U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Loud Car

Stereos

by

Michael S. Scott

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

No. 7

Loud Car Stereos

Michael S. Scott

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-

CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions

contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not

necessarily represent the official position of the U.S.

Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

Guide No. 7

About the Guide Series i

About the Guide Series

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific

crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to

investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The

guides are written for police–of whatever rank or

assignment–who must address the specific problem the guides

cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the

problem, and means to assess the results of a problemoriented policing project. They are designed to help police

decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have

already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced

as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also

published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For

those who want to learn more about the principles and

methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and

analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are

listed at the back of this guide.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is

most likely to work in your community. You should not

blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must

decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.

What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what

works in one place may not work everywhere.
ii Loud Car Stereos

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

The guides describe responses that other police

departments have used or that researchers have tested.

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you

cannot implement some of these responses in your

jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when

police have discovered a more effective response, they have

succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving

the response to the problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is

available to the police; for other problems, little is available.

Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing

research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more

research on that particular problem. Regardless, research

has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you

might have about the problem. The research may help get

you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot

tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the

particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of

keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant

research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed

to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed

and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of

each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a

complete bibliography of research on the subject.

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.

They must frequently implement them in partnership with

other responsible private and public entities. An effective

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine
About the Guide Series iii

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest

considerable effort in making these partnerships work.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders

of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may

have effectively addressed a problem using responses not

considered in these guides and your experiences and

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to

cops_pubs@usdoj.gov.

Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author,

other project team members, COPS Office staff and

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by

proposing text, recommending research and offering

suggestions on matters of format and style.

The principal project team developing the guide series

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University

of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of

criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate

professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati;

Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana

Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State

University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy

coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne

Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was

conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers

University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela

Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff.

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line

police officers, police executives and researchers who peer

reviewed each guide.

Contents

About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Loud Car Stereos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Factors Contributing to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Locations/Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Current Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Responses to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Enforcement of Noise Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Warnings and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Response With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Loud Car Stereos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Contents vii
viii Loud Car Stereos

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 
The Problem of Loud Car Stereos 1

The Problem of Loud Car Stereos

This guide addresses the problem of loud car stereos, one of

the most common sources of noise complaints in many

jurisdictions.† The guide begins by describing the problem and

reviewing factors that contribute to it. It then identifies a

series of questions that might assist you in analyzing your

local problem. Finally, it reviews responses to the problem

and what is known about these from evaluative research and

police practice. Throughout this guide, the term loud car stereos

is used as a shorthand way of saying car stereos that are played

loudly. The problem is attributable mainly to the use of special

stereo equipment capable of producing extremely loud sound,

rather than factory-installed stereo equipment.

Most jurisdictions have some form of noise law that regulates

loud car stereos. Police are concerned about loud car stereos

for two main reasons: 1) they annoy some people, and 2) they

inhibit drivers' ability to hear emergency signals on the road.

This guide focuses on the annoyance aspect of loud car

stereos, rather than the safety aspect, because there is not

much published research and practice related to the latter.††

Loud car stereos can also make another noise problem worse:

they can activate some car alarms. In some jurisdictions, drug

dealers advertise by cruising neighborhoods with the car

stereo turned up loud. In most jurisdictions, the problem of

loud car stereos falls to the police to address, primarily

because enforcement carries the risk of violent

confrontation.†††

The problem of loud car stereos is more widespread than a

simple tally of complaints would reveal. Perhaps only 5 to 10

percent of people bothered by any type of noise will file an

official complaint, because other factors influence people.1

Many citizens are not aware of their legal right to quiet and

do not know where they can register a complaint.

† Sound, noise and annoyance are not

the same thing. Sound is merely a

physical property entailing sound

waves. Noise is unwanted sound.

Annoyance is the negative feeling one

gets from being exposed to noise.

Sound can be measured in terms of

its pressure, frequency, variation,

character, and quality. Annoyance is a

subjective measure.

†† Police in Prince William County,

Va., demonstrated through controlled

tests that loud car stereos impair

drivers' ability to hear emergency

vehicle sirens, and concluded this is a

serious aspect of the problem (Smith

2000).

††† At least in the United States,

noise control has become almost

exclusively a matter for local

authorities since the federal

government drastically cut back

funding for noise control in the early

1980s (Sickler-Hart 1997; Lief 1994;

Schultz 1999; Sedgwick 1991).
2 Loud Car Stereos

Consequently, the volume of official complaints about loud

car stereos might indicate the existence of a problem, but not

necessarily how intense or widespread it is.

Factors Contributing to the Problem of Loud Car

Stereos

Understanding the factors that contribute to your problem

will help you frame your own local analysis questions,

determine good effectiveness measures, recognize key

intervention points, and select appropriate responses.

Highly amplified car stereos emit a lot of low-frequency

sounds through the systems' woofer speakers. Low-frequency

noise is usually found to be more annoying than highfrequency noise at similar volume.2 The vibrations caused by

the low-frequency sound waves can often be felt in addition

to being heard. They cause glass and ceramics to rattle,

compounding the annoyance.3

Playing car stereos loudly can be an act of social defiance by

some, or merely inconsiderate behavior by others. For yet

others, it is a passionate hobby, an important part of their

cultural identity and lifestyle. Judging by the sales marketing of

car stereo manufacturers and dealers, the interest in car stereo

competitions† and the sums of money spent on car stereos,

police are confronting a popular and lucrative phenomenon. It

is not easy to change the behavior of those who see loud car

stereos as an important part of their lifestyle.

† In car stereo competitions, usually

sponsored by car stereo

manufacturers or distributors,

participants receive prizes for the

loudest car stereos.
The Problem of Loud Car Stereos 3

Overexposure to noise is now understood to have a number

of negative health and behavioral effects.4 Loud car stereos

most obviously affect the car occupants' hearing. Noise from

a variety of sources, including loud car stereos, can cause

hearing loss, disturb sleep, increase stress, make people

irritable, and make naturally aggressive people more

aggressive. It can make people less likely to help others, and

less likely to sit outdoors or participate in social activities. It

can compel people to move out of neighborhoods they

otherwise like, and thereby depress property values. Some

people, such as schoolchildren, hospital patients and the

mentally ill, are especially harmed by exposure to loud noise

(although loud car stereos may not be a major noise source

for these subpopulations).5

How annoyed people get about noise depends on a number

of factors,6 including the following:

• The inherent unpleasantness of the sound. This varies

widely among individuals and groups. What is music to one

is noise to another.

Some car stereo enthusiasts install enormous and expensive sound systems

in their vehicles and are highly committed to this hobby. Photo purposely

blurred to protect driver’s identity.

Bob Morris
4 Loud Car Stereos

• The persistence and recurrence of the noise. Most listeners

can tolerate occasional loud noises more than persistent and

recurrent loud noises.

• The meaning listeners attribute to the sound. The

information content of the noise influences annoyance, so

if listeners do not like the message of the music being

played, they are more likely to be annoyed by loud car

stereos. Some people perceive loud car stereos to be an

expression of rudeness and selfishness, or even a form of

aggression–a blatant defiance of social etiquette and norms.

If listeners associate loud car stereos with people they think

are dangerous, the noise problem seems even more serious.

• Whether the sound interferes with listeners' activities. For

example, loud car stereos are more likely to annoy people

during nighttime hours than during daytime hours because

they disrupt sleep.

• Whether listeners feel they can control the noise. The less

control one feels, the more likely the noise will be

annoying.7

• Whether listeners believe third parties, including police, can

control the noise. If people believe a third party can control

the noise but has failed to do so, they are more likely to be

annoyed by the noise.

Applying these factors to loud car stereos, you can see how

the same sound can affect people quite differently: some will

enjoy it,† while others will hate it.

People respond to noise in various ways. Some people

complain to authorities, some take steps to insulate

themselves, some adapt to the noise, and some move away

from the noise. Those who complain greatly appreciate

effective responses from authorities; no response or

ineffective responses are often harshly criticized.8

† Extremely loud music may

actually increase adrenaline in some

listeners or cause fluids in the ear to

shift, either of which can create a

pleasurable dizziness and euphoric

feeling (Sedgwick 1991; Cooke and

McCampbell 1992). Obviously,

complainants experience no such

pleasure.
The Problem of Loud Car Stereos 5

Related Problems

Police are also frequently called upon to address other sources

of noise, each calling for its own analysis and responses.

Among the related problems not covered in this guide are:

• barking dogs;

• loud vehicle mufflers;

• loud parties and loud stereos in residences;

• loud "boom boxes" (portable radios and tape players);

• loud music in bars and nightclubs;

• audible alarms from buildings and vehicles;

• loud power equipment (e.g., construction equipment, leaf

blowers, lawn mowers) being operated at unreasonable

hours (early morning, late night); and

• loud vehicles involved in street cruising and street racing.

The traffic safety concerns created by playing car stereos

loudly are similar to those associated with other forms of

inattentive driving, including the use of cellular phones while

driving.

Understanding Your Local Problem 7

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized

description of loud car stereos. You must combine the basic

facts with a more specific understanding of your local

problem. Analyzing the local problem carefully will help you

design a more effective response strategy.

Asking the Right Questions

The following are some critical questions you should ask in

analyzing your particular problem of loud car stereos, even if

the answers are not always readily available. Your answers to

these and other questions will help you choose the most

appropriate set of responses later on. Community surveys or

meetings will likely be necessary to answer many of these

questions because many complaints are not officially

registered, and existing records may not capture all the

information.

Incidents

• How many complaints have been registered about loud car

stereos? With whom have they been registered (police,

environmental protection officials, elected officials)?

• Have complaints been substantiated through either decibel

measurements or officers' judgments?

• How frequent are complaints (daily, weekly, episodic)?

• What percentage of all noise complaints are about loud car

stereos?

• Typically, are complaints about loud car stereos in general,

about individual cars or about a gathering of cars?

• Are offenders usually driving when playing car stereos

loudly, or are they parked (e.g., at a street party, in a park, in

a parking lot)?
8 Loud Car Stereos

Victims 

• Who complains about loud car stereos? Residents?

Merchants? School or hospital officials? Park users? Other

motorists?

• Are there persistent complainants?

• Are there any noticeable demographic patterns among

victims (age, gender, race, ethnicity, etc.)?

• How many people are annoyed by loud car stereos? How

annoyed do they claim to be? 

• What are their specific complaints? That they are

awakened? Cannot hear their televisions? Cannot hear

conversations? Are offended by music lyrics? Are made

physically uncomfortable by the noise? Are intimidated by

the noise?

• What activities are disrupted by loud car stereos (e.g., sleep,

commerce, education, recreation)?

• What percentage of people disturbed by loud car stereos

file official complaints? 

Offenders

• Are there any noticeable demographic patterns among

offenders (age, gender, race, ethnicity, etc.)?

• Are there different types of offenders (e.g., car stereo

enthusiasts, teenagers, street cruisers, drug dealers)? Do the

various types of offenders create problems at different

times and in different places?

• Are offenders aware of legal restrictions?

• To whom are car stereo owners trying to appeal when they

play their stereos loudly? Other car stereo owners? Friends?

Members of the opposite sex? Judges in organized

competitions? Potential customers for illegal drugs?

Themselves?

• What do car stereo owners say would discourage them

from playing their stereos in violation of the law?

• Where do car stereo owners buy and have special stereo

equipment installed (e.g., local car stereo dealers)?
Understanding Your Local Problem 9

• How much money have car stereo owners spent on their

equipment? (This will give you a better idea of how

meaningful various sanctions might be to them.)

Locations/Times

• Where are complaints about loud car stereos concentrated?

• From where do complainants hear loud car stereos (e.g.,

homes, businesses, vehicles)? 

• When are complainants most annoyed by loud car stereos

(daytime, nighttime, weekends)?

• Do complaints correspond with any particular events (e.g.,

closing time for bars, during street cruising events, when

schools let out)? 

Current Responses

• How are loud car stereo complaints currently handled?

• What existing legislation pertains to the problem? Does that

legislation give police and other officials adequate authority

to address it?

• Are existing laws adequately enforced?

• Are enforcement actions adequately prosecuted and

adjudicated?

• How do other jurisdictions handle this problem?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

Measurement allows you to determine to what degree your

efforts have succeeded, and suggests how you might modify

your responses if they are not producing the intended results.

You should take measures of your problem before you

implement responses, to determine how serious the problem

is, and after you implement them, to determine whether they

have been effective. All measures should be taken in both the

target area and the surrounding area. (For more detailed
10 Loud Car Stereos

guidance on measuring effectiveness, see the companion guide

to this series, Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory

Guide for Police Problem-Solvers.) 

The following are potentially useful measures of the

effectiveness of responses to loud car stereos:

• the number of official complaints about loud car stereos

filed with police and other agencies;

• the level of annoyance or concern expressed in opinion

surveys;

• the percentage of survey respondents who are highly

annoyed by loud car stereos;

• the decibel levels at problem locations (it may, however, be

difficult to separate the noise from loud car stereos from

background noise);

• the number of problem locations (if the problem is

concentrated at certain locations);

• the percentage of offenders who are repeat offenders; and

• the sales revenues of and changes in consumer purchases

reported by car stereo dealers.†

† A survey of 20 Chicago car stereo

dealers conducted by the Consumer

Electronics Manufacturers

Association reportedly revealed that

their sales declined by 30 percent–

and several dealers went out of

business–in the period immediately

following passage of a new city

ordinance regulating loud car stereos

(Colarossi 1998). These findings

should be considered with caution, as

car stereo dealers used the study

results to oppose new noise

legislation.
Responses to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos 11

Responses to the Problem of Loud Car

Stereos

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better

understanding of the factors contributing to it. Once you

have analyzed your local problem and established a baseline

for measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible

responses to address the problem.

The following set of possible responses provides a

foundation of ideas for addressing your particular problem.

These responses are drawn from the few existing research

studies, police reports and journalistic accounts of police

practices regarding loud car stereos. In spite of the fact that

loud car stereos are a common problem, there are no

published studies that evaluate the effectiveness of various

responses to the problem. With this caution in mind, you may

apply several of these responses to your community's

problem. It is critical that you tailor responses to local

circumstances, and that you can justify each response based

on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will

involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering

what police can do: give careful consideration to who else in

your community shares responsibility for the problem and can

help police better respond to it.

Some response strategies that have been proposed may have

merit, but because they do not appear to have been adopted,

they are not presented as currently viable options. These

include proposals to ban the manufacture of car stereos that

can produce very loud sound,9 and to hold car stereo

manufacturers civilly liable for noise-related harm caused by

their products.10 These proposals would compel

manufacturers to make quieter products. Other measures that
12 Loud Car Stereos

can effectively reduce noise levels, such as sound barriers and

noise-canceling technology (anti-sound waves that effectively

cancel out sound waves), do not seem to hold much promise

against mobile sound sources such as car stereos.

Enforcement of Noise Laws 

A preliminary word of caution is due regarding enforcing

noise laws to address loud car stereos: You should guard

against unfairly targeting any racial or ethnic group, and be

aware of public perceptions regarding biased enforcement.11

1. Enforcing laws that prohibit plainly audible car stereos.

Some statutes and ordinances prohibit any noise that is plainly

audible from a specified distance.† Most laws of this sort do

not require that the music lyrics or melody be intelligible; the

bass vibrations alone can suffice. The specified distances vary

across jurisdictions, ranging from 15 to 100 feet, depending

on how restrictive communities choose to be.12 The most

restrictive of the plainly audible laws say that the sound

cannot be audible to anyone other than the vehicle occupants.

The specified distances can vary by time of day, typically with

shorter distances set for nighttime hours. The advantage of

such laws is that they do not require expensive monitoring

equipment and the requisite training. Several courts have

upheld the plainly audible standard for a noise ordinance in

the face of legal challenges.†† A disadvantage to plainly audible

standards is that enforcers must measure distances, something

not easily done while a car is moving. But, with a little

training, enforcers can learn to estimate distances.

2. Enforcing laws that establish specific decibel limits for

car stereos. Some statutes and ordinances set specific decibel

limits, measured at specific distances from the source, for

various noise sources, including car stereos. These laws are

referred to as performance standard laws. The typical limit for car

† Many statutes and ordinances

regulating noise can be conveniently

accessed through the website of the

Noise Pollution Clearinghouse, a

nonprofit organization headquartered

in Vermont. See www.nonoise.org

†† See the State v. Ewing, 914 P. 2d

549, Haw. 1996 finding that a plainly

audible standard is not

unconstitutionally vague.
Responses to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos 13

stereos is around 75 to 80 decibels, measured at various

specified distances from the car. The advantage of this type

of law is that it is specific and objective. Among the

disadvantages is that it requires expensive monitoring

equipment and the requisite training, and since cars with loud

stereos are often moving, it is difficult to obtain a valid

reading of the noise level.13 Also, background noise can

confound noise readings, and some decibel scales do not

adequately record the low-frequency sounds common to loud

car stereos. The technical requirements necessary to take

readings and defend them against legal challenges necessarily

limit the number of officials who can enforce performance

standard laws.

3. Enhancing penalties or lowering tolerance levels for

loud car stereo violations that occur in specified zones.

Because loud noise is especially harmful to certain groups of

people, such as schoolchildren, hospital patients and the

mentally ill, and because complaints about loud car stereos

often are concentrated in certain residential neighborhoods, it

may make sense to enhance the penalties for violations in

areas with vulnerable populations.14

4. Enhancing penalties for repeat offenders. In many

jurisdictions, laws give judges the discretion to apply harsher

penalties for repeat offenders. Higher fines and seizure of car

stereo equipment may be reserved for repeat offenders.

5. Impounding cars with loud stereos as evidence. Some

jurisdictions, such as New York City15 and Chicago,16

authorize police to impound cars with loud stereos and to

hold the cars as evidence until the citation has been

adjudicated. The impoundment gives the offender extra

incentive to appear in court and/or pay the fine and, at a

minimum, removes the car from the streets for a brief time.
14 Loud Car Stereos

6. Holding car owners liable for loud car stereo violations.

In most jurisdictions, the driver is liable for loud car stereo

violations. But because police are seldom present when loud

car stereos are disturbing others, offenders often avoid being

cited. Under what is known as the owner onus principle, the

registered vehicle owner could be cited in the same way as

with a parking citation. Vehicle owners could then transfer the

liability for the citation if they showed proof that someone

else was operating the vehicle at the time of the offense.17 The

advantage of owner onus laws is that police would not have

to conduct traffic stops to issue citations: citizen complaints

could form the basis for citations, and agencies other than the

police department could assume some responsibility for

enforcing the law.

7. Obtaining nuisance abatement orders against loud car

stereo owners. Many jurisdictions have detailed nuisance

abatement laws and procedures that can potentially be applied

to chronic offenders. You should consult with local legal

counsel to determine whether and when nuisance abatement

is appropriate.

8. Sentencing offenders to listen to music they do not

like. This somewhat tongue-in-cheek penalty has actually

been imposed by courts in a few jurisdictions.18

Warnings and Education

9. Issuing written warnings. Written warnings or notices of

violations, commonly used by health inspectors and by police

for vehicle defects, can be applied to loud car stereo

violations, as well. They put offenders on official notice that

they are using their car stereos inappropriately, and give them
Responses to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos 15

an opportunity to modify the equipment, if necessary. An

alternative is for police to mail warning letters to the

registered vehicle owners. Some jurisdictions encourage

complaining citizens to maintain logs that record the date,

time, place, and vehicle identifiers associated with loud car

stereo incidents. Police mail warning letters on the basis of

these complaint logs.† This strategy serves two purposes: It

can significantly increase the number of incidents that receive

some sort of official response, and it can reduce

complainants' level of annoyance by giving them a greater

sense of control over the problem (recall from the earlier

discussion that a low sense of control increases annoyance). If

the offenders are teenagers, you might consider seeking their

parents' help in getting their children to comply with the law.

Official warnings might also be publicly broadcast on popular

music radio stations or issued through other mass media

formats.

10. Requiring car stereo dealers to provide customers

with warnings about the health and legal consequences

of playing car stereos loudly. Car stereo dealers can either

be required or merely requested to provide their customers

with written information about the health hazards and legal

consequences of playing their car stereos too loudly. Police

can support such efforts by supplying dealers with printed

information about local laws and police policies regarding

loud car stereos.††

11. Posting warning signs in areas where loud car stereos

are common. Warning signs, conspicuously posted in areas

where complaints about loud car stereos are common, put

potential offenders on notice of the possible consequences

for violations.

† The Savannah, Ga., Police

Department has adopted this

strategy.

†† The Savannah Police

Department is one agency that

supplies dealers with warning notices

about local noise laws.
16 Loud Car Stereos

12. Holding public demonstrations regarding loud car

stereo violations. Police can hold demonstrations for car

stereo enthusiasts, possibly in conjunction with sponsored

competitions or other events, to better communicate laws and

policies.† Many car stereo enthusiasts participate in

competitions and events sponsored by the car stereo industry.

Some enthusiasts may not genuinely appreciate how their

hobby disturbs others, or may not know the noise levels at

which they are breaking the law.

Response With Limited Effectiveness

13. Enforcing laws that require police to make subjective

judgments about noise. Statutes and ordinances that require

officers to determine whether noise is "loud and raucous,"

"unreasonable," "excessive," or "disruptive" are vulnerable to

legal challenges on the grounds that they are vague and

† The St. Petersburg, Fla., Police

Department held public

demonstrations as part of their

"Operation Tone Down" (Gray

1999).

Conspicuously posted warning signs put potential offenders on notice of

the possible consequences for violations of loud car stereo violations.

Bob Morris
Responses to the Problem of Loud Car Stereos 17

overbroad.20 Noise laws should be neutral as to the

information content of the noise, as well. For example, they

should not prohibit music that is "offensive" or "obscene."

Laws that do are vulnerable to legal challenges on free speech

grounds. Nor should noise laws apply only to personal

vehicles; they should apply equally to commercial vehicles that

use sound-amplifying equipment, such as ice cream trucks.21

Appendix 19

Appendix: Summary of Responses to

Loud Car Stereos

The table below summarizes the responses to loud car stereos,

the mechanism by which they are intended to work, the

conditions under which they ought to work best, and some

factors you should consider before implementing a particular

response. It is critical that you tailor responses to local

circumstances, and that you can justify each response based

on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will

involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem.

1.

2.

12

12

Enforcing laws

that prohibit

plainly audible car

stereos

Enforcing laws

that establish

specific decibel

limits for car

stereos

Deters offenders

through civil fines

Deters offenders

through civil fines

...there is

adequate

enforcement

...soundmonitoring

equipment is

properly

calibrated, and

officers are

properly trained

May require some

officer training to

estimate distances

Difficult to obtain

valid readings

from moving

sound sources;

requires expensive

sound-monitoring

equipment and

officer training;

background noise

can confound

readings

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Enforcement of Noise Laws
20 Loud Car Stereos

3.

4.

5.

6.

13

13

13

14

Enhancing

penalties or

lowering

tolerance levels

for loud car

stereo violations

that occur in

specified zones

Enhancing

penalties for

repeat offenders

Impounding cars

with loud stereos

as evidence

Holding car owners

liable for loud car

stereo violations

Discourages

potential

offenders from

playing car

stereos loudly in

areas with

especially

vulnerable people;

potentially

displaces

offenders to areas

where noise is

less likely to

disturb others

Deters chronic

offenders through

escalating

sanctions

Temporarily

removes cars

from public

places; deters

offenders by

temporarily

depriving them of

their enjoyment

Allows

enforcement

without stopping

and identifying

the driver;

encourages car

owners to ensure

their vehicles are

used responsibly

...potential

offenders are

adequately

notified of special

zones (through

signs, publicity

and warnings),

and there is

adequate

enforcement

...judges are

willing to impose

increased

sanctions

...there is an

efficient system

for towing and

impounding

vehicles

...the general

public perceives

owner liability for

loud car stereo

violations as fair,

and citations can

be issued based

on complainants'

testimony

Requires legislative

authorization

Some chronic

offenders are deeply

committed to loud

car stereos as part

of their lifestyle,

and are not easily

deterred

Impoundment for

evidence should be

equally applied to

all vehicles, not

used as extra

punishment applied

solely at officers'

discretion

Requires legislative

authorization

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations
Appendix 21

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

14

14

15

15

16

Obtaining

nuisance

abatement orders

against loud car

stereo owners

Sentencing

offenders to listen

to music they do

not like

Issuing written

warnings

Requiring car

stereo dealers to

provide

customers with

warnings about

the health and

legal

consequences of

playing car

stereos loudly

Posting warning

signs in areas

where loud car

stereos are

common

Deters offenders

through a range

of civil remedies

Deters offenders

by exposing them

to a similar

annoyance and

requiring them to

spend time

complying with

the sentence

Puts offenders on

official notice of

legal restrictions,

and that sound

levels exceed the

limits; gives

unwitting

offenders the

opportunity to

comply with the

law 

Puts customers

on official notice

of legal

restrictions and

encourages their

voluntary

compliance

Warns offenders

of legal

restrictions and

encourages their

voluntary

compliance

...applied against

chronic offenders,

and there is an

efficient system

for filing nuisance

abatement actions

...judges are

willing to impose

this sanction (and

have a sense of

humor)

...there is a

system for

tracking official

warnings, so that

repeat offenders

are ultimately

subject to formal

sanctions

...car stereo

dealers willingly

cooperate

...signs are

conspicuously

posted in areas

prone to loud car

stereos

Must prove the

nuisance is ongoing,

rather than an

isolated incident

Is more likely to

generate publicity

than to deter

offenders

Costs of creating

and maintaining a

warning recordkeeping system

Modest costs of

printing and

distributing

information 

Costs of

manufacturing and

posting signs

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Warnings and Education
22 Loud Car Stereos

12.

13.

16

17

Holding public

demonstrations

regarding loud car

stereo violations

Enforcing laws

that require police

to make

subjective

judgments about

noise

Encourages

compliance by

giving potential

offenders a better

understanding of

how the law

applies to their car

stereos, and by

allowing them to

interact with the

police in a

nonadversarial

setting

Police must judge

not only the

sound level, but

also the content's

quality or effect

on others

...demonstrations

are well attended

and held in

conjunction with

car stereo

competitions and

events

...local courts

have upheld

police

enforcement of

this type of law

Cooperating with

the police may run

counter to what

some car stereo

enthusiasts see as

the purpose of

having highpowered car stereos

Requires highly

subjective police

judgments; such

laws are vulnerable

to legal challenges

on grounds they are

vague or overbroad

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Response With Limited Effectiveness
Endnotes 23

Endnotes

1 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

2 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

3 Sedgwick (1991).

4 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995); Zwerling (1996); Sedgwick (1991).

5 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

6 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

7 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995); Zwerling (1996).

8 Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

9 New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority (2000). 10 Lief (1994).

11 See, for example, Crawford (2000).

12 Noise Consultancy (2001); Zwerling et al. (n.d.).

13 Noise Consultancy (2001); Zwerling et al. (n.d.).

14 Mancuso (2000). See also Berglund, Lindvall and Schwela (1995).

15 New York City Police Department (1994); Bratton (1994).

16 Colarossi (1998).

17 New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority (2000).

18 Schultz (1999), reporting on penalties in Fort Lupton, Colo.

19 Zwerling (1996).

20 Schultz (1999).

21 Zwerling et al. (n.d.).

References 25

References

Berglund, B., T. Lindvall and D. Schwela (1995). Guidelines for

Community Noise. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Bratton, W. (1994). "The New York City Police Department's

Civil Enforcement of Quality-of-Life Crimes." Journal of

Law and Policy 3(2):447-464.

Colarossi, A. (1998). "Chicago Alderman Seeks To Soften

City's Noise Ordinance, Claiming Ban on Loud Car Music

Hurts Retailers." Chicago Tribune, Sept. 30.

Cooke, P., and M. McCampbell (1992). "Noises Out: What It's

Doing to You" and "Noises In: The Culture of

Victimization." New York, Nov. 2.

Crawford, C. (2000). "Race and Pretextual Stops: Noise

Enforcement in Midwest City." Social Pathology: A Journal of

Review 6(3):213-227.

Gray, L. (1999). "Police To Target Loud Car Stereos." St.

Petersburg Times, Aug. 24.

Lief, J. (1994). "Insuring Domestic Tranquility Through

Quieter Products: A Proposed Product-Nuisance Tort."

Cardozo Law Review 16:595-648.

Mancuso, S. (2000). "Paulsboro Lowers the Volume: Loud

Music and Other Noises Will Now Be Regulated in

Response to Residents' Complaints." Philadelphia Inquirer,

Oct. 8.
26 Loud Car Stereos

New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority (2000).

Proposed Protection of the Environment Operations (Noise

Control) Regulation 2000. Regulatory impact statement.

Sydney, Australia: New South Wales Environmental

Protection Authority, Noise Policy Branch. Also

accessible at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/download/risnoise.pdf

New York City Police Department (1994). Police Strategy No. 5:

Reclaiming the Public Spaces of New York. New York: City of

New York.

Noise Consultancy (2001). Code Drafting Tip for 2001: "Boom

Cars–Boom Boxes." Somerset, N.J.: The Noise Consultancy.

www.noiseconsultancy.com

Schultz, S. (1999). "Battle of the Boom Box." Governing

13(Oct.):37-38.

Sedgwick, J. (1991). "Cut Out That Racket." The Atlantic

Monthly (Nov.):50-55.

Sickler-Hart, D. (1997). Analysis of Albuquerque, New Mexico's

Ambient Noise and Albuquerque Environmental Health's Noise

Control Program. Albuquerque, N.M.: Citizens Noise

Advisory Group of Greater Albuquerque.

www.nonoise.org/quietnet

Smith, G. (2000). "Proposed Noise Ordinance Amendments."

Internal memorandum to the chief of police, Prince

William County, VA. May 17.

Zwerling, E. (1996). "Turning Down the Volume: Effective

Strategies for Community Noise Enforcement." Police

Chief 63(12):53, 54-55, 59.
References 27

Zwerling, E., D. Pinto, P. Hanna, J. Lepis, and B. Turpin (n.d.).

Local Noise Enforcement Options and Model Noise Ordinance:

With Preapproved Language for the State of New Jersey. New

Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Cooperative Extension, Rutgers

University.

About the Author 29

About the Author

Michael S. Scott

Michael S. Scott is an independent police consultant based in

Savannah, Ga. He was formerly chief of police in Lauderhill,

Fla.; served in various civilian administrative positions in the

St. Louis Metropolitan, Ft. Pierce, Fla., and New York City

police departments; and was a police officer in the Madison,

Wis., Police Department. Scott developed training programs

in problem-oriented policing at the Police Executive Research

Forum (PERF), and is a judge for PERF's Herman Goldstein

Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. He is the

author of Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20

Years, and coauthor (with Rana Sampson) of Tackling Crime

and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving.

Scott holds a law degree from Harvard Law School and a

bachelor's degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Recommended Readings 31

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by

John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide is

a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It

provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing

problem-oriented policing efforts. Available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
32 Loud Car Stereos

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing:The 1999

Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document

produced by the National Institute of Justice in

collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A

similar publication is available for the award winners from

subsequent years. The documents are also available at

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or

ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V.

Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98,

1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity

theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have

practical implications for the police in their efforts to

prevent crime.

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses

how a police agency can implement the concept.
Recommended Readings 33

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of

Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,

2000). Describes how the most critical elements of

Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the

rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the

problem-solving process, and provides examples of

effective problem-solving in one agency.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime

and Disorder Through Problem-Solving

Partnerships By Karin Schermler, Matt Perkins, Scott

Phillips, Tammy Rinehart, and Meg Townsend. (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 1998) (also available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief introduction to

problem-solving, basic information on the SARA model

and detailed suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and

methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over

20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.
34 Loud Car Stereos

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems:

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson

and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 2001) (also available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides an introduction for police to

analyzing problems within the context of problem-oriented

policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains

many of the basics of research as it applies to police

management and problem-solving.
Other Guides in This Series 35

Other Guides in This Series

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series (Available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov):

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.

Rana Sampson. 2001.

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001.

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.

Clarke. 2002.

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002.

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.

2002.

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
36 Loud Car Stereos

Other Related COPS Office Publications

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years.

Michael S. Scott. 2001.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case

Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S. Scott.

2000.

• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative

Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced

Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999.

• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing

Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin

Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and

Meg Townsend. 1998.

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series

and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of

Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770 or check our website at

www.cops.usdoj.gov.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site by the address listed below.

e05021550 Created Date: May 22, 2002