(E)C50 from freshwater 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) + one 

L(E)C50 from sea water (algae) 

10,000 18 0.0018 

Dibromoacetonitrile 

Two L(E)C50 from freshwater 

(crustaceans and fish) + one L(E)C50 from 

sea water (crustaceans) 

10,000 0.72 0.000072

2,4,6-Tribromophenol Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 1 0.0001 

Monochloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 77 0.0077 

Monobromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 34 0.0034 

Dichloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 82 0.0082 

Bromochloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 77 0.0077 

Dibromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 65 0.0065 

Tribromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from fresh water 

(algae, crustaceans and fish) 10,000 100 0.01 

Sodium thiosulfate One L(E)C50 from fresh water (fish) + One 

long-term NOEC from fresh water (fish) 1000 600 0.6 
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2.3 Mammalian toxicity 

2.3.1 Acute toxicity 

2.3.1.1 Active Substances 

2.3.1.1.1 Oral LD50 

A large number of studies on acute oral toxicity of Active Substances have been performed. 

The results from these studies show that acute oral toxicity is high and LD50 values range 

from 75mg/kg (hydrogen peroxide, rat, 70% H2O2) (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003 

for hydrogen peroxide) to 5,500mg/kg (bromine, guinea pig) (ECB, IUCLID, 2006). 

Due to the gas property, ozone could not be evaluated for toxicity. 

2.3.1.1.2 Dermal LD50

A large number of studies on acute dermal toxicity of Active Substances have been performed. 

The results from these studies show that acute dermal toxicity is moderate and LD50 values range 

from 700mg/kg (hydrogen peroxide, rabbit, 90% H2O2) (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment 

Report, 2003 for hydrogen peroxide) to 10,000mg/kg (hypochlorous acid, rabbit) 

(OECD SIDS, 2000). 

Due to the gas property, ozone could not be evaluated for toxicity. 

2.3.1.1.3 Inhalation LC50

A large number of studies on acute inhalation toxicity of Active Substances have 

been performed. The results from these studies show that acute inhalation toxicity is high 

and LC50 values range from 1.202mg/L (Hypochlorous acid, rat, 60 min) (ECB, EU 

Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite) to 250mg/L (mouse, 30 min) (OECD 

SIAM 16, 2003) to hypochlorous acid. But no information is available on any potential systemic 

toxicity that can be caused by inhalation route. Inhalation toxicity is available for hypobromous 

acid, hydrogen peroxide and ozone. 

2.3.1.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.3.1.2.1 Oral LD50 

(1) HAAs 

A large number of studies on acute oral toxicity of HAAs have been performed. The results from 

these studies show that acute oral toxicity is high and LD50 values range from 50mg/kg 

(monobromoacetic acid, rat) (RTECS, 2001) to 2,820mg/kg (dichloroacetic acid, rat) 

(RTECS, 2006). 
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(2) THMs 

A large number of studies on acute oral toxicity of THMs have been performed. The results from 

these studies show that acute oral toxicity is moderate and LD50 values range from 370mg/kg 

(dibromochloromethane, rat) (RTECS, 2005) to 1,388 mg/kg (tribromomethane, rat) 

(HSDB, 2005). And the results of QSAR analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 to acute oral toxicity 

show that LD50 values ranges from 308.9mg/kg (tribromomethane, rat) to 914.5mg/kg 

(dibromochloromethane, rat). 

(3) HANs 

Two studies on acute oral toxicity of HANs (dibromoacetonitrile) have been performed. 

The results from these studies show that acute oral toxicity is high and LD50 values range 

from 245 mg/kg (male) to 361 mg/kg (female) for rat (RTECS, 2004) and the results of QSAR 

analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 to acute oral toxicity show that LD50 value is 425.8mg/kg. 

(4) HPs 

Three studies on acute oral toxicity of HPs (2,4,6-tribromophenol) have been performed. 

The results from these studies show that acute oral toxicity is low and LD50 values range 

from 1,486 mg/kg to 5,000mg/kg for rat (OECD SIDS Initial Assessment Report, 2004; ECB, 

IUCLID, 2000) and the results of QSAR analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 to acute oral toxicity 

show that LD50 value is 1,100mg/kg. 

(5) Ion 

Three studies on acute oral toxicity of Ion (potassium bromate) have been performed. The results 

from these studies show that acute oral toxicity is high and LD50 values range from 157mg/kg 

(rat) to 289mg/kg (mouse) and other LD50 value is 714mg/kg for human (RTECS, 2007). 

2.3.1.3 Other component 

Three studies on acute oral toxicity of other component (sodium thiosulfate) have been 

performed. The results from these studies show that acute oral toxicity is low and LD50 values 

range from 2,500mg/kg to 5,000mg/kg for rat and other LD50 value is 3 gm/kg for dog (Registry 

of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, 2006 for disodium thiosulfate). 

2.3.1.2.2 Dermal LD50

(1) HAAs 

A large number of studies on acute dermal toxicity of HAAs have been performed. The results 

from these studies show that acute dermal toxicity is high and LD50 values range from 59.9mg/kg 

(monobromoacetic acid, rabbit) (RTECS, 2001) to 510ul/kg (dichloroacetic acid, rabbit) 

(RTECS, 2006). 
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(2) HPs 

Two studies on acute dermal toxicity of HPs (2,4,6-tribromophenol) have been performed. 

The results from these study show that acute dermal toxicity is low and LD50 values range 

from 2,000mg/kg (ECB, ICULID, 2000) for rat to 8,000mg/kg for rabbit (OECD SIDS Initial 

Assessment Report, 2004). 

2.3.1.2.3 Inhalation LC50 

(1) HAAs 

Several studies on acute inhalation toxicity of HAAs have been performed. The results from 

these studies show that acute inhalation toxicity is very high and LC50 values range 

from 0.18mg/L (monochloroacetic acid, rat) (ECB, IUCLID, 2000) to 180mg/m3

/4hr 

(dibromochloroacetic acid, rat) (ECB, Eu Risk Assessment Report, 2005). And the results of 

QSAR analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 to acute oral toxicity show that LD50 values range 

from 7.4g/m3/h (dichloroacetic acid, rat) to 10g/m3/h (monobromoacetic acid, dibromoacetic 

acid, tribromoacetic acid, rat). 

(2) THMs 

Two studies on acute inhalation toxicity of THMs have been performed. The results from these 

studies show that acute inhalation toxicity is low and LC50 values of tribromomethane range 

from 7mg/L/4h for dog (RTECS, 2006) to 12.1mg/L/2hr for mouse (RTECS, 2006). And the 

results of QSAR analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 to acute oral toxicity show that LD50 values are 

above 10g/m3/h for rat to dibromochloromethane and tribromomethane. 

(3) HANs 

QSAR analysis using TOPKAT v.6.1 on acute inhalation toxicity of HANs (dibromoacetonitrile) 

has been performed. The result from this study shows that acute inhalation toxicity is moderate 

and LC50 value is above 10g/m3

/h for rat. 

(4) HPs 

One study on acute inhalation toxicity of HPs has been performed. The results from this study 

show that acute inhalation toxicity is low and LC50 values of 2,4,6-Tribromophenol range 

from 1,630mg/L/4h for rat. 

2.3.2 Effects on skin and eye 

2.3.2.1 Active Substances 

2.3.2.1.1 Skin 

Skin irritation values for Active Substances range from irritating to corrosive. Most of Active 

Substances are irritative to rodent, rabbit and human skin and corrosive on concentrated solution. 

Thus these substances have severe skin irritation effects. Due to the gas property, Ozone could 

not be evaluated for toxicity. 
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2.3.2.1.2 Eye 

Eye irritation values for Active Substances range from irritating to corrosive. In draize test, most 

of Active Substances were irritative and corrosive to rabbit and human eyes. Thus, these 

substances have moderately to severe eye irritation effects. Due to the gas property, ozone could 

not be evaluated for toxicity. 

2.3.2.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.3.2.2.1 Skin 

Most of Relevant Chemicals have toxicity range from not irritating to corrosion. In a skin 

irritation study in Rabbit patch test for Monochloroacetic acid, value shows corrosion effects. 

The results from acute toxicity are shown toxic effects caused by Relevant Chemicals. 

2.3.2.2.2 Eye 

Most of Relevant Chemicals have toxicity range from moderately irritating to highly corrosive. 

In an eye irritation study in Rabbit FDA-Method for Monochloroacetic acid, value shows highly 

corrosive effects. The results from acute toxicity show toxic effects caused by Relevant 

Chemicals. 

2.3.3 Repeated-dose toxicity 

2.3.3.1 Active Substances 

According to GLP guideline test, there are no effects on repeated-dose toxicity 

(NOAEL<0.4 mg/kg, chlorine 99.7% purity) (OECD SIDS, 2006). Thus, these substances are not 

expected to be repeated-dose toxicity. Thus Active Substances are not considered to have 

repeated-dose toxicity effects. 

2.3.3.2 Relevant Chemicals 

In an oral study in Mice 103 weeks test for monochloroacetic acid, LOAEL was 50mg/kg bw 

(ECB, Eu Risk Assessment Report, 2005). The results from repeated toxicity show slightly toxic 

effects caused by Relevant Chemicals. 

2.3.4 Chronic toxicity 

2.3.4.1 Active Substances 

According to GLP guideline test, there is no effect on chronic toxicity (NOAEL<0.4mg/kg, 

chlorine 99.7% purity) (OECD SIDS, 2006). Thus, these substances are not expected to be 

repeated-dose toxicity. Thus Active Substances are not considered to be a chronic 

toxicity effects. 

2.3.4.2 Relevant Chemicals 

Development toxicity shows slightly toxic effects caused by Relevant Chemicals. 
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2.3.5 Developmental and reproductive toxicity 

2.3.5.1 Active Substances 

According to OECD guideline test, there is no reproductive toxic effect (hypochlorous acid, 

Rat, 1.0, 2.0, and 5.0mg/kg) (ECB, EU Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite). 

But ozone shows significant effects (0.44mg/L) (HSDB for ozone), minimal teratogenesis 

(1.97mg/L) (OECD SIDS, 2003 for hydrogen peroxide) increased rates of fetal absorption 

(1.26mg/L, 8hr/day). Thus, some of Active Substances are not expected to be developmental and 

reproductive toxicity. 

2.3.5.2 Relevant Chemicals 

In an oral study in Rat 29 days test for Dibromoacetic acid, NOAEL was 50mg/L (4.4-11.6 

mg/kg/day) (FPTC, 2006). The results from development toxicity show slightly toxic effects 

caused by Relevant Chemicals. 

2.3.6 Carcinogenicity 

2.3.6.1 Active Substances 

According to GLP guideline test, there is a negative effect (hypochlorous acid, mouse, 70, 140 

or 275mg/L buffered water Frequency of treatment) (ECB, Eu Risk Assessment Report for 

Sodium Hypochlorite). Due to the gas property, Ozone could not be evaluated toxicity. Thus 

most of Active Substances are not expected to be carcinogenicity. 

2.3.6.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there are slightly related results of carcinogenicity. In a study in 

rat (gavage to 0, 15 and 30mg/kg/day for 103 weeks, monochloroacetic acid) (ECB, EU Risk 

Assessment Report, 2005), result shows that the number of survival was decreased and acute 

inflammation of the nasal mucosa is produced. The results from carcinogenicity show slightly 

toxic effects caused by Relevant Chemicals. 

2.3.7 Mutagenicity/genotoxicity 

2.3.7.1 Active Substances 

Some of in vitro and in vivo test show mutagenicity aberrations (positive, In vitro Cytogenic 

assay/Chromosomal, hydrogen peroxide) (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003) but most 

Active Substances have negative results on mutagenicity assay. Active Substances are not 

considered to be mutagenicity and genotoxicity.

2.3.7.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there are no toxicity results of mutagenicity. In a study in 

Salmonella typhimurium (Ames test (plate incorporation) – in vitro study) for monochloroacetic 

acid (ECB, IUCLID, 2000), result was negative. The results from mutagenicity show no toxic 

effects caused by most of Relevant Chemicals.
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2.3.8 Toxicokinetics 

2.3.8.1 Active Substances 

Active Substances have low Log Pow (range from -2.46 to 1.03) and BCF values and it is 

expected that Active Substances are not considered to be bioaccumulation on aquatic organisms. 

2.3.8.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

This report evaluated chlorine, calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite because in water, 

chlorine, calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite are in a fast equilibrium with 

hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which again is in a fast equilibrium with hypochlorite ions (OCl-). 

Free chlorine is consumed upon contacting with living tissues, making measurement of 

biodegradation impossible and unnecessary. The chloride ion is actively transported by most 

freshwater and marine organisms, typically being concentrated in freshwater species and diluted 

in saltwater forms including some hyperosmotic and isotonic groups such as chondrichthys 

(sharks, rays etc). Free chlorine is very toxic to biodegrading micro-organisms and may interfere 

with the biodegradation of other materials at levels of greater than or equal to 0.01mg/L (ECB, 

IUCLID, 2000 for chlorine). 

2.3.8.1.2 Hypobromous acid 

This report evaluated bromine because water and bromine are in a fast equilibrium with 

hypobromous acid (HOBr). 

Bromine vapours enter the body through skin and by respiratory system and digestive system. 

It has cumulative properties, being deposited in tissues as bromides (HSDB, 2008 for bromine). 

The injurious effects of bromine generally seem to be similar to those of chlorine. 

Due to its oxidizing action, bromine liberates nascent oxygen free radicals from the water present 

in mucous membranes. Nascent oxygen is a potent oxidizer, capable of causing tissue damage. 

The extent of the damage is based on the dose of bromine and the availability of water to react 

with it. In addition, the formation of bromic acids will result in secondary irritation during the 

reaction. Contact with the respiratory epithelium causes initial alveolar capillary congestion by 

focal and confluent patches of high-fibrinogen fluid. The fluid is interstitial at first but can fill the 

alveoli. Once this occurs, copious frothy, blood-tinged sputum is seen. A granulocyte response 

may occur several hours after inhalation. Hyaline membrane can be formed later resulting in 

clinical deterioration at a time when signs of improvement have occurred. Poor oxygen diffusion, 

hypoxia and hypercapnia result from development of atelectasis, emphysema and membrane 

formation. Acute obstructive ventilatory impairment leads to severe, metabolic acidosis and 

death usually due to cardiac arrest secondary to the hypoxaemia (IPCS for bromine). 

2.3.8.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

Hydrogen peroxide is a normal metabolite in the aerobic cell, but there is uncertainty about the 

true levels of the substance in biological media due to analytical difficulties. The steady state 

level appears to depend on the balance between its generation and degradation. Hydrogen 

peroxide passes readily across biological membranes (permeability constant corresponds to that 

of water) and, because it slowly reacts with organic substrates, it can diffuse at considerable 
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distances in the cell. There are two main hydrogen peroxide metabolizing enzymes, catalase and 

glutathione peroxides, which control H2O2 concentration at different levels and in different parts 

of the cell as well as in the blood. At low physiological levels hydrogen peroxide is mainly 

decomposed by GSH peroxides whereas the contribution of catalase increases with the increase 

of hydrogen peroxide concentration. Red blood cells remove hydrogen peroxide efficiently from 

the blood due to a very high catalase activity whereas in the serum catalase activity is low. 

Both animal studies and human case reports indicate that at high uptake rates hydrogen peroxide 

passes the absorption surface entering the adjacent tissues and blood vessels where it is degraded 

liberating oxygen bubbles. 1ml of 30% H2O2 yields approximately 100ml of oxygen; thus 

mechanical pressure injury may be produced. The hazard of oxygen embolization is particularly 

high if the substance is administered into closed body cavities where the liberated oxygen (under 

pressure) cannot freely escape. In most cases the consequences of venous embolization are not 

catastrophic because the lung functions as an effective filter for microbubbles under normal 

conditions. However, in experiments with dogs, when the lungs were overloaded with a bolus 

injection of 30 ml of air, or when the animals were pretreated with a vasodilator (aminophylline) 

prior to venous infusion of microbubbles of air, embolization was detected in the femoral artery 

with Doppler monitoring. Regarding hydrogen peroxide inhalation or skin contact at rates that 

would correspond to occupational exposures, there is no data on the systemic fate of the 

substance. In view of the high degradation capacity for hydrogen peroxide in blood; however, it 

is unlikely that the endogenous steady state level of the substance is affected. 

In biological systems, hydrogen peroxide may also undergo iron-catalyzed reactions 

(Fenton reaction, Haber-Weiss reaction) resulting in the formation of hydroxyl radicals. 

The cellular toxicity of hydrogen peroxide appears to largely depend on the generation of 

hydroxyl radicals. Genetically determined traits (acatalasaemia, glucose-6-phosphate 

dehydrogenase deficiency of the erythrocytes) render humans more susceptible to 

peroxide toxicity. 

Further scientific data are desirable on the toxicokinetics of hydrogen peroxide. After exploring 

the feasibility of such studies, industry has concluded that presently it seems impossible to 

measure the fate of exogenous hydrogen peroxide as any measurement will interfere with 

physiological equilibria (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003 for hydrogen peroxide). 

2.3.8.1.4 Ozone 

There is no information on toxicokinetics. 

2.3.8.1.5 Hydroxyl radical 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as 

hydrogen peroxide. 
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2.3.8.2 Relevant Chemicals 

(1) HAAs 

2.3.8.2.1 Monochloroacetic acid 

The radiolabel was rapidly eliminated, mainly via urine. Other excretory routes were expired air 

and excreted faeces. After oral exposure in rats, 90% of the administered dose was recovered in 

urine within 24 hours; after ip injection (100% absorption) 82-88% within 3 days; and after sc 

exposure, 50% by 17 hours after administration. After oral exposure in mice, 34-61% was 

excreted in urine after 72 hours. In humans (one case), after contamination of the skin 

with 14C-labelled MCAA, a half-life of about 15 hours has been found for excretion of 

radiolabel in urine, with quantitatively similar excretion via urine and breath (ATSDR, 2005). 

2.3.8.2.2 Monobromoacetic acid 

No studies of the absorption, distribution, metabolism or excretion of monobromoacetic acid 

have been identified in the literature. 

2.3.8.2.3 Dichloroacetic acid 

NIOSH (NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 1,592 workers (579 of these 

are female) are potentially exposed to dichloroacetic acid in the United Sates. Possible routes of 

exposure include both inhalation and dermal contact. The general population may be exposed to 

dichloroacetic acid via the ingestion of drinking water containing dichloroacetic acid 

(HSDB, 2005). 

2.3.8.2.4 Bromochloroacetic acid 

No data of toxicokinetic on bromochloroacetic acid is available. Thus, the data of 

monochloroacetic acid may substitute bromochloroacetic acid. 

2.3.8.2.5 Dibromoacetic acid 

It was determined that halogenated acids (HAAs) could be grouped according to the number and 

type of halogens: di-HAAs are nearly completely eliminated by metabolism and exhibit poor 

renal elimination and brominated tri-HAAs exhibit both moderate renal and metabolic 

elimination, while TCAA is unique in that it is poorly metabolized, with only moderate urinary 

elimination, which accounts for its unusually long elimination half-life (FPTC, 2006). 

2.3.8.2.6 Dibromochloroacetic acid 

There is no information on toxicokinetics. 

2.3.8.2.7 Tribromoacetic acid 

No data of toxicokinetic on tribromoacetic acid is available. 
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(2) THMs 

2.3.8.2.8 Dibromochloromethane 

Both di- and tri-halogenated methane derivatives have been found to produce increased blood 

levels of methemoglobin; the greatest increase caused by iodo-, followed by bromo- and chlorocompounds. CNS functional disturbances are reported, including depression of rapid 

eyemovement sleep, as seen in carbon monoxide exposures (HSDB, 2007). 

2.3.8.2.9 Tribromomethane 

The metabolism of bromoform, dibromochloromethane, and other trihalomethanes has been 

investigated by Anders and colleagues. The first step in the metabolism of trihalomethanes is 

oxidation by the cytochrome P-450 mixed function oxidized system of liver. This has been 

demonstrated in vitro using isolated rat liver microsomes, and in vivo, where the rate of 

metabolism is increased by cytochrome P-450 inducers (phenobarbital) and decreased by 

cytochrome P-450 inhibitors (SKF-525A). The product of this reaction is presumed to be 

trihalomethanol, which then decomposes by loss of hydrogen and halide ions to yield the 

dihalocarbonyl. Although this intermediate has not been isolated, its formation has been inferred 

by the detection of 2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OZT) in an in vitro microsomal system 

metabolizing bromoform in the presence of cysteine. The dihalocarbonyl molecule (an analogue 

of phosgene) is highly reactive, and may undergo a number of reactions, including: (a) direct 

reaction with cellular nucleophiles to yield covalent adducts; (b) reaction with two moles of 

glutathione (GSH) to yield carbon monoxide and oxidized glutathione (GSSG); and (c) 

hydrolysis to yield CO2. The amount of trihalomethane metabolized by each of these pathways 

has not been studied in detail, but it appears that conversion to CO2 is the main route. However, 

this depends on the species, the trihalomethane being metabolized and metabolic conditions 

(cellular glutathione levels). Mink et al. (1986) found that mice oxidized 72% of an oral dose of 

dibromochloromethane and 40% of an oral dose of bromoform to CO2. In contrast, rats oxidized 

only 18% of dibromochloromethane and 4% of bromoform to CO2. The fraction of the dose 

converted to carbon monoxide has not been quantified, but dramatically increased levels of 

carboxyhemoglobin have been reported following oral exposure of rats to bromoform 

(Anders et al., 1978; Stevens and Anders, 1981). Mink et al. (1986) reported that about 10% of a 

dose of bromoform was present in blood in mice; the form of the label was not investigated, but 

it may have been carboxyhemoglobin (ATSDR, 2005). 

(3) HANs 

2.3.8.2.10 Dibromoacetonitrile 

Urinary thiocyanate accounted for 2.25–12.8% of a single gavage dose of 

bromochloroacetonitrile, dibromoacetonitrile, dichloroacetonitrile or trichloroacetonitrile during 

the 24-h period following dosing of male rats. This suggests that halogenated acetonitriles are 

metabolized via oxidative dehalogenation and dehydration to carbon dioxide and cyanide, which 

is then further metabolized to thiocyanate. The first step in this reaction is catalyzed by a 

mixed-function oxidase (such as a cytochrome P-450) and results in production of a 

halocyanomethanol. The identity of the isozyme that carries out the individual reactions has not 

been determined. It is proposed that the halocyanomethanols then dehydrate to form 

halocyanoformaldehydes or lose cyanide to form haloformaldehydes, including phosgene. The 

cyanide carbon group is more readily excreted in the urine, whereas the halomethyl carbon group 
MEPC 58/2 

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is excreted nearly equally in enhaled air and in urine; excretion in faeces is low. Glutathione 

conjugation (mediated by glutathione transferences or non-enzymatic) may also play a role in the 

metabolism of halogenated acetonitriles (WHO, 2004). 

(4) HPs 

2.3.8.2.11 2,4,6-Tribromophenol 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol was rapidly absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract. The absorption, 

distribution, and elimination of this substance were examined in male or female Eolzman’s 

albino rats after a single oral administration at doses from 4.04 to 5.34mg/kg. This substance was 

rapidly absorbed in rats. The bulk of the radioactivity (77 %) was readily excreted via urine 

and 2% to 14 % were eliminated in the feces, within 48 hours. The pharmacokinetics of this 

substance in rats appeared to follow a one compartment open model system. The rate constant for 

elimination (Ke) was 0.3 and the half-life in the blood was 2.03 hours. Based on the results of 

this study, this substance should neither be persistent nor accumulative in mammalian systems 

(OECD SIDS, 2005). 

(5) Ion 

2.3.8.2.12 Potassium bromate 

A number of 6,095 people were exposed (est): 67% from actual observed use of potassium 

bromate; 0% from observed use of a tradename product known to contain potassium bromate; 

and 33% from observed use of a product in some type of general use which leads NIOSH to 

suspect that potassium bromate may be contained in that product (HSDB, 2002). 

2.3.8.3 Sodium thiosulfate 

Sodium thiosulfate is poorly absorbed form bowel and thiosulfate ion distributes itself in 

extracellular fluid. Thiosulfate serves as substrate for enzyme rhodanese, which mediates 

conversion of cyanide to much less toxic thiocyanate, which is excreted in urine (HSDB, 2008). 

2.4 Data on environmental fate and effect under aerobic and anaerobic conditions 

2.4.1 Modes of degradation (biotic; abiotic) 

2.4.1.1 Active Substances 

There are no data for hydrolysis. Active Substances have low Log Pow (range from -2.46 

to 1.03) and BCF values. 

Active Substances are rapidly degraded in nature and they are not considered to be 

bioaccumulated on aquatic organisms. 

2.4.1.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

There are three species of chlorine in equilibrium in water: gaseous chlorine, HOCl (also a gas at 

room temperature and pressure), and ClO-

. An example of the distribution among them as a 

function of pH is shown in figure below. For example, at pH 7.5 half of the chlorine is active as 

HOCl and half is available as ClO-

. The pH of commercial solutions is above 11 and the only 
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species effectively present is ClO- (ECB, Risk Assessment Report For Sodium 

Hypochlorite, 2007). 

Calculated variation in composition of a chlorine solution with degree of acidity or 

alkalinity for 0.1 M Cl2 in water at standard temperature and pressure 

2.4.1.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

Bromine will slowly be reduced to bromide by natural oxidizable materials (ECB, IUCLID, 2000 

for bromine and Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System, 1985 

for bromine). 

In the presence of moisture and sunlight, bromine has a short life-time. It is transformed into 

hydrobromic acid and oxygen (ECB, IUCLID, 2000 for bromine). 

Biological half-life was 10.5 days and in an average clearance of 0.68ml/min (HSDB, 2008 for 

bromine). 

The biological half-life for bromide through ingestion is 12 to 30 days; however, there are no 

data available on the inhalation of bromine (IPCS for bromine). 

2.4.1.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

Hydrogen peroxide is a very reactive substance in the presence of other substances, elements, 

radiation, materials or cells. Both biotic and abiotic degradation processes are important routes in 

the removal of hydrogen peroxide in the environment. 

Biological degradation of hydrogen peroxide is an enzyme-mediated process. Abiotic 

degradation of H2O2 is due to reaction with itself (disproportionation), reaction with transition 

metals, organic compounds capable to react with H2O2, reaction with free radicals, heat or light. 
MEPC 58/2 

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Hydrogen peroxide is normally a short-lived substance in the environment. Rapid degradation 

will occur due to many alternative and competitive degradation pathways. However, like most 

substances, in special circumstances when degradation processes are inactive, hydrogen peroxide 

can be an extremely persistent substance in the environment (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment 

Report, 2003). 

Abiotic degradation 

Pure aqueous solutions of hydrogen peroxide are relatively stable. Stability increases with 

increasing concentration. Stability of pure hydrogen peroxide in pure water is pH dependent. 

Decomposition is acid and alkali induced. Stability is at a maximum at pH 3.5-4.5 and 

decomposition rates are the highest in alkaline solution. 

Degradation in the aquatic environment takes place in the presence of a catalyst. Most transition 

metals, and especially Fe, Mn and Cu may have significant influence on degradation rates of 

hydrogen peroxide in natural water. Degradation rates in filtered natural waters have been 

studied. Filtering natural water samples do in some extent allow differences between 

biodegradation and abiotic elimination processes. 

In filtered (0.45μm) Greifensee water, hydrogen peroxide was 0.5μm initial concentration of 

degraded at rate of t1⁄2 = 25-100 hours. Greifensee is a eutrophic lake in Switzerland 

(DOC 4-5mg/L, nitrate 1.5mg/L, Fe = 20μg/l, Mn = 10μg/l). 

The half-life of H2O2 in seawater samples from the Bay of Biscayne (filtered 0.2μm, initial 

concentration 3.4μg/l) was 60 hours. The half-life of H2O2 in seawater samples from the 

Mediterranean shallow lagoon Etang de Tau (filtered 0.2μm) was 50-70 hours 

(k0.2= 0.013-0.010 h-1) (OECD SDIS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003 for hydrogen peroxide). 

Direct photolysis is not to be an important degradation process in the aquatic environment 

(OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003 for hydrogen peroxide). 

Biodegradation 

Hydrogen peroxide is biologically degradable. Aerobic bacteria produce catalase enzymes that 

convert H2O2 to water and oxygen. Catalase is present in most aerobic bacteria and therefore 

biological degradation starts readily when H2O2 is in contact with microbial material 

(no remarkable lag-phase). There are no results available from standard test systems. Standard 

biodegradation tests are not directly suitable for hydrogen peroxide because they are designed for 

organic substances. 

It has been shown that the size of the microbial population in water has a crucial effect on the 

degradation rate. Therefore the half-life is between minutes and hours in municipal wastewater 

(> 106 cells/ml) and only a few seconds in sludge (108-1010 cells/ml). In natural water 

(≤ 103 cells/ml) the biodegradation half-life is from hours to a few days. Degradation kinetics is 

generally assumed to be of first order with respect to H2O2 at low concentrations and not of first 

order at higher concentrations (hundreds of micrograms or more in surface water) leading to 

longer half-lives as initial concentrations increase (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003 

for hydrogen peroxide). 
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2.4.1.1.4 Ozone 

Modes of degradation (biotic and abiotic) 

A laboratory study was conducted to determine the rate constants for degradation of herbicides 

by ozone. The half-life for removal of 2,4-D at pH 7.5 and in the presence of bicarbonate ions 

was 39.5 minutes at a dissolved ozone concentration of 10 micromolar. The addition of a second 

herbicide did not affect the relative degradation rate. Ozone has a half-life in ambient atmosphere 

of approximately 12 hours (Hazard text for ozone). 

Abiotic degradation 

Photochemical reacting with atmospheric pollutants produces ozone. Moisture influences ozone 

deposition. Ozone's half-life in the ambient atmosphere is approximately half a day. It causes 

toxic effects on several species of grass and clover, as well as on a variety of tree species 

(Hazard text, THOMES for ozone). 

2.4.1.1.5 Hydroxyl radical 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and ozone. The result is the same as 

hydrogen peroxide and ozone on modes of degradation (biotic and abiotic). 

2.4.1.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.4.1.2.1 Monochloroacetic acid 

Seawater 

or 

Fresh 

Water 

Test 

Duration Results 

Breakdown 

products 

Reference/ 

Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

a) activated 

sludge a) 21 days a) 65% (aerobic) 

 ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / 

OECD Guide-line 301 

C/ 

Reliability: 1a-GLP 

guideline study (OECD, 

EC, EPA, FDA, etc) 

b) activated 

sludge b) 28 days b) 100% (aerobic) 

 ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / 

OECD Guide-line 301 

D/ 

Reliability: 1a-GLP 

guideline study (OECD, 

EC, EPA, FDA, etc) 

Biodegradation 

c) bacteria c) 2 days 

c) 100% 

(anaerobi

c) 

 ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / 

Reliability: 2g-Data 

from handbook or 

collection of data 
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2.4.1.2.2 Monobromoacetic acid 

Seawater 

or 

Freshwater 

Results 

Breakdown 

products 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Biodegradation Freshwater 

Mineralized in 

river water with 

73% conversion 

to carbon 

dioxide in 8-10 

days at 29oC. 

Carbon 

dioxide 

FPTC, 2006 / 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection 

of data 

2.4.1.2.3 Dichloroacetic acid 

Seawater or 

Freshwater 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Biodegradation a) Seawater 

b) Freshwater 

3 days 

incubation 

a) 8% 

degradation 

b) 14% 

degradation 

HSDB 2005 / 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

2.4.1.2.4 Bromochloroacetic acid 

Seawater or 

Freshwater 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

a) activated 

sludge a) 21 days a) 65% (aerobic) 

ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / OECD 

Guide-line 301 C/ 

Reliability: 1a-GLP guideline 

study (OECD, EC, EPA, 

FDA, etc) 

b) activated 

sludge b) 28 days b) 100% (aerobic) 

ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / OECD 

Guide-line 301 D/ 

Reliability: 1a-GLP guideline 

study (OECD, EC, EPA, 

FDA, etc) 

Biodegradation 

c) bacteria c) 2 days c) 100% 

(anaerobic)

ECB, IUCLID, 2000/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 
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2.4.1.2.5 Dibromoacetic acid 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

Biodegradation 

Probability of Biodegradability = 

1.000/ 

Due to probability of 

biodegradability is greater than 

0.7, dibromoacetic acid may be 

capable to biodegradation. 

QSAR analysis using 

TOPKAT v.6.1 / 

Reliability: 2f-Accepted 

calculation method 

1/2 – Life Air 

16.869 days 

(concentration in 

oxidized at 

air) 

EPI suite, EPA/ 

Estimated by AopWin 

v.1.92 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

2.4.1.2.6 Dibromochloroacetic acid 

Seawater 

or 

Freshwater 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

a) activated 

sludge a) 21 days a) 65% (aerobic) 

ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / OECD 

Guide-line 301 C/ 

Referred to data of 

monochloroacetic acid 

Reliability: 1a-GLP guideline study 

(OECD, EC, EPA, FDA, etc) 

b) activated 

sludge b) 28 days b) 100% (aerobic) 

ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / OECD 

Guide-line 301 D/ 

Referred to data of 

monochloroacetic acid 

Reliability: 1a-GLP guideline study 

(OECD, EC, EPA, FDA, etc.) 

Biodegradation 

c) bacteria c) 2 days c) 100% 

(anaerobic) 

ECB, IUCLID, 2000 / 

Referred to data of 

monochloroacetic acid 

Reliability: 2g-Data from handbook 

or collection of data 
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2.4.1.2.7 Tribromoacetic acid 

Seawater 

or 

Freshwater 

Results 

Breakdown 

products

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Biodegradation 

 a) Probability of 

Rapid 

Biodegradation: 

Biowin1 (Linear 

model)-0.3565 

Biowin2 

(Non-linear 

model)-0.0000 

b) Expert Survey 

Biodegradaion 

Results: Biowin3 

(Ultimate survey 

model)-2.7827 

weeks 

Biowin4 (Primary 

survey model)-

3.7579 days 

EPI Suite, EPA / Estimated 

by BIOWIN v4.10 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

2.4.1.2.8 Dibromochloromethane 

Seawat

er or 

Fresh

water 

Test 

Duration Results 

Breakdown 

products 

Reference/Comments/

Justification for 

missing data 

Biodegradation No 

data No data 28 days (25-39%) No data 

HSDB, 2006 / Statistic 

flask screening 

procedure/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data 

from handbook or 

collection of data 

1/2 - Life Freshw

ater 

Biotic: 

volatilization 

1/2-Life of 

river and lake 

are 2.6hr and 

6 days, 

respectively. 

Abiotic: 

atmospheric 

1/2-Life of 

about 280 

days, 2.6 hr 

No data 

HSDB, 2006 / 

estimated volatilization 

half-lives for a model 

river/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data 

from handbook or 

collection of data 
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2.4.1.2.9 Tribromomethnae 

Seawater 

or 

Freshwater 

Test 

Duration Results 

Breakdown 

products 

Reference/ 

Comments/ 

Justification for

missing data 

Biodegradation Activate 

sludge 

for 7 days 

followed 

by three 

weekly 

subcultur

es at 25°C

In the 5 and 10mg/L 

cultures, 

tribromomethane had 

degraded by 11% and 

4% respectively, at 

7 days and by 48% and 

35% respectively at 

28 days. 

Tribromomethane was 

not biodegraded in 

aerobic batch cultures, 

but >99% of the initial 

tribromomethane was 

removed by treatment 

in a methanogenic 

(anaerobic conditions) 

biofilm column (2 day 

retention time in 

column). Under 

denitrifying conditions, 

a 60ug/l solution of 

tribromomethane 

degraded to 59, 37, 35, 

and 2ug/l after 2, 3, 4, 

and 6 weeks, 

respectively. 

No data 

available 

HSDB, 2005/ 

Reliability: 

2g-Data from 

handbook or 

collection of 

data 

Freshwater No data 

available 

Estimated to range 

from 1 to 581 hours 

No data 

available 

ATSDR, 2005/ 

Reliability: 

2g-Data from 

handbook or 

collection of 

data 

Freshwater No data 

available 

1.7 years (at an 

aqueous concentration 

of 1X10-17 mole/l 

hydroxyl radicals) 

No data 

available 

HSDB, 2005/ 

Reliability: 

2g-Data from 

handbook or 

collection of 

data 

1/2 - Life 

No data 

available No data 

available 

686 years 

(the rate constant of the 

hydrolysis: 3.2X10-11

1/sec) 

(at abiotic status) 

No data 

available 

HSDB, 2005 / 

Reliability: 

2g-Data from 

handbook or 

collection of 

data 
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2.4.1.2.10 Dibromoacetonitrile 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

Biodegradation 

(Biotic) 

Aquatic fate: 5% and 20% of 

dibromoacetonitrile are lost 

via hydrolysis in 10 days at pH 

6 and 8, respectively 

(abiotic) 

The concern of 

dibromoacetonitrile in 

buffered water declined over 

the course of 10 days with 

95%, 89%, and 81% 

remaining at pH 6, 7, and 8, 

respectively. 

HSDB, 2003 / 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

1/2 - Life 

Atmospheric fate: This 

reaction is estimated to be very 

slow; the resulting half-life of 

dibromoacetonitrile is 

696 days 

HSDB, 2003 / 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

2.4.1.2.11 2,4,6-Tribromophenol 

Seawater or 

Freshwater 

Test 

Duration Results 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

 missing data 

Biodegradation 

Activated 

Sludge 

Concentration: 

30mg/L 

Test Substance 

Concentration: 

100mg/L 

28 days 49 (±) % after 28 

day(s) 

OECD SIDS Initial 

Assessment Report, 

2004/ OECD TG 301 C/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

1/2 - Life Freshwater >32 days ( in air) 

HSDB, 2004/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 
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2.4.1.2.12 Potassium bromate 

No information is available on modes of degradation data by potassium bromate. 

2.4.1.3 Sodium thiosulfate 

No information is available on modes of degradation by sodium thiosulfate. Due to the inorganic 

chemical property, very low bioaccumulation is expected. 

2.4.2 Bioaccumulation, partition coefficient 

2.4.2.1 Active Substances 

Active Substances have low Log Pow (range from -2.43 to1.03) and Koc values (calculated using 

QSAR, KOWWIN) and it is expected Active Substances are not considered to be 

bioaccumulation on aquatic organisms. 

2.4.2.2 Relevant Chemicals 

There is no bioaccumulation, partition coefficient in the most of Relevant Chemicals. Due to low 

Log Pow and BCF values, it is unlikely that these will be accumulated through the aquatic 

organisms. 

2.4.3 Main metabolites 

2.4.3.1 Active Substances 

Active Substances have low Log Pow (range from -2.43 to 1.03) and BCF values and it is 

expected Active Substances are not considered to be bioaccumulation on aquatic organisms and 

to be main metabolites. 

2.4.3.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there is no food chain concentration potential. Due to low 

Log Pow and BCF values, it is unlikely that these will be accumulated through the aquatic 

organisms and metabolites. 

2.4.4 Reaction with organic matter 

2.4.4.1 Active Substances 

2.4.4.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

The stability of free chlorine in natural water is very low because it is a strong oxidizing agent 

and rapidly oxidizes inorganic compounds. It also oxidizes organic compounds, but more slowly 

than inorganic compounds (RTECS, Environment Impact and Health Effects 1: 37-63 (1978)). 
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2.4.4.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

There is no data available on the reaction with organic matter by bromine. 

2.4.4.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

Hydrogen peroxide may act as an oxidant, as a reductant or form addition compounds. 

Hydrogen peroxide acts easily with various functional groups. Most aromatic and aliphatic 

amines as well as most aldehydes react with hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with 

many organic acids to form peracids (of which peracetic acid is the best known and produced as 

an industrial chemical). Peracid formation in the aquatic environment is an equilibrium reaction. 

Peracids react easily with other oxidizable substances. 

Typical hydrogen peroxide addition compounds are organic and inorganic peroxo compounds, 

epoxides. Epoxides are formed when hydrogen peroxide (and peracids) reacts with olefin double 

bonds. 

On the other hand, as examples of non-reactive compounds, saturated alkanes, benzene, toluene 

and ethanol do not react with H2O2 (at NTP) even in concentrated solutions. A catalyst is needed 

to achieve a reaction between these common substances and hydrogen peroxide. 

An important and powerful free radical reaction is the reaction of ferrous iron with hydrogen 

peroxide to produce Fenton’s reagent. Fenton’s reagent produces hydroxyl radicals in the aquatic 

environment with the ability to oxidize a variety of organic compounds. The potential for 

oxidation/degradation of compounds is much higher with Fenton’s reagent than with hydrogen 

peroxide alone. 

An illustrative test of the degradation potential of hydrogen peroxide and Fenton’s reagent on 

tertiary ethers was done by Yeh and Novak (1995). Their test solution system contained distilled 

water, methyl-tert-buthyl ether (MTBE) and ethyl-tert-buthyl ether (ETBE) (80-90mg/L each) 

and H2O2 (100mg/L). No degradation of any of the chemicals was observed during 50 days. This 

indicates that H2O2 is not capable to react with these tertiary ethers at normal room temperatures. 

A second set of experiments used solutions containing ferrous iron to produce Fenton’s reagent. 

Oxidation of MTBE and ETBE in the presence of Fe (II) was very fast. The reaction was 

completed in a few minutes. Although the chemical oxidation was rapid, the oxidation of MTBE 

and ETBE occurred only after the first dose of H2O2 due to oxidation and precipitation of 

iron (III). Iron (II) was no longer present and capable of catalyzing the formation of Fenton’s 

reagent. Tert-butanol (TBA), acetone, and several other unidentified reaction products were 

observed on gas chromatograms (OECD SIDS Risk Assessment Report, 2003). 

2.4.4.1.4 Ozone 

No information is available on reaction with organic matter. 
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2.4.4.1.5 Hydroxyl radicals 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as hydrogen 

peroxide. 

2.4.4.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there is no accumulation through aquatic organisms. And there 

is no information which is available on reaction with organic matter by Relevant Chemicals. 

2.4.5 Potential physical effects on wildlife and benthic habitats 

2.4.5.1 Active Substances 

2.4.5.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

The possible exposure routes of soils to HOCl are via contaminated sludges or via direct 

application of chlorinated water. As can be calculated with the model of Vandepitte and 

Schowanek, 1997, it becomes clear that HOCl concentrations available in domestic discharges 

are completely eliminated in the sewer system before entering the activated sludge system. 

In addition, HOCl is a highly soluble molecule not likely to absorb onto activated sludges. 

Therefore, there is no evidence that HOCl has the potential to contaminate activated sludges. And 

as a consequence, contamination of soils due to dumping of with HOCl polluted sludges can be 

excluded. 

Contamination of soils due to direct application of chlorinated water will not be of permanent 

origin. The high content of organic matter in soil will allow a quick (order of seconds) reduction 

of HOCl (ECB, Risk Assessment Report For Sodium Hypochlorite, 2007). 

2.4.5.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

This chemical has disinfectant, which is capable of killing active biota (Oil and Hazardous 

Materials/Technical Assistance Data System, 1985 for bromine). 

Toxicity to aquatic plants was 0.02mg/L and all species were threatened, and may smother 

benthic life (Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System, 1985 for bromine). 

Study of the effects of bromine releases from production activities showed serious effects upon 

vegetation in the locale of bromine manufacturing plants. 

Coniferous trees suffered needle tip necrosis after 13 – 14 month and 1–2 month’s exposure times 

within a 3-mile radius of all bromine facilities sampled. At further distances of 3.5 – 12 miles, tip 

damage was sporadic, varying from tree to tree, and not evident on 1 – 2 month exposure needles. 

The foliage burn and death of trees within 0.5 – 1 mile were extreme. Conifers were decidedly 

more susceptible to the bromine emissions than broadleaf trees, shrubs, and grasses. Chlorophyll 

(a and b) levels were greatly reduced in the conifer trees surrounding the bromine plants. 

This was taken as a strong indicator of extreme air pollution problems because chlorophyll does 

not reflect environmental problems until they become overwhelming (ECB, IUCLID, 2000 for 

bromine). 
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2.4.5.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

The toxicity of hydrogen peroxide to micro-organisms has been studied frequently, but nearly all 

tests have been performed in milk and so they cannot be used in the risk assessment. 

Recently, an activated sludge respiration test has been conducted according to 

OECD Guideline 209 and, in compliance with GLP. In the test, nominal concentrations 

of 1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 300 and 1,000mg/L and non-adapted sludge were used. EC50 was 466mg/L. 

In addition, there is one study on the effects of hydrogen peroxide on individual bacterial 

population. It is an 18-hour cell multiplication inhibition test with Pseudomonas putida. In this 

study, an EC10 of 11mg/L was derived and the study was done according to Bringmann and 

Kühn (there was no analytical monitoring or data on the test substance in the study). 

There is also a study made by Baldry (1983) in which hydrogen peroxide was bacteriostatic 

above 0.15mmol/L (5.1mg/L) for Pseudomonas aeruginosa (pH 5) and Staphylococcus aureus

(pH 6.5 and 8). However, H2O2 was found to be a weak bactericide, as a solution 

containing 0.88mol/l (29.9g/L) did not give a total kill within 3.5 hours. The very same 

concentration was lethal to spores, so according to this study, hydrogen peroxide is more 

effective as a sporicide than as a bactericide. This study, however, cannot be used in the risk 

assessment since data are missing on dose-response (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment 

Report, 2003). 

2.4.5.1.4 Ozone 

Ozone decomposes very rapidly in natural water. Therefore, there is no risk that ozone may make 

potential physical effects on wildlife and benthic habitats. 

2.4.5.1.5 Hydroxyl radicals 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as hydrogen 

peroxide. 

Hydrogen peroxide may react as an oxidant, as a reductant or form addition compounds. 

Hydrogen peroxide does react easily with various functional groups. Most aromatic and aliphatic 

amines as well as most aldehydes do react with hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide reacts 

with many organic acids to form peracids (of which peracetic acid is the best known and 

produced as an industrial chemical). Peracid formation in the aquatic environment is an 

equilibrium reaction. Peracids react easily with other oxidizable substances 

(OECD SIDS Risk Assessment Report, 2003). 

2.4.5.2 Relevant Chemicals 

Relevant Chemicals on Koc is estimated as 1.2-35.04, using a log Kow of -7.18-3.4 and a 

regression-derived equation, except potassium bromate. According to a classification scheme, 

this estimated Koc value suggests that Relevant Chemicals are expected to have high mobility in 

environmental fate. 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 38 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.4.5.3 Treated ballast water 

No data were available for potential physical effects on wildlife and benthic habitats. Most of 

Active Substances and Relevant Chemicals have low Log Pow and BCF values, therefore, effects 

on wildlife and benthic habitats by treated ballast water would be expectedly low. 

2.4.6 Potential residuals in seafood 

2.4.6.1 Active Substances 

2.4.6.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

No data on hypochlorite effects relevant to the food chain are available but no hypochlorite 

residue is thought to be present or to accumulate in the food chain. So an effect assessment is not 

applicable (ECB, Risk Assessment Report For Sodium Hypochlorite, 2007). 

2.4.6.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

There are no data available on the potential residues in seafood. 

2.4.6.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

The estimated log Kow of about -1.5 indicates negligible potential of bioconcentration in aquatic 

organisms (OECD SIDS, Risk Assessment Report, 2003). 

2.4.6.1.4 Ozone 

Ozone decomposes very rapidly in natural water. Therefore, no information is available on 

residues in seafood data by ozone. 

2.4.6.1.5 Hydroxyl radicals 

Hydroxyl radical was evaluated by hydrogen peroxide and the result is the same as hydrogen 

peroxide. 

2.4.6.2 Relevant Chemicals 

For most of Relevant Chemicals, there is no potential concentration of food chain. Due to low 

Log Pow and BCF values, it is unlikely that these will be accumulated through the food chain. 

2.4.7 Any known interactive effects 

There is no study of interactive effects on Active Substances. 

2.5 Physical and chemical properties 

2.5.1 Active Substances 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 39 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.1.1 Hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite 

Property Chlorine Calcium 

hypochlorite 

Sodium 

hypochlorite 

Melting point (°C) -101.5a Decomposes at 175b -20 ~ -30 c

Boiling point (°C) -34.04 a Not applicableb 96 ~ 120 c

Flammability 

(flash point for liquids; °C) Not flammable in air d Slightly flammable g

Non 

flammable 

solution g

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.4085 kg/m3

 (liq) 

@6.864atm, 20°C f 2.35g/cm3b 1.23g/cm3 

@25°C c

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 6384hPa @20°C 

(measured)d Not applicableb 17.4~20 hPa @20°C c

Vapour density (air = 1) 2.5 g N/A N/A 

Water solubility (temp; 

effect of pH; mg/L) 

Sol in water (25°C) with 

formation of aqueous Cl2

(0.062moles/L), HOCl 

(0.030moles/L) and Cl-

(0.030moles/L); total soly: 

0.092moles/L. f

Approximately 

214g/L @20°Cb

79.9 

g/100gH2O a

pH in solution Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 7.53(HClO) h N/A 

Oxidation-reduction 

potential Strong oxidizer d

 Strong oxidizer h N/A 

Corrosivity to material or 

equipment N/A N/A 

Contact with 

metals may 

evolve 

flammable 

hydrogen gas g

Reactivity to container 

material 

React explosively with 

numerous common 

materials g

N/A 

Contact with 

metals may 

evolve 

flammable 

hydrogen gas g

Auto-ignition temperature 

(°C) Not flammable in air d N/A Non flammable 

solution g

Explosive properties Explosive under influence 

of a flame d

Explosive under 

influence of a flame d

Anhydrous 

sodium 

hypochlorite 

is very 

explosive c

Oxidizing properties 

Vigorous reaction in 

preliminary test d 

Molecular chlorine is a 

strong oxidizer,e

N/A 

Strong 

oxidizing agent 

usually stored 

and used in 

solution c

Surface tension 18.4g/s @20°C in contact 

with vapour g N/A N/A 

Viscosity 41.2erg/cm2 (-60°C) g N/A N/A 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 40 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

Thermal stability and 

identity of 

breakdown products 

Thermal expantion: 

0.0028/K @0°C g N/A N/A 

Other physical or chemical 

properties 

Critical temperature: 144 

Critical pressure: 76.1 g

Critical temperature: 

144 

Critical pressure: 

77615 d

N/A 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification 

for missing data 

a

: CRC Handbook 

b

: OECD SIDS Initial Assessment Report For SIAM 18, 2004 

c

: ECB, Risk Assessment Report for Sodium hypochlorite, 2007 

d

: ECB, IUCLID, 2000 

e

: OECD SIDS Initial Assessment Report For SIAM 16, 2003 

f

: Merck Index 

g

: The chemical data base 

h: OECD SIDS Initial Assessment Report For SIAM 18, 2004

Reliability: 2g: data from handbook or collection of data 

(all references) 

2.5.1.2 Hypobromous acid/hypobromite 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification 

for missing data 

Melting point (°C) -7.2°C The Chemical Database* 

Boiling point (°C) -58.7°C The Chemical Database* 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) Non flammability IPCS CEC1999,* 

ICSC:0107 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 3.119g/cm3 ECB,IUCLID,2000* 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 190mmHg (25°C) The Chemical Database* 

Vapour density (air = 1) 5.5 The Chemical Database* 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) Insoluble The Chemical Database* 

pH in solution Not applicable 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment 

Corrosiveness: 

Attacks some forms 

of plastic rubber and 

coatings 

ECB,IUCLID,2000* 

Reactivity to container material See above IPCS CEC1999, * 

ICSC:0107 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) Flash point -19°C IPCS CEC1999, 

*ICSC:0107 

Explosive properties Not explosive ECB, IUCLID, 2000* 

Oxidizing properties Strong oxidant IPCS CEC1999, * 

ICSC:0107 

Surface tension 40.9g/s2 @ 25°C The Chemical Database* 

Viscosity 0.314sq mm/s The Chemical Database* 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products 

producing hydrogen 

bromide The Chemical Database* 

Other physical or chemical properties Critical temp. 315 

Critical pres. 102 

A The Chemical 

Database* 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 41 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.1.3 Hydrogen peroxide 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) -0.40-0.43°C OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Boiling point (°C) 150-152°C 

(decomposition) 

OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Flammability 

(flash point for liquids; °C) 

Not combustible the 

substance may ignite 

combustible materials 

IPCS CEC2005, 

ICSC:0164 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.4425g/cm3 (25°C) OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 3hPa (25°C) OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Vapour density (air = 1) 1.17 The Chemical Database 

Water solubility 

(temp; effect of pH; mg/L) miscible OECD SIDS Risk Assessment Report,2003 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) 11.62(25°C) OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Oxidation-reduction potential Powerful oxidizer OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Corrosivity to material or equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material 

Explosion hazard 

particularly in the 

presence of metal 

IPCS CEC2005, 

ICSC:0164 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties 

Explosion hazard 

particularly in the 

presence of metal 

IPCS CEC2005, 

ICSC:0164 

Oxidizing properties Powerful oxidizer OECD SIDS Risk 

Assessment Report,2003 

Surface tension 80.4g/s2 @ 20°C The Chemical Database 

Viscosity 0.01249 P(20°C) The Chemical Database 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties Critical temp. 457 

Critical pres. 207 

A The Chemical 

Database 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 42 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.1.4 Ozone 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

Melting point (°C) -192.2°C The Chemical 

Database 

Boiling point (°C) -111.9°C The Chemical 

Database 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) 

Not combustible but 

enhances combustion 

of other substances 

IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.614g/cm3

(liq.) 

2.144g/L (gas) Merk index 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 41257mmHg The Chemical 

Database 

Vapour density (air = 1) 1.65 The Chemical 

Database 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) 10mg/L The Chemical 

Database 

pH in solution Not applicable 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment 

Yes 

Attacks metals except 

gold and platinium 

IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Reactivity to container material See above IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) 

Not combustible but 

enhances combustion 

of other substances 

IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Explosive properties 

Risk of fire and 

explosion when 

heated or on contact 

with combustible 

substances (alkene, 

ethers) 

IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Oxidizing properties Powerful oxidizing 

agent HSDB 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products 

Decomposing and 

producing Oxygen 

IPCS CEC2004, 

ICSC:0068 

Other physical or chemical properties Critical temp. -12.1 

Critical pres. 53.8a 

A The Chemical 

Database 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 43 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.1.5 Hydroxyl radical 

Property Ozone Hydrogen peroxide 

Melting point (°C) -192.2 a -35 a

Boiling point (°C) -111.9 a 108 a

Flammability 

(flash point for liquids; °C) 

Not combustible but enhances 

combustion of other 

substances b

Not combustible the 

substance may ignite 

combustible materials b

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.614g/cm3

(liq.) 

2.144g/l (gas) c 1.11g/cm3 a

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 41257mmHg a 25mmHg (30°C) a

Vapour density (air = 1) 1.65 a 1.17 a

Water solubility (temp; effect of 

pH; mg/L) 10mg/L a

 Miscible a

pH in solution Not applicable N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 11.75 a

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A Powerful oxidizer d

Corrosivity to material or 

equipment 

Yes 

Attacks metals except gold 

and platinium b

N/A 

Reactivity to container material See above b

Explosion hazard 

particularly in the 

presence of metal b

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) 

Not combustible but enhances 

combustion of other 

substances b

N/A 

Explosive properties 

Risk of fire and explosion 

when heated or on contact 

with combustible substances 

(alkene, ethers)b

Explosion hazard 

particularly in the 

presence of metal b

Oxidizing properties Powerful oxidizing agent d Powerful oxidizer e

Surface tension N/A 80.4g/s2 @ 20°C a

Viscosity N/A 0.01249 P(20°C) a

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products 

Decomposing and producing 

Oxygen b N/A 

Other physical or chemical 

properties 

Critical temperature: 12.1 

Critical pressure: 53.8 a

Critical temperature: 457 

Critical pressure: 207 a

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing data 

a

: The chemical database 

b

: ICSC 

c

: Merck Index 

d

: HSDB 

e

: OECD SIDS Risk Assessment Report, 2003 

Reliability: 2g: data from handbook or collection of data 

(all references) 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 44 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.2 Relevant Chemicals 

2.5.2.1 Dibromochloromethane 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification 

for missing data 

Melting point (°C) -20°C 

CRC 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Boiling point (°C) 120°C 

CRC 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Flammability (flash point for 

liquids; °C) 20°C 

The Chemical Database 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 2.38 

HSDB, 2006/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 5.54mmHg at 25°C 

HSDB, 2006/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Vapour density (air = 1) 7.1 

The Chemical Database 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

Water solubility (temp; effect of 

pH; mg/L) 2.07×103

mg/L at 20°C 

HSDB, 2006/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or 

equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 45 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

Other physical or chemical 

properties 

Enthalpy of formation at 

25°C: -5.0 kcal/mole (gas); 

Gibbs free energy of 

formation at 25°C: -4. 

50 kcal/mole (gas); entropy 

at 25°C: 78.31 cal/mole (gas) 

HSDB, 2006/ 

Reliability: 2g-Data from 

handbook or collection of 

data 

2.5.2.2 Dibromoacetic acid 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) 49°C CRC 

Boiling point (°C) 242.94°C EPI 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) 94°C The Chemical Data base 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 

1.84 Pa 

(0.014mmHg at 

25°C) 

The Chemical Data base 

Vapour density (air = 1) 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) Very soluble The Chemical Data base 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) 1.47 pKa The Chemical Data base 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment Yes 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties Yes 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.2.3 Tribromomethane 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) 8.69°C CRC 

Boiling point (°C) 149.1°C CRC 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) 83°C The chemical database 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 2.8912g/cm3

 @ 

20°C The chemical database 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 720 Pa @ 25°C EPI Suit, EPA 

Vapour density (air = 1) 8.7 HSDB, IARC 1991a, 

1991b 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 46 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) < 1mg/mL The chemical database 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment Yes HSDB 2005 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension 41.53 dynes/cm @ 

20°C HSDB 2005 

Viscosity 1.73 cp @ 35°C The chemical database 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.2.4 Tribromoacetic acid 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) 132oC CRC 

Boiling point (°C) 245oC CRC 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) N/A 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) N/A 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 0.000279mmHg at 

25oC EPI Suit, EPA 

Vapour density (air = 1) 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) 1,102 

(25oC; mg/L) EPI Suit, EPA 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 47 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.2.5 Dichloroacetic acid 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) -4°C Merck index 

Boiling point (°C) 193-194°C Merck index 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) Yes (75°C) The chemical database 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.563 (20°C; 

g/cm3) The chemical database 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 23.79 (25°C; Pa) HSDB 2005 / Daubert, 

T.E. et al. 1989 

Vapour density (air = 1) 4.4 The chemical database 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) soluble The chemical database 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) 1.26 The chemical database 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment Yes 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) 194°C 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity 4.78 cp (35°C) 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.2.6 Monochloroacetic acid 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification 

for missing data 

Melting point (°C) 61.5-62.3°C IUCLID, 2000 

Boiling point (°C) 189°C IUCLID, 2000 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) 126°C IUCLID, 2000 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.4043 (20°C; 

kg/m3) The Chemical Database 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 99.67 (20°C; Pa) IUCLID, 2000 

Vapour density (air = 1) 3.26 The Chemical Database 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) Very soluble(20°C; 

4,210g/L) IUCLID, 2000 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) 2.87 (pKa) The Chemical Database 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment Yes 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) 460°C IUCLID, 2000 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 48 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension 35.17 g/s2 at 100°C The Chemical Database 

Viscosity 2.23 cp (65°C) The Chemical Database 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.2.7 Monobromoacetic acid 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) 50 (oC) FPTC 2006 / Lide, 

2003-2004 

Boiling point (°C) 208 (oC) FPTC 2006 / Lide, 

2003-2004 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) Yes (79oC) The chemical database / 

Combustible if heated 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 1.93 (20oC; 

g/cm3) 

FPTC 2006 / Lide, 

2003-2004 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 15.66 (25°C; 

Pa) EP Suit, EPA 

Vapour density (air = 1) N/A 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) 1.75 (25oC), 

miscible 

FPTC 2006 / Nikolaou 

et al. 1999 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) 2.72 (pKa) The chemical database 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment Yes The chemical database 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties Strong 

oxidizing The chemical database 

Surface tension 40.3 (g/s2

; 

 55 oC) The chemical database 

Viscosity 3.65 (cp ; 

50 oC) The chemical database 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 49 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

2.5.2.8 Dibromoacetonitrile 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification 

for missing data 

Melting point (°C) 6.98°C EPI Suit, EPA 

Boiling point (°C) 67-69°C @ 24 

mmHg EPI Suit, EPA 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) Non flammability 

(37°C) The chemical database 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 2.369 (20°C; 

kg/m3

) The chemical database 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 2mmHg The chemical database 

Vapour density (air = 1) 6.86 The chemical database 

Water solubility (temp; effect of pH; mg/L) Slightly soluble The chemical database 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.2.9 2,4,6-Tribromophenol 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for missing 

data 

Melting point (°C) 93°C IUCLID, 2000 

Boiling point (°C) 282-290°C IUCLID, 2000 

Flammability 

(flash point for liquids; °C) 

Non flammable 

(102°C) 

IUCLID, 2000 / the 

chemical database 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) 2.55 (20°C; kg/m3) IUCLID, 2000 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) 0.0015 mmHg 

(25°C) The chemical database 

Vapour density (air = 1) 11.4 The chemical database 

Water solubility 

(temp; effect of pH; mg/L) 50 (19°C; mg/L) IUCLID, 2000 / OECD Guide-line 105, GLP 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) >450°C 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

Page 50 

I:\MEPC\58\2.doc 

Explosive properties N/A 

Oxidizing properties N/A 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

2.5.3 Other components 

2.5.3.1 Sodium thiosulfate 

Property Value 

Reference/Comments/ 

Justification for 

missing data 

Melting point (°C) 48 IUCLID,2000* 

Boiling point (°C) decomposition IUCLID,2000* 

Flammability (flash point for liquids; °C) Non flammable IUCLID,2000* 

Density (20°C; kg/m3) ca. 1.74g/cm3 (20°C) IUCLID,2000* 

Vapour pressure (20°C; Pa) Not applicable IUCLID,2000* 

Vapour density (air = 1) N/A 

Water solubility 

(temp; effect of pH; mg/L) 

701g/L @20°C 

pH:ca. 6.5-9@100g/l 

and 25°C 

IUCLID,2000* 

pH in solution N/A 

Dissociation constant (pKa) N/A 

Oxidation-reduction potential N/A 

Corrosivity to material or equipment N/A 

Reactivity to container material N/A 

Auto-ignition temperature (°C) N/A 

Explosive properties Not explosive IUCLID,2000* 

Oxidizing properties No oxidizing 

properties IUCLID,2000* 

Surface tension N/A 

Viscosity N/A 

Thermal stability and identity of 

breakdown products N/A 

Other physical or chemical properties N/A 

3 THE MANNER OF APPLICATION 

3.1 System component 

Electro-Clean system consists of Electro-Clean Module (ECM), rectifier, heat-exchanger, power 

distributor, control PC, neutralizer and several sensors. 

Electrolysis module is installed in the middle of the ballast pipe and disinfects micro-organisms 

in the ballast water. Rectifier receives AC power from MCC and supplies DC power to the 

electrolysis module while periodically changing the polarity of electrodes by the timer setting. 

When rectifier is operated, it generates heat, then heat-exchanger cools the rectifier. Power 

distributor supplies power to the ECS with 3-phase 440V input power and electricity is supplied 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

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to the control PC, rectifier and sensor units by the magnet. The controller unit on distributor 

switches on the magnet in an emergency to prevent problems that may occur in the system. 

Control PC is installed in ballast room or on distributor panel and controls ECS. It collects all 

data-from sensor units and all ECS components – through RTU and controls ECS with 

these data. 

Neutralization system is installed in order to decrease TRO concentration by ECS before 

discharging the treated water in ballast tanks. It is connected to inflow neutralizer automatically 

into ballast pipe. PLC would automatically control the amount of neutralizer according to TRO 

concentration. ECS has several sensor units: conductivity sensor, pH sensor, temperature sensor, 

TRO sensor, gas sensor for H2 and Cl2, and water leakage sensor. ECS is designed to be operated 

automatically, reflecting data from these sensor units. 

3.2 Process of Electro-Clean System 

3.2.1 The process of Electro-Clean System 

The ballast water treatment process of Electro-Clean System (ECS) consists of the steps shown in 

the figure below. 

ECS working process 

The ballast water is pumped into the piping of the ship through the sea chest by the pump. At this 

time, conductivity of this ballast water is sensed and this data is collected by control PC. Based 

on this data, control PC determines the current which is supplied to electrolysis module to 

generate TRO 10mg/L. This ballast water is disinfected by the ECM and kept in the ballast tank 

until it is discharged. This disinfection process includes the part that supplies current to the 

electrodes in the ECM and the rectifier, power distributor and heat-exchanger, which are 

controlled by the online TRO sensor and control PC. 

Water leakage detector is installed on ECM. If any water leakage is detected, the alarm system 

would be operated and then, the system would be automatically shut down. 
MEPC 58/2 

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3.2.2 Gas detection and mitigation 

During ECS operation, H2 gas and Cl2 gas are generated. The generated gases are very small amount, 

even though, for more safety, gas de-aeration equipment are installed on ballast pipe. Furthermore, 

on-line gas detector is installed and alarm system would work at exceeding 3% and 0.8ppm of H2 and 

Cl2, respectively. The ECS would be shut down at exceeding 4% and 1ppm of H2 and Cl2, 

respectively. The disinfected ballast water in the tank is discharged out of the ship by pumping. 

3.2.3 Neutralizing system 

At discharge, the treated water is neutralized by sodium thiosulfate and TRO concentration of 

neutralized water is checked again using the online TRO sensor. Thus, neutralization system 

minimizes the toxic effect of TRO. 

4 REMOVAL EFFICACY OF MICRO-ORGANISMS 

4.1 Testing body and quality system 

South Sea Institute of KORDI (Korean Oceanic Research and Development Institute) is the testing 

organization that is accredited by KOLAS (The Korea Laboratory Accreditation Scheme) for 

ISO/IEC 17025 in field of aquatic organisms and all disinfection efficacy tests are conducted by the 

quality system of ISO/IEC 17025. KOLAS is the governmental accreditation body in the Republic of 

Korea. KOLAS evaluates the technical competence of testing and calibration laboratories based on 

the general requirements of ISO/IEC 17025, general requirements for the competence of testing and 

calibration laboratories and specific technical requirements of each field. 

South Sea Institute of KORDI 
MEPC 58/2 

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South Sea Institute of KORDI is the designated organization for land-based and shipboard testing 

for Type Approval of ballast water management systems in the Republic of Korea according to 

the Provisional Regulation of Type Approval of ballast water management system. 

The samples of ECS treated water and discharged water with successful completion of 

land-based test was collected and delivered to toxicity test team and analysis team for Active 

Substances and by-products under the strict supervision of KORDI. 

4.2 Land-based test 

4.2.1 Information of test barge 

Four test ballast tanks were constructed on the barge, and ECS was installed for the land-based 

test and corrosivity test. Each of four test tanks has 240m3 of volume. All pipes and valves in 

each test tank were installed and designed based on regulation (G8), and four ballast pumps 

sized 500m3

/h were installed. For sampling, four tanks for treated water, which have 2m3 in 

volume and four controlled water tanks with pipelines and valves were installed. 

Electro-Clean Test Barge used for Type Approval Test by KORDI 

4.2.2 Result of land-based test 

The land-based tests were performed at two different sites with more than 10PSU difference in 

salinity according to Guidelines (G8). The locations of the land-based tests were Ma-san port 

(saline concentration of 32~34PSU) at South Sea of Korean peninsular for seawater, and down 

stream of Sum-jin River (saline concentration of 16~21PSU) in Southern area of Korean 

peninsular for brackish water. The KORDI performed all of the tests that took place and were all 

in line with regulation D-2 of the Convention. The tests in Ma-san for seawater commenced 

from 6th June 2007 to 21st January 2008 and a total of five repetitions were performed. The tests 

in Sum-jin River for brackish water commenced from 1st August 2007 to 20th February 2008 

and a total of six repetitions were performed. 

The land-based test was performed successfully for a total of five times using seawater and six 

times using brackish water. The result of removal efficacy of brackish water was satisfactory. 
MEPC 58/2 

ANNEX 

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The analysis of control water in land-based test is shown in Tables below. 

Water quality of seawater (Masan Bay) 

Date Sample pH Temp. 

(°C) 

Salinity 

(PSU) 

DO 

(mg/L) 

TSS 

(mg/L) 

DOC 

(mg/L) 

POC 

(mg/L)

06-06-2007 Test water 8.0 19.8 33.4 6.9 48.8 1.6 3.3 

20-06-2007 Test water 8.2 20.5 33.2 7.0 90.3 1.7 10.1 

07-12-2007 Test water 8.1 9.5 32.7 9.3 40.4 1.6 2.9 

17-12-2007 Test water 7.9 9.3 32.1 10.1 63.1 2.0 1.7 

16-01-2008 Test water 8.1 6.9 32.9 10.2 58.5 1.8 1.1 

Water quality of brackish water (Sumjin estuary) 

Date Sample pH Temp. 

(°C) 

Salinity

(PSU) 

DO 

(mg/L) 

TSS 

(mg/L) 

DOC 

(mg/L) 

POC 

(mg/L)

01-08-2007 Test water 7.9 27.0 19.3 6.5 52.9 5.4 6.2 

22-08-2007 Test water 8.3 27.9 18.2 8.5 60.3 6.7 6.0 

29-08-2007 Test water 7.9 26.5 18.6 7.8 60.3 6.5 5.5 

10-09-2007 Test water 8.0 23.9 19.2 8.9 63.5 5.7 6.3 

22-10-2007 Test water 8.0 21.6 20.1 19.1 57.9 6.1 5.8 

20-02-2008 Test water 8.5 5.9 16.8 11.7 59.5 5.4 6.1 

4.3 Shipboard test 

4.3.1 Information of the testing vessel 

The dimension of M/V Stx Yokohama are summarized in Table below. 

M/V Stx Yokohama particulars 

Name / Type M/V STX YOKOHAMA / Container ship 

Gross Tonnage 8,306ton 

Dimensions Length: 132.94m Breath: 20.50m Depth: 10.50m 

Builder HANJIN Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. 

Launching Date 30th May, 1998 
MEPC 58/2 

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4.3.2 Result of shipboard test 

Shipboard test was performed on M/V Stx Yokohama, based on regulation D-2. Test done on 

M/V Stx Yokohama was performed to prove the efficacy of sea water disinfection, and the test 

performed was to prove the efficacy of sea water disinfection. All tests were performed at the 

Korea Marine Research Center, and satisfied regulation D-2. 

Shipboard test on M/V Stx Yokohama have been performed every one week in different seas 

(Korea, China, and Japan) from February 3rd 2007 to July 30th 2007 (Total 24 weeks). 

The operative conditions of ECS were fitted to generate 10mg/L of TRO. Continuous tests of 

Guidelines (G8) were successful and satisfied D-2 standard. 

5 RISK CHARACTERIZATION 

5.1 Screening for persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity 

5.1.1 PBT criteria 

Criteria for evaluating the long-term persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity, the so-called PBT 

criteria have been decided by several organizations and in several protocols and policies. The EU 

PBT criteria have decided the following criteria for persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity. 

Criteria for identification of PBT substances 

Criterion PBT Criteria 

P Half life>60 d in marine water or >40 d in freshwater or half 

life>180 d in marine sediment or >120 d in freshwater sediment 

B BCF >2,000 

T Chronic NOEC <0.01mg/L or CMR or endocrine disrupting effects 

5.1.2 PBT character of Active Substance and Relevant Chemicals 

5.1.2.1 Active Substances 

All Active Substances are not considered to be persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic. 

Active Substances have low log Kow and BCF values so that they are expected rapidly degraded. 

Thus, Active Substances are not considered to be PBT substances. 

5.1.2.2 Relevant Chemicals 

All Relevant Chemicals are not considered to be persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic. Most of 

Relevant Chemicals have low log Kow and BCF values so that they are expected rapidly 

degraded. Thus, Relevant Chemicals are not considered to be PBT substances. 

5.1.3 Summary of PBT evaluation 

According to PBT evaluation, ECS treated ballast water is not considered to be PBT substances. 
MEPC 58/2 

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5.2 Toxicity evaluation of the treated ballast water 

5.2.1 Test method and conditions 

Toxicity tests of the treated ballast water for aquatic organisms were performed using EPA 

method. Acute and chronic toxicity tests classified by salinity conditions were conducted under 

three types of tropic levels. Samples from the land-based test conducted under Guidelines (G8) 

were used in the tests. Ballast water, used as sample, was collected immediately after treatment 

by ECS and stored for 72 hours separately, and was passed through the neutralizing apparatus in 

the table below. 

Characterization of toxicity test water and test protocol 

Salinity Trophic level Sample Method 

Algae Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA OPPTS 

850.5400 

Acute (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

2007.0 Invertebrate 

Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA OPPTS 

850.1300 

Acute (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

2004.0 

>32 

PSU 

Fish 

Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

1006.0 

Algae Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA OPPTS 

850.5400 

Acute (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

2007.0 Invertebrate 

Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

1007.0 

Acute (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

2004.0 

<21 

PSU 

Fish 

Chronic (0, 72hrs sample) EPA method 

1006.0 

Test species for aquatic toxicity 

Brackish water Seawater

Algae Nannochloris oculata Skeletonema costatum

Invertebrate Caridina multidentata Monocorophium acherucicum

Fish Poecillia latipinna Sebastes oblongus
MEPC 58/2 

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5.2.2 Results and conclusions 

5.2.2.1 Acute toxicity 

Toxicity test results for the treated ballast water were presented in Table below. In brackish water 

and seawater, no significant difference in mortality was observed between treated group and the 

control. 

Acute toxicity test with ECS treated brackish water 

Trophic 

level Species Endpoint 

Time after 

ECS 

operation 

Result 

0hrs LC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water Invertebrate Caridina 

multidentata

96 hrs, 

mortality 72hrs LC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water 

0hrs LC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water Fish Poecillia 

latipinna 

96 hrs, 

mortality 72hrs LC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water 

Acute toxicity test with ECS treated sea water 

Trophic level Species Endpoint Time after ECS 

operation Result 

0hrs LC0: 100% 

ECS effluent water Invertebrate Monocorophiu

m acherucicum 

96 hrs, 

mortality 72hrs LC0: 100% 

 ECS effluent water 

0hrs LC0: 100% 

 ECS effluent water Fish Sebastes 

oblongus 

96 hrs, 

mortality 72hrs LC0: 100% 

 ECS effluent water 
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5.2.2.2 Chronic toxicity 

Toxicity test results for the treated ballast water were presented in Table below. In brackish water 

and seawater, no significant difference in mortality was observed between treated group and the 

control. 

Chronic toxicity test with ECS treated brackish water 

Trophic level Species Endpoint 

Time after 

ECS 

operation 

Result 

0hrs EC0: 100% 

 ECS effluent water Algae Nannochloris 

oculata

96hrs, growth 

rate 72hrs EC0: 100% 

ECS effluent water 

0hrs NOEC: 100% 

ECS effluent water Invertebrate Caridina 

multidentata

21 days, 

growth rate 72hrs NOEC: 100% 

 ECS effluent water 

0hrs NOEC: 100% 

 ECS effluent water Fish Poecilia latipinna 21 days, 

growth rate 72hrs NOEC: 100% 

 ECS effluent water 

Chronic toxicity test with ECS treated sea water 

Trophic level Species Endpoint 

Time after 

ECS 

operation 

Result 

0hrs EC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water Algae Skeletonema 

costatum

96hrs, growth 

inhibition 72hrs EC0: 100% ECS effluent 

water 

0hrs NOEC: 100% ECS 

effluent water Invertebrate Monocorophium 

acherusicum

21 days, 

Growth rate 72hrs NOEC: 100% ECS 

effluent water 

0hrs NOEC: 100% ECS 

effluent water Fish Sebastes 

oblongus

21 days, 

Growth rate 72hrs NOEC: 100% ECS 

effluent water 

5.2.3 Determination holding time 

ECS system is operated only during ballasting and does not produce any oxidant to be required 

for holding. Therefore, consideration of the holding time of the treated ballast water is not 

necessary and all Active Substances were eliminated by Neutralization procedure.
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5.2.4 Conclusion of toxicity test of the treated ballast water 

As a result, for every trophic level and tank storage time, acute/chronic toxicity tests showed that 

the treated water had no effect even for undiluted sample with the highest concentration. 

In document MEPC 57/2/1, toxicity test for non-neutralized water showed that there were lots of 

Active Substances in discharged water and that toxicity varied with the concentration of the 

discharged water. In this test, as a consequence of installing neutralizing apparatus, which 

automatically injects proper amount of sodium thiosulfate depending on TRO concentration, 

re-conducted toxicity tests showed Active Substances that had been toxic previously disappeared. 

Therefore, this toxicity test is conducted for detecting the effect of mutual reaction among 

disinfection Relevant Chemicals or various chemical compounds formed by the reaction between 

Active Substances and raw water not by the residual Active Substances. 

In conclusion, ECS-treated water shows no toxicity. This corresponds to the data-set and risk 

assessment for aquatic toxicity with the concentration of disinfection Relevant Chemicals. 

The PNEC is calculated using the assessment factors according to Procedure (G9). 

Assessment factors to derive a PNEC for the marine aquatic compartment 

Information available Assessment factor 

Freshwater assessment 

Lowest short-term L(E)C50 from fresh water species representing three 

trophic levels 1000 

Lowest chronic NOEC from three freshwater or saltwater species 

representing three trophic levels 10 

Saltwater assessment 

Lowest short-term L(E)C50 from marine species representing three 

trophic levels 1000 

Lowest chronic NOEC from three freshwater or saltwater species 

representing three trophic levels 100 

Lowest chronic NOEC from three saltwater species representing three 

trophic level 100 

Lowest chronic NOEC from three freshwater or saltwater species 

representing three trophic levels + at least two chronic NOECs from 

additional marine taxonomic groups 

10 

Short-term test results are available for fish and aquatic invertebrates in fresh and seawater. 

In the all test results, endpoints were showed no effect in mortality in all species. In chronic term 

test results, fish and aquatic invertebrates were tested in fresh and seawater. Similar to acute 

toxicity test result, in the all test results endpoints were showed no effect in mortality, therefore, 

the most sensitive species appears to be seawater invertebrate Monocorophium acherucicum 

with 21 days NOEC of 100%. 

As short-term EC0 from freshwater and saltwater species, representing three trophic levels 

(algae, invertebrate and fish) are available an assessment factor of 1,000 may be used. Applying 

this to the long-term NOEC for invertebrate gives a PNEC of 1,000mg/L. 
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5.3 Risk assessment of treated ballast water discharges 

5.3.1 Treated ballast water release discharge information 

The disinfected ballast water in the tank is discharged out of the ship by pumping. At discharging 

TRO is eliminated with neutralization system which uses sodium thiosulfate as neutralizing 

agent, and TRO concentration of neutralized water is checked using the online TRO sensor. 

5.3.2 Estimation of the PEC 

The PEC of Relevant Chemicals and neutralizer in ballast water was estimated by 

MAM-PEC VER. 1.6 model. Active Substances were not detected in treated ballast water so that 

the PEC for Active Substance was not considered. According to document BLG 11/4/15 

(23th February 2007), MAM-PEC VER. 1.6 model is described in such detail as the Port of 

Rotterdam (dimensions, dynamics and shipping patterns data). Emission load was calculated 

from Port Statistics 2005 of the Port of Rotterdam and the statistics are showed in the following. 

To running MAM-PEC VER. 1.6 model, input parameters of physico-chemical properties and 

emission load for each Relevant Chemicals and neutralizer should be entered. Physico-chemical 

property data were referred from each Key Data Summary. The input parameters were the same 

as input parameters of EUSES 2.1 which was used for human and worker risk assessment. The 

emission load was calculated from ballast water concentration for each chemical and average 

amount of ballast water in the Port of Rotterdam. 

5.3.2.1 The PEC calculation result 

The PEC estimation results for Relevant Chemicals and neutralizer by MAM-PEC are shown as 

follows. Average concentration was used in PEC/PNEC calculation. 

Estimated total concentrations for Relevant Chemicals and neutralizer in effluent water 

by MAM-PEC VER. 1.6 Model 

Chemical name 

Maximum 

Concentratio

n (ug/l) 

95% 

Concentratio

n (ug/l) 

Average 

Concentratio

n (ug/l) 

Median 

Concentrati

on (ug/l) 

Minimum 

Concentra

tion (ug/l) 

Dibromochloromethane 6.64E-06 6.60E-06 2.12E-06 2.15E-07 3.12E-08 

Tribromomethane 5.48E-05 5.38E-05 1.96E-05 4.39E-06 7.62E-07 

Dibromoacetonitrile 3.59E-05 3.55E-05 1.22E-05 2.07E-06 3.35E-07 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol 1.24E-06 1.23E-06 3.96E-07 4.09E-08 6.01E-09 

Monochloroacetic acid 3.29E-06 3.27E-06 1.07E-06 1.28E-07 1.99E-08 

Monobromoacetic acid 1.32E-05 1.31E-05 4.28E-06 5.08E-07 7.87E-08 

Dichloroacetic acid 2.24E-06 2.23E-06 7.14E-07 7.13E-08 1.01E-08 

Bromochloroacetic acid 2.66E-06 2.63E-06 8.82E-07 1.27E-07 2.01E-08 

Dibromoacetic acid 7.30E-05 7.26E-05 2.32E-05 2.30E-06 3.27E-07 

Tribromoacetic acid 4.04E-04 4.02E-04 1.29E-04 1.27E-05 1.81E-06 

Sodium thiosulfate 8.50E-02 8.45E-02 2.70E-02 2.68E-03 3.80E-04 
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5.3.3 Assessment of potential for bioaccumulation 

No data were available for BCF of ballast water but Active Substances and Relevant Chemicals 

have low Log Pow (<3) and BCF (<500). Therefore, bioaccumulation through aquatic organisms 

for ballast water would be low. 

5.3.4 Effects assessment 

Among Active Substances, hydrogen peroxide does react easily with various functional groups. 

But most of Active Substances and Relevant Chemicals have low Log Pow and BCF values and 

it could be expected rapidly degraded in environment. 

5.3.5 Effects on aquatic organisms 

The PNEC is calculated using the assessment factors according to the EU Technical Guidance 

Document on Risk Assessment. Active Substances were not detected in treated ballast water so 

that the PNEC for Active Substance was not considered. 

PNEC was calculated in the data-set endpoints and ballast water test endpoints in tables below, 

respectively. In the data-set, endpoints were mainly available for acute toxicity endpoints in 

freshwater species. In the ballast water toxicity test, 100% ballast water endpoints for each 

Relevant Chemical and neutralizer are the same as the measured concentration in treated water so 

that the PNEC for ballast water was calculated in the measured concentration in treated water. 

The PNEC calculation results according to data-set endpoints 

Chemical name Information available 

Assessment 

Factor 

Endpoint 

(mg/L) 

PNEC

(mg/L)

Dibromochloromethane 

Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) + Two long-term 

NOEC from freshwater 

(crustaceans and fish) 

500 1.5 0.003 

Tribromomethane 

Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) + one L(E)C50 

from seawater (algae) 

10,000 18 0.0018

Dibromoacetonitrile 

Two L(E)C50 from freshwater 

(crustaceans and fish) + one L(E)C50 

from seawater (crustaceans) 

10,000 0.72 0.0000

72 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 1 0.0001

Monochloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 77 0.0077

Monobromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 34 0.0034

Dichloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 82 0.0082
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Bromochloroacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 77 0.0077

Dibromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 65 0.0065

Tribromoacetic acid Three L(E)C50 from freshwater (algae, 

crustaceans and fish) 10,000 100 0.01 

Sodium thiosulfate 

One L(E)C50 from freshwater (fish) + 

One long-term NOEC from freshwater 

(fish) 

1000 600 0.6 

The PNEC calculation results according to ballast water toxicity test endpoints 

Chemical name Information available 

Assessment 

Factor 

Endpoint 

(mg/L) 

PNEC

(mg/L)

Dibromochloromethane Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00197 0.0000197 

Tribromomethane Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.04965 0.0004965 

Dibromoacetonitrile Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.02149 0.0002

149 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00038 0.0000038 

Monochloroacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00126 0.0000126 

Monobromoacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00499 0.0000499 

Dichloroacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00064 0.0000064 

Bromochloroacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.00128 0.0000128 

Dibromoacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.02065 0.0002065 

Tribromoacetic acid Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 0.11425 0.0011

425 

Sodium thiosulfate Three long-term NOECs from saltwater 

species (algae, crustaceans and fish) 100 24 0.24 

5.3.6 Effects on sediment 

Active Substances and Most Relevant Chemicals have low Log Pow and BCF values and it could 

be expected rapidly degraded in environment. Therefore, effects on sediment by Active 

Substances and Relevant Chemicals in ballast water would be low. 
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5.3.7 Comparison of effect assessment with discharge toxicity 

The Active Substance and Relevant Chemicals were measured in ECS-treated water. In the same 

concentration, aquatic toxicity tests were conducted. From the toxicity test results, no mortality 

was observed so that toxic effect to ECS-treated water for aquatic organism would be low. 

6 RISK ASSESSMENT 

6.1 Risk to safety of ship 

Risk to the crew was assessed according to EASE model in EUSES. From the EUSES results, 

ECS treated ballast water has low potential for the crew. 

An extended corrosivity test was conducted on uncoated test samples as suggested by the 

GESAMP-BWWG in document MEPC 57/2. The corrosivity test was conducted by 

Mokpo National Maritime University, the Republic of Korea. 

As a result of electro-chemical experiment on uncoated samples, ECS-treated water may not 

make significant effect on corrosion because it disinfects micro-organism with TRO 10mg/L. 

Pipe material is also tested as suggested by the GESAMP-BWWG. All tested TRO 

concentrations do not affect corrosion of pipe based on Tafel analysis because it has similar 

corrosion potential in comparing electric current corrosivity. 

Finally, the tanks in the test barge of Techcross Inc. have been used for more than two years. 

Therefore, it was able to observe corrosion of tanks in long-term perspective. The test barge is 

constructed by the same material with the actual vessels and it is operated in similar conditions. 

There is not any significant difference in corrosion between natural seawater and ECS-treated 

water, observing poles and ceiling of tanks. On the contrary, there is more corrosion detected in 

natural seawater than ECS-treated water in the aspect of ballast tank floor. The floor is the place 

where seawater remains for a long period so that it may be an important factor of corrosion. 

Consequently, ECS-treated water makes less effect on corrosion to test samples than natural 

seawater effects. 

H2 gas and Cl2 gas are generated through electrolysis disinfection process. The generated gases 

are very small amount, even though, for more safety, gas de-aeration equipment is installed on 

ballast pipe. Furthermore, on-line gas detector is installed and alarm system would work at 

exceeding 3% and 0.8 ppm of H2 and Cl2, respectively. The ECS would be shut down at 

exceeding 4% and 1 ppm of H2 and Cl2, respectively. 

6.2 Risks to human health 

Risk to human health for ECS ballast water by-products was assessed by using EUSES. 

The effect assessment of Relevant Chemicals for carcinogenic and mutagenic was carried out in 

sections 2.3.6 “Carcinogenicity” and 2.3.7 “Mutagenicity”. Endocrine disruptive properties were 

also carried out in section 2.2.3 “Endocrine disruption”. A Human Exposure Scenario (HES) was 

conducted according to EUSES Human Exposure Scenario. 
MEPC 58/2 

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In EUSES, risk assessment result is carried out by calculating “Margins Of Safety” 

(MOS)/Reference MOS. “MOS” means the ratio of the estimated no-effect or effect level 

parameter to the estimated exposure level for human sub-populations. 

If MOS/Ref MOS is above 1, the substance is of no immediate concern. If MOS/Ref MOS is 

below 1, the substance should be of concern. 

Risk assessment results using EUSES showed that ratio MOS/Reference MOS for ballast water 

by-products is > 1 to general population in local and regional scale, therefore, ECS-treated ballast 

water has low risk potential for human health. 

6.3 Risks to the aquatic environment 

Risk to aquatic environment by Relevant Chemicals was carried out by PEC/PNEC ratio. 

If PEC/PNEC ratio is less than or equal to 1, the substance is of no immediate concern. 

In PEC/PNEC ratio is greater than 1, the substance should be of concern. Active Substances were 

not detected in treated ballast water so that risk assessment to aquatic environment for Active 

Substance was not considered. PNEC was determined in data-set endpoints and ballast water 

toxicity test endpoints so that PEC/PNEC was calculated in two endpoints. 

If PEC/PNEC for by-products and neutralizer are < 1; therefore ECS-treated ballast water has 

low risk potential for aquatic environment. 

Risk assessment results for aquatic environment are summarized in table below. 

PEC /PNEC ratio for aquatic environment in data-set endpoints and ballast water toxicity 

test endpoints 

Chemical name Data-set endpoints Ballast water toxicity test 

endpoints 

Dibromochloromethane 7.07E-07 0.0001076 

Tribromomethane 1.09E-05 3.948E-05 

Dibromoacetonitrile 2.22E-01 5.677E-05 

2,4,6-Tribromophenol 3.96E-06 0.0001042 

Monochloroacetic acid 1.39E-07 8.492E-05 

Monobromoacetic acid 1.26E-06 8.577E-05 

Dichloroacetic acid 8.71E-08 0.0001116 

Bromochloroacetic acid 1.15E-07 6.891E-05 

Dibromoacetic acid 3.57E-06 0.0001123 

Tribromoacetic acid 1.29E-05 0.0001129 

Sodium thiosulfate 0.000045 0.0001125 
MEPC 58/2 

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7 ASSESSMENT REPORT 

This report was written according to Procedure (G9). 

Analysis on Active Substances and Relevant Chemicals test and toxicity test using discharge 

water at the land-based test as Type Approval test were conducted by Kong-Ju National 

University and Kyung Hee University, respectively, in accordance with the quality system 

of KORDI. 

7.1 Overview of data and endpoints 

The data and endpoints for aquatic environment and human health were collected by recommended 

database and reference according to the OECD Work on Investigation of High Production Volume 

Chemicals. Reliability of Key Data Summary was followed by Klimisch et al. (1997). 

Toxicity test has been conducted by certified research laboratory of Kyung Hee University in 

the Republic of Korea. The test water was collected under the strict supervision of KORDI 

(Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute). During toxicity tests, the internationally 

recognized protocols such as EPA methods are applied. The test water is the same water used in 

the land-based tests for Type Approval and representative species were used. The test was 

conducted in compliance with Quality Assurance Program of KORDI, certified by KOLAS. 

KORDI certified by KOLAS measured TRO at land-based test and measurement of gas 

(H2 and Cl2). The chemical analysis of discharged water is conducted in accordance with EPA 

method and internationally recognized protocols with reliability. The testing body improves its 

reliability through strict QA/QC. All test procedures from sampling to pre-treatement are 

supervised by KORDI with KOLAS certification. 

7.2 Risk assessment on ship, crew and environment during tests and development 

Online gas monitoring system is installed in order to improve safety to ship and crew. Safety 

level is improved against gas upon installing de-aeration system. Moreover, the alarm system 

would work in case the gas concentration exceeds the limit level (in the application dossier 7.1, 

Appendix 5). 

Risk to the crew was assessed according to EASE model in EUSES 2.1. EASE was specifically 

developed by the UK Health and Safety Executive for the purpose of modelling inhalation and 

dermal workplace exposure across a wide range of circumstances. EASE is an analogue model, 

i.e. it is based on the measured data which are assigned to specific scenarios. 

The applicant has instructed researcher, manager and operator to wear helmets and protective 

gloves during installation, land-based test, and on-board test. Additionally, first-aid medicine is 

always prepared for emergency situation and accidents at test site. 

7.3 Environmental exposure assessment 

Toxicity to ECS-treated ballast water was tested to aquatic species in seawater according to EPA 

methods. The PEC of treated ballast water discharges was performed using MAM-PEC model. 

Risk assessment of aquatic environment was conducted using PEC/PNEC ratio in data-set 

endpoints and ballast water toxicity test endpoints. Risk assessment of human health for general 

population and crew was performed using Ratio MOS/Ref-MOS by EUSES 2.1. 
MEPC 58/2 

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7.4 Compliance with the Convention 

It has been clarified from the result of land-based tests that Electro-Clean System (ECS) complies 

with the Convention. It meets the efficacy requirements of the Convention as shown by the 

land-based test results. The land-based tests were conducted five times with seawater and six 

times with brackish water. Based on the full-scale land-based tests, the removal efficacy of ECS 

satisfies the D-2 standard. The toxicity tests and risk assessments with its effluent water show 

that the ECS-treated water does not have harmful influence on human and aquatic 

environment at all. 

7.5 Qualitative statement of the level of uncertainty 

In case of gas measurement, the measurement results are lower in both on-barge test and 

shipboard test compared to the previous test (MEPC 54/2/3). The potential influence of 

temperature on gas amount has been detected. All tests were conducted under the strict quality 

assurance project plan of KORDI in order to minimize the uncertainties. 

7.6 Risk management possibilities 

The applicant provides safety instructions for unexpected emergency situations such as fire and 

disorder. Moreover, the alarm system and automatic control program of ECS set off the alarm 

and automatically shut down the program if any risk to ship and crew is detected. 
MEPC 58/2 

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REFERENCES 

ECB (European Chemicals Bureau) IUCLID Dataset, 18-FEB-2000 for 2,4,6-tribromophenol 

http://ecb.jrc.it/esis 

ECB (European Chemicals Bureau) IUCLID Dataset, 19-FEB-2000 for sodium hypochlorite 

http://ecb.jrc.it/esis 

ECB (European Chemicals Bureau) IUCLID Dataset, 19-FEB-2000 for sodium thiosulfate 

http://ecb.jrc.it/esis 

ECB (European Chemicals Bureau) IUCLID Dataset, 2005 for monochloroacetic acid 

http://ecb.jrc.it/esis 

ECB (European Chemicals Bureau), EU RISK ASSESSMENT REPORT FOR Sodium 

Hypochlorite DRAFT November 26, 2007 

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ECB(European Chemicals Bureau), EUROPEAN UNION RISK ASSESSMENT REPORT, 

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EPA. 1999. Alternative Disinfectant and Oxidants Guidance Manual 

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http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm 

HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), a database of the National Library of Medicine’s 

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HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), a database of the National Library of Medicine’s 

TOXNET system, 23 Jun. 2005 for tribromomethane http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov 

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International Programme on Chemical Safety (CEC 1999), ICSC: 0107 April 2004 for Bromine, 

http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc21.htm 

International Programme on Chemical Safety (CEC 2004), ICSC: 0068 April 1993 for Sodium 

thiosulfate http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc21.htm 
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International Programme on Chemical Safety, (CEC 2005), ICSC: 0064 April 2000 for Hydrogen 

peroxide http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc21.htm 

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http://cs3-hq.oecd.org/scripts/hpv/ 

OECD SIDS, Initial Assessment Report For SIAM 18, 20-23 April 2004 for calcium 

hypochlorite http://cs3-hq.oecd.org/scripts/hpv/ 

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Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) For acetic acid, 

dichloro-, THOMSON Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) for acetic acid, bromo-, THOMSON 

Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) for Acetonitrile, 

dibromo-, THOMSON Micromedex, http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) for acetic acid, dibromo-, 02 2007 

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Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) For acetic acid, 

dichloro-, THOMSON Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) for methane, 

chlorodibromo-THOMSON Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) For methane, tribromo-, THOMSON 

Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances) for thiosulfuric acid, disodium salt, 

02 2006 THOMSON Micromedex http://csi.micromedex.com/fraMain.asp?Mnu=0 

The Federal-Provincial-Territorial Commuittee on Drinking Water, November 6, 2006 for 

haloacetic acids 

Thomas H. Hutchinson, Matthew J. Hutchings, and Keith W. Moore, 1997. A Reivew of the 

Effects of Bromate on Aquatic Organisms and Toxicity of Bromate to Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) 

Embryos. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf.32,233-253.For potassium bromate 
MEPC 58/2 

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US EPA, ECOTOXicology database, Feb 26 2008 for Dibromoacetonitrile, 

http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm 

US EPA, ECOTOXicology database, Feb 26 2008 for ozone, 

http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm

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