U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program

National Institute of Justice

Guide for the Selection of Chemical and 

Biological Decontamination Equipment for 

Emergency First Responders

NIJ Guide 103–00

Volume I

October 2001
ABOUT THE LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CORRECTIONS

STANDARDS AND TESTING PROGRAM

The Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program is sponsored by the Office of

Science and Technology of the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), U.S. Department of Justice. The program

responds to the mandate of the Justice System Improvement Act of 1979, which directed NIJ to encourage

research and development to improve the criminal justice system and to disseminate the results to Federal,

State, and local agencies.

The Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program is an applied research effort that

determines the technological needs of justice system agencies, sets minimum performance standards for

specific devices, tests commercially available equipment against those standards, and disseminates the

standards and the test results to criminal justice agencies nationally and internationally.

The program operates through:

The Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Advisory Council (LECTAC), consisting of

nationally recognized criminal justice practitioners from Federal, State, and local agencies, which assesses

technological needs and sets priorities for research programs and items to be evaluated and tested.

The Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology,

which develops voluntary national performance standards for compliance testing to ensure that individual

items of equipment are suitable for use by criminal justice agencies. The standards are based upon laboratory

testing and evaluation of representative samples of each item of equipment to determine the key attributes,

develop test methods, and establish minimum performance requirements for each essential attribute. In

addition to the highly technical standards, OLES also produces technical reports and user guidelines that

explain in nontechnical terms the capabilities of available equipment.

The National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center (NLECTC), operated by a grantee,

which supervises a national compliance testing program conducted by independent laboratories. The

standards developed by OLES serve as performance benchmarks against which commercial equipment is

measured. The facilities, personnel, and testing capabilities of the independent laboratories are evaluated by

OLES prior to testing each item of equipment, and OLES helps the NLECTC staff review and analyze data.

Test results are published in Equipment Performance Reports designed to help justice system procurement

officials make informed purchasing decisions.

Publications are available at no charge through the National Law Enforcement and Corrections

Technology Center. Some documents are also available online through the Internet/World Wide Web. To

request a document or additional information, call 800–248–2742 or 301–519–5060, or write:

National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center

P.O. Box 1160

Rockville, MD 20849–1160

E-Mail: asknlectc@nlectc.org

World Wide Web address: http://www.nlectc.org

This document is not intended to create, does not create, and may not be relied upon to create any rights,

substantive or procedural, enforceable at law by any party in any matter civil or criminal.

Opinions or points of view expressed in this document represent a consensus of the authors and do not

necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. The products and

manufacturers discussed in this document are presented for informational purposes only and do not constitute

product approval or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Justice.

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice

Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of

Crime.
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

Guide for the Selection of Chemical and Biological

Decontamination Equipment for Emergency First Responders

NIJ Guide 103–00 Volume I

Dr. Alim A. Fatah1

John A. Barrett2

Richard D. Arcilesi, Jr.2

Dr. Kenneth J. Ewing2

Charlotte H. Lattin2

Michael S. Helinski2

Imran A. Baig2

Coordination by:

Office of Law Enforcement Standards

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899–8102

Prepared for:

National Institute of Justice

Office of Science and Technology

Washington, DC 20531

October 2001

This document was prepared under CBIAC contract number

SPO–900–94–D–0002 and Interagency Agreement M92361 between

NIST and the Department of Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC).

 NCJ 189724

 

1National Institute of Standards and Technology, Office of Law Enforcement Standards.

2Battelle Memorial Institute.
ii

National Institute of Justice

Sarah V. Hart

Director

The authors wish to thank Ms. Kathleen Higgins of the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) for programmatic support and for numerous valuable discussions concerning

the contents of this document. Mr. Bill Haskell of SBCCOM, Ms. Laurel O’Conner of

SBCCOM, Ms. Priscilla S. Golden of General Physics, and Mr. Todd Brethauer representing the

Technical Support Working Group (TSWG) also reviewed the document and provided numerous

useful comments. In addition, the authors want to acknowledge and thank the emergency first

responders who reviewed the document and responded with positive and helpful comments:

Battalion Chief Wes Thomas of the Downers Grove (Illinois) Fire Department,

Lieutenant Richard Parker of the Boston Fire Department, and Sergeant Michael Waser of the

New York City Police Department.

We wish to acknowledge the Interagency Board (IAB) for Equipment Standardization and

Interoperability. The IAB (made up of government and first responder representatives) was

commissioned by the Attorney General of the United States in conjunction with the Department

of Defense’s Director of Military Support. The IAB was established to ensure equipment

standardization and interoperability and to oversee the research and development of advanced

technologies to assist first responders at the State and local levels in establishing and maintaining

a robust crisis and consequence management capability.3

We also sincerely thank all vendors who provided us with information about their products.

The technical effort to develop this guide was conducted

under Interagency Agreement 94–IJ–R–004,

Project No. 99–060–CBW.

This guide was prepared by the Office of Law Enforcement

Standards (OLES) of the National Institute of Standards

and Technology (NIST) under the direction of

Dr. Alim A. Fatah, Program Manager for

Chemical Systems and Materials, and

Kathleen M. Higgins, Director of OLES.

 

3The Marshall Convention, Standardized Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Response Force Equipment and InterOperability,

2 to 4 November 1999.
iii

FOREWORD

The Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) of the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) furnishes technical support to the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) program to

support law enforcement and criminal justice in the United States. OLES’s function is to develop

standards and conduct research that will assist law enforcement and criminal justice agencies in the

selection and procurement of quality equipment.

OLES is: (1) subjecting existing equipment to laboratory testing and evaluation, and (2) conducting

research leading to the development of several series of documents, including national standards,

user guides, and technical reports.

This document covers research conducted by OLES under the sponsorship of the NIJ. Additional

reports as well as other documents are being issued under the OLES program in the areas of

protective clothing and equipment, communications systems, emergency equipment, investigative

aids, security systems, vehicles, weapons, and analytical techniques and standard reference

materials used by the forensic community.

Technical comments and suggestions concerning this guide are invited from all interested parties.

They may be addressed to the Office of Law Enforcement Standards, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8102, Gaithersburg, MD 20899–8102.

Sarah V. Hart, Director

National Institute of Justice
v

 CONTENTS

FOREWORD..................................................................................................................................iii

COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS .....................................................vii

ABOUT THIS REPORT.................................................................................................................ix

1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1

2. DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICAL AGENTS, TOXIC INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS, AND

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS .......................................................................................................3

2.1 Chemical Agents............................................................................................................3

2.2 Toxic Industrial Materials (TIMs) .................................................................................8

2.3 Biological Agents.........................................................................................................11

3. OVERVIEW OF CB DECONTAMINATION ... ...............................................................19

3.1 Decontamination Process.............................................................................................19

3.2 Decontamination Applications.....................................................................................22

3.3 Support Equipment ......................................................................................................24

4. INTRODUCTION TO CB DECONTAMINANTS .............................................................27

4.1 Physical Decontaminants.............................................................................................27

4.2 Chemical Decontaminants...........................................................................................29

5. OVERVIEW OF EMERGENCY FIRST RESPONDER INITIATIVES FOR CB

DECONTAMINATION.......................................................................................................33

6. SELECTION FACTORS......................................................................................................35

6.1 Chemical Agents Decontaminated...............................................................................35

6.2 Biological Agents Decontaminated .............................................................................35

6.3 TIMs Decontaminated..................................................................................................35

6.4 Functional Application.................................................................................................35

6.5 Capacity/Throughput ...................................................................................................36

6.6 Effectiveness of Decontamination...............................................................................36

6.7 Set-Up Time.................................................................................................................36

6.8 Power Capabilities.......................................................................................................36

6.9 Operational Environment.............................................................................................36

6.10 Durability.....................................................................................................................36

6.11 Resources.....................................................................................................................36

6.12 Operator Skill Level.....................................................................................................37

6.13 Training Requirements.................................................................................................37

7. DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT EVALUATION....................................................39

7.1 Functional Application Categories..............................................................................39

7.2 Evaluation Results........................................................................................................39

APPENDIX A––RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS ON DECONTAMINATION

 EQUIPMENT..................................................................................................A–1

APPENDIX B––REFERENCES................................................................................................. B–1

APPENDIX C––DECONTAMINATION SHELTERS..............................................................C–1

APPENDIX D––DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT TRAILER ........................................D–1

APPENDIX E––INDEX BY DECONTAMINANT NAME.......................................................E–1

APPENDIX F––DECONTAMINANT DATA SHEETS ............................................................F–1

APPENDIX G––EPA LETTER ADDRESSING HAZARDOUS RUNOFF.............................G–1
vi

APPENDIX H––FIRST RESPONDERS’ ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY DUE TO

 MASS DECONTAMINATION RUNOFF .....................................................H–1

TABLES

Table 2–1. Physical and chemical properties of common nerve agents ......................................4

Table 2–2. Physical and chemical properties of common blister agents .....................................7

Table 2–3. Physical and chemical properties of TIMs..................................................................9

Table 2–4. TIMs listed by hazard index .....................................................................................10

Table 2–5. Bacterial agents.........................................................................................................13

Table 2–6. Viral agents...............................................................................................................15

Table 2–7 Rickettsiae.................................................................................................................17

Table 2–8. Biological toxins ......................................................................................................18

Table 6–1. Selection factor key for decontamination equipment ...............................................38

Table 7–1. Evaluation results reference table .............................................................................40

Table 7–2. Decontamination applications...................................................................................40

Table 7–3. Personnel decontamination equipment .....................................................................41

Table 7–4. Equipment decontamination systems........................................................................46

Table 7–5. Infrastructure decontamination equipment ...............................................................52

Table 7–6. Selection factor key for decontamination equipment ...............................................53

FIGURES

Figure 3–1. Decontamination Kit, Personal No. 2, Mark 1........................................................20

Figure 3–2. K1-05 standard unit.................................................................................................21

Figure 3–3. Karcher HDS 1200 EK high-pressure steam jet cleaner unit..................................21

Figure 3–4. Decontamination Kit, Individual Equipment: M295...............................................21

Figure 3–5. Karcher mobile field laundry CFL 60.....................................................................22

Figure 3–6. Karcher AEDA1 decontamination equipment.........................................................22

Figure 3–7. NBC-DEWDECON-PERS Emergency Response Personnel

 Decontamination Kit...............................................................................................23

Figure 3–8. Karcher MPDS multipurpose decontamination system...........................................23

Figure 3–9. Karcher C8-DADS direct application decontamination system..............................24

Figure 3–10. TVI first response shelter ........................................................................................24

Figure 3–11. TVI Quick-E WMD command post........................................................................24

Figure 3–12. SC spill containment single shower stall with dressing room.................................25

Figure 3–13. SC spill containment single decon unit with bladder..............................................25
vii

COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A ampere h hour o.d. outside diameter

ac alternating current hf high frequency Ω ohm

AM amplitude modulation Hz hertz p. page

cd candela i.d. inside diameter Pa pascal

cm centimeter in inch pe probable error

CP chemically pure IR infrared pp. pages

c/s cycle per second J joule ppm parts per million

d day L lambert qt quart

dB decibel L liter rad radian

dc direct current lb pound rf radio frequency

°C degree Celsius lbf pound-force rh relative humidity

°F degree Fahrenheit lbf†in pound-force inch s second

dia diameter lm lumen SD standard deviation

emf electromotive force ln logarithm (base e) sec. section

eq equation log logarithm (base 10) SWR standing wave ratio

F farad M molar uhf ultrahigh frequency

fc footcandle m meter UV ultraviolet

fig. figure min minute V volt

FM frequency modulation mm millimeter vhf very high frequency

ft foot mph miles per hour W watt

ft/s foot per second m/s meter per second N newton

g acceleration mo month λ wavelength

g gram N†m newton meter wk week

gr grain nm nanometer wt weight

H henry No. number yr year

area=unit2 (e.g., ft2, in2, etc.); volume=unit3 (e.g., ft3, m3, etc.)

ACRONYMS SPECIFIC TO THIS DOCUMENT

CB Chemical and Biological LCt50 (Lethal Concentration Time) 50

DETA Diethylenetriamine NFPA National Fire Protection Association

DS2 Decontaminating Solution 2 PPE Personal Protection Equipment

SF Selection Factor SDK Skin Decontamination Kit

EGME Ethylene Glycol Monomethylether TBD To Be Determined

IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health TICs Toxic Industrial Chemicals

IAB Interagency Board TIMs Toxic Industrial Materials

PREFIXES (See ASTM E380) COMMON CONVERSIONS

d deci (10-1) da deka (10) 0.30480 m = 1 ft 4.448222 N = 1 lbf

c centi (10-2) h hecto (102) 2.54 cm = 1 in 1.355818 J = 1 ft†lbf

m milli (10-3) k kilo (103) 0.4535924 kg = 1 lb 0.1129848 N m = 1 lbf†in

μ micro (10-6) M mega (106) 0.06479891g = 1gr 14.59390 N/m = 1 lbf/ft

n nano (10-9) G giga (109) 0.9463529 L = 1 qt 6894.757 Pa = 1 lbf/in2

p pico (10-12) T tera (1012) 3600000 J = 1 kW†hr 1.609344 km/h = 1 mph

psi = mm of Hg x (1.9339 x 10-2)

mm of Hg = psi x 51.71

Temperature: T°C = (T°F –32)×5/9 Temperature: T°F = (T°C ×9/5)+32
ix

ABOUT THIS REPORT

The National Institute of Justice is the focal point for providing support to State and local law

enforcement agencies in the development of counterterrorism technology and standards,

including technological needs for chemical and biological defense. In recognizing the needs of

State and local emergency first responders, the Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) at

the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), working with the National Institute

of Justice, the Technical Support Working Group, the U.S. Army Soldier and Biological

Chemical Command, and the Interagency Board, is developing chemical and biological defense

equipment guides. The guides will focus on chemical and biological equipment in areas of

detection, personal protection, decontamination, and communication. This document focuses

specifically on chemical and biological decontamination equipment and was developed to assist

the emergency first responder community in the evaluation and purchase of decontamination

equipment.

The long range plans are to: (1) subject existing decontamination equipment to laboratory

testing and evaluation against a specified protocol, and (2) conduct research leading to the

development of multiple series of documents, including national standards, user guides, and

technical reports. It is anticipated that the testing, evaluation, and research processes will take

several years to complete; therefore, the National Institute of Justice has developed this initial

guide for the emergency first responder community in order to facilitate their evaluation and

purchase of decontamination equipment.

In conjunction with this program, additional guides, as well as other documents, are being issued

in the areas of chemical agent and toxic industrial material detection equipment, biological agent

detection equipment, personal protective equipment, medical kits and equipment, and

communications equipment used in conjunction with protective clothing and respiratory

equipment.

The information contained in this guide has been obtained through literature searches and market

surveys. The vendors were contacted multiple times during the preparation of this guide to

ensure data accuracy. In addition, the information is supplemented with test data obtained from

other sources (e.g., Department of Defense) if available. It should also be noted that the purpose

of this guide is not to provide recommendations but rather to serve as a means to provide

information to the reader to compare and contrast commercially available decontamination

equipment. Reference herein to any specific commercial products, processes, or services by

trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government. The information

and statements contained in this guide shall not be used for the purposes of advertising, nor to

imply the endorsement or recommendation of the United States Government.

With respect to information provided in this guide, neither the United States Government nor any

of its employees make any warranty, expressed or implied, including but not limited to the

warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. Further, neither the United

States Government nor any of its employees assume any legal liability or responsibility for the
x

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process

disclosed.

Technical comments, suggestions, and product updates are encouraged from interested parties.

They may be addressed to the Office of Law Enforcement Standards, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8102, Gaithersburg, MD 20899–8102. It is

anticipated that this guide will be updated periodically.

Questions relating to the specific devices included in this document should be addressed directly

to the proponent agencies or the equipment manufacturers. Contact information for each

equipment item included in this guide can be found in Volume II of this guide.
1

1. INTRODUCTION

This guide includes information that is intended to assist the emergency first responder

community select chemical agent, biological agent, and toxic industrial material decontamination

techniques and equipment for different applications. It includes a thorough market survey of

decontamination equipment known to the authors as of September 2000. Brief technical

discussions are presented that consider the principles of operation of several pieces of equipment.

These may be ignored by readers who find them too technical, while those wanting additional

information can obtain it from the extensive list of references that is included in appendix B.

This guide describes equipment suitable for decontamination of personnel, equipment, and

facilities, and it offers effectiveness in qualitative terms. It does not address detection methods

or protocols for quantitatively determining decontamination effectiveness, standards for release

of equipment of facilities for unrestricted use following exposure to a chemical agent (CA),

biological agent (BA), or toxic industrial material (TIM) after decontamination, or who is

authorized or will take responsibility for making that determination. For the remainder of this

guide when chemical agent and TIM decontamination are referred to collectively, they will be

referred to as chemical decontamination.

The primary purpose of this guide is to provide emergency first responders with information that

should aid them in the selection and utilization of chemical and/or biological (CB)

decontamination equipment. The guide is more practical than technical and provides

information on a variety of factors that can be considered when purchasing decontamination

equipment: functional application, capacity/throughput, and effectiveness.

Due to the high number of CB decontamination equipment items identified in this guide, the

guide is separated into two volumes. Volume I represents the actual guide. Volume II serves as

a supplement to Volume I and contains the CB decontamination equipment data sheets only.

This guide contains information that should aid emergency first responders in the selection and

utilization of CB decontamination equipment. Readers finding this material too technical can

omit this information while still making use of the rest of the guide, and readers desiring more

technical detail can obtain it from the references listed in appendix B and the data sheets

provided in Volume II. Volume I is divided into several sections. Section 2 provides an

introduction to chemical agents, TIMs, and biological agents. Specifically, it discusses CB

agents by providing overviews, physical and chemical properties, routes of entry, and symptoms.

It also discusses the 98 TIMs that are considered in this guide. Section 3 presents an overview to

CB decontamination. Section 4 presents an overview of the identified decontaminants. Section

5 presents an overview of the initiatives taken by emergency first responders for CB

decontamination. Section 6 discusses various characteristics and performance parameters that

are used to evaluate decontamination equipment in this guide. These characteristics and

performance parameters are referred to as selection factors in the remainder of this guide.

Thirteen selection factors have been identified. These factors were compiled by a panel of

experienced scientists and engineers with multiple years of experience in chemical and biological

decontamination, domestic preparedness, and identification of emergency first responder needs.
2

The factors have also been shared with the emergency responder community to get their thoughts

and comments. Section 7 presents several tables that allow the reader to compare and contrast

the different decontamination equipment utilizing the 13 selection factors.

Eight appendices are included within this guide. Appendix A lists questions that could assist

emergency first responders selecting decontamination equipment. Appendix B lists the

documents that are referenced in this guide. Appendix C contains a listing of commercially

available decontamination shelters. Appendix D provides an example of a decontamination

equipment trailer. Appendix E provides an index of the decontaminant data sheets. Appendix F

provides chemical decontaminant data sheets. Appendix G includes a letter from the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that addresses handling of hazardous runoff from

decontamination operations and liabilities. Appendix H is an EPA publication regarding the first

responders’ environmental liability due to decontamination runoff.
3

2. DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICAL AGENTS,

TOXIC INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS, AND

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

This section describes chemical agents (CAs), toxic industrial materials (TIMs), and biological

agents (BAs). Section 2.1 discusses chemical agents, section 2.2 discusses TIMs, and section 2.3

discusses biological agents.

2.1 Chemical Agents

Chemical agents are chemical substances that are intended for use in warfare or terrorist

activities to kill, seriously injure, or seriously incapacitate people through their physiological

effects. A chemical agent attacks the organs of the human body in such a way that it prevents

those organs from functioning normally. The results are usually disabling or even fatal.

The most common chemical agents are the nerve agents, GA (Tabun), GB (Sarin), GD (Soman),

GF, and VX; the blister agents, HD (sulfur mustard) and HN (nitrogen mustard); and the

arsenical vesicants, L (Lewisite). Other toxic chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide (characterized

as a chemical blood agent by the military) are included as TIMs under section 2.2 of this guide.

There are also toxic chemicals derived from living organisms, generically termed toxins. Toxins

are included under section 2.5 of this guide.

2.1.1 Nerve Agents

This section provides an overview of nerve agents. A discussion of their physical and chemical

properties, their routes of entry, and descriptions of symptoms are also provided.

2.1.1.1 Overview

Among lethal chemical agents, nerve agents have had an entirely dominant role since World War

II. Nerve agents acquired their name because they affect the transmission of impulses in the

nervous system. All nerve agents belong to the chemical group of organo-phosphorus

compounds; many common herbicides and pesticides also belong to this chemical group. Nerve

agents are stable, easily dispersed, highly toxic, and have rapid effects when absorbed both

through the skin and the respiratory system. Nerve agents can be manufactured by means of

fairly simple chemical techniques. The raw materials are inexpensive, but some are subject to

the controls of the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Australia Group Agreement.

2.1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

The nerve agents considered in this guide are:

• GA: A low volatility persistent chemical agent that is taken up through skin contact

and inhalation of the substance as a gas or aerosol. Volatility refers to a substance’s

ability to become a vapor at relatively low temperatures. A highly volatile
4

(nonpersistent) substance poses a greater respiratory hazard than a less volatile

(persistent) substance.

• GB: A volatile nonpersistent chemical agent mainly taken up through inhalation.

• GD: A moderately volatile chemical agent that can be taken up by inhalation or skin

contact.

• GF: A low volatility persistent chemical agent that is taken up through skin contact

and inhalation of the substance either as a gas or aerosol.

• VX: A low volatility persistent chemical agent that can remain on material,

equipment, and terrain for long periods. Uptake is mainly through the skin but also

through inhalation of the substance as a gas, aerosol, or contaminated dust.

Nerve agents in the pure state are colorless liquids. Their volatility varies widely. The

consistency of VX may be likened to motor oil and is therefore classified as belonging to the

group of persistent chemical agents. VX effect is mainly through direct contact with the skin.

GB is at the opposite extreme; being an easily volatile liquid (comparable with water), it is

mainly taken up through the respiratory organs. The volatilities of GD, GA, and GF are between

those of GB and VX. Table 2-1 lists the common nerve agents and some of their physical and

chemical properties. Water is included in the table as a reference point for the nerve agents.

Table 2–1. Physical and chemical properties of common nerve agents

Property GA GB GD GF VX Water

Molecular

Weight

162.3 140.1 182.2 180.2 267.4 18

Density, g/cm3* 1.073 1.089 1.022 1.120 1.008 1

Boiling point, oF 464 316 388 462 568 212

Melting point, oF 18 -69 -44 -22 < -60 32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg *

0.07 2.9 0.4 0.06 0.0007 23.756

Volatility, mg/m3 * 610 22000 3900 600 10.5 23010

Solubility in

water, % *

10 Miscible with

water

2 ~2 Slightly NA

*at 77 οF

2.1.1.3 Route of Entry

Nerve agents, either as a gas, aerosol, or liquid, enter the body through inhalation or through the

skin. Poisoning may also occur through consumption of liquids or foods contaminated with

nerve agents.

The route of entry also influences the symptoms developed and, to some extent, the sequence of

the different symptoms. Generally, the poisoning works most rapidly when the agent is absorbed

through the respiratory system, rather than other routes, because the lungs contain numerous

blood vessels and the inhaled nerve agent can quickly diffuse into the blood circulation and thus

reach the target organs. Among these organs, the respiratory system is one of the most
5

important. If a person is exposed to a high concentration of nerve agent (e.g., 200 mg sarin/m3),

death may occur within a couple of minutes.

The poisoning works slower when the agent is absorbed through the skin. Since nerve agents are

somewhat fat-soluble, they can easily penetrate the outer layers of the skin, but it takes longer for

the poison to reach the deeper blood vessels. Consequently, the first symptoms do not occur

until 20 min to 30 min after the initial exposure, but subsequently, the poisoning process may be

rapid if the total dose of nerve agent is high.

2.1.1.4 Symptoms

When exposed to a low dose of nerve agent, sufficient to cause minor poisoning, the victim

experiences characteristic symptoms such as increased production of saliva, a runny nose, and a

feeling of pressure on the chest. The pupil of the eye becomes contracted (miosis), which

impairs night-vision. In addition, the capacity of the eye to change focal length is reduced, and

short-range vision deteriorates causing the victim to feel pain when trying to focus on nearby

objects. This is accompanied by a headache. Less specific symptoms are tiredness, slurred

speech, hallucinations, and nausea.

Exposure to a higher dose leads to more dramatic developments, and symptoms are more

pronounced. Bronchoconstriction and secretion of mucus in the respiratory system leads to

difficulty in breathing and to coughing. Discomfort in the gastrointestinal tract may develop into

cramping and vomiting, and there may be involuntary discharge of urine and defecation. There

may be excessive salivating, tearing, and sweating. If the poisoning is moderate, typical

symptoms affecting the skeletal muscles may be muscular weakness, local tremors, or

convulsions.

When exposed to a high dose of nerve agent, the muscular symptoms are more pronounced and

the victim may suffer convulsions and lose consciousness. The poisoning process may be so

rapid that symptoms mentioned earlier may never have time to develop.

Nerve agents affect the respiratory muscles causing muscular paralysis. Nerve agents also affect

the respiratory center of the central nervous system. The combination of these two effects is the

direct cause of death. Consequently, death caused by nerve agents is similar to death by

suffocation.

2.1.2 Blister Agents (Vesicants)

This section provides an overview of blister agents. A discussion of their physical and chemical

properties, their routes of entry, and descriptions of symptoms is also provided.

2.1.2.1 Overview

There are two major families of blister agents: sulfur mustard (HD) and nitrogen mustard (HN),

and the arsenical agent: Lewisite (L). All blister agents are persistent and may be employed in

the form of colorless gases and liquids. They burn and blister the skin or any other part of the
6

body they contact. Blister agents are likely to be used to produce casualties rather than to kill,

although exposure to such agents can be fatal.

2.1.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

In its pure state, mustard agent is colorless and almost odorless. It earned its name as a result of

an early production method that resulted in an impure product with a mustard-like odor. Mustard

agent is also claimed to have a characteristic odor similar to rotten onions. However, the sense

of smell is dulled after only a few breaths so that the smell can no longer be distinguished. In

addition, mustard agent can cause injury to the respiratory system in concentrations that are so

low that the human sense of smell cannot distinguish them.

At room temperature, mustard agent is a liquid with low volatility and is very stable during

storage. Mustard agent can easily be dissolved in most organic solvents but has negligible

solubility in water. In aqueous solutions, mustard agent decomposes into nonpoisonous products

by means of hydrolysis but since only dissolved mustard agent reacts, the decomposition

proceeds very slowly. Oxidants such as chloramines (see 4.2.1, Oxidizing Agents, for chloramine

action), however, react violently with mustard agent, forming nonpoisonous oxidation products.

Consequently, these substances are used for the decontamination of mustard agent.

Arsenical vesicants are not as common or as stable as the sulfur or nitrogen mustards. All

arsenical vesicants are colorless to brown liquids. They are more volatile than mustard and have

fruity to geranium-like odors. These types of vesicants are much more dangerous as liquids than

as vapors. Absorption of either vapor or liquid through the skin in adequate dosage may lead to

systemic intoxication or death. The physical and chemical properties of the most common blister

agents are listed in table 2–2. Water is included in the table as a reference point for the blister

agents (see table 2–2).
7

Table 2–2. Physical and chemical properties of common blister agents

Property HD HN-1 HN-2 HN-3 L Water

Molecular

Weight

159.1 170.1 156.1 204.5 207.4 18

Density, g/cm31.27 at

68 °F

1.09

at 77 °F

1.15

at 68 °F

1.24

 at 77 °F

1.89

 at 68 °F

1

 at 77 °F

Boiling point, oF 421 381 167 at 15

mm Hg

493 374 212

Freezing point, oF 58 -61.2 -85 -26.7 64.4 to

32.18

32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg

0.072

 at 68 °F

0.24

 at 77 °F

0.29

 at 68 °F

0.0109

 at 77 °F

0.394

 at 68 °F

23.756

 at 77 °F

Volatility, mg/m3610

 at 68 °F

1520

 at 68 °F

3580

 at 77 °F

121

 at 77 °F

4480

 at 68 °F

23010

 at 77 °F

Solubility in

water, %

<1 % Sparingly Sparingly Insoluble Insoluble NA

2.1.2.3 Route of Entry

Most blister agents are relatively persistent and are readily absorbed by all parts of the body.

Poisoning may also occur through consumption of liquids or foods contaminated with blister

agents. These agents cause inflammation, blisters, and general destruction of tissues. In the

form of gas or liquid, mustard agent attacks the skin, eyes, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract.

Internal organs, mainly blood-generating organs (e.g., marrow, spleen, and lymphatic tissue),

may also be injured as a result of mustard agent being taken up through the skin or lungs and

transported into the body. Since mustard agent gives no immediate symptoms upon contact, a

delay of between 2 h and 24 h may occur before pain is felt and the victim becomes aware of

what has happened. By then, cell damage has already occurred. The delayed effect is a

characteristic of mustard agent.

In general, vesicants can penetrate the skin by contact with either liquid or vapor. The latent

period for the effects from mustard is usually several hours (the onset of symptoms from vapors

is 4 h to 6 h and the onset of symptoms from skin exposure is 2 h to 48 h). There is no latent

period for exposure to Lewisite.

2.1.2.4 Symptoms

Mild symptoms of mustard agent poisoning may include aching eyes with excessive tearing,

inflammation of the skin, irritation of the mucous membranes, hoarseness, coughing, and

sneezing. Normally, these injuries do not require medical treatment.

Severe injuries that are incapacitating and require medical care may involve eye injuries with

loss of sight, the formation of blisters on the skin, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea together with

severe difficulty in breathing. Severe damage to the eye may lead to the total loss of vision.
8

The most pronounced effects on inner organs are injury to the bone marrow, spleen, and

lymphatic tissue. This may cause a drastic reduction in the number of white blood cells 5 d to

10 d after exposure; a condition very similar to that after exposure to radiation. This reduction of

the immune defense will complicate the already large risk of infection in people with severe skin

and lung injuries.

The most common cause of death as a result of mustard agent poisoning is complications after

lung injury caused by inhalation of mustard agent. Most of the chronic and late effects from

mustard agent poisoning are also caused by lung injuries.

2.2 Toxic Industrial Materials (TIMs)

This section provides a general overview of TIMs as well as a list of the specific TIMs

considered in this guide. Since the chemistry of TIMs is so varied, it is not feasible to discuss

specific routes of entry and descriptions of symptoms. Several documents, including 2000

Emergency Response Guidebook (A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of

a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident), provide more detailed information about

TIMs (see app. B).

TIMs are chemicals other than chemical warfare agents that have harmful effects on humans.

TIMs, often referred to as toxic industrial chemicals, or TICs, are used in a variety of settings

such as manufacturing facilities, maintenance areas, and general storage areas. While exposure

to some of these chemicals may not be immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), these

compounds may have extremely serious effects on an individual’s health after multiple low-level

exposures.

2.2.1 General

A TIM is a specific type of industrial chemical, i.e., one that has a LCt50 value (lethal

concentration of a chemical vapor or aerosol for 50 % of the population multiplied by exposure

time) less than 100000 mg/min/m3 in any mammalian species and is produced in quantities

exceeding 30 tons per year at one production facility. Although they are not as lethal as the

highly toxic nerve agents, their ability to make a significant impact on the populace is assumed

to be more related to the amount of chemical a terrorist can employ on the target(s) and less

related to their lethality. None of these compounds are as highly toxic as the nerve agents, but

they are produced in very large quantities (multi-ton) and are readily available; therefore, they

pose a far greater threat than chemical agents. For instance, sulfuric acid is not as lethal as the

nerve agents, but it is easier to disseminate large quantities of sulfuric acid because large

amounts of it are manufactured and transported everyday. It is assumed that a balance is struck

between the lethality of a material and the amount of materials produced worldwide. Materials

such as the nerve agents are so lethal as to be in a special class of chemicals.

Since TIMs are less lethal than the highly toxic nerve agents, it is more difficult to determine

how to rank their potential for use by a terrorist. Physical and chemical properties for TIMs such

as ammonia, chlorine, cyanogen chloride, and hydrogen cyanide are presented in table 2–3.

Water is included in the table as a reference point for the TIMs. The physical and chemical
9

properties for the remaining TIMs identified in this guide can be found in International Task

Force 25: Hazard From Industrial Chemicals Final Report, April 1998 (see app. B).

Table 2–3. Physical and chemical properties of TIMs

Property Ammonia Chlorine Cyanogen

Chloride

Hydrogen

Cyanide

Water

Molecular weight 17.03 70.9 61.48 27.02 18

Density, g/cm30.00077

at 77 °F

3.214

at 77 °F

1.18

at 68 °F

0.990

at 68 °F

1

at 77 °F

Boiling point, oF -28 -30 55 78 212

Freezing point, oF -108 -150 20 8 32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg at 77 °F

7408 5643 1000 742 23.756

Volatility, mg/m36782064 at

77 °F

21508124 at

77 °F

2600000

at 68 °F

1080000 at

77 °F

23010

at 77 °F

Solubility in

water, %

89.9 1.5 Slightly Highly

soluble

NA

2.2.2 TIM Rankings

TIMs are ranked into one of three categories that indicate their relative importance and assist in

hazard assessment. Table 2–4 lists the TIMs with respect to their hazard index ranking (high,

medium, or low hazard).4

2.2.2.1 High Hazard

High hazard indicates a widely produced, stored, or transported TIM, that has high toxicity and is

easily vaporized.

2.2.2.2 Medium Hazard

Medium hazard indicates a TIM, which may rank high in some categories but lower in others

such as number of producers, physical state, or toxicity.

2.2.2.3 Low Hazard

A low hazard overall ranking indicates that this TIM is not likely to be a hazard unless specific

operational factors indicate otherwise.

 

4

Summary of the Final Report of the International Task Force 25 Hazard from Industrial Chemicals, 15 April 1999.
10

Table 2–4. TIMs listed by hazard index

High Medium Low

Ammonia Acetone cyanohydrin Allyl isothiocyanate

Arsine Acrolein Arsenic trichloride

Boron trichloride Acrylonitrile Bromine

Boron trifluoride Allyl alcohol Bromine chloride

Carbon disulfide Allylamine Bromine pentafluoride

Chlorine Allyl chlorocarbonate Bromine trifluoride

Diborane Boron tribromide Carbonyl fluoride

Ethylene oxide Carbon monoxide Chlorine pentafluoride

Fluorine Carbonyl sulfide Chlorine trifluoride

Formaldehyde Chloroacetone Chloroacetaldehyde

Hydrogen bromide Chloroacetonitrile Chloroacetyl chloride

Hydrogen chloride Chlorosulfonic acid Crotonaldehyde

Hydrogen cyanide Diketene Cyanogen chloride

Hydrogen fluoride 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine Dimethyl sulfate

Hydrogen sulfide Ethylene dibromide Diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate

Nitric acid, fuming Hydrogen selenide Ethyl chloroformate

Phosgene Methanesulfonyl chloride Ethyl chlorothioformate

Phosphorus trichloride Methyl bromide Ethyl phosphonothioic dichloride

Sulfur dioxide Methyl chloroformate Ethyl phosphonic dichloride

Sulfuric acid Methyl chlorosilane Ethyleneimine

Tungsten hexafluoride Methyl hydrazine Hexachlorocyclopentadiene

Methyl isocyanate Hydrogen iodide

Methyl mercaptan Iron pentacarbonyl

Nitrogen dioxide Isobutyl chloroformate

Phosphine Isopropyl chloroformate

Phosphorus oxychloride Isopropyl isocyanate

Phosphorus pentafluoride n-Butyl chloroformate

Selenium hexafluoride n-Butyl isocyanate

Silicon tetrafluoride Nitric oxide

Stibine n-Propyl chloroformate

Sulfur trioxide Parathion

Sulfuryl chloride Perchloromethyl mercaptan

Sulfuryl fluoride sec-Butyl chloroformate

Tellurium hexafluoride tert-Butyl isocyanate

n-Octyl mercaptan Tetraethyl lead

Titanium tetrachloride Tetraethyl pyroposphate

Trichloroacetyl chloride Tetramethyl lead

Trifluoroacetyl chloride Toluene 2,4-diisocyanate

Toluene 2,6-diisocyanate
11

2.3 Biological Agents

This section provides a description of the biological agents likely to be used in a terrorist attack.

There are four categories under discussion: bacterial agents (sec. 2.3.1), viral agents (sec. 2.3.2),

rickettsiae (sec. 2.3.3), and biological toxins (sec. 2.3.4).

2.3.1 Bacterial Agents

Bacteria are small, single-celled organisms, most of which can be grown on solid or liquid culture

media. Under special circumstances, some types of bacteria can transform into spores that are

more resistant to cold, heat, drying, chemicals, and radiation than the bacterium itself. Most

bacteria do not cause disease in human beings but those that do cause disease by two differing

mechanisms: by invading the tissues or by producing poisons (toxins). Many bacteria, such as

anthrax, have properties that make them attractive as potential warfare agents:

• Retained potency during growth and processing to the end product (biological weapon).

• Long “shelf-life.”

• Low biological decay as an aerosol.

Other bacteria require stabilizers to improve their potential for use as biological weapons. Table

2−5 lists some of the common bacterial agents along with possible methods of dissemination,

incubation period, symptoms, and treatment.

2.3.2 Viral Agents

Viruses are the simplest type of microorganism and consist of a nucleocapsid protein coat

containing genetic material, either RNA or DNA. Because viruses lack a system for their own

metabolism, they require living hosts (cells of an infected organism) for replication. As biological

agents, they are attractive because many do not respond to antibiotics. However, their incubation

periods are normally longer than for other biological agents, so incapacitation of victims may be

delayed. Table 2−6 lists the common viral agents along with possible methods of dissemination,

incubation period, symptoms, and treatment.

2.3.3 Rickettsiae

Rickettsiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that are intermediate in size between most bacteria

and viruses and possess certain characteristics common to both bacteria and viruses. Like

bacteria, they have metabolic enzymes and cell membranes, use oxygen, and are susceptible to

broad-spectrum antibiotics, but like viruses, they grow only in living cells. Most rickettsiae can be

spread only through the bite of infected insects and are not spread through human contact. Table

2−7 lists the common rickettsiae along with possible methods of dissemination, incubation

periods, symptoms, and treatment.
12

2.3.4 Biological Toxins

Biological toxins are poisons produced by living organisms. It is the poison and not the organism

that produces harmful effects in man. A toxin typically develops naturally in a host organism (for

example, saxitoxin is produced by marine algae); however, genetically altered and/or synthetically

manufactured toxins have been produced in a laboratory environment. Biological toxins are most

similar to chemical agents in their dissemination and effectiveness. Table 2−8 lists the common

biological toxins along with possible methods of dissemination, incubation period, symptoms, and

treatment.
13

Table 2-5. Bacterial agents

Biological

Agent/Disease Anthrax Brucellosis

E. coli serotype

(O157:H7) Tularemia Cholera

Likely Method

of Dissemination

1. Spores in aerosol

2. Sabotage (food)

1. Aerosol

2. Sabotage (food)

Water and food

 supply contamination

1. Aerosol

2. Rabbits or ticks

1. Sabotage (food

 and water)

2. Aerosol

Transmissible

Person to Person

No (except cutaneous) Unknown Unknown, evidence

passed person-toperson in day-care or

nursing homes

No Rare

Incubation

Period

1 d to 43 d 1 wk to 3 wk,

sometimes months

Unknown 2 d to 10 d 3 d to 5 d

Duration of

Illness

3 d to 5 d (usually

fatal)

Unknown 5 d to 10 d (most

cases)

>2 wk >1 wk

Lethality Contact or cutaneous

anthrax: fatality rate

of 5 % to 20 %

Inhalational anthrax:

after symptoms appear

almost always fatal,

regardless of

treatment

Low 0 % to 15 % if develop

hemolytic uremic

syndrome (HUS); 5 %

if develop thrombotic

thrombocytopenic

purpura (TTP)

Moderate if left

untreated

Low (<1 %) with

treatment; high

(>50 %) without

Vaccine Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)/

Antitoxin

Currently no human

data

Vaccine under

evaluation

No vaccine No commercially

available vaccine

No data on aerosol

Symptoms and

Effects

Flu-like, upperrespiratory distress;

fever and shock in 3 d

to 5 d, followed by

death

Irregular

prolonged fever,

profuse sweating,

chills, joint and

muscle pain,

persistent fatigue

Gastrointestinal

(diarrhea, vomiting)

dehydration; in severe

cases, cardiac arrest

and death, HUS, or

TTP

Chills, sustained

fever, prostration,

tendency for

pneumonia,

enlarged, painful

lymph nodes,

headache, malaise,

anorexia,

nonproductive

cough

Sudden onset with

nausea, vomiting,

diarrhea, rapid

dehydration,

toxemia and

collapse

Treatment Vaccine available for

cutaneous, possibly

inhalation, anthrax.

Cutaneous anthrax

responds to antibiotics

(penicillin,

terramycin,

chloromycetin),

sulfadiazine and

immune serum.

Pulmonary (inhaled)

anthrax responds to

immune serum in

initial stages but is

little use after disease

is well established.

Intestinal, same as for

pulmonary

Antibiotics Antibiotics available;

most recover without

antibiotics within

5 d to 10 d; do not use

antidiarrheal agents

Vaccination using

live attenuated

organisms reduces

severity and

transmittability;

antibiotics

(streptomycin,

aureomycin,

chloromycetin,

doxycycline,

tetracycline, and

chloramphenical)

Replenish fluids

and electrolytes;

antibiotics

(tetracycline,

ciprofloxicin, and

erythromycin)

enhance

effectiveness of

rehydration and

reduce organism in

body

Potential as

Biological Agent

Iraqi and USSR

biological programs

worked to develop

anthrax as a bioweapon

Unknown Unknown High, if delivered

via aerosol form

(highly infectious,

90 % to 100 %)

Not appropriate for

aerosol delivery
14

Table 2-5. Bacterial agents-Continued

Biological

Agent/Disease Diphtheria Glanders Melioidosis

Plague (Bubonic and

Pneumonic) Typhoid Fever

Likely Method of

Dissemination

Unknown 1. Aerosol

2. Cutaneous

1. Food

 contamination

 (rodent feces)

2. Inhalation

3. Insect bites

4. Direct contact

 with infected

 animals

1. Infected fleas

 (Bubonic and

 Pneumonic)

2. Aerosol

 (Pneumonic)

1. Contact with

 infected

 person

2. Contact with

 contaminated

 substances

Transmissible

Person to Person

High High No High (Pneumonic) High

Incubation

Period

2 d to 5 d 3 d to 5 d Days 1 d to 3 d 7 d to 14 d

Duration of

Illness

Unknown Unknown 4 d to 20 d 1 d to 6 d (usually

fatal)

Unknown

Lethality 5 % to 10 % fatality 50 % to 70 % Variable 5 % to 10 % if treated

Bubonic: 30 % to

75 % if untreated

Pneumonic: 95 % if

untreated

<1 % if treated;

10 % to 14 % if

untreated

Vaccine Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)/

Antitoxin

DPT vaccine 85 %

effective; booster

recommended every

10 yr

No vaccine No vaccine Vaccine not available Oral vaccine

(Vivotif) and

single dose

injectable

vaccine (capsular

polysaccharide

antigen). Both

vaccines are

equally effective

and offer 65 % to

75% protection

against the

disease.

Symptoms and

Effects

Local infection

usually in

respiratory

passages; delay in

treatment can cause

damage to heart,

kidneys, and central

nervous system

Skin lesions, ulcers

in skin, mucous

membranes, and

viscera; if inhaled,

upper respiratory

tract involvement

Cough, fever, chills,

muscle/joint pain,

nausea, and

vomiting;

progressing to death

Enlarged lymph nodes

in groin; septicemic

(spleen, lungs,

meninges affected)

Prolonged fever,

lymph tissue

involvement;

ulceration of

intestines;

enlargement of

spleen; rosecolored spots on

skin; constipation

or diarrhea

Treatment Antitoxin extremely

effective; antibiotic

(penicillin) shortens

the duration of

illness

Drug therapy

(streptomycin and

sulfadiazine) is

somewhat effective

Antibiotics

(doxycycline,

chlorothenicol,

tetracycline), and

sulfadiazine

Doxycycline (100 mg

2x/d for 7 d);

ciprofloxicin also

effective

Antibiotics

(amoxicillin or

cotrimoxazole)

shorten period of

communicability

and cure disease

rapidly

Potential as

Biological Agent

Very low––

symptoms not

severe enough to

incapacitate; rare

cases of severe

infection

Unknown Moderate––rare

disease, no vaccine

available

High––highly

infectious, particularly

in pneumonic (aerosol)

form; lack of stability

and loss of virulence

complicate its use

Not likely to be

deployed via

aerosol; more

likely for covert

contamination of

water or food.
15

Table 2-6. Viral agents

Biological

Agent/Disease Marburg Virus Junin Virus

Rift Valley

Fever Virus Smallpox

Venezuelan Equine

Encephalitis

Likely Method of

Dissemination

Aerosol Epidemiology not

known

Mosquito-borne; in

biological scenario,

aerosols or droplets

Aerosol 1. Aerosol

2. Infected vectors

Transmissible

Person to Person

Unknown Unknown Unknown High No

Incubation

Period

5 d to 7 d 7 d to 16 d 2 d to 5 d 10 d to 12 d 1 d to 6 d

Duration of

Illness

Unknown 16 d 2 d to 5 d 4 wk Days to weeks

Lethality 25 % 18 % <1 % 20 % to 40 %

(Viriole major)

<1 % (Viriole

minor)

1 % to 60 %

Vaccine Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)/

Antitoxin

No vaccine No vaccine Inactivated vaccine

available in limited

quantities

Vaccine protects

against infection

within 3 d to 5 d of

exposure

Experimental only:

TC-83 protects

against 30 LD50s to

500 LD50s in

hamsters

Symptoms and

Effects

Sudden onset of

fever, malaise,

muscle pain,

headache and

conjunctivitis,

followed by sore

throat, vomiting,

diarrhea, rash, and

both internal and

external bleeding.

(begins 5th day)

Liver function may

be abnormal and

platelet function may

be impaired.

Hemorrhagic

syndrome, chills,

sweating,

exhaustion and

stupor

Febrile illness,

sometimes

abdominal

tenderness; rarely

shock, ocular

problems

Sudden onset of

fever, headache,

backache, vomiting,

marked prostration,

and delirium; small

blisters form crusts

which fall off 10 d

to 40 d after first

lesions appear;

opportunistic

infection

Sudden illness with

malaise, spiking

fevers, rigors, severe

headache,

photophobia and

myalgias

Treatment No specific treatment

exists. Severe cases

require intensive

supportive care, as

patients are

frequently dehydrated

and in need of

intravenous fluids.

No specific

therapy; supportive

therapy essential

No studies, but IV

ribavirin (30 mg/kg/

6 h for 4 d, then

7.5 mg/kg/8 h for

6 d) should be

effective

Vaccinia immune

globulin (VIG), and

supportive therapy

Supportive

treatments only

Potential as

Biological Agent

High––actually

weaponized by

former Soviet Union

biological program

Unknown Difficulties with

mosquitos as vectors

Possible, especially

since routine

smallpox

vaccination

programs have been

eliminated worldwide (part of USSR

offense bioprogram)

High––former US

and USSR offensive

biological programs

weaponized both

liquid and dry forms

for aerosol

distribution.
16

Table 2-6. Viral agents-Continued

Biological

Agent/Disease Yellow Fever Virus

Dengue Fever

Virus Ebola Virus

Congo-Crimean

Hemorrhagic

 Fever Virus

Likely Method of

Dissemination

Mosquito-borne Mosquito-borne 1. Direct contact

2. Aerosol (BA)

Unknown

Transmissible

Person to Person

No No Moderate Yes

Incubation Period 3 d to 6 d 3 d to 15 d 4 d to 16 d 7 d to 12 d

Duration of Illness 2 weeks 1 week Death between 7 d

to 16 d

9 d to 12 d

Lethality 10 % to 20 % death

in severe cases or

full recovery after

2 d to 3 d

5 % average case

fatality by

producing shock and

hemorrhage, leading

to death

High for Zaire

strain; moderate

with Sudan

15 % to 20 %

Vaccine Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)

/Antitoxin

Vaccine available;

confers immunity

for 10 yr +

Vaccine available No vaccine No vaccine

available;

prophylactic

ribavirin may be

effective

Symptoms and

Effects

Sudden onset of

chills, fever,

prostration, aches,

muscular pain,

congestion, severe

gastrointestinal

disturbances, liver

damage and

jaundice;

hemorrhage from

skin and gums

Sudden onset of

fever, chills, intense

headache, pain

behind eyes, joint

and muscle pain,

exhaustion and

prostration

Mild febrile illness,

then vomiting,

diarrhea, rash,

kidney and liver

failure, internal and

external hemorrhage

(begins 5th day),

and petechiae

Fever, easy

bleeding, petechiae,

hypotension and

shock; flushing of

face and chest,

edema, vomiting,

diarrhea

Treatment No specific

treatment;

supportive treatment

(bed rest and fluids)

for even the mildest

cases

No specific therapy;

supportive therapy

essential

No specific therapy;

supportive therapy

essential

No specific

treatment

Potential as

Biological Agent

High, if efficient

dissemination

device is employed

Unknown Former Soviet

Union

Unknown
17

Table 2-7. Rickettsiae

Biological

Agent/Disease Endemic Typhus Epidemic Typhus Q Fever

Rocky Mountain

Spotted Fever

Likely

Method of

Dissemination

1. Contaminated

feces

2. Infected insect

Larvae

3. Rat or flea bites

1. Contaminated

feces

2. Infected insect

 larvae

1. Sabotage (food

 supply)

2. Aerosol

Infected wood ticks

Transmissible

Person to Person

No No Rare No

Incubation

 Period

6 d to 14 d 6 d to 15 d 14 d to 26 d 3 d to 14 d

Duration

of Illness

Unknown Unknown Weeks Unknown

Lethality 1 %, increasing in

people >50 yr old

10 % to 40 % untreated;

increases with age

Very low 15 % to 20 % untreated,

(higher in adults);

treated—death rare with

specific therapy

(tetracycline or

chloramphenicol)

Vaccine Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)

/Antitoxin

Unknown Vaccine confers

protection of uncertain

duration

94 % protection against

3500 LD50s in guinea

pigs

No vaccine

Symptoms

and Effects

Sudden onset of

headache, chills,

prostration, fever, pain;

maculae eruption on 5th

day to 6th day on upper

body, spreading to all

but palms, soles, or face,

but milder than epidemic

form

Sudden onset of

headache, chills,

prostration, fever, pain;

maculae eruption on 5th

day to 6th day on upper

body, spreading to all

but palms, soles, or face

Mild symptoms (chills,

headaches, fever, chest

pains, perspiration, loss

of appetite)

Fever and joint pain,

muscular pain; skin rash

that spreads rapidly from

ankles and wrists to legs,

arms, and chest;

aversion to light

Treatment Antibiotics (tetracycline

and chloramphenicol);

supportive treatment and

prevention of secondary

infections

Antibiotics (tetracycline

and chloramphenicol);

supportive treatment and

prevention of secondary

infections

Tetracycline (500 mg/

6 h, 5 d to 7 d) or

doxycycline (100 mg/

12 h, 5 d to 7 d) also,

comb. Erthyromycin

(500 mg/6 h) and

rifampin (600 mg/d).

Antibiotics—

tetracycline or

chloramphenicol

Potential as

Biological Agent

Uncertain—broad range

of incubation (6 d to

14 d) period could cause

infection of force

deploying biological

agent

Uncertain—broad range

of incubation (6 d to

14 d) period could cause

infection of force

deploying biological

agent

Highly infectious, is

delivered in aerosol

form. Dried agent is

very stable; stable in

aerosol form.

Unknown
18

Table 2-8. Biological toxins

Biological

Agent/Disease Botulinum Toxin

Staphylococcal

enterotoxin B

Tricothecene

mycotoxins

Ricin (Isolated from

Castor Beans) Saxitoxin

Likely

Method of

Dissemination

1. Aerosol

2. Sabotage (food &

 water)

1. Sabotage (food

 supply)

2. Aerosol

1. Aerosol

2. Sabotage

1. Aerosol

2. Sabotage (food &

 water)

Contaminated

shellfish; in

biological

scenario,

inhalation or toxic

projectile

Transmissible

Person to

Person

No No No No No

Incubation

 Period

Variable (hours to

days)

3 h to 12 h 2 h to 4 h Hours to days 5 min to 1 h

Duration

of Illness

Death in 24 h to 72 h;

lasts months if not

lethal

Hours Days to months Days—death within

10 d to 12 d for

ingestion

Death in 2h to

12 h

Lethality 5 % to 60 %, untreated

<5 % treated

<1 % Moderate 100 %, without

treatment

High without

respiratory

support

Vaccine

Efficacy

(for aerosol

exposure)

/Antitoxin

Botulism antitoxin

(IND)

Prophylaxis toxoid

(IND)

Toxolide

No vaccine No vaccine No vaccine No vaccine

Symptoms

and Effects

Ptosis; weakness,

dizziness, dry mouth

and throat, blurred

vision and diplopia,

flaccid paralysis

Sudden chills, fever,

headache, myalgia,

nonproductive

cough, nausea,

vomiting and

diarrhea

Skin—pain, pruritis,

redness and vesicles,

sloughing of epidermis;

respiratory—nose and

throat pain, discharge,

sneezing, coughing,

chest pain, hemoptysis

Weakness, fever,

cough, pulmonary

edema, severe

respiratory distress

Light headedness,

tingling of

extremities, visual

disturbances,

memory loss,

respiratory

distress, death

Treatment Antitoxin with

respiratory support

(ventilation)

Pain relievers and

cough suppressants

for mild cases; for

severe cases, may

need mechanical

breathing and fluid

replenishment

No specific antidote or

therapeutic regimen is

available; supportive

and symptomatic care

Oxygen, plus drugs

to reduce

inflammation and

support cardiac and

circulatory functions;

if ingested, empty the

stomach and

intestines; replace

lost fluids

Induce vomiting,

provide

respiratory care,

including

artificial

respiration

Potential as

Biological

Agent

Not very toxic via

aerosol route;

extremely lethal if

delivered orally. Since

covert poisoning is

indistinguishable from

natural botulism,

poisoning could have

limited use.

Moderate—could be

used in food and

limited amounts of

water (for example,

at salad bars); LD50

is sufficiently small

to prevent detection

High—used in aerosol

form (“yellow rain”) in

Laos, Kampuchea and

Afghanistan (through

1981)

Has been used

(1978—Markov

murder); included on

prohibited Schedule I

chemicals list for

Chemical Weapons

Convention; high

potential for use in

aerosol form

Moderate, aerosol

form is highly

toxic
19

3. OVERVIEW OF CB DECONTAMINATION

Decontamination is defined as the process of removing or neutralizing a surface hazard resulting

from a chemical and/or biological (CB) attack. This section provides an overview of CB

decontamination. Section 3.1 discusses the decontamination processes that are used for CB

decontamination. Section 3.2 provides an overview of CB decontamination applications

(personnel, equipment, and infrastructure). Section 3.3 discusses equipment that is used to

support CB decontamination operations.

3.1 Decontamination Process

A decontamination process refers to a method employed to destroy, reduce, or remove a

contaminant to an acceptable level. There are several methods used to decontaminate CB agents

and TIMs. These methods consist of physical, chemical, and thermal processes.

3.1.1 Physical Processes

Physical processes are used to remove CB agents and TIMs from surfaces. It should be noted

that another means of decontamination would be necessary for CB detoxification. High-pressure

systems, sorbents (simple inert), and solvent washes are examples of physical processes and are

explained in the remainder of this section.

3.1.1.1 Sorbents (Simple Inert)

Sorbent technology uses materials that physically remove liquid chemicals from surfaces (e.g.,

skin). Generally, synthetic sorbents adsorb liquids, and natural sorbents absorb them. The state

of the liquid after sorption depends on the type of sorbent material used.

For simple inert sorbent materials such as soil, diatomaceous earth, activated charcoal, or some

commercially available sorbents (XAD–7, XAD–2), the liquid remains active in the sorbent

material, making the sorbent material toxic. A commonly fielded sorbent-based system uses

Fuller’s Earth (sec. 4.1.3), a type of natural clay, in a mitt or package to sorb the agent. The

liquid is absorbed by the Fuller’s Earth, then wiped or blown off the surface removing the

contamination. Since the liquid is not detoxified, the contaminated Fuller’s Earth remains a toxic

substance. An example of a decontamination equipment utilizing simple inert sorbents is the

Decontamination Kit, Personal No. 2, Mark 1 (fig. 3–1), manufactured by Richmond Packaging

Limited.
20

 Figure 3–1. Decontamination Kit,

 Personal No. 2, Mark 1

3.1.1.2 Solvent Wash

The use of a solvent to remove a CB contaminant is a physical rather than a chemical process.

Chemical agents are removed from a surface by washing the molecules away using water,

alcohol, freon, diesel fuel, etc. In this process, the agent is diluted, but not detoxified, and there

may be residues left behind in cracks, pits, joints, etc. Solvents are often applied in an open

environment using pressurized sprayers such as a Hudson sprayer, a power washer, or an

aerosol sprayer. The runoff from a solvent decontamination must be collected in order to

minimize the areas contaminated. Solvent wash technology can also be used in an enclosed

environment to effectively decontaminate patrol car interiors, portable communications

equipment, or electronic devices. In a closed system, the solvents can be manipulated by heating

them or using them in conjunction with ultrasonic or supersonic sprays in order to increase their

decontamination effectiveness. After a decontamination cycle, the solvents can often be recycled

for further use in additional cycles before being discarded and detoxified.

3.1.1.3 High-Pressure Systems

Decontaminants, such as water and carbon dioxide, sprayed at high pressures are effectively used

to physically remove chemical and biological agents from surfaces. Studies have demonstrated

that chemical agents can be removed from surfaces with water pressures < 3000 lb per square inch

(psi). Removal of agents from surfaces is highly dependent upon the nature of the surfaces (i.e.,

surfaces which are flat and smooth can be more readily decontaminated than curved porous

surfaces using water sprays). Other parameters that affect the effectiveness of water streams for

decontamination are pressure, temperature, angle of attack, traverse velocity, space between

traverses, standoff distance, flow volume, and jet characteristics. Additives can be added to the

water to improve the water jet characteristics. Likewise, water sprayed onto personnel using

showers or other low-pressure delivery systems can be used to decontaminate skin.

One example of decontamination equipment utilizing a high-pressure system is the K1-05 standard

unit (fig. 3–2) manufactured by Applied Surface Technology. The K1-05 system employs highpressure carbon dioxide to physically remove contaminates. Another example is the Karcher HDS

1200 EK high-pressure steam jet cleaner unit (fig. 3–3), manufactured by Karcher, that employs

mechanical technology by disseminating high-pressure cold or hot water, steam, or dry steam to

decontaminate materials.
21

 Figure 3–2. K1-05 standard unit Figure 3–3. Karcher HDS 1200 EK

 high-pressure steam jet cleaner unit

3.1.2 Chemical Processes

Chemical processes involve the use of reactive or catalytic chemicals (sorbents) to neutralize CB

contaminants. Another means of decontamination would be necessary for chemical agent, TIM,

or biological agent removal.

A reactive sorbent first adsorbs the CB contaminate and then chemically detoxifies it. Reactive

sorbents have been prepared by soaking simple sorbents in alkaline solutions, effectively

“loading” the matrix with caustic material. Once sorbed into the sorbent matrix, the agent

encounters the alkaline medium, reacts with it, and is destroyed. A second approach for reactive

sorbents is to prepare a polymeric material with reactive groups attached to the polymeric

backbone. In this case, the agent is sorbed by the polymeric matrix, encounters the reactive

group, and is neutralized by it. A third approach is to use microcrystalline metal oxides such as

aluminum oxide or magnesium oxide. An example of decontamination equipment utilizing

reactive sorbents is the Decontamination Kit, Individual Equipment: M295, manufactured by

Truetech (fig. 3–4).

Figure 3–4. Decontamination

Kit, Individual Equipment: M295

Catalytic sorbents are similar to reactive sorbents in that both contain reactive sites that react

with and detoxify the CB contaminants. In the case of catalytic sorbents, the reactive site is
22

regenerated during detoxification of the agent while, in the case of reactant sorbents, the reactive

group is rendered inert after reacting with the agent. Examples of catalytic sorbents are

polyoxometalates sorbed into a sorbent polymeric matrix and polymeric materials containing

reactive sites that are covalently bound to the polymer chain.

3.1.3 Thermal Processes

Thermal processes remove CB contaminants through vaporization. It should be noted that

another means of decontamination is necessary for agent detoxification. Examples of

decontamination equipment utilizing a thermal process are the Karcher mobile field laundry CFL

60 (fig. 3–5) that both physically and thermally removes decontaminates, and the Karcher

AEDA1 decontamination equipment (fig. 3–6) that employs a combination of low-temperature

thermal technology and mechanical technology.

Figure 3–5. Karcher mobile

 field laundry CFL 60

Figure 3–6. Karcher AEDA1

decontamination equipment

3.2 Decontamination Applications

The three application areas involved with CB decontamination are personnel, equipment, and

infrastructure. The remainder of this section presents each application in more detail.

3.2.1 Personnel Decontamination

Personnel decontamination refers to the ability to decontaminate CB agent or TIMs from human

skin and personal equipment (e.g., clothing, personal protective equipment) that may pose a

direct threat to human health through direct contact. Decontamination of the skin must quickly

and efficiently remove the contaminant without causing damage to the skin. Skin

decontaminants can either destroy the contaminant on the skin through chemical or biological

reactions or physically remove it from the skin. An example of personnel decontamination

equipment is the NBC-DEWDECON-PERS Emergency Response Personnel Decontamination

Kit (shown in fig. 3–7). Depending on the decontaminants used in the kit, either chemical or

mechanical technologies may be employed.
23

 Figure 3–7. NBC-DEWDECON-PERS

 Emergency Response Personnel

 Decontamination Kit

For general decontamination information the reader can refer to Responding to A Biological or

Chemical Threat: A Practical Guide (see app. B). For information on methods and techniques

utilized during mass casualty decontamination, the reader should refer to Guidelines for Mass

Casualty Decontamination During a Terrorist Chemical Agent Incident (see app. B).

3.2.2 Equipment Decontamination

Equipment decontamination refers to the ability to decontaminate CB agent or TIMs from the

exterior surfaces of equipment. This includes the decontamination of both large (e.g., vehicles)

and small items (e.g., computers, communications equipment). An example of this type of

equipment is the Karcher MPDS multipurpose decontamination system (shown in fig. 3–8). The

MPDS is equipped with a high-pressure spray system and depending on the decontaminant that

was used, either chemical or mechanical technologies are employed.

Figure 3–8. Karcher MPDS multipurpose

 decontamination system

3.2.3 Infrastruture Decontamination

Infrastructure decontamination involves the removal of CB agents or TIMs from large-scale

items (e.g., buildings, roadways). Due to their extensive surface area, these items require special

consideration during the performance of decontamination operations. An example of

infrastructure decontamination equipment is the Karcher C8–DADS direct application
24

decontamination system (shown in fig. 3–9). This system uses both physical (removes

contaminate) and chemical (neutralizes contaminant) decontamination processes.

 Figure 3–9. Karcher C8–DADS

 direct application

 decontamination system

3.3 Support Equipment

This guide primarily focuses on decontamination equipment used for removing and/or

neutralizing CB contamination from personnel (to include clothing), equipment, and

infrastructure. However, emergency first responders should be aware that there is equipment

used to support CB decontamination operations. Decontamination shelters and decontamination

units (shower/dressing rooms with basins and bladders) are examples of equipment used to

support decontamination operations. Decontamination shelters are used to provide protection to

personnel (victims, technicians, etc.), subsequent to decontamination operations, from any

remaining CB contamination. Examples of decontamination shelters are the TVI first response

shelter (fig. 3–10) and the TVI Quick-E WMD command post (fig. 3–11).

Figure 3–10. TVI first response shelter Figure 3–11. TVI Quick-E WMD

 command post

Portable decontamination shower units keep water contained by patented recovery bladders

connected to a catch basin while the victims stand on a stool above the contaminated water. The

units are available as single, double, or quad units. Examples of decontamination units are the
25

SC spill containment single shower stall with dressing room (fig. 3–12) and the SC spill

containment single decon unit with bladder (fig. 3–13). Appendix C contains a listing of

commercially available decontamination shelters.

 Figure 3–12. SC spill

 containment single shower

stall with dressing room

 Figure 3–13. SC spill

 containment single decon

 unit with bladder
27

4. INTRODUCTION TO CB DECONTAMINANTS

This section provides an overview of the substances used for decontamination, that is, substances

used to destroy, physically remove, or reduce CB agent or TIMs to an acceptable level. The two

types of decontaminants are physical and chemical. Physical decontaminants include water, hot

air, weathering, Fuller’s Earth, and surfactants and are discussed in section 4.1. Chemical

decontaminants include oxidizing agents, strong bases, and microemulsions and are discussed in

section 4.2. Appendix F provides chemical decontaminant data sheets.

Additional information about planning and setting up decontamination operations is available in

the Terrorism Handbook for Operational Responders (see app. B). The Decontamination

chapter in the aforementioned handbook includes several appendices, one entitled

Decontamination Solutions: Use and Preparation, and another that contains a flow/chart diagram

of a complete decontamination corridor. It is important to note that the EPA has developed

guidelines for how to handle contaminated runoff resulting from decontamination operations.

This guidance letter is provided as appendix G. In addition to the EPA guidance letter, an EPA

awareness document alerting first responders about the environmental liability due to mass

decontamination runoff has been included in appendix H.

4.1 Physical Decontaminants

Physical decontaminants are substances used to remove CB contaminants from surfaces. Water,

hot air, Fuller’s Earth, weathering, and surfactants are examples of physical decontaminants and

are explained in the remainder of this section. It should be noted that other decontaminants are

necessary for neutralization of CB contaminants.

4.1.1 Water

Water is used to physically remove CB contaminants from surfaces. Water with the addition of

detergents is effective for the decontamination of surfaces and materials contaminated with CB

agent or TIMs. Decontamination by detergents and soaps in water occurs predominantly by the

physical removal or dilution of agent. The use of soap and water for the physical removal of

contaminants from skin and equipment will limit the spread of contamination.

Soap and water (especially soap and hot water) also has the capability to neutralize agents to

some extent by the chemical method of slow hydrolysis. However, hydrolysis is limited due to

the typically low solubility and slow rate of diffusion of agents in water. Contaminated surfaces

may be wiped or scrubbed with hot, soapy water. If possible, the item may be immersed in

soapy water; however, since soapy water does not detoxify CB contaminants, the runoff water

must be considered contaminated and precautions must be undertaken to prevent additional CB

contamination. The waste-water (from the water runoff) must be collected and treated to

detoxify the agents.

High temperature saturated steam can also be employed to remove CB contaminants. Saturated

steam is also used to remove grease and oil, as well as for sterilizing, disinfecting, degreasing,

and degassing. Steam is efficient for cleaning surfaces before painting or other surface
28

treatments and will flush away poisons and chemicals, as well as dissolve resins and tars. It is

ideal for de-icing applications, as well as for killing algae or mildew.

4.1.2 Hot Air

Hot air is used to physically remove CB contaminants from surfaces. The effectiveness of hot

air decontamination varies with respect to the physical properties of the CB agent or TIM being

decontaminated. For example, CB contaminants distributed over a nonporous or nonabsorbent

surface are readily removed using heat. However, if the CB contaminants are distributed over a

porous or absorbent surface, additional heat and time are required to fully remove it.

4.1.3 Fuller’s Earth

Fuller’s Earth is a nonplastic form of kaolin that contains an aluminum-magnesium silicate. The

decontamination process involved with Fuller’s Earth is the physical removal of the agent from

surfaces. The term Fuller’s Earth is typically applied to any clay that has an adequate purifying

and/or decolorizing capacity. The most recognizable use for Fuller’s Earth is kitty litter, a

general purpose absorbent used for spill cleanups as well as for feline hygiene. Fuller’s Earth is

typically used in industry for decolorizing petroleum based oils, as a filler for rubber, as a

substitute for activated charcoal, and as a filtering medium. Fuller’s Earth may be used as a CB

decontaminant if a better method for the decontamination/detoxification of chemical agents is

unavailable. Crushed Fuller’s Earth is best suited for personal decontamination, such as

removing CB agent or TIMs from the skin of an exposed individual.

At some point, the contaminated Fuller’s Earth will need to be subjected to a detoxification

procedure. Caution must be exercised when using Fuller’s Earth so as not to inhale the dust or

fine particles associated with it, especially if it is contaminated with a CB agent or TIMs.

Prolonged skin contact with Fuller’s Earth may cause skin irritation. Inhalation of dust or fine

particles may lead to an irritation/inflammation of the respiratory tract.

4.1.4 Weathering

Weathering describes a passive form of decontamination whereby natural sources of heat and

UV radiation (sunlight), water (precipitation), and wind combine to decontaminate a vehicle, a

piece of equipment, large structures, and large areas of terrain. During the weathering process,

decontamination occurs by evaporation of the contaminant (physical removal) or destruction of

contaminants by hydrolysis or, less likely, by photolysis (chemical reaction). The effectiveness

of using weathering as a decontamination technology is very dependent on the persistency of the

agent. The persistency of agent is dependent upon the wind speed, atmospheric stability,

precipitation, terrain, vegetation, soil, method of dissemination, ambient temperature, and the

material and surface on which the agent is deposited. Of these factors, wind, ambient

temperature, humidity, precipitation, and atmospheric stability are the most important factors

affecting agent persistency. High winds rapidly disperse chemical agent aerosols and vapors,

thereby decreasing their effective coverage over the target. The higher the temperatures, the

faster the agent will evaporate. In hot conditions without any wind, a significant vapor hazard

can occur and decontamination by weathering will be much less effective. However, the
29

combination of high temperatures and moderate to high winds can be very effective in

decontamination operations.

4.1.5 Surfactants

There are three categories of surfactants currently in use: anionic surfactants, cationic surfactants,

and nonionic surfactants. The intent of a surfactant is not to detoxify the CB agent or TIMs but to

solubilize it into a solution that can detoxify it. Anionic surfactants are generally more powerful in

terms of solubilizing CB contaminants into an aqueous solution than cationic or nonionic surfactants.

4.2 Chemical Decontaminants

Chemical decontaminants are substances used to neutralize CB contaminants. Most of the current

decontaminants used in the detoxification of CB contaminants can be considered reactive

chemicals. Reactive chemicals are ones that readily react with another chemical without the need

for stirring, heating, or shaking. Often, as in the case of hydrolysis or oxidation of chemical

agents, the reactions occur immediately with the evolution of heat and gases (chlorine, water

vapor, and hydrogen chloride (HCl)). Reactive compounds will interact with metallic containers

and coated surfaces to corrode the surfaces, and with animal and vegetative tissues to damage the

tissues. Three types of chemical decontaminants are oxidizing agents, strong bases, and

microemulsions.

It should be noted that chemicals such as sodium hypochlorite (common bleach) and sodium

hydroxide are effective decontaminants for both the removal and neutralization of CB

contaminants.

4.2.1 Oxidizing Agents

Powerful oxidizing agents, such as calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) and sodium hypochlorite

(NaOCl), are used effectively for the detoxification of CB contaminants. When Ca(OCl)2 and

NaOCl dissolve in water, the result is a solution that contains hypochlorite ions. The hypochlorite

ions generated by an alkaline aqueous solution of Ca(OCl)2 or NaOCl are effective in the

decontamination of most CB contaminants.

Supertropical Bleach (STB) is a combination of powerful oxidizers (Ca(OCl)2) and a strong base,

calcium oxide (CaO). STB is effective in the decontamination/detoxification of HD, G agents, and

VX. OCl- generated by an aqueous solution of Ca(OCl)2 and the hydroxide ion formed by the

dissolution of CaO (which produces the OH-) is effective in the decontamination/detoxification of

G agents, VX, and HD. Hypochlorite ions in high pH solutions (alkaline) are less effective in the

decontamination of VX due to reduced solubility of VX. When dissolved in water, calcium oxide

forms calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).

Chloramine-B (C6H5ClNNaO2S), also known commercially as Neomagnol, is an oxidant that is

commonly used as an antibacterial agent. For use in decontaminating/detoxifying chemical agents,

Chloramine-B is impregnated into a towelette and wetted with an aqueous solution of 5 % zinc

chloride (ZnCl2), 45 % ethanol, and 50 % water prior to use. Chloramine-B can be used as an
30

antibacterial agent (i.e., like Neomycin Ointment) and as a topical antiseptic. Chloramine-B is

effective in the decontamination/detoxification of HD and VX. However, Chloramine-B is

apparently not effective against the G agents, nor against some biological agents. The detoxification

of HD is a multi-step chemical process. Chloramine-B dissolves in water to form protonated

Chloramine-B and free hydroxide ions. The zinc chloride maintains the pH of the environment

between 5 and 6. At this point, the sulfur in the HD attacks the chlorine in the protonated

Chloramine-B forming a transient chlorosulfonium ion species that reacts rapidly with the

C6H5SO2N

-H anion to form a sulfimide species and with water to form sulfur mustard. For VX, it

was found that VX does not react with the Chloramine-B in the towelette because the pH of the

decontamination solution increases in the presence of the VX. It is believed that in actual use, the

VX is physically removed from the surface by the action of wiping down the surface and by

concurrent solubilization of the VX.

4.2.2 Strong Bases

Strong bases, such as CaO, Ca(OH)2, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and potassium hydroxide

(KOH), produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions upon mixing with water. These

compounds, when in solution, are effective hydrolyzing agents in reacting with chemical agents.

Sodium hydroxide is the most widely used base in a solution since it has the highest solubility of

these compounds; calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are the least soluble.

NaOH is applicable for the detoxification of persistent agents and G agents where the main reaction

is alkaline hydrolysis. In the reaction with GB, the hydroxide bond disrupts and breaks the

phosphorus-fluorine bond and forms a phosphorus-oxygen bond. The hydroxide ion is not as

effective for VX as it is for GB. In VX, the critical bond is the phosphorus-sulfur bond. While the

hydroxide ion will break the P - S bond, there is a competing reaction that replaces the ethoxy group

with a hydroxyl group, forming a compound called EA2192. This compound is comparable to VX

in its toxicity. Depending on the conditions, up to 14 % of EA2192 will be produced. In addition,

the solubility of VX in a basic solution such as hydroxide is low, which will affect the reaction rate

at low (room) temperature. The hydroxide ion can also be used to detoxify mustard, HD. In the

reaction with HD, the hydroxide ion replaces the chlorine atom producing hydrochloric acid. The

solubility of HD in an aqueous system, such as hydroxide, is low and much of the reaction occurs at

the interface between the HD and water. Normally, the reaction rate is much too slow to be a viable

detoxification method. Techniques often used to increase the reaction rate include stirring the

reaction mixture and increasing the temperature to around 100 °C.

Strong bases such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can also dissolve into an organic solvent forming a

very strong basic solution. The most well known member of this technology is Decontaminating

Solution Number 2 or DS2. This solution is made up of 70 % diethylenetriamine (DETA), 28 %

2-methoxyethanol (also known as ethylene glycol monomethylether, EGME), and 2 % NaOH. In

this solution, NaOH reacts with EGME forming the ethoxide; when DETA is added to this solution,

any free sodium ions are rapidly bound up by the DETA. This causes the hydroxide ions to be

highly reactive, effectively increasing the strength of the basic solution.

DS2 was formulated to be a general purpose reactive decontaminant that would be ready to use over

a large temperature range, and have long-term storage stability. DS2 reacts instantly with the G
31

agents, VX, and HD at ambient temperatures. DS2 is noncorrosive to most metals, but it can

damage paints, plastics, rubbers, and leather materials. DS2 is flammable and cannot be used in

conjunction with strong oxidizing agents such as bleach, which cause it to spontaneously combust.

DS2 comes ready to use in containers ranging from 1–1/3 quart cans to 5–gallon pails. Application

of DS2 can be by the ABC-M11 portable decontamination apparatus or the M13 DAP. DS2 is

allowed to remain in contact with the contaminated surface for up to 30 min, and then rinsed off with

water. DS2 is most effective when application is followed by a scrubbing action. It should be noted

that DS2 is being replaced because of its damaging effects to the environment. It should also be

noted that BX24 is a decontaminant that is currently undergoing testing as an interim replacement

for DS2. BX24 is a powder that easily mixes with water and is commercially available from

Cristanini SpA.

4.2.3 Microemulsions

Chemical agents are organic compounds that exhibit a limited solubility in water. Many

decontaminants, such as calcium hypochlorite and sodium hydroxide, are highly soluble in water.

Because of the limited solubility of chemical agents in water, the time needed to decontaminate the

agent is determined primarily by the solubility of the agent in the mixture of water and

decontaminant. Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable mixtures of water, oil, surfactants, and

co-surfactants that appear macroscopically as a homogeneous phase. Different water-soluble

decontaminants can be dissolved into a microemulsion leading to a chemical system containing very

small organic droplets dispersed into water (for an oil in water microemulsion) containing the

decontaminant. When a chemical agent encounters a microemulsion system, it is partially dissolved

(partitioned) into the organic phase of the microemulsion. Once dissolved, the agent can react with

the water-soluble decontaminant at the surface of the organic portion of the microemulsion. The rate

of agent decontamination is related to the size of the microemulsion particles. The smaller the

particles in a microemulsion, the faster the decontamination process. This is due to the high surface

area of the reaction surface with respect to the amount of chemical agent dissolved, and the short

diffusion paths from the center of the microemulsion particle to its surface.

C8 is a microemulsion formulated by the Alfred Karcher Gmbh & Company in Germany as a

multipurpose decontaminant reagent. The C8 emulsion consists, by weight, of 15 %

tetrachloroethylene (C2Cl2) which serves as the continuous phase, 76 % water, 1 % anionic

surfactant, and 8 % Ca(OCl)2. C8 is effective in the decontamination of VX, G agents, and HD. C8

can penetrate into paint (without damaging the paint) in order to dissolve and react with chemical

agents that may be imbedded inside the paint. When sprayed, C8 forms a thin, continuous film over

the surface to allow for sufficient contact time in decontaminating/detoxifying the chemical agents.

After decontamination, the C8 can be rinsed off with water.
33

5. OVERVIEW OF EMERGENCY FIRST RESPONDER

INITIATIVES FOR CB DECONTAMINATION

To prepare for a CB attack, several municipalities have instituted new methods and policies

concerning mass decontamination. Past decontamination procedures were effective in treating

small numbers but the threat of the use of CB weapons of mass destruction has forced the

development of mass decontamination capabilities that address the needs of the civilian

population. Moreover, private contractors are playing a key role in developing new technologies

to make mass decontamination a more expedient, safe, and private chore. Unfortunately, many

of these technologies are expensive, and many first responder jurisdictions do not have sufficient

funds to employ the implementation of mass decontamination trailers. Only a limited number of

first responder organizations have purchased decontamination trailers for mass decontamination

purposes due to their high costs.

As an alternative to purchasing a trailer, several first responder communities have taken the

initiative to invent, design, contract, and implement their own mass decontamination apparatus

and procedures. By taking this “in house” approach, the jurisdiction can implement ideas and

procedures they know work and then build units to accommodate their own needs at lower cost.

One such jurisdiction that has taken the initiative to fabricate its own trailer is the Boston Fire

Department (app. D).
35

6. SELECTION FACTORS

This section discusses 13 factors emergency first responders should consider when selecting and

purchasing CB decontami-nation equipment. These factors were compiled by a panel of

experienced scientists and engineers with multiple years of experience in decontamination,

domestic preparedness, and identification of emergency first responder needs. The factors have

also been shared with the emergency first responder community in order to obtain their thoughts

and comments. It is anticipated that as additional input is received from the emergency first

responder community, additional factors may be added or existing factors may be modified.

These factors were developed so that CB decontamination equipment could be compared and

contrasted in order to assist with the selection and purchase of the most appropriate equipment.

It is important to note that the evaluation conducted using the 13 selection factors was based

upon vendor-supplied data and no independent evaluation of equipment was conducted in the

development of this guide. The vendor-supplied data can be found in its entirety in Volume II of

this guide.

The results of the evaluation of the decontamination equipment against the 13 selection factors

are provided in section 7. The remainder of this section defines each of the selection factors.

Details on the manner in which the selection factor was used to assess the equipment are

presented in table 6–1.

6.1 Chemical Agents Decontaminated

This factor describes the ability of the equipment to decontaminate chemical agents. Chemical

agents, when referred to in this guide, refer to nerve and blister agents only. Blood agents and

choking agents are included within the list of TIMs. Nerve agents primarily consist of GB and

VX. Other nerve agents include GA, GD, and GF. Blister agents are primarily limited to

mustard (H). Other blister agents considered in this guide include HD, HN, and L.

6.2 Biological Agents Decontaminated

This factor describes the ability of the equipment to decontaminate biological agents. Biological

agent types considered for this guide include bacteria (i.e. Anthrax), rickettsia (i.e., Typhus),

toxins (i.e., Botulinum Toxin), and viruses (i.e., Q Fever).

6.3 TIMs Decontaminated

This factor describes the ability of the equipment to decontaminate TIMs. TIMs considered, in

the development of this guide, are discussed in section 2.

6.4 Functional Application

Functional application describes the areas where a piece of equipment would best be employed

in the event of a chemical agent, biological agent, or a TIM attack. The three application areas

are personnel, equipment, and infrastructure.
36

6.5 Capacity/Throughput

Capacity/throughput will be determined by the functional application of the decontamination

equipment. This describes how many people (e.g., skin and protective equipment), large

equipment (e.g., vehicles), small equipment (e.g., computers and communication equipment),

and the areas within an infrastructure that a piece of decontamination equipment can clean in a

specific time (e.g., per hour). It should be noted that the relevancy of this factor depends on the

initial and operating cost of the decontamination equipment.

6.6 Effectiveness of Decontamination

Effectiveness of decontamination describes the ability of the equipment to decontaminate

chemical agents and biological agents. Decontamination is defined as the process of removing

or neutralizing a surface hazard resulting from a chemical agent, biological agent, or a TIM

attack. For example, some decontamination equipment is only capable of physically removing a

surface hazard while other items are capable of removing and neutralizing the surface hazard.

6.7 Set-Up Time

This factor describes the amount of time required to ready the equipment for decontamination

operations. The time includes setting up, processing, and tearing down the equipment.

6.8 Power Capabilities

The power capabilities describes the type of power (AC, DC, etc.) required to operate a piece of

equipment.

6.9 Operational Environment

This factor describes the type of environment required for the decontamination system to be used

optimally. For example, some decontamination systems are capable of operating in a field under

common outdoor weather conditions and climates, e.g., rain, snow, extreme temperatures,

humidity, etc. However, other decontamination systems may require more controlled conditions.

6.10 Durability

Durability describes ruggedness of the equipment, i.e., how well a piece of equipment can take

rough handling in harsh environments.

6.11 Resources

Resources describe the amount of manpower required to use a decontamination system (i.e.,

mixing, applying, and rinsing).
37

6.12 Operator Skill Level

Operator skill level refers to the skill level and training required for the operation of an

instrument.

6.13 Training Requirements

This factor considers the amount of time required to instruct the operator to become proficient in

the operation of the equipment.
Power 

 Capabilities

38

Table 6-1. Selection factor key for decontamination equipment 

September 2000

More than 

8 h training 

required 

Chemical Agents 

 Decontaminated 

Biological Agents 

 Decontaminated 

TIMs 

 Decontaminated 

Functional 

 Applications 

Capacity/

 

Throughput 

Effectiveness of 

 Decontamination 

Set-Up Time 

Operational 

 Conditions 

Durability 

Resources 

Operator 

 Skill Level 

Training

 Requirements 

Decontaminates 

all nerve and 

blister agents 

Decontaminates 

all biological 

agents 

Decontaminates 

all of the TIMs 

listed 

Decontaminates 

all application 

areas 

More than 500 

personnel; 20 

large or 100 

small pieces of 

equipment;

or 10000 sq ft 

of area 

Capable of 

neutralization 

and physical 

removal of 

contaminants 

Less than 

30 min 

Operates in all 

expected 

environments 

No power 

required 

Capable of 

operating in 

harsh 

environments 

One individual 

is required to 

use the 

decontamination 

system 

No special 

skills or 

training 

required 

No special

training 

required 

From 100 to 

500 personnel;

10 to 20 large 

or 50 to100 

small pieces of 

equipment; or

5000 to 10000 

square feet 

of area 

Decontaminates 

multiple 

biological 

agents 

Decontaminates 

multiple 

application 

areas 

Capable of 

neutralization 

but not physical 

removal of 

contaminants 

From 30 min

to 60 min 

Vehicle or AC 

powered 

Operates 

in most 

environments

Decontaminates 

either the nerve 

or blister agent 

class 

Decontaminates 

only one 

biological agent 

Decontaminates 

multiple TIMs 

Decontaminates 

at least one of 

the application 

areas 

From 50 to 

100 personnel; 

5 to 10 large or 

25 to 50 small 

pieces of 

equipment; or

2500 to 5000 

sq ft of area

Capable of 

physical 

removal but not 

neutralization of 

contaminants 

Less than 

8 h training 

required 

From 60 min

to 120 min 

Operation is 

restricted to 

certain 

environments 

Operation is 

restricted to 

certain 

environments 

Two people are 

required to 

use the 

decontamination 

system 

No special 

skills but 

training 

required 

Decontaminates 

only one TIM 

Decontaminates 

none of the 

nerve or 

blister agents 

Decontaminates 

no biological 

agents 

Decontaminates 

none of the 

TIMs listed 

Decontaminates 

none of the 

application 

areas 

Less than 50 

personnel;

5 large or 

25 small pieces 

of equipment;

or 2500 sq ft 

of area

Not capable of

physical removal 

or neutralization 

of contaminants 

Greater than 

120 min

Other power 

sources such as 

diesel engines,

electrical 

generators, etc 

Operates only 

at room 

temperature 

Not capable 

of operating 

in harsh 

environments 

More than 

two people are 

required to 

use the 

decontamination 

system 

Technician 

required to 

operate 

equipment 

AC powered

The blank cells designate that the symbol is not applicable for the selection factor.

A duplicate of this table is provided for quick reference (as Table 7-6).
39

7. DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT EVALUATION

The market survey conducted for CB agent and TIM decontamination identified 72 different

pieces of equipment. The details of the market survey to include data on each piece of

equipment are provided in Volume II of this guide. This section documents the results of

evaluating each equipment item versus the 13 selection factors. Section 7.1 defines the

functional applications of the equipment and section 7.2 discusses the evaluation results.

7.1 Functional Application Categories

In order to display the evaluation results in a meaningful format, the decontamination equipment

was grouped into three categories based on the functional application of the equipment or areas

where a piece of equipment would best be employed by the emergency first responder

community. The three application areas are personnel, equipment, and infrastructure.

The definitions for the three usage categories were extracted from the Final Report: Wide Area

Decon: CB Decontamination Technologies, Equipment and Projects (see app. B). The

definitions for each of the usage categories are as follows:

ß Personnel. Equipment designed to decontaminate either individuals or large populations.

The means of decontamination is not harmful to the human body. It also refers to the ability

to decontaminate CB agents or TIMs on personal equipment that is carried by the emergency

first responder.

ß Equipment. Equipment designed to decontaminate large and small equipment items without

affecting the usefulness of the items. Equipment decontamination can include sensitive

equipment decontamination (e.g., computers, communications equipment), exterior

equipment decontamination (e.g., vehicles), and interior equipment decontamination.

ß Infrastructure. Equipment specifically designed to decontaminate large areas of land and

terrain as well as large-scale items such as roadbeds, airstrips, cargo loading docks, and

multiple buildings.

7.2 Evaluation Results

There were 72 separate decontamination equipment items identified. The evaluation results for

CB agent and TIM decontamination equipment are presented in tabular format for the 72 pieces

of equipment identified at the time of the writing of this guide. A table is presented for each of

the three usage categories. Each table includes the specific equipment and the symbol that

corresponds to how the equipment item was characterized based upon each of the selection factor

definitions. The acronym ‘TBD’ is displayed in the appropriate cell if data were not available to

characterize a specific selection factor. The acronym “NA” is displayed in the appropriate cell if

the data were not applicable for a piece of equipment. Table 7-1 provides the table number and

associated table pages for each of the usage categories.
40

Table 7–1. Evaluation results reference table

Table Name Table Number Page(s)

Personnel 7–3 41-45

Equipment 7–4 46–51

Infrastructure 7–5 52

Selection Factor Key 7–6 53

It should be noted that of the 72 decontamination items identified, 24 equipment items have

multiple decontamination applications. The total available applications, separate and combined,

is 100 applications.

There were 40 personnel decontamination equipment items identified. Of these 40 items, 20

were limited to one function application, 16 were capable of two function applications (personnel

and equipment), and 4 had three function applications.

There were 51 equipment decontamination items identified. Of the 51 items, 27 were limited to

one function application, 20 were capable of two function applications (16 were equipment and

personnel and 4 were equipment and infrastructure), and 4 had three function applications.

There were 9 infrastructure decontamination equipment items identified. Of the 9 items, 1 was

limited to one function application, 4 were capable of two function applications (infrastructure

and equipment), and 4 had three function applications.

Refer to table 7–2 for a summary of the decontamination applications of the identified

equipment.

Table 7–2. Decontamination applications

Decontamination Capability

Equipment Type One functional

application

Two functional

applications

Three functional

applications

Total

applications

Personnel 20 16 4 40

Equipment 27 20 4 51

Infrastructure 1 4 4 9

Total Capabilities 48 40 12 100
Biological Agents

 Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training

 Requirements

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Equipment Name

ID #

TBD	 TBD

TBD 

TBD	

TBD	 TBD	 TBD	

 1 Skin Decontaminant

Lotion

11

Personnel 

Decontamination Kit

NBC-DEWDECON-PERS

Emergency Response

TBD	 TBD

Table 7-3. Personnel decontamination equipment

September 2000
ID #

Equipment NameBiological Agents 

 Decontaminated

TIMs DecontaminatedCapacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of 

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

24 Portaflex 

Decontamination

Shower Series TBD TBD TBD

TBD

TBD TBD TBD

TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD

25

Decontamination Unit

TBD TBD TBD

30 COLPRO 

TBD TBD TBD

TBD

TBD

31 Decon System for

Sensitive Materials

(DSSM) TBD TBD

32 Field Shower System

TBD

TBD TBD TBD

33 Karcher Decojet-Trailer

Decontamination System

TBD

34 Mediclean

TBD TBD TBD

35 Mobile Environmental

Protection Container

TBD TBD

'NA' - the specific selection factor is not applicable for the piece of equipment.

'TBD' (to be determined) - there are no data currently available to support that selection factor.

See Table 7-6 for selection factor definitions.

42

Table 7-3. Personnel decontamination equipment

September 2000

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Response and

TBD
ID #

Equipment NameBiological Agents 

 Decontaminated

TIMs DecontaminatedCapacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of 

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

36 Karcher DT60 

Decontamination Tent

TBD

TBD

TBD

37

40 Karcher DECOCONTAIN

3000 Decontamination 

System 

TBD

TBD

41 Karcher 

Decontamination

Trailer TBD TBD TBD TBD

TBD

42 Karcher SCS 1800 DE

Decontamination System

TBD

TBD TBD TBD

43 Karcher Decojet

Decontamination System

TBD

44 Karcher DECOCONTAIN

1500 Decontamination 

System TBD TBD

47 Karcher Decont Tent

TBD TBD

'NA' - the specific selection factor is not applicable for the piece of equipment.

'TBD' (to be determined) - there are no data currently available to support that selection factor.

See Table 7-6 for selection factor definitions.

43

Table 7-3. Personnel decontamination equipment

September 2000

Chemical Agents 

 Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Karcher SCS 1200 DE

Lightweight

Decontamination System

TBD TBD

TBD TBD TBD

TBD TBD TBD

TBD
ID #

Equipment NameBiological Agents 

 Decontaminated

TIMs DecontaminatedCapacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of 

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

50 Karcher MPDS

MultiPurpose

Decontamination System

TBD

TBD

51

55 Decon Hoop

 NA

TBD

TBD

56 SNL Decon Formulation

TBD

57 Reactive Skin

Decontaminant Lotion

(RSDL) TBD

58 PLYCHEM DECAS

Decontamination Unit

59 PLYCHEM DPI

Decontamination Unit 

TBD

60 Modular Mass Casualty

Decontamination System

TBD

'NA' - the specific selection factor is not applicable for the piece of equipment.

'TBD' (to be determined) - there are no data currently available to support that selection factor.

See Table 7-6 for selection factor definitions.

44

Table 7-3. Personnel decontamination equipment

September 2000

Chemical Agents 

 Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Karcher Hot Air

Generator FB 20

 NA

TBD TBD

TBD

TBD TBD TBD

TBD TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD TBD TBD

TBD

TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD

TBD
ID #

Equipment NameBiological Agents 

Decontaminated

TIMs DecontaminatedCapacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of 

Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

Table 7-3. Personnel decontamination equipment

September 2000

Chemical Agents 

Decontaminated

Functional

Applications
Biological Agents

Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional

Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training

Requirements

Chemical Agents

Decontaminated

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

Equipment Name

ID #
ents

ed

minated

ughput

of

ion

lities

onditions

Level

irements

nts

ted

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

me
Biological Agents

 Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional 

 Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

48

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Blast Guard

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

First Responder's

Blast Guard

First Responder's

Surface Decon Unit

COLPRO

Decon System for

Sensitive Materials

(DSSM)

Karcher Decojet-Trailer

Decontamination System

Mobile Environmental

Protection Container

ID #

Equipment Name

26

27

28

29

30

31

33

35

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD	 

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

CASCAD

TBD TBD TBD	 

TBD
Biological Agents

 Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional 

 Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

49

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Karcher SCS 1200 DE

Lightweight

Decontamination System

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

Karcher HDS 1200 EK

High-Pressure Steam Jet

Cleaner Unit

Karcher Decont Jet 21

Karcher Decontamination

Trailer

Karcher SCS 1800 DE

Decontamination System

Karcher Decojet

Decontamination System

Karcher DECOCONTAIN

1500 Decontamination

System

ID #

Equipment Name

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD	 

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

Karcher DECOCONTAIN

3000 Decontamination

System

TBD TBD	 

TBD	

TBD	 TBD	 TBD	

TBD

TBD

TBD	

TBD TBD	

TBD	

TBD TBD	 TBD

TBD TBD

TBD TBD

TBD

TBD
Biological Agents

Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional 

Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational 

Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

Chemical Agents

Decontaminated

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

ID #

Equipment Name
Biological Agents

 Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

51

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Decon Hoop

Table 7-4. Equipment decontamination systems 

September 2000

SNL Decon Formulation

Reactive Skin

Decontaminant Lotion

(RSDL)

M13 Portable

Decontaminating

ID #

Equipment Name

55

56

57

65

66

TBD

NA

TBD	

Decontamination

Apparatus, Portable, DS2,

ABC-M11

TBD

TBD	

TBD

TBD

TBD

NA

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD
Biological Agents

 Decontaminated

TIMs Decontaminated

Functional

 Applications

Capacity/Throughput

Effectiveness of

 Decontamination

Set-Up Time

Power Capabilities

Operational Conditions

Durability

Resources

Operator Skill Level

Training Requirements

Chemical Agents

 Decontaminated

Blast Guard

Table 7-5. Infrastructure decontamination equipment 

September 2000

First Responder's Blast

Guard

Karcher Decojet-Trailer

Decontamination System

Karcher DECOCONTAIN

1500 Decontamination

System

Karcher C8-DADS 

Direct Application 

Decontamination System

SNL Decon Formulation

NBC6F Water Purification

Unit (WPU)

ID #

Equipment Name

26

27

33

40

44

46

56

67

TBD

TBD	 

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

TBD	

Karcher DECOCONTAIN

3000 Decontamination

System

TBD

TBD	

TBD TBD	

NA

TBD TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD

TBD TBD TBD TBD
s

Table 7-6. Selection factor key for decontamination equipment 

September 2000

s 

s 

n 
APPENDIX A––RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS ON

DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT
A–1

APPENDIX A––RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS ON

DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT1

Buying detection, protection, and decontamination equipment to respond to the

threatened terrorist use of chemical or biological warfare agents may be new for Public

Safety Agencies. To help procurement officials obtain the best value for their domestic

preparedness dollar, the staff of the Center for Domestic Preparedness (Fort McClellan,

AL), military Chemical/Biological Units, the National Institute of Justice, and members

of a Federal Inter Agency Board (that includes representatives from the State and local

law enforcement, medical, and fire communities) have compiled a series of questions.

These questions should assist officials in selecting products from the large number in the

present-day marketplace. Requesting vendors to provide written responses to your

specific questions may also be helpful in the decision process.

1. What decontamination operations does the system support –– personnel, vehicles,

and/or buildings?

2. What chemical warfare agents and biological agents has the decon equipment been

designed against?

3. What chemical warfare and biological simulants has the decon equipment been

tested against? Has the equipment been tested against live agents? Which ones?

4. Who conducted the tests and when? Have the test results been verified by an

independent laboratory or only by the manufacturer?

5. Is the test data available? Where? How can I get a copy?

6. What decontamination agents does the system use? What precautions are required in

storing, transporting, and mixing the concentrated decontamination reagent?

7. How much does the decon agent cost (per person treated or per vehicle treated) and

what is the recommended quantity that a department should keep on hand? What are

the shelf life and storage requirements? Is expedited logistics support for decon

reagent available in an emergency? What are the costs, response times and time

delays?

8. What water sources does the system support –– hydrant, open water source (pond,

river)? How much water is consumed per hour?

9. Does the system heat the water? If so what is the energy source? Does the heater

capacity become the limiting factor on throughput during cold weather operations?

10. Does the system include equipment for managing run-off? What are the hazards and

precautions?

11. What is the design throughput of the system –– people per hour, vehicles per hour,

square meters per hour?

12. Has the system been tested in extended operations? Is the system capable of

continuous operations or must the processing be stopped periodically to replenish

consumables? How long between required maintenance? Equipment?

13. What is the minimum suite of equipment for decon operations? How long does it

take to set up the equipment? How many personnel are required for set up,

continuous operations, and breakdown?

 

1

Information provided by the National Domestic Preparedness Office (NDPO) in coordination with the National Institute of Justice

and the Technical Support Working Group.
A–2

14. How large is the equipment –– weight and volume? What is the recommended

method of transport? Are there any transportation limitations?

15. For personnel decon, does the design provide for gender separation if disrobing is

required?

16. What training is required to set up, operate and maintain the system? Does the

company provide those services? Are training materials (videos, books, CD-ROMs)

available for use by new personnel? What are the costs of training materials?

17. Has the system been tested in extreme weather conditions –– cold, rain, heat, and

wind? At what wind speed does the tent become a kite?

18. How is the equipment decontaminated after use? What are the sampling procedures

to verify safety?

19. What are the procedures and costs for disposing of expended decontamination

solution?

20. How long has the company/manufacturer been involved with the Chem-Bio-Nuc and

first responder industries?

21. Ask for names and phone numbers of departments currently using the company’s

equipment. Ask to follow-up (on the phone) any written testimonials.

22. What additional items are required to operate/maintain the equipment? At what

cost?

23. What type of warranty/maintenance support is offered? Cost?

24. What is the return rate on the equipment under warranty? What are the top five

reasons for failure?
APPENDIX B––REFERENCES
B–1

APPENDIX B––REFERENCES

1. John A. Barrett, William M. Jackson, Imran A. Baig, Amy L. Coverstone, Craig E.

Harfield, Richard D. Arcilesi, James Butler, William Burton, and Charles W.

Williams, Jr., Wide Area Decontamination: CB Decontamination Technologies,

Equipment and Projects, Final Report; Chemical Warfare/Chemical Biological

Defense Information Analysis Center, Edgewood, MD, March 1999.

2. Armando S. Bevelacqua and Richard H. Stilp, Terrorism Handbook for Operational

Responders, Emergency Film Group, Edgartown, MA, January 1998.

3. Robert E. Hunt, Timothy Hayes, Warren B. Carroll, Guidelines for Mass Casualty

Decontamination During a Terrorist Chemical Agent Incident, Battelle, Columbus,

OH, September 1999.

4. A.K. Stuempfle, D.J. Howells, S.J. Armour, C.A. Boulet, International Task Force

25: Hazard from Industrial Chemicals Final Report, Edgewood Research

Development and Engineering Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, ADB236562, ERDEC-SP-061, April 1998.

5. Responding to A Biological or Chemical Threat: A Practical Guide, U.S. Department

of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Washington, DC, 1996.

6. 2000 Emergency Response Guidebook, A Guidebook for First Responders During the

Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department

of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Tempest

Publishing, Alexandria, VA, January 2000.
APPENDIX C––DECONTAMINATION SHELTERS
C-1

APPENDIX C––DECONTAMINATION SHELTERS

Decontamination Shelters Manufacturers

First Response Shelters TVI Corporation

7100 Holladay Tyler Road

Suite 300

Glenn Dale, MD 20769

301–352–8800 (Phone)

301–352–8818 (Fax)

Quick-E WMD Command Post TVI Corporation

7100 Holladay Tyler Road

Suite 300

Glenn Dale, MD 20769

301–352–8800 (Phone)

301–352–8818 (Fax)

Emergency Shelter Zumro, Inc.

P.O. Box 655

Willow Grove, PA 19090

800–932–6003 (Phone)

SC Spill Containment North Eastern US

Better Products Company

States: MA, CT, VT, NH,

ME, RI, NY, NJ, and PA

Dan Meloche

800–423–0686 (Phone)

508–885–9955 (Fax)

Western US

SC Spill Containment

Karl & Vera Steiner

888–775–3030 (Phone)

208–834–2652 (Fax)
APPENDIX D––DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT TRAILER
D–1

APPENDIX D––DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT TRAILER

The Boston Fire Department recently completed the construction of a new Mobile

decontamination unit, shown in figure 1. This unit is a 22 ft International box truck that

has been outfitted to function as a decontamination unit, responding to hazardous

materials incidents. The unit provides 6 indoor showers and 4 outdoor showers using

warm water and a sheltered area for changing to address modesty issues. It has been

outfitted with polyethylene walls, floor and ceiling, plumbing, electrical, ventilation

equipment, supplied air, and a hot water system. In preliminary testing by the Boston Fire

Department it was found that it would take a civilian 6 min to 7 min to move through the

decontamination sections and 5 min to 7 min for a firefighter dressed in level A. The

decontamination unit also carries military field shower units and emergency

decontamination shelters. The showers in the units are capable of supplying warm water

for decontamination. The water heater used for the field shower is capable of delivering

33000 British thermal unit (Btu).

Figure 1. Mobile decontamination unit

The unit is divided into four sections. Smoked-out plastic curtains divide each section

including the entrance and exit to provide privacy. The first section is the entrance,

shown in figure 2. The entrance is utilized as a storage area for the water heater, when

the unit is not in use as a clothing removal area.

Figure 2. Section 1, entrance
D–2

Sections 2 and 3 house the showers. Section 2 houses the primary showers. Four

showerheads are located in this section for decontamination purposes (fig. 3). Section 3

includes 2 showerheads, one on each wall (fig. 4).

Figure 3. Section 2, primary showers Figure 4. Section 3, secondary showers

Finally, section 4 comprises a storage and redressing area and is used to store victim

clothing, storage shelving, decontamination supplies and solutions, supplied air, and extra

tentage (fig. 5). Section 4 also includes a ventilation system that draws air from all four

sections through a HEPA filter and vents to the outside (fig. 6).

Figure 5. Section 4, storage area

Figure 6. HEPA filter
D–3

The hot water system employed in the decontamination unit is equipped with a military

M80 diesel or JP8 fired boiler that requires 240 VAC input from the generator (fig. 7).

This unit was provided by the SBCCOM under a Cooperative Research & Development

Agreement with the City of Boston for evaluation. The heater itself is capable of

500000 Btu and can deliver 9 gallons per minute (gpm). The heated water is mixed in a

mixing chamber with cold water to supply the entire unit. The approximate weight of the

water heater is 350 lb, not including the extra hoses and mixing box used to incorporate

the cold water.

The entire system must be pressurized to no more than 40 lb psi. As a result, a fire engine is

utilized as a manifold to regulate the pressure from any water source (i.e., hydrant). Liquid

runoff and waste runs via gravity feed through drains that are located in the floor of every

section into a collapsible holding tank (fig. 8). A hazardous materials contractor then

removes the contaminated water from the container.

Figure 7. Generator Figure 8. Holding tank

The department is currently in the process of working on revisions to their design to

ensure optimal trailer levels in the future. The Boston Fire Department built the decon

unit using the knowledge they have acquired during working hazardous materials

incidents. However, there are many commercial decontamination trailer vendors

available. Below are the names and contact information for some of them.

Advanced Containment Systems Inc. (ACSI)

8720 Lambright Road

Houston, TX 77075

800–927–2271 (Phone)

Resun Leasing, Inc.

P.O. Box 1069

Edgewood, MD 21040

800–321–7971 (Phone)

American Engineering

15886 Michigan Road

Argos, IN 46501

219–892–5151 (Phone)

HazDecon

810 W. Alex Bell Rd

Dayton, OH 45459

Maryland Trailer Sales

410–866–4053 (Phone)
APPENDIX E––INDEX BY DECONTAMINANT NAME
E-1

APPENDIX E––INDEX BY DECONTAMINANT NAME

Decontaminant Page F-#

Calcium Hypochlorite 1

Sodium Hydroxide Solutions (More than 10 % NaOH) 3

Sodium Hydroxide Solution (0.8 % to 8 %) 5

Sodium Hypochlorite 7

Sodium Hypochlorite Solution (Bleach) 9

C8 emulsion (tetrachloroethylene (15 %), water (76 %), anionic

surfactant (1 %), calcium hypochlorite (8 %))

11

Decontaminating Solution-2 (DS-2) (Diethylenetriamine (70 %),

2-methoxyethanol (28 %), sodium hydroxide (2 %))

12

BX24 12

Chloramine-B 14

Super Tropical Bleach (STB) 14
APPENDIX F––DECONTAMINANT DATA SHEETS
F–1

APPENDIX F––DECONTAMINANT DATA SHEETS

Decontaminant Calcium Hypochlorite

Permissible Exposure Limit Information not available

Health Effects Emergency Overview

--------------------------

DANGER! STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT

WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE.

CORROSIVE. CAUSES BURNS TO ANY AREA

OF CONTACT. HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR

INHALED. WATER REACTIVE.

Inhalation: Corrosive. Extremely destructive to

tissues of the mucous membranes and upper

respiratory tract. Symptoms may include burning

sensation, coughing, wheezing, laryngitis, shortness

of breath, headache, nausea, and vomiting. Inhalation

may be fatal as a result of spasm, inflammation, and

edema of the larynx and bronchi, chemical

pneumonitis, and pulmonary edema.

Ingestion: Corrosive. Swallowing can cause severe

burns of the mouth, throat, and stomach. Can cause

sore throat, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Skin Contact: Corrosive. Symptoms of redness,

pain, and severe burn can occur.

Eye Contact: Corrosive. Contact can cause blurred

vision, redness, pain, and severe tissue burns.

Chronic Exposure: Repeated exposures to calcium

hypochlorite may cause bronchitis to develop with

cough and/or shortness of breath.

Aggravation of Pre-existing Conditions: No

information found.

If swallowed, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. Give

large quantities of water. Never give anything by

mouth to an unconscious person.

 
F–2

If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give

artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give

oxygen.

In case of contact, immediately flush eyes or skin

with plenty of water for at least 15 min while

removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash

clothing before reuse.

In all cases get medical attention immediately.

Environmental Hazards Stability: Rapidly decomposes on exposure to air.

May decompose violently if exposed to heat or direct

sunlight. Thermally unstable; decomposes at 177 °C

(350 °F).

Hazardous Decomposition Products: Calcium

hypochlorite gives off oxygen, chlorine, and chlorine

monoxide.

Incompatibilities: Calcium hypochlorite is a strong

oxidizer. Reacts with water and acids, giving off

chlorine gas. Forms explosive compounds with

ammonia and amines. Incompatible with organic

materials, nitrogen compounds, and combustible

materials.

Environmental Conditions Information not available

Environmental Considerations Whatever cannot be saved for recovery or recycling

should be handled as hazardous waste and sent to a

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

approved waste facility. Processing, use or

contamination of this product may change the waste

management options. State and local disposal

regulations may differ from Federal disposal

regulations. Dispose of container and unused

contents in accordance with Federal, State, and local

requirements.

Accidental Release Measures: Remove all sources of

ignition. Keep water away from spilled material.

Ventilate area of leak or spill. Wear appropriate

personal protective equipment as required.

Spills: Clean up spills in a manner that does not

disperse dust into the air. Use nonsparking tools and

equipment. Pick up spill for recovery or disposal and

place in a closed container. Do not seal tightly.
F–3

PPE Required Personal Respirators (NIOSH approved): For

conditions of use where exposure to the dust or mist

is apparent, a half-face dust/mist respirator may be

worn. For emergencies or instances where the

exposure levels are not known, use a full-face

positive-pressure, air-supplied respirator.

WARNING: Air-purifying respirators do not protect

workers in oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Skin Protection: Wear impervious protective

clothing, including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron, or

coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent skin contact.

Eye Protection: Use chemical safety goggles and/or a

full face shield where splashing is possible. Maintain

eyewash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work

area.

Decontaminant Sodium Hydroxide Solutions (More than 10 %

NaOH)

Permissible Exposure Limit 1.2 ppm (v)

Health Effects Emergency Overview

--------------------------

POISON! DANGER! CORROSIVE. MAY BE

FATAL IF SWALLOWED. HARMFUL IF

INHALED. CAUSES BURNS TO ANY AREA OF

CONTACT. REACTS WITH WATER, ACIDS,

AND OTHER MATERIALS.

Inhalation: Severe irritant. Effects from inhalation of

mist vary from mild irritation to serious damage of the

upper respiratory tract, depending on severity of

exposure. Symptoms may include sneezing, sore

throat or runny nose. Severe pneumonitis may occur.

Ingestion: Corrosive! Swallowing may cause severe

burns of mouth, throat, and stomach. Severe scarring

of tissue and death may result. Symptoms may

include bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea, and a fall in

blood pressure. Damage may appear days after

exposure.
F–4

Eye Contact: Corrosive! Causes eye irritation, and

with greater exposures it can cause burns that may

result in permanent vision impairment, and even

blindness.

Environmental Hazards Decomposition by reaction with metals such as

aluminum, magnesium, tin, and zinc releases

flammable and explosive hydrogen gas.

May cause fire and explosions when in contact with

incompatible materials (10 % to 60 % Sodium

Hydroxide solution).

Not an explosive hazard when using a sodium

hydroxide solution less than 8 %.

Environmental Conditions Store in a cool, dry, ventilated area away from sources

of heat, moisture, and incompatibilities. Store above

16 °C (60 °F) to prevent freezing. Always add caustic

to water while stirring; never the reverse. Containers

of this material may be hazardous when empty since

they retain product residues (vapors, liquid); observe

all warnings and precautions listed for the product. Do

not store with aluminum or magnesium. Do not mix

with acids or organic materials.

Environmental Considerations This material may exhibit one or more characteristics

of a hazardous waste and require appropriate analysis

to determine specific disposal requirements.

Processing, use or contamination of this product may

change the waste management options. State and local

disposal regulations may differ from Federal disposal

regulations. Dispose of container and unused contents

in accordance with Federal, State, and local

requirements.

Accidental Release Measures: Contain and recover

liquid when possible. Do not flush caustic residues to

the sewer. Residues from spills can be diluted with

water, neutralized with dilute acid such as acetic,

hydrochloric or sulfuric. Absorb neutralized caustic

residue on clay, vermiculite or other inert substance

and package in a suitable container for disposal.
F–5

PPE Required Personal Respirators (NIOSH approved): If the

personnel exposure limit is exceeded, a half-face

dust/mist respirator may be worn for up to 10 times the

exposure limit or the maximum use concentration

specified by the appropriate regulatory agency or

respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. A full-face

piece dust/mist respirator may be worn up to 50 times

the exposure limit, or the maximum use concentration

specified by the appropriate regulatory agency, or

respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. For

emergencies or instances where the exposure levels

are not known, use a full-facepiece positive-pressure,

air-supplied respirator.

WARNING: Air-purifying respirators do not protect

workers in oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Skin Protection: Wear impervious protective clothing,

including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as

appropriate, to prevent skin contact.

Eye Protection: Use chemical safety goggles and/or a

full face shield where splashing is possible. Maintain

eyewash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work

area.

Decontaminant Sodium Hydroxide Solution (0.8 % to 8 %)

Permissible Exposure Limit 1.2 ppm (v)

Health Effects Potential Health Effects: The health effects from

exposure to diluted forms of this chemical are not well

documented. They are expected to be less severe than

those for concentrated forms that are referenced in the

descriptions below.

Environmental Hazards Stability: Stable under ordinary conditions of use and

storage.

Hazardous Decomposition Products: No hazardous

decomposition products.

Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.

Incompatibilities: Acids, aluminum, tin, and zinc

metals.
F–6

Environmental Conditions

Conditions to Avoid: Heat, moisture, and

incompatibles.

Store in a cool, dry, ventilated area away from sources

of heat, moisture, and incompatibilities. Store above

16 °C (60 °F) to prevent freezing. Always add the

caustic to water while stirring; never the reverse.

Containers of this material may be hazardous when

empty since they retain product residues (vapors,

liquid); observe all warnings and precautions listed for

the product. Do not store with aluminum or

magnesium. Do not mix with acids or organic

materials.

Environmental Considerations This material may exhibit one or more characteristics

of a hazardous waste and require appropriate analysis

to determine specific disposal requirements.

Processing, use, or contamination of this product may

change the waste management options. State and local

disposal regulations may differ from Federal disposal

regulations. Dispose of container and unused contents

in accordance with Federal, State, and local

requirements.

Accidental Release Measures: Contain and recover

liquid when possible. Do not flush caustic residues to

the sewer. Residues from spills can be diluted with

water, neutralized with dilute acid such as acetic,

hydrochloric or sulfuric. Absorb neutralized caustic

residue on clay, vermiculite or other inert substance

and package in a suitable container for disposal.

PPE Required Personal Respirators (NIOSH approved): If the

personnel exposure limit is exceeded, a half-face,

dust/mist respirator may be worn for up to 10 times

the exposure limit or the maximum use concentration

specified by the appropriate regulatory agency or

respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. A full-face

piece dust/mist respirator may be worn up to 50 times

the exposure limit, or the maximum use concentration

specified by the appropriate regulatory agency, or

respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. For

emergencies or instances where the exposure levels

are not known, use a full-facepiece positive-pressure,

air-supplied respirator.
F–7

WARNING: Air-purifying respirators do not protect

workers in oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Skin Protection: Wear impervious protective clothing,

including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as

appropriate, to prevent skin contact.

Eye Protection: Use chemical safety goggles and/or a

full face shield where splashing is possible. Maintain

eyewash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work

area.

Decontaminant Sodium Hypochlorite

Sodium hypochlorite is manufactured only in solution

form. Industrial grade sodium hypochlorite contains

from 10 % to 15 % by weight NaOCL (10 % to

17.8 % available chlorine) with about 0.50 % to

1.00 % excess NaOH for stability control.

Permissible Exposure Limit 0.5 ppm (v)

Health Effects Emergency Overview

--------------------------

DANGER! CORROSIVE. CAUSES BURNS TO

ANY AREA OF CONTACT. MAY BE FATAL IF

SWALLOWED. HARMFUL IF INHALED.

Inhalation: May cause irritation to the mucous

membranes of the respiratory tract.

Ingestion: Do not give any liquid to an unconscious

person. Drink large quantities of gelatin solution or

milk. If these are not available, drink large quantities

of water. Do NOT give vinegar, baking soda or acidic

antidotes. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION

IMMEDIATELY.

Skin Contact: May cause moderate skin irritation and

reddening of the skin.

Eye Contact: May cause severe irritation.
F–8

Environmental Hazards Conditions to Avoid: Stability decreases with

concentration, heat, light exposure, decrease in pH,

and contamination with heavy metals, such as nickel,

cobalt, copper, and iron.

Materials to Avoid: Strong acids, strong oxidizers,

heavy metals (which act as catalysts), reducing agents,

ammonia, ether, and many organic and inorganic

chemicals such as paint, kerosene, paint thinners,

shellac, etc.

Hazardous Decomposition Products: Chlorine,

hydrochloric acid, hypochlorous acid (HOCL).

Composition depends upon temperature and decrease

in pH. Additional decomposition products that depend

upon pH, temperature, and time are sodium chloride,

sodium chlorate, and oxygen.

Environmental Conditions Handling and Storage: Store in vented, closed, clean,

noncorrosive containers in a cool, dry location, away

from direct sunlight and not adjacent to chemicals

which may react with the bleach if spillage occurs. If

closed containers become heated, the containers

should be vented to release decomposition products

(mainly oxygen under normal decomposition). Do not

mix or contaminate with ammonia, hydrocarbons,

acids, alcohols, or ethers.

Environmental Considerations

PPE Required

Disposal Considerations: Can be neutralized with

weak reducing agents such as sodium sulfite, bisulfite,

or thiosulfite (DO NOT USE SULFATES OR

BISULFATES). Dispose of in accordance with all

applicable local, county, State, and Federal

regulations.

Always use only NIOSH/MSHA-approved respirators

with acid-type canisters; in the case of a fire, use selfcontained breathing apparatus.

Ventilation: No special ventilation is required unless

bleach is exposed to decomposition conditions, i.e.,

heat or acidic conditions.
F–9

Protective Clothing: Avoid contact with the eyes.

Wear chemical goggles and/or face shield if there is

the likelihood of contact with the eyes. Avoid

prolonged or repeated contact with the skin. Wear

chemical-resistant gloves and other clothing as

required to minimize contact.

Other Protective Clothing or Equipment: Safety

showers and eyewash fountains should be available in

storage and handling areas.

Work/Hygienic Practices: All employees who handle

sodium hypochlorite should wash their hands before

eating, smoking, or using the toilet facilities.

Decontaminant Sodium Hypochlorite Solution (Bleach)

1. Sodium Hypochlorite (as NaOCl) –4 % to 7 %;

Water –93 %

Permissible Exposure Limit

Health Effects

0.5 ppm (v)

Emergency Overview

--------------------------

DANGER! CORROSIVE. CAUSES BURNS TO

ANY AREA OF CONTACT. MAY BE FATAL IF

SWALLOWED. HARMFUL IF INHALED.

Ingestion: May cause erosion of the mucous

membranes. Symptoms include vomiting, circulatory

collapse, confusion, coma, and death. May cause

edema of pharynx, glottis, larynx, and perforation of

the esophagus or stomach. Effects are less damaging

at lower concentrations.

Skin Contact: Contact may cause severe irritation

with blistering and eczema, especially at higher

concentrations.

Eye Contact: Contact may cause severe irritation and

damage, especially at higher concentrations.
F–10

Chronic Exposure: A constant irritant to the eyes and

throat.

Aggravation of Pre-existing Conditions: Persons with

impaired respiratory function may be more susceptible

to the effects of the substance.

Environmental Hazards Stability: Slowly decomposes on contact with air.

Rate increases with the concentration and temperature.

Exposure to sunlight accelerates decomposition.

Sodium hypochlorite becomes less toxic with age.

Hazardous Decomposition Products: Emits toxic

fumes of chlorine when heated to decomposition.

Sodium oxide at high temperatures.

Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.

Incompatibilities: Ammonia (chloramine gas may

evolve), amines, ammonium salts, aziridine, methanol,

phenyl , acetonitrile, cellulose, ethyleneimine,

oxidizable metals, acids, soaps, and bisulfates.

Conditions to Avoid: Light, heat, and incompatibles.

Environmental Conditions

Environmental Considerations

Keep in a tightly closed container; store in a cool, dry,

ventilated area. Protect against physical damage.

Isolate from incompatible substances. Containers of

this material may be hazardous when empty since they

retain product residues (vapors, liquid); observe all

warnings and precautions listed for the product.

Ventilate area of leak or spill. Wear appropriate

personal protective equipment as required. Isolate

hazard area. Keep unnecessary and unprotected

personnel from entering. Contain and recover liquid

when possible. Collect liquid in an appropriate

container or absorb with an inert material (e.g.,

vermiculite, dry sand, earth), and place in a chemical

waste container. Do not use combustible materials,
F–11

such as sawdust. Do not flush to sewer! U.S.

Regulations require reporting spills and releases to

soil, water, and air in excess of reportable quantities.

The toll free number for the U.S. Coast Guard

National Response Center is 800–424–8802.

Dilute with water and flush to sewer if local

ordinances allow, otherwise, whatever cannot be saved

for recovery or recycling should be managed in an

appropriate and approved waste disposal facility.

Processing, use, or contamination of this product may

change the waste management options. State and local

disposal regulations may differ from Federal disposal

regulations. Dispose of container and unused contents

in accordance with Federal, State, and local

requirements.

PPE Required Personal Respirators (NIOSH approved): If the

exposure limit is exceeded, a full facepiece respirator

with an acid gas cartridge may be worn up to 50 times

the exposure limit or the maximum use concentration

specified by the appropriate regulatory agency or

respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. For

emergencies or instances where the exposure levels

are not known, use a full-facepiece positive-pressure,

air-supplied respirator.

WARNING: Air purifying respirators do not protect

workers in oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Skin Protection: Wear impervious protective clothing,

including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as

appropriate, to prevent skin contact.

Eye Protection: Use chemical safety goggles and/or a

full face shield where splashing is possible. Maintain

eyewash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work

area.

Decontaminant C8 emulsion (tetrachloroethylene (15 %), water

(76 %), anionic surfactant (1 %), calcium

hypochlorite (8 %))

Permissible Exposure Limit Information not available.
F–12

Health Effects Information not available.

Environmental Hazards Information not available.

Environmental Conditions Information not available.

Environmental Considerations Information not available.

PPE Required Information not available.

Decontaminant Decontaminating Solution-2 (DS-2)

(Diethylenetriamine (70 %), 2-methoxyethanol

(28 %), sodium hydroxide (2 %))

Permissible Exposure Limit Information not available.

Health Effects Information not available.

Environmental Hazards DS2 ignites spontaneously on contact with calcium

hypochlorite.

Environmental Conditions Information not available.

Environmental Considerations DS2 is extremely corrosive and should not be used on

people or on electronics or other sensitive equipment.

PPE Required Information not available.

Decontaminant BX24

Permissible Exposure Limit 1 ppm to 3 ppm.

Health Effects General advice.

The product in normal conditions of storage and

employment is not dangerous and the concentration

reached during use is not harmful at all for humans or

animals.

Environmental Hazards Stability: Stable under ordinary conditions of use and

storage (stable for at least 3 years) if stored in

recommended containers. The accidental penetration

of water into a storeroom with poor ventilation or fire

are the only ways to generate strong and concentrated

releases of active chlorine reaching a dangerous level.

Reactivity Conditions: Humidity causes chlorine

release.
F–13

Incompatibilities: Nitrogen compounds such as

ammonia, amine, urea, and similar; reducers, and

organic oxidizable substances.

Conditions to Avoid: Heat dangerous substances

deriving from decomposition of chlorine (240 °C to

250 °C), humidity.

Flammability: None.

Thermic Decomposition can be controlled by large

quantities of water.

Environmental Conditions Store in original containers within a cool, dry, and

well ventilated room or area, separate from other

chemical components to ensure against chlorine

production. Storerooms must be appropriately built to

avoid infiltration of water. Containers should be

stacked properly in order to avoid breakage or damage

with consequent deterioration of the product.

Storage temperature from –30 °C to +60 °C.

Environmental Considerations BX24 has negligible impact on the environment,

because of its chemical characteristics and the low

specific quantities that are used in the decontamination

process.

Disposal Considerations: In the event of an accidental

leak or spillage, small quantities can be eliminated

with water. Keep in mind the affect of active chlorine

on water and on water treatment plants.

If compounds of chlorine donors are disposed, they

must be considered active and dangerous wastes.

Official regulations regarding local specific

requirements for destruction and/or disposal must be

determined. If the material is dry, incinerator

destruction is recommended. The product must be

poured into a clean container and transported there.

During cleaning operations, BX24 does not have to be

mixed with wastes or other products, like oil, sawdust,

fine dust, etc. Do not destroy full or partially full

containers in common waste compactors. Do not

transport the product if wet. A method for destruction

residue involves its neutralization into a waste, which

can be eliminated without danger.
F–14

Waste Disposal: Destruction by sodium sulphite in

controlled conditions and by experienced personnel.

Special Shipping Information: Warning in case of

fire.

PPE Required Safety glasses, adequate ventilation, and gloves.

Decontaminant Chloramine-B

Permissible Exposure Limit Information not available.

Health Effects Information not available.

Environmental Hazards Information not available.

Environmental Conditions Store in a cool, dry, ventilated area away from sources

of heat, moisture, and incompatibilities.

Environmental Considerations Information not available.

PPE Required Safety glasses, adequate ventilation.

Decontaminant Super Tropical Bleach (STB)

Permissible Exposure Limit Information not available.

Health Effects Information not available.

Environmental Hazards Information not available.

Environmental Conditions Information not available.

Environmental Considerations Information not available

PPE Required Information not available.
APPENDIX G––EPA LETTER ADDRESSING

HAZARDOUS RUNOFF
G–1
G–2
APPENDIX H––FIRST RESPONDERS’

ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY DUE TO MASS

DECONTAMINATION RUNOFF
 United States 

Environmental Protection

Agency

Office of Solid Waste

and Emergency Response

(5104)

EPA 550-F-00-009

July 2000

www.epa.gov/ceppo/

FIRST RESPONDERS’

ENVIRONMENTAL 

LIABILITY DUE TO MASS

DECONTAMINATION

RUNOFF 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is issuing this alert as part of its ongoing effort to

provide information on environmentalissues related to biological, chemical, and nuclear terrorist

incidents. EPA publishes Alerts to increase awareness of possible hazards and environmental

concerns. It is important that SERCs, LEPCs, emergency responders and others review this

information and take appropriate steps to minimize risk. 

PROBLEM

On April 19, 1999, the Team Leader

of the Chemical Weapons Improved

Response Team (CWIRT), U.S.

Army Soldier and Biological

Chemical Command sent a letter to

EPA raising issues concerning first

responders’ liability during a

weapons of mass destruction

(WMD) terrorist incident. 

Specifically, the CWIRT asked

about the first responders’ liability for

spreading contamination while

attempting to save lives. 

Environmental liability resulting from

critical lifesaving actions may seem 

unlikely, but could be a serious

concern for many first responders. 

The question is: Can emergency

responders undertake necessary

emergency actions in order to savelives in dire situations without fear of

environmental liability even when

such emergency actions have

unavoidable adverse environmental

impacts? This concern is not limited

to WMD terrorist incidents, it has

broad implications for our National Response System (NRS)

and frequently is discussed in the

hazardous materials response community.

THE NERVE AGENT DRILL

The federal government recently

sponsored a multi-agency drill based on a

simulated nerve-agent attack. The release

of the nerve agent resulted in hundreds of

simulated casualties who survived the

initial terrorist attack. The hazmat team

had to rescue and decontaminate these

“survivors” before they could receive

medical attention. The hazmat team

identified the need to collect the water

used to decontaminate the victims

(deconwater) to avoid a release to the

environment. During the drill, these very

capable, well-equipped, well-intentioned,

professional hazmat teams delayed their

initial entry for more than one hour,

awaiting the arrival and set-up of pools to

collect the deconwater. While the actorsurvivors were dying a slow, painful,

convulsive death, state and federal officials

were debating and insisting that

deconwater had to be collected for proper

disposal. By the time the rescuers set up

the holding pools and entered the site,

nearly 90 minutes later, the “survivors”

CHEMICAL 

SAFETY

ALERT
First Responders’ Environmental Liability due to Mass Decontamination Runoff July 2000

Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office 

had expired. The contaminated water was

collected but the “victims” died. 

GOOD SAMARITAN

PROVISIONS

The Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA),

Section § 107 (d) Rendering Care or Advice,

addresses this issue. Section 107 (d) (1),

often known as the “good Samaritan”

provision states: “No person shall be liable

under this sub chapter for costs or damages as

a result of actions taken or omitted in the

course of rendering care, assistance, or advice

in accordance with the National Contingency

Plan (NCP) or at the direction of an on-scene

coordinator appointed under such plan, with

respect to an incident creating a danger to

public health or welfare or the environment as

a result of any releases of a hazardous

substance or the threat thereof.” This

provision does not preclude liability for costs

or damages as a result of negligence. 

Releases of chemical and biological warfare

agents due to a terrorist incident are

considered hazardous materials incidents and

therefore CERCLA §107 (d) (1) could apply,

to the extent that there is a release or

threatened release of a hazardous substance.

In addition, §107(d)(2) provides that state and

local governments are not liable under

CERCLA “as a result of actions taken in

response to an emergency created by the

release or threatened release of a hazardous

substance generated by or from a facility

owned by another person.” Section 107(d)(2)

would insulate state and local governments

from potential CERCLA liability arising from

first responder actions. However, the

provision does not apply to costs or

damages caused by “gross negligence or

intentional misconduct by the state or

local government.”

During a hazardous materials incident (including

a chemical/biological agent terrorist event), first

responders should undertake any necessary

emergency actions to save lives and protect the

public and themselves. Once any imminent

threats to human health and live are

addressed, first responders should

immediately take all reasonable efforts to

contain the contamination and avoid or

mitigate environmental consequences. EPA

will not pursue enforcement actions against state

and local responders for the environmental

consequences of necessary and appropriate

emergency response actions. First responders

would not be protected under CERCLA from

intentional contamination such as washing

hazardous materials down the storm-sewer

during a response action as an alternative to

costly and problematic disposal or in order to

avoid extra-effort.

OTHER LIABILITY ISSUES AND

STATE TORT LAWS

EPA cannot prevent a private person from filing

suit under CERCLA. However, first responders

can use CERCLA’s Good Samaritan provision

as defenses to such an action. First responders

could also be subject to actions under other

laws, including state tort laws. A state’s tort law

allows individuals and businesses to seek

compensation for losses or harm caused by

another. The extent of tort liability of a state or

local governmental jurisdiction, as well as

individual employees or representatives of that

jurisdiction, is established by the tort law of each

state. The liability of governmental jurisdictions

and their employees may be shaped by factors

such as negligence, statutory and discretionary

immunity, etc. First responders should

consult legal counsel in their state to

discuss authority, status as an agent of the

state, immunities, and indemnification.
First Responders’ Environmental Liability due to Mass Decontamination Runoff July 2000

Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office 

For More Information..............

Contact the Emergency Planning and

Community Right-to-Know Hotline

(800) 424-9346 or (703) 412-9810

TDD (800)553-7672

Monday -Friday, 9 AM to 6 PM, EASTERN

TIME

———

Visit the CEPPO Home Page on the

World Wide Web at:

http://www.epa.gov.ceppo/

FEDERAL SUPPORT DURING

A WMD INCIDENT

Contaminated runoff should be avoided

whenever possible, but should not impede

necessary and appropriate actions to protect

human life and health. Once the victims are

removed and safe from further harm and

the site is secured and stable, the first

responders should be doing everything

reasonable to prevent further migration of

contamination into the environment. 

First responders should involve state and

federal officials as soon as possible to reduce

potential liability concerns. Under CERCLA,

the Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC)

can determine which environmental regulations

are applicable (or relevant and appropriate) to

any removal response and may further

determine that any such environmental

regulation is impracticable to achieve

depending on the exigencies of the situation. If

the FOSC determines that it is impracticable

to comply with any particular environmental

regulation, then the responders (local, state,

Federal or responsible party) do not have to

comply with that particular environmental

regulation. By involving FOSC, first

responders can substantially reduce their

potential liability. 

In addition, FOSCs have an expanse of

resources under the NRS to support state and

local responders in determining a solution

which best addresses protectiveness of human

health and the environment. Under the NRC,

the FOSC can provide invaluable assistance in

determining clean-up and decontamination

needs, health criteria and appropriate clean-up

protocols as needed. FOSC support is even

more critical in the aftermath of a WMD

terrorist attack when critical post-emergency

actions such as agent identification, crime

scene sampling, crime scene preservation, and

long-term risk evaluation are also being

conducted.

PRE-PLANNING IS KEY!

It may not be technically feasible to contain all

the runoff resulting from a WMD incident, but

emergency responders may be able to reduce its

impact to the environment by pre-planning. 

Responders can maximize local resources by

using existing response mechanisms as much as

possible. Local Emergency Planning

Committees (LEPCs) are a good starting point. 

LEPCs are established under the Emergency

Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act to

develop local governments’ emergency response

and preparedness capabilities through better

coordination and planning, especially within the

local community. LEPCs include elected

officials, police, fire, civil defense, public health

professionals, environmental, hospital and

transportation officials, who can work together 

creatively using available resources to minimize

the environmental impact of WMD incidents.
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh Street N.W.

Washington, DC 20531

John Ashcroft

Attorney General

Deborah J. Daniels

Assistant Attorney General

Sarah V. Hart

Director, National Institute of Justice

For grant and funding information, contact:

Department of Justice Response Center

800-421-6770

Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice

World Wide Web Site: World Wide Web Site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij