NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

International

Education Indicators:

A Time Series Perspective

—-

.

—.

—— .

—.

-——

——

.

—— -

-— --

— ——

-—

—. ——

—.

.—

-— ——

.—

.

.—

—.—

--

.—

—

—-.

.—

m—

.— .

Marianne Perie

Zhongren Jing

Roy Pearson

Joel D. Sherman

Pelavin Research Institute

Thomas D. Snyder

Project Off]cer

National Center for Education Statistics
U.S. Department of Education

Richard W. Riley

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Sharon P. Robinson

Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Pascal D. Forgione, Jr,

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing,

and reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional

mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the condition of education in

the United States; conduct and publish reports and specialized analyses of the meaning and significance

of such statistics; assist state and local education agencies in improving their statistical systems; and

review and report on education activities in foreign countries.

NCES activities are designed to address high priority education data needs; provide consistent, reliable,

complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely, useful, and high

quality data to the U.S. Department of Education, the Congress, the states, other education policy makers,

practitioners, data users, and the general public.

We strive to make our products available in a variety of formatsand in language that is appropriate to a

variety of audiences. You, as our customer, are the best judge of our success in communicating

information effectively. If you have any comments or suggestions about this or any other NCES product or

report, we would like to hear from you. Please direct your comments to:

National Center for Education Statistics

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

555 New Jersey Avenue NW

Washington, DC 20208–5574

December 1996

The NCES World Wide Web Home Page is

http: //w,ed.gov/NCES/

Suggested Citation

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. /nternationa/ Education /indicators.’

A Time Series Perspective, NCES 97-059, by Marianne Perie, Zhongren Jing, Roy Pearson, Joel D.

Sherman. Project officer, Tom Snyder. Washington, DC: 1997.

Contact:

Tom Snyder

(202) 219-1689

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing CMce

Superintendent of Documents. Mail Stop SSOP, Washington, IX 20402-9328

ISBN 0-16 -048949- 0
International Education Indicators iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

International Education Indicators: A Time Series Perspective, was authored by a team of

expert analysts from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the Pelavin Research

Center of the American Institutes for Research, under the direction of Thomas D. Snyder, Director of

the Annual Reports Program. At the Pelavin Research Center, overall direction was provided by Joel

D. Sherman, Project Director; and day-to-day guidance was provided by Roy Pearson, Task Leader.

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed to the production of this report. At the

Pelavin Research Center: Sterlina D. Harper assisted with layout and production; Jon Stanger worked

on some early data analyses; and Larry Luskin formatted and edited most of the tables.

Outside the Pelavin Research Center, Michelle Brown of Pinkerton Computer Consultants, Inc.

designed and edited all of the graphics that appear in this report.

At the National Center for Education Statistics, Mary Frase reviewed several drafts of this

report, catching errors and making suggestions which greatly improved its quality. Claire Geddes also

reviewed early drafts of the report, providing valuable suggestions.

Several individuals served as peer reviewers of the draft manuscript and made many insightful

contributions: Robert Burton, Jonaki Bose, and Patricia Q. Brown of NCES, Irene Harworth of the

Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), F. Howard Nelson of the American

Federation of Teachers, and Linda L. Shafer of CSR, Incorporated.
International Education Indicators v

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................. iii

List of Tables..................................................................................................................................... vii

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................... viii

Introduction

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1

Other Related Projects.............................................................................................................. 4

Data Limitations....................................................................................................................... 5

Objective and Organization ...................................................................................................... 5

Major Findings......................................................................................................................... 7

Highlights............................................................................................................................................13

Contextual Characteristics............................................................................................................... 15

Indicators

The Social and Economic Context of Education

Indicator 1: Youth and Population ........................................................................... 27

Participation in Education

Indicator 2: Enrollment Rates in Formal Education ................................................. 33

Indicator 3: Private School Enrollment .................................................................... 37

Indicator 4: Enrollment Rates in Upper Secondary Education ................................. 41

Indicator 5: Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education ................................................ 45

Human and Financial Resources

Indicator 6: Student-Teacher Ratios (in the Public Sector) ...................................... 51

Indicator 7: Public Expenditures on Education as a Percentage

 of GDP .................................................................................................. 55

Indicator 8: Expenditures per Student from Public Sources (in

 Constant 1991 U.S. Dollars).................................................................. 59

System Outcomes

Indicator 9: First Degree Graduation Ratios............................................................. 65

Indicator 10: Percent of First University Degrees Awarded that

 are in Science ....................................................................................... 69

Indicator 11: Percent of Graduate Degrees Awarded that are

 in Science ............................................................................................. 73
Contents

International Education Indicators vi

Labor Market Outcomes

Indicator 12: Labor Force Participation and Educational Attainment

 for Those 25 to 64 Years of Age and Participation in

 the Labor Force by Women.................................................................. 79

Bivariate Relationships

Indicator 13: The Relationship between Participation in Formal Education

 and Expenditures Per Student from Public Sources.............................. 85

Indicator 14: The Relationship between Changes in the Population Age

 5 to 13 and Changes in the Student-Teacher Ratio at the

 Primary Level ....................................................................................... 89

Indicator 15: The Relationship between First Degree Graduation Ratio

 and Public Expenditures on Tertiary Education as a

 Percentage of GDP............................................................................... 93

Supplemental Notes and Tables...................................................................................................... 95

Glossary.......................................................................................................................................... 103
International Education Indicators vii

LIST OF TABLES Page

Contextual characteristics of OECD countries..................................................................................... 19

Table 1 C Youth and population: 1985-1991 ...............................................................................28

Table 2 C Participation in formal education, enrollment rates: 1985-1991...................................34

Table 3 C Percentage of students enrolled in private school: 1985-1991......................................38

Table 4 C Enrollment rates in upper secondary education: 1985-1991.........................................42

Table 5 C Enrollment rates in tertiary education (public and private): 1985-1991 .......................46

Table 6 C Student-teacher ratios (in the public sector): 1985-1991..............................................52

Table 7 C Public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP: 1985-1991 .......................56

Table 8 C Expenditures per student from public sources: 1985-1991 ..........................................60

Table 9 C Graduation ratios in first-degree university education: 1985-1991...............................66

Table 10 C Percent of first university degrees awarded that are in science: 1985-1991..................70

Table 11 C Percent of graduate degrees awarded in university education that are in science: 1985-

1991.............................................................................................................................74

Table 12 C Labor force participation for women 25 to 64 years of age and overall

participation for persons 25 to 64 years of age: 1988-1992 .........................................80

Table S1 C Exchange rate between each country's currency and the U.S. dollar in

terms of APurchasing power parity@ (units of the national currency per

PPP dollar)...................................................................................................................99

Table S2 C Changes in the number of children in the population age 5 to 13 between

1985 and 1991 ...........................................................................................................100

Table S3 C Changes in the number of primary and secondary school teachers

between 1985 and 1991 .............................................................................................100

Table S4 C The legal school leaving-age for compulsory education: 1992..................................101
International Education Indicators viii

LIST OF FIGURES Page

Characteristics of OECD countries .......................................................................................................21

Indicator 1 C Youth and population: 1985-1991..........................................................................30

Indicator 2 C Enrollment rates in formal education: 1985-1991 ..................................................36

Indicator 3 C Percentage of students enrolled in private school: 1985-1991................................40

Indicator 4 C Enrollment rates in upper secondary education: 1985-1991...................................44

Indicator 5 C Enrollment in tertiary education (public and private): 1985-1991 ..........................48

Indicator 6 C Student-teacher ratios (in the public sector): 1985-1991........................................54

Indicator 7 C Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP: 1985-1991 ...................58

Indicator 8 C Expenditures per student from public sources: 1985-1991 ....................................62

Indicator 9 C Graduation ratios in first-degree university education: 1985-1991 .........................68

Indicator 10 C Percent of first university degrees awarded that are in science: 1985-1991............72

Indicator 11 C Percent of graduate degrees awarded in university education that are in

science: 1985-1991 ............................................................................................... 76

Indicator 12 C Labor force participation and educational attainment for those 25 to 64

years of age: 1989 and 1992.................................................................................. 82

Indicator 13 C Relationship between participation rate in lower and upper secondary

education and public expenditures per secondary student: 1991 ............................87

Indicator 14 C Relationship between changes in the population age 5 to 13 and changes

in the student-teacher ratio at the primary level from 1985 to 1991 .......................91

Indicator 15 C Relationship between absolute change in education expenditure

from public sources as a percent of GDP and first degree graduation ratio............94
INTRODUCTION
International Education Indicators 3

INTRODUCTION

International Education Indicators: A Time

Series Perspective compares, over time,

educational issues across the different

Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) countries. The OECD is

made up of 26 developed countries dedicated

to promoting economic growth and

development around the world. The indicators

used in this comparative analysis cover the

years 1985 to 1991, a seven-year time series to

study trends in policy. Those years were a

period of change for many countries.

In the United States, the seven years represent a

span marked by intense education reform. A

Nation at Risk, which many now recognize as

the Atrigger@ for change, highlighted the state

of American education and its essential role in

the nation's prosperity. A Time for Results was

subsequently published in 1986, supporting

findings in A Nation at Risk, and giving specific

recommendations for the improvement of

America's educational system.

In 1989, the nation's governors established six

National Education Goals, which highlighted

improvements that should be made by the year

2000. These publications have focused on the

goals relating to education outcomes. For

example, goal 2 emphasizes the importance of

completing high school, goal 3 stresses

achievement in all subjects, and goal 5 sets the

stage for the United States to be first in the

world in mathematics and science.

The indicators in this report provide data on

how close the United States is to meeting its

goals, as well as how the country compares to

other countries. These indicators also should

aid policy makers in determining what changes

have been made in the education system in the

United States during this period of intense

reform.

In addition, we compare changes in the United

States during this time period to changes

occurring in other countries, as other countries

were engaging in their own reform movements.

 This report allows countries, themselves, to

identify similarities and differences among

themselves, and to compare trends in their own

country to those occurring in other countries. 

Highlighted in this publication are the basic

components of education, including enrollment,

expenditures, and outcomes; and, by initially

examining demographic and economic

characteristics, the education system of each

country is placed in appropriate context. 

Readers are thus able to review both

substantive indicators and the context within

which they should be examined. That context,

itself, includes an understanding of the

education systems and social structures of

different countries, factors which have a

bearing on a country's relative position on a

given education indicator. Provided with such

background, the reader can better understand,

and make inferences about, the meaning of the

indicators for each country, its students, and its

people. Moreover, by comparing trends in the

social or economic variables to trends in the

education system, the reader can more clearly

see the relationship between background

variables and education policies.

Other Related Projects

In response to an increased demand for

information on education, the Centre for
Introduction

International Education Indicators 4

Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) at

the OECD initiated the International Education

Indicators Project (INES). Several publications

have been released recently which use the data

collected under INES to explore the differences

in the education systems of different countries. 

The first product of this effort, Education at a

Glance, was published in 1992, and was a

result of a collective effort to improve the

gathering and reporting of international

information on education in the OECD

countries. Early in 1995, the third edition of

Education at a Glance was published. It

contains 49 international indicators covering

the 1991-1992 school year, and was developed

in cooperation with the new OECD Unit for

Education Statistics and Indicators. The three

major content areas of this publication are: 

Contexts of Education; Costs, Resources and

School Processes; and Results of Education. 

Overall, the publication provides a

comprehensive view of the countries, as it

looks at such indicators as APublic confidence

in the schools,@ ATeacher education,@ AHours of

instruction,@ and AProgress in reading

achievement.@

Another publication released recently was the

second edition of Education in States and

Nations: 1992, produced by the National

Center for Education Statistics. The first

edition of this publication was released in 1993,

and reported data for 1988. In this publication,

indicators are seen as international benchmarks

for assessing the condition of education in

individual states and in the United States as a

whole. Country-level and state-level data are

arrayed in separate tables and in a chart for

each indicator in order to facilitate

comparisons.

Education in States and Nations includes 37

indicators divided into six sections: 

Background; Participation; Processes and

Institutions; Achievement and Attainment;

Labor Market Outcomes; and Finance. 

Indicators vary from social issues, such as

ABirths to teen mothers,@ to school

demographics, such as AClass size,@ and from

equity issues, such as AEducational equity for

women,@ to financial issues, such as ATeacher

salaries.@

Finally, the most recent NCES publication to

use INES data is Education Indicators: An

International Perspective. This publication,

produced in 1996, reports data from 1991-

1992, and provides a clear, comprehensive

view of the education systems of the United

States and its economic competitors. This

publication was written from the viewpoint of

the United States, (i.e., the United States was

used as a reference to which all other countries

were compared). Education Indicators: An

International Perspective provided American

policy makers, business people, researchers,

and other concerned citizens with the data and

contextual information necessary to make

informed judgements about successes and

shortcomings of the U.S. education system. Its

indicators are, therefore, geared to the interests

of a U.S. audience.

The publication, itself, is divided into six

sections: Participation and Student Flows;

Achievement and Attainment; Education and

Labor Market Decisions; Educational

Institutions; Contextual Factors; and Societal

Support. Some indicators unique to this

publication include ALocus and mode of

decision-making in education,@ AComputer

use,@ and AHome and school language.@

While these three publications include more

indicators and give a more thorough view of

the education systems in the different countries

than this publication does, data are only

provided for the most recent year. 
Introduction

International Education Indicators 5

International Education Indicators: A Time

Series Perspective provides data for all the

years for which data were collected: 1985-

1991, or 1992.

Data Limitations

The numbers shown in this publication were

tabulated from Education at a Glance software

prepared by the INES Project on international

indicators. These data have several limitations

that need to be mentioned.

The data were originally collected for

individual years, with no special consideration

given to building a longitudinal trend series. 

The data were then revised in 1993, in order to

build a coherent data series that could, in fact,

be used for longitudinal comparisons. These

revised data are reported in this publication. 

Several problems occurred in the revision,

however, that raise questions about the strict

comparability of the data as a time series. 

First, INES definitions are refined each year to

improve the comparability of indicators across

countries. Therefore, a definition used in 1991

may be different from one used in 1985. In

addition, methods of collecting data and the

wording of questions have also changed over

the years, again raising questions of data

comparability over time. 

While these problems affect some indicators

more than others, this publication selected

indicators believed to have only minimal data

problems. In cases where the comparability of

the data became problematic, the affected data

were excluded from the tables. For this and

other reasons, many indicators are missing data

for one or more countries for one or more

years. In such cases, averages were calculated

by using only the countries that reported data

for each year. Thus, the averages may not

provide a good indicator of the overall average

for any given year.

In the future, a new database will highlight the

discrepancies for each country for each year. 

Efforts will then be made to have each country

resolve the problems with its data. Newly

revised data will be integrated back into the

original INES database, which should allow for

more reliable time series comparisons among

the countries. Until then, the data contained

here are the best available.

Objectives and Organization

This publication has produced indicators that

each give a broad picture of an education issue,

allowing for comparisons to be made both

among countries and over time. The indicators

selected for this publication were chosen

primarily because of their policy relevance and

available data. Several issues were selected

because of their relevance to many countries,

and because they show changes occurring over

time as a result of policy reforms. We then

explored the availability of data for all the

countries over the seven-year period.

For the most part, indicators were chosen for

inclusion in this publication if they provided

data for a majority of the OECD countries over

most of the years, and if the data were deemed

not to contain severe comparability problems. 

Only 12 primary indicators are therefore

included, along with three indicators showing

bivariate relationships between different sets of

data. While the number of indicators is small,

the indicators encompass a wide range of

education issues, and they provide a

comprehensive view of the differences among

countries and the changes over time.

The twelve indicators presented here are

divided into five sections:
Introduction

International Education Indicators 6

< The Social and Economic Context of

Education

< Participation in Education

< Human and Financial Resources

< System Outcomes

< Labor Market Outcomes

The Social and Economic Context of

Education provides some descriptive

information to understand the context within

which the education system operates. 

Participation rates, for instance, indicate the

availability and priority placed on education. 

Participation in Education examines

enrollment rates across the countries at the

various education levels, and shows where and

how enrollment rates have fluctuated over time.

Human and Financial Resources provides

information on the relative expenditures for

education, and on the percentage of resources

each country has been willing or able to

contribute to its education system over time.

System Outcomes reports the percentage of

the population that is awarded degrees and the

proportion of those degrees that are in science,

providing an indication of the skill level of the

various countries in some specific areas of

study. Finally, Labor Market Outcomes

demonstrates the strength of the relationship

between education and participation in the

labor force in each of the countries, over time. 

Because returns in the labor market are a major

goal of investment in education in all countries,

this section indicates each country's success

relative to that goal.

Within any given section, each indicator

contains findings summarized in textual,

tabular, and graphical formats. With a few

exceptions, each indicator includes a table with

four panels of time-series data, and highlights

areas of the data by depicting them graphically.

 Major points are summarized in a series of

bullets, prefaced by an explanation of the

relevance of the indicator.

Several indicators include explanations of the

technical points of the analysis, while

discrepancies in the data or substantive

differences among countries (e.g., different

definitions of terms) are discussed in the

supplemental notes and tables section.

Countries displayed in the graphics were

usually selected to show the range of values on

a particular indicator. Countries in all bar

charts were rank-ordered from highest to

lowest, based upon the most recent year of

data.

In the text, trends in the United States are

compared largely to trends in other AGroup of

Seven@ (GB7) countries, essentially because

those countries are recognized as the world's

major industrialized economies. The GB7

countries are the United States, Canada, Japan,

France, Germany, Italy, and the United

Kingdom. These countries are similar to one

another in terms of economic development, and

are those with which the United States

competes most often in world commerce.

Three chapters follow this first introductory

chapter. Chapter 2 uses several social and

economic variables to provide a context for the

comparisons that follow. Chapter 3 includes

12 indicators, each providing data on one facet

of education.

The goal of Chapter 3 is to provide a general

overview of the education systems in each of

the 24 participating OECD countries, from
Introduction

International Education Indicators 7

1985 to 1991, and to make comparisons both

among countries and over time. For example,

the ratios indicator depicts the average number

of students enrolled for each teacher in the

education system; and it provides data for each

of the 24 countries over the seven-year period

(which show that there are substantial

differences in the student-teacher ratios across

the countries, and that the ratios have, for the

most part, either decreased or remained stable

over the years).

The three indicators included in Chapter 4

explore a bivariate relationship between two of

the simple indicators in Chapter 3. In essence,

the chapter explores several hypotheses about

the relationships between different educational

factors. For example, the Youth and

Population indicator was compared to the

Student-teacher Ratios indicator, the point

being to determine how an increase in the

proportion of school-age children in the

population is related to student-teacher ratios. 

One hypothesis would be that when the

population Abecomes younger,@ student-teacher

ratios tend to increase. In fact, the percentage

change in the student-teacher ratio tends to

increase or decrease in proportion to the

percentage change in the number of 5- to 13-

year-olds in the population, with some

exceptions in countries such as Spain and the

United Kingdom.

Major Findings

Chapter 3 contains twelve indicators divided

into five sections. The first section, AThe

Social and Economic Context of Education,@

contains a set of background variables and one

indicator, AYouth and Population.@ The

purpose of the background variables is to show

how the countries compare to one another on

demographic characteristics, economic welfare,

and employment statistics. The demographic

characteristics list the total area of the countries

and indicate the population density, showing

Canada and the United States to have the

largest land mass and the Netherlands, Japan,

and Belgium to have the most residents per

square kilometer. Out of the 24 OECD

countries with data available, the United States

and Canada rank 17th and 22nd, respectively,

in terms of population density. 

The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita

is a measure of a country's level of productivity,

as related to the size of the population. The

GDP per capita is reported using purchasing

power parity (PPP) as the conversion factor

which equates this measure across the different

countries. Purchasing power parity is the rate

of currency conversions that eliminates

differences in price levels among countries by

equalizing the value of money in terms of the

goods or services that money can buy. (For a

more complete explanation of PPP, please see

the supplemental notes.) The data show the

United States, Japan, Switzerland, the former

West Germany, and Luxembourg to have the

highest GDP per capita, while Greece and

Turkey have the lowest GDP per capita. There

were also substantial differences among

countries in the real rate of growth in GDP per

capita between 1985 and 1991.

While the cyclical nature of unemployment

makes it difficult to pinpoint, an analysis of

unemployment data highlights Spain and

Ireland as the countries that consistently report

the highest levels of unemployment. From

1985 to 1992, between 16 and 21 percent of

the labor force in Spain and between 14 and 18

percent of the labor force in Ireland were

unemployed. Japan, Austria, Luxembourg, and

Switzerland consistently report unemployment

rates of less than 4 percent. While the
Introduction

International Education Indicators 8

unemployment rate in the United States dipped

down to about 5 percent in the late 1980s, in

1985 and in 1992, unemployment hovered at

about 7 percent.

Other measures of employment include the

percent of unemployed youth, and the

distribution of employment across different

industrial sectors. Spain and Italy tend to have

higher rates of youth unemployment, while very

few youth are unemployed in Luxembourg and

Japan. While Turkey shows the largest portion

of its employment in the agricultural sector, all

other OECD countries report the majority of

their employment in the services sector. In

almost all the countries, between one-fifth and

one-third of the jobs are found in the industry

sector.

These data provide a clear picture of the social

and economic background of the different

countries; and they help to provide a

framework for evaluating education data. The

first indicator, AYouth and Population,@

provides information on the population size,

and illustrates what proportion of the

population is made up of the younger age

groups. Looking at the percentage of the

population age 5 to 24 years gives an estimate

of the potential demands on the education

system, as well as a prediction of the relative

size of the labor force in the years to come.

The second section, AParticipation in

Education,@ includes four indicators on

enrollment. Indicator 2 AEnrollment Rates in

Formal Education,@ shows, by age group, what

percentage of the population is enrolled in

school.

Examining differences in enrollment rates

across countries and over time may highlight

differences in the value a country places on

education; and it may illustrate the dependency

of the economy on a trained workforce. In

most countries, at least 65 percent of the

population age 5 to 24 was enrolled in formal

education. For the most part, the percentage

enrolled increased from 1985 to 1991; and in

1991, the numbers ranged from 47 percent in

Turkey to 75 percent in France.

The next indicator, APrivate School

Enrollment,@ describes the availability of

alternatives to public education in the different

countries. Changes in private schools' share of

enrollment can result from changes in any one

of a number of factors, including tuition rates,

family income, the relative value placed on

education, the importance of religion in

education, satisfaction with the public schools,

and the simple availability of public schools. 

On average, less than 20 percent of the

population in the OECD countries attends

private school. Of course, this percentage

varies widely among countries and between

education levels.

Almost 100 percent of students in Ireland

attend private schools at the primary level,

while less than 1 percent of students in the

former West Germany attend private schools at

the tertiary (postsecondary) level. For the most

part, and in the majority of the countries,

private schools' share of enrollment remains

relatively stable over time.

The indicator entitled AEnrollment Rates in

Upper Secondary Education@ provides an

indication of what percentage of the population

is enrolled at this level. The participation rates

in upper secondary programs may be an

indication of the value placed on on-going

education, the economic need for skilled

workers, and the availability of diverse

institutions to meet all student needs. Overall,

enrollment rates in upper secondary education

have increased from 1985 to 1991, at all ages
Introduction

International Education Indicators 9

between 16 and 19, indicating that students are

staying in school longer.

The last indicator in this section is AEnrollment

Rates in Tertiary Education.@ Tertiary

education includes both public and private

university and non-university institutions, and a

country's enrollment rates are dependent upon a

number of factors, including the value a

country places on higher education, the need

for more advanced skills in the workforce, the

diversity of programs offered at the tertiary

level, and the accessibility of tertiary education.

Enrollment rates have either remained relatively

stable across time or increased slightly. The

United States, for instance, continues to

demonstrate the highest rate of enrollment in

tertiary education at ages 18 to 21, of all OECD

countries with data available, a fact possibly

due to the value this country places on

education, as well as the availability of diverse

types of higher education, including community

colleges and four-year universities.

The third section, AHuman and Financial

Resources,@ contains three indicators

examining human resources in terms of the

relative number of teachers and financial

resources, and does so in terms of expenditures

on education. The first indicator in this section,

AStudent-teacher Ratios,@ compares the number

of students enrolled in each level to the number

of teachers working at that level. For students,

a lower student-teacher ratio could mean easier

availability of a teacher's guidance, while a

higher ratio could mean less individualized

attention. On average, student-teacher ratios

have dropped from 1985 to 1991. While there

is much variation among countries, most

countries show a smaller student-teacher ratio

at the secondary level than at the primary level.

The first expenditures indicator is APublic

Expenditures on Education as a Percentage of

GDP.@ The percentage of the GDP spent on

education from public sources may reflect the

value a country places on education, as well as

differences in income within a country. 

However, it is not a measure of total

expenditures on education, since expenditures

from private sources are not included.

Overall, countries spend between 4 and 7

percent of their GDP on public expenditures for

education. Several countries have shown an

increase in the percentage spent on education

since 1985, while others have shown a

decrease. However, the changes vary

considerably across countries and among

education levels.

The other expenditure indicator is

AExpenditures per Student from Public

Sources,@ which measures how much public

financial resources a country devotes to

educating the individual student, on average. 

As an indicator, it reflects not only the wealth

of a country, but how much emphasis a country

places on education, as well as the public cost

of educating its students. In most OECD

countries for which data are available, perstudent expenditures increase by education

level.

Most countries also reported an increase in perstudent expenditures in real terms between

1985 and 1991. Once again, per-student

expenditures varied greatly among the different

countries and within the different levels. For

example, Ireland spent approximately $1,500

per student at the primary level, while

Switzerland spent over $14,500 per student at

the tertiary level.

The fourth section, ASystem Outcomes,@

contains three indicators: the percentage of the

population that receives degrees; and the

proportion of these degrees that are in science. 
Introduction

International Education Indicators 10

The first indicator, AFirst University Degree

Graduation Ratios,@ compares the number of

students earning their first college degree to the

number of students who are of the typical age

of college graduation. The ratio indicates what

percent of the population at a given age had the

opportunity and the desire to receive an

advanced education, and it indirectly measures

the skills available to the various national

economies.

Overall, between 1985 and 1991, first degree

graduation ratios increased, with the largest

increases in percentage points found in Norway

and Canada. In addition, for the average of all

OECD countries, first degree ratios of women

have grown at a faster rate, and they have

surpassed those of men.

The other two indicators in this section look at

the APercent of University First Degrees

Awarded That Are in Science,@ and the

APercent of Graduate Degrees Awarded That

Are in Science.@ Both indicators demonstrate

the value placed on highly qualified labor in the

sciences, and may provide an indirect measure

of the competitiveness of each country in the

field of science.

Overall, more degrees are being awarded in the

natural sciences and in engineering than in

mathematics and the computer sciences. From

1985 to 1991, there was little fluctuation in the

percent of first degrees awarded that are in

science (for the average of all OECD

countries). However, at the graduate level,

there was a substantial decrease in the percent

of natural science degrees awarded. The

United States saw a fairly substantial decrease

in the percent of science degrees awarded at the

bachelor's level, as well as in the percent of

natural science degrees awarded at the graduate

level; however, the percent of graduate degrees

awarded in mathematics and computer science,

and in engineering, increased slightly.

The final section, ALabor Market Outcomes,@

has only one indicator: ALabor Force

Participation and Educational Attainment.@

Labor force participation rates indicate the

degree to which a population has the ability and

the opportunity to seek employment. Variation

in labor force participation by levels of

educational attainment may reflect not only the

impact of formal education on employment

opportunities, but the economic returns to

human capital investment.

Overall, for all countries across time, the labor

force participation rate is higher for those with

a university education than for those with an

upper-secondary education. Between 1989 and

1992, those rates increased in some countries

and decreased in others, but the OECD average

remained constant.

Chapter 4 contains three indicators that

examine more complex relationships between

the variables based on correlation

coefficients that were tested for significance. 

AParticipation in Formal Education and

Expenditures per Student from Public

Sources,@ looks at the association between a

financial resource indicator and an enrollment

indicator. The hypothesis tested here is that

there is a direct relationship between changes in

expenditures per student from public funds and

participation rates at the upper secondary level.

 This relationship was found to be significant,

meaning the hypothesis was supported by the

data. For example, for countries that spent

$5,000 or more per student at the secondary

level in 1991, the participation rate exceeded

90 percent. In other countries with much lower

expenditures per student, such as Portugal and

Turkey, participation rates were also lower. 

The second indicator, AThe Relationship

between Changes in the Population Age 5 to 13

and Changes in the Student-Teacher Ratios,@

examines the association between an indicator
Introduction

International Education Indicators 11

from the section on the context of education

and one on human resources.

This indicator tested the hypothesis that as the

school-age cohort increases or decreases, the

teacher population remains static, causing the

student-teacher ratios to increase or decrease. 

This theory is not supported by the data. While

some individual countries showed a positive

relationship between changes in the student

population and changes in the student-teacher

ratio, the countries as a whole showed no

relationship between the two variables,

indicating that there are other forces

determining the ratio between the number of

students and the number of teachers.

The last indicator, AFirst University Degree

Graduation Ratios and Public Expenditures on

Tertiary Education as a Percent of GDP,@ again

examines the same measure of financial

resources distributed to education. However,

this time it compares that measure to a system

outcome. The hypothesis tested here is that

changes in public expenditures on tertiary

education as a percent of GDP are related to

changes in the first degree graduation ratio. 

Once again, this relationship was found to be

significant.

Using Norway as an example, we see that

Norway's first degree graduation ratio increased

from 19 percent in 1985 to 31 percent in 1991,

correlating with its increase in public

expenditures as a percent of GDP. For the

most part, graduation ratios increased between

1985 and 1991, regardless of increases in

expenditures although the countries with the

largest increases in public expenditures also

showed the largest increases in first degree

graduation ratios.

Together, these 15 indicators provide

Asnapshots@ of the differences in the education

systems of the different countries, as well as

indicate the trends over time in education in the

different countries.
13 International Education Indicators

HIGHLIGHTS

Most countries showed increases in participation for the 5- to 24-year-old cohort between 1985 and 1991. While

the United States= enrollment rate for this cohort increased 4 percentage points, the largest increases occurred in

New Zealand, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Much of this increase can be attributed to the increase in

participation of 18- to 24-year-olds in tertiary education. (Indicator 2)

Between 1985 and 1991, enrollment rates in tertiary education increased across all age groups for nearly all the

OECD countries with data available. Some of the largest gains occurred for 18- to 21-year-olds. The United

States consistently reported the highest enrollment for 18- to 21-year-olds in tertiary education with enrollment

rates between 33 and 38 percent. (Indicator 5)

Student-teacher ratios at both the primary and secondary levels declined between 1985 and 1991 in the majority of

countries with available data. Some of the largest declines were seen in Spain, Italy and the United States. 

(Indicator 6)

Between 1985 and 1991, public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP increased in several countries,

including Norway, Portugal, Spain, and the United States. Australia showed a large decrease on this indicator

between 1985 and 1989, and Belgium showed a similar decrease between 1985 and 1990. In most OECD

countries, public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP were higher at the secondary level than at

either the primary level or the tertiary level. (Indicator 7)

In most OECD countries, expenditures per student (in constant 1991 U.S. dollars) increased between 1985 and

1991 at all education levels. However, expenditures per student decreased in Belgium at the primary and

secondary levels, in Sweden at the pre-primary level, and in Denmark at the tertiary level. (Indicator 8)

The United States, Switzerland, and Sweden have the highest per-student expenditures at the secondary level and

their participation rates are also among the highest. (Indicator 13)

Between 1985 and 1991, first degree graduation ratios increased in most OECD countries. The largest increases

were found in Norway and Canada. Canada=s increase of 12.1 percentage points was large enough to make it the

country with the highest first degree graduation ratio of all OECD countries with data available in 1991. 

(Indicator 9)

Between 1985 and 1991, almost all the OECD countries with data available increased public expenditures on

tertiary education as a percentage of GDP, the only exception being the former West Germany. During the same

period, the majority of countries also experienced an increase in the first degree graduation ratios; the exceptions

were the former West Germany and Sweden. (Indicator 15)

The percentage of graduate degrees awarded by universities in science dropped overall between 1985 and 1991. 

Countries experiencing large drops in the percentage of graduate degrees awarded in science included Finland,

Turkey, Spain, Norway, and Austria. However, several countries, including the former West Germany, Japan, and

Denmark, showed increases in the percentage of graduate degrees awarded in science. (Indicator 11)
CONTEXTUAL

CHARACTERISTICS
International Education Indicators 17

CONTEXTUAL CHARACTERISTICS

This chapter shows how the OECD countries compare to one another on demographic characteristics,

economic welfare, and employment, and provides a picture of the social and economic characteristics

of the different countries. These background variables provide a context for understanding countries'

education systems.

A country's land area and population can have a large influence on the organization of its education

system. Countries with large areas may face greater challenges in providing educational services, since

resources must be spread over a wider geographic area. Countries with high population densities may

face a greater demand for education services, but may be able to support a wider range of specialized

education and training opportunities more efficiently.

Gross Domestic Product per capita is a measure of a country's level of productivity, as related to the

size of the population. GDP per capita is measured in constant (1991) dollars to equate the measure

across years. Purchasing power parity, the rate of currency conversion which adjusts for differences in

the cost of living across countries, is used to equate the measure across the different countries. GDP

per capita provides an indication of the potential resources available in a country to support its

education system.

The unemployment rate shows the percentage of the labor force that is currently without work and

seeking employment, and is an important indicator of the overall status of a country's economy. In

many industrialized countries, employment is related to education, as more highly educated people are

more likely to have the skills necessary to obtain employment, and are thus more likely to be employed.

Unemployment rates are cyclical and, thus, may differ if calculated at different points in time. More

stable measures of employment include the percentage of youth in the labor force and the distribution

of employment across the different industrial sectors. The percentage of youth aged 15 to 24 in the

labor force and the percentage of youth who are unemployed are both linked to factors influencing the

decision to stay in school or enter the workforce. The different industrial sectors provide an indication

of the economic development of a country. A more industrialized country will have most of its

employment in the industry and service sectors while a less industrialized country will have more

employment in the agricultural sector. Different economic structures require different human resources

and thus emphasize different skills in their education systems.

< Canada, the United States, and Australia have the largest land masses, while the

Netherlands, Japan, and Belgium have the most residents per square kilometer.

 Of the 24 OECD countries with data available, the United States and Canada

rank 17th and 22nd, respectively, in population density.

< The United States consistently reported the highest GDP per capita between

1985 and 1992, and GDP per capita grew, in real terms, by 6.2 percent over

that time period. While no other country had a higher GDP per capita than the
Contextual Characteristics

International Education Indicators 18

United States, several countries showed a faster rate of growth. For example,

in real terms, GDP per capita rose in Portugal, Ireland, and Japan by 44, 40 and

28 percent, respectively and by 20 percent in the former West Germany and

Italy.

< Spain and Ireland consistently reported the highest levels of unemployment C

at or above 14 percent during the period 1985 to 1992. Japan and Austria

consistently reported unemployment rates of less than 4 percent.

< In 1992, less than 40 percent of youth in France, Greece, and Belgium

participated in the labor force while over 70 percent participated in the United

Kingdom. Spain, Italy, and Greece tended to have higher rates of youth

unemployment than other OECD countries, while very few youth were

unemployed in Luxembourg or Japan. The United States had a higher youth

labor force participation rate and a lower youth unemployment rate than the

majority of the OECD countries with available data.

< In 1992, all OECD countries reported the majority of their employment in the

services sector, except for Turkey which showed the agriculture sector as

having the highest employment. In all the countries with data available,

between one-fifth and one-third of the jobs were found in the industry sector.
Contextual characteristics of OECD countries

Gross domestic product per capita at constant (1991) prices based on PPPsReal growth in GDP

Total area Population density: 1992 per capita (%)

(in 1000 sq. km.) (per sq. km.) Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1985-1992

7686.8 2.3 Australia 16,264 16,602 17,091 17,587 17,476 16,698 16,365 16,152 -0.7

83.9 95.2 Austria 15,538 15,797 15,962 16,516 17,013 17,323 17,342 18,197 17.1

30.5 328.2 Belgium 15,114 15,404 15,621 16,254 16,721 17,021 17,160 18,337 21.3

9976.1 2.9 Canada 18,048 18,559 18,982 19,611 19,638 19,074 18,395 18,112 0.4

43.1 120.4 Denmark 16,447 17,123 17,069 17,207 17,222 17,245 17,439 17,712 7.7

338.0 15.0 Finland 14,783 15,097 15,449 15,900 16,533 16,221 14,816 13,900 -6.0

549.0 105.0 France 16,289 16,700 16,895 17,469 17,953 18,078 18,156 18,628 14.4

248.7 260.8 West Germany (former) 17,125 17,619 17,772 18,269 18,666 19,142 19,681 20,574 20.1

132.0 78.6 Greece 7,388 7,529 7,442 7,734 7,948 7,737 7,764 8,306 12.4

103.0 2.5 Iceland 16,583 17,656 19,027 18,906 18,810 18,719 18,695 18,983 14.5

70.3 50.6 Ireland 9,280 9,292 9,675 10,069 10,840 11,678 11,966 12,988 40.0

301.2 189.5 Italy 14,876 15,401 15,806 16,396 16,803 16,959 17,167 17,775 19.5

377.8 330.0 Japan 15,328 15,727 16,212 17,095 17,753 18,336 18,951 19,543 27.5

2.6 146.2 Luxembourg 18,803 19,456 19,545 20,338 20,929 20,762 20,857 21,938 16.7

40.8 375.0 Netherlands 15,009 15,427 15,434 15,689 16,257 16,621 16,427 17,018 13.4

268.7 12.9 New Zealand 14,181 14,544 14,549 14,346 14,460 14,083 13,643 14,047 -0.9

324.2 13.3 Norway 16,032 16,736 16,913 16,690 16,648 16,680 16,765 18,009 12.3

92.4 107.0 Portugal 6,789 7,111 7,461 7,788 8,277 8,656 9,116 9,777 44.0

504.8 77.4 Spain 10,124 10,465 10,988 11,493 11,963 12,249 12,705 12,891 27.3

450.0 19.4 Sweden 16,523 16,961 17,351 17,609 17,832 17,720 16,839 16,638 0.7

41.3 168.0 Switzerland 20,208 20,782 20,953 21,327 22,141 22,179 21,758 22,327 10.5

780.6 76.2 Turkey 4,210 4,447 4,743 4,720 4,602 4,856 4,811 4,872 15.7

244.8 236.2 United Kingdom 14,505 15,193 15,792 16,491 16,730 16,557 15,580 16,333 12.6

9372.6 27.5 United States 21,243 21,748 22,098 22,681 22,971 22,890 22,385 22,549 6.2

1

PPP stands for purchasing power parity—an adjustment factor. Refer to the supplementary notes for a description of this adjustment factor.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education Statistics, 1985–1992 and OECD in Figures, 1995.
Contextual characteristics of OECD countries (continued)

Youth1Youth unemployment: 19921,2 Unemployment Employment by sector: 19923

% in Labor Force: 1992 Men Women Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Agriculture Industry Services

68.2 20.2 16.8 Australia 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.1 6.1 6.9 9.5 10.7 5.3 23.8 70.8

62.2 — — Austria 3.6 3.1 3.8 3.6 3.1 3.2 3.5 3.6 6.9 35.0 58.1

37.4 17.4 19.7 Belgium 12.3 11.6 11.3 10.3 9.3 8.7 9.3 10.3 2.6 27.7 69.7

65.1 20.2 15.1 Canada 10.4 9.5 8.8 7.7 7.5 8.1 10.2 11.2 4.4 22.2 73.4

68.8 14.3 14.6 Denmark 7.3 5.5 5.4 6.5 8.1 8.3 9.1 9.0 5.2 26.3 68.5

49.5 15.4 11.3 Finland 5.0 5.3 5.0 4.5 3.4 3.4 7.5 13.0 8.6 27.0 64.5

34.0 21.5 28.4 France 10.2 10.4 10.5 10.0 9.4 8.9 9.4 10.2 5.1 27.7 67.2

58.6 7.4 7.6 West Germany (former) 8.0 7.6 7.6 7.6 6.8 6.2 5.5 5.8 3.0 37.0 60.0

36.0 20.1 38.6 Greece 7.8 7.4 7.4 7.7 7.5 7.0 7.7 — 21.3 24.2 54.5

— — — Iceland 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.6 1.6 2.1 — 10.7 26.4 62.9

 — 

47.2 24.9 20.9 Ireland 17.4 17.4 17.6 16.7 15.6 13.7 15.7 — 13.8 28.9 57.3

44.7 26.7 35.6 Italy 10.1 10.9 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.2 10.8 11.4 7.4 33.3 59.3

46.4 4.9 5.3 Japan 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.2 5.9 34.3 59.8

— 4.2 3.8 Luxembourg 1.8 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.0 1.2 — 3.3 30.5 66.2

62.8 6.8 6.8 Netherlands 10.9 10.3 9.6 9.2 8.3 7.5 7.0 6.7 4.0 24.6 71.4

62.6 18.4 15.9 New Zealand 4.1 4.0 4.0 5.5 7.1 7.7 10.2 10.3 10.6 23.5 65.9

56.6 12.7 10.4 Norway 2.6 2.0 2.1 3.2 4.9 5.2 5.5 5.9 5.6 23.1 71.3

55.4 9.8 14.9 Portugal 8.5 8.5 7.0 5.7 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 11.4 33.1 55.4

48.2 39.9 47.4 Spain 21.1 20.8 20.1 19.1 16.9 15.9 16.0 18.1 10.1 30.7 59.2

58.5 21.6 14.9 Sweden 2.8 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.7 2.9 5.3 3.4 25.4 71.2

50.4 — — Switzerland 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 1.0 2.6 5.6 33.2 61.2

51.3 — — Turkey 6.9 7.7 8.1 8.2 8.3 7.8 7.6 7.7 44.9 21.7 33.4

72.5 20.8 13.4 United Kingdom 11.5 11.6 10.4 8.3 6.1 5.5 7.9 9.5 2.2 26.2 71.6

63.0 14.3 12.2 United States 7.1 6.9 6.1 5.4 5.2 5.4 6.6 7.3 2.7 24.1 73.2

Average for countries

-- -- -- reporting data for 8 years7.8 7.7 7.4 6.9 6.4 6.2 6.9 7.5 -- -- -- 

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

-- Average not computed.

1

Those persons under 25 years old.

2

Youth unemployment is calculated as a percentage of youth in the labor force.

3

Percentage of the total labor force employed in each sector.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education Statistics, 1985–1992 and OECD in Figures, 1995.
SOURCE: U.S. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education Statistics, 1985-1992 and OECD in figu

1995.

Social and economic characteristics of OECD countries

Total area

Canada United States Australia France Japan Netherlands

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Country

In square kilometers

Population density

Netherlands Japan France United States Canada Australia

0

100

200

300

400

0

100

200

300

400

Country

Per square kilometer

GDP per capita

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

$25,000

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

$25,000

Year

GDP per capita

Canada

Greece

Luxembourg

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education Statistics, 1985-1992 and OECD in figures,

1995.

Characteristics of OECD countries

Unemployment

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

0

5

10

15

20

25

0

5

10

15

20

25

Year

Percent unemployed

Youth labor force participation

United Kingdom United States West Germany

(former)

Spain Japan Italy Belgium France

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Country

Percent

Employment by sector

Agriculture

Industry

Services

Australia

Ireland

Japan

Spain

United States

Italy

3.0%

37.0%

60.0%

 West Germany (former)

5.9%

34.3%

59.8%

Japan

44.9%

21.7%

33.4%

Turkey

2.7%

24.1%

73.2%

United States
INDICATORS
THE SOCIAL AND

ECONOMIC CONTEXT

OF EDUCATION
The Social and Economic Context of Education

International Education Indicators 27

Indicator 1: Youth and Population

This indicator provides information on the population size and age composition of the population for

OECD member countries. The three age cohorts presented here are 5- to 13-year-olds, 14- to 17-yearolds, and 18- to 24-year-olds, which represent the theoretical age cohorts for primary and lower

secondary education, upper secondary education, and tertiary education, respectively. The percentage

of a population age 5 to 24 is an indicator of the potential demand for education services in a country. 

Trends in the proportion of youth in the population are used to estimate the amount of funding and

organizational efforts a country must provide to its education system, now and in the future. In

addition, examining trends in the population distribution over time permits economists to estimate the

relative size of the labor force as compared to the size of the student population.

< In 1991, population sizes of OECD member countries varied dramatically, from 260,000

(Iceland) to 253 million (United States). Moreover, with the exception of Portugal, Ireland,

and Italy, every OECD country reported an increase in its total population between 1985 and

1991. The largest increase occurred in Turkey (14 percent); and the United States and

Canada each reported increases in their total population of about 6 percent.

< Among those countries with data available (with the exception of Finland and the United

States), between 1985 and 1991, the percentage of the population age 5 to 13 decreased in all

OECD countries. Among the G-7 countries, the declines were largest in France, Italy, and

Japan. In contrast, the 5- to 13-year-old population in the United States increased only

slightly as a percentage of the total population by less than 1 percentage point.

< In most OECD countries, the percentage of the population age 14 to 17 dropped between

1985 and 1991. Except for Japan, the percentage of the population age 14 to 17 declined in

all the G-7 countries. In terms of changes in percentage points, the declines were largest in

the former West Germany and the United Kingdom.

< Between 1985 and 1991, the percentage of the population age 18 to 24 decreased in most

OECD countries. In the G-7 countries, in terms of changes in percentage points, the declines

were largest in Canada, the United States, and the former West Germany. In contrast,

between 1985 and 1991, the 18- to 24-year-old population in Japan increased substantially,

from 9.3 to 10.4 percent of the total population.

< In Japan, the percent of the total population age 5 to 13 declined between 1985 and 1991;

however, the percent age 14 to 17 and 18 to 24 increased during that same time period. The

opposite trend was found in the United States C the proportion of the total population age 5

to 13 increased, while the percent aged 14 to 17 and 18 to 24 decreased.
Table 1

Youth and population: 1985–1991

Total population (millions) Percent of total population age 5–13 

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

15.79 16.02 16.26 16.52 16.80 17.05 17.29 Australia 14.5 14.0 13.6 13.3 13.1 13.1 13.0

7.56 7.57 7.58 7.60 7.62 7.72 7.82 Austria 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.5

9.86 9.86 9.87 9.92 9.94 9.97 10.01 Belgium 11.4 11.2 11.2 11.0 11.0 10.9 10.9

25.18 25.37 25.64 25.94 26.25 26.61 26.74 Canada 12.8 12.7 12.6 12.5 12.5 12.4 12.5

5.11 5.12 5.13 5.13 5.13 5.14 5.15 Denmark 12.0 11.7 11.3 10.9 10.5 10.1 9.9

4.90 4.92 4.93 4.95 4.96 4.99 5.03 Finland 11.5 11.5 11.6 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.6

55.17 55.39 55.63 55.88 56.42 56.74 57.05 France 12.8 12.6 12.4 12.3 12.1 12.1 12.1

61.02 61.07 61.08 61.45 62.06 63.25 63.89 West Germany (former) 9.1 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.9

9.93 9.96 9.98 10.01 10.04 10.14 10.26 Greece — — — — — — — 

0.24 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.26 Iceland 15.7 15.8 15.5 15.2 15.2 15.0 — 

3.54 3.54 3.54 3.54 3.52 3.50 3.52 Ireland 17.9 17.8 17.7 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.2

57.13 57.22 57.33 57.44 57.53 57.65 57.11 Italy 12.7 12.2 11.7 11.2 10.8 10.3 10.1

120.75 121.49 122.09 122.61 123.12 123.54 123.92 Japan 14.0 13.7 13.2 12.7 12.2 11.8 11.5

0.37 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.39 Luxembourg 10.2 9.9 10.0 10.0 10.1 10.1 — 

14.49 14.57 14.67 14.76 14.85 14.95 15.07 Netherlands 12.0 11.6 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.7 10.7

3.27 3.28 3.30 3.32 3.33 3.36 3.41 New Zealand 15.3 14.8 14.4 14.0 13.7 13.5 13.4

4.15 4.17 4.19 4.21 4.23 4.24 4.26 Norway 12.5 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.2 11.0 11.0

9.91 9.90 9.90 9.89 9.80 9.81 9.81 Portugal 15.3 15.1 14.8 14.5 14.6 14.3 13.7

38.51 38.67 38.72 38.81 38.89 38.96 39.03 Spain 15.0 14.6 14.4 13.9 13.4 12.9 12.4

8.35 8.37 8.40 8.44 8.49 8.56 8.62 Sweden 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.2

6.53 6.57 6.62 6.67 6.65 6.71 6.79 Switzerland 10.6 10.3 10.1 10.0 10.1 10.1 10.1

50.66 51.63 52.75 53.97 55.26 56.47 57.69 Turkey 20.6 21.2 22.3 21.8 21.2 20.6 19.9

56.62 56.76 56.93 57.07 57.24 57.41 57.40 United Kingdom 11.4 11.2 11.1 11.0 11.0 11.1 11.3

239.28 241.63 243.94 246.31 248.78 249.92 252.69 United States112.6 12.5 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.8

Average for countries

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- reporting data for 7 years213.1 12.9 12.8 12.5 12.4 12.2 12.1

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

-- Average not computed.

1

The OECD method of estimating population differs from the estimation method in U.S. published sources.

2

This is not a strict average of the percentages. Averages are weighted by dividing the total number of people enrolled in applicable countries at each age group

 by the total number of people in all applicable countries at each age group. 

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 1 (continued)

Youth and population: 1985–1991

Percent of total population age 14–17 Percent of total population age 18–24 

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

6.6 6.8 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.4 6.1 Australia 11.8 11.6 11.4 11.3 11.2 11.2 11.3

6.4 6.1 5.8 5.5 5.3 5.1 4.9 Austria 12.1 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.2

5.8 5.7 5.7 5.5 5.3 5.1 4.9 Belgium 11.2 10.9 10.9 10.7 10.5 10.3 10.1

6.1 6.0 5.9 5.8 5.6 5.5 5.5 Canada 12.6 12.1 11.6 11.3 10.9 10.5 10.3

5.8 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.5 Denmark 11.0 11.2 11.2 11.1 10.8 10.7 10.5

5.6 5.3 5.0 4.8 4.8 4.9 5.0 Finland 10.8 10.7 10.5 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.2

6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.1 5.8 5.5 France 10.9 10.9 10.8 10.7 10.5 10.6 10.6

6.1 5.7 5.2 4.7 4.4 4.1 4.0 West Germany (former) 12.1 12.1 12.1 11.8 11.4 11.0 10.6

— — — 5.7 5.5 5.5 — Greece — — — — — — — 

6.7 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.8 — Iceland 13.0 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.5 — 

7.7 7.8 7.8 7.8 8.0 8.0 7.7 Ireland 11.7 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.2 11.0 11.6

6.5 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.2 6.0 5.9 Italy 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.4

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.5 6.4 Japan 9.3 9.5 9.7 9.9 10.1 10.3 10.4

5.5 5.3 5.0 4.8 4.5 4.4 — Luxembourg 11.1 10.9 10.8 10.5 10.2 9.9 — 

6.8 6.7 6.5 6.1 5.7 5.4 5.1 Netherlands 12.2 12.1 12.0 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.5

7.5 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.4 New Zealand 12.8 12.5 12.0 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.5

6.4 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.5 Norway 10.7 10.9 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.1 11.0

6.9 6.9 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.8 6.9 Portugal 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.2 13.2 12.9 12.8

6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.7 Spain 11.8 11.8 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.8 11.8

5.4 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.0 Sweden 9.8 10.0 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.8 9.7

5.8 5.6 5.4 5.2 5.1 4.8 4.7 Switzerland 11.0 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.7 10.4 10.1

8.7 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 Turkey 13.6 13.8 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.4 13.4

6.3 6.2 6.0 5.7 5.4 5.2 4.9 United Kingdom 11.6 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.8

6.2 6.1 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.3 United States 12.1 11.7 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.7 10.5

Average for countries

6.5 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.1 5.9 5.7reporting data for 7 years211.6 11.5 11.4 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.0

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

2

This is not a strict average of the percentages. Averages are weighted by dividing the total number of people enrolled in applicable countries at each age group

 by the total number of people in all applicable countries at each age group. 

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 1 – Youth and population: 1985–1991

Percent of population age 5-13

Ireland Portugal United States Canada France Japan United Kingdom Italy West Germany

(former)

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Percent of population

Country

1985 1988 1991

Percent of population age 14-17

Ireland Portugal Japan Italy France Canada United States United

Kingdom

West Germany

(former)

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Percent of population

Percent of population age 18-24

Portugal Ireland Italy United

Kingdom

West Germany 

(former)

France United States Japan Canada

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Percent of population

Country

1985 1988 1991

Country

1985 1988 1991

Total population: 1991

United States Japan West Germany

(former)

United

Kingdom

Italy France Canada Portugal Ireland

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Country

In millions
PARTICIPATION

IN EDUCATION
Participation in Education

International Education Indicators 33

Indicator 2: Enrollment Rates in Formal Education

Several factors influence participation in formal education, including the availability of an education

program, the desirability of an education, and the nation's laws regarding compulsory education.1

Examining differences in enrollment rates across countries and over time may highlight differences in

the value a country places on education or the dependency of its economy on a trained workforce. 

National programs can produce a greater availability of educational opportunities, as well as make them

more desirable, and countries can mandate attendance.

< Most countries showed increases in participation for the 5- to 24-year-olds' cohort between

1985 and 1991. While the United States' enrollment rate for this cohort increased 4

percentage points, from about 70 percent in 1985 to 74 percent in 1991, the largest increases

in percentage points occurred in New Zealand (7), Canada (6), and the United Kingdom (5).

< Enrollment rates of 5- to 13-year-olds, considered the age of compulsory education in many

countries, remained relatively stable in most countries between 1985 and 1991. In 1991,

enrollment rates were well above 95 percent in all the major industrialized countries and

above 90 percent in every OECD country with data available, except for Denmark, Sweden,

and Turkey.

< Between 1985 and 1991, participation in lower and upper secondary education by 14- to 17-

year-olds either increased or remained stable in most countries with available data. The

largest increases occurred in Spain and New Zealand C about 14 percentage points each. In

the G-7 countries, the largest increase in participation rates in terms of percentage points

occurred in the United Kingdom, France, and Canada. Participation rates increased

marginally in the United States and Japan, but declined in the former West Germany.

< All OECD countries with data available reported increases in net enrollment of 18- to 24-

year-olds at the tertiary level, from 1985 to 1991. New Zealand, Norway, France, and Spain

showed the largest increases, ranging from 5 to 7 percentage points. Canada and the United

States also reported fairly large increases of about 4 percentage points each, during this time

period.

 

1

Table S4, in the Supplementary Notes and Tables section, shows the legal school-leaving age for compulsory

education in each country.
Table 2

Participation in formal education

Enrollment rates: 1985–19911

Primary and lower secondary by 5- to 13-year-olds2,3 Lower and upper secondary by 14- to 17-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

95.4 95.7 96.2 97.1 — — 97.1 Australia — — — — — — 91.4

94.1 — — — 96.5 — — Austria — — — — — — — 

99.5 100.2 99.0 98.0 — — 99.0 Belgium 91.7 93.2 92.5 92.6 — — 94.6

100.0 100.4 100.5 100.9 101.4 101.9 101.9 Canada 92.5 92.6 92.6 92.7 94.7 95.8 94.0

89.4 89.5 89.9 89.7 90.2 89.9 89.1 Denmark 89.9 90.3 90.9 91.1 91.0 90.0 90.0

83.5 — — — — 83.7 — Finland 89.8 — — — — 98.2 — 

101.3 101.2 101.1 101.1 101.0 100.5 100.5 France 93.0 93.4 93.1 94.4 95.3 95.1 95.4

97.2 96.5 96.7 97.9 97.2 96.6 96.6 West Germany (former) 94.7 94.9 95.9 88.0 88.7 94.2 93.6

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

99.3 99.7 99.7 100.5 100.0 99.2 99.2 Ireland 83.6 84.7 86.6 87.8 87.2 87.2 89.7

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

97.5 97.9 98.2 98.4 98.3 98.0 97.7 Japan 95.7 94.0 94.0 94.0 94.5 95.7 96.1

— 95.7 95.3 96.5 95.3 — — Luxembourg — 81.0 82.3 82.0 80.7 — — 

99.4 99.0 99.5 100.0 100.0 99.9 99.9 Netherlands 93.0 92.2 92.3 92.2 92.0 92.5 92.7

100.0 100.1 100.3 100.9 101.8 102.1 101.3 New Zealand 74.4 74.0 76.2 80.0 — 84.2 88.4

89.4 89.8 90.4 91.0 91.3 92.0 92.3 Norway 90.0 90.4 90.4 89.7 91.2 93.2 93.5

— — — 90.9 — — 92.3 Portugal — — — — — — 69.1

102.8 103.9 104.6 103.9 104.6 104.7 104.6 Spain467.3 69.5 71.5 75.0 77.4 79.1 81.6

88.5 88.6 88.6 88.7 88.3 88.0 87.5 Sweden 91.3 92.4 92.2 92.3 91.7 91.4 91.6

91.6 91.4 91.5 91.5 91.9 92.6 93.0 Switzerland 88.9 89.0 89.1 89.3 89.3 89.8 90.0

— — — — 73.7 75.7 77.6 Turkey — — — 33.0 32.5 32.6 33.9

104.3 103.7 102.6 102.6 101.6 101.4 101.1 United Kingdom 77.7 81.3 79.7 80.7 82.5 83.3 84.2

98.3 98.6 98.7 99.7 98.7 99.7 99.6 United States 92.1 92.7 92.5 91.6 92.6 92.9 92.9

Average for countries

97.1 97.2 97.3 97.6 97.6 97.6 97.5 reporting data for 7 years 88.4 89.0 89.3 89.1 89.8 90.8 91.2

— Data not available.

1

Enrollment data include full-time and part-time enrollments.

2

Excludes early childhood education.

3

Refer to the supplementary notes for an explanation of why, in some cases, enrollment rates exceed 100 percent.

4

The data are for full-time students only; no data available for part-time enrollment.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 2 (continued)

Participation in formal education

Enrollment rates: 1985–19911

Tertiary education by 18- to 24-year-olds All levels of education by 5- to 24-year-olds2

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — 22.2 Australia — — — — — — 70.0

— — — — — — — Austria — — — — — — — 

17.6 18.2 18.6 19.2 — — 21.9 Belgium 68.8 69.8 69.4 69.3 — — 71.9

19.0 19.6 20.1 20.6 21.3 22.0 22.9 Canada 68.2 69.1 69.8 70.8 72.1 73.2 73.9

11.3 11.3 11.4 11.9 12.2 12.6 13.3 Denmark 66.0 65.5 65.2 64.9 65.2 64.9 65.0

13.2 — — — — 17.6 — Finland 62.3 — — — — 66.6 — 

15.9 16.5 16.9 17.6 18.8 20.0 21.6 France 71.3 71.8 72.1 72.9 73.8 74.0 74.8

11.9 11.7 11.4 11.3 11.7 12.2 12.8 West Germany (former) 66.6 65.6 64.9 63.2 61.7 64.5 65.1

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

10.6 11.4 11.7 12.2 13.5 14.7 14.9 Ireland 69.4 70.2 70.8 71.7 72.2 72.6 71.9

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

— 18.8 18.5 18.8 — — — Japan — 71.8 71.1 70.5 — — — 

— 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.6 — — Luxembourg — 57.9 58.3 59.3 59.1 — — 

13.7 13.9 14.2 14.9 15.6 16.7 18.0 Netherlands 68.8 68.4 68.3 68.3 68.2 68.6 69.1

11.6 12.4 15.3 15.8 17.1 16.4 18.4 New Zealand 63.3 63.4 66.2 66.8 — 68.6 70.0

11.3 11.1 12.2 12.6 13.8 15.8 17.1 Norway 65.9 65.6 65.4 65.1 65.5 67.8 68.6

5.9 5.0 6.0 — — — 9.6 Portugal — — — — — — 59.6

13.7 14.7 15.3 16.5 17.5 18.6 19.1 Spain366.5 67.3 67.9 68.3 69.1 69.7 69.9

9.5 9.4 9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.8 Sweden 63.0 62.5 62.1 62.0 61.7 61.7 62.0

8.0 8.0 8.3 8.4 8.7 9.3 9.7 Switzerland 64.5 64.0 63.7 63.6 63.8 64.7 65.3

— — — 4.9 5.8 6.4 6.9 Turkey — — — — 45.2 45.9 46.6

— — — — 11.1 11.8 12.8 United Kingdom 59.7 59.8 60.7 60.9 62.9 63.7 64.7

25.4 25.4 26.3 28.0 28.6 28.9 29.0 United States 69.6 70.2 71.2 72.5 72.9 73.6 73.6

Average for countries

13.5 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.7 16.4 17.3 reporting data for 7 years 66.6 66.7 66.8 67.0 67.4 68.2 68.7

— Data not available.

1

Enrollment data include full-time and part-time enrollments.

2

Excludes early childhood education.

3

The data are for full-time students only; no data available for part-time enrollment.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 2 – Enrollment rates in formal education: 1985–1991

Primary and lower secondary by 5- to 13-year-olds

Spain Canada New Zealand United

Kingdom

France United States Japan West Germany

(former)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Country

Enrollment rate

1985 1991

Lower and upper secondary by 14- to 17-year-olds

Japan France Canada West Germany

(former)

United

States

New Zealand United

Kingdom

Spain

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Country

Enrollment rate

1985 1991

Country

1985 1991 *Data are from 1986.

United States Canada France Spain New Zealand West Germany

(former)

United 

Kingdom

Japan*

Tertiary education by 18- to 24-year-olds

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Enrollment rate
Participation in Education

International Education Indicators 37

Indicator 3: Private School Enrollment

In most countries, private schools either offer an alternative to public schools or provide the only

schooling available at certain levels. Many factors can influence the proportion of students in private

schools, including the tuition rates, family income, the relative value placed on education, the

availability of public schooling, and satisfaction with public schools. Differences in private school

enrollments across countries or time may indicate differences or changes in any of these factors. 

< On average, less than 20 percent of students attend private school at each education level in

the OECD countries with data available. However, in several countries, including Ireland, the

Netherlands, and Belgium, the proportion of students attending private school consistently

exceeds 50 percent at the primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary education levels. 

Australia and France also have reported moderately high levels, with around one-fifth of their

students enrolled in private schools at the lower secondary level.

< Between 1985 and 1991, private schools' share of enrollment in primary education changed

by less than 1 percentage point in most OECD countries. Among the G-7 countries,

enrollment shares declined most in the United States, followed by Italy and France. In

Canada, the former West Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom enrollment shares

increased by less than 1 percentage point.

< The private school enrollment proportion at the lower secondary level increased slightly

between 1985 and 1991 in the majority of the OECD countries with data available. However,

several countries, including Austria, Denmark, the former West Germany, and Portugal,

showed increases of more than one point in the percentage of children enrolled in private

schools. Australia and Spain showed decreases of more than 2 percentage points.

< At the upper secondary level, the private school enrollment proportion decreased in about

half of the OECD countries with available data, and increased in the other half. Private

school enrollment shares declined in most of the G-7 countries, including Canada, France,

Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States, but increased slightly in the former West

Germany and Japan.

< Private school enrollment proportions in tertiary education increased in several countries

between 1985 and 1991, most dramatically in Portugal. Enrollment shares in the G-7

countries increased in Canada, France, and Japan, but decreased slightly in Italy and the

United States.
Table 3

Percentage of students enrolled in private school: 1985–1991

Primary level Lower secondary level

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

23.6 24.1 24.4 24.7 24.8 — 25.1 Australia 27.4 20.1 20.1 20.4 20.7 — 22.1

3.8 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.0 Austria 5.6 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.7

54.1 54.7 55.2 55.9 55.8 56.1 56.1 Belgium — — — — — — 66.1

3.0 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 Canada 6.1 6.4 6.6 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.6

8.5 9.0 9.3 9.8 10.1 9.3 9.3 Denmark 9.9 10.3 10.8 11.2 11.6 11.6 11.6

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 Finland 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2

15.2 15.2 15.2 15.1 15.0 15.0 14.9 France 20.5 20.9 20.9 21.3 21.5 21.5 21.4

1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 West Germany (former) 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.4 7.5 7.6

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

99.7 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.7 Ireland 64.0 63.9 63.6 63.5 63.6 63.7 63.3

7.7 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.4 7.5 7.1 Italy 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.2 4.4 4.4

— 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 Japan — 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.8

— — — 0.9 0.8 — — Luxembourg — 10.6 11.3 11.2 11.0 — — 

68.6 68.7 68.9 65.9 69.0 69.0 69.0 Netherlands 78.0 77.8 77.4 77.3 75.7 76.7 78.6

2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 New Zealand 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6

0.7 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 Norway 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2

6.6 7.2 7.1 6.3 — 6.5 7.5 Portugal 4.7 10.6 9.1 6.9 — 9.7 8.9

34.6 34.2 34.6 33.6 34.2 34.5 34.9 Spain 37.8 37.0 36.9 35.6 35.6 35.1 35.1

0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 Sweden 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 Switzerland 4.5 4.6 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.9

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 Turkey 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8

4.5 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.8 United Kingdom 7.2 7.5 8.0 8.2 8.5 7.8 7.9

13.6 13.2 12.7 12.7 11.9 12.0 10.5 United States 9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 9.8 9.8 9.4

Average for countries

17.9 17.9 18.0 17.9 18.1 18.1 18.0 reporting data for 7 years 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.9

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 3 (continued)

Percentage of students enrolled in private school: 1985–1991

Upper secondary level Tertiary level

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

23.0 23.6 23.5 23.4 23.6 — — Australia — — — — — — — 

13.6 14.2 11.4 11.3 10.4 11.4 11.7 Austria 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.2

60.4 60.6 61.2 61.9 62.6 63.4 63.2 Belgium 62.9 63.3 64.0 — 64.6 64.4 64.2

7.7 6.7 5.6 4.9 4.9 4.8 5.0 Canada 10.2 11.2 12.3 13.1 13.9 14.8 15.2

2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 Denmark — — — — — — — 

— — 8.0 8.2 8.0 8.4 8.8 Finland 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.4 3.4

31.9 31.1 30.6 29.8 29.8 29.1 28.5 France 11.3 11.7 12.0 12.2 12.5 12.3 13.0

5.1 5.1 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.4 5.8 West Germany (former) 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.4

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

59.7 59.5 60.0 59.4 58.2 57.9 55.0 Ireland 2.3 2.7 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.0 2.0

10.4 10.0 9.7 9.6 8.8 10.4 7.4 Italy 6.4 6.6 6.9 6.7 6.9 6.6 6.0

— 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.6 29.8 30.1 Japan — 78.2 78.3 78.6 78.5 78.8 79.1

— 9.0 9.0 8.5 8.1 — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

77.6 77.8 77.9 76.9 78.4 — 80.2 Netherlands 58.3 58.6 55.9 56.3 56.4 56.3 56.3

4.0 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.0 New Zealand — — — — — — — 

7.6 7.4 7.3 7.4 8.7 8.4 8.3 Norway 17.7 — 23.1 20.4 19.3 17.5 16.5

— 5.6 5.0 5.2 — — — Portugal 13.4 14.2 23.4 19.3 21.3 — 28.0

34.3 33.1 31.0 29.7 29.2 27.7 26.9 Spain 9.1 9.3 9.4 9.5 8.7 8.8 8.7

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 Sweden — — — — — 1.5 1.4

6.4 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.6 6.8 6.7 Switzerland — — — 7.1 6.6 7.5 7.4

1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 Turkey — — — — — 0.7 0.8

5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4 4.5 4.9 4.9 United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

10.7 10.4 10.0 9.6 9.6 9.9 9.4 United States 22.6 22.6 22.3 21.9 22.2 21.9 21.7

Average for countries

16.4 16.2 15.8 15.6 15.5 15.6 15.2 reporting data for 7 years 12.6 12.8 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.9 12.9

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Indicator 3 – Percentage of students enrolled in private school: 1985–1991

Primary level

Ireland NetherlandsBelgium France United 

States

Italy United 

Kingdom 

Canada Japan

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Enrollment share

West 

Germany

(former)

Year

1985 1991

Upper secondary

NetherlandsBelgium Ireland Japan France United 

States

Italy Canada United 

Kingdom

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Enrollment share

West 

Germany

(former)

Year

1985 1991

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Participation in Education

International Education Indicators 41

Indicator 4: Enrollment Rates in Upper Secondary Education

In the United States, upper secondary education is the equivalent of grades 10 through 12 (the last three

years of high school). In most countries, upper secondary education can include an academic or a

vocational-technical curriculum. For most countries, compulsory education ends before the last year of

secondary education (12th grade) in the U.S.2 Examining enrollment rates at this level shows what

percentage of students at a particular age are still in school before receiving the U.S. equivalent of a

high school diploma. The participation rates in upper secondary programs are an indication of the

value placed on education, the economic need for skilled workers, and the availability of diverse

institutions to meet all students' needs. 

< Enrollment rates in upper secondary education generally increased from 1985 to 1991, at all

ages between 16 and 19. Several countries, including New Zealand, the United Kingdom,

Ireland, Norway, and Spain, showed marked increases in upper secondary enrollment rates at

all age levels.

< From 1985 to 1991, the majority of OECD countries reported increases in enrollment rates in

upper secondary education at ages 16 and 17. New Zealand, Spain, the United Kingdom, and

Ireland reported the largest increases in percentage points at both of these ages. The United

States and the former West Germany were the only two countries to show decreases in

enrollment rates at both 16 and 17, between 1985 and 1991, although enrollment of 16-yearolds decreased by almost 4 percentage points in Sweden. In the former West Germany,

enrollment rates of 16-year-olds dropped almost 8 percentage points between 1985 and 1991.

< Enrollment rates for 18-year-olds in upper secondary education increased in most OECD

countries between 1985 and 1991. While France showed the largest increase during that

period (almost 17 percentage points), all of the G-7 countries reported an increase in

enrollment rates.

< All countries showed large drops in enrollment rates between ages 18 and 19, suggesting that

many students complete upper secondary education at age 18. Nonetheless, enrollment rates

of 19-year-olds increased between 1985 and 1991, in nearly all countries reporting

enrollment data. In France, the enrollment rate for 19-year-olds more than doubled over the

period, and in the former West Germany, the rate increased by 8 percentage points. 

 

2

Table S4, in the Supplementary Notes and Tables section, shows the legal school-leaving age for compulsory

education in each country.
Participation in Education

International Education Indicators 42

Enrollment rates of 19-year-olds also increased between 1 and 2 percentage points in Canada,

the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Table 4

Enrollment rates in upper secondary education: 1985–19911

Enrollment rates for 16-year-olds Enrollment rates for 17-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — 62.6 Australia — — — — — — 53.2

85.1 — — — — — — Austria 78.0 — — — — — — 

90.0 92.6 93.0 91.2 — — 90.3 Belgium 80.9 82.8 84.7 85.9 — — 87.4

89.3 89.1 88.4 90.9 94.9 96.9 89.5 Canada 67.7 67.4 66.6 65.0 66.8 69.8 69.8

31.2 31.3 32.7 34.9 35.4 34.7 33.8 Denmark 69.2 69.5 70.4 72.2 72.9 72.8 73.4

74.6 — — — — 89.8 — Finland 80.5 — — — — 81.8 — 

67.6 66.5 65.2 65.8 66.7 68.2 70.0 France 73.0 74.8 75.2 77.1 78.8 79.7 81.5

52.3 52.9 53.8 53.6 42.1 46.3 44.6 West Germany (former) 82.6 83.1 84.1 82.8 67.4 80.8 81.1

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

68.1 70.1 71.2 75.0 73.3 74.6 78.9 Ireland 56.2 57.5 59.1 60.2 61.9 63.9 66.7

51.4 — — — — — — Italy 44.3 — — — — — — 

— 92.2 90.5 90.4 91.2 91.4 92.8 Japan — 89.7 89.4 88.1 87.6 — — 

— 60.0 60.6 59.5 55.6 — — Luxembourg — 65.2 65.6 66.5 65.5 — — 

41.6 41.0 42.7 43.0 44.2 44.9 45.9 Netherlands 55.2 54.8 56.2 56.1 56.9 58.0 59.1

67.0 65.1 70.8 74.5 77.4 79.2 83.5 New Zealand 32.9 34.0 39.1 43.5 49.8 52.7 57.2

82.6 84.3 85.0 84.9 86.7 90.3 90.6 Norway 75.3 75.3 74.2 72.4 76.2 82.4 84.7

— — — — — — 42.2 Portugal — — — — — — 49.0

58.0 60.1 60.8 64.7 68.2 70.3 73.5 Spain 50.7 51.8 53.4 56.3 59.2 61.8 63.9

86.7 87.6 85.0 84.2 83.5 83.2 82.9 Sweden 82.3 84.8 85.3 86.1 85.4 84.7 85.3

57.9 58.1 58.4 59.2 59.7 61.7 61.2 Switzerland 78.5 79.1 79.3 79.8 80.8 81.5 81.8

21.1 22.5 23.7 23.9 25.3 26.5 28.2 Turkey 13.1 14.7 15.4 16.2 17.0 16.9 17.8

48.7 49.4 49.5 52.6 55.5 58.2 62.4 United Kingdom 30.9 31.1 32.5 32.5 36.1 39.7 43.1

84.5 85.4 86.4 83.4 85.3 84.0 83.4 United States 78.3 75.8 74.8 74.7 78.6 77.4 73.5

Average for countries

61.2 61.7 62.4 63.6 64.2 65.6 66.3 reporting data for 7 years 60.4 61.0 61.8 62.5 63.4 65.9 67.1

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

Enrollment rates are based on full-time enrollments.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 4 (continued)

Enrollment rates in upper secondary education: 1985–19911

Enrollment rates for 18-year-olds Enrollment rates for 19-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — 11.4 Australia — — — — — — 2.0

42.9 — — — — — — Austria 13.6 — — — — — — 

40.4 41.5 41.8 43.8 — — 46.6 Belgium 17.9 19.4 19.3 20.6 — — 22.9

31.0 31.3 30.8 31.9 31.4 32.2 35.5 Canada 9.4 9.0 9.0 9.1 8.9 8.5 11.1

64.1 65.6 66.9 67.4 67.8 66.4 67.2 Denmark 44.5 47.0 48.7 49.3 49.9 47.1 46.1

65.2 — — — — 68.8 — Finland 21.8 — — — — 23.2 — 

39.6 43.0 45.8 49.0 52.5 54.2 56.3 France 14.8 17.2 20.0 23.2 26.6 28.8 31.4

75.1 77.7 77.8 76.1 — 78.0 78.5 West Germany (former) 45.5 47.3 48.5 49.0 — 53.4 53.5

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

20.9 21.8 22.5 23.3 24.8 29.1 30.0 Ireland 3.7 4.1 4.4 4.5 5.3 — — 

33.8 — — — — — — Italy 10.2 — — — — — — 

— 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 Japan — — — — — — — 

— 49.7 53.1 54.2 54.7 — — Luxembourg — 27.9 29.5 32.0 31.7 — — 

43.6 45.2 45.6 45.7 46.6 47.4 48.7 Netherlands 24.9 27.7 27.0 27.5 27.9 28.7 29.6

6.4 6.2 8.0 8.9 11.2 12.4 14.5 New Zealand 2.2 1.6 1.9 2.2 3.2 4.0 5.2

60.2 60.0 58.7 59.1 60.6 72.0 74.2 Norway — — — — — 31.8 33.5

— — — — — — 32.9 Portugal — — — — — — 19.6

26.6 27.5 28.3 29.9 30.6 33.1 34.6 Spain 14.0 14.8 15.1 16.4 17.0 18.6 19.6

45.9 45.7 48.0 49.3 50.3 51.0 54.7 Sweden 10.2 9.5 9.7 9.3 9.1 9.0 10.0

72.9 73.6 74.0 74.3 74.9 75.1 75.0 Switzerland 49.1 49.7 50.3 50.3 50.1 49.9 50.2

8.9 7.7 8.6 8.5 9.3 8.9 9.3 Turkey 4.6 4.7 4.1 4.2 5.9 6.2 5.8

8.7 8.9 9.0 9.3 9.5 11.0 12.3 United Kingdom 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.6 2.9 3.4

18.5 17.2 20.3 18.8 21.1 21.7 20.5 United States 3.2 3.9 3.7 4.4 4.0 4.4 4.8

Average for countries

34.4 34.9 35.9 36.6 37.7 39.6 41.0 reporting data for 7 years 14.1 14.7 15.1 15.6 16.2 18.5 19.3

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

Enrollment rates are based on full-time enrollments.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 4 – Enrollment rates in upper secondary education: 1985–1991

Enrollment rates for 18-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Year

Enrollment rate

Canada

Ireland

France

West Germany (former)

New Zealand

United Kingdom

United States

Spain

Enrollment rates for 16-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Year

Enrollment rate

Canada

Ireland

France

West Germany (former)

New Zealand

Spain

United States

United Kingdom
Participation in Education

International Education Indicators 45

Indicator 5: Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education

Tertiary education includes both university and non-university institutions in both the public and private

sectors. Two factors determine whether a student will enter tertiary education: choice and access. 

Whether a student chooses to attend tertiary education could depend on the diversity of programs the

higher education institutions offer, the value the culture places on higher education, and the need for

more advanced skills in the workforce. The accessibility of tertiary education once again reflects the

value the culture places on such education and its willingness to fund the institutions and support a

student entering a higher education program. Differences across countries may reflect different value

systems or the different roles played by the higher education institutions. Differences across time also

may reflect different economic circumstances.

< Between 1985 and 1991, enrollment rates in tertiary education increased across all age

groups for nearly all the OECD countries with data available; and some of the largest gains

occurred for 18- to 21-year-olds.

< In the period between 1985 and 1991, the United States consistently reported the highest

enrollment for 18- to 21-year-olds in tertiary education of all OECD countries, with

enrollment rates between 33 and 38 percent. However, several countries showed larger

increases in their enrollment rates over this period, including New Zealand, France, and

Spain.

< Enrollment rates of 22- to 25-year-olds increased between 1985 and 1991 in all OECD

countries reporting data. The largest increases in percentage rates were in New Zealand,

Norway, and Spain. Among the G-7 countries, the increase was between 2 and 3 percentage

points in Canada, France, and the United States, and just under 1 percentage point in the

former West Germany. 

< Enrollment rates in tertiary education were lower for 26- to 29-year-olds than for 22- to 25-

year-olds in all OECD countries with available data. However, for the majority of the

countries with data available, enrollment rates of 26- to 29-year-olds increased between 1985

and 1991, with the largest increases in Norway, Switzerland, and the former West Germany. 

Only the Netherlands showed a substantial decline at this age level.
Table 5

Enrollment rates in tertiary education (public and private): 1985–19911

Enrollment rates: 18- to 21-year-olds Enrollment rates: 22- to 25-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — 28.9 Australia — — — — — — 11.6

— — — — — — — Austria — — — — — — — 

24.5 25.3 25.7 27.2 — — 30.4 Belgium 7.2 7.6 7.9 8.0 — — 9.1

25.5 26.4 27.0 27.7 28.4 28.9 29.7 Canada 9.5 9.9 10.4 10.7 11.0 11.4 12.2

7.4 7.2 7.3 7.6 7.5 7.4 8.2 Denmark 16.3 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.9 17.9 18.3

9.3 — — — — 13.6 — Finland 17.3 — — — — 20.7 — 

19.4 20.4 21.1 22.1 23.7 24.6 26.6 France 10.0 10.1 10.1 10.4 10.8 11.8 12.7

8.8 8.5 8.2 7.8 8.1 8.5 9.1 West Germany (former) 15.5 15.5 15.4 15.4 15.5 15.9 16.3

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

15.2 16.3 16.7 17.2 18.9 20.3 20.5 Ireland 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.3 4.3

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

— 27.5 27.5 28.2 — — — Japan — 4.9 4.9 4.9 — — — 

— 2.6 2.7 3.2 3.3 — — Luxembourg — 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.3 — — 

14.4 14.6 15.1 15.9 16.7 17.9 19.1 Netherlands 11.9 11.9 12.0 12.4 12.6 13.4 14.5

14.9 16.0 19.5 19.9 21.2 20.8 23.2 New Zealand 9.6 10.9 13.8 13.5 16.4 13.8 16.1

8.6 8.8 9.4 9.9 11.5 13.6 14.5 Norway 13.9 13.3 14.9 15.1 15.5 17.4 18.9

5.8 4.8 5.3 — — — 11.3 Portugal 5.4 4.8 6.4 — — — 6.6

14.9 16.2 17.1 18.5 19.9 21.2 21.5 Spain 10.6 11.3 11.6 12.2 12.5 13.5 14.2

7.9 7.8 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.7 9.3 Sweden 11.3 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.2 11.4 11.8

5.7 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.4 6.6 Switzerland 10.6 10.6 11.0 11.1 11.5 12.1 12.8

— — — 6.1 6.7 7.4 7.9 Turkey — — — 2.7 4.0 4.6 4.9

— — 11.3 11.6 15.2 16.1 17.6 United Kingdom — — — — 4.5 4.7 6.2

33.0 33.9 34.5 37.8 37.3 36.2 36.4 United States 14.5 13.8 14.7 14.8 15.5 17.1 16.7

Average for countries

14.6 15.1 15.8 16.5 17.3 17.9 18.7 reporting data for 7 years 11.4 11.5 12.0 12.2 12.8 13.3 14.1

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

Enrollment rates are based on full-time and part-time enrollments.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 5 (continued)

Enrollment rates in tertiary education (public and private): 1985–19911

Enrollment rates: 26- to 29-year-olds Enrollment rates: 18- to 29-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — 7.6 Australia — — — — — — 16.1

— — — — — — — Austria — — — — — — — 

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 — — 1.7 Belgium 11.1 11.3 11.6 11.8 — — 13.0

3.0 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Canada 12.5 12.7 12.8 13.0 13.3 13.7 14.2

8.2 8.1 8.2 8.4 8.5 9.3 9.5 Denmark 10.5 10.5 10.6 10.9 11.2 11.8 12.2

7.9 — — — — 10.2 — Finland 11.5 — — — — 14.9 — 

4.3 4.2 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.0 France 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.8 13.5 14.5

8.9 9.2 9.4 9.9 10.2 10.4 10.6 West Germany (former) 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.4 11.8 12.2

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Ireland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

— 0.1 0.1 0.1 — — — Japan — 11.3 11.4 11.6 — — — 

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

5.7 5.6 5.5 5.5 4.9 4.7 4.7 Netherlands 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.3 11.4 11.9 12.6

— — — — — — — New Zealand — — — — — — — 

6.2 5.7 6.9 6.5 6.7 7.4 8.2 Norway 4.6 9.2 10.4 10.5 11.3 12.9 13.9

2.3 2.0 2.7 — — — 2.2 Portugal 4.6 3.9 4.9 — — — 6.4

4.0 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.5 5.3 Spain 10.2 10.9 11.2 11.9 12.4 13.2 13.7

6.5 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.1 6.2 Sweden 8.5 8.4 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.8 9.1

5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.4 7.0 Switzerland 7.1 7.2 7.5 7.6 7.9 8.4 8.8

— — — 1.9 1.8 2.3 2.1 Turkey — — — 3.7 4.4 4.9 5.2

— — — — — — 3.4 United Kingdom — — — — — — 8.8

8.2 8.1 8.3 7.5 7.5 8.5 9.1 United States 18.2 18.0 18.4 19.1 19.3 20.1 20.4

Average for countries

6.0 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.5 6.8 reporting data for 7 years 11.0 11.0 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.6 13.2

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

Enrollment rates are based on full-time and part-time enrollments.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 5 – Enrollment in tertiary education (public and private): 1985–1991

Enrollment rates: 18- to 21-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Year

Enrollment rate

Enrollment rates: 22- to 25-year-olds

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Year

Enrollment rate

Canada

France

West Germany (former)

Norway

Spain

United States

France Canada

West Germany 

(former)

Norway

Spain

United States

New Zealand

New Zealand
HUMAN AND

FINANCIAL

RESOURCES
Human and Financial Resources

International Education Indicators 51

Indicator 6: Student-Teacher Ratios (in the Public Sector)

The student-teacher ratio indirectly measures students' access to teachers' guidance and help in school. 

A lower student-teacher ratio means easier availability of teachers' guidance. There is a great deal of

cross-country variation in student-teacher ratios. Although this variation may reflect the relative

willingness of each country to devote human resources to education in relation to the size of its student

population,3 it may also reflect differences in geographical areas and population density. From 1985 to

1991, within-country variations in student-teacher ratios have also occurred, and indicate possible

future movement in student-teacher ratios.

< Student-teacher ratios at the primary level declined between 1985 and 1991 in the majority of

countries with available data. While student-teacher ratios decreased most in Spain C about

7 students per teacher, they also decreased slightly in Italy, New Zealand, Denmark, and the

United States. However, the ratio increased by over 2 students per teacher in the United

Kingdom. 

< At the lower secondary level, student-teacher ratios declined or were stable between 1985

and 1991 in all countries reporting data except Turkey. Among the G-7 countries, the largest

decline was in the former West Germany. Ratios declined slightly in Canada and the United

States, but were stable throughout the period in the United Kingdom.

< Turkey consistently reported higher student-teacher ratios at the lower secondary level than

all other OECD countries with data available. In addition, the ratio for Turkey rose between

1985 and 1991.

< Student-teacher ratios at the upper secondary education level decreased in all OECD

countries reporting data between 1985 and 1991, except for Ireland and Turkey. In the

United States the ratio declined from 16.2 in 1985 to 15.6 in 1991, which is still slightly

larger than the average of all OECD countries.

< For the majority of countries reporting data, student-teacher ratios at the overall secondary

education level declined between 1985 and 1991 and remained lower than those at the

primary education level. Among the G-7 countries, the decline was largest in the former

 

3

Tables in the Supplementary Notes and Tables section show the absolute change between 1985 and 1991 in

the number of students (Table S2) and the number of teachers (Table S3).
Human and Financial Resources

International Education Indicators 52

West Germany, followed by Italy and the United States. Spain and Sweden also showed large

declines.
Table 6

Student-teacher ratio (in the public sector): 1985–1991

Primary education Lower secondary education

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

13.8 13.5 13.4 13.7 — — 18.0 Australia — — — — — — — 

11.3 11.2 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.6 11.6 Austria 9.2 8.9 8.4 8.1 7.9 7.7 7.6

— — — — — — 9.3 Belgium — — — — — — — 

18.1 17.8 18.0 17.4 16.9 17.1 — Canada 16.0 15.6 15.7 15.5 15.5 15.5 — 

12.7 12.5 12.0 11.6 12.2 11.2 11.1 Denmark 10.2 9.7 9.4 9.2 8.4 9.3 9.2

— — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — 22.7 France — — — — — — — 

20.7 20.2 20.0 20.0 20.3 20.3 21.4 West Germany (former) 16.9 16.0 15.4 15.0 14.7 14.6 14.8

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Ireland — — — — — — — 

12.8 12.2 11.6 11.1 10.8 10.7 10.9 Italy 9.6 9.5 9.4 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.3

— — — — 21.5 20.8 20.3 Japan — — — — 19.4 18.6 17.7

— — — 13.6 13.7 — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

20.2 18.2 18.7 20.8 19.2 19.2 19.0 Netherlands 12.7 12.5 11.2 12.0 12.6 12.4 10.2

20.1 19.6 20.1 19.8 19.7 19.1 18.4 New Zealand — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — 10.7 Norway — — — — — — 8.7

— — — — — — 13.3 Portugal — — — — — — — 

26.8 25.9 25.3 24.5 22.9 21.2 19.7 Spain 21.4 21.1 20.6 20.5 19.5 18.8 17.8

11.6 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.7 10.6 10.4 Sweden 10.8 11.0 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.2 9.7

— — — — — — — Switzerland — — — — — — — 

31.1 31.2 31.0 31.2 30.7 30.6 30.5 Turkey 41.3 43.0 45.3 47.7 50.0 48.4 49.7

19.7 19.7 22.0 22.1 22.0 22.0 22.2 United Kingdom — — 18.6 18.6 18.5 18.5 18.6

17.0 16.6 16.1 15.9 15.6 15.6 15.5 United States 16.5 16.3 16.4 16.0 16.0 15.9 16.1

Average for countries

18.5 18.1 18.1 18.1 17.8 17.5 17.3 reporting data for 7 years 16.5 16.4 16.3 16.5 16.5 16.2 15.9

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 6 (continued)

Student-teacher ratio (in the public sector): 1985–1991

Upper secondary education Overall secondary (lower and upper secondary)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989— 1990— 1991—

— — — — — — — Australia — 14.3 14.5 14.5 — — — 

15.2 14.6 14.6 13.1 12.6 12.4 11.9 Austria 11.5 11.2 10.8 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.4

— — — — — — 4.6 Belgium — — — — — — 6.8

16.0 15.6 15.7 15.5 15.5 15.3 — Canada 16.0 15.6 15.7 15.5 15.5 15.4 — 

14.8 14.8 14.7 14.1 13.6 13.3 12.6 Denmark 12.0 11.6 11.4 11.1 10.4 10.9 10.7

— — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — 5.6 France — — — — — — 13.6

23.7 23.6 22.9 22.3 21.9 21.0 20.4 West Germany (former) 19.3 18.8 18.2 17.7 17.3 16.9 16.8

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

7.2 7.2 7.2 7.5 8.0 8.3 8.6 Ireland 17.4 17.2 17.0 17.3 17.8 17.7 17.8

10.8 10.7 10.6 9.8 10.7 10.7 10.5 Italy 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.3 9.7 9.6 9.5

— — — — 16.4 16.2 16.2 Japan — — — — 18.0 17.5 17.0

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — 10.7 10.1 9.8 9.5 — — 

— — — — — — — Netherlands 19.8 19.8 18.1 20.3 20.4 — 17.0

10.8 10.1 10.7 11.0 10.9 10.2 10.7 New Zealand 21.5 19.5 20.4 20.5 19.8 19.0 19.7

— — — — — — 8.1 Norway — — — — — — 8.4

— — — — — — — Portugal — — — — — — — 

15.3 15.3 15.5 15.6 15.1 14.8 14.7 Spain 17.9 17.7 17.6 17.6 16.8 16.3 15.8

13.1 12.8 12.7 12.5 12.2 11.9 11.9 Sweden 11.7 11.8 11.7 11.5 11.3 10.9 10.6

— — — — — — — Switzerland — — — — — — — 

11.0 11.3 11.6 11.8 12.2 12.1 13.1 Turkey 20.7 21.3 21.9 22.5 23.7 23.0 24.3

— — 13.6 13.5 — 13.9 13.7 United Kingdom — 14.8 15.2 15.1 — 15.3 15.3

16.2 16.1 16.2 16.4 16.0 15.8 15.6 United States 16.4 16.2 16.3 16.2 16.0 15.9 15.9

Average for countries

13.8 13.7 13.7 13.4 13.3 13.1 13.0 reporting data for 7 years 15.8 15.5 15.5 15.4 15.3 15.0 15.1

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1991.

Indicator 6 – Student-teacher ratios (in the public sector): 1985–1991

Primary education

Turkey United 

 Kingdom

West Germany

(former)

Spain United States Italy Sweden

0

10

20

30

40

0

10

20

30

40

Country

Student-teacher ratios

1985 1991

Overall secondary education

Turkey West Germany

(former)

United 

States

Spain United 

Kingdom*

Sweden Italy

0

10

20

30

40

0

10

20

30

40

Country

Student-teacher ratios

*Data are from 1986 and 1991. 1985 1991
Human and Financial Resources

International Education Indicators 55

Indicator 7: Public Expenditures on Education as a Percentage

of GDP

Gross Domestic Product is an aggregate measure of the value of goods and services produced in a

country. The percentage of the GDP spent on education from public sources reflects the value a

country places on education, as well as differences in income; it is not a measure of total expenditures

on education, since private investments are not included. Examining how education resources are

divided among the various levels may provide an indicator of the relative importance each country

places on the different levels of education. Changes over time may reflect different economic

circumstances, or a shift in priorities.

< In each year from 1985 to 1991, public expenditures for all education levels varied between

3.5 and 7 percent of GDP in all OECD countries with available data. Over this period, public

expenditures as a percentage of GDP increased in several countries, including Norway,

Portugal, Spain, and the United States. Australia showed a large decrease on this indicator

between 1985 and 1989, and Belgium showed a similar decrease between 1985 and 1990.

< At the primary level, the percentage of GDP spent on education changed very little in most

countries between 1985 and 1991. Sweden and Portugal consistently reported the highest

rate of public expenditures at over 2 percent of GDP. The United States showed a moderate

increase in the percentage of GDP spent on primary education from 1985 to 1991.

< In most OECD countries with available data, public expenditures on education as a

percentage of GDP were higher at the secondary level than at either the primary or tertiary

levels. As with primary education, public expenditures for secondary education changed very

little between 1985 and 1991 in most OECD countries reporting data. Portugal and Spain

showed the most marked increases of 0.8 and 0.6 percentage points, respectively. The only

countries with a significant decrease in the percentage of GDP spent on education at the

secondary level were Australia (between 1985 and 1991) and Belgium (between 1985 and

1990).

< The percentage of GDP spent on education at the tertiary level increased slightly between

1985 and 1991. The majority of OECD countries with available data showed very small

changes in tertiary expenditures as a percentage of GDP during this period. However, Spain

doubled its public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP, rising from 0.4 to 0.8,

and Norway increased its expenditures from 0.8 to 1.3 percent of GDP.
Table 7

Public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP: 1985–1991

Primary level Secondary level

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 — — 1.5 Australia 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 — — 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 Austria 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.6

1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 — Belgium 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.3 — 

— — — — — — — Canada — — — — — — — 

1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 Denmark 2.8 2.7 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.7

— — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 — — 0.5 West Germany (former) 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.0 — — 1.9

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

1.7 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6 Ireland 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.2

1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 — Italy 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.2 — 

— — — — — — — Japan — — — — — — — 

— 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.0 — — Luxembourg — 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.4 — — 

— — — — — — — Netherlands — — — — — — — 

— 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.7 — 1.5 New Zealand — 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.5 — 1.3

1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.7 Norway 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.8

2.1 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.2 Portugal 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.0

1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 Spain 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

— 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.2 Sweden — 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.7

— — — — — — 1.4 Switzerland — — — — — — 2.4

— — — — — — 1.9 Turkey — — — — — — 1.0

1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 United Kingdom 2.2 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.2

1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 United States 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0

Average for countries

1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 reporting data for 7 years 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 7 (continued)

Public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP: 1985–1991

Tertiary level All levels (including early childhood education)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 — — 1.5 Australia 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.5 — — 4.6

1.0 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Austria 5.7 5.9 5.7 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.4

1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 — Belgium 6.4 6.2 5.9 5.6 5.7 5.2 — 

— — — — — — — Canada — — — — — — — 

1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 Denmark 6.2 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.2 6.1

— — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 — — 0.9 West Germany (former) 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 — — 4.1

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 Ireland 5.9 6.1 6.2 5.6 5.3 5.2 5.4

0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.0 — Italy 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.2 — 

— — — — — — — Japan — — — — — — — 

— 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 — — Luxembourg — 5.5 6.0 6.0 5.8 — — 

— — — — — — — Netherlands — — — — — — — 

— 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 — 2.0 New Zealand — 6.0 5.3 5.2 6.3 — 5.8

0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Norway 5.6 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.4 6.8

0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 Portugal — 4.1 4.3 — 4.8 4.8 5.5

0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 Spain 3.6 — 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.5

— 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 Sweden — 6.1 6.0 5.9 5.5 5.7 6.1

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 — — 1.2 Switzerland 5.1 5.1 5.0 5.1 — — 5.4

— — — — — — 1.0 Turkey — — — — — — 4.0

1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 United Kingdom 5.3 5.0 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.1 4.9

1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.5 United States 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.6 5.7

Average for countries

0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 reporting data for 7 years 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.7

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
*Data are from 1986, 1988, and 1991.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 7 – Public expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP: 1985–1991

Primary Level

Portugal Sweden* United States Australia United Kingdom Spain West Germany

(former)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Secondary Level

Sweden* Spain United Kingdom Portugal United States West Germany

(former)

Australia

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Tertiary Level

Australia United States Sweden* United Kingdom West Germany

 (former)

Portugal Spain

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991
Human and Financial Resources

International Education Indicators 59

Indicator 8: Expenditures per Student from Public Sources (in

Constant 1991 U.S. Dollars)

Expenditures per student from public sources measure how much public economic resources a country

devotes to education. As an indicator, it reflects not only the wealth of a country, but also how much

emphasis a country places on education, as well as the public cost of educating its students. Examining

this indicator over a period of several years may reveal the future direction in which a country's perstudent expenditures move. Similarly, comparing this indicator across OECD countries may indicate

the relative priority each country places on education, and may reflect the different cost structures

associated with national education systems.

< In most OECD countries for which data are available, per-student expenditures increase by

education level. For example, in 1991, at the primary education level, the average perstudent expenditures for all countries reporting data for seven years were about $3,200. The

corresponding figures for secondary education and tertiary education were about $4,600 and

$7,200, respectively.

< Except for Belgium and Denmark, from 1985 to 1991 expenditures per student increased at

all education levels in all of the OECD countries reporting data. Expenditures per student

decreased in Belgium at the primary and secondary levels, in Sweden at the pre-primary level,

and in Denmark at the tertiary level.

< While pre-primary education had the lowest expenditures per student from public sources, its

spending increased the most, with the OECD average rising almost 5 percent per year, from

1985 to 1991, after adjustment for inflation. Conversely, tertiary education showed the

highest expenditures per student, but the lowest annual rate of increase (less than 2 percent

between 1985 and 1991).

< The United States spent more per student than most other OECD countries reporting data

during the period 1985 to 1991. In addition, expenditures per student increased at a faster

rate than the OECD average. At the primary education level, the OECD average annual rate

of increase in expenditures per student, after adjustment for inflation, was 2.8 percent, while

for the United States the increase was 3.4 percent. At the secondary and tertiary education

levels, the average OECD annual rates of increase were 2.4 and 1.7 percent, respectively,

while the corresponding U.S. rates were 4.0 and 2.9 percent.

< Between 1985 and 1991, after adjustment for inflation, Spain showed the largest average

annual rate of increase in expenditures per student compared to the other OECD countries at

the pre-primary education level (12.3 percent), the secondary level (5.9 percent), and the

tertiary level (9.8 percent). At the primary level, Spain's average annual rate of increase (4.9

percent) was second only to Portugal's (8.5 percent).
Table 8

Expenditures per student from public sources: 1985–19911

(In constant 1991 U.S. dollars)2

Pre-primary Primary

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 AARG3Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 AARG3

— — — — — — — — Australia — — — — — — — — — 

#### #### #### #### #### #### #### 0.7% Austria #### #### #### #### #### #### #### 1.1%

2,184 2,216 2,187 2,174 2,214 2,203 2,245 0.2% 5Belgium 2,166 2,151 2,086 2,074 2,059 2,069 2,142 4-0.9% 5

— — — — — — — — Canada — — — — — — — — — 

2,501 2,574 2,737 3,266 3,310 — — — Denmark 3,466 3,434 3,817 4,011 4,074 4,316 4,397 4.0%

— — — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — 2,163 — France — — — — — — 2,591 — 

— — — — — — — — West Germany (former) — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — — — 

1,291 1,232 1,333 1,243 1,266 1,361 1,523 2.8% Ireland 1,284 1,295 1,375 1,315 1,333 1,387 1,542 3.1%

— — — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Japan — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Netherlands — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — New Zealand — — — — — — — — — 

4,290 5,129 5,797 6,186 6,171 5,863 6,286 6.6% Norway 3,304 3,772 4,148 4,264 4,137 3,765 3,885 2.7%

— — — — — — 1,506 — Portugal 1,291 1,330 1,454 1,768 — 1,875 2,110 8.5%

887 881 923 1,000 1,113 1,376 1,777 12.3% Spain 1,397 1,401 1,455 1,599 1,750 1,748 1,861 4.9%

— 2,728 2,790 2,676 2,562 2,517 2,501 -1.7% 6Sweden — 4,955 5,129 5,378 5,122 5,117 5,470 2.0% 6

— — — — — — 2,017 — Switzerland — — — — — — 5,447 — 

— — — — — — — — Turkey — — — — — — 565 — 

1,679 1,992 2,104 2,149 2,164 2,101 2,233 4.9% United Kingdom 2,268 2,416 2,582 2,652 2,712 2,813 2,794 3.5%

2,849 2,887 3,136 3,219 3,415 3,826 4,014 5.9% United States 4,237 4,460 4,739 4,858 5,116 5,071 5,177 3.4%

Average for countries

2,212 2,377 2,527 2,584 2,647 2,708 2,925 4.8% reporting data for 7 years 2,684 2,793 2,963 3,027 3,072 3,074 3,171 2.8%

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The number of students used to calculate expenditures per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public schools or in private schools that are 

 predominantly publicly funded.

2

Refer to the supplemental notes for a description of how expenditures per student are converted to constant (1991) U.S. dollars.

3

"AARG" is the average annual rate of increase or decrease from 1985 to 1991.

4

The figure for 1991 includes private as well as public expenditure.

5AARG calculated from 1985 to 1990.

6AARG calculated from 1986 to 1991.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Table 8 (continued)

Expenditures per student from public sources: 1985–19911

(In constant 1991 U.S. dollars)2

Secondary Tertiary
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 AARG3

Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 AARG3

— — — — — — — — Australia — — — — — — — — 

#### #### #### #### #### #### #### 3.4% Austria #### #### #### #### #### #### #### 0.2%

5,125 5,024 4,804 4,912 4,837 4,664 5,000 4-1.9% 5Belgium 6,890 7,019 6,709 — 6,271 5,997 6,235 4-2.7% 5

— — — — — — — — Canada — — — — — — 9,645 — 

4,897 4,848 5,132 5,330 5,383 5,146 5,378 1.6% Denmark 8,319 8,517 8,099 8,549 8,569 8,089 7,685 -1.3%

— — — — — — — — Finland — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — 4,640 — France — — — — — — 4,760 — 

— — — — — — — — West Germany (former) — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — — — 

2,211 2,194 2,350 2,275 2,295 2,333 2,488 2.0% Ireland 5,021 5,119 5,732 5,125 4,844 5,366 5,587 1.8%

— — — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Japan — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — Netherlands — — — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — — New Zealand — — — — — — — — — 

4,676 5,097 5,350 5,514 5,519 5,002 5,376 2.4% Norway 7,627 8,980 9,141 9,296 9,830 8,376 8,405 1.6%

1,707 1,749 1,811 1,836 — — 2,364 5.6% Portugal 3,623 4,823 6,084 6,798 6,630 — 6,161 9.3%

1,940 1,960 2,070 2,310 2,520 2,627 2,730 5.9% Spain 1,851 1,953 2,245 2,407 2,694 3,064 3,242 9.8%

— 6,058 6,049 5,787 5,824 6,108 6,635 1.8% 6Sweden — — — — 7,257 8,416 8,561 8.6% 7

— — — — — — 6,563 — Switzerland — — — — — — #### — 

— — — — — — 504 — Turkey — — — — — — 2,795 — 

3,751 4,207 4,533 4,837 4,156 5,339 4,255 5.2% United Kingdom — — — — — — 9,621 — 

5,128 5,370 5,549 5,680 5,902 6,355 6,472 4.0% United States 9,923 #### #### #### 9,477 #### #### 2.9%

Average for countries

3,972 4,062 4,198 4,316 4,396 4,375 4,589 2.4% reporting data for 7 years 6,518 7,064 7,143 7,163 6,989 7,123 7,194 1.7%

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The number of students used to calculate expenditures per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public schools or in private schools that are 

 predominantly publicly funded.

2

Refer to the supplemental notes for a description of how expenditures per student are converted to constant (1991) U.S. dollars.

3

"AARG" is the average annual rate of increase or decrease from 1985 to 1991.

4

The figure for 1991 includes private as well as public expenditure.

5AARG calculated from 1985 to 1990.

6AARG calculated from 1986 to 1991.

7AARG calculated from 1989 to 1991.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Indicator 8 – Expenditures per student from public sources: 1985–1991

(In constant 1991 U.S. dollars)1

1Refer to the supplemental notes for a description of how expenditures per student are converted to constant (1991) U.S. dollars.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Primary

United States Denmark Austria United Kingdom Portugal Spain

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

Country

Expenditures

1985 1988 1991

Secondary

United States Denmark Austria United Kingdom Spain Portugal

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

Country

Expenditures

1985 1988 1991

Tertiary

United States United Kingdom Denmark Austria Portugal Spain

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

$12,000

Country

Expenditures

1985 1988 1991
SYSTEM OUTCOMES
System Outcomes

International Education Indicators 65

Indicator 9: First Degree Graduation Ratios

The first degree graduation ratio is the ratio of the number of students earning their first university

degree (the equivalent of a bachelor's degree in the United States), per 100 persons, in the total

population who are of the typical age of graduation. The first degree graduation ratio also can be

expressed, in equivalent terms, as a percentage. For example, the typical graduation age from

university education is 22 in many countries, including the United States, Canada, and Japan. If the

number of students receiving their degree in a given year is divided by the number of people in the

population who were 22 years-old at graduation time, and the result is multiplied by 100, the first

degree graduation ratio is then expressed as a percentage. This ratio provides a broad indication of the

proportion of the population of graduating age that received an advanced education, and indirectly

measures the skills available to national economies. Differences in graduation ratios between men and

women may reflect either their choices or the opportunities available to them, both within the university

and in the workforce. 

< Between 1985 and 1991, first degree graduation ratios increased in most OECD countries

reporting data. The largest increases were found in Norway and Canada, with increases of

12.1 and 10.3 percentage points, respectively. Canada's increase was large enough to make it

the country with the highest first degree graduation ratio of all OECD countries with data

available in 1991.

< First degree graduation ratios also increased in the United States and France, but were

relatively stable in the former West Germany and Japan. In 1991, the United States ranked

third behind Norway and Canada in graduation ratios.

< First degree graduation ratios for women edged ahead of those for men between 1985 and

1991. In 1985 the average ratio for OECD countries reporting data for the seven years

between 1985 and 1991 was 12.2 for women, compared to a ratio of 12.9 for men; in 1991,

the average ratio for women was 17.4, and the ratio for men was 15.0.

< In the G-7 countries, first degree graduation ratios for women increased more than men's

ratios in Canada, France, Italy, and the United States. In Japan, the ratio for women increased

slightly, while the ratio for men showed a small decline.

< Graduation ratios for men have been increasing at a slower rate than those for women, and, in

some countries, the ratios for men have fallen. The ratios for men in Sweden, Belgium,

Japan, and the former West Germany were down 2.7, 1.4, 1.3, and 0.2, respectively.
Table 9

Graduation ratios in first-degree university education: 1985–19911

(gross ratios)

Men and women combined

Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Australia — — 18.6 19.8 20.8 — 24.4

Austria 6.7 6.5 6.8 7.2 6.7 7.8 7.8

Belgium 12.7 11.0 10.1 11.6 — — 13.3

Canada 23.0 24.4 26.2 27.7 30.2 31.8 33.3

Denmark 10.2 10.1 10.3 10.1 12.9 15.0 16.5

Finland 14.6 15.0 14.9 — 16.9 17.0 17.1

France 11.5 11.4 12.2 12.8 13.9 14.9 16.3

West Germany (former) 13.5 13.3 13.3 13.5 13.2 12.9 13.3

Greece — — — — — — — 

Iceland — — — — — — — 

Ireland 14.0 15.9 16.0 17.5 16.3 17.5 16.0

Italy 7.6 7.7 7.4 7.8 8.6 8.8 9.2

Japan 23.6 23.4 23.1 21.5 — 21.8 23.7

Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

Netherlands 6.5 6.9 8.0 11.0 10.2 8.0 8.3

New Zealand 13.5 15.5 17.1 16.0 15.7 15.1 16.1

Norway 18.7 17.2 22.2 23.6 24.6 27.6 30.8

Portugal 6.4 5.4 6.5 — — — — 

Spain 14.1 14.7 15.9 16.9 17.8 18.5 19.7

Sweden 15.9 14.2 14.3 13.3 13.1 12.2 12.5

Switzerland 7.2 7.3 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.6

Turkey 3.6 4.4 5.5 5.8 6.3 6.5 6.5

United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

United States 23.2 24.1 25.4 26.5 27.8 28.1 28.1

Average for countries

reporting data for 7 years 12.6 12.9 13.9 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.1

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The graduation ratio relates the number of people with first-degrees to the number of people in the

population corresponding to the typical age of graduation.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Table 9 (continued)

Graduation ratios in first-degree university education: 1985-19911

(gross ratios)

Women Men
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — 19.0 20.6 22.3 — 27.3 Australia — — 18.1 18.9 19.3 — 21.6

5.2 5.2 5.5 6.3 5.6 7.0 7.0 Austria 8.1 7.7 8.1 8.1 7.7 8.7 8.5

8.9 8.0 7.9 — — — 11.5 Belgium 16.4 13.8 12.2 — — — 15.0

24.1 25.9 28.4 30.2 33.5 36.0 38.7 Canada 21.9 22.8 24.0 25.3 26.9 27.6 28.2

8.8 8.1 7.8 7.4 14.4 16.8 18.7 Denmark 11.5 11.9 12.6 12.6 11.5 13.2 14.4

13.7 14.4 14.8 16.2 16.6 17.1 17.3 Finland 15.5 15.6 15.0 — 17.1 17.0 16.9

10.5 10.9 11.8 12.5 14.0 15.1 17.7 France 12.4 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.8 14.7 14.9

10.6 10.6 10.4 10.5 10.1 10.0 10.6 West Germany (former) 16.1 15.8 16.0 16.4 16.1 15.7 15.9

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

— — — — — 18.2 16.2 Ireland — — — — — 16.9 15.8

7.0 7.2 7.2 7.6 8.4 8.7 9.2 Italy 8.2 8.3 7.6 8.1 8.7 9.0 9.1

12.0 11.9 12.2 11.5 — 12.3 13.7 Japan 34.8 34.6 33.6 31.2 — 30.9 33.5

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

4.1 4.6 5.6 8.7 7.9 6.5 6.9 Netherlands 8.8 9.2 10.3 13.2 12.3 9.4 9.6

11.4 13.6 15.6 14.7 15.0 14.6 15.8 New Zealand 15.5 17.4 18.6 17.2 16.4 15.7 16.5

23.3 21.2 29.7 31.4 31.6 36.2 39.7 Norway 14.4 13.3 15.0 16.3 18.1 19.3 22.3

6.5 6.0 7.0 — — — — Portugal 6.3 4.9 6.1 — — — — 

15.4 16.4 18.4 20.0 21.1 22.0 23.5 Spain 12.9 13.0 13.4 13.9 14.5 15.2 16.1

18.2 16.3 16.0 15.3 15.1 14.0 14.2 Sweden 13.7 12.1 12.7 11.4 11.1 10.5 11.0

4.6 4.6 4.9 5.0 5.3 5.1 5.4 Switzerland 9.9 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.1 10.3 9.8

2.4 3.1 3.9 4.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 Turkey 4.7 5.6 7.1 7.4 7.9 8.2 8.2

— — — — — — — United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

23.9 24.8 26.4 27.9 29.6 30.5 31.0 United States 22.6 23.4 24.4 25.2 26.1 25.9 25.3

Average for countries

12.2 12.5 13.8 14.5 15.5 16.3 17.4 reporting data for 7 years 12.9 13.0 13.8 14.2 14.4 14.5 15.0

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The graduation ratio relates the number of people with first-degrees to the number of people in the population corresponding 

to the typical age of graduation.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 9 – Graduation ratios in first-degree university education: 1985–1991

Women

Norway Canada United States France Japan West Germany

(former)

Italy

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

Country

1985 1988 1991

Men

Japan Canada United States Norway West Germany

(former)

France Italy

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

Country

1985 1988 1991

Graduation ratio Graduation ratio
System Outcomes

International Education Indicators 69

Indicator 10: Percent of First University Degrees Awarded that

are in Science

The percent of first degrees awarded that are in science gives an indication of the supply of highly

qualified labor in that field, and provides a measure of the relative size of the scientific workforce in a

particular country C indicating its ability to compete globally in the fields of science and engineering. 

Differences among countries and changes over time demonstrate shifts in a nation's priorities or

economic focus. First university degrees normally correspond to the bachelor's degree level in the U.S.

< Between 1985 and 1991, science degrees as a percentage of first degrees awarded changed

little from year to year. For the average of OECD countries with data available, mathematics

and computer science and engineering degrees increased slightly, and natural science degrees

decreased slightly. However, all changes were less than 2 percentage points.

< Science degrees, as a percent of all first degrees, decreased in the United States by 6

percentage points between 1985 and 1991. Natural science dropped 1.2 percentage points,

mathematics and computer science dropped 1.9 percentage points, and engineering dropped

2.6 percentage points.

< In 1985, the United States, the former West Germany, and Japan reported similar percentages

of first degrees in science; in 1991, the percentage in the United States was about half the

percentage in the former West Germany, and about two-thirds of the percentage in Japan.

< The percent of first degrees awarded that were in natural science remained relatively stable

between 1985 and 1991. Of the G-7 countries reporting data, the former West Germany and

Canada showed increases in the percent of first degrees awarded in natural science, the

United States and Italy showed decreases, and Japan showed no change at all.

< Overall, the percentage of first degrees in mathematics and computer science increased

slightly between 1985 and 1991 in OECD countries reporting data during this period. 

However, except for Sweden (where the increase was over 3 percentage points), changes in

all other countries were relatively slight.

< In the majority of OECD countries reporting data, the percentage of first degrees in

engineering increased slightly between 1985 and 1991. Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, and the

former West Germany showed the largest increases, while Turkey and the United States

showed the largest decreases.
Table 10

Percent of first university degrees awarded that are in science: 1985–1991

All science degrees Natural sciences

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — 23.4 23.4 23.0 — 21.6 Australia — — 16.0 16.3 16.1 — 15.9

16.8 15.9 16.3 18.2 20.9 19.6 20.1 Austria 5.0 4.5 4.7 4.5 6.0 5.3 5.9

— 26.3 29.7 — — — 32.2 Belgium 4.6 5.5 5.8 — — — 4.3

17.1 17.9 17.9 18.0 17.2 16.4 15.5 Canada 4.9 5.2 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.0 5.7

22.5 26.4 26.4 29.3 24.8 26.1 27.6 Denmark 6.3 6.3 6.0 6.1 5.3 4.4 6.1

39.3 38.3 34.7 31.5 29.3 33.5 34.5 Finland 7.7 8.5 5.6 5.7 4.4 4.1 4.2

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

23.8 25.2 26.9 29.2 30.3 31.3 31.5 West Germany (former) 5.0 5.1 5.5 6.2 6.7 7.2 7.3

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

28.8 26.7 27.9 27.9 32.0 34.1 28.5 Ireland 12.8 11.4 13.2 13.4 13.6 14.1 12.4

19.5 19.0 18.9 19.3 19.7 19.7 19.8 Italy 8.1 7.7 7.7 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.5

22.7 23.1 23.5 23.6 23.8 23.5 23.5 Japan 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.4

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

21.8 21.1 22.7 26.4 20.5 21.1 21.4 Netherlands 8.5 7.9 7.6 8.8 7.1 7.1 6.5

20.5 — — 21.7 23.0 19.5 16.3 New Zealand 11.7 — — 10.5 11.6 8.2 7.1

— — 12.7 11.5 — 12.9 12.3 Norway 2.5 2.6 2.4 1.7 1.8 2.1 1.8

— 20.8 20.2 — — 24.3 — Portugal 6.5 6.4 2.9 — — 6.7 — 

13.9 14.0 14.1 14.0 14.0 15.0 15.4 Spain 5.5 5.7 5.8 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.3

15.4 18.7 21.6 21.6 22.6 24.0 24.3 Sweden 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2

20.2 20.9 22.1 22.8 22.8 23.0 22.7 Switzerland 10.3 9.5 10.9 10.6 11.0 11.2 11.0

23.0 20.4 21.7 22.7 21.2 20.6 21.3 Turkey 3.6 3.0 3.2 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.9

— — — — — — — United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

21.7 21.7 20.9 19.5 18.1 16.9 15.9 United States 6.3 6.1 5.9 5.5 5.2 5.1 5.1

Average for countries

21.9 22.1 22.5 23.1 22.7 23.2 23.0 reporting data for 7 years 6.1 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.0

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 10 (continued)

Percent of first university degrees awarded that are in science: 1985–1991

Mathematics and computer science Engineering

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — — Australia — — 7.4 7.1 6.9 — 5.7

4.1 4.0 4.0 5.5 5.9 5.2 4.8 Austria 7.7 7.4 7.6 8.2 8.9 9.0 9.5

1.7 2.1 1.8 — — — 1.7 Belgium — 18.7 22.1 — — — 26.3

4.5 5.1 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.2 3.7 Canada 7.7 7.6 7.0 7.4 6.4 6.2 6.1

— — — — — — 0.1 Denmark 16.2 20.0 20.4 23.2 19.6 21.7 21.4

6.3 6.1 5.1 5.4 4.0 5.9 6.6 Finland 25.3 23.7 23.9 20.5 21.0 23.4 23.7

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

2.3 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.9 West Germany (former) 16.5 17.5 18.7 20.0 20.3 20.5 20.2

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

4.0 2.7 3.1 2.6 4.7 6.3 4.4 Ireland 12.0 12.6 11.5 11.9 13.7 13.7 11.6

3.1 3.2 3.5 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 Italy 8.3 8.1 7.8 7.9 8.3 8.3 8.5

— — — — — — — Japan120.3 20.6 20.9 21.0 21.2 21.0 21.1

— — — — — — — Luxembourg

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 Netherlands 12.1 11.9 13.7 16.0 11.8 12.4 13.3

5.5 — — 5.6 6.7 5.5 4.0 New Zealand 3.3 — — 5.6 4.7 5.8 5.2

1.8 2.2 1.6 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.6 Norway — — 8.8 8.6 — 10.2 9.9

— 1.9 2.2 — — 7.0 — Portugal — 12.5 15.1 — — 10.5 — 

1.3 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.0 2.6 2.9 Spain 7.0 6.8 6.6 6.7 6.4 6.7 7.1

1.6 2.4 3.5 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.9 Sweden 11.3 13.1 14.7 13.9 14.5 15.2 15.2

2.1 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.8 3.7 3.8 Switzerland 7.9 8.5 8.0 8.9 8.0 8.1 7.9

1.6 1.6 1.9 2.6 2.3 2.1 2.3 Turkey 17.8 15.9 16.6 15.3 14.2 13.8 14.1

— — — — — — — United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

5.5 5.9 5.7 5.1 4.5 4.0 3.6 United States 9.8 9.7 9.4 8.9 8.4 7.8 7.2

Average for countries

3.0 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.6 reporting data for 7 years 12.9 13.1 13.3 13.6 13.1 13.4 13.4

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The percent of first degrees that are in mathematics and computer science is included in the percent for first degrees in engineering.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Natural sciences

Ireland Italy West Germany

(former)

Canada United States Sweden Japan

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Mathematics and computer science

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Engineering

Japan West Germany

(former)

Sweden Ireland Italy United States Canada

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Indicator 10 – Percent of first university degrees awarded that are in science: 

 1985–1991

Country

Sweden Ireland West Germany

(former)

Italy Canada United States
System Outcomes

International Education Indicators 73

Indicator 11: Percent of Graduate Degrees Awarded that are

in Science

Graduate programs involve a high level of skill and training, and many graduate programs in science

revolve around research. The percent of graduate degrees awarded that are in science is an indication

of the relative number of highly trained scientists in a nation, compared to experts in other fields.

< The percent of graduate degrees awarded by universities that are in science dropped overall

between 1985 and 1991. Countries experiencing large drops in graduate degrees awarded in

science as a percent of total degrees included Finland (18.4 percentage points), Turkey

(14.1), Spain (9.0), Norway (6.3), and Austria (5.9). However, several countries, including

the former West Germany, Japan, and Denmark, showed increases in the percent of graduate

degrees awarded in science.

< Overall, there were more degrees awarded in natural science and engineering than in

mathematics and computer science. The average for all the OECD countries that reported

data (for the seven years between 1985 and 1991) for the percent of graduate degrees

awarded that were in mathematics and computer science or engineering did not fluctuate

much between 1985 and 1991. However, the average for the percent of graduate degrees

awarded in natural science dropped by 2.6 percentage points, from 15.1 percent to 12.5

percent.

< While the percent of graduate degrees awarded in the natural sciences dropped overall, it

increased in the former West Germany and Switzerland. The United States reported a drop in

the percentage of graduate degrees awarded in the natural sciences, making it the country

with the lowest percent of graduate degrees awarded that are in natural science of all OECD

countries reporting data.

< The percent of graduate degrees awarded in mathematics and computer science was much

smaller than that of the other sciences. However, the percentage increased in some countries,

including Sweden, Denmark, and Ireland. Of the G-7 countries, Canada, the former West

Germany, and the United States reported slight increases in the percent of graduate degrees

awarded in mathematics and computer science from 1985 to 1991.

< In each year between 1985 and 1991, the percentage of graduate degrees awarded in

engineering was slightly lower in the United States than in the former West Germany and

substantially lower than in Japan. While the percentage of graduate degrees in the United

States increased slightly from 1985 to 1991, less than 7 percent of degrees awarded in 1991

were in engineering, compared to 8 percent in the former West Germany and almost 45

percent in Japan.
Table 11

Percent of graduate degrees awarded in university education that are in science: 1985–1991

All science degrees Natural sciences

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — 12.9 13.6 14.2 — 13.9 Australia — — 9.2 9.5 9.8 — 9.6

43.3 37.7 40.7 40.4 35.6 37.7 37.4 Austria 14.2 10.0 12.3 12.2 11.3 12.3 13.4

— — — — — — — Belgium — — — — — — — 

19.7 20.6 21.3 20.8 20.4 20.0 19.7 Canada 7.5 7.8 8.2 8.5 7.9 7.8 7.7

16.0 16.2 19.7 19.6 23.2 22.2 22.9 Denmark 4.1 4.4 4.5 5.2 6.1 5.8 5.4

47.6 43.7 45.1 38.3 30.6 30.6 29.2 Finland 24.0 22.8 21.2 18.8 14.6 14.7 12.4

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

27.7 28.5 29.8 30.3 31.3 33.2 33.9 West Germany (former) 18.7 19.4 20.0 20.9 21.6 23.5 23.3

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

31.4 36.0 32.4 33.9 33.8 34.5 28.4 Ireland 18.9 22.1 18.5 18.0 21.1 19.5 15.7

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

50.1 50.5 51.5 51.3 52.6 54.6 54.2 Japan 9.5 8.8 9.0 8.9 9.2 9.5 9.5

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

— — — 25.2 30.9 28.9 29.9 Netherlands 20.6 19.9 17.5 14.0 16.9 17.7 16.7

— — — 25.5 27.6 22.6 19.3 New Zealand — — — 18.6 16.1 13.8 11.5

40.1 37.7 36.2 29.9 34.8 33.4 33.8 Norway 17.9 14.5 13.7 9.2 10.1 8.0 7.9

— — — — — — — Portugal — — — — — — — 

35.6 34.4 34.1 30.5 32.0 26.9 26.6 Spain 28.6 27.6 25.8 21.6 24.6 19.7 19.1

48.0 43.6 44.5 44.0 44.6 48.5 44.4 Sweden 21.2 18.3 17.5 19.7 18.1 19.4 15.1

30.7 29.8 29.5 31.4 31.1 30.2 32.6 Switzerland 20.3 22.7 21.1 22.6 22.9 22.0 23.1

35.8 30.9 24.9 32.6 26.6 24.0 21.7 Turkey 6.6 6.7 8.2 8.1 8.5 7.6 6.4

— — — — — — — United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

13.5 13.9 14.4 14.7 14.7 14.5 13.8 United States 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.2 3.8

Average for countries

33.8 32.6 32.6 32.1 31.6 31.6 30.7 reporting data for 7 years 15.1 14.6 14.2 13.7 13.9 13.4 12.5

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 11 (continued)

Percent of graduate degrees awarded in university education that are in science: 1985–1991

Mathematics and computer science Engineering

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Country 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

— — — — — — — Australia — — 3.7 4.2 4.5 — 4.3

7.3 4.8 5.7 5.7 6.3 4.6 6.1 Austria 21.7 22.9 22.8 22.5 18.1 20.8 17.9

— — — — — — — Belgium — — — — — — — 

2.8 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 Canada 9.4 10.0 9.9 9.0 9.2 8.8 8.7

2.7 3.2 3.7 3.5 4.6 4.8 4.5 Denmark 9.2 8.7 11.5 10.9 12.5 11.6 13.0

6.3 6.7 6.2 6.8 4.7 5.4 4.6 Finland 17.2 14.2 17.7 12.7 11.3 10.5 12.2

— — — — — — — France — — — — — — — 

1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.2 West Germany (former) 7.2 7.3 8.0 7.5 7.6 7.4 8.4

— — — — — — — Greece — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Iceland — — — — — — — 

2.6 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.2 5.8 4.1 Ireland 9.9 11.6 11.6 13.5 10.5 9.3 8.6

— — — — — — — Italy — — — — — — — 

— — — — — — — Japan140.5 41.7 42.5 42.4 43.5 45.1 44.7

— — — — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — — — 

— — — 2.1 2.5 1.5 1.6 Netherlands 7.5 7.3 7.2 9.1 11.4 9.7 11.6

5.4 — — 2.9 2.9 4.7 3.6 New Zealand — — — 4.0 — 4.0 4.2

3.5 3.3 3.8 1.5 2.4 2.1 2.5 Norway 18.7 19.9 18.7 19.2 22.3 23.3 23.4

— — — — — — — Portugal — — — — — — — 

1.8 1.8 2.0 2.6 1.9 1.4 2.5 Spain 5.1 5.0 6.3 6.3 5.5 5.7 5.0

6.8 6.3 7.1 6.2 6.8 9.2 8.2 Sweden 20.0 18.9 20.0 18.1 19.8 19.9 21.1

2.8 1.6 1.6 2.1 2.1 1.7 1.8 Switzerland 7.6 5.5 6.8 6.8 6.1 6.5 7.6

2.8 2.3 2.3 3.2 3.0 3.3 2.8 Turkey 26.3 21.8 14.5 21.3 15.1 13.2 12.4

— — — — — — — United Kingdom — — — — — — — 

2.8 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 United States 6.3 6.3 6.7 6.8 7.0 6.9 6.7

Average for countries

3.7 3.3 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.0 3.8 reporting data for 7 years 14.8 14.4 14.6 14.7 14.3 14.2 14.4

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

1

The percent of graduate degrees that are in mathematics and computer science is included in the percent for graduate degrees in engineering.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Indicator 11 – Percent of graduate degrees awarded in university education 

that are in science: 1985–1991

Natural sciences

West Germany

(former)

Spain Ireland Sweden Canada United States

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Mathematics and computer science

Sweden Ireland Canada United States Spain West Germany

(former)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991

Engineering

Sweden Canada Ireland West Germany

(former)

United States Spain

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Country

Percent

1985 1988 1991
LABOR MARKET

OUTCOMES
Labor Market Outcomes

International Education Indicators 79

Indicator 12: Labor Force Participation and Educational

Attainment for Those 25 to 64 Years of Age and

Participation in the Labor Force by Women

This indicator illustrates the relationship between educational attainment and participation in the labor

force, which consists of people who are either employed or actively seeking work. Variation in labor

force participation by levels of educational attainment not only reflects the impact of formal education

on employment opportunities, but signifies economic returns to human capital investment for both

individuals and society. Comparing the rates of different countries by educational attainment also can

give an indication of how closely the skills taught in the education system parallel those needed in the

workplace, as well as how much value the country places on an educated workforce. However, a

gender gap in labor force participation may reflect the impact of both cultural and structural factors on

social organization of the economy.

< In general, labor force participation rates remained relatively stable between 1989 and 1992. 

In 1992, labor force participation rates ranged from 61 percent in Turkey to 91 percent in

Sweden. Labor force participation rates in the United States, at 79 percent, fell in the middle.

 Of the G-7 countries reporting data for most years, Italy, the United States, and France

showed small increases in the labor force participation rates, while Canada and the United

Kingdom reported slight decreases.

< In all OECD countries reporting data, the labor force participation rates were higher for those

with a university education than for those with only an upper secondary education in 1989,

1991, and 1992. In addition, the majority of OECD countries with available data reported a

decline in the labor force participation rates for those with an upper secondary education. 

Between 1989 and 1992, participation rates showed the largest decrease in percentage points

in Finland and Australia and the largest increase in Ireland.

< While participation rates for those with a university education remained relatively stable for

the average of OECD countries that reported data in 1989, 1991, and 1992, France, Norway,

and the Netherlands experienced a decrease in labor force participation, and New Zealand

and Switzerland reported an increase.

< The labor force participation rate for women increased between 1988 and 1992 in the

majority of OECD countries with available data. Portugal and the United Kingdom were in

the minority, showing drops of 6.5 and 1.8 percentage points, respectively. Canada, France,

Italy, and the United States all showed increases in the labor force participation rates for

women of over 1 percentage point.
Table 12

Labor force participation for women 25 to 64 years of age and overall participation

for all persons 25 to 64 years of age: 1988–1992

Participation rate for women (all levels) Overall labor force participation rate (all levels)

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Country 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

— 56.9 — 56.3 60.8 Australia — 72.7 — 70.2 74.4

— 51.3 — 54.9 54.7 Austria — 67.7 — 69.6 68.1

— 49.1 — 52.3 54.6 Belgium — 65.0 — 66.8 68.0

— 67.6 — 69.1 68.9 Canada — 78.2 — 78.3 77.8

79.1 — — 79.4 79.4 Denmark 83.9 — — 83.4 83.3

— 77.4 — 76.5 75.9 Finland — 80.9 — 80.3 79.8

— 63.8 — 64.8 65.7 France — 74.9 — 75.0 75.3

— — — 63.7 64.2 West Germany (former) — — — 75.8 75.6

— — — — — Greece — — — — — 

— — — — — Iceland — — — — — 

— 38.2 — 37.6 43.9 Ireland — 63.0 — 64.4 65.2

— 43.4 — 45.0 46.2 Italy — 63.3 — 64.3 65.1

— — — — — Japan — — — — — 

— — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — 

— — 50.8 52.5 53.8 Netherlands — — 68.3 69.1 69.7

— — 62.8 63.7 63.8 New Zealand — — 74.7 75.3 75.2

— 74.2 — 75.1 74.6 Norway — 82.1 — 82.0 81.4

— 60.5 — 63.1 54.0 Portugal — 70.2 — 75.2 68.8

— 38.5 — 41.2 42.9 Spain — 61.9 — 63.3 63.7

— — — 88.6 89.1 Sweden — — — 91.1 91.4

— 64.6 — 67.4 69.1 Switzerland — 80.0 — 81.7 82.3

— — — 31.2 33.4 Turkey — — — 66.2 61.3

— 68.2 — 69.2 66.4 United Kingdom — 78.8 — 79.2 77.5

— 68.3 — 69.1 70.0 United States — 78.4 — 78.7 79.2

Average for countries reporting

— 57.8 — 60.1 59.8 data for 1989, 1991 and 1992 — 72.7 — 73.5 73.3

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Table 12 (continued)

Labor force participation for those 25 to 64 years of age

by educational attainment: 1988–1992

Participation rate for those with upper secondary education Participation rate for those with university education

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Country 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

— 82.5 — 79.8 80.2 Australia — 87.8 — 87.7 89.2

— 74.6 — 75.6 73.9 Austria — 89.2 — 89.7 88.4

— 78.7 — 78.6 78.8 Belgium — 90.1 — 89.1 88.9

— 80.7 — 79.8 79.9 Canada — 90.0 — 89.2 89.6

90.2 — — 89.0 88.9 Denmark 95.0 — — 94.2 93.7

— 87.2 — 86.0 84.7 Finland — 92.7 — 92.5 91.8

— 83.8 — 83.8 83.5 France — 90.8 — 87.7 86.9

— — — 76.4 76.7 West Germany (former) — — — 89.8 89.8

— — — — — Greece — — — — — 

— — — — — Iceland — — — — — 

— 67.8 — 67.8 70.7 Ireland — 88.8 — 86.9 87.9

— 80.1 — 79.4 79.8 Italy — 90.6 — 91.1 90.7

— — — — — Japan — — — — — 

— — — — — Luxembourg — — — — — 

— — 76.1 76.9 77.0 Netherlands — — 90.7 90.4 85.5

— — 78.9 79.1 79.1 New Zealand — — 85.9 88.1 89.5

— 84.2 — 83.4 83.2 Norway — 95.4 — 93.7 93.3

— — — 91.1 88.4 Portugal — — — 92.4 95.2

— 81.8 — 82.5 80.2 Spain — 86.5 — 87.0 86.4

— — — 93.1 93.0 Sweden — — — 95.4 95.2

— 80.3 — 81.3 82.2 Switzerland — 88.1 — 92.0 92.7

— — — 72.5 74.7 Turkey — — — 89.8 90.2

— 83.5 — 84.0 82.1 United Kingdom — 91.1 — 90.7 90.3

— 78.5 — 78.8 79.7 United States — 88.5 — 88.5 88.4

Average for countries reporting

— 80.3 — 80.1 79.9 data for 1989, 1991 and 1992 — 90.0 — 89.7 89.6

— No data were reported or data were incomplete or inconsistent.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Indicator 12 – Labor force participation and educational attainment for those

25 to 64 years of age: 1989 and 1992

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

University education

Norway Switzerland Italy United

Kingdom

Canada United States Ireland France

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Country

Participation rate

1989 1992

Upper secondary education

France Norway Switzerland United

Kingdom

Canada Italy United States Ireland

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Country

Participation rate

1989 1992

Participation in the labor force by women: 1989–1992

Norway United

States

Switzerland Canada United

Kingdom

France Italy Ireland

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Country

Participation rate

1989 1992
BIVARIATE

RELATIONSHIPS
Bivariate Relationships

International Education Indicators 85

Indicator 13: The Relationship between Participation in

Formal Education and Expenditures per Student

from Public Sources

Participation in formal education, defined as the percentage of the population enrolled in school by age

group, indicates the value a country places on education or the dependency of the economy on a trained

workforce. Expenditures per student from public sources, which is a measure of the public economic

resources a country devotes to education, not only reflects the wealth status of a country, but how much

emphasis that country places on education.

There are at least two reasons to expect a positive relationship between these two indicators. First,

higher expenditures per student are usually associated with wealthier countries, and an economically

more advanced country usually has a higher participation rate in formal education than an economically

less developed country. Second, higher expenditures per student reflect more resources being devoted

to education relative to the size of the student body. This may lead to a high quality of education,

which may, in turn, attract more participation in formal education. The effects produced by these two

reasons on the participation rate could be called the "development effect" and the "resource effect"

respectively.

There are certainly other factors that may affect participation in formal education. For example, a

social value or economic reward system that emphasizes the importance of education may have a

strong impact upon the education participation rate. Furthermore, the expenditures per student

indicator is based only upon expenditures from public sources, even though private expenditures on

education also affect the participation rate in formal education. Clearly, ignoring such factors when

examining the bivariate relationship between these indicators will distort somewhat the image one gets

of a complex issue.

The experience of OECD countries reporting data on both indicators seems to support the hypothesis

that there is a positive relationship between the two indicators. However, when interpreting the

relationship, it is important to recognize that the expenditures indicator only includes public

expenditures, while the participation indicator includes students enrolled in public and private schools. 

The horizontal axis of the following graph shows expenditures per student (enrolled in public and

private schools) from public sources, and the vertical axis shows the participation rate in formal

education. The graph demonstrates the relationship between the two indicators by showing the relevant

data for lower and upper secondary education in 12 OECD countries. The graph illustrates that lower

participation rates are quite strongly associated with lower public expenditures per student. The

following observations also are noteworthy.

< For OECD countries that spent $5,000 or more per student at the secondary level in 1991, the

participation rate exceeded 90 percent. In contrast, the per-student expenditures for Turkey

were much lower ($504), and the participation rate was also much lower (33.9 percent).

< The United States, Switzerland, and Sweden have the highest per-student expenditures at the

secondary level and their participation rates are also among the highest.
Bivariate Relationships

International Education Indicators 86

< France is one exception to the general pattern. In 1991, among the OECD countries with

data available, France had the highest participation rate in secondary education (95.4 percent)

even though its expenditures per student ($4,640) were comparatively low.

< Ireland is another exception to the general pattern. Per-student expenditures from public

sources in Ireland are among the lowest of OECD countries reported here ($2,488), but the

participation rate at the secondary level is comparable to other OECD countries with higher

expenditures per student from public sources. In Ireland, education expenditures from

private sources (e.g., the Catholic Church) contribute significantly to total education

expenditures. This may explain why the country's participation rate appears high in relation

to public expenditures per student.
1 Public and private.

2 Participation rates for Spain only include full-time students.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985–1992.

Indicator 13 – Relationship between participation rate in lower and 

upper secondary education and public expenditures per

 secondary student: 1991

$0 $1,000 $2,000 $3,000 $4,000 $5,000 $6,000 $7,000 $8,000

0%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Public expenditures per secondary student

Participation rate at the secondary level for 14- to 17-year-olds1

Spain2

Ireland

United Kingdom

Denmark

Norway

France

United States

Sweden

Switzerland

Portugal

Turkey
Bivariate Relationships

International Education Indicators 89

Indicator 14: The Relationship between Changes in the

Population Age 5 to 13 and Changes in the

Student-Teacher Ratio at the Primary Level

The student-teacher ratio indirectly measures students' accessibility to teachers' guidance and help in

school, and, therefore, it has significant implications for quality in education. One factor that may

affect the student-teacher ratio is the growth or decline in the size of the school-age population. For

example, if the number of teachers stays stable but the school-age population increases significantly, the

student-teacher ratio would increase as a result. Stated another way: If the goal is to maintain the

current student-teacher ratio, under situations where there is an increase in the school-age population,

the number of teachers must, as a consequence, increase.

If the relative amount of resources devoted to education remains the same, and the supply of teachers in

the short-run is fully responsive to changes in the number of school-age children, the student-teacher

ratio should remain constant, irrespective of whether the number of school-age children increases or

decreases. The following graph shows that the observed relationship between the percentage change in

the number of children and student-teacher ratios differs from the expected relationship. The

horizontal axis of the graph measures the percentage change in the number of 5- to 13-year-olds

between 1985 and 1991, and the vertical axis measures the absolute change in student-teacher ratios at

the primary level between 1985 and 1991.

Between 1985 and 1991, most of the OECD countries experienced a decline in the number of 5- to 13-

year-olds,4 and some of these declines were substantial. For example, between 1985 and 1991, the

number of 5- to 13-year-olds declined by over 15 percent in Italy, Denmark, and Spain. During the

same period, the student-teacher ratios at the primary level decreased in most countries (Indicator 6). 

The observed relationship between these two variables over time reflects several factors, one of which

could be rigidity in the supply of teachers. There may be a tendency in most countries to maintain an

absolute level of human resources in times of declining school-age population. When the size of the

school-age population is declining, school authorities may not reduce staff at the same rate. This

situation prevailed in the United States during the 1970s when large enrollment declines were met by

only modest reductions in the number of teachers. Large reductions in student-teacher ratios resulted. 

Conversely, in the absence of appropriate long-range planning, when the school-age cohort increases,

the supply of teachers may not respond immediately, causing the student-teacher ratio to increase. 

 

4Refer to Table S2 in the Supplemental Notes and Tables for the number of 5- to 13-year olds in each country,

in 1985 and 1991.
Bivariate Relationships

International Education Indicators 90

Another factor influencing the observed relationship is that over time variations in the student-teacher

ratio may reflect the willingness of a country to devote more (or less) of its resources to education

relative to the size of its student body.

< There is only a weak (i.e., statistically insignificant), positive relationship between change in

the percentage of children age 5 to 13 and change in student-teacher ratios: a decline in the

former measure will accompany a decline in the latter measure. Italy, Denmark, Spain, New

Zealand, the Netherlands, and Sweden experienced a relatively large decline on both

measures.

< Spain may be considered an outlier in the sense that it experienced a similar percentage

decline in the number of children age 5 to 13 as did Italy and Denmark (i.e., over 15 percent),

but had a much larger percentage decline in its student-teacher ratio (over 25 percent) than

the other two countries.

< Austria had a small percentage decrease in the population age 5 to 13, which was

accompanied by a small percentage increase in the student-teacher ratio.

< The United Kingdom and the former West Germany experienced a small percentage increase

in their student-teacher ratios between 1985 and 1991, and also experienced a small

percentage increase in the number of 5- to 13-year-olds.

< In the United States and Turkey, the increase in the percentage of children age 5 to 13 was

over 5 percent, between 1985 and 1991, but both countries achieved a moderate decrease in

the student-teacher ratio at the primary education level.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985–1992.

Indicator 14 – The relationship between changes in the population age

5 to 13 and changes in the student-teacher ratio at the primary level 

from 1985–1991

-25.0% -20.0% -15.0% -10.0% -5.0% 0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0%

-30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

Percentage change in the number of 5- to 13-year-olds

1985–1991

Percentage change in the student-teacher ratio,

at the primary level, 1985–1991

United Kingdom

West Germany

Austria (former)

Turkey

Netherlands

Sweden

United States

Denmark

New Zealand

Italy

Spain
Bivariate Relationships

International Education Indicators 93

Indicator 15: The Relationship between First Degree

Graduation Ratio and Public Expenditures on

Tertiary Education as a Percentage of GDP

The first degree graduation ratio is the number of students earning their first university degree per 100

persons in the total population who are of the typical age of graduation. The percentage of GDP spent

reflects the willingness of a country to devote its economic resources to tertiary education, and the

value that its culture places on that education. It is natural to speculate that high public expenditures on

tertiary education (as a percent of GDP) are associated with high first degree graduation ratios.

The following graph demonstrates the bivariate relationship between these two measures. The

horizontal axis shows the absolute change in public expenditures on tertiary education as a percent of

GDP, while the vertical axis shows the absolute change in first degree graduation ratio. With only one

exception (Sweden), the observations seem to support the hypothesis that there is a positive relationship

between the two variables.

< Between 1985 and 1991, almost all the OECD countries with data available increased public

expenditures on tertiary education as a percent of GDP (the only exception being the former

West Germany). During the same period, the majority of countries experienced an increase

in first degree graduation ratios (exceptions being the former West Germany and Sweden).

< Among the OECD countries reporting data, Norway's public expenditures on tertiary

education as a percent of GDP increased the most (a half percentage point) between 1985

and 1991. During this period, Norway also experienced the largest increase in its first degree

graduation ratio (12.1 percentage points).

< Between 1985 and 1991, public expenditures on tertiary education as a percent of GDP

dropped one-tenth of a percentage point in the former West Germany. In the same period,

the first degree graduation ratio in the former West Germany declined two-tenths of a

percentage point.

< Sweden appears to be an outlier in this bivariate relationship. Between 1986 and 1991,

although public expenditures on tertiary education as a percent of GDP increased one-tenth of

a percentage point in Sweden, the country's first degree graduation ratio declined by 1.7

percentage points.

< With the same absolute increase in public resources allocated to tertiary education as Sweden

(i.e., one-tenth of a percentage point of GDP), Denmark and Austria achieved increases in

their first degree graduation ratio of over 6 and 1 percentage points, respectively.
Indicator 15 – Relationship between absolute change in education expenditures 

from public sources as a percent of GDP and first degree graduation ratio

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Absolute change in education expenditures from

public sources as a percent of GDP from 1985–91

Absolute change in first degree graduation ratio,

1985 to 1991

1 Absolute changes in public expenditures and graduation ratio are from 1986–91.

2 Absolute changes in public expenditures and graduation ratio are from 1985–90.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985–1992.

Norway

Denmark

Spain

Ireland

Switzerland

Italy2

United States

Austria

West Germany

(former) 

Sweden1

New Zealand1
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES

AND TABLES
International Education Indicators 97

SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES AND TABLES

Note for Table 1:

In the EAG software, the population data for the Netherlands and Norway appeared to be

reversed in 1986. Specifically, the 1986 population figure for the Netherlands was reported as 4.17

million, while the figure reported for Norway was 14.57 million.

Note for Table 2:

In a few countries, the participation rate for 5- to 13-year olds is higher than 100 because the

numerator (the number of students enrolled) and the denominator (the population cohort) are derived

from different sources. Usually, the denominator is based upon demographic projections.

Note for Table 4:

Upper secondary education, equivalent to high school education in the United States, enrolls

varying age cohorts in different OECD countries. To illustrate, in the United States, the typical age

range for high school students is 15 to 17, while in countries like France and the former West Germany,

the typical age range for upper secondary students is 16 to 18. For more information regarding such

differences, please refer to Section IV, AAnnotated organization charts of education systems,@ in

Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 3rd edition, 1995.

Note for Table 6:

Student-teacher ratio is calculated by dividing the number of FTE students by the number of

FTE teachers. (AFTE@ stands for Afull-time equivalent.@)

Notes for Table 8:

Expenditures per student from public sources in constant 1991 U.S. dollars is calculated as

follows:

1. Public expenditures per student in the national currency are obtained by dividing public

education expenditures at a given education level by the number of full-time-equivalent

students enrolled in both public and private schools at the same education level.

2. The results obtained in step 1 are then converted into equivalent U.S. dollars by

dividing them by the purchasing-power-parity (PPP) exchange rate between a country's

national currency and the U.S. dollar. The PPP rate used for this purpose is the OECDdeveloped rate pertaining to GDP. Thus, expenditures per student are expressed in

current U.S. dollars.
Supplemental Notes and Tables

International Education Indicators 98

3. Based on the U.S. consumer price index for urban areas (CPI-U), a series of priceinflators is derived by dividing 1991 CPI-U by each year's CPI-U.

4. By multiplying each prior year's expenditures per student in current U.S. dollars by the

price-inflators developed in step 3, expenditures per student in current U.S. dollars are

converted into 1991 constant U.S. dollars.

The table on the following page lists the PPP exchange rates that were applied in these

conversions. Listed below are the price inflators (based on the Consumer Price Index for all urban

consumers) that were used to convert current dollars to 1991 dollars:

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

1.26547 1.24208 1.19881 1.15090 1.09805 1.04210 1.00000

Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

AARG:

The abbreviation AARG, used in Table 8, stands for Aaverage annual rate of growth,@ and is

calculated using the following

formula:

Note for Indicator 14:

Changes in the number of children in the 5- to 13-year-old population between 1985 and 1991

are shown in Table S2 and changes in the number of primary and secondary teachers between 1985 and

1991 are shown in Table S3.

AARG =(1991 expenditures per student/1985 expenditures per student )

1/6
Supplemental Notes and Tables

International Education Indicators 99

Table S1. Exchange rate between each country's currency

and the U.S. dollar

in terms of APurchasing power parity@

(units of the national currency per PPP dollar)

Country Currency 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Australia Dollar 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4

Austria Schilling 14.6 14.9 14.8 14.4 14.2 14.0 14.2

Belgium Franc 40.5 41.0 40.7 39.9 40.0 39.5 39.2

Canada Dollar 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Denmark Kroner 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.2

Finland Markkaa 5.7 5.7 5.9 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.1

France Franc 6.6 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.6 6.5

Germany Dmark 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1

Greece Drachmae 79.7 91.4 101.3 112.7 121.7 140.8 161.1

Iceland Kronur 38.9 47.3 54.9 65.1 75.2 82.6 85.4

Ireland Pound 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Italy Lire 1217.9 1281.9 1317.9 1353.3 1376.7 1421.0 1463.8

Japan Yen 216.2 214.3 210.8 203.3 196.1 191.8 188.8

Luxembourg Franc 40.6 41.1 39.5 39.5 40.2 39.7 39.5

Netherlands Guilder 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2

New Zealand Dollar 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6

Norway Kroner 9.5 9.1 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.7 9.6

Portugal Escudo 64.1 75.3 81.2 87.3 94.5 103.7 110.0

Spain Peseta 91.5 99.2 101.8 103.6 106.2 109.5 110.5

Sweden Kroner 7.7 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.9 9.5

Switzerland Franc 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2

Turkey Pound 231.1 296.8 397.8 637.6 1003.0 1491.0 2240.2

United Kingdom Pound 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

United States Dollar 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education Statistics, 1985-1992 and

OECD in Figures, 1995.
Supplemental Notes and Tables

International Education Indicators 100

Table S2. Changes in the number of children in the

population age 5 to 13

between 1985 and 1991

Country 1985 1991

Absolute change

between 1985 and

1991

Percent change

between 1985 and

1991

Australia 2,289,50 2,247,700 (41,850) -1.8%

Austria 824,040 821,100 (2,940) -0.4%

Denmark 613,200 509,850 (103,350) -16.9%

West Germany (former) 5,552,820 5,686,210 133,390 2.4%

Italy 7,255,510 5,768,110 (1,487,400) -20.5%

Netherlands 1,738,800 1,612,490 (126,310) -7.3%

New Zealand 500,310 456,940 (43,370) -8.7%

Spain 5,776,500 4,839,720 (936,780) -16.2%

Sweden 943,550 879,240 (64,310) -6.8%

Turkey 10,435,960 11,480,310 1,044,350 10.0%

United Kingdom 6,454,680 6,486,200 31,520 0.5%

United States 30,149,280 32,344,320 2,195,040 7.3%

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.

Table S3. Changes in the number of primary and secondary

school teachers

between 1985 and 19911

Country 1985 1991

Absolute change

between 1985 and

1991

Percent change

between 1985 and

1991

Austria 95,850 102,256 6,406 6.7%

Denmark 68,000 68,000 0 0.0%

West Germany (former) 473,180 450,323 (22,857) -4.8%

Italy 14,876 17,167 2,291 15.4%

Japan 995,266 1,012,348 17,082 1.7%

Netherlands 43,118 41,523 (1,595) -3.7%

New Zealand 34,237 35,491 1,254 3.7%

Spain 231,894 296,597 64,703 27.9%

Sweden 108,000 110,900 2,900 2.7%

 

1

The number of teachers is in terms of full-time equivalent units.
Supplemental Notes and Tables

International Education Indicators 101

Turkey 339,192 375,863 36,671 10.8%

United States 2,168,298 2,398,000 229,702 10.6%

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education Statistics, 1985-1992.
Supplemental Notes and Tables

International Education Indicators 102

Table S4. The legal school leaving-age for compulsory

education: 1992

Country Age (years)

Australia 15

Austria 15

Belgium 18

Canada 16

Denmark 16

Finland 16

France 16

West Germany (former) 18

Greece 15

Iceland C

Ireland 15

Italy 14

Japan 15

Luxembourg 15

Netherlands 16

New Zealand 16

Norway 16

Portugal 14

Spain 16

Sweden 16

Switzerland 15

Turkey 15

United Kingdom 16

United States 17

CNo information reported.

SOURCE: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance:

 OECD Indicators, 1995.
GLOSSARY
International Education Indicators 105

GLOSSARY

Consumer price index for all urban consumers (CPI-U): This price index measures the average

change in the cost of a fixed basket of goods and services purchased by consumers living in urban

areas.

Early childhood education: Education preceding the first level (primary). It also is called preprimary education. All types of establishments or group settings aimed at supporting and stimulating

the child's social and intellectual development are included in early childhood education.

Educational attainment: The highest grade, year, or level of regular school attended and completed.

Educational expenditures: The sum of expenditures on instruction, research, public service,

academic support, student services, institutional support, operation and maintenance of plant, and

awards, from restricted and unrestricted funds. (Note: Some of these expenditure categories do not

apply to all levels of education.) Expenditures per student consist of total educational expenditures

divided by the number of students.

Enrollment rate: The enrollment rate is the percentage of the population in a typical school-age

cohort who are enrolled in full-time education. The typical age range for attendance in an education

level may vary country by country.

Formal education: Formal education refers to education programs that are typically taking place in

schools or other academic institutions with formal curriculums and educational requirements. Formal

education usually leads to a publicly recognized academic credential, such as a graduation certificate,

diploma, or degree.

Full-time-equivalent (FTE) enrollment: The sum of the enrollment of full-time students and the fulltime equivalent of part-time students. Different conversion factors are sometimes used to convert

enrollment of part-time students into full-time equivalents, depending upon education level. 

Conversion factors also may vary by country. For example, in some countries, two part-time students

may be considered equal to one full-time student, while in other countries three part-time students may

be considered equivalent to one full-time student.

Graduate degree: Any formal degree attained after the bachelor's degree. Graduate degrees include

master's degrees, doctoral degrees, and professional degrees.

Gross domestic product (GDP): The gross domestic product (GDP) is equal to the total of all gross

expenditures on the final use of domestically supplied goods and services, valued at the price to the

purchaser minus the imports of all goods and services. GDP per capita is the GDP of a country divided

by its total population.
Glossary

International Education Indicators 106

Higher education: Study beyond secondary school at an institution that offers programs leading to an

associate, baccalaureate, or higher degree (or equivalent degrees in other countries). It also is called

tertiary education.

Labor force: Persons age 15 to 64 years old either employed or actively seeking work.

Lower secondary education: Education equivalent to grades 7, 8, and 9 in the United States.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): An organization of 26

nations whose purpose is to promote trade and economic growth in both member and non-member

nations. OECD's activities cover almost all aspects of economic and social policy. The member

countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,

Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,

Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Primary education: Education prior to secondary education, equivalent to elementary education in the

United States.

Private expenditures: Expenditures funded by private sources C mainly households, private nonprofit institutions, and firms and business. Private expenditures include expenditures on school fees,

materials such as textbooks and teaching equipment, transport to school (if organized by the school),

meals (if provided by the school), boarding fees, and expenditures by employers for initial vocational

training.

Private schools or institutions: Schools or institutions organized and controlled independently of

public authorities, even though they may receive public funding.

Public expenditures: Expenditures funded by public authorities at all levels. Expenditures on

education by public agencies other than education departments, ministries, or boards are included. 

Expenditures by education departments, ministries, or boards that are not directly related to education

are generally not included.

Public schools or institutions: Schools or institutions organized and controlled by public authorities,

normally providing open access without any distinction of race, sex, or religion.

Purchasing Power Parities (PPP): The rates of currency conversion that equalize the purchasing

power of different currencies. This means that a given sum of money, when converted into different

currencies at the PPP rates, will buy the same basket of goods and services in all countries.

Student-teacher ratio: The ratio of the full-time-equivalent enrollment in a given level of education to

the total full-time-equivalent teachers working at the same education level.

Teachers: A teacher is defined as a person whose professional activities involve the transmitting of

knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are stipulated in a formal curriculum program to students enrolled

in a formal educational institution.
Glossary

International Education Indicators 107

This definition does not depend upon the qualifications held by the teacher, as it is based upon

three concepts: activity (thus excluding former teachers who no longer have active teaching duties);

profession (thus excluding people who work occasionally or in a voluntary capacity in schools); and

formal program or curriculum (thus excluding people who provide services other than formal

instruction, e.g., supervisors, activity organizers, etc., whether the program is established at the country,

district, or school level).

Tertiary education: See AHigher education.@

Unemployment rate: The percentage of the labor force without work, but actively seeking work.

Upper secondary education: Education equivalent to grades 10, 11, and 12 in the United States. 

Upper secondary education may include general, technical, or vocational education.