2013 

ANNUAL MONITORING NETWORK PLAN 

New York State Ambient Air Monitoring Program 

Bureau of Air Quality Surveillance 

Division of Air Resources 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation 
Annual Monitoring Network Plan 

Revision 1.0 

Date: May 15, 2013 

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Table of Contents 

Section Page

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8 

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................ 8 

1.2 Topography and Climate of New York State .................................................................. 11 

1.3 Population and Demographics ......................................................................................... 12 

2. Chronology of Air Monitoring in New York State .............................................15 

2.1 Monitoring Related Research and Investigations ............................................................ 17 

2.1.1 Publications ............................................................................................................... 18 

2.1.2 Posters/Presentations ........................................................................................................ 23 

3. Monitoring Sites .............................................................................................................. 29 

3.1 Northern Monitoring Site Listings ................................................................................... 31 

3.2 Southern Monitoring Site Listings ................................................................................. 92 

4. Criteria Contaminants .................................................................................................... 141 

4.1 Carbon Monoxide .......................................................................................................... 143 

4.2 Nitrogen Dioxide ........................................................................................................... 146 

4.3 Lead ................................................................................................................................ 150 

4.4 Particulate Matter ........................................................................................................... 153 

4.4.1 Total Suspended Particulate ........................................................................................... 153 

4.4.2 PM10 ............................................................................................................................... 154 

4.4.3 PM2.5 ............................................................................................................................... 156 

4.4.4 Continuous PM Monitoring ........................................................................................... 161 

4.4.5 Speciation ....................................................................................................................... 163 

4.4.6 Continuous Speciation ................................................................................................... 164 

4.4.7 Additional Monitoring Initiatives ................................................................................. 165 

4.4.7.1 PM2.5 Technology Assessment and Characterization Study-New York Supersite ........ 166 

4.4.7.2 Organic Carbon: Molecular Marker Characterization ................................................... 166 

4.4.7.3 PM Coarse Monitoring .................................................................................................. 167 

4.4.8 Air Pollution and Environmental Conditions ................................................................ 167 

4.4.8.1 NYC Microscale Street Canyon Monitoring ................................................................. 167 

4.4.8.2 Rochester PM Center Clarkson, Univ. of Rochester Medical Center ............................ 167 

4.4.8.3 Air Pollution Microscopy ....................................................................................... 167 

4.4.8.4 Ultrafine Particulate Monitoring .................................................................................... 168 

4.5 Sulfur Dioxide ................................................................................................................ 171 

4.6 Ozone ............................................................................................................................. 174 

5. EPA’s National Toxics Program .................................................................................... 178 

5.1 National Air Toxics Trends Stations (NATTS) ............................................................. 179 

5.2 NY Toxics Monitoring Network .................................................................................... 180 

5.3 Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) ............................................ 189 

6. NCore Sites .................................................................................................................... 194 

7. Acid Deposition Network .............................................................................................. 196 
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Table of Contents (continued)

Section Page

8. Anticipated Changes in the Next 18 Months ................................................................. 198 

8.1 Lead Monitoring ............................................................................................................ 198 

8.2 Special Purpose Monitors .............................................................................................. 198 

8.2.1 Tonawanda Community Air Quality Study ................................................................... 198 

8.2.2 New York State Ambient Mercury Baseline Study ....................................................... 200 

8.2.3 Community Air Screen .......................................................................... 200 

8.2.4 Airport Lead Monitoring ........................................................................ 201 

8.2.5 Peace Bridge Air Quality Study ................................................................. 201 

8.2.6 Hurricane Sandy Clean-up Activities Monitoring ........................................... 201 

8.3 Proposed Changes at Existing Sites ............................................................................... 201 

8.3.1 PS 19 ...................................................................................................................... 202 
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List of Tables

Table Page

1.1 2010 Census Population for Major Metropolitan Statistical Areas in New York ......... 12 

3.1 Location Listing for Northern Monitoring Sites ............................................................. 31 

3.2 Location Listing for Southern Monitoring Sites .............................................................. 92 

4.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards ...................................................... 141 

5.1 NATTS Pollutants of Concern ....................................................................................... 179 

5.2 Target List of Volatile Organic Compounds ................................................................ 180 

5.3 Information on PAMS Sites .......................................................................................... 189 

5.4 Instrumentation for Gaseous Pollutants ......................................................................... 190 

5.5 Equipment for Meteorological Measurements .............................................................. 190 

5.6 Target Compound List for Carbonyl Sampling ............................................................ 191 

5.7 VOC Methods and Sampling Frequencies ..................................................................... 191 

5.8 PAMS Target Compounds List ...................................................................................... 191 
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List of Figures

Figure Page

1.1 Population Density in New York State by County ............................................ 13 

1.2 Potential Environmental Justice Areas in New York State .................................. 14 

2.1 Location Map of Monitoring Sites in New York State Excluding NYC ......................... 16 

2.2 Location Map of Ambient Air Monitoring Sites in NYC ..................................... 17 

3.1 Site Locations for Northern Monitoring Operation ......................................................... 29 

3.2 Site Locations for Southern Monitoring Operation ......................................................... 30 

4.1 Carbon Monoxide Monitors and Concentration Trends................................................. 144 

4.2 Location Map for Carbon Monoxide Monitoring Sites ................................................. 145 

4.3 Nitrogen Dioxide Monitors and Concentration Trends ................................................. 147 

4.4 Location Map for NOx Monitoring Sites ...................................................................... 148 

4.5 Lead Monitors and Concentration Trends ..................................................................... 152 

4.6 Total Suspended Particulate Monitors and Concentration Trends ................................ 154 

4.7 PM10 Monitors and Concentration Trends ..................................................................... 155 

4.8 Location Map of Manual PM10 Monitoring Sites .......................................................... 156 

4.9 Location Map of Manual PM2.5 Monitoring Sites ......................................................... 160 

4.10 PM2.5 Monitors and Concentration Trends ................................................................... 161 

4.11 Location Map of Continuous TEOM Monitoring Sites ................................................. 162 

4.12 Location Map of Speciation Trends Network Sites ....................................................... 164 

4.13 Sulfur Dioxide Monitors and Concentration Trends .................................................... 172 

4.14 Location Map of Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Sites ....................................................... 173 

4.15 Ozone Monitors and 1 hr Concentration Trends ........................................................... 176 

4.16 Ozone Monitors and 8 hr Concentration Trends ........................................................... 176 

4.17 Location Map of Ozone Monitoring Sites ..................................................................... 177 

5.1 Annual Averages for Benzene ..................................................................................... 182 

5.2 Annual Averages for Toluene ................................................................................. 183 

5.3 Annual Averages for m/p-Xylene .............................................................................. 183 

5.4 Annual Averages for o-Xylene ................................................................................... 184 

5.5 Annual Averages for 1,3-Butadiene .............................................................................. 184 

5.6 Annual Averages for Dichloromethane ......................................................................... 185 

5.7 Annual Averages for Chloroform .................................................................................. 185 

5.8 Annual Averages for 1,4-Dichlorobenzene ................................................................... 186 

5.9 Annual Averages for Formaldehyde .............................................................................. 186 

5.10 Annual Averages for Acetaldehyde ............................................................................. 187 

5.11 Location Map of Toxics Monitoring Sites ..................................................................... 188 

7.1 Location Map of Acid Deposition Monitoring Sites .................................................... 197 

8.1 Annual Averages for Benzene at Tonawanda Sites .......................................... 199 

8.2 Annual Averages for Formaldehyde at Tonawanda Sites ................................... 199
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

AIRS Aerometric Information Retrieval System 

AQI Air Quality Index 

AQS Air Quality System 

AMoN Ammonia Gas Monitoring Network 

ARM Approved Regional Method 

ASRC Atmospheric Sciences Research Center 

BAQS Bureau of Air Quality Surveillance 

CAMR Clean Air Mercury Rule 

CASTNet Clean Air Status and Trends Network 

CBSA Core-Based Statistical Area 

CCNY City College of New York 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

CMSA Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area 

CO Carbon Monoxide 

Cr Chromium 

CSN Chemical Speciation Network 

CTDEP Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection 

DNPH 2,4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazine 

EAC Early Action Compact 

EC Elemental Carbon 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

FEM Federal Equivalent Method 

FRM Federal Reference Method 

GC Gas Chromatography 

GCMS Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 

HAPs Hazardous Air Pollutants 

HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography 

ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments 

MDN Mercury Deposition Network 

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

NADP National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

NATTS National Air Toxics Trends Stations 

NCore National Core 

NESCAUM New England States Coordinated Air Use Management 

NJDEP New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection 

NO Nitric oxide 

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide 

NOx Nitrogen oxides 

NOy Sum of reactive nitrogen oxides 

NSR New Source Review 

NYC New York City 

NYCRR New York State Codes, Rules and Regulations 
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations (continued) 

NYSERDA New York State Energy Research and Development Authority 

O3 Ozone 

OC Organic Carbon 

ORD Office of Research and Development (EPA) 

PAHs Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 

PAMS Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations 

Pb Lead 

PM Particulate Matter 

PM10 Particulate Matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or less 

PM2.5 Particulate Matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less 

PMTACS PM2 5 Technology Assessment and Characterization Study 

ppb Parts per billion 

ppm Parts per million 

PUF Polyurethane Foam 

PWEI Population Weighted Emissions Index 

SADCA State Acid Deposition Control Act 

SIP State Implementation Plan 

SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations 

SO2 Sulfur dioxide 

SOAP Speciation of Organics for Apportionment of PM2.5

SOx Sulfur oxides 

SPM Special Purpose Monitors 

SUNY State University of New York 

TEOM Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance 

TSP Total Suspended Particulate 

UV Ultra Violet 

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds 
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1. Introduction

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized amendments to the ambient air 

monitoring regulations on October 17, 2006. The amendments revise the technical requirements 

for certain types of sites, add provisions for monitoring of PM10-2.5, and reduce certain 

monitoring requirements for criteria pollutants. Monitoring agencies are required to submit 

annual monitoring network plans, conduct network assessments every 5 years, perform quality 

assurance activities, and, in certain instances, establish NCore sites by January 1, 2011. 

Starting in July 2007, each State, or where applicable local, agency is required to ―adopt and 

submit to the Regional Administrator an annual monitoring network plan which shall provide for 

the establishment and maintenance of an air quality surveillance system that consists of a 

network of SLAMS monitoring stations including FRM, FEM, and ARM monitors that are part 

of SLAMS, NCore stations, CSN stations, State speciation stations, SPM stations, and/or, in 

serious, severe and extreme ozone nonattainment areas, PAMS stations, and SPM monitoring 

stations.‖ This document is prepared and submitted as part of the fulfillment to these 

requirements. 

1.1 Background

New York State began a concerted effort to control the air pollution problem back in 1957, when 

the State Legislature enacted one of the nation‘s first comprehensive air pollution control laws. 

An Air Pollution Control Board was established to develop and direct a public information 

program for monitoring contaminant levels, and to conduct area studies and inventories outlining 

major problems. In December 1964, New York State developed air quality standards to protect 

its citizens against adverse health effects. These standards provided a long-range planning tool 

and established numerical air quality limits for the following contaminants: particulates, sulfur 

dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxidants, hydrogen sulfide, fluoride, beryllium and sulfuric acid mist. 

In 1966 the Legislature responded to the increasing pollution levels by restructuring the 

administrative authority into the Department of Health, under which the Division of Air 

Resources was created. Major legislation was also introduced to provide increased efficacy of 

rules and regulations. That year also marked the severe New York City Thanksgiving holiday air 

pollution episode brought upon by a temperature inversion that lasted through the weekend. 

By the time when the first Earth Day was held in 1970, it had become apparent that pollution 

abatement strategies in place were inadequate, and air quality—along with water quality and 

solid waste—became cornerstones of the emerging U.S. environmental conscience. The 1970 

Clean Air Act Extension, along with the establishment of the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency in that same year, were defining moments in the history of air quality in this country. 

Another development which has had a major effect on air pollution control in New York State 

was the creation of the Department of Environmental Conservation in 1970. The Division of Air 

Resources was transferred to the new Department and its administrative functions restructured 

and streamlined. Nine new regional offices were established to carry out responsibilities relating 

to pollution control of sources within their respective part of the State. 
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In 1977, the first set of Clean Air Act amendments was adopted because many states failed to 

meet mandated targets. One of the most effective of these was the New Source Review (NSR), 

which addresses older facilities that had been "grandfathered" by the original law. In 1990, 

additional amendments to the Clean Air Act included provisions for attainment and maintenance 

of national ambient air quality standards, mobile sources, air toxics, acid deposition control, 

permits, stratospheric ozone and global climate protection, enforcement; visibility improvement 

near National Parks, and other provisions relating to research, development and air monitoring. 

In 1997, EPA announced more strict national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for 

ground-level ozone, the primary constituent of smog. After a lengthy scientific review process, 

including extensive external scientific review, EPA determined that these changes were 

necessary to protect public health and the environment. The new standard was intended to be 

more protective of the health of children and adults who play and work outdoors in the summer. 

In establishing the 8-hour standard, EPA set the standard at 0.08 parts per million (ppm) as an 

average over an 8-hour period and defines the new standard as a "concentration-based" form, 

specifically the 3-year average of the annual 4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone 

concentrations. EPA also added new standards, using PM2 5 as the indicator for fine particles 

(with PM2 5 referring to particles with a nominal mean aerodynamic diameter less than or equal 

to 2.5 μm), and retained PM10 standards for the purpose of regulating the coarse fraction of PM10

(referred to as thoracic coarse particles or coarse-fraction particles, generally including particles 

with a nominal mean aerodynamic diameter greater than 2.5 μm and less than or equal to 10 μm, 

or PM10-2.5). EPA established two new PM2.5 standards: an annual standard of 15 μg/m3 based on 

the 3-year average of annual arithmetic mean PM2.5 concentrations from single or multiple 

community-oriented monitors; and a 24-hour standard of 65 μg/m3, based on the 3-year average 

of the 98th percentile of 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations at each population-oriented monitor 

within an area. These new standards were challenged by industry and in May of 1999 the U.S. 

Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit Court ruled that U.S. EPA must reconsider 

the new 8-hr ozone and fine particulate standards. The court did not throw out the standards, but 

ruled that U.S. EPA could not enforce them. On February 27, 2001, the Supreme Court 

substantially reversed the ruling of the lower court. The Supreme Court remanded the case to the 

Court of Appeals for resolution of any remaining issues that had not been addressed in that 

court‘s earlier rulings. In March 2002, the Court of Appeals rejected all remaining challenges to 

the standards. 

In December 2006, EPA issued the final rule revising the NAAQS for PM to provide increased 

protection of public health and welfare, respectively. EPA revised the level of the 24-hour PM2.5

standard to 35 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) and retained the level of the annual PM2.5

standard at 15μg/m3. With regard to PM10, the 24-hour standard was retained, but the annual 

PM10 standard was revoked. 

The current 8-hr ozone standard of 0.075 ppm, effective since May 27, 2008 is under 

reconsideration and will most certainly be revised to a lower value. The final rule is expected this 

August. 

In November 2008 EPA revised the NAAQS for lead from the previous quarterly average of 

1.5μg/m3 to the more protective 3-month rolling average of 0.15μg/m3. As part of the lead 

monitoring requirements, monitoring agencies are required to monitor ambient air near lead 
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sources which are expected to or have been shown to have a potential to contribute to a 3-month 

average lead concentration in ambient air in excess of the level of the NAAQS. At a minimum, 

monitoring agencies must monitor near lead sources that emit 1.0 ton per year (tpy) or more. 

Monitoring is also required in each Core-Based Statistical Area (CBSA) with a population equal 

to or greater than 500,000 people as determined by the latest available census figures. Revisions 

to the monitoring requirements pertaining to where State and local monitoring agencies would be 

required to conduct lead monitoring were finalized and became effective January 26, 2011. The 

new regulations replaced the population oriented monitoring requirement with a requirement to 

add Pb monitors to the urban NCore monitors. The EPA also lowered the emission threshold 

from 1.0 tpy to 0.50 tpy for industrial sources of lead (e.g., lead smelters and foundries). 

However, the emission threshold for airports was maintained at 1.0 tpy. In addition, an airport 

monitoring study has been implemented to determine the need for monitoring of airports which 

emit less than 1.0 tpy of lead. Under this new rule lead monitoring is required for a minimum of 

one year at 15 additional airports that have been identified as having characteristics that could 

lead to ambient lead concentrations approaching or exceeding the lead NAAQS. Brookhaven 

and Republic airports in Suffolk County, New York have been designated as such. The 

Brookhaven study was completed in October, 2012, at which time Repbulic Airport monitoring 

commenced. 

The annual NAAQS for NO2 is set at 0.053 ppm. In 2010 EPA revised the NAAQS to include 

an hourly standard of 0.100 ppm. Under the new NO2 rule that became effective January 22, 

2010 each MSA with population larger than 500,000 will be required to operate a near-road 

monitor beginning in 2013. On March 7, 2013, EPA issued a final rule to revise the deadlines by 

which the near-road monitors within the NO2 monitoring network are to be operational. States 

and local agencies are required to begin operating the near-road component of the NO2 network 

in phases between January 1, 2014 and January 1, 2017. This replaces the 2010 rule requirement 

that originally required all new NO2 monitors to begin operating on January 1, 2013. 

 

In June, 2010, EPA established a new 1-hour SO2 standard at a level of 75 parts per billion (ppb), 

based on the 3-year average of the annual 99th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum 

concentrations. Additionally, both the 24-hour and annual primary SO2 standards were revoked. 

EPA also established requirements for SO2 monitoring in areas where there is an increased 

coincidence of population and SO2 emissions. 

On Dec. 14, 2012 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) strengthened the nation‘s air 

quality standards for fine particle pollution to improve public health protection by revising the 

primary annual PM2.5 standard from 15 to 12 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) and retaining 

the 24-hour fine particle standard of 35 μg/m3. The new standards became effective on March 

18, 2013. 

Through the years, ambient monitoring has always been an important and integral part of the 

overall effort to manage our environmental resources. The Bureau of Air Quality Surveillance, 

which was originally established in the Division of Air Resources under the Department of 

Health in 1966, has been performing ambient air monitoring since. 
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1.2 Topography and Climate of New York State

 

New York State contains 49,576 square miles, inclusive of 1,637 square miles of inland water, 

but exclusive of the boundary-water areas of Long Island Sound, New York Harbor, Lake 

Ontario, and Lake Erie. The Adirondacks cover most of the northeast and occupy about onefourth of the state's total area. The Appalachian Highlands, including the Catskill Mountains and 

Kittatinny Mountain Ridge (or Shawangunk Mountains), extend across the southern half of the 

state, from the Hudson River Valley to the basin of Lake Erie. Between these two upland 

regions, and also along the state's northern and eastern borders, lies a network of lowlands, 

including the Great Lakes Plain; the Hudson, Mohawk, Lake Champlain, and St. Lawrence 

valleys; and the coastal areas of New York City and Long Island. 

The climate of New York State is broadly representative of the humid continental type, which 

prevails in the northeastern United States, but its diversity is not usually encountered within an 

area of comparable size. The geographical position of the state and the usual course of air 

masses, governed by the large-scale patterns of atmospheric circulation, provide general climatic 

controls. Differences in latitude, character of the topography, and proximity to large bodies of 

water have pronounced effects on the climate. 

The planetary atmospheric circulation brings a great variety of air masses to New York State. 

Masses of cold, dry air frequently arrive from the northern interior of the continent. Prevailing 

winds from the south and southwest transport warm, humid air, which has been conditioned by 

the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent subtropical waters. These two air masses provide the dominant 

continental characteristics of the climate. The third great air mass flows inland from the North 

Atlantic Ocean and produces cool, cloudy, and damp weather conditions. This maritime 

influence is important to New York's climatic regime, especially in the southeastern portion of 

the state, but it is secondary to that of the more prevalent air mass flow from the continent. 

The prevailing wind is generally from the west in New York State. A southwest component 

becomes evident in winds during the warmer months while a northwest component is 

characteristic of the colder one-half of the year. 

The climate of the state features much cloudy weather during the months of November, 

December, and January in upstate New York, especially those regions that adjoin the Great 

Lakes and Finger Lakes and include the southern tier of counties. From June through September, 

however, about 60 to 70 percent of the possible sunshine hours are received. In the Atlantic 

coastal region, the sunshine hours increases from 50 percent of possible in the winter to about 65 

percent of possible in the summer. 

The Atlantic Coastal Plain and lower Hudson Valley experience conditions of high temperature 

and high humidity with some frequency and duration during the summer. By comparison, such 

conditions occur less frequently in the broad interior of New York State where they are usually 

shortened by the arrival of cooler, drier air masses from the northwest. 
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1.3 Population and Demographics

The US Census Bureau data for 2010 provide the following information for the State and 13 

Metropolitan Areas of New York. The New York portion of the NY--NJ--CT--PA CMSA 

population numbered 13,038,826, constituting 69% of the State‘s total residents.

Table 1.1 2010 Census Population for Major Metropolitan Statistical Areas in New York 

MSA 2000 2008* 2010 2012* Difference

(2000-2012)

%

Albany-SchenectadyTroy 875,583 853,919 870,716 874,646

-937 -0.11

Binghamton 252,320 245,189 251,725 248,538 -3,782 -1.52

Buffalo-Niagara Falls 1,170,111 1,124,309 1,135,509 1134210 -35,901 -3.17

Elmira 91,070 87,813 88,830 88,911 -2,159 -2.43

Glens Falls 124,345 128,775 128,923 128,472 4,127 3.21

Ithaca 96,501 101,136 101,564 102,554 6,053 5.90

Kingston 177,749 181,670 182,493 181,791 4,042 2.22

PoughkeepsieNewburgh-Middletown 621,517 672,525 670,301 671,834 50,317 7.49

Nassau-Suffolk 2,753,913 2,863,849 2,832,882 2,875,904 121,991 4.24

New York-White 

Plains 9,314,235 9,715,442 9,908,456 10,090,243 776,008 7.69

Rochester 1,098,201 1,034,090 1,054,323 1,082,284 -15,917 -1.47

Syracuse 732,117 643,794 662,577 660,934 -71,183 -10.77

Utica-Rome 299,896 293,790 299,397 298,064 -1,832 -0.61

State Total 18,976,457 19,467,789 19,378,102 19,570,261 593,804 3.03

* Census Bureau estimation 

According to Census Bureau the NY state population in 2010 totaled 19,378,102, the third most 

populous state in the nation. The population change from 2000 indicates a net increase of 

401,645 for the entire State. The State saw a modest growth overall in the 10-year period, 

mostly in the downstate areas at the expense of the western MSAs. A population density map by 

county based on the 2010 data is depicted in Figure 1.1 
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Figure 1.1 Population Density in New York State by County 

Environmental Justice Areas

Environmental justice (EJ) is defined as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all 

people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, 

implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. 

Environmental justice efforts focus on improving the environment in communities, specifically 

minority and low-income communities, and addressing disproportionate adverse environmental 

impacts that may exist in those communities. 

A map of potential EJ areas in the State is shown in Figure 1.2. Approximately 37% of New 

York’s population resides in potential EJ areas. In our network, there are 19 air monitors, 14 of 

which downstate, sited within areas designated as such. The number of air monitoring sites 

located in potential EJ areas is commensurate with the population percentage residing therein. In 

the populous downstate area, 61% of the network monitors are located in potential EJ areas, in 

which 52% of the population lives. 

 
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Figure 1.2 Potential Environmental Justice Areas in New York State 

Sensitive Sub-Populations

Children, the elderly, and people with underlying health issues may be more susceptible to the 

deleterious effects associated with air pollution, and are considered to be under the sensitive subpopulations category. Sixteen monitoring sites in the network are located on public school 

grounds, where attending students are of grade school to high school age. 

Citizens groups often bring attention to NYSDEC the areas where they believe have high 

incidences of health related problems due to air pollution, such as asthma, respiratory diseases, 

and cancer clusters. Where possible we try to accommodate concerned citizens by providing air 

quality data from nearby monitoring sites. For example, IS 143 serves the Lower Washington 

Heights Neighborhood Association; and IS 74 the Nos Quedamos Community Development 

Corporation. In the case of the Clean Air Coalition of WNY, we were able to obtain EPA 

funding to carry out the Tonawanda Community Air Quality Study. In the Community Air 

Screen Program that began in the fall of 2012, 90% of the selected community groups are in or 

within half mile of potential EJ areas. 
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2. Chronology of Air Monitoring in New York State

Manual sampling programs began in 1958. Most of the early sampling stations measured 

suspended particulates, settleable particulates, and sulfation (an indicator of sulfur dioxide 

concentration). The early monitoring system employed high volume samplers, and for the first 

year, operated on a daily basis. Subsequently sampling was reduced to a 1-in-6 day schedule, 

after statistical analysis of the first year‘s data indicated that such sampling frequency would 

provide an adequate representation of particulate pollution. By 1964, the manual monitoring 

system had evolved to 104 full-time stations, 140 stations by 1970, and 250 by the mid 70's. 

New York was among the first to install and operate a continuous air quality monitoring system. 

The parameters monitored in the early 70's included: sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen 

dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, soiling, and meteorological data. 

Trace metal analysis of high volume sampler filters was initiated in 1979. Historically the NYS 

Department of Health provided laboratory services until 2003, when the positions funded by our 

Department for the analysis work were eliminated due to a statewide workforce reduction. The 

lead analysis continued until 2005. The lack of formal funding mechanisms between the two 

state agencies precluded the continuation of laboratory analysis support. The necessary 

laboratory work is now provided by a contract laboratory. 

In 1986, New York began measuring inhalable particulates using high volume air samplers with 

a 0-10 micron size selective inlet. In the same year the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network was 

also established. In 1987, EPA revised the PM standard to regulate PM10. 

 

In 1988, the NYS ambient monitoring networks consisted of 85 TSP sites, 16 PM10, 15 carbon 

monoxide monitors, 27 sulfur dioxide sites, 20 ozone stations, 8 NOx monitors, and 18 lead 

sampling sites. There were 17 operational acid deposition sites statewide, and the initial phase of 

the toxics network was completed with the establishment of six toxic monitors in Staten Island. 

By 1990, the networks had the following make up: 58 TSP, 60 PM10, 25 SO2, 16 CO, 26 ozone, 

7 NOx, 16 lead, 18 acid deposition, 10 toxics, and 8 trace metals sites, respectively. 

In accordance with the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, in 1994 BAQS established the first of 

two ambient air monitoring sites for enhanced ozone monitoring called Photochemical 

Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) to collect and report detailed data for volatile organic 

compounds, nitrogen oxides, ozone and meteorological parameters. 

BAQS began implementing the PM2.5 monitoring networks of FRM and TEOM monitors in 

1998. At its peak, there were 46 FRM instruments deployed. After sufficient data were obtained 

for attainment determination, FRM sites were reduced and some sites were augmented with 

TEOM instruments in order to provide realtime inputs for EPA‘s AIRNow website for Air 

Quality Index (AQI) reporting. 

BAQS currently operates the following monitors: 29 ozone, 19 SO2, 7 NOx (including 3 NOy), 7 

CO, 19 FRM PM2.5, 26 TEOM PM2.5, 6 FRM PM10, 3 TEOM 1405-DF(PM2.5,PM10, PMcourse), 

7 CSN, 2 speciated carbon, 2 black carbon (aethalometer), 2 speciated mercury, 4 particulate 

sulfate, 7 acid deposition, 4 TSP-lead, 1 PM10-lead, 2 PM10 metals, 11 toxics, 8 carbonyls, 2 
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PAMS, 2 hexavalent chromium, 2 PAHs, and 20 meteorological stations. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 

below show the geographic locations of monitoring sites in all nine regions of the State. 

Figure 2.1 Location Map of Monitoring Sites in New York State Excluding NYC 

 
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Figure 2.2 Location Map of Ambient Air Monitoring Sites in NYC 

2.1 Monitoring Related Research and Investigations

In addition to the routine monitoring work, bureau staff collaborate with researchers from other 

agencies and academic institutions on a multitude of air pollution related studies. Over the years 

we have participated in research projects with the following partners: New York State 

Department of Health, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Connecticut 

Department of Environmental Protection, State University of New York, Albany, Clarkson 

University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rutgers University, Drexel University, 

University of Rochester Medical Center, Desert Research Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic 

Institute, City University of New York, and Columbia University. These endeavors provided 

valuable data for the regulatory, scientific, and health research communities. Study findings are 

communicated through journal publications, as well as presentations at technical meetings and 

conferences. Listings of peer-reviewed scientific articles and oral/poster presentations resulting 

from recent BAQS monitoring activities are provided below. 
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2.1.1 Publications 

Oliver V. Rattigan, Kevin Civerolo, Prakash Doraiswamy, H. Dirk Felton and Philip K. Hopke. 

Long term black carbon measurements at two urban locations in New York. Aerosol and Air 

Quality Research. Accepted, 2013.

Monitoring intraurban spatial patterns of multiple combustion air pollutants in New York City: 

Design and implementation. Thomas D. Matte, Zev Ross, Iyad Kheirbek, Holger Eisl, Sarah 

Johnson, John E. Gorczynski, Daniel Kass, Steven Markowitz, Grant Pezeshki and Jane E. 

Clougherty. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 23, 223-231, 2013. 

Intra-urban spatial variability in wintertime street-level concentrations of multiple combustionrelated air pollutants: The New York City Community Air Survey (NYCCAS). Jane E. 

Clougherty, Iyad Kheirbek, Holger M. Eisl, Zev Ross, Grant Pezeshki, John E. Gorczynski, 

Sarah Johnson, Steven Markowitz, Daniel Kass and Thomas Matte. Journal of Exposure Science 

and Environmental Epidemiology, 23, 232-240, 2013. 

Yungang Wang, Jiaoyan Huang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan, David C. Chalupa, 

Mark J. Utell, Thomas M. Holsen. Effect of the shutdown of a large coal-fired power plant on 

ambient mercury species. Chemosphere, In press, 2013 

Hyun-Deok Choi, Jiaoyan Huang, Sumona Mondal, Thomas M. Holsen. Variation in 

concentrations of three mercury (Hg) forms at a rural and a suburban site in New York State.

Science of the Total Environment, 448, 96-106, 2013. 

Zheming Tong, Yan Jason Wang, Molini Patel, Patrick Kinney, Steven Chrillrud and K. Max 

Zhang. Modeling Spatial Variations of Black Carbon Particles in an Urban Highway-Building 

Environment. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 312-319, 2012. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan, David C. Chalupa, Mark J. Utell. Multiyear black carbon measurement and source apportionment using Delta-C in Rochester, NY. 

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 62, 880-887, 2012. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan, A new Indicator of Firework Emissions in 

Rochester, New York. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 7293-7297, 2012. 

Yu Chi Lin, James J. Schwab, Kenneth L. Demerjian, Min-Suk Bae, Wei-Nai Chen, Yele Sun, 

Qi Zhang, Hui-Ming Hung, and Jacqueline Perry, Summertime formaldehyde observations in 

New York City: Ambient levels, sources and its contribution to HOx radicals. Journal of 

Geophysical Research, Vol. 117, D08305, 14 PP., 2012 doi:10.1029/2011JD016504 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Xiaoyan Xia, Oliver V. Rattigan, David C. Chalupa, Mark J. 

Utell. Source apportionment of airborne particulate matter using inorganic and organic species as 

tracers. Atmospheric Environment, 55, 525-532, 2012. 

Jiaoyan Huang, Philip K. Hopke, Hyun-Deok Choi, James R. Laing, Huailue Cui, Tiffany J. 

Zananski, Sriraam Ramanathan Chandrasekaran, Oliver V. Rattigan and Thomas M. Holsen, 
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Mercury (Hg) emissions from domestic biomass combustion for space heating, Chemosphere 84, 

1694-1699, 2011. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan and Yifang Zhu, Characterization of 

ambient black carbon and wood burning particles in two urban areas, Journal of Environmental 

Monitoring, 13, 1919-1926, 2011. 

Y.-L. Sun, Q. Zhang, J. J. Schwab, K. L. Demerjian, W.-N. Chen, M.-S. Bae, H.-M. Hung, O. 

Hogrefe, B. Frank, O. V. Rattigan, and Y.-C. Lin, Characterization of the sources and processes 

of organic and inorganic aerosols in New York city with a high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol 

mass spectrometer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1581–1602, 2011.

Min-Suk Bae, James J. Schwab, Wei-Nai Chen1, Chuan-Yao Lin, Oliver V. Rattigan, Kenneth 

L. Demerjian. Identifying pollutant source directions using multiple analysis at a rural location in 

New York, Atmospheric Environment, 45, 2531-2540, 2011. 

Oliver V. Rattigan, H. Dirk Felton, Min-Suk Bae, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian 

Comparison of long-term PM2 5 carbon measurements at an urban and rural location in New 

York. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 3228-3236, 2011. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan and Xiaoyan Xia. Characterization of 

residential wood combustion particles using the two-wavelength aethalometer, Environmental 

Science & Technology, 45, 7387-7393, 2011. 

Oliver V. Rattigan, H. Dirk Felton, Min-Suk Bae, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian, 

Multi-year hourly PM2.5 carbon measurements in New York: Diurnal, day of week and seasonal 

patterns, Atmospheric Environment, 44, 2043-2053, 2011. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, David C. Chalupa, Mark J. Utell. Long-term study of urban 

ultrafine particles and other pollutants. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 7672-7680, 2011. 

Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, Liaquat Husain, Utpal K. Roychowdhury, Kenneth L. Demerjian. Impact 

of Canadian wildfire smoke on air quality at two rural sites in NY State, Atmospheric 

Environment, 45, 2028-2033, 2011. 

Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, Liaquat Husain, Utpal K. Roychowdhury, Kenneth L. Demerjian, Black 

carbon transport to a remote mountaintop in the northeastern US and relationship with other 

pollutants, Atmospheric Environment, 45, 2011-2019, 2011. 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Mark. J. Utell, Urban-scale Spatial-temporal Variability of 

Black Carbon and Winter Residential Wood Combustion Particles, Aerosol and Air Quality 

Research, 11, 473–481, 2011. 

Yungang Wang, Jiaoyan Huang, Tiffany J Zananski, Philip K Hopke, Thomas M Holsen, 

Impacts of the Canadian forest fires on atmospheric mercury and carbonaceous particles in 

Northern New York. Environmental Science & Technology, vol 44, 8435-8440, 2010. 
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Ozone, Trace Gas, and Particulate Matter Measurements at a Rural Site in Southwestern New 

York State: 1995–2005, James J. Schwab, John B. Spicer, and Kenneth L. Demerjian, J. Air & 

Waste Manage. Assoc. 59:293–309, 2009. 

Dirk Felton, Is it Time to Upgrade the PM2.5 Federal Reference Method? Air & Waste 

Management EM Magazine, February, 2009. 

Haider A. Khwajaa, Pravin P. Parekha, Adil R. Khana , Daniel L. Hershey, Ronaq R. Naqvie, 

Abdul Malikf, Khalid Khanf, In-Depth Characterization of Urban Aerosols Using Electron 

Microscopy and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Analysis, CLEAN, 37(7), Pages 544-554, 2009. 

Valerie B Haley, Thomas O Talbot and Henry D Felton, Surveillance of the Impact of Air 

Pollution on Cardiovascular Disease in New York State, Environmental Health, 2009. 8:42 

(22 September 2009). 

Stephen R. McDow, Monica A. Mazurek, Min Li, Lee Alter, John Graham, H. Dirk Felton, 

Thomas McKenna, Charles Pietarinen, Alan Leston, Steve Bailey, Sania W. Tong Argao, 

Speciation and Atmospheric Abundance of Organic Compounds in PM2.5 from the New York 

City Area. I. Sampling Network, Sampler Evaluation, Molecular Level Blank Evaluation. 

Aerosol Science and Technology, 42:50–63, 2008. 

Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, Sumizah Qureshi, Adil R. Khan, Liaquat Husain, James J. Schwab and 

Kenneth L. Demerjian, Field test data for 42 liter per minute PM2.5 aerosol sampler used during 

the PMTACS-NY intensives held at Queens College, Queens, NY, Atmospheric Environment, 

Volume 40, Supplement 2, 2006, Pages 182-191. 

Sumizah Qureshi, Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, Adil R. Khan, Kamal Swami, Karl X.Yang, Liaquat 

Husain, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian, Elemental composition of PM2.5 aerosols in 

Queens, New York: Solubility and temporal trends, Atmospheric Environment, Volume 40, 

Supplement 2, 2006, Pages 238-251. 

Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, Sumizah Qureshi, Liaquat Husain, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. 

Demerjian, Elemental composition of PM2.5 aerosols in Queens, New York: Evaluation of 

sources of fine-particle mass, Atmospheric Environment, Volume 40, Supplement 2, 2006, Pages 

347-359. 

Min-Suk Bae, Kenneth L. Demerjian and James J. Schwab, Seasonal estimation of organic mass 

to organic carbon in PM2.5 at rural and urban locations in New York state, Atmospheric 

Environment, Volume 40, Issue 39, December 2006, Pages 7467-7479. 

Oliver V. Rattigan, Olga Hogrefe, H.D. Felton, James J. Schwab, Utpal K. Roychowdhury, 

Liaquat Husain, Vincent A. Dutkiewicz and Kenneth L. Demerjian, Multi-year urban and rural 

semi-continuous PM2.5 sulfate and nitrate measurements in New York state: Evaluation and 

comparison with filter based measurements, Atmospheric Environment, Volume 40, Supplement 

2, 2006, Pages 192-205. 
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Xinrong Ren, William H. Brune, Jingqiu Mao, Michael J. Mitchell, Robert L. Lesher, James B. 

Simpas, Andrew R. Metcalf, James J. Schwab, Yongquan Li, Kenneth L. Demerjian, Henry D. 

Felton, Garry Boynton, Allen Adams, Jacqueline Perry, Yi He, Xianliang Zhou, and Jian Hou, 

Behavior of OH and HO2 in the Winter Atmosphere in New York City, Atmospheric 

Environment, Volume 40, Supplement 2, 2006, Pages 252-263. 

Liming Zhou, Philip K. Hopke and Prasanna Venkatachari, Cluster analysis of single particle 

mass spectra measured at Flushing, NY, Analytica Chimica Acta, Volume 555, Issue 1, 5 

January 2006, Pages 47-56. 

Schwab J.J., Felton H.D., Rattigan O.V., Demerjian K.L., New York State Urban and Rural 

Measurements of Continuous PM2.5 Mass by FDMS, TEOM and BAM, Journal Air & Waste 

Management Assoc. 2006, Volume 56:372-383. 

Schwab, J.J., O. Hogrefe, K. L. Demerjian, V. A. Dutkiewicz, L. Husain, O. V. Rattigan, and H. 

D. Felton, Field and Laboratory Evaluation of the Thermo Electron 5020 Sulfate Particulate 

Analyzer, Aerosol Science & Technology, 2006, 40, S1, 36-44. 

Venkatachari P., Zhou L., Hopke P.K., Felton D., Rattigan O.V., Schwab J.J., Demerjian K.L., 

Spatial and Temporal Variability of Black Carbon in New York City, Journal of Geophysical 

Research, 2006, Vol 111, D10S05, 1-9. 

Venkatachari P., Zhou L., Hopke P.K., Schwab J.J., Demerjian K.L., Weimer, S., Hogrefe O., 

Felton D., Rattigan O.,., An Intercomparison of Measurement Methods for Carbonaceous 

Aerosol in the Ambient Air in New York City, Aerosol Science & Technology, 2006, 40, 788-

795. 

Nenad Aleksic, Garry Boynton, Gopal Sistla, Jacqueline Perry, Concentrations and Trends of 

Benzene in Ambient Air over New York State during 1990-2003 Atmospheric Environment 

Volume 39 (2005) 7894-7905. 

Zheng Li, Philip K. Hopke, Liaquat Husain, Sumizah Qureshi, Vincent A. Dutkiewicz, James J. 

Schwab, Frank Drewnick and Kenneth L. Demerjian, Sources of fine particle composition in 

New York city, Atmospheric Environment, Volume 38, Issue 38, December 2004, Pages 6521-

6529. 

Drewnick, F., J. J. Schwab, J. T. Jayne, M. Canagaratna, D.R. Worsnop, and K.L. Demerjian, 

Measurement of ambient aerosol composition during the PMTACS-NY 2001 campaign using an 

aerosol mass spectrometer. Part I: Mass concentrations, Aerosol Science and Technology, 

38(SI), 92-103, 2004. 

Drewnick, F., J.T. Jayne, M. Canagaratna, D.R. Worsnop and K.L. Demerjian, Measurement of 

ambient aerosol composition during the PMTACS-NY 2001 campaign using an aerosol mass 

spectrometer. Part II: Chemically speciated mass distribution, Aerosol Science and Technology, 

38(SI):104-117, 2004. 
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Dutkiewicz, V. A., S.Qureshi, A.R. Khan, V. Ferrara, J. Schwab, K. Demerjian, and L. Husain , 

Sources of fine particulate sulfate in New York‖. Atmos. Environ., 38, 3179-3189, 2004. 

Hogrefe, O., F. Drewnick, G.G. Lala, J. J. Schwab, and K.L. Demerjian , Development, 

operation and applications of an aerosol generation, calibration and research facility, new 

instruments and data inversion methods, Aerosol Science and Technol.ogy, 38(SI): 196-214, 

2004. 

Hogrefe, O., J. Schwab, F. Drewnick, K. Rhoads, G.G. Lala, H.D. Felton, O.V. Rattigan, L. 

Husain, V.A. Dutkiewicz, S. Peters, and K.L. Demerjian , Semi-continuous PM2 5 sulfate and 

nitrate measurements at an urban and a rural location in New York: PMTACS-NY Summer 2001 

and 2002 campaigns., J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 54, 1040-1060, 2004. 

Schwab, J.J., H.D. Felton, and K.L. Demerjian, Aerosol chemical composition in New York state 

from integrated filter samples: Urban/rural and seasonal contrasts‖. J. Geophys. Res., 109, 

D16S05, doi:10.1029/2003JD004078, 2004. 

Schwab, J.J., J. Spicer, K.L. Demerjian, J.L. Ambs, and H.D. Felton, Long-term field 

characterization of TEOM and modified TEOM samplers in urban and rural New York State 

locations‖. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 54, 1264-1280, 2004. 

Schwab, J.J., O. Hogrefe, K.L. Demerjian, and J.L. Ambs, Laboratory characterization of 

modified TEOM samplers‖, J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 54, 1254-1263, 2004. 

Schwab, J.J., Y.-Q. Li, and K.L. Demerjian, Semi-continuous formaldehyde measurements with 

a diffusion scrubber/liquid fluorescence analyzer. In Symposium on air quality measurement 

methods and technology – 2004 [CD-ROM in press], Air and Waste Management Association, 

Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2004. 

Canagaratna, M. J., J. T. Jayne, D. Ghertner, S. Herndon, Q. Shi, J. L. Jimenez , P.J. Silva, P. 

Williams, T. Lanni, F. Drewnick, K. L. Demerjian, C. Kolb, D. Worsnop, Chase Studies of 

Particulate Emissions from inuse New York City Vehicles, Aerosol Science & Technology, 38, 

555-573, 2004. 

Li, Z., P.K. Hopke, L.Husain, S. Qureshi, V.A. Dutkiewicz, J.J. Schwab, F. Drewnick, and K.L. 

Demerjian, Sources of Fine Particle Composition in New York City, Atmospheric Environment, 

38, 6521-6529, 2004. 

Drewnick, F., J.J. Schwab, O. Hogrefe, S. Peters, L. Husain, D. Diamond, R. Weber, and K.L. 

Demerjian, Intercomparison and evaluation of four semi-continuous PM2.5 sulfate instruments, 

Atmospheric Environment, 37, 3335- 3350, 2003. 

Ren, X., H. Harder, M. Martinez, R.L. Lesher, A. Oliger, T. Shirley, J. Adams, J. B. Simpas, and 

W.H. Brune, J, HOx concentrations and OH reactivity observations in New York City during 

PMTACS-NY 2001, Atmospheric Environment, 37, 3627-3637, 2003. 

Ren, X., H. Harder, M. Martinez, R.L. Lesher, A. Oliger, J. B. Simpas, W.H. Brune, J. J. 

Schwab, K.L. Demerjian, Y. He, X. Zhou, and H. Gao, OH and HO2 chemistry in the urban 

atmosphere of New York City, Atmospheric Environment, 37, 3639-3651, 2003. 
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Schwab, J.J., J. Spicer, H.D. Felton, J.A. Ambs, and K.L. Demerjian, Long-term comparison of 

TEOM, SES TEOM and FRM measurements at rural and urban New York sites, in Symposium 

on Air Quality Measurements and Technology – 2002I, VIP-115-CD, ISBN 0-923204-50-4, Air 

and Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh, PA, 2003. 

Yu, F., T. Lanni, and B. Frank, Measurements of ion concentration in gasoline and diesel engine 

exhaust, Atmospheric Environment, 38, 10, 1417-1423, 2003. 

Zhou, X., H. Gao, Y. He, G. Hung, S.B. Bertman, K. Civerolo, and J. Schwab, ―Nitric acid 

photolysis on surfaces in low-NOx environments: Significant atmospheric implications‖. 

Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2217, doi:10.1029/2003GL108620, 2003. 

2.1.2 Posters/Presentations

Ultrafine Particle Measurements and Evaluation of Mobile Source Contribution in New York 

City. Brian P. Frank, James J. Schwab, G. Garland Lala, Oliver V. Rattigan, H. D. Felton, 

Kenneth L. Demerjian, Robert C. Anderson, Gil LaDuke, and Hongyu Li. 23rd CRC Real World 

Emissions Workshop, San Diego, CA, April 7-10, 2013. 

Ultrafine Particle Monitor (TSI 3031) Measurements and Evaluation in New York City, James J. 

Schwab, G. Garland Lala, Kenneth L, Demerjian, Brian P. Frank, H. D. Felton, Oliver V. 

Rattigan, Presented at the American Association for Aerosol Research 31st Annual Conference, 

October 8-12, 2012, Minneapolis, MN. 

Spatial Extent of New Particle Formation and Growth Events, James J. Schwab, G. Garland Lala, 

Kenneth L, Demerjian, Brian P. Frank, H. D. Felton, Oliver V. Rattigan, Presented at the 

American Association for Aerosol Research 31st Annual Conference, October 8-12, 2012, 

Minneapolis, MN. 

The Age Old Question: Continuous or 24-hr Integrated Measurements, Oliver V. Rattigan, Kevin 

L. Civerolo, H. D. Felton and James J. Schwab, Presented at the American Association for 

Aerosol Research 31st Annual Conference, October 8-12, 2012, Minneapolis, MN. 

NYSDEC Collaborative Community Air Screening, Dirk Felton, Randi Walker, National Air 

Monitoring Conference, Denver, CO May, 2012. 

Temporal Patterns of Air Pollutants at Urban Locations, Oliver V. Rattigan, 30th Regional 

Meeting on Kinetics and Dynamics, Wadsworth Center, Albany, Jan 28, 2012. 

The following 4 Posters were presented at the EMEP Conference, November 15-16, 2011. 

Behavior of ultrafine particles and related particulate and gaseous species at two geographically 

distributed sites in new york city, B.P. Frank, H.D. Felton, O. Hogrefe, J. Perry, O.V. Rattigan, 

and R.A. Anderson. 

A method to extract and interpret additional aerosol organic carbon fractions from thermal optical 

analysis of filter-based data, M. Bae, J.J. Schwab, O.V. Rattigan, K.L. Demerjian, M. Choe, and 

S. Kim. 
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PM2 5 Class III FEMS: performance evaluation at Queens College, New York, O. V. Rattigan, D. 

H. Felton, and M. Christophersen. 

Variations and trends in PM2.5 mass, sulfate, and carbon concentrations at a rural and an urban site 

in new york state , J. J. Schwab, K. L. Demerjian, O. V. Rattigan, and H. D. Felton. 

Variations and trends in PM2.5 mass, sulfate, and carbon concentrations at a rural and an urban site 

in New York State, James J. Schwab, Kenneth L. Demerjian, Oliver V. Rattigan, and H. D. 

Felton, Presented at the American Geophysical Union Annual meeting, San Francisco, November 

2011. 

A Method to Extract and Interpret Additional Aerosol Organic Carbon Fractions from Thermal 

Optical Analysis of Filter-Based Data, Min-Suk Bae, James J. Schwab, Oliver V. Rattigan, 

Kenneth L. Demerjian, American Association for Aerosol Research, 30th annual conference 

October 3-7, 2011, Orlando, FL. 

Characterization of residential wood combustion particles using the two-wavelength aethalometer, 

Yungang Wang, Philip K. Hopke, Oliver V. Rattigan and Xiaoyan Xia, American Association for 

Aerosol Research, 30th annual conference October 3-7, 2011, Orlando, FL. 

Comparison of Long-Term and Seasonal Behavior of Ultrafine Particles and Related Species 

Between Urban Near-Road and Area-Wide Monitors in New York City. Brian P Frank, HD 

Felton, Olga Hogrefe, Jacqueline Perry, ROBERT A ANDERSON. American Association for 

Aerosol Research, 30th annual conference October 3-7, 2011, Orlando, FL. 

Establishing an Ambient Mercury Baseline in New York State: Results from an EPA Community 

Assessment Grant, National Air Toxics Monitoring and Data Analysis Workshop Dallas, TX, 

April 4-7, 2011. 

The View From Ground Level, a Perspective from the States, Well, at Least the Ambient Air 

Monitoring Perspective from one State, Dirk Felton, P.E., Health Effects Institute Annual 

Conference, May 1-3, 2011 Boston, MA. 

Comparison of new and old CSN carbon with collocated measurements in New York. Oliver V. 

Rattigan and H. Dirk Felton, Min-Suk Bae, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian, 29th

Annual AAAR Conference, Portland OR, October 25-29, 2010. 

Life in the Big City: Evolution of Particle Concentration, Size Distribution, and Composition on 

a ―Typical‖ Summer Day in Queens, New York City. Schwab et al., (co-authors; ASRC and 

DEC) 29th Annual AAAR Conference, Portland OR, October 25-29, 2010. 

Intercomparison of Long-Term Ambient Ultrafine Particle Size Distribution Measurements at a 

Near-Roadway and a Representative Urban Site in New York City. Brian P. Frank, Jacqueline 

Perry, H. D. Felton, Robert A. Anderson, Oliver V. Rattigan. 29th Annual AAAR Conference, 

Portland OR, October 25-29, 2010.

Urban Mercury Monitoring: Data Review and Operational Notes: A Year Spent with the Tekran 

Speciated Ambient Mercury Analyzer at Two Urban Locations in New York State and an update 

of the AMNET program, Dirk Felton, Kevin Civerolo, Matt Hirsh: NYSDEC, MARAMA 

Monitoring Conference, February 23, 2010. 

NYSDEC Experience with the Synspec BTEX Instrument, Paul Sierzenga, NYS Dept of 

Environmental Conservation, 2009 EPA National Ambient Air Monitoring Conference. 
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A Year Spent with the Tekran Speciated Ambient Mercury Analyzer at Two Urban Locations in 

New York State, Dirk Felton, Kevin Civerolo, Matt Hirsh: NYSDEC Bureau of Air Quality 

Surveillance, 2009 EPA National Ambient Air Monitoring Conference.

Tonawanda New York Community Air Quality Study, Paul Sierzenga, NYS Dept of 

Environmental Conservation, 2009 EPA National Ambient Air Monitoring Conference. 

Calibration System for Low Range GPT Calibrations of High Sensitivity NOx and NOy Monitors, 

Dirk Felton, Malcolm Baker: NYSDEC Bureau of Air Quality Surveillance 

Kirk Lovewell, Mark Cogan: Teledyne API, 2009 EPA National Ambient Air Monitoring 

Conference. 

Aerosol Carbon Measurements Using Different Techniques in New York: Comparison of Total 

Carbon, Oliver Rattigan, Atmospheric Sciences Research Center Seminar, December 9, 2008. 

Aerosol Optical Properties Obtained from Continuous Mass, Composition and Scattering 

Measurements, James J. Schwab, Min-Suk Bae, Olga Hogrefe, Qi Zhang, G. Garland Lala, Ken 

Demerjian and Oliver Rattigan, American Association for Aerosol Research Annual Conference, 

Orlando, FL, October 20-24, 2008. 

Effect of Particle Properties on Determination of Mean Particle Size Using the Electrical Aerosol 

Detector, Brian P. Frank, Olga Hogrefe, Daniel Hershey, American Association for Aerosol 

Research 27th Annual Conference, Orlando, FL, October 20-24, 2008. 

Aerosol Carbon Measurements Using Different Techniques in New York, Oliver Rattigan, Dirk 

Felton, James Schwab, Min-Suk Bae and Kenneth Demerjian, American Association for Aerosol 

Research Annual Conference, Orlando, FL, October 20-24, 2008. 

Continuous PM2.5 Speciation Measurements in New York, Oliver V. Rattigan, H. Dirk Felton, 

James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian, Extended Abstract # 524, Air & Waste 

Management Association Annual Conference, Portland, OR, June 24-27, 2008. 

Ambient Air Quality Monitoring and Health Research Workshop to Discuss Key Issues, Session 

1: Elemental and Organic Carbon Measurements, Chemical Speciation Network: Carbon Issues, 

Eastern and Western Perspectives on Air Quality Monitoring, Dirk Felton, EPA – RTP, April 16-

17, 2008. 

Air Quality Monitoring in New York State, Northeast/New England Regional Air Quality 

Conference, Dirk Felton, April, 2008. 

Why continuous PM2.5 FEM III data may not be appropriate for attainment demonstrations, 

National Air Quality Conference, Dirk Felton, Portland, OR, April 6-9, 2008 

Results of PM2.5 Continuous Speciation Measurements in New York, Oliver Rattigan, NYSDEC 

PE Seminar, March 11, 2008. 
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Air Quality Data Summit, Session: Inventory of Data Systems, Data provider perspectives, Dirk 

Felton, RTP, NC, February 12-13, 2008. 

Predicting near real-time PM2.5 FRM Concentrations from Continuous Mass and Species 

Measurements in New York City. Dirk H. Felton, Oliver V. Rattigan, James J. Schwab, Kenneth 

L. Demerjian, AAAR, Reno, NV, Sept 25, 2007. 

Highlights of PM2.5 Continuous Speciation Measurements in New York, 

Oliver, V. Rattigan, AAAR 26th Annual Conference, Reno, NV, Sept 25, 2007. 

PM2.5 Carbon Measurements in New York; Comparison of Techniques and Seasonal, Weekday 

and Diurnal Patterns, Oliver V. Rattigan, Air & Waste Management Association Symposium on 

Air Quality Measurement Methods and Technology, San Francisco, May 2, 2007. 

Multi-Year Measurements of Black Carbon at two Urban Locations in New York: Comparison 

with Elemental Carbon, Oliver V. Rattigan, H. (Dirk) Felton, James J. Schwab and Kenneth L. 

Demerjian, AAAR 2006. 

Speciated PMcoarse by Difference: A look at a year of XRF data in New York City and in 

Niagara Falls, New York , Dirk Felton, Kevin Civerolo and Oliver Rattigan, EPA National 

Monitoring Conference, 2006. 

Semi-Continuous Measurements of PM2.5 Carbon at the South Bronx, NY: Comparison with 

Filter Measurements, Oliver Rattigan, EPA National Monitoring Conference, 2006. 

(http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/2006conference/schwabsemi.pdf) 

Concentrations of PM2.5 and Selected Trace Metals Across the NYC Metropolitan Region, Kevin 

Civerolo, EPA National Monitoring Conference, 2006. 

Modifying 50 oC TEOM Data to be more "FRM like" for AQI Reporting using a Non-linear 

Correction based on the Julian Day, Dirk Felton, Oliver Rattigan, EPA National Monitoring 

Conference, 2006. 

Multiyear Evaluations of PMcoarse by Difference Utilizing Low and High Volume Samplers and 

Collocated 50 Deg. C TEOMs, Dirk Felton, Oliver V. Rattigan, Robert Baker and Paul 

Sierzenga, EPA National Monitoring Conference, 2006. 

Level 1 Data Validation - Validation at the Grass Roots Level, Paul Sierzenga, EPA National 

Monitoring Conference, 2006. 

Measurement of Ambient Aerosol Composition Using an Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer 

in New York City: Winter 2004 Intensive Study, Silke Weimer, Frank Drewnick, James J. 

Schwab, Kevin Rhoads, Douglas Orsini, Kenneth L. Demerjian, Douglas R. Worsnop, Qi Zhang, 

Jose J. Jimenez, Dirk Felton, AAAR, 2005. 

Continuous Sulfate, Carbon, and PM2.5 Mass at Addison, NY during the Summer 2004 

NEAQS/ITCT Field Intensive, James J. Schwab,John Spicer, Olga Hogrefe, Oliver V. Rattigan, 
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H. D. Felton, Kevin Rhoads, Silke Weimer, Yongquan Li, G. Garland Lala, and Kenneth L. 

Demerjian, AAAR, 2005. 

Measurement Uncertainty in the Determination of Fine Particle Mass, Sulfate, and Selected 

Transition Metals, James J. Schwab, H. D. Felton, Liaquat Husain, and Kenneth L. Demerjian, 

AAAR, 2005. 

Urban and Rural Chemical Composition of Fine Particulate Matter in New York State, James J. 

Schwab, H. D. Felton, Kevin Civerolo, Liaquat Husain, and Kenneth L. Demerjian, AAAR, 

2005. 

Continuous PM2.5 Sulfate and Carbon at Addison in Rural New York State: Measurements from 

and Evaluations of the Thermo 5020 Sulfate and the Sunset Labs OCEC Instruments, James J. 

Schwab, Olga Hogrefe, Oliver V. Rattigan, H. D. Felton, Vincent Dutkiewicz, Liaquat Husain 

and Kenneth L. Demerjian, AAAR, Atlanta, February 7-11, 2005. 

Semi-continuous PM2.5 Sulfate and Nitrate Measurements in New York: Routine Field 

Measurements and Intensive Field Campaigns, Olga Hogrefe, Oliver V. Rattigan, James J. 

Schwab, Frank Drewnick, Silke Weimer, Kevin Rhoads, Kenneth L. Demerjian, PM Supersites 

AAAR Conference, February 7-11, 2005, Atlanta, GA. 

Intercomparison and Evaluation of Semi-Continuous PM-2.5 Nitrate and Sulfate Instruments 

During PMTACS-NY Summer 2001 Campaign in New York City, Olga Hogrefe, Frank 

Drewnick, James J. Schwab, Henry D. Felton, Kenneth L. Demerjian, AGU 2004. 

Semi-Continuous PM2.5 Sulfate and Nitrate Measurements in New York: Routine Field 

Measurements and Intensive Field Campaigns, Olga Hogrefe, Oliver V. Rattigan, James J. 

Schwab, Utpal Roychowdhury, Frank Drewnick, Silke Weimer, Kevin Rhoads and Kenneth L. 

Demerjian, AAAR, Atlanta, 2005. 

Relationship Between NOy, PM, Nitrate And PM2.5 At A Mountain Site In Upstate New York 

During The PMTACS-NY Program, U. K. Roychowdhury, R. A. Lamica, J. Schwab and K. L. 

Demerjian, O. Rattigan, H.D. Felton. AAAR, Atlanta, February 7-11, 2005. 

Estimates Of PM2.5 Aerosol Acidity From Inorganic Ion Balance Measurements At Urban And 

Rural New York State Locations From CSN Integrated Filters, James Schwab, Rachelle Jenkins, 

Kenneth Demerjian, Dirk Felton, AAAR, Atlanta, February 7-11, 2005. 

Highlights And Lessons Learned: PM2.5 Technology Assessment And Characterization Study In 

New York – PMTACS-NY Supersite Program, Kenneth L. Demerjian, J. Schwab, G. Lala, O. 

Hogrefe, Y. Li, S. Weimer, AAAR 2005. 

Real-time PM2.5 Black Carbon Measurements at Rochester and the South Bronx, NY, O. V. 

Rattigan, H. D. Felton and K. L. Civerolo, EMEP, NYSERDA, October 25, 2005.

(http://www.nyserda.org/programs/Environment/EMEP/conference_2005/Rattigan_post.pdf) 
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Air Quality and Related Health Research: Particulates (PM) and Co-Pollutants: What is in 

Ambient Particulate Matter?, Dirk Felton, NYSERDA EMEP Conference, 2005. 

A Review and Update of PM-2.5 Mass and Species Monitoring in New York State, Dirk Felton, 

NYSDOH Division of Environmental Health Assessment, 2005 

Measurements of PM2.5 Carbon in New York City, Oliver V. Rattigan and H. D. Felton, James J. 

Schwab and Kenneth L. Demerjian, Organic Speciation Workshop, Las Vegas, 2004.

(http://www.wrapair.org/APACE/SPECIATION/VegasOC 2004 Rattigan.pdf) 

Semi-Continuous Measurements of PM2.5 Sulfate, Nitrate and Co-Pollutants at an urban and a 

rural location. Oliver V. Rattigan, Olga Hogrefe, D.H. Felton, James J. Schwab, and Kenneth L. 

Demerjian, AAAR 2004. 

R&P 8400S and R&P 8400N Ambient Particulate Sulfate and Nitrate Monitors: Performance 

during PMTACS-NY Intensive Field Campaigns and Routine Measurements, O. Hogrefe, O.V. 

Rattigan, James J. Schwab, Frank Drewnick, Kevin Rhoads, Silke Weimer, Douglas Orsini, and 

Kenneth L. Demerjian, EMEP NYSERDA Conference, 2004. 

FDMS Instrument Evaluation, Dirk Felton, National Supersite Data Review Meeting, 2004 

Particulate Sampling Issues: Why does the Division of Air have to do scientific research above 

and beyond EPA particulate sampling requirements?, Dirk Felton, NYSDEC Commissioner 

Briefing, 2004. 

NY Metals Analysis: Method Comparison, Dirk Felton, EPA & NESCAUM Toxics Methods 

Meeting, 2003. 

Semi-continuous PM2.5 Sulfate and Nitrate Measurements in New York City and Whiteface 

Mountain, O. V. Rattigan, D. H. Felton, J. J. Schwab, U.K. Roychowdhury and K. L. Demerjian, 

EMEP Conference, NYSERDA, Oct 2003. 

PM-2.5 Monitoring in New York State: Speciation Data, TEOM / FRM Comparisons, PM 

Coarse, Dirk Felton, MARAMA Air Monitoring Committee Meeting, 2002. 

NY Discussion of Issues: TEOM Correlations, Quebec Smoke, PM2.5 Speciation Data, 

PMcoarse, Dirk Felton, EPA SAMWG Meeting, 2002. 
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4. Criteria Contaminants

EPA is required to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for wide-spread 

pollutants from numerous and diverse sources considered harmful to public health and the 

environment. The Clean Air Act established two types of national air quality standards. Primary 

standards set limits to protect public health, including the health of "sensitive" populations such 

as asthmatics, children, and the elderly. Secondary standards set limits to protect public welfare, 

including protection against visibility impairment, damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and 

buildings. The Clean Air Act requires periodic review of the science upon which the standards 

are based and the standards themselves. Listed below are the NAAQS for six principal 

pollutants, which are called "criteria" pollutants. 

Table 4.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Pollutant

Primary Standards Secondary Standards

Level Averaging Times Level Averaging Times

Carbon Monoxide 9 ppm (10 mg/m3

) 8-hour(1)

None

35 ppm (40 mg/m3) 1-hour(1)

Lead 0.15 μg/m3(2) Rolling 3-month Average Same as Primary

Nitrogen Dioxide 53 ppb Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Same as Primary

100 ppb 1-hour(3) None

Particulate Matter 

(PM10)

150 μg/m324-hour(4)

Same as Primary

Particulate Matter 

(PM2 5)

12.0 μg/m3 Annual(5) (Arith. Mean) Same as Primary

35 μg/m324-hour(6) Same as Primary

Ozone 0.075 ppm (2008 std) 8-hour(7) Same as Primary

0.08 ppm (1997 std) 8-hour(8) Same as Primary

0.12 ppm 1-hour(9)

Not applicable in NYS Same as Primary

Sulfur Oxides 75 ppb 1-hour(10) 3-hour(1) 0.5 ppm (1300 μg/m3

)
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(1) Not to be exceeded more than once per year.

 

(2) Effective 1/12/2009, replaces the previous quarterly average value of 1.5μg/m3

. 

(3) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of the daily maximum 

1-hour average at each monitor within an area must not exceed 100 ppb (effective 

January 22, 2010). 

(4) Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average over 3 years. 

(5)

 To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the weighted annual mean PM2.5

concentrations from single or multiple community-oriented monitors must not exceed 

12.0μg/m3. Effective March 18, 2013. 

(6)

 To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour 

concentrations at each population-oriented monitor within an area must not exceed 35 

μg/m3(effective December 17, 2006). 

(7)

 To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour 

average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year 

must not exceed 0.075 ppm (effective May 27, 2008). 

(8)

 (a) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-

hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each 

year must not exceed 0.08 ppm. 

 (b) The 1997 standard—and the implementation rules for that standard—will remain in 

place for implementation purposes as EPA undertakes rulemaking to address the 

transition from the 1997 ozone standard to the 2008 ozone standard.

 (c) EPA is in the process of reconsidering these standards (set in March 2008). 

(9)

 (a) The standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with 

maximum hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm is < 1. 

 (b) As of June 15, 2005 EPA revoked the 1-hour ozone standard in all areas except the 

8-hour ozone nonattainment Early Action Compact (EAC) Areas. 

(10) Effective August 23, 2010. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 99th 

 percentile of the daily maximum 1-hour average at each monitor within an area must not 

 exceed 75 ppb.
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4.1 Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide, a colorless and odorless gas, is produced as a primary pollutant during the 

combustion of fossil and biomass fuels. Vegetation also can emit CO directly into the 

atmosphere as a metabolic by-product. Sources such as motor vehicles, non-road combustion 

engines or vehicles, and biomass burning can cause high concentrations of CO in the outdoor 

environment. Indoor sources include unvented, malfunctioning, or misused combustion 

appliances, combustion engines in garages or basements, and tobacco combustion. In both of 

these environments, CO is of direct concern because of the health effects that can result from 

human exposure to these high concentrations. 

CO enters the bloodstream through the lungs and reduces oxygen delivery to the body‘s organs 

and tissues. The health threat from levels of CO sometimes found in the ambient air is most 

serious for those who suffer from cardiovascular disease such as angina pectoris. At much higher 

levels of exposure not commonly found in ambient air, CO can be poisonous, and even healthy 

individuals may be affected. Visual impairment, reduced work capacity, reduced manual 

dexterity, poor learning ability, and difficulty in performing complex tasks are all associated with 

exposure to elevated CO levels. 

There are two primary NAAQS for ambient CO: a 1-hour average of 35 ppm and an 8-hour 

average of 9 ppm. These concentrations are not to be exceeded more than once per year. There 

currently are no secondary standards for CO. 

Motor vehicle exhaust contributes about 60 percent of all CO emissions nationwide. High 

concentrations of CO generally occur in areas with heavy traffic congestion. Other sources of 

CO emissions include industrial processes, non-transportation fuel combustion, and natural 

sources such as wildfires. Peak CO concentrations typically occur during the colder months of 

the year when CO automotive emissions are greater and nighttime inversion conditions are more 

frequent. 

Technological advancements in pollution control have brought about a downward trend for 

ambient CO concentrations over the past few decades. According to EPA estimates, annual CO 

emissions decreased from 197.3 million tons in 1970 to 89 million tons in 2005 nationally. 

The number of monitors and concentration trends chart over the years in New York State are 

depicted in Figure 4.1. It clearly demonstrates that the current ambient levels of CO are well 

below the NAAQS, in spite of the continual increase in automobiles and vehicle-miles traveled 

in the State. As of 2002, all counties in the State have achieved attainment designation. 
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Figure 4.1 Carbon Monoxide Monitors and Concentration Trends 

NYSDEC uses TEI Model 48C instruments that employ the NDIR gas filter correlation method 

for the continuous measurement of CO. Currently there are seven CO monitors in operation 

statewide as shown in Figure 4.2. 

0.0

4.5

9.0

13.5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Statewide Average 2nd Highest 8 hr 

PPM

#CO Monitors

CO in NYS - Monitors vs. Statewide Average 2nd 

Highest 8 hr 

# CO Monitors
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Figure 4.2 Location Map for Carbon Monoxide Monitoring Sites 

 
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4.2 Nitrogen Dioxide

Many chemical species of nitrogen oxides (NOx) exist, but the air pollutant species of most 

interest from the point of view of human health is nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen dioxide is 

soluble in water, reddish-brown in color, and a strong oxidant. 

Nitrogen dioxide is an important atmospheric trace gas, not only because of its health effects but 

also because (a) it absorbs visible solar radiation and contributes to impaired atmospheric 

visibility; (b) as an absorber of visible radiation it could have a potential direct role in global 

climate change if its concentrations were to become high enough; (c) it is, along with nitric oxide 

(NO), a chief regulator of the oxidizing capacity of the free troposphere by controlling the buildup and fate of radical species, including hydroxyl radicals; and (d) it plays a critical role in 

determining ozone (O3) concentrations in the troposphere because the photolysis of nitrogen 

dioxide is the only key initiator of the photochemical formation of ozone, whether in polluted or 

unpolluted atmospheres. 

Natural sources include intrusion of stratospheric nitrogen oxides, bacterial and volcanic action, 

and lightning. The major source of anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen oxides into the 

atmosphere is the combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources (heating, power generation) 

and in motor vehicles (internal combustion engines). 

In most ambient situations, nitric oxide is emitted and transformed into nitrogen dioxide in the 

atmosphere. Oxidation of nitric oxide by atmospheric oxidants such as ozone occurs rapidly, 

even at the low levels of reactants present in the atmosphere. Consequently, this reaction is 

regarded as the most important route for nitrogen dioxide production in the atmosphere. 

Other contributions of nitrogen dioxide to the atmosphere come from specific non-combustion 

industrial processes, such as the manufacture of nitric acid, the use of explosives and welding. 

Indoor sources include tobacco smoking and the use of gas-fired appliances and oil stoves. 

Nitrogen dioxide is the most widespread and commonly found nitrogen oxide and is a matter of 

public health concern. The most troubling health effects associated with short term exposures 

(i.e., less than 3 hours) to NOx at or near the ambient NOx concentrations seen in the United 

States include cough and increased changes in airway responsiveness and pulmonary function in 

individuals with preexisting respiratory illnesses, as well as increases in respiratory illnesses in 

children 5 to 12 years old. Evidence suggests that long-term exposures to NOx may lead to 

increased susceptibility to respiratory infection and may cause structural alterations in the lungs. 

Atmospheric transformation of NOx can lead to the formation of ozone and nitrogen-bearing 

particles (e.g., nitrates and nitric acid). As discussed in the ozone and particulate matter sections 

of this document, exposure to both PM and O3 is associated with adverse health effects. 
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Nitrogen oxides contribute to a wide range of effects on public welfare and the environment, 

including global warming and stratospheric ozone depletion. Deposition of nitrogen can lead to 

fertilization, eutrophication, or acidification of terrestrial, wetland, and aquatic (e.g., fresh water 

bodies, estuaries, and coastal water) systems. These effects can alter competition between 

existing species, leading to changes in the number and type of species (composition) within a 

community. For example, eutrophic conditions in aquatic systems can produce explosive algae 

growth leading to a depletion of oxygen in the water and/or an increase in levels of toxins 

harmful to fish and other aquatic life. 

The level for both the primary and secondary NAAQS for NO2 is 0.053 ppm annual arithmetic 

average (mean), not to be exceeded. This past January EPA revised the NAAQS to include an 

hourly standard of 0.100 ppm. Figure 4.3 shows the number of monitoring sites and NO2

concentration trends over the years. The current ambient levels of NO2 observed in New York 

State are well below the NAAQS. 

Figure 4.3 Nitrogen Dioxide Monitors and Concentration Trends 

In New York, the TEI Model 42C instruments are deployed for continuous NO2 measurements 

using the gas phase chemiluminescence method. Currently there are four NOx monitoring sites 

statewide, and NO/NOy monitors in Rochester, Pinnacle, and Queens College (both NO2 and 

NOy) as shown in Figure 4.4. NO/NOy measurements are included within the NCore multipollutant site requirements and the PAMS program. These NO/NOy measurements will produce 

conservative estimates for NO2 that can be used to ensure tracking continued compliance with 

the NO2 NAAQS. NO/NOy monitors are used at these sites because it is important to collect data 

on total reactive nitrogen species for understanding O3 photochemistry. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011

Statewide Annual Average (PPB)

#NO2 Monitors

NO2 in NYS - Monitors vs. Statewide Annual Average

# NO2 Monitors Statewide Annual Average
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The EPA considered setting a secondary standard for NOx and SOx that would specifically target 

the impact of acidic deposition on wilderness areas. The EPA ultimately decided that there was 

not enough information at this time to tie specific water quality thresholds with ambient air 

concentrations. In the July 2011 final rule for NOx and SOx, the EPA stated that they would set 

up a monitoring program in sensitive areas to collect information to link water quality impacts to 

ambient air quality measurements. The NYSDEC is participating in this pilot monitoring 

program in the Adirondacks. Additional monitoring equipment has been installed at several sites 

to determine the concentrations of gasses and particles including ammonia. These data will be 

used in the future to inform the next review of the NOx/SOx standard. 

Figure 4.4 Location Map for Nitrogen Oxides Monitoring Sites

Although ambient NO2 levels are not expected to contravene the NAAQS, monitoring is 

necessary due to it being an ozone precursor, and to track the effectiveness of emission reduction 

programs. Under the new NOx rule that became effective January 22, 2010 each MSA with 

population larger than 500,000 will be required to operate a near-road monitor beginning in 

2013. New York State will need to establish such a site in each of the following areas: AlbanySchenectady-Troy, Buffalo-Niagara Falls, Poughkeepsie-Newburgh-Middletown, NassauSuffolk, New York-White Plains, Rochester and Syracuse. One urban community wide monitor 
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will be located in each of the three MSAs with population greater than 1 million: New York, 

Buffalo and Rochester. Furthermore, the Regional Administrators at their discretion, have the 

authority to require 40 additional sites nationwide in communities where susceptible and 

vulnerable populations are located. On March 7, 2013, EPA issued a final rule to revise the 

deadlines by which the near-road monitors within the NO2 monitoring network are to be 

operational. States and local agencies will begin operating the near-road component of the NO2

network in phases between January 1, 2014 and January 1, 2017. This replaces the 2010 rule 

requirement that originally required all new NO2 monitors to begin operating on January 1, 2013. 

New York is working closely with EPA Region 2 to implement this rule. We have identified 

possible sites in New York and Buffalo and anticipate operation by 2014. We are actively 

pursuing a suitable site location in Rochester. 
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4.3 Lead

Elemental lead (Pb) possesses an array of useful physical and chemical properties, making it 

among the first metals to be extracted and used by humankind. It has a relatively low melting 

point (327.5 C), is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal, a poor electrical conductor, and is easily 

cast, rolled and extruded. Although sensitive to environmental acids, after exposure to 

environmental sulfuric acid (H2SO4), metallic Pb becomes impervious to corrosion due to 

weathering and submersion in water. This effect is due to the fact that Pb lead sulfate (PbSO4), 

the relatively insoluble precipitate produced by reaction of Pb with H2SO4, forms a protective 

barrier against further chemical reactions. This aspect of its chemistry made Pb especially 

convenient for protective surface coatings (e.g. paint), roofing, containment of corrosive liquids, 

and (until the discovery of its adverse health effects), construction of water supply systems. 

Pb will only exist in the vapor phase at or above 1750°C. Therefore, at ambient atmospheric 

temperatures, elemental Pb will deposit to surfaces or exist in the atmosphere as a component of 

atmospheric aerosol. 

Exposure to lead occurs through ingestion of lead in food, water, soil, or dust and through 

inhalation. It accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft tissues. Lead can also adversely affect the 

kidneys, liver, nervous system, and other organs. Excessive exposure to lead may cause 

neurological impairments such as seizures, mental retardation, and/or behavioral disorders. Even 

at low doses, Pb exposure is associated with changes in fundamental enzymatic, energy transfer, 

and homeostatic mechanisms in the human body. Additionally, even low levels of Pb exposure 

may cause central nervous system damage in fetuses and children. Recent studies show that 

neurobehavioral changes may result from Pb exposure during the child‘s first years of life and 

that lead may be a factor in high blood pressure and subsequent heart disease. 

Airborne lead can also have adverse impacts on the environment. Wild and domestic grazing 

animals may ingest lead that has deposited on plant or soil surfaces or that has been absorbed by 

plants through leaves or roots. Animals, however, do not appear to be more susceptible or more 

sensitive to adverse effects from lead than are humans. Therefore, the secondary standard for 

lead is identical to the primary standard. 

In November of 2008 EPA published the final rule for the revision of the NAAQS for lead. The 

primary lead standard was revised to 0.15μg/m3 in total suspended particles (Pb-TSP). The 

averaging time was changed to a rolling 3-month period with a maximum (not-to-be-exceeded) 

form, evaluated over a 3-year period. The revised secondary standard was set to be identical in 

all respects to the new primary standard. These new standards became effective on January 12, 

2009, superseding the old standard of quarterly average concentration not to exceed 1.5μg/m3. 

As part of the lead monitoring requirements, monitoring agencies are required to monitor 

ambient air near lead sources which are expected to or have been shown to have a potential to 

contribute to a 3-month average lead concentration in ambient air in excess of the level of the 

NAAQS. At a minimum, monitoring agencies must monitor near lead sources that emit 1.0 ton 

per year (tpy) or more. Monitoring is also required in each CBSA with a population equal to or 

greater than 500,000 people as determined by the latest available census figures. Revisions to 
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the monitoring requirements pertaining to where State and local monitoring agencies would be 

required to conduct lead monitoring were finalized and became effective January 26, 2011. The 

new regulations replaced the population oriented monitoring requirement with a requirement to 

add Pb monitors to the urban NCore monitors. The EPA also lowered the emission threshold 

from 1.0 tpy to 0.50 tpy for industrial sources of lead (e.g., lead smelters and foundries). 

However, the emission threshold for airports was maintained at 1.0 tpy. In addition, an airport 

monitoring study will be implemented to determine the need for monitoring of airports which 

emit less than 1.0 tpy of lead. Under this new rule lead monitoring is required for a minimum of 

one year at 15 additional airports that have been identified as having characteristics that could 

lead to ambient lead concentrations approaching or exceeding the lead NAAQS. Brookhaven 

and Republic airports in Suffolk County, New York have been designated as such. A 12-month 

monitoring study at Brookhaven Airport concluded in October, 2012 and all data were submitted 

to AQS. The Republic Airport monitoring did not start until October, 2012 due to protracted site 

lease negotiations. 

Particulate lead samples are collected on glass fiber filters using a standard TSP high volume 

sampler which are subsequently analyzed by the laboratory using atomic absorption 

spectroscopy. Under the new rule, EPA is allowing Pb-PM10 in lieu of Pb-TSP where the 

maximum 3-month arithmetic mean Pb concentration is expected to be less than 0.10μg/m3 (i.e., 

two thirds of the NAAQS) and where sources are not expected to emit ultra-coarse Pb. The 

population oriented Pb monitors at the NCore or NATTS sites are located away from known 

sources of Pb and will utilize Pb-PM10 samplers. 

Figure 4.5 depicts the number of monitoring sites and lead concentration trends for New York 

State over the years. 
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Figure 4.5 Lead Monitors and Concentration Trends 

Currently there are four Pb-TSP monitors (one collocated) in operation in Middletown, where a 

lead acid battery recycling facility is located, and two urban CBSA monitors (low volume PM10) 

at the NATTS sites in the Bronx and Rochester. The source oriented monitoring sites (AQS site 

ID # 36-071-3001, 36-071-3002, 36-071-3004) are in place as the facility has the potential to 

contribute to a 3-month average lead concentration in ambient air in excess of the level of the 

NAAQS. Routine data review showed that during the first quarter of 2011, there were a couple 

of sample dates that showed high levels of lead, which would lead to contravention of the new 

standard. Investigations at the facility led to enforcement actions although specific causes for the 

observed values were not discovered. Consequently an additional low volume PM10 sampler was 

put in place to collect daily filter samples for mass measurement and lead analysis using XRF in 

August 2011. The PM10 mass data collected at this site was low and mass determination was 

discontinued in November 2012. The highest 3 Month average PM10 lead concentration at this 

site was 0.021 μgPb/m3 which is well below the standard. 

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Highest Quarterly Average

μg/m^3

#Lead Monitors

Lead in NYS - Monitors vs. Highest Quarterly Average 

# Lead Monitors Highest Quarterly Average
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4.4 Particulate Matter 

4.4.1 Total Suspended Particulate

Particulate matter is the generic term for a broad class of chemically and physically diverse 

substances that exist as discrete particles (liquid droplets or solids) over a wide range of sizes. 

Particles originate from a variety of anthropogenic stationary and mobile sources as well as 

natural sources. Particles may be emitted directly or formed in the atmosphere by 

transformations of gaseous emissions such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic 

compounds. The chemical and physical properties of PM vary greatly with time, location, 

meteorology, and source category, thus complicating the assessment of health and welfare 

effects. 

EPA first established national ambient air quality standards for PM in 1971. The reference 

method specified for determining attainment of the original standards was the high-volume 

sampler, which collects PM up to a nominal size of 25 to 45 micrometers (μm), referred to as 

total suspended particles or TSP. The primary standards (measured by the indicator TSP) were 

260μg/m3 24-hour average, not to be exceeded more than once per year, and 75μg/m3 annual 

geometric mean. The secondary standard was 150μg/m3 24-hour average, not to be exceeded 

more than once per year. These standards were in place until 1987 when EPA changed the 

particle indicator from TSP to PM10, the latter referring to particles with a mean aerodynamic 

diameter less than or equal to10 μm.

Figure 4.6 shows the number of monitoring sites and the composite annual geometric means of 

TSP over the years. Trace metal analysis was also performed on the TSP filters until 1998. 

NYSDEC terminated the TSP sampling program when DOH could no longer provide laboratory 

analysis support. 
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4.6 Total Suspended Particulate Monitors and Concentration Trends 

4.4.2 PM10

In 1987 EPA revised the 1971 standards in order to protect against adverse health effects of 

inhalable airborne particles that can be deposited in the lower (thoracic) regions of the human 

respiratory tract, with PM10 as the indicator. EPA established identical primary and secondary 

PM10 standards for two averaging times: 150μg/m3 (24-h average, with no more than one 

expected exceedance per year) and 50 μg/m3 (expected annual arithmetic mean, averaged over 

three years). These standards remained in effect until 2002, when the courts finally upheld the 

1997 revisions put forth by EPA as a result of the mandated periodic scientific review. After the 

most recent scientific review on PM, EPA issued the final rule in December, 2006 revising the 

PM2.5 standards, at the same time revoking the PM10 annual standard while retaining the 24 hr 

standard at 150μg/m3. 

Wedding & Associates PM10 Critical Flow High Volume Sampler (WED PM10 sampler) were 

employed for the NYSDEC network. The quartz filters were collected and submitted to the 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

μg/m^3

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TSP in NYS - # Monitors vs. Statewide Geometric Mean

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Department of Health for laboratory analysis until 2005, when support services were terminated. 

Figure 4.7 shows the number of monitors and the composite annual arithmetic mean for PM10. 

Starting in 2004, the R&P Partisol 2025 samplers were used for manual PM10 collection by 

removing the PM2.5 size selective inlet. The filter cartridges are submitted to RTI (EPA contract 

laboratory) for mass analysis. 

 

Figure 4.7 PM10 Monitors and Concentration Trends

Currently there are five such sites in operation, as shown in Figure 4.8. 

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Figure 4.8 Location Map for PM10 Monitoring Sites 

Continuous PM10 data are also obtained using Thermo Scientific 1405-DF instruments that 

simultaneously measure PM2.5, PM Coarse (PM10 - PM2.5) and PM10 mass concentrations at the 

IS 52, Queens College, and Pinnacle State Park sites. 

4.4.3 PM2.5

In July 1997, EPA Administrator promulgated significant revisions to the PM NAAQS, after 

taking into account scientific information and assessments presented by staff, Clean Air 

Scientific Advisory Committee advice and recommendations, and public comments. While it 

was determined that the PM NAAQS should continue to focus on particles less than or equal to 

10 μm in diameter, it was also determined that the fine and coarse fractions of PM10 should be 

considered separately. New standards were added, using PM2.5 as the indicator for fine particles; 

and PM10 standards were retained for the purpose of regulating coarse-fraction particles. Two 

new PM2.5 standards were set: an annual standard of 15 μg/m3

, based on the 3-year average of 

annual arithmetic mean PM2.5 concentrations from single or multiple community-oriented 

monitors; and a 24-h standard of 65 μg/m3

, based on the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 
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24-h PM2.5 concentrations at each population-oriented monitor within an area. To continue to 

address coarse-fraction particles, the annual PM10 standard was retained, and the form, but not 

the level, of the 24-h PM10 standard was revised to be based on the 99th percentile of 24-h PM10

concentrations at each monitor in an area. The secondary standards were revised by making them 

identical in all respects to the PM2.5 and PM10 primary standards. 

EPA lowered the NAAQS for PM in December of 2006 to provide increased protection of public 

health and welfare, respectively. EPA revised the level of the 24-hour PM2.5 standard from 65 to 

35 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) and retained the level of the annual PM2.5 standard at 15 

μg/m3. With regard to PM10, the 24-hour standard was retained, but the annual PM10 standard 

was revoked. On Dec. 14, 2012 EPA further strengthened the nation‘s air quality standards for 

fine particle pollution to by revising the primary annual PM2.5 standard from 15 to 12 

micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) and retaining the 24-hour fine particle standard of 35 μg/m3. 

The new standards became effective on March 18, 2013. 

The NYSDEC PM2.5 monitoring network deploys a combination of filter based Federal 

Reference Method (FRM) samplers, continuous mass monitors, filter based speciation samplers 

and continuous speciation samplers. The data from the FRM samplers are used to determine if 

the State‘s air quality meets the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The 

continuous mass sampler data are used for the reporting of near real-time air quality data for 

health related warnings and forecasts. The speciation filter sampler data are used to determine 

the chemical constituents that make up PM2.5. The continuous speciation data are used to 

examine the short term fluctuations in the concentrations of individual species or components 

that make up PM2.5. 

PM Monitoring Objectives

The principal objective of the PM2.5 monitoring network is to determine the exposure of the 

State‘s population to ambient PM2 5. This objective is the primary focus of the FRM filter based 

samplers as well as for the continuous mass monitoring network. The protocols and equipment 

used for the FRM network are meticulously specified in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 

to insure that the measurements are consistent from one State to another. The continuous mass 

monitoring instruments cannot accurately provide data for direct comparison with the NAAQS 

but these instruments actually provide the most useful data for population exposure. The 

continuous PM2.5 data is updated every hour for near real-time health related warnings, PM2.5

forecasts and updates as to current pollution concentrations. 

The NYSDEC has attempted to adjust the PM2.5 network in light of EPA expectations, updated 

regulations and prioritized funding. The FRM network consisted of 40 sites when it was fully 

established using the original design criteria from 1998. Since then the number of sites have been 

reduced because fewer sites were required to determine compliance with the Annual PM2.5

NAAQS. The latest revisions to the Federal regulations have reduced the number of required 

monitors even further. These new requirements base the number of required monitors on 

population and the expected PM2 5 concentration. The NYSDEC network exceeds these 
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requirements in all areas that are expected to be near or above either the Annual or Daily PM2.5

standard. 

The other monitoring objectives for the PM2.5 network include transport and background 

monitoring. Transport monitoring sites are sites that are situated so that the data are 

representative of the air masses moving into the State from areas upwind. These sites are 

important because the sources of PM2.5 that are outside of New York can contribute to New 

York‘s PM2.5 ambient concentration. Background monitoring sites are sites that are 

representative of PM2.5 concentrations that are generally not related to specific sources but 

impact wide areas. The concentrations measured at these background sites generally represent 

the lowest expected PM2.5 concentrations in New York State. 

Monitoring Scale and Representativeness

The geography of New York State encompasses a lake shore to the west, plateaus and rolling 

hills in the center, mountains to the northeast and south and sea shores to the southeast. All of 

these areas have varying population densities and meteorology. The populations living in these 

areas are exposed to PM2.5 that is generated locally as well as from PM2.5 that is transported from 

areas outside of their region. 

The actual design of the network is a compromise that minimizes the number of monitoring 

locations while ensuring that the measured concentrations for each area are indicative of actual 

population exposures. Each sampler is assigned a scale or ―zone of representativeness‖ when it is 

installed. The scale determines how large a geographical area the resulting data will represent. 

EPA has defined ambient monitoring scales as: 

 Microscale: Represents (10 - 100 meters) 

 Middle Scale: Represents (100 - 500 meters) 

 Neighborhood Scale: Represents (500 meters - 4 km) 

 Urban Scale: Represents (4 - 100 km) 

 Regional Scale: Represents (100 to 1000 km) 

The scale of the FRM monitoring sites that have population exposure as their objective is 

Neighborhood or Urban. The definitions of scale primarily serve to identify the site‘s sensitivity 

to individual sources. A monitoring site that is routinely impacted by a specific source has a 

much smaller ―scale‖ than a site that only sees an effect from numerous widespread sources. The 

FRM sites in New York State are located in places that will likely have high concentrations and 

large monitoring scales. This ensures that the public is not exposed to higher ambient PM2.5

concentrations than the concentrations from the FRM network reported for their area. 

The PM2.5 monitoring network works well for determining average ambient exposures for most 

of the State‘s population. The limitations of the network stem from the inability to monitor in 

smaller scales such as Middle and Microscale. An example of an urban microscale influence not 

addressed by the network would be PM2.5 emissions from traffic in a street canyon. Certainly if 

New York residents spent much of their time in this type of confined area, then their exposure to 
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ambient PM2.5 would be considerably higher than that indicated by the closest neighborhood or 

urban scale monitor. Similarly, a person in a rural valley area subject to daily woodsmoke would 

also be exposed to higher PM2.5 concentrations than those measured at the nearest Neighborhood 

or Urban scale monitor. 

The PM2.5 ambient monitoring network is also not able to determine the population‘s overall 

exposure to PM2.5. Personal habits such as smoking and occupations such as mining, farming and 

construction can lead to much higher exposures to PM2.5 than that of the majority of the 

population. Other factors such as widely varying indoor PM2.5 concentrations can lead to 

uncertainty in overall PM2.5 exposures. 

 

PM2.5 Monitoring Instrumentation

The filter based FRM samplers used in New York are the Model 2025 sequential samplers made 

by the Thermo Environmental Company (Franklin, MA). The sampler has been designated by 

EPA as a reference method instrument for PM2.5 particle collection. The designation is: RFPS0498-118. 

Currently there are 19 FRM monitors in operation statewide, as shown in Figure 4.9. 
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Figure 4.9 Site Location Map of Manual PM2.5 (FRM) Monitoring Network 

Figure 4.10 below shows the number of manual PM2.5 monitoring sites and the composite annual 

arithmetic means in New York State since the network was implemented in 1998. 

 
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Figure 4.10 PM2.5 Monitors and Concentration Trends 

The continuous mass monitoring instruments used in New York are the TEOM 1400ab also 

made by the Thermo Environmental Company. These instruments have received designation by 

EPA for PM10 but not for PM2.5. PM2.5 is more difficult to measure than PM10 with automated 

samplers because PM2.5 contains a higher fraction of volatile components. The heated 

measurement sensor for the TEOM reduces the amount of volatile mass measured as compared 

to filter based FRMs. The NYSDEC utilizes non-linear data adjustments to make the TEOM data 

more comparable with the FRM data. The adjusted data are used for public reporting and 

forecasts of PM2.5 concentrations. 

The NYSDEC uses seven MetOne SuperSass and URG 3000N samplers for the collection of 

samples for the speciation of PM2.5. The samplers collect 3 and 1 filter samples respectively 

every third day or sixth day for a period of 24 hours. The samples are then sent to an EPA 

contract laboratory for chemical analysis. There are over fifty species consisting of ions, metals 

and carbon species quantified by the analyses. 

4.4.4 Continuous PM Monitoring

Continuous mass monitoring is performed primarily with a network of TEOM 1400ab 

instruments. In addition, there are three Thermo Scientific 1405-DF‘s deployed (IS 52, Queens 

College, and Pinnacle) to simultaneously measure PM2 5, PM Coarse (PM10 - PM2.5) and PM10 

mass concentrations. This element of the PM2.5 monitoring network provides the data used for 

public reporting purposes including; the NYSDEC website, the AIRNow website and for PM2.5

forecasting. The data from the TEOMs are polled and reported every hour to insure that the 

public has access to the most recent air quality information. 

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The TEOM data are compared to the filter based FRM data on an annual basis. The comparison 

allows the analysts to create non-linear correction factors that modify the TEOM data to more 

closely resemble FRM data. This is necessary because FRM data is not available for near realtime public reporting purposes. EPA has recently recognized the value of these data adjustments 

and has created new method codes so this adjusted data can be submitted to the AQS database. 

The NYSDEC now submits TEOM data from each site in its original unadjusted format as well 

as the adjusted data to match more closely with the FRM. 

There are 26 continuous PM2.5 monitoring sites as shown in Figure 4.11. 

Figure 4.11 Site Location Map of Continuous PM2.5 (TEOM) Monitoring Network 

The NYSDEC also operates some of the newest continuous mass monitors which have 

undergone Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) designation. These instruments collect more of 

the volatile PM mass that the filter based FRM may or may not retain depending on the 

environmental conditions during and after the period in which the filter sample was collected. 

The Department has been evaluating the technological improvements that have led to the current 

PM2.5 continuous FEMs for more than 10 years. The Thermo Scientific 1405-DF FEM 

performed better than the other instruments in on-site deployments at urban and rural locations in 

the state. The Department purchased several of these but they have not operated reliably and 
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have not produced data that compares acceptably with the FRM. The equipment manufacturer is 

aware of the issues and seems to be working towards resolutions of the problems. The 

Department will continue to rely on the FRM network to provide data for comparison with the 

ambient PM2.5 air quality standards. Currently there are three 1405-DF‘s deployed (IS 52, 

Queens College, and Pinnacle) to simultaneously measure PM2.5, PM Coarse (PM10 - PM2.5) and 

PM10 mass concentrations. The Department does not intend to use data collected by the FEMs 

for comparison to the NAAQS. 

4.4.5 Speciation

Speciation monitoring is performed with a network of seven MetOne SuperSass samplers. There 

are eight sites in New York State operating with the Speciation Trends Network (CSN) sampling 

protocol. Five operate on a 1/3 day schedule and two operate on a 1/6 day schedule. All of these 

sites host collocated FRM and continuous mass monitoring instruments. A rural and an urban 

site also host collocated IMPROVE protocol samplers. The data from these sites is used to assist 

in the comparison between CSN and IMPROVE data sets. The goal of the urban installation will 

be to further relate the mostly rural IMPROVE network to the mostly urban CSN network. 

In order to address inconsistencies in carbon sampling and analysis procedures used in urban 

CSN/SLAMS and rural IMPROVE programs, EPA determined that the URG sampler would be 

used at all CSN sites. The conversion was completed 2008 for all of the NY sites. 

Figure 4.12 shows the seven CSN sites currently in operation. 
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Figure 4.12 Location Map of Speciation Sampling Sites 

4.4.6 Continuous Speciation

The NYSDEC recognizes the value of high temporal measurements (hourly or higher) of PM2.5

species. This data is useful for the examination of pollutant trends (and temporal patterns) and 

can provide information necessary for identification of pollutant sources. This is critically 

important for areas facing non-attainment for the PM2.5 NAAQS. Identifying seasonality of 

species is necessary to develop control strategies. Long term monitoring is vital to this effort 

because in addition to changes in source emissions, variations in meteorology also affect ambient 

pollutant concentrations (e.g. wetter than average conditions lead to a washout of pollutants and 

a lowering of ambient concentrations). 

The NYSDEC continuous speciation program is expanding and currently includes monitoring at 

urban and rural locations. Sulfate, nitrate, organic carbon, elemental carbon and black carbon 

species data are collected at hourly or higher frequency. In this manner both the regional and 

inter-urban variability of these species are being investigated. The NYSDEC uses instruments to 
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examine the species of PM2.5 on a higher frequency than what is available from the filter based 

speciation sampling network. This continuous speciation data is useful in the examination of 

source strengths and the relationship between pollutant concentrations and meteorology. The 

operation of continuous speciation equipment is also less expensive than long term filter species 

measurements due to the high costs associated with filter lab analysis. Operation of continuous 

speciation in conjunction with 24-hr CSN sampling is beneficial in accounting for biases in 

measurements when a change to the CSN method occurs. This is demonstrated in the case of 

CSN carbon which was changed to the IMPROVE method in 2007. Long term collocated 

continuous carbon measurements prior to and following this change are being used to assess the 

bias between the old and the new carbon methods. This data will be important in determining 

the long term trends in PM2.5 carbon species. 

NYSDEC has been using the continuous speciation data in NYC to examine temporal patterns 

such as diurnal and day of week patterns of aerosol species related to source strengths and 

meteorology. For example elemental carbon, black carbon and primary pollutant NOx in NYC 

track throughout the day with peak concentrations in the morning coincident with the early 

commute period. Mobile emissions in the early morning occur into a shallow boundary layer 

which concentrates pollutants near ground level. An elevation in boundary layer height during 

the day leads to a dispersion of pollutants and a less pronounced afternoon/evening peak. 

Concentrations of these species are also higher on weekdays compared to weekends indicating 

that local mobile emissions are a significant source of these species. During winter months 

organic carbon sometimes shows similar patterns to EC and NOx reflecting the primary organic 

component most likely from mobile emissions. Throughout the year however organic carbon 

does not track the primary pollutants but is more correlated with PM2.5 mass (and sulfate during 

summer months) indicating that there is a significant regional or non-local contribution to 

organic carbon measured in NYC. Our continuous speciation measurements also reveal 

temporal patterns in particle nitrate. In cooler months PM2.5 nitrate has a broader peak than EC 

which appears later in the morning, consistent with photochemical and secondary aerosol 

production. During the warm season nitrate concentrations are significantly lower and the late 

morning nitrate peak (observed in winter) is not observed in the warm season because as 

temperatures rise during the day aerosol nitrate reverts back to its precursors (nitric acid and 

ammonia). 

Continuous data can also be used to capture the full extent of regional or local plumes that would 

normally be missed by the 24-hr filter sampling network. It allows us to study plume events and 

how meteorology can affect measurements. One can also differentiate between plumes which are 

short term of a few hours long (e.g. plumes from oil boiler emissions) likely driven by carbon 

versus those that are more regionally driven by sulfate in summer. High temporal pollutant data 

is also beneficial for public health effect studies that often require resolving confounding factors. 

Recently concerns have been raised regarding potential adverse health effects associated with 

residential wood burning. Wood smoke contains fine particulate matter which can cause shortterm effects such as eye, nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose and 

shortness of breath. Exposure to PM2.5 also can affect lung function and worsen medical 

conditions such as asthma, allergies and heart disease. Long term exposure to fine PM may 
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increase the risk from chronic bronchitis, reduce lung function and increase mortality from lung 

cancer and heart disease. In addition, wood smoke contains known human carcinogens including 

benzene, formaldehyde, dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 

BAQS staff in collaboration with Clarkson University researchers were able to successfully 

characterize the ambient impact of residential wood combustion using dual wavelength (370 and 

880 nm) aethalometer measurements in conjunction with filter measurements of levoglucosan 

and potassium, markers for wood smoke. The study, which was conducted from October 2009 to 

October 2010 in Rochester, showed that the wood smoke component of black carbon is most 

evident from October to March during the late evening hours on cold weekend nights. 

Residential wood combustion was estimated to contribute 17% to the PM2.5 mass during winter 

at the Rochester study site. 

4.4.7 Additional Monitoring Initiatives 

The NYSDEC has been active in additional research and monitoring beyond the mandated 

Federal requirements. Some of this work has been collaborative with goals ranging from 

collecting data with the newest technologies, to providing support for health studies to evaluating 

new monitoring instruments. Other projects undertaken by the NYSDEC such as adding 

additional monitoring after the World Trade Center attack or monitoring before and after the cap 

was installed on the Fresh Kills landfill could not have been undertaken by other Agencies. 

4.4.7.1 PM2.5 Technology Assessment and Characterization Study-New York Supersite

 

The largest collaborative monitoring project undertaken by the NYSDEC and State University of 

New York ̳s Atmospheric Science Research Center (SUNYA-ASRC) was the Supersite program 

known as PMTACS. The 5 year monitoring initiative leveraged resources from EPA, 

NYSERDA and the NYS Environmental Bond Act to obtain detailed highly resolved pollutant 

measurements from NYC, Whiteface Mountain and an upwind rural site south-west of Corning, 

NY. This monitoring project also involved participants from the NYSDOH, Penn State 

University, Aerodyne Research Inc. and Clarkson University. The project‘s website lists many of 

the program details: http://www.asrc.cestm.albany.edu/pmtacsny/index.html

 

Some of the instrument method development work initiated under this program has continued 

after the conclusion of the PMTACS program. This shared effort includes method development 

work on trace gas monitors, continuous organic carbon monitors, continuous particulate sulfate 

instruments, continuous particulate nitrate and ammonia instruments. All of these instruments 

will be needed as NYSDEC designs PM control strategies for non-attainment areas within New 

York State. 

The current research undertaken by this collaboration involves small particle and precursor gas 

concentration measurements from rural and urban locations in NY State. NYSERDA has 

provided funds for this work which includes an intensive monitoring campaign over several 

weeks this summer in New York City. The past summer measurements in conjunction with 

some on-going measurements are being used to compare with data taken at an urban NYSDEC 
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monitor and those from a mobile van traveling on nearby highways. These studies will help to 

determine the impacts of mobile sources at fixed neighborhood monitors. 

4.4.7.2 Organic Carbon: Molecular Marker Characterization

The NYSDEC collaborated with Rutgers, Drexel, NESCAUM, NJDEP and CTDEP on a project 

called the Speciation of Organics for Apportionment of PM2.5 in the New York City Area 

(SOAP). The field portion of the project was conducted from May 2002 to May 2003. It operated 

at four sites: Queens, NYC (high density urban residential); Elizabeth, NJ (adjacent to the NJ 

Turnpike); Westport, CT (downwind NYC); and a regional background site in Chester, NJ 

(upwind NYC). The study‘s chief objectives were to expand the chemical characterization of 

organic compounds and to estimate the source contributions of carbonaceous fine particles at 

urban and background monitoring sites. 

This project continued at a site in NYC and a rural site in Addison, south-west of Corning, NY 

during 2005 to 2007. Sampling for this project has been completed. The data from this project 

will provide information about the significance of sources of organic carbon particulate in both 

urban and rural areas in New York. This type of information will be used to assess the potential 

viability of local and wide range PM2.5 control strategies. 

4.4.7.3 PM Coarse Monitoring

The NYSDEC is taking an active role in advance of an upcoming EPA directive to monitor for 

PM Coarse (PM10 - PM2.5). Filter based monitoring was initiated in NYC and in Niagara Falls to 

determine approximate concentrations of PM Coarse. This information was used to assess PM 

Coarse elemental concentrations. The NYSDEC has also used this data to comment on the 

proposed PM Coarse standard and network design that were recently part of the draft CFR Parts 

53 and 58. Filter based 1 day in 6 PM Coarse monitoring is also underway at the Rochester and 

IS52 NATTs sites and at the NCore site in Queens. 

 

The NYSDEC has also supported the development of new automated near real-time PM 

instruments. The NYSDEC is evaluating the 1405-DF Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) PM 

Coarse instruments at 3 locations in New York State. Data from the filter based samplers already 

operating at the site will be used to evaluate the performance of these instruments. The benefit of 

this work for the NYSDEC is that if successful, the instruments can provide high frequency data 

that can also be used for comparison to the PM2.5 and PM10 NAAQS. 

4.4.8 Air Pollution and Environmental Conditions

 

4.4.8.1 NYC Micro-scale Street Canyon Monitoring

The NYSDEC responded to a request by EPA to install 2 street level monitors in an urban area in 

NYC. The areas are known as canyons due to the tall buildings on either side of the street. The 

PM10 data collected at the one remaining site is used to evaluate the differences between data 

collected at very low elevations, close to high traffic roadways, and the monitors that are 

properly sited in the rest of the monitoring network. 
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4.4.8.2 Rochester PM Center Clarkson, Univ. of Rochester Medical Center

The NYSDEC collaborates with researchers from the University of Rochester Medical Center 

and Clarkson University who have been awarded a second PM health research grant from EPA. 

Their work focuses on the pathways and effects from PM pollution on the cardiovascular system. 

The NYSDEC provides data and support for a fine particle classifying instrument at a monitoring 

location near the University of Rochester. 

4.4.8.3 Air Pollution Microscopy

In addition to performing toxics and acid deposition laboratory analyses, BAQS Monitoring 

Support Section at the Rensselaer facility operates a variety of analytical microscopes for particle 

analysis. These instruments include: Smiths Detection Inc. IlluminatIR Fourier Transform 

microscope; JEOL 6490LV Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with a Brucker Spirit Energy 

Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) System. Together with optical microscopes, staff can provide 

data on size, morphology, elemental, chemical, and other physical properties of particulate 

samples of size down to 1 μm in diameter. The information obtained is valuable for the 

understanding of source origin and provides important input for apportionment analysis. 

Ultra fine particles (<0.1 μm), primarily generated from combustion processes, including 

stationary fossil-fuel electric power generation, industrial processes, boilers, and gasoline and 

diesel engines, are an important component of PM2.5. Scientists are becoming increasingly more 

interested in these ultra fine or "Nano" size particles. Recently NYSDEC acquired a VEECO 

Nanoscope Multimode Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) for the analysis of these extremely 

small particles. With the addition of this new instrument, we are now able to look at particulate 

an order of magnitude smaller than what the Scanning Electron Microscope (300,000× mag vs. 

3,000,000× mag) can provide. Whereas the SEM specializes in particles in the 2.5 micron range, 

the Nanoscope is currently analyzing particles in the 25-50 nanometer range. Particle size, 

surface texture and roughness are now available on such particles as diesel exhaust, wood smoke, 

and other products of combustion. 

 

Recently NYSDEC acquired the Olympus LEXT Laser Confocal Microscope (LCM). It is 

designed to obtain images of ultrafine particles at ranges smaller than what can be seen with our 

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and larger than what we can see with Atomic Force 

Microscope (AFM). It is the perfect fit between these two pieces of instrumentation and will 

complement both the AFM and SEM. Each method can ―see‖ in the size range that the other 

cannot. The LCM works on particles between 500 nm and 200 microns, so it works in between 

the two. 

 

The intended use of this instrument will provide information: 

• on the use of alternative fuels such as biodiesel and ethanol, as well as their use with 

different emission after-treatment strategies. Little to no information is currently 

available on the effect of such fuels on particle morphology. 
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• to refine our methodologies for acquiring filter samples for microscopic examination and 

in performing these examinations. Future samples could potentially be taken both from 

direct mobile source emissions and also from ambient samplers deployed in the 

monitoring network. 

• to re-evaluate our earlier ultrafine particle measurements. For example, earlier results 

suggest the presence of a secondary small particle mode in biodiesel emissions (smaller 

particles pose greater risks of health effects). Microscopic examination could provide 

evidence to either support or dismiss this finding. 

4.4.8.4 Ultrafine Particulate Monitoring 

NYSDEC first began ultrafine particulate monitoring with the deployment of a TSI Model 3031 

Ultrafine Particle Monitor (UPM) at Queens College in June of 2009. This instrument provides 

continuous measurements of size distribution and particle number concentrations of fine particles 

below1 micron, in the range from to 20 to 500 nanometers. The Queens College NCore site was 

selected for the UPM so as to complement a suite of parameters already being measured there. 

Concurrently a demo UPM unit on loan for one year from the manufacturer was installed at the 

Eisenhower Park location in Nassau County, which is expected to have a significant impact from 

mobile sources. Preliminary data suggest that the ultrafine particles are to a large extent regional 

in nature and less impacted by local mobile sources. The particle counts and size distributions 

for the two sites are similar, and also track the PM2.5 profile in some cases. It is possible that the 

mobile signal is damped out due to the siting of the monitor, as the inlet probe height may not be 

optimal and there may be interference from nearby trees. In addition, a resource recovery 

facility located about 1⁄4 mile west of the site, as well as other local sources (wood-fired pizza 

ovens, etc.) may influence the measurements. Alternate explanations may be that mobile 

ultrafine emissions are predominantly smaller than the 20 nanometer cut-off point or affect the 

measurements only on a short time scale. Data on particle size distribution and concentration 

will provide valuable information for the understanding of PM2.5 formation mechanisms, as well 

as source apportionment determination. 

It appears worthwhile to conduct short duration intensive studies in the future that 

simultaneously employ a suite of particle counting instruments including the Scanning Mobility 

Particle Sizer (SMPS), Fast Mobility Particle Sizer (FMPS), Condensation Particle Counter 

(CPC), and our UPM to further evaluate the mobile component. The new NOx rule requiring the 

establishment of near-roadway monitors in populated areas starting in 2013 (see NO2 Section) 

will afford an opportunity to collocate UPMs to further investigate the mobile contribution to the 

overall ultrafine concentration. The recent establishment of initial regulations intended to 

address ultrafine particle emissions from mobile sources (LEV-3 in California, Euro V-VII in the 

EU) is an early indicator of more extensive regulation of ultrafine particle emissions from mobile 

sources expected in the future, and suggests the potential emergence of regulations for ambient 

ultrafine particles as well. 

In our Air Pollution Microscopy laboratory, three particle characterization techniques (Laser 

Scanning Confocal Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy) 

are used to investigate the morphology of real world ultrafine particles, such as those from 
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mobile source emissions and other industrial sources. As an example, the changes in ultrafine 

particle morphology resulting from the use of two strategies for reducing diesel emissions, i.e., 

exhaust after-treatment and the use of alternative diesel fuels were studied. These activities 

complement the ambient monitoring data in understanding the formation, distribution and 

transport of ultrafine particulate. 
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4.5 Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colorless, reactive gas, is produced during the burning of sulfurcontaining fuels such as coal and oil, during metal smelting, and by other industrial processes. It 

belongs to a family of gases called sulfur oxides (SOx). Major sources include power plants, 

industrial boilers, petroleum refineries, smelters, iron and steel mills. Generally, the highest 

concentrations of sulfur dioxide are found near large fuel combustion sources. 

High concentrations of SO2 can result in temporary breathing impairment for asthmatic children 

and adults who are active outdoors. Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to elevated 

SO2 levels while at moderate exertion may result in reduced lung function that may be 

accompanied by symptoms such as wheezing, chest tightness, or shortness of breath. Other 

effects that have been associated with longer-term exposures to high concentrations of SO2, 

in conjunction with high levels of PM, include respiratory illness, alterations in the lungs‘ 

defenses, and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease. The subgroups of the population 

that may be affected under these conditions include individuals with cardiovascular disease 

or chronic lung disease, as well as children and the elderly. 

Additionally, there are a variety of environmental concerns associated with high concentrations 

of SO2. Because SO2, along with NOx, is a major precursor to acidic deposition (acid rain), it 

contributes to the acidification of soils, lakes, and streams and the associated adverse impacts on 

ecosystems. Sulfur dioxide exposure to vegetation can increase foliar injury, decrease plant 

growth and yield, and decrease the number and variety of plant species in a given community. 

Sulfur dioxide also is a major precursor to PM2.5 (aerosols), which is of significant concern to 

human health, as well as a main pollutant that impairs visibility. Finally, SO2 can accelerate the 

corrosion of natural and man-made materials (e.g., concrete and limestone) that are used in 

buildings and monuments, as well as paper, iron-containing metals, zinc, and other protective 

coatings. 

Figure 4.13 shows the number of SO2 monitors and the composite annual means in New York 

State over the years. 
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Figure 4.13 Sulfur Dioxide Monitors and Concentration Trends

Based on its most review of the air quality criteria for oxides of sulfur and the primary national 

ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) for oxides of sulfur as measured by sulfur dioxide (SO2), 

EPA replaced the existing 24-hour and annual standards with a new short-term standard based on 

the 3-year average of the 99th percentile of the yearly distribution of 1-hour daily maximum SO2 

concentrations. EPA set the level of this new standard at 75 ppb, which became effective August 

23, 2010. EPA is also establishing requirements for an SO2 monitoring network. These new 

provisions require monitors in areas where there is an increased coincidence of population and 

SO2 emissions. In order to do this, EPA developed a Population Weighted Emissions Index 

(PWEI) that uses population and emissions inventory data at the CBSA level to assign required 

monitoring for a given CBSA (with population and emissions being obvious relevant factors in 

prioritizing numbers of required monitors). The PWEI for a particular CBSA was proposed to be 

calculated by multiplying the population (using the latest Census Bureau estimates) of a CBSA 

by the total amount of SO2 emissions in that CBSA. The CBSA SO2 emission value would be in 

tons per year, and calculated by aggregating the county level emissions for each county in a 

CBSA. The PWEI values are being developed using the 2010 Census numbers. The final 

network design requires that any SO2 monitors required in a particular CBSA as determined 

based on PWEI values shall satisfy the minimum monitoring requirements if they are sited at 

locations where they can meet any one or more of the monitoring objectives: Source-Oriented 

Monitoring, Highest Concentration, Population Exposure, General Background, and Regional 

Transport. EPA is expected to provide additional guidance for the implementation of this rule. 

There are 19 SO2 monitors in operation currently, as shown in Figure 4.14. TEI Model 43C 

instruments using the pulsed fluorescence method are deployed in the network. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Statewide Annual Average (PPB)

#SO2 Monitors

SO2 in NYS - Monitors vs. Statewide Annual Average

# SO2 Monitors Statewide Annual Average
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The EPA considered setting a secondary standard for NOx and SOx that would specifically target 

the impact of acidic deposition on wilderness areas. The EPA ultimately decided that there was 

not enough information at this time to tie specific water quality thresholds with ambient air 

concentrations. In the July 2011 final rule for NOx and SOx, the EPA stated that they would set 

up a monitoring program in sensitive areas to collect information to link water quality impacts to 

ambient air quality measurements. The NYSDEC is participating in this pilot monitoring 

program in the Adirondacks. Additional monitoring equipment has been installed at several sites 

to determine the concentrations of gasses and particles including ammonia. These data will be 

used in the future to inform the next review of the NOx/SOx standard. 

Figure 4.14 Location Map for Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Sites 
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4.6 Ozone

Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms (O3), a very reactive gas, and even at low 

concentrations it is irritating and toxic. It occurs naturally in small amounts in the earth's upper 

atmosphere, and in the air of the lower atmosphere after a lightning storm. In the stratosphere, 

between 10km and 50km above the earth‘s surface it forms the Ozone Layer. This is an 

important protective layer which filters out most of the high energy ultra-violet radiation from 

the sun which would damage much of the life on earth. When ozone is present at ground level 

and in the troposphere (10-18 km above earth‘s surface) it is considered a pollutant and a 

greenhouse gas. Ozone is used both industrially and commercially due mainly to its reactivity. It 

is used as a clean way of purifying water both in industry and in the home in hot-tubs and fish 

tanks. It is also used to disinfect laundry both in hospitals and in the home. 

Ground-level O3 remains a pervasive pollution problem in the United States. Ozone is readily 

formed in the atmosphere by the reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx in the 

presence of heat and sunlight, which are most abundant in the summer. VOCs are emitted from a 

variety of sources, including motor vehicles, chemical plants, refineries, factories, consumer and 

commercial products, other industries, and natural (biogenic) sources. Nitrogen oxides (a 

precursor to ozone) are emitted from motor vehicles, power plants, and other sources of 

combustion, as well as natural sources including lightning and biological processes in soil. 

Changing weather patterns contribute to yearly differences in O3 concentrations. Ozone and the 

precursor pollutants that cause O3 also can be transported into an area from pollution sources 

located hundreds of miles upwind. 

Ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere and provides a protective layer high above the earth. 

However, at ground level, it is the prime ingredient of smog. Short-term (1- to 3-hour) and 

prolonged (6- to 8-hour) exposures to ambient O3 concentrations have been linked to a number 

of health effects of concern. For example, increased hospital admissions and emergency room 

visits for respiratory causes have been associated with ambient O3 exposures. 

Exposures to O3 result in lung inflammation, aggravate preexisting respiratory diseases such as 

asthma, and may make people more susceptible to respiratory infection. Other health effects 

attributed to short-term and prolonged exposures to O3, generally while individuals are engaged 

in moderate or heavy exertion, include significant decreases in lung function and increased 

respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and cough. Children active outdoors during the summer 

when O3 levels are at their highest are most at risk of experiencing such effects. Other at-risk 

groups include adults who are active outdoors, such as outdoor workers, and individuals with 

preexisting respiratory disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease. Within 

each of these groups are individuals who are unusually sensitive to O3. In addition, repeated 

long-term exposure to O3 presents the possibility of irreversible changes in the lungs, which 

could lead to premature aging of the lungs and/or chronic respiratory illnesses. 

Ozone also affects sensitive vegetation and ecosystems. Specifically, O3 can lead to reductions in 

agricultural and commercial forest yields, reduced survivability of sensitive tree seedlings, and 

increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests, and other environmental stresses such as harsh 

weather. In long-lived species, these effects may become evident only after several years or even 
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decades. As these species are out-competed by others, long-term effects on forest ecosystems 

and habitat quality for wildlife and endangered species become evident. Furthermore, O3 injury 

to the foliage of trees and other plants can decrease the aesthetic value of ornamental species as 

well as the natural beauty of our national parks and recreation areas. 

EPA initially established primary and secondary NAAQS for photochemical oxidants on April 

30, 1971. Both primary and secondary standards were set at an hourly average of 0.08 parts per 

million (ppm), total photochemical oxidants, not to be exceeded more than one hour per year. 

On February 8, 1979, EPA completed its first periodic review of the criteria and standards for O3

and other photochemical oxidants and made significant revisions to the original standard: the 

level of the primary and secondary NAAQS was changed to 0.12 ppm; the indicator was changed 

to O3; and the form of the standards was changed to be based on the expected number of days per 

calendar year with a maximum hourly average concentration above 0.12 ppm (i.e., attainment of 

the standard occurs when that number is equal to or less than one). 

In July, 1997 EPA revised the primary and secondary O3 standards on the basis of the then latest 

scientific evidence linking exposures to ambient O3 to adverse health and welfare effects at 

levels allowed by the 1-hr average standards. The O3 standards were revised by replacing the 

existing primary 1-hr average standard with an 8-hr average O3 standard set at a level of 0.08 

ppm. The form of the primary standard was changed to the annual fourth-highest daily maximum 

8-hr average concentration, averaged over three years. The secondary O3 standard was changed 

by making it identical in all respects to the revised primary standard. These standards were 

challenged in the courts and the litigation lasted until March, 2002 when the D.C. Circuit Court 

issued its final decision, finding the 1997 O3 NAAQS to be ―neither arbitrary nor capricious,‖ 

and denying the remaining petitions for review. As of June 15, 2005 EPA revoked the 1-hour 

ozone standard in all areas except the fourteen 8-hour ozone nonattainment Early Action 

Compact (EAC) Areas (none in NY). 

After the most recent review of the ozone NAAQS, EPA revised the 8 hr ozone standard 

(primary and secondary) to 0.075 ppm, which went into effect on May 27, 2008, at which time 

the 1-hr standard was revoked. 

The number of ozone monitors and concentration trends for both the 1 hr, and 8 hr standards in 

New York State for the past three decades are shown in Figures 4.15 and 4.16, respectively.
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Figure 4.15 Ozone Monitors and 1 hr Concentration Trends 

Figure 4.16 Ozone Monitors and 8 hr Concentration Trends 

0.060

0.090

0.120

0.150

0.180

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Statewide Average of 2nd Highest 1 hour

PPM

#O3 Monitors

O3 in NYS - Monitors vs. Statewide Average of 2nd Highest 

1 hour

# O3 Monitors Statewide average of 2nd Highest 1 hr

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Statewide Average 4th Highest 8 hr

PPM

#O3 Monitors

O3 in NYS - Monitors vs. Statewide Average 4th Highest 8 hr

# O3 Monitors Statewide Average 4th Highest 8 hr
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At present NYSDEC operates 29 TEI Model 49C ozone monitors statewide, which use the UV 

photometric method for detection. The site locations are depicted in Figure 4.17 below. 

Figure 4.17 Location Map for Ozone Monitoring Sites
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5. EPA’s National Toxics Program

In general, EPA plans to use ambient air toxics monitoring to support the air toxics program‘s 

efforts to reduce human exposure and health risks from air toxics. The monitoring data provided 

by the ambient air toxics monitoring program is intended to support four major objectives: 

• Establish trends and evaluate the effectiveness of air toxics emissions reduction 

strategies. 

• Characterize ambient concentrations (and deposition) in local areas. Air toxics originate 

from local sources and can concentrate in relatively small geographical areas, producing 

the greatest risks to human health. 

• Provide data to support, evaluate, and improve air quality models. Air quality models are 

used to develop emission control strategies, perform exposure assessments, and assess 

program effectiveness. 

• Provide data to support scientific studies to better understand the relationship between 

ambient air toxics concentrations, human exposure, and health effects from these 

exposures. 

EPA‘s national air toxics monitoring program is comprised of four different monitoring efforts:

• National Air Toxics Trends Stations (NATTS) 

• EPA funded local-scale projects to assess conditions at the local level 

• Existing State and local program monitoring 

• Persistent bio-accumulative toxics monitoring 

The objective for the NATTS network is to provide long-term monitoring data for certain 

priority air toxics across representative areas of the country in order to establish overall trends 

for these pollutants. Currently there are 23 NATTS established in 22 cities. The two New York 

NATTS sites are located in the Bronx, and Rochester, respectively. 

EPA‘s initial ambient air toxics monitoring pilot studies disclosed that significant variations in 

pollutant concentrations occurred across a city and that these variations cannot be characterized 

by a single monitoring site. As a result, EPA decided that local-scale projects consisting of 

several monitors operated for a period of 1 to 2 years should be incorporated into the national air 

toxics monitoring strategy. In 2006 New York was awarded a grant for a community air quality 

air study in Tonawanda which began in July 2007. Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and fine 

particulate matter are measured at 4 locations in the Tonawanda community to address citizen 

concerns. The field sampling portion of this study was completed in July, 2008. 

New York State has been operating a toxics monitoring network since 1990, funded entirely by 

State monies. Currently there are 11 sites statewide collecting 24 hr canister samples for VOC 

analysis in a 1 in 6 days interval. See section on NY Toxics Monitoring Network 

The monitoring program for persistent bio-accumulative toxics primarily consists of deposition 

monitoring, not ambient air monitoring. Several monitoring programs operated by various 

Federal agencies have been established to measure the presence of toxics in various media. In 
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2010 New York completed an EPA funded community grant study titled ―New York State 

Ambient Mercury Baseline Study‖ for the measurement of speciated mercury in ambient air, as 

well as mercury in wet deposition. Instruments at the two study sites are still operating with other 

funding sources and additional funding is being sought to continue this important monitoring. 

In addition to air toxic-specific monitoring activities, several other monitoring programs that are 

primarily intended to address other air pollution concerns incorporate some aspects of air toxics 

monitoring. For example, the Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) collect 

data on certain volatile organic compound and carbonyl air toxics. Further, the results of some 

particulate matter monitoring is speciated (i.e., the individual compounds comprising the 

particulate matter are analyzed) to identify certain air toxics compounds. 

5.1 National Air Toxics Trends Stations (NATTS)

EPA‘s Urban Air Toxics Program identified 33 high-priority urban air toxics. From these 33 air 

toxics EPA developed a list of 19 ―core‖ air toxics representing the pollutants for which EPA 

eventually wants to develop trends information. However, because of limitations in available 

methodologies, EPA decided that at a minimum, in starting the network, each of the NATTS 

should monitor for at least 6 of these 19 pollutants. These six pollutants are considered national 

air toxics ―drivers‖ (i.e., pollutants of concern in all areas of the country).

Table 5.1 NATTS Pollutants of Concern 

Required Monitoring Desired Monitoring 

1,3-butadiene trichloroethylene 

acrolein tetrachloroethylene 

arsenic beryllium 

formaldehyde nickel 

benzene cadmium 

hexavalent chromium acetaldehyde 

1,2-dichloropropene 

carbon tetrachloride 

lead 

chloroform 

manganese 

methylene chloride 

vinyl chloride 

For the two NATTS sites, New York will perform analysis of 42 VOCs (Table 5.2), and 12 

carbonyls (Table 5.6). More details on the sampling and analysis are provided in the NY Toxics 

Monitoring, and Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations sections, respectively. In 

addition, low volume PM10 teflon filters are collected for trace metals analysis using ICP-MS. 
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The targeted metals include: arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, lead, manganese, nickel, antimony, 

cobalt, and selenium, with the last three being potential future HAPs. Hexavalent chromium 

sampling commenced in November 2007 at the Rochester and Bronx sites. The cellulose filter 

samples are shipped to EPA/ERG for laboratory analysis. 

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) sampling at the Rochester and IS 52 sites began in 

July, 2008. The collection media consists of one 110 mm diameter glass microfiber filter and a 

tubular glass cartridge containing a combination of Polyurethane Foam (PUF) and XAD-2 resin. 

The exposed samples are shipped to an EPA contract laboratory (ERG) for analysis. 

Due to roof construction work at IS 52, sampling for NATTS parameters was temporarily moved 

to the Morrisania site, 1.7 miles NW of the original location beginning in mid June, 2010. The 

relocation interrupted some sample collection. The EPA was notified of the temporary 

relocation prior to the move and the data will be submitted using the AQS code for the 

Morrisania site: 36-005-0080. It is anticipated that the construction work at IS 52 will be 

completed by summer, 2012, at which time the site will be re-established. 

5.2 NY Toxics Monitoring Network

The NY ambient air toxics monitoring program was first established in 1985 as part of the 

Governor's Air Monitoring Modernization Capital Budget Program. This monitoring network 

measures Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) across the State. The initial development of the 

network and analytical capabilities was part of a joint Staten Island/New Jersey Urban Air 

Toxics Assessment Project (SI/NJ Study) coordinated with U.S. EPA Region II from 1987 

through 1989. The network expanded in 1990 to a statewide network. 

The goal is to monitor air quality related to toxics in the State's urban, industrial, residential, and 

rural areas. Implementation of this program starts the development of a long-term toxics air 

quality database for New York State. The database will be used to define, attain, and preserve 

good air quality in New York State. The data defines actual air quality impacts of the VOCs. The 

data is used in the design and management of New York's air quality, including risk assessment, 

modeling, planning and trend analysis. 

Initially only seventeen VOCs were monitored until 1995, when the number of analytes was 

increased to nineteen. In 2002 the list of VOCs was expanded to include 42 compounds as shown 

in Table 5.2 below: 

Table 5.2 Target List of Volatile Organic Compounds 

CHEMICAL CAS #

Methylene Chloride 75-09-2

Chloroform 67-66-3

1,2 Dichloroethane 107-06-2

1,1,1 Trichloroethane 71-55-6

Carbon Tetrachloride 56-23-5
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CHEMICAL CAS #

Trichloroethylene 79-01-6

1,1,2 Trichloroethane 79-00-5

Tetrachloroethylene 127-18-4

Acrolein 107-02-8

Benzene 71-43-2

Toluene 108-88-3

Ethylbenzene 100-41-4

M,P-Xylene 1330-20-7

O-Xylene 95-47-6

Chlorobenzene 108-90-7

1,2 Dichlorobenzene 95-50-1

1,3 Dichlorobenzene 541-73-1

1,4 Dichlorobenzene 106-46-7

Vinyl Chloride 75-01-4

1,2 Dichloropropane 78-87-5

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 95-63-6

1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 108-67-8

1,1-Dichloroethylene 75-35-4

Hexachloro-1,3-Butadiene 87-68-3

1,1-Dichloroethane 75-34-3

Chloromethane 74-87-3

Chloroethane 75-00-3

cis1,2-Dichloroethylene 156-59-2

cis 1,3-Dichloropropene 542-75-6

trans 1,3-Dichloropropene 542-75-6

Dichlorodifluoromethane 75-71-8

Trichlorofluoromethane 75-69-4

Trichlorotrifluoroethane 76-13-1

Dichlorotetrafluoroethane 76-14-2

1,2-Dibromoethane 106-93-4

A-chlorotoluene 

(Benzylchloride)

100-44-7

1,1,2,2 Tetrachloroethane 79-34-5

Bromomethane 74-83-9

Styrene 100-42-5

Bromodichloromethane 75-27-4

1,3 Butadiene 106-99-0

Methyl Tert Butyl Ether 1634-04-4

1,2,4 Trichlorobenzene 120-82-1

 

Volatile organic compounds are collected in stainless steel canisters contained in a sampler 

known as an ambient air canister sampler. The sampler is an air flow calibrated sampling device 

that pumps ambient air into the canister. A special stainless steel diaphragm pump provides a 

constant pressure to push the sample through the sampler. A relief valve is used to maintain a 
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steady pressure for the sample flow controller. Samples are collected at a one in six days 

frequency and shipped back to the Rensselaer laboratory facility for analysis. 

The analysis methodology is a modified version of EPA method TO-15. An aliquot of air sample 

is taken from the canister at a controlled flow and temperature onto an Entech Model 7100A 

preconcentrator. The preconcentration process involves a series of steps. The first trap consists of 

glass beads/Tenax held at -110 C which is then heated to room temperature in order to remove 

water/moisture in the sample. The next trap in line consists of Tenax held at - 30 C. The 

contaminants of interest are then desorbed at 150 C and collected on the cryofocuser held at -150 

C. The sample is then rapidly heated for column injection using a Varian GC coupled with a 

Saturn MS detection. This method of analysis allows positive identification by retention time and 

molecular mass. 

Concentration trends charts for some ubiquitous VOCs are provided below. 

Note that for 2011, the values shown for IS 52 actually represent those from the site at 

Morrisania, as all monitoring at IS 52 was relocated to Morrisania in July of 2010 due to roof 

construction work. In August, 2012 all equipment for NATTS was relocated back to IS 52. The 

values presented for 2012 represent a composite of the two locations. 

Figure 5.1 Annual Averages for Benzene 

0.000

0.500

1.000

1.500 ppbv

Site

Benzene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 
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Figure 5.2 Annual Averages for Toluene 

Figure 5.3 Annual Averages for m,p-Xylene 

0.000

1.000

2.000

3.000

ppbv

Site

Toluene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 1326 

0.000

0.500

1.000

ppbv

Site

m,p-Xylene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 7.7 
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Figure 5.4 Annual Averages for o-Xylene 

Figure 5.5 Annual Averages for 1,3-Butadiene 

0.000

0.100

0.200

0.300

0.400

0.500 ppbv

Site

o-Xylene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.3

ppbv

Site

1,3-Butadiene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 
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Figure 5.6 Annual Averages for Dichloromethane 

Figure 5.7 Annual Averages for Chloroform 

0.000

0 500

1.000 ppbv

Site

Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 

0.000

0.010

0.020

0.030

0.040

0.050

0.060

0.070

0.080

0.090

0.100

ppbv

Chloroform Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 
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Figure 5.8 Annual Averages for 1,4-Dichlorobenzene

Figure 5.9 Annual Averages for Formaldehyde†

0.000

0.050

0.100

0.150

0.200

0.250

0.300

ppbv

1,4-Dichlorobenzene Annual Averages

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Annual Guideline Concentration = 

0.000

2.000

4.000

6.000

8.000

10.000

12.000

14.000

16.000

ppbv

Formaldehyde Annual Averages

2009

2010

2011

2012

AGC = 0.049 ppb
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Figure 5.10 Annual Averages for Acetaldehyde†

†Note that the toxics monitoring operation at IS 52 was temporarily moved to the Morrisania II 

site in mid June 2010 due to extensive construction work. In late July 2012, work was 

completed and monitoring resumed at IS 52. The values shown for 2010 and 2012 represent 

partial year average only. 

Currently there are 11 toxics monitoring sites in operation for the measurement of VOCs, and 8 

sites for carbonyls statewide. These locations are shown in Figure 5.11 below. 

 

0.000

0.200

0.400

0.600

0.800

1.000

1.200

1.400

ppbv

Acetaldehyde Annual Averages

2009

2010

2011

2012

AGC = 0.25 ppb
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Figure 5.11 Location Map of Toxics Monitoring Sites 
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5.3 Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS)

The 1993 revisions to 40 CFR Part 58 provide for the establishment and maintenance of network 

of air monitoring stations called Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) which 

will supplement the existing State and Local Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS) network. The 

selection of parameters to be measured at a PAMS site varies with the site‘s ozone nonattainment 

designation and whether a site is upwind or downwind from O3 precursor source areas. These 

parameters are O3, total oxides of nitrogen (NOx), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 

speciated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and specific meteorological measurements. 

The purpose of the PAMS program is to provide an air quality database that will assist in 

evaluating and modifying control strategies for attaining the O3 National Ambient Air Quality 

Standard (NAAQS). PAMS data will also be used to better characterize the nature and extent of 

the O3 problem, track VOC and NOx emission inventory reductions, assess air quality trends and 

determine whether areas of New York remain in nonattainment of the O3 NAAQS. 

NYSDEC is required to operate and maintain two sites for metropolitan New York. The New 

York Botanical Gardens PAMS site (located in Northern Bronx) has been operational since 

1994. The Queensborough Community College PAMS station (located in Queens) began 

monitoring of some species in late 1997. The Queens site was fully operational for the 1998 

ozone monitoring season. This site moved to Queens College in the spring of 2001 as the QBCC 

building was undergoing a major renovation and the equipment had to be removed from the site. 

The Table 5.3 lists the chronology of monitoring at these sites. 

 

Table 5.3 Information on PAMS Sites 

Site Name Parameters Implementation Date

New York Botanical Garden NOx Jun-94

CO Jun-94

O3 Jun-94

VOCs Jun-94

Carbonyls Jun-94

NMOC Jun-99

Meteorology Jun-94

NMOC Sep-99

Queens Community College

closed 12/2001

NOx May-98

CO May-98

O3 May-98

SO2 May-98

VOCs Jun-98

Carbonyls Sep-97

NMOC Aug-98

Queens College NOx Jun-01

CO Jun-01
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Site Name Parameters Implementation Date

O3 Jun-01

SO2 Jun-01

Carbonyls Jun-01

NMOC Jun-01

For gaseous parameters, Table 5.4 lists the sampling instruments and analysis methods. 

Table 5.4 Instrumentation for Gaseous Pollutants 

Parameter Instrument Analysis Method Frequency

NO TECO 42C Chemiluminescent Continuous

NO2 TECO 42C Chemiluminescent Continuous

NOx TECO 42C Chemiluminescent Continuous

O3 TECO 49C Ultraviolet Continuous

CO TECO 48C Infrared Continuous

The following applies to meteorological measurements. 

Table 5.5 Equipment for Meteorological Measurements 

Parameter Instrument or

Sampling Method

Frequency

Wind Speed SONIC Continuous

Wind Direction SONIC Continuous

Temperature Thermistor Continuous

Relative Humidity Hydroscopic 

Capacitor

Continuous

Barometric Pressure Piezoresistive Sensor Continuous

Carbonyls are sampled using DNPH cartridges and analyzed with HPLC according to EPA 

Method TO-11a. The target compound list is provided in Table 5.6 below. 
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Table 5.6 Target Compound List for Carbonyl Sampling 

Compound AIRS Code

acetaldehyde 43503

acetone 43551

acrolein 43505

benzaldehyde 45501

crotonaldehyde 43516

formaldehyde 43502

hexanal 43511

methacrolein 43515

m-tolualdehyde 45504

n-butyraldehyde 43510

propionaldehyde 43504

valeraldehyde 43518

Volatile organic compounds are monitored using Summa canisters samples followed by 

laboratory GCMS analysis as well as by an on-site realtime GC. The methods and sampling 

frequencies are provided in Table 5.7 below. 

Table 5.7 VOC Methods and Sampling Frequencies 

Sampling Method Analytical Method Frequency

Method TO-14a GC/FID Hourly

TO-15 (24-hr) GC/MS Every 6 day

TO-15 (40 min) GC/MS Once a week

The targeted compounds are listed below: 

Table 5.8 PAMS Target Compounds List 

Compound AIRS # 

ethene 43203

acetylene 43206

ethane 43202

propene 43205

propane 43204
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Compound AIRS # 

isobutane 43214

1-butene 43280

n-butane 43212

trans-2-butene 43216

cis-2-butene 43217

3-methyl-1-butene dropped 1995 43282

isopentane 43221

1-pentene 43224

n-pentane 43220

isoprene 43220

trans-2-pentene 43226

cis-2-pentene 43227

2-methyl-2-butene dropped 1995 43227

2,2-dimethylbutane 43227

cyclopentane 43242

4-methyl-1-pentene dropped 1995 43234

cyclopentene dropped 1995 43283

2-,3-dimethylbutane 43284

2-methylpentane 43285

3-methylpentane 43230

2-methyl-1-pentene dropped 1997 43246

n-hexane 43231

trans-2-hexene dropped 1995 43289

cis-2-hexene dropped 1995 43290

n-hexene added 1997 43245

methylcyclopentane 43262

2,4-dimethylpentane 43247

benzene 45201

cyclohexane 43248

2-methylhexane 43263

2,3-dimethylpentane 43291

3-methylhexane 43249

2,2,4-trimethylpentane 43250

n-heptane 43232

methylcyclohexane 43261
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Compound AIRS # 

2,3,4-trimethylpentane 43252

toluene 45202

2-methylheptane 43960

3-methylheptane 43253

n-octane 43233

ethylbenzene 45203

p/m-xylene 45109

styrene 45220

o-xylene 45204

nonane 43235

isopropylbenzene 45210

n-propylbenzene 45209

m-ethyltoluene added 1995 45212

p-ethyltoluene added 1995 45213

1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 45207

o-ethyltoluene added 1995 45211

1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 45208

n-decane 43238

1,2,3 trimethylbenzene added 1995 45225

1,3-diethylbenzene added 1995 45218

1,4 diethylbenzene added 1995 45219

n-undecane 43954

dodecane added 1997 45218

tnmoc 43102

pamshc 43000

 

All parameters except for the summer intensive VOCs and carbonyls are run on a continuous 

basis year round. VOC system startup is scheduled for May 15th each year. The carbonyl's 

schedule of eight (3 hour) samples every third day ended in September 2005 as the requirement 

was dropped by EPA to reduce overall cost of the PAMS program. The VOC intensive sampling 

ends in September after the final system audit. Twenty-four hour carbonyl and canister samples 

are continued on a six day schedule throughout the year. 

The on-site GC system consists of a Markes Unity Air Server-Thermal Desorber System 

integrated with an Agilent GC. The Summa canisters are shipped to the Rensselaer laboratory 

facility and analyzed with an Entech preconcentrator with a Varian GCMS System.
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6. NCore Sites 

 

The National Core Monitoring Program (NCore) is an EPA initiative to redesign a portion of the 

National air monitoring network. The existing compliance oriented network is set up with a 

parameter specific design that is targeted at the relatively high concentrations near the NAAQS. 

The data from this network is not as accurate at the low levels needed for trends analysis and 

model validation. The single parameter design is also not well suited to multi-pollutant health 

studies, integrated model assessment or the analysis of source attribution through comparisons of 

co-pollutants from sources to receptors. 

The NCore program has been designed around approximately 75 sites Nationwide that are sited 

to represent large urban areas away from significant individual sources. A smaller subset of these 

sites will be located in rural areas. The NYSDEC in conjunction with EPA Region 2 office has 

suggested 3 of the NYSDEC monitoring sites for inclusion in this new network. The sites are: 

 

 AQS ID # Site Name General Location 

 36-081-0124 Queens College Located in Kew Gardens in Queens, NYC 

 36-055-1007 Rochester Located Southeast of Rochester, NY 

 36-101-0003 Pinnacle Located 15 mi. Southwest of Corning, NY 

Pinnacle is the only rural site of the three and it was also selected as one of ten pilot NCore sites. 

This site has hosted monitoring appropriate for the objectives of the NCore program due to its 

involvement with several research programs so it was well suited to take on the more difficult 

monitoring parameters required from the NCore monitoring program. SUNY Albany ASRC 

researchers have been making low level trace gas measurements at this site for the past ten years. 

Home built analyzers for low level CO and NOy were employed. These prototype instruments 

required extensive post sampling data processing. They measured ―true‖ NO2 using direct 

photolysis method. Commercially available instruments are used for monitoring low level SO2, 

continuous particulate sulfate, and OC/EC particulate carbon. In addition, realtime ammonia data 

are collected using two different methods—NO chemiluminescence with catalytic conversion, 

and ion mobility spectrometer. The Queens site which was recently established is preparing to 

monitor for some of the NCore parameters. 

NCore Monitoring Objectives

 a.) Timely Reporting of Data to the Public 

 b.) Support for Development of Emission Strategies 

 c.) Accountability of Emission Strategy Progress 

 d.) Support for Long-Term Health Assessments 

 e.) Compliance 

 f.) Support to Scientific Studies 

 g.) Support to Ecosystem Assessments 
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NCore Primary Monitoring Parameters

The NCore sites are required to be sited in conjunction with the PM2.5 FRM network, the PM2.5

speciation network and the PMcoarse network. These parameters will be supplemented with the 

NCore specific parameters that currently include NOy, Low Level CO and Low Level SO2. 

NOy which is defined as the sum of all reactive nitrogen oxides includes NO, and NO2, and other 

nitrogen oxides referred to as NOz. The NCore program requires NOy monitoring because it is 

the best indicator of the results from NOx reduction strategies, it is valuable for ecosystem 

assessments, it is important for model evaluation and it supports NO2 estimates for health effects 

studies. 

CO is important to the NCore program because it is used in model evaluation, it is a surrogate for 

many combustion related pollutants, it is included in health effect studies and it can be used to 

assess control programs. CO is also monitored under the existing criteria monitoring program but 

NCore requires more accuracy at lower concentrations and siting that makes the data more 

representative of wider areas than the existing network. 

SO2 is important for model evaluation because of its role in sulfate formation which is a large 

percentage of PM2.5 mass particularly in the Northeast. SO2 is also important for some health 

effect studies and like CO it must be monitored accurately at low concentrations to meet the 

objectives of the NCore program. 

Nitric acid (HNO3) and ammonia (NH3) are both compounds of interest in EPA‘s NCore 

program but they are not yet required because the sampling methodology is not yet fully 

developed. Both compounds are useful for model evaluation because of their contribution to PM 

formation. 

To meet the monitoring requirements, trace level instruments for SO2 and CO as well as NOy

measurements were all operational at the three NCore sites since the beginning of 2011. 
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7. Acid Deposition Monitoring Network

At the end of 2012, the Department discontinued the existing acid rain monitoring 

program and transitioned 7 monitoring locations to the National Acid Deposition 

Program (NADP). The old acid deposition program was established in response to the 

State Acid Deposition Control Act (SADCA) in 1985. This program was designed to 

provide measurements of acid deposition and related quantities necessary to assess the 

effectiveness of sulfur control policy and other strategies aimed at reducing the effects of 

acid rain. By all measures, the monitoring program as well as the NOx and SOx control 

strategies have improved the environment. For example, the deposition of Sulfate 

Statewide has decreased by more than 60% since the monitoring program began and the 

concentrations of acidic pollutants continue to decline. 

The transition to the NADP program will result in savings to the Department, provide 

better and more useful data for use in regulation development and will allow for the 

comparison of data from New York with other acid sensitive regions across the country. 

Additionally, because the NADP program provides a uniform operational framework, the 

data from existing NADP sites within New York and in neighboring States can be 

utilized in the analysis of deposition in New York. 

The NADP program uses IC, ICP and FIA to determine the concentrations of free acidity (H+ as 

pH), conductance, calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+ ), potassium (K+ ), sulfate 

(SO42-), nitrate (NO3+ ), chloride (Cl- ), and ammonium (NH4+). The data and reports from this 

program from the 7 NYSDEC sites as well as other sites in New York and in the United States 

can be obtained from: http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/data/ 

The NYSDEC monitoring locations that were converted to the NADP in January 2013: 

 

 NY06 Bronx 

NY28 Piseco Lake 

NY59 Wanakena 

NY93 Paul Smith's College 

NY98 Whiteface Mountain 

Rochester (Established later in 2013) 

Amherst (Established later in 2013) 

The other NADP sites currently operating in New York but sponsored by other 

organizations: 

NY01 Alfred 

NY08 Aurora Research Farm 

 NY10 Chautauqua 

 NY20 Huntington Wildlife 

 NY22 Akwesasne Mohawk-Fort Covington 
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 NY29 Moss Lake 

 NY52 Bennett Bridge 

 NY67 Ithaca 

 NY68 Biscuit Brook 

 NY96 Cedar Beach, Southold 

 NY99 West Point 

Figure 7.1 shows NADP sites operated by DEC as well as other collaborating partners in New 

York State. 

Figure 7.1 Location Map of Acid Deposition Monitoring Sites in New York State
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8. Anticipated Changes in the Next 18 Months 

8.1 Lead Monitoring

Revisions to the monitoring requirements became effective January 26, 2011. The new 

regulations replaced the population oriented monitoring requirement with a requirement to add 

Pb monitors to the urban NCore monitors. The EPA also lowered the emission threshold from 

1.0 tpy to 0.50 tpy for industrial sources of lead (e.g., lead smelters and foundries). One source 

located in Orange County was determined to have the potential to violate the standard due to the 

amount of lead processed at the facility and the past results from nearby ambient monitoring. 

The NYSDEC will continue to operate the ambient lead monitor that is already operating near 

that facility. Routine data review showed that during the first quarter of 2011, there were a 

couple of sample dates that showed high levels of lead, which would lead to contravention of the 

new standard. Investigations at the facility led to enforcement actions although specific causes 

for the observed values were not discovered. Consequently an additional low volume PM10

sampler was put in place to collect daily filter samples for mass measurement and lead analysis 

using XRF in August, 2011. 

 

The NYSDEC currently has two urban lead monitors at the NATTS sites (Rochester, Bronx). 

The Rochester site is also a designated NCore site. It is the Regional Administrator‘s discretion 

to approve site substitution for the population oriented monitoring requirement. These monitors 

will take advantage of the allowance for the submission of PM10 lead data in place of TSP lead 

data. The NYSDEC acknowledges that the use of a PM10 monitor for lead compliance 

monitoring will be discontinued and replaced with a TSP monitor if a three month average lead 

concentration from one of these sites exceeds 0.1μg/m3. 

 

8.2 Special Purpose Monitors

 8.2.1 Tonawanda Community Air Quality Study

Although the original study funded by EPA concluded in 2008, NYSDEC has continued 

sampling at two of the four study sites with State monies. The Tonawanda II site at Brookside 

Terrace will remain in operation as part of the permanent network, while the Grand Island Blvd. 

industrial site will be maintained as a special purpose monitor, resources permitting. Figures 8.1 

and 8.2 illustrate trend charts for benzene and formaldehyde demonstrating emission reductions. 
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Figure 8.1 Annual Averages for Benzene at Tonawanda Sites 

Figure 8.2 Annual Averages for Formaldehyde at Tonawanda Sites

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Industrial Site (GIBI) Residential Site (BTRS)

Annual Average Conc. (ppb)

Benzene Concentration

Study Year and Subsequent Years

Study Period (7/07-6/08)

1st Year Post Study (7/08-6-09)

2nd Year Post Study (7/09-6/10)

3rd Year Post Study (7/10-6/11)

4th Year Post Study (7/11-6/12)

2011 Statewide Ave.

Annual Guideline Conc. (AGC)

-57%

-48%

-33%

-42% -37%

-20%

+1%

+2%

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Industrial Site (GIBI) Residential Site (BTRS)

Annual Average Conc. (ppb)

Formaldehyde Concentration

Study Year and Subsequent Years

Study Period (7/07-6/08)

1st Year Post Study (7/08-6-09)

2nd Year Post Study (7/09-6/10)

3rd Year Post Study (7/10-6/11)

4th Year Post Study (7/11-6/12)

2011 Statewide Ave.

Annual Guideline Conc. (AGC)

-74%-18% -38% +2% -10% +4% +7%-6%
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8.2.2 New York State Ambient Mercury Baseline Study

New York has established regulations to control mercury from coal-fired powered plants in a 

two-phase approach, with Phase I taking effect on January 1, 2010 and Phase II taking effect on 

January 1, 2015. The goal of Phase I is to reduce power plant emissions by 50% from 1999 

levels, and preliminary indications are that these emissions have actually been reduced by about 

65%. Phase II calls for 90% emission cuts. In order to track the progress of in- and out-of-state 

emissions reductions, the NYSDEC seeks to continue operation and maintenance of mercury wet 

deposition samplers and speciated Tekran systems. 

In 2008 NYSDEC was awarded an EPA grant to conduct this study at two existing urban sites: 

New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx (AQS Number: 36-005-0083), and Rochester (AQS 

Number: 36-055-1007) for a period of two years. The Tekran Model 2537B, 1130 and 1135 

Mercury Speciation Units were used to measure elemental, reactive gaseous and particle bound 

mercury species in the ambient air. The wet deposition collector system, manufactured by NCON Systems Co. Inc., and equipped with an ETI NOAH IV Precipitation Gauge was collocated 

at each site. The field data collection concluded in the fall of 2010. The results of the study were 

presented at the National Air Toxics Monitoring and Data Analysis Workshop in April 2011. 

The final report was submitted to the EPA in May 2011. The NYSDEC is seeking additional 

funding sources to continue data collection at these sites. 

8.2.3 Community Air Screen Program 

The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), through funding 

provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), implemented a 

community-based screening program for toxic air pollutants. The purpose of DEC's Community 

Air Screen program is to conduct air quality surveillance at the community-level with the help of 

local community groups and interested citizens. 

DEC will provide the sampling equipment, train people on how to use the equipment and work 

with the community to determine the best location and time period for sampling. All air sampling 

equipment will be returned to the DEC offices in Albany for analysis of the samples and 

interpretation of the results. 

The deadline for application was May 24, 2012 and applicants were notified of the selection June 

25, 2012. Of the 42 applications received, 23 applications were selected statewide covering 

locations in the following counties: Suffolk, Queens, Kings, Ulster, Dutchess, Albany, Warren, 

St. Lawerence & Franklin, Onondaga, Ontario & Seneca, Niagara, and Erie. In 2012, 29 samples 

from nine community groups were collected and analyzed. Sampling for 14 groups is scheduled 

for 2013. In addition, two follow-up samples will be obtained as a result of findings in the 2012 

sampling effort. Additional information is available on the DEC website: 

http://www.dec.ny.gov/public/81629.html . 

BAQS staff also carried out canister sampling for VOCs in communities that were not part of 

this study due to environmental and public health concerns. Various duration samples such as 
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grab, 1-hr, as well as 24-hr were obtained and analyzed by our laboratory. Areas studied 

included Throgs Neck, Attica, and Camillus. 

8.2.4 Airport Lead Monitoring 

Under the 2011 lead rule monitoring is required for a minimum of one year at 15 additional 

airports that have been identified as having characteristics that could lead to ambient lead 

concentrations approaching or exceeding the lead NAAQS. Brookhaven (36-103-0024) and 

Republic (36-103-0005) airports in Suffolk County, New York have been designated as such. A 

12-month monitoring study at Brookhaven Airport concluded in October, 2012 and all data were 

submitted to AQS. The Republic Airport monitoring did not start until October, 2012 due to 

protracted site lease negotiations. 

8.2.5 Peace Bridge Air Quality Study 

Partnering with the Buffalo and Fort Erie Public Bridge Authority (PBA), Bureau staff initiated 

an air quality study in the vicinity of the Peace Bridge in August, 2012. Two monitoring sites, 

one upwind (Front Park) and the other downwind (Busti Ave), were established for the 

measurement of fine particulate matter, elemental sulfur, metals, and black carbon. A 

meteorological station was also installed at the Busti Ave site. A six-month monitoring effort 

was concluded prior to the construction of the Plaza to establish baseline levels. A second sixmonth campaign will be carried out after the construction is completed. 

8.2.6 Hurricane Sandy Clean-up Activities Monitoring 

In response to air quality concerns in Hurricane Sandy recovery areas (lower Hudson Valley, 

New York City and Long Island), BAQS Albany and Region 2 staff established supplemental 

monitoring sites for continuous monitoring for PM2.5 beginning in November, 2012. Initially 

EPA provided 3 MetOne EBAM nephelometers that were installed at Mill Basin, Rockaway 

Beach, and Gerritsen Beach. Subsequently three more sites were added using DEC continuous 

gravimetric PM2.5 monitors (TEOM) at Lower Manhatten, Rockaway PS 114, and Midland 

Beach. Except for the Midland Beach site in Staten Island, monitoring at all other sites has been 

suspended as recovery activities have concluded. 

8.3 Proposed Changes at Existing Sites

As part of the new requirements specified in the revised Monitoring Regulations Parts 53 and 58, 

a network assessment was performed to determine ―if the network meets the monitoring 

objectives defined in appendix D to this part, whether new sites are needed, whether existing 

sites are no longer needed and can be terminated, and whether new technologies are appropriate 

for incorporation into the ambient air monitoring network.‖ As a result of this exercise, 

NYSDEC is proposing the following modifications to the existing network. 
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8.3.1 PS 19 

Discontinue redundant PM10 monitoring as there is already a monitor at the Division Street site. 

In January, 2013 DEC submitted to EPA requesting that clean data finding for New York County 

for the 1987 PM10 NAAQS be made. Data have demonstrated that New York County was in 

attainment of the PM10 NAAQS when EPA designated it as nonattainment in 1994, and has 

never had an exceedance of the NAAQS since being so designated.