United States General Accounting Office

GAO Report to the Ranking Minority Member,

Subcommittee on Readiness, Committee

on Armed Services, U.S. Senate

October 1998 GENDER ISSUES

Information on DOD’s

Assignment Policy and

Direct Ground Combat

Definition

GAO/NSIAD-99-7

GAO United States

General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

National Security and

International Affairs Division

B-280994 

October 19, 1998

The Honorable Charles S. Robb

Ranking Minority Member

Subcommittee on Readiness

Committee on Armed Services

United States Senate

Dear Senator Robb:

At your request, we are reviewing various issues pertaining to the

treatment of men and women in the armed forces. This report focuses on

your separate but related questions regarding the Department of Defense’s

(DOD) policy that excludes women from direct ground combat and its

definition of direct ground combat. Specifically, we determined (1) the

numbers and types of positions that are closed to women and the

associated justifications for closure, (2) DOD’s current rationale for

excluding women from direct ground combat, and (3) the relationship of

DOD’s definition of direct ground combat to current military operations. We

did not evaluate the appropriateness of DOD’s direct ground combat

exclusion rationale.

Background Opportunities for servicewomen have increased dramatically since 1948,

when the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948 gave women a

permanent place in the military services. However, the act excluded

women from serving on Navy ships (except hospital ships and transports)

and aircraft engaged in combat missions. Because the Marine Corps is a

naval oriented air and ground combat force, the exclusion of women from

Navy ships essentially barred them from combat positions in the Marine

Corps as well. The Women’s Army Corps already excluded women from

combat positions, eliminating the need for a separate statute for Army

servicewomen.

During the 1970s, Congress and the services created more opportunities

for women in the military. In 1974, the age requirement for enlistment

without parental consent became the same for men and women. Then, in

1976, women were admitted to the Air Force Academy, the Naval

Academy, and the Military Academy. In 1977, the Army implemented a

policy that essentially opened many previously closed occupations,

including some aviation assignments, but formally closed combat

positions to women. Finally, in 1978, Congress amended the 1948

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Integration Act to allow women to serve on additional types of noncombat

ships. The Navy and the Marine Corps subsequently assigned women to

noncombat ships such as tenders, repair ships, and salvage and rescue

ships.

In February 1988, DOD adopted a Department-wide policy called the Risk

Rule, that set a single standard for evaluating positions and units from

which the military service could exclude women. The rule excluded

women from noncombat units or missions if the risks of exposure to direct

combat, hostile fire, or capture were equal to or greater than the risk in the

combat units they supported. Each service used its own mission

requirements and the Risk Rule to evaluate whether a noncombat position

should be open or closed to women.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993

repealed the prohibition on the assignment of women to combat aircraft in

the Air Force, the Navy, and the Marines Corps.1

 The act also established

the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed

Forces to study the legal, military, and societal implications of amending

the exclusionary laws. The Commission’s November 1992 report

recommended retaining the direct ground combat exclusion for women.

In April 1993, the Secretary of Defense directed the services to open more

specialties and assignments to women, including those in combat aircraft

and on as many noncombatant ships as possible under current law. The

Army and the Marine Corps were directed to study the possibility of

opening more assignments to women, but direct ground combat positions

were to remain closed. The Secretary of Defense also established the

Implementation Committee, with representatives from the Office of the

Secretary of Defense, the military services, and the Joint Chiefs, to review

the appropriateness of the Risk Rule. In November 1993, Congress

repealed the naval combat ship exclusions and required DOD to notify

Congress prior to opening additional combat positions to women.2

In January 1994, the Secretary of Defense, in response to advice from the

Implementation Committee, rescinded the Risk Rule. In DOD’s view, the

rule was no longer appropriate based on experiences during Operation

Desert Storm, where everyone in the theater of operation was at risk. The

Secretary also established a new DOD-wide direct ground combat

assignment rule that allows all servicemembers to be assigned to all

1

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993 (P.L. 102-190, Dec. 5, 1991).

2

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (P.L. 103-160, Nov. 30, 1993).

Page 2 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
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positions for which they qualify, but excludes women from assignments to

units below the brigade level whose primary mission is direct ground

combat.3

 The purpose of this change was to expand opportunities for

women in the services. Additionally, the Secretary stipulated that no units

or positions previously open to women would be closed. At that time, the

Secretary issued a definition of direct ground combat to ensure a

consistent application of the policy excluding women from direct ground

combat units. As of September 1998, DOD had not revised its 1994 rule or

changed its direct ground combat definition.

In addition to establishing the direct ground combat assignment rule in

1994, the Secretary of Defense also permitted the services to close

positions to women if (1) the units and positions are required to physically

collocate and remain with direct ground combat units, (2) the service

Secretary attests that the cost of providing appropriate living

arrangements for women is prohibitive, (3) the units are engaged in

special operations forces’ missions or long-range reconnaissance, or

(4) job related physical requirements would exclude the vast majority of

women. The military services may propose additional exceptions, with

justification to the Secretary of Defense.

Results in Brief Approximately 221,000 of DOD’s 1.4 million positions are closed to women,

who comprise about 14 percent of the armed services. About 101,700

(46 percent) of these positions are closed based on DOD’s policy of not

assigning women to occupations that require engagement in direct ground

combat. The remaining 119,300 positions are closed because they are

collocated and operate with direct ground combat units, are located on

certain ships where the cost of providing appropriate living arrangements

for women is considered prohibitive, or are in units that conduct special

operations and long-range reconnaissance missions. We found no

positions closed to women because of job-related physical requirements.

DOD’s current rationale for excluding women from direct ground combat

units or occupations is similar to its rationale when it first formalized the

combat exclusion policy in 1994. At that time, DOD officials did not

consider changing its long-standing policy because they believed that the

integration of women into direct ground combat units lacked both

congressional and public support. Furthermore, transcripts of a 1994 press

3

Brigades are ground combat units of about 3,000 to 5,000 soldiers whose primary mission is to close

with and destroy enemy forces. They are comprised of battalions and form part of a division or corps.

Although many positions in the armed services have secondary tasks related to direct ground combat,

the combat rule focuses on the primary mission of the unit, according to DOD officials.

Page 3 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
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briefing indicate that DOD officials believed that the assignment of women

to direct ground combat units “would not contribute to the readiness and

effectiveness of those units” because of physical strength, stamina, and

privacy issues. At the time of our review, DOD had no plans to reconsider

the ground combat exclusion because in its view, (1) there is no military

need for women in ground combat positions because an adequate number

of men are available, (2) the idea of women in direct ground combat

continues to lack congressional and public support, and (3) most

servicewomen do not support the involuntary assignment of women to

direct ground combat units.

DOD’s definition of direct ground combat includes a statement that ground

combat forces are “well forward on the battlefield.” This statement,

however, does not reflect the less predictable nature of emerging

post-Cold War military operations that may not have a well-defined

forward area on the battlefield. If this trend continues, DOD’s definition of

direct ground combat may become increasingly less descriptive of actual

battlefield conditions.

Numbers and Types of

Assignments

Currently Closed to

Women

At the time of our review, about 221,000 positions, or about 15 percent of

the approximately 1.4 million positions in DOD, were closed to

servicewomen. About half of these are closed because of DOD’s policy to

exclude women from positions whose primary mission is to engage in

direct ground combat. Figure 1 shows the percentage and numbers of

positions closed based on exclusion policies. Appendixes I and II provide

more details on the numbers and types of positions closed by each service.

Page 4 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

Figure 1: Positions Closed to Women

Based on Exclusion Policies

Living Arrangements

Special Operations

at

Collocation

46%

2%

12%

41%

Special Operations 3,935

Living Arrangements 25,663

Collocation 89,755

Direct Ground Combat 101,733

Note: Percentages do not add to 100 due to rounding.

Source: Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force data.

As figure 1 shows, about 46 percent of the positions closed to women in

the military services are associated with the direct ground combat

exclusion policy. These positions, according to DOD officials, are in units

whose primary mission is to engage in direct ground combat and includes

occupations in infantry, armor, field artillery, and special forces. The

majority of these closures are in the Army, followed by the Marine Corps,

and a small number in the Air Force.

About 41 percent of the positions closed to women are attributed to the

collocation exclusion policy. Units that collocate with direct ground

combat units operate within and as part of those units during combat

operations. For example, Army ground surveillance radar units, while not

considered direct ground combat units, routinely operate with infantry

Page 5 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

and armor units on the battlefield. Because of the differences in roles,

missions, and organization between the Army and the Marine Corps,

however, some positions that are closed for collocation reasons in the

Army may be closed for direct ground combat reasons in the Marine

Corps, according to DOD officials.

Cost-prohibitive living arrangements account for about 12 percent of the

positions closed to women. These positions are exclusive to the Navy and

are on submarines and small surface vessels like mine sweepers, mine

hunters, and coastal patrol ships.

The special operations forces and long-range reconnaissance missions

exclusion policy accounts for almost 2 percent of all positions closed to

women. These closures are in the Navy and the Air Force because the

Army classifies most of its special operations forces as direct ground

combat forces. During our review we found no additional exceptions or

exclusions based on physical requirements.

DOD’s Current

Rationale for

Excluding Women

From Direct Ground

Combat

When DOD formalized its policy excluding women from direct ground

combat positions in 1994, it adopted the primary elements of the Army’s

ground combat exclusion policy as the DOD-wide assignment rule.

According to DOD officials from the Office of the Under Secretary of

Defense for Personnel and Readiness, the prohibition on direct ground

combat was a long-standing Army policy, and for that reason, no

consideration was given to repealing it when DOD adopted the current

assignment policy in 1994.

Other reasons for continuing the ground combat exclusion policy were

presented in a 1994 DOD news briefing announcing the opening of 80,000

new positions to servicewomen. At the briefing, defense officials said they

believed that “integrating women into ground combat units would not

contribute to the readiness and effectiveness of those units” due to the

nature of direct ground combat and the way individuals need to perform

under those conditions. The DOD official providing the briefing said that

physical strength and stamina, living conditions, and lack of public

support for women in ground combat were some of the issues considered.

According to DOD, its perception of the lack of public support was partly

based on the results of a survey done in 1992 for the Presidential

Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces. DOD

documents also cited the Department’s lack of experience with women in

direct ground combat and its observation of the experience of other

Page 6 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

countries as part of the rationale for continuing the exclusion of women

from direct ground combat.

As of September 1998, DOD had no plans to reconsider the ground combat

exclusion policy because, in its view, there is no military need for women

in ground combat positions because an adequate number of men are

available. Additionally, DOD continues to believe that opening direct

ground combat units to women lacks congressional and public support.

Finally, DOD cited military women’s lack of support for involuntary

assignments to ground combat positions as another reason for continuing

its exclusion policy. This lack of support has been documented in several

studies of military women. For example, in a 1997 Rand Corporation

study, done at the request of DOD, most servicewomen expressed the view

that while ground combat positions should be opened to women, such

positions should be voluntarily assigned.4

Direct Ground

Combat Definition

May Not Account for

Anticipated Changes

in Military Operations

DOD provided the military services with a single definition of direct ground

combat. The services use the definition to ensure a common application of

the policy excluding women from direct ground combat units. To be

considered a direct ground combat unit, the primary mission of the unit

must include all the criteria of the direct ground combat definition.

Specifically, DOD defines direct ground combat as engaging “an enemy on

the ground with individual or crew served weapons, while being exposed

to hostile fire and to a high probability of direct physical contact with the

hostile force’s personnel.”5

In addition, DOD’s definition states that “direct ground combat takes place

well forward on the battlefield while locating and closing with the enemy

to defeat them by fire, maneuver, or shock effect.” According to ground

combat experts, “locating and closing with the enemy to defeat them by

fire, maneuver, or shock effect” is an accurate description of the primary

tasks associated with direct ground combat units and positions. However,

DOD’s definition of direct ground combat links these tasks to a particular

location on the battlefield—“well forward.” In making this link, the

definition excludes battlefields that may lack a clearly defined forward

area.

4

Margaret C. Harrell and Laura L. Miller, New Opportunities for Military Women: Effect Upon

Readiness, Cohesion, and Morale, Rand National Defense Research Institute (Washington, D.C. 1997).

5

Examples of individual weapons include handguns and rifles. Crew-served weapons require more

than one person to operate and include such weapons as mortars and tanks.

Page 7 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
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According to current Army and Marine Corps ground combat doctrine,

battlefields are generally conceptualized to include close, deep, and rear

operational areas. Close operations areas involve friendly forces that are

in immediate contact with enemy forces and are usually exposed to the

greatest risk. Direct ground combat units, along with supporting

collocated units, primarily operate in the close operations area. Deep

operations are focused beyond the line of friendly forces and are generally

directed against hostile supporting forces and functions, such as command

and control, and supplies. Rear operations sustain close and deep

operations by providing logistics and other supporting functions. Several

factors determine how the battlefield will develop during a military

operation, including mission, available resources, terrain, and enemy

forces.

The phrase “well forward on the battlefield” in DOD’s definition, according

to ground combat experts, implies that military forces will be arrayed in a

linear manner on the battlefield. On this battlefield, direct ground combat

units operate in the close operational area where the forward line of

troops comprises the main combat units of friendly and hostile forces.

Land battles envisioned in Europe during the Cold War were planned in a

linear manner. Figure 2 depicts an example of a linear battlefield.

Page 8 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

Figure 2: A Linear Battlefield

Rear operations

Close operations

Deep operations Area of hostile forces

Forward line of troops

Source: Army information.

Battlefields can also be arrayed in a nonlinear manner, meaning that they

may have a less precise structure, and the functions of close, deep, and

rear operations may have no adjacent relationship. On a nonlinear

battlefield, close operations can take place throughout the entire area of

military operations, rather than just at the forward area as in the linear

organization. Recent military operations like Operation Restore Hope in

Somalia and Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia involved nonlinear

situations that lacked well-defined forward areas, according to ground

combat experts. Figure 3 depicts an example of a nonlinear battlefield.

Page 9 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

Figure 3: A Nonlinear Battlefield

Area of hostile forces

Rear operations

Close operations

Deep operations

Close operations

Source: Army information.

Ground combat experts in the Army and the Marine Corps note that, in the

post-Cold War era, the nonlinear battlefield is becoming more common.

Should this trend continue, defining direct ground combat as occurring

“well forward on the battlefield” may become increasingly less descriptive

of actual battlefield conditions.

Agency Comments We provided a draft of this report to the Office of the Secretary of Defense,

the Army, the Air Force, the Marine Corps, and the Navy. The Office of the

Secretary of Defense and the military services orally concurred with

information presented in the report. Additionally, the Army, the Navy, and

the Marine Corps provided technical comments, which we incorporated as

appropriate.

Page 10 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

Scope and

Methodology

To identify the military occupations and positions closed to women, we

reviewed data from the Army, the Marine Corps, the Navy, and the Air

Force on current positions closed to women, the numbers associated with

each closed position, and the justification for each closed position. Based

on the information provided, we compiled the closed occupations and

positions to determine the total number of positions closed and the

justification for each. We discussed the currency of this information with

officials from the Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Staff for

Personnel; Headquarters Marine Corps, Deputy Chief of Staff for

Manpower and Reserve Affairs; the Department of the Navy, Bureau of

Naval Personnel; and the Department of the Air Force, Deputy Chief of

Staff, Personnel. During this review, we did not evaluate the military

services’ decisions for closing certain positions or units to women.

To identify DOD’s rationale for the exclusion of women from direct ground

combat positions, we reviewed documents, including policy

memorandums, congressional correspondence, and press briefings from

the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness.

We also interviewed officials from the Office of the Under Secretary of

Defense for Personnel and Readiness, who helped provide useful

information regarding the historical origins of the prohibition of women in

direct ground combat.

To determine the relationship of DOD’s definition of direct ground combat

to current military operations, we reviewed Army and Marine Corps

ground combat doctrine. Doctrine is developed from a variety of sources,

including actual lessons learned from combat operations, and it provides a

framework for military forces to plan and execute military operations. We

also interviewed ground combat doctrine officials at the Army’s Combined

Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the Marine Corps’ Combat

Development Command, Quantico, Virginia, and an expert from the Naval

War College, Newport, Rhode Island.

We did not evaluate the rationale the military services used to classify

closures based on the Secretary of Defense’s approved justifications. To

calculate the percentage of positions closed to women in the military

services, we used the active duty authorized personnel end strength for

fiscal year 1998. Authorized end strength is the maximum number of

personnel authorized by Congress for a particular service. The Marine

Corps, in some publications, may show a higher percentage of positions

closed because it uses actual assignable positions to derive the percentage

of positions closed to women. The actual strength, which is a

Page 11 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
B-280994 

measurement of personnel at a particular point in time, fluctuates

throughout the year and can sometimes be lower than authorized

personnel end strength.

We conducted our review from March to September 1998 in accordance

with generally accepted government auditing standards.

We are sending copies of this report to interested congressional

committees and Members of Congress; the Secretaries of Defense, the

Army, the Air Force, and the Navy; the Commandant of the Marine Corps;

and the Director, Office of Management and Budget. We will also make

copies available to other interested parties upon request.

Please contact me at (202) 512-5140 if you or your staff have any questions

concerning this report. Major contributors to this report are listed in

appendix III.

Sincerely yours,

Mark E. Gebicke

Director, Military Operations

 and Capabilities Issues

Page 12 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Page 13 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Contents

Letter 1

Appendix I 

Positions Closed to

Women, by Service

16

Army 16

Marine Corps 17

Navy 17

Air Force 17

Appendix II 

Service Career Fields

and Occupations

Closed to Women

18

Army 18

Marine Corps 19

Navy 19

Air Force 20

Appendix III 

Major Contributors to

This Report

21

Table Table I.1: DOD Exclusions and Number of Closed or Restricted

Positions

16

Figures Figure 1: Positions Closed to Women Based on Exclusion

Policies

5

Figure 2: A Linear Battlefield 9

Figure 3: A Nonlinear Battlefield 10

Abbreviations

DOD Department of Defense

Page 14 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Page 15 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix I 

Positions Closed to Women, by Service

About 15 percent of all positions across the armed forces are closed to

women because they (1) are in occupations that primarily engage in direct

ground combat, (2) collocate and operate with direct ground combat units,

(3) are located on ships where the cost of providing appropriate living

arrangements is considered prohibitive, or (4) are in units that engage in

special operations missions and long-range reconnaissance. Table I.1

shows the number of positions closed in each service and the exclusion

justification.

Table I.1: DOD Exclusions and Number

of Closed or Restricted Positions

Direct

ground

combat

Collocation

with ground

combat units

Living

arrangements

are cost

prohibitive

Special operations

and long-range

reconnaissance Total

Army 71,670 70,280 0 0 141,950

Marine

Corps 28,469 14,991 0 0 43,460

Navy 0 4,187 25,663 3,516 33,366

Air Force 1,594 297 0 419 2,310

Total 101,733 89,755 25,663 3,935 221,086

Source: Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force data.

Army About 142,000 positions, or about 29 percent, of the Army’s fiscal year

1998 active force authorized personnel end strength of 495,000 are closed

to women. About half of these closures are associated with occupations

involving direct ground combat. These closures include the occupational

fields of infantry, armor, and special forces. The remaining closures are in

occupational specialties or units that are required to collocate and remain

with direct ground combat units, including combat engineering, field

artillery, and air defense artillery. Also, some occupational specialties in

the petroleum and water, maintenance, and transportation career fields,

for example, are considered open to women but are closed at certain unit

levels because they collocate with direct ground combat units.

Page 16 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix I 

Positions Closed to Women, by Service

Marine Corps About 43,400 positions, or about 25 percent, of the Marine Corps’ fiscal

year 1998 active force authorized personnel end strength of 174,000, are

closed to women.1

 About two-thirds of the closures are in occupational

fields involving direct ground combat, such as infantry, artillery and tank,

and assault amphibious vehicles. The other third of the closures are in

occupational specialties that are required to collocate and remain with

direct ground combat units, such as counterintelligence specialists and

low-altitude air defense gunners. In addition, some occupational

specialties, such as landing support specialist and engineering officer, are

generally open to women but are closed at certain unit levels because of

collocation with direct ground combat units.

Navy About 33,300 positions, or about 9 percent, of the Navy’s fiscal year 1998

active force authorized personnel end strength of 390,802 are closed to

women. About 77 percent of these closures are in positions on submarines

and small surface vessels where the Navy considers modifications

required for living arrangements to be cost prohibitive. About 13 percent

are closed because they collocate with special operations forces or Marine

Corps forces that engage in direct ground combat. Slightly more than

10 percent of the positions in the Navy are closed because they are in units

that conduct special operations forces missions

Air Force About 2,300 positions, or less than 1 percent, of the Air Force’s fiscal 

year 1998 active force authorized personnel end strength of 371,577 are

closed to women. About 69 percent of these are in occupations such as

tactical air command and control, combat controller, and pararescue,

which are involved with direct ground combat, according to Air Force

documents. About 18 percent are closed because the Air Force places

restrictions on assignments to aircrew positions in its helicopters that

conduct special operations forces missions. About 13 percent of the

closures are in certain weather and radio communications occupations

because they collocate with ground combat units or special operations

forces.

1

The Marine Corps shows over 30 percent of its positions closed to women in some publications

because it does not use authorized active duty personnel end strength to derive the percentage of

positions closed to women. According to Marine Corps officials, the Corps uses the number of actual

assignable positions, which was about 141,300 in fiscal year 1998. The number of actual assignable

positions closed to women does not include about 31,400 servicemembers classified as patients,

prisoners, trainees, and transients who are counted against authorized end strength but are not

actually assigned to specific positions.

Page 17 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix II 

Service Career Fields and Occupations

Closed to Women

Appendix II shows the career fields and occupations that are closed to

women. Other occupations, for example in transportation, maintenance,

and aviation, are generally considered open, but women may be restricted

from assignment to them at various unit levels because these units

collocate with direct ground combat forces.

Army

Closed Career Fields Armor

Infantry

Special Forces

Closed Occupational

Specialties

Short Range Air Defense Artillery Officer

Forward Area Air Defense Systems Technician

Field Artillery Firefinder Radar Operator

Air Defense Command Control, Computers, Communication,

 and Intelligence Tactical

Operations Center Enhanced Operator/Maintainer

Bradley Linebacker Crewmember

Avenger Crewmember

Chaparral System Mechanic

Combat Engineer

Self-Propelled Field Artillery Turret Mechanic

M1 Abrams Tank Turret Mechanic

M60A1/A3 Tank Turret

Bradley Fighting Vehicle System Turret Mechanic

Self-Propelled Field Artillery System Mechanic

M1 Abrams Tank System Mechanic

M60A1/A3 Tank System Mechanic

Bradley Fighting Vehicle System Mechanic

Ground Surveillance Systems Operator

Page 18 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix II 

Service Career Fields and Occupations

Closed to Women

Marine Corps

Closed Career Fields Infantry

Artillery

Tank and Assault Amphibian Vehicle

Closed Military

Occupational Specialties

Ground Intelligence Officer

Counterintelligence Officer

Counterintelligence Specialist

Interrogation Specialist

Ordnance Vehicle Maintenance Officer

Towed Artillery Systems Technician

Assault Amphibian Repairer/Technician

Main Battle Tank Repairer/Technician

Ordnance Vehicle Maintenance Chief

Low Altitude Air Defense Gunner

Forward Air Controller/Air Officer

Low Altitude Anti-Air Warfare Officer

Marine Corp Security Force Guard

Marine Corp Security Force Close Quarter Battle Team Member

Navy

Closed Career Fields and

Ratings

Special Warfare Officer

Warrant Officer, Special Warfare

Submarine Duty Officer

Special Warfare Combatant Swimmers

SEAL Candidate

Special Warfare Combatant Craft Crewmember

Special Operations Independent Duty Corpsman

Special Operations Technician

Submarine Force Independent Duty

Aviation Boatswain’s Mate Launch and Recovery Equipment

Fire Control Technician

Fire Control Technician, Ballistic Missile

Fire Control Technician, Gun Fire Control

Gunner’s Mate, Guns

Page 19 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix II 

Service Career Fields and Occupations

Closed to Women

Gunner’s Mate, Missile

Missile Technician

Sonar Technician, Surface

Sonar Technician, Submarine

Ships Closed to Women Fleet Ballistic Missile Submarine

Attack Submarine

Mine Counter Measure

Mine Hunter, Coastal

Patrol Coastal

Air Force

Closed Career Fields Combat Controller

Pararescue

Tactical Air Command & Control

Combat Control

Page 20 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
Appendix III 

Major Contributors to This Report

National Security and

International Affairs

Division, Washington,

D.C.

Carol R. Schuster

William E. Beusse

Colin L. Chambers

Carole F. Coffey

Julio A. Luna

Andrea D. Romich

(703261) Page 21 GAO/NSIAD-99-7 Gender Issues
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