U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Street

Prostitution

by

Michael S. Scott

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

No. 2

Street Prostitution

Michael S. Scott

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-

CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions

contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not

necessarily represent the official position of the U.S.

Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

Guide No. 2

About the Guide Series i

About the Guide Series

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific

crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to

investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The

guides are written for police–of whatever rank or assignment–

who must address the specific problem the guides cover. The

guides will be most useful to officers who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the

problem, and means to assess the results of a problemoriented policing project. They are designed to help police

decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have

already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced

as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also

published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For

those who want to learn more about the principles and

methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and

analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are

listed at the back of this guide.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is

most likely to work in your community. You should not

blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must

decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.

What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what

works in one place may not work everywhere.
ii Street Prostitution

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

The guides describe responses that other police

departments have used or that researchers have tested.

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you

cannot implement some of these responses in your

jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when

police have discovered a more effective response, they have

succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving

the response to the problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is

available to the police; for other problems, little is available.

Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing

research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more

research on that particular problem. Regardless, research

has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you

might have about the problem. The research may help get

you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot

tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the

particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of

keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant

research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed

to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed

and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of

each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a

complete bibliography of research on the subject.

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.

They must frequently implement them in partnership with

other responsible private and public entities. An effective

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine
About the Guide Series iii

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest

considerable effort in making these partnerships work.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders

of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may

have effectively addressed a problem using responses not

considered in these guides and your experiences and

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to

cops_pub@usdoj.gov.

Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author,

other project team members, COPS Office staff and

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by

proposing text, recommending research and offering

suggestions on matters of format and style.

The principal project team developing the guide series

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University

of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of

criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate

professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati;

Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana

Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State

University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy

coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne

Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was

conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers

University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela

Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff.

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line

police officers, police executives and researchers who peer

reviewed each guide.

Contents

About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Street Prostitutes' Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Pimps and Panderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Links Between Street Prostitution and Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Police and Community Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Street Prostitutes' Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Pimps and Panderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Drug Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Current Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Contents vii
viii Street Prostitution

Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

General Principles for an Effective Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Using Special Responses To Deter Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Using Special Responses To Deter Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Helping Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Changing the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Responses With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The Problem of Street Prostitution 1

The Problem of Street Prostitution

This guide deals with the problem of street prostitution,

focusing on female prostitutes and male clients. There are

widely different perspectives on prostitution. Some view the

prostitutes as primarily responsible for the problem; some

view the clients as responsible, and the prostitutes as victims.

Others view prostitution as a private matter in which the state

should not intervene. Community morals and beliefs about

how the law should regulate morality will affect how any

particular community addresses street prostitution. This guide

does not adopt any particular moral perspective: It is intended

to objectively inform you about the effectiveness and

consequences of various approaches to controlling street

prostitution. Before discussing response options, a general

understanding of the problem is presented.†

Street prostitution varies with the type of prostitutes involved

and their commitment to prostitution, the market size, the

community's tolerance levels, the degree to which prostitutes

are organized, and the relationship of prostitution to drug use

and trafficking. Street prostitution accounts for perhaps only

10 to 20 percent of all prostitution, but it has the most visible

negative impact on the community.

Among the many reasons why the police should be concerned

about street prostitution are:

Moral concerns

• Prostitution offends some citizens' moral standards.

• Prostitution is a nuisance to passersby and to nearby

residents and businesses.

• Prostitutes and clients offend uninvolved people in the area

when they solicit them.

† The information presented in this

section is drawn from many sources,

not all of which are cited. Among

the sources most heavily relied upon

are Benson & Matthews (1995),

Cohen (1980), Matthews (1993), May,

Edmunds and Hough (1999), Sterk

and Elifson (1990), van Gelder and

Kaplan (1992), Weidner (1999) and

Weitzer (2000).
2 Street Prostitution

• Juveniles, who are less capable of making informed choices,

may become prostitutes.

Public health concerns

• Prostitutes and clients may spread sexually transmitted

diseases such as syphilis, herpes and AIDS.†

• Used condoms, syringes and other paraphernalia left on the

ground are unsightly and potentially hazardous.

• Prostitutes who do not have access to proper facilities may

urinate, defecate or bathe in public.

Personal safety concerns

• Clients may harm prostitutes.

• Clients may be assaulted, robbed or defrauded.

• Pimps may financially and physically exploit prostitutes.

† Contrary to popular belief,

prostitution has not been

demonstrated to be a primary means

of HIV transmission, at least not in

the United States, largely because

most street prostitution sex acts are

oral rather than vaginal (oral

transmission is less likely), most

prostitutes insist that clients use

condoms (less true of drugdependent prostitutes), and

transmission is more difficult from

female to male. Of course, fear of

contracting HIV has likely changed

the sex practices of some prostitutes

and clients. HIV transmission among

prostitutes is more likely to occur

from sharing needles for drug

injections (Weitzer 2000).

Used condoms and syringes commonly found on the ground in street

prostitution areas are unsightly and potentially hazardous.

Bob Heimberger
The Problem of Street Prostitution 3

Spillover effect concerns

• Street prostitution and street drug markets are often linked.

• Prostitution may provide the seedbed for organized crime.

• Prostitutes create parking and traffic problems where they

congregate.

• Prostitution attracts strangers and criminals to a

neighborhood.

Economic concerns

• Legitimate businesses may lose customers who avoid the

area because of prostitution.

• The presence of prostitutes may negatively affect the area

economy, reducing property values and limiting property

use.

Civil rights concerns

• Prostitutes, as citizens, have rights that need to be

protected.1

Related Problems

Street prostitution is only one of a number of problems

related to commercialized sex or sex in public places that the

police must address. Related problems that call for their own

analysis and responses include:

• consensual, unpaid sex in public places, including meeting

places for anonymous sex among homosexuals;

• homosexual prostitution, also known as "hustling" (young

homosexual prostitution is also known as the "chicken

hawk trade");
4 Street Prostitution

• illegal immigration and forced prostitution (international

trafficking in women and girls);

• juvenile runaways who are drawn into prostitution;

• organized crime connections to prostitution;

• prostitution at truck stops or motels;

• prostitution through call girls, escort services, Internet

listings, and massage parlors, and at bars, hotels and

conventions;

• serial murders of prostitutes;

• solicitation by leaving calling cards in conspicuous public

places (e.g., phone booths);

• strip clubs in which strippers also engage in prostitution;

and

• transvestite prostitution.

Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution

Understanding the factors that are known to contribute to

your problem will help you frame your own local analysis

questions, determine good effectiveness measures, recognize

key points of intervention and select an appropriate set of

responses for your particular problem. The literature on street

prostitution provides a general picture of street prostitutes,

clients, pimps, the sexual transactions, areas where street

prostitution thrives, and the link between street prostitution

and drugs.

Street Prostitutes

Street prostitutes have lower status than prostitutes who work

indoors. They are often in some state of personal decline (e.g.,

running away from abusive situations, becoming drug-
The Problem of Street Prostitution 5

dependent, deteriorating psychologically, and/or getting less

physically attractive).2 Most have social, economic and health

problems. Most first turn to prostitution at a young age, often

before they are 18.

Street prostitutes are not equally committed to prostitution:

Some are deeply committed for financial and lifestyle reasons;

some are committed only due to drug dependency; and some

are weakly committed, engaging in prostitution because it is

the easiest way for them to make some money.

The typical street prostitute works six to eight hours a day,

five to six days a week, and has three to five clients a night.3

Street prostitutes' lives are organized principally around

prostitution itself, and around maneuvering through the legal

system. It is a cycle of engaging in prostitution, getting

arrested, going to jail, paying fines, and returning to the street.

Some street prostitutes are highly mobile, traveling from one

city to another, sometimes on a regular circuit, or when they

think the risks are too high in one city or the money is better

in another.

Although most sexual encounters do not involve violence,

most street prostitutes report having been criminally assaulted

at least once by clients. A small percentage of clients are likely

responsible for most of the violence committed against

prostitutes. The pattern of violence in pimp-prostitute

relationships is similar to that of domestic violence.

Prostitutes do not report most assaults to the police because

they either fear retaliation by pimps or believe the police will

not take the matter seriously, or will charge them for

soliciting.
6 Street Prostitution

Street Prostitutes' Clients

Prostitution clients, typically referred to as "johns" or "tricks,"

are attracted to the illicit nature of the encounter, desire

varieties of sex that regular partners do not provide, view sex

as merely a commodity, and/or lack interest in or access to

conventional relationships. Clients' decision to solicit a

prostitute is influenced by the availability of prostitutes,

knowledge of where to find them, access to money, perceived

risk of getting caught or contracting disease, and ease of

securing services. Clients gather such information in a variety

of ways: from trial and error; from personal

recommendations from others (including friends, bartenders,

taxi drivers, and hotel workers); and, increasingly, from

information posted on Internet websites.

Somewhere around 10 to 20 percent of men admit they have

paid for sex, but only about 1 percent pay for sex regularly.4

While this is still a large number of potential clients, it is

considerably lower than some earlier estimates based on

flawed research methods.

Clients are more easily deterred than prostitutes. They are

more readily ashamed of their behavior, and fear harming

their public reputation or their standing in their personal lives.

Consequently, they fear being identified publicly more than

being fined for their conduct.

Pimps and Panderers

There is relatively little research knowledge about pimps and

other panderers.† It is unclear what percentage of street

† Two notable exceptions are

Hodgson (1997), who describes in

detail the nature of the pimpprostitute relationship and how

pimps exercise control, and May,

Harocopos and Hough (2000) who

examine the pimp-prostitute

relationship in the U.K. and effective

ways to police pimps.
The Problem of Street Prostitution 7

prostitutes have pimps; prostitutes are reluctant to talk to

anyone about their pimps, and it is difficult for police to make

cases against pimps. Pimps recruit and socialize prostitutes

into the prostitution subculture by appealing to either their

desire for money or their desire for what they believe will be a

glamorous and exciting lifestyle. Pimps seldom procure clients

for prostitutes, because clients do not typically want to

associate with anyone other than the prostitute. Pimps do not

offer prostitutes much protection against violence by clients,

but do offer them protection against assault by other pimps.

Pimps use violence and drug dependency as means to control

prostitutes. By some estimates, pimps take 60 to 70 percent of

prostitutes' earnings.

Sexual Transactions

The prices for sex acts vary a little from community to

community. Depending on how desperate the prostitutes are

for money, they typically charge $20 to $50 for oral sex, and

$50 to $100 for sexual intercourse. Among crack-addicted

prostitutes, the price can be as low as the market price for a

single rock of crack cocaine. The typical sexual transaction

takes around 10 minutes in a vehicle (usually oral sex), and

around 25 minutes indoors.

Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists

Street prostitution markets go through stages of

development–they emerge, expand, stabilize, and disappear.5

Sometimes they emerge by accident, when a few prostitutes

happen upon a new location; sometimes they emerge because

of changes in an area's traffic or commercial patterns (e.g.,

new roadways or new businesses such as adult entertainment

establishments); and sometimes they emerge because police
8 Street Prostitution

enforcement displaced them. It is important that an area be

known for street prostitution so clients will know where to

look.

Street prostitution is more prevalent in run-down

neighborhoods. Those that are populated heavily by

unattached males are more vulnerable to street prostitution

than those with a lot of women, families or elderly residents,

because the likelihood of vocal community opposition is

lower. For street prostitution to thrive, the surrounding

neighborhood cannot be too crime-ridden or appear too

threatening to potential clients. Consequently, it is often found

in areas that are marginal or in transition, rather than in

thoroughly blighted areas. However, the emergence of street

prostitution will almost certainly speed up the decline.

Neighborhood redevelopment or gentrification frequently

prompts strong community opposition to street prostitution,

and clearly drives much of the pressure on the police to

control it.

Street prostitution areas are typically small, less than a square

mile. Larger cities usually have several such areas. They are

typically industrial, declining residential, near major

thoroughfares (including tunnels, bridges or airport access

roads), or near transportation hubs such as train and bus

stations. Street prostitution flourishes around convention

centers and hotels, especially when mostly male conventions

are held.

Street prostitution thrives in areas where it does not conflict

with legitimate business, but rather, supports and is supported

by that business. The following foster street prostitution:

• places where sexual transactions can occur, such as cheap

motels and hotels, dimly lit parking lots, alleys, and

abandoned buildings;
The Problem of Street Prostitution 9

• places where prostitutes can take a break, such as coffee

shops or bars;

• places near a street drug market, so prostitutes and clients

can readily buy drugs;

• places offering escape avenues from the police and

dangerous clients; and

• roads that allow drivers to slow down or stop, ideally where

the driver's side of the vehicle is closest to the curb.

Street prostitution often thrives in areas where there are cheap motels

and hotels.

Bob Heimberger

Street prostitution thrives along roads where prostitutes can talk to

drivers from the curbside.

Bob Morris
10 Street Prostitution

Links Between Street Prostitution and Drugs

Street prostitution and street drug markets are often closely

linked, supporting and reinforcing one another.6 Many street

prostitutes use illegal drugs, mainly cocaine or heroin, or both.

Many female serious drug users turn to prostitution at some

point to finance their habit. Some prostitutes develop drug

habits before turning to prostitution, while others start using

drugs as part of the street prostitution lifestyle.

Crack cocaine markets drive down the price of street

prostitution, as prostitutes, desperate to buy drugs, sell sex

cheaply. Other prostitutes resent them for driving down prices

or permitting sex without condoms, and pimps punish them

for withholding their earnings to buy drugs. Drug-dependent

prostitutes are more vulnerable to violence and more likely to

rob their clients. In summary, where crack cocaine and street

prostitution are linked, street prostitution becomes less

predictable and more dangerous.
Understanding Your Local Problem 11

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized

description of street prostitution. You must combine the

basic facts with a more specific understanding of your local

problem. Analyzing the local problem carefully will help you

design a more effective response strategy.

Asking the Right Questions

The following are some critical questions you should ask in

analyzing your particular problem of street prostitution, even

if the answers are not always readily available. Your answers

to these and other questions will help you choose the most

appropriate set of responses later on.

Police and Community Members

• How concerned is the police department about street

prostitution? How concerned is the community? What

groups are particularly concerned and why? What specific

concerns are expressed?

• How organized and active are community members who

oppose street prostitution? What level of street prostitution

are they willing to tolerate?

Street Prostitutes

• Does street prostitution take only one form (e.g., female

prostitutes and male clients), or are there several different

forms (e.g., homosexual or transvestite prostitution)?

• What is known about the prostitutes (e.g., age, gender, race,

criminal history, social service history, substance abuse

history, residence)?

• Do street prostitutes commit crimes against clients (e.g.,

robbery or theft)? Are street prostitutes the victims of

crime?
12 Street Prostitution

• How committed are prostitutes to prostitution? How

committed are they to a particular location?

Street Prostitutes' Clients

• What is known about the clients (e.g., age, race, occupation,

socio-economic status, marital status, criminal history,

residence)?

• How committed are clients to prostitution? How

committed are they to soliciting prostitutes on the street or

in a particular area? 

Pimps and Panderers

• Do the prostitutes work for pimps or others who profit

from their income?

Sexual Transactions

• How, specifically, do street prostitutes and clients negotiate

and complete sexual transactions? Do clients solicit

prostitutes on foot or from a vehicle? Where do the sexual

transactions take place?

• Do prostitutes and clients take precautions to prevent

sexually-transmitted disease?

Environment

• Does street prostitution take place in more than one area?

What conditions make the area(s) attractive for street

prostitution? If street prostitution occurs in several areas,

how are they similar and different?

• What area businesses are harmed by the presence of street

prostitution?

• What area businesses support and/or benefit from street

prostitution?
Understanding Your Local Problem 13

• Is the street prostitution market in each area old or new?

Has it changed in size recently? If so, why?

• Do street prostitution areas have a reputation as being

dangerous or safe for clients?

• Are street prostitution areas isolated, or busy with other

activities?

• What other types of crime occur in the area? How much is

related to street prostitution?

• If street prostitution were forced out of a target area,

where would you predict it might reappear?

Drug Links

• To what extent are street prostitutes, clients and pimps

engaged in the sale or use of drugs?

• Are street prostitution and street drug markets near each

other?

• Do street prostitutes exchange sex directly for drugs?

Current Response

• What is the police department's current policy in dealing

with street prostitution? What is the prosecutor's current

policy regarding prostitution-related offenses? What are the

typical sentences handed out to those who are convicted?

Do the prostitutes and clients complete those sentences?

What effect, if any, does the imposition of a sentence have

on subsequent involvement in prostitution?

• What responses do police officers use, other than arrest and

prosecution? Are any of these responses especially

effective?

• What social, health and substance abuse treatment services

are available to assist prostitutes? Are prostitutes using

available services?
14 Street Prostitution

Measuring Your Effectiveness

Measurement allows you to determine to what degree your

efforts have succeeded and suggests how you might modify

your responses if they are not producing the intended

results.You should take measures of your problem before you

implement responses to determine how serious the problem

is, and after you implement them to determine whether they

have been effective. For more detailed guidance on measuring

effectiveness, see the companion guide to this series, Assessing

Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police ProblemSolvers. The following are potentially useful measures of the

effectiveness of responses to street prostitution:

• number of citizen complaints about street prostitution;

• number of prostitutes visible on the streets at particular

times;

• difficulty decoy officers have trying to negotiate acts of

prostitution;

• arrests of repeat offenders (both prostitutes and clients);

• traffic congestion in areas where curb-crawling (or "kerbcrawling," in the United Kingdom) is a problem;

• volume of discarded condoms, syringes and other

prostitution-related paraphernalia; and

• total reported crime in target areas compared to control

areas (keeping in mind that changes may be due to other

factors and reported crime does not always correlate with

actual crime).
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 15

Responses to the Problem of Street

Prostitution

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better

understanding of the factors that are contributing to the

problem. Once you have analyzed your local problem and

established a baseline for measuring effectiveness, you should

consider possible responses to address the problem. The

following response strategies provide a foundation of ideas

for addressing your particular problem. These strategies are

drawn from a variety of research studies and police reports.

Several of these strategies may apply to the particular problem

in your community. It is critical that you tailor responses to

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy

will involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering

what police can do to better address the problem: give careful

consideration to who else in your community shares

responsibility for the problem and can help police better

respond to it.

General Principles for an Effective Strategy

You should consider a few general principles when developing

your response strategy. Which particular responses you adopt

should depend on what you learn from a careful analysis of

your local problem. Strategies that exclusively focus on

arresting prostitutes are unlikely to be effective.7 Strategies

that seek to reduce the harms caused by street prostitution

rather than those that seek to eliminate prostitution altogether

are more likely to work. At a minimum, both prostitutes' and

clients' conduct should be addressed. An effective strategy not

only must force prostitutes off the streets and get them to
16 Street Prostitution

stop their offensive behavior, but also must give them viable

alternatives: either to get out of prostitution altogether, or to

operate in less offensive locations, times or ways. This usually

requires greater cooperation between the police and various

service organizations.8

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients

1. Enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing

and loitering for the purposes of prostitution. The

main strategy police use to control street prostitution is

enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing and

loitering for the purposes of prostitution. Street

prostitutes can be valuable informants to police about

other crimes, and the threat of enforcement gives the

police leverage for information. In some jurisdictions,

controlling street prostitution is left to the vice squad.

Limiting patrol officers' involvement is intended to reduce

corruption, but it can give the public the impression that

only corrupt officers would ignore the problem.

Historically, the police have arrested far more prostitutes

than clients, although some police agencies have shifted

toward a more balanced enforcement strategy, targeting

clients as well as prostitutes. To promote a consistent

response and improve the chances for successful

prosecutions, police agencies should prepare written

guidelines to govern how and under what circumstances

they will enforce prostitution laws.

Enforcement strategies are expensive; each arrest costs

thousands of dollars to process. By themselves, they are

ineffective at either controlling street prostitution or

protecting prostitutes from harm.9 Increased police

enforcement temporarily reduces the number of

prostitutes on the street, but they usually reappear in new

areas. This may actually increase street prostitution in the
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 17

long term by creating new opportunities for prostitutes

and potential clients to meet. While the severity of the

penalties against prostitutes does appear to affect the

volume of prostitution, modest fines against prostitutes

may actually force them to commit more prostitution to

pay the fines. Prostitutes who are prosecuted are usually

convicted, but many of them fail to show up for court

hearings. Most prostitutes consider the costs of being

arrested as a business expense and an inconvenience, and

not as a significant deterrent.

1a. Enforcing laws prohibiting prostitution and the

solicitation thereof. Enforcing laws prohibiting

prostitution usually requires undercover police officers to

pose as clients to gather the necessary evidence, which

can be difficult to obtain from street-savvy prostitutes.†

Enforcing prostitution laws against clients typically

requires the police to pose as prostitutes to obtain

evidence. Some police agencies still do not have enough

female officers to conduct effective solicitation

enforcement campaigns. Moreover, decoy arrests of

clients are open to legal entrapment defenses if officers

are not careful.

1b. Enforcing laws prohibiting conduct associated with

prostitution and the solicitation thereof. Many

jurisdictions have enacted laws that prohibit conduct

associated with prostitution and the solicitation thereof,

such as loitering for the purposes of prostitution,

loitering in search of a prostitute, and curb-crawling.

These laws are designed to allow the police to charge

prostitutes and clients without having to prove there was

a proposed or actual exchange of money for sex. Charges

of loitering for the purposes of prostitution are difficult

to prove in some jurisdictions, so even if arrest rates are

high, prosecutions may not be.

† The particular statutory and

evidentiary requirements vary across

jurisdictions. U.K. police do not use

this strategy because neither

prostitution itself nor proposing the

exchange of sex for money is illegal.

Prostitutes use a variety of methods

to determine if a prospective client is

an undercover police officer,

including exposing themselves or

asking the client/officer to expose

himself. The city of St. Petersburg,

Fla., passed an ordinance that

specifically mentioned prostitutes'

efforts to identify police officers as

among the behaviors that constitute a

"verified pattern of solicitation

activity."
18 Street Prostitution

1c. Intensively enforcing prostitution laws against

prostitutes and/or clients for short periods. In

addition to routinely enforcing prostitution laws, the

police often conduct intensive arrest campaigns against

prostitutes, clients or both. These campaigns significantly

increase the risks of arrest, at least temporarily, bringing

large numbers of prostitutes and clients into the formal

justice system. When combined with media coverage, the

campaigns are intended to deter those arrested from

offending again, and to deter potential clients. The

campaigns' deterrent value wears off after time, however.

In high-volume arrest campaigns, the chances that police

will arrest innocent people increase, unless they take

special precautions. Without some follow-up court

intervention or measures to change the environment,

intensive enforcement campaigns only temporarily

interrupt street prostitution, or move it elsewhere; they do

not shut down a street prostitution market entirely.

2. Establishing a highly visible police presence. A highly

visible police presence, typically with extra uniformed

officers, is intended to discourage area street prostitution.

Extra police presence is expensive, of course, and is

effective only if the police follow it up with more

permanent strategies. It can also create the perception

that the area is unsafe. Alternative methods to establish a

police presence are to open a police station (e.g., a

storefront office, mobile office or kiosk) in the area, or

affix antiprostitution warning signs to police vehicles

patrolling the area. Private security forces might also be

deployed to supplement a police presence.

3. Relaxing the regulation of indoor prostitution

venues. Whether changes in enforcement levels against

indoor prostitution venues (e.g., massage parlors, call girls,

bar girls, and escort services) will affect street prostitution
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 19

depends on how easily prostitutes can move back and

forth between the streets and indoors. The conventional

wisdom is that there is little movement between them.

But, within limits, prostitutes do have some mobility. The

laws related to indoor prostitution are likely to affect the

degree of mobility (it is legal in the United Kingdom, and

illegal in the United States). Prostitutes who work indoors

seem able to work on the streets when they have to more

easily than street prostitutes can move indoors.10 Relaxing

the regulation of indoor prostitution may be perceived as

condoning prostitution.

4. Enhancing fines/penalties for prostitution-related

offenses committed within specified high-activity

zones. Some communities have enhanced penalties for

prostitution-related offenses committed within specific

geographic areas. These penalty enhancements are

intended to move the street prostitution market to other

locations so the target area can be redeveloped. You

should be careful that the problem is not displaced to

areas where the impact will be even worse.

5. Banning prostitutes or clients from geographic areas.

Many courts order prostitutes and clients to stay out of

specifically defined areas where street prostitution is

prevalent, as a condition of either bail or probation.11

This practice is commonly referred to as "mapping"

offenders out of areas. This practice may, however,

displace prostitutes to more remote areas outside the

prohibited zone, areas which may prove more hazardous

to the prostitutes.
20 Street Prostitution

6. Imposing community service sentences in lieu of

incarceration or fines. Community service sanctions,

when properly monitored and enforced, have been shown

to be more effective than jail time or fines alone.12

7. Encouraging community members to publicly

protest against prostitutes or clients. Direct

community activism in the form of organized marches,

rallies or confrontations of prostitutes and clients has

proved effective in disrupting and moving street

prostitution markets.13 This response is intended to

intimidate prostitutes and clients, and to demonstrate the

community's resolve against street prostitution. You must

guard against overzealous community conduct that

violates prostitutes' rights.

8. Educating and warning high-risk prostitute and

client populations. Working with other institutions, you

can target education and warning messages to groups

especially likely to become involved in prostitution, as

either prostitutes or clients.

Certain groups are especially vulnerable to being recruited

or drawn to street prostitution, among them juvenile

offenders, juvenile runaways and juveniles in group

homes (residential custody). Young people who are at

high risk for being recruited into prostitution usually have

multiple critical social and psychological problems that

require attention if they are to be kept out of

prostitution.

Among the high-risk client groups are male

conventioneers, male soldiers and previously arrested

clients. The education and warning information can be

conveyed through letters, lectures, video presentations,

billboards, warning signs, or media outlets. A growing
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 21

number of jurisdictions have established court-ordered

education programs for convicted clients. These so-called

"john schools" confront prostitution clients about the

consequences of their behavior. They usually include

information about the legal and health consequences for

clients, the impact of street prostitution on the

community, and the negative effects of prostitution on

prostitutes. Recidivism rates for clients who participate in

court-ordered education programs are low (around 2% to

7%).14 It is less clear what added deterrent value there is

in the education program beyond what is achieved by any

official intervention, from a warning to an arrest.

Using Special Responses to Deter Prostitutes

9. Identifying and targeting the worst offenders. A small

percentage of prostitutes and pimps may be responsible

for most of the complaints in a prostitution area. If you

can establish this, you might more productively target

your efforts at those few, rather than at the larger

population of offenders. Bob Heimberger

Habitual street prostitutes are usually well-known to

police vice units.
22 Street Prostitution

10. Serving restraining orders/civil injunctions against

habitual prostitutes. In several jurisdictions, the police

have coordinated with merchants whose business is

negatively affected by street prostitution to obtain

restraining orders against prostitutes, prohibiting them

from engaging in specific behavior within a specific area.15

In San Bernardino, Calif. certain existing municipal codes

have been incorporated into court-ordered civil

injunctions against known prostitutes (see box below).

The specific prohibitions mentioned in a San Bernardino, Calif., restraining

order are:

• approaching or signaling to any vehicle in any street, alley or other public

passage area, thus causing the vehicle to stop, unless a legitimate emergency

so requires;

• blocking the passage of any person or vehicle in any street, walkway,

sidewalk, driveway, alley, or other public passage area;

• being on, or causing others to be on, private property, except (1) with the

property owner's prior written consent, or (2) in the property owner's

presence and with his or her voluntary consent;

• being on the premises of an uninhabited or abandoned building;

• making, causing or encouraging others to violate noise restrictions;

• fighting in public or any place open to public view or hearing;

• drinking any alcoholic beverage in public or any place open to public view;

• urinating or defecating in public or any place open to public view;

• littering, including discarding cans, bottles, cigarettes, condoms, or

hypodermic needles other than in a proper waste receptacle;

• damaging or vandalizing another's property, including any light fixture,

fence, gate, wall, or window;

• applying graffiti to any public or private property, including any building,

fence, wall, garage door, street sign, tree, pole, or vehicle;

• congregating in any public place for the purpose of engaging in any

conduct prohibited by this injunction, or any criminal activity; and

• intimidating, provoking, harassing, challenging, or carrying out any acts of

retaliation, including, but not limited to, using abusive or vulgar language to

harass any person (San Bernardino Police Department 1999).
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 23

Violations of the restraining orders result in jail time and

fines that exceed the usual penalties. You should consult

with legal counsel about the requirements for obtaining

restraining orders. It may also take a lot of time and

effort to obtain the documentation necessary for a

restraining order.

11. Mediating conflicts between prostitutes and the

community. While negotiating with offenders is not

common for the police, street prostitutes have responded

positively in several communities where the police and

community have requested that they stay away from

certain areas or reduce their nuisance behavior in

exchange for some tolerance.16 In one Vancouver

community, community groups posted signs and maps

requesting that prostitutes stay out of certain areas.17

Obviously, it can be difficult to get prostitutes to comply

with agreements.

12. Suspending or revoking government aid to

prostitutes. Many street prostitutes receive government

aid in one form or another (e.g., for housing, dependent

children, unemployment insurance, and/or disability), but

would not qualify for such if they reported their

prostitution income. You might share arrest and

intelligence information with government agencies

providing the aid.18 The threat of losing government aid

might compel some prostitutes to quit. For this approach

to be viable, adequate social services must be available to

help them do so. You should take care not to unduly

harm any dependent children.
24 Street Prostitution

13. Imposing curfews on prostitutes. Curfews can be

imposed on prostitutes as a condition of either bail or

probation. The purpose is to deny prostitutes the

opportunity to work during the hours of peak demand.

To be effective, police or corrections officials must

monitor and enforce the curfews.

Using Special Responses To Deter Clients 

Clients are generally more easily deterred than prostitutes.19

Almost any form of official or community intervention in

clients' behavior is sufficient to deter most clients from

patronizing street prostitutes, at least at a particular location.

This offers some justification for focusing responses on

clients. However, since there are many more potential clients

than street prostitutes, deterring individual clients does not

necessarily reduce the overall demand for street prostitution.20

To deter potential clients, they must believe there is a high

likelihood they will be caught and publicly identified.

14. Exposing clients to publicity. Community groups have

organized to expose prostitution clients' identity to either

the general public or the clients' families or employers.

This can be done by photographing or videotaping

clients, calling clients' families or employers, writing down

license plate numbers of vehicles seen driving around

prostitution strips, mailing warning letters or postcards to

registered vehicle owners, or posting clients' names or

photographs on street posts, billboards, telephone hotline

fliers, and Internet sites. Some police agencies have sent

official letters or postcards warning prostitution clients

about the legal and health consequences of patronizing

prostitutes.21 In some instances, they send these warnings
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 25

only to those arrested for soliciting prostitutes; in other

instances, they send them to the registered owners of

suspicious vehicles seen driving through street

prostitution areas. In some areas, police use closed-circuit

TV cameras to discourage potential clients from hanging

around.22

Some police agencies and local governments have

publicized the names and photographs of clients who are

either arrested for and/or convicted of prostitutionrelated offenses.† The names and photographs may

appear on television, in newspapers or on Internet

websites. Many media outlets, however, refuse to

participate, deeming it unnewsworthy and not wanting to

appear to be an agent of the government. Some local

governments have purchased advertising space to publish

the information. There should be safeguards so that

innocent persons are not unfairly accused or implicated in

illegal activity.

15. Notifying those with influence over clients' conduct.

Employers, schools, the military, convention organizers,

and other individuals or groups often exert significant

informal influence over prostitution clients' conduct. You

can leverage this influence by seeking such third parties'

cooperation to discipline clients who come to police

attention. This strategy is not intended merely to shame

clients, but rather, to change their behavior through

disciplinary systems outside the formal justice system.

Keep in mind that some forms of discipline, such as

employment termination, can be severe.

† See Persons (1996) for a

thorough discussion of the

effectiveness and legality of

publicizing prostitution clients'

names.
26 Street Prostitution

16. Restricting clients' ability to drive. The city of

Portland, Ore., is widely credited for pioneering the use of

vehicle forfeiture laws against prostitution clients. In

Portland, most vehicles were returned to the owners

under deferred prosecution arrangements, with low levels

(about 1%) of clients reoffending.23 Some jurisdictions

have passed laws that allow judges to suspend or revoke

the driving privileges of those convicted of patronizing

prostitution.24 This approach is intended to deter both

potential clients and those who regularly search for, and

have sexual transactions with, prostitutes in cars. Many

drivers continue to drive without valid licenses, however,

so some enforcement will likely be necessary.

Helping Prostitutes

17. Helping prostitutes to quit. Street prostitutes typically

need help if they are to quit prostitution. They often need

drug and alcohol treatment, mental health treatment,

transitional housing, case management, peer

support/mentoring, child care, job training, health care,

confidential HIV testing, psychological counseling,

transportation, self-defense training, legal aid, and

employment assistance. Some communities offer a

service-and-support network through either precharge or

postcharge diversion programs, and some even offer

these programs on the street, with no formal connection

to the criminal justice system.25 Although these programs

do not necessarily persuade many prostitutes to quit, they

seem essential for those who are motivated to do so, and

they can be effective in reducing some of the risks to

street prostitutes, such as sexually transmitted disease and

assault.26
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 27

18. Encouraging prostitutes to report serious offenses to

the police. Police in some jurisdictions work hard to

develop a good rapport with street prostitutes to persuade

them to report juvenile prostitutes, violent clients, client

robbery, etc., and to give evidence against pimps.

Prostitutes who assist the police may require extra

protection because they risk violent retaliation.

19. Distributing information about known dangerous

clients to prostitutes. Police in some jurisdictions

distribute so-called "bad dates" lists to street prostitutes,

warning them to stay away from clients who are known to

assault prostitutes. Some people may view this as

condoning prostitution, however.

Changing the Environment

20. Closing streets and alleys, diverting traffic or

regulating parking. Traffic flow and patterns influence

potential clients' perceptions about their chances of

negotiating a transaction and their risks of getting caught.

Traffic-related factors are especially significant where sex

acts take place in vehicles. Many clients stop to solicit

prostitutes while on their way somewhere else–commonly

to or home from work. Responses that make it more

difficult or risky for clients to negotiate a transaction will

either discourage them from soliciting street prostitutes or

encourage them to seek prostitutes in indoor venues.27

Under some circumstances, the traffic changes may lock

the problem into an area rather than force it out. You

should also be careful that any traffic changes do not

cause undue harm to legitimate commerce in the area.
28 Street Prostitution

21. Enforcing zoning, nuisance abatement and business

license regulations against properties used for

prostitution. As noted previously, street prostitution

markets depend on other businesses to support them.

The police and other enforcement agencies can exert

pressure on those businesses to discourage their support

of street prostitution by enforcing civil laws and business

regulations. Some communities prohibit motels and hotels

from renting rooms for short periods (i.e., at hourly

rates), and require them to record guests' identities

through positive proof of identification, thus

discouraging their use by prostitutes and clients.28 Zoning

regulations that restrict the sorts of businesses that

support street prostitution, such as adult entertainment,

can be effective. Zoning restrictions have been key in the

major redevelopment of Times Square in New York City,

where street prostitution has significantly declined.29 The

police and private parties can file nuisance abatement

actions against businesses that support prostitution. You

should get advice and support from legal counsel to

pursue these options.

22. Warning property owners about the use of their

premises for prostitution. Many property owners

unwittingly support street prostitution because they do

not appreciate how their business practices enable it to

flourish. You can remind them of their legal obligations,

and provide them and their employees with specific

training to help them prevent their properties from being

used for prostitution.30

23. Redeveloping the area economy. Because street

prostitution markets flourish under marginal economic

conditions, economic redevelopment is often necessary to

permanently eliminate street prostitution from the area.
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 29

New businesses emerge to replace those that supported

street prostitution. Economic redevelopment usually

requires a substantial investment of government and

private resources. Street prostitution may be displaced to

even more vulnerable areas.

24. Securing abandoned buildings. Street prostitutes and

clients sometimes use abandoned buildings for sexual

transactions. If demolishing or rehabilitating the buildings

is not feasible, securing them can help reduce street

prostitution and other offenses in the area.31

25. Enhancing lighting. Improved lighting reduces the

attractiveness of certain areas for street prostitution

because it reduces the level of privacy prostitutes and

clients seek to negotiate and complete their transactions.32

Motion-sensitive lighting is useful for secluded areas like

alleys and doorways.

Responses With Limited Effectiveness

26. Conducting sweeps. Sweeps are large-scale arrest

campaigns targeting suspected prostitutes without the

intent to prosecute. Sweeps have long been a police

strategy to control street prostitution, particularly when

they have had few legal alternatives for dealing with the

problem, yet have been pressured to do something about

it. There is little evidence that sweeps are anything other

than temporarily effective at removing prostitutes from

the street, and they do considerable harm to the integrity

of the criminal justice system. It is not uncommon for

police to arrest innocent people during sweeps.
30 Street Prostitution

27. Harassing and intimidating prostitutes. When police

have been placed under intense pressure to control street

prostitution, yet have lacked adequate legal alternatives for

doing so, some have turned to harassing and intimidating

prostitutes, in some instances forcing them to relocate to

another jurisdiction. There is no evidence that this is at all

effective, and it undermines police integrity.

28. Establishing formal or informal red-light districts

where street prostitution is tolerated. In most cases,

the existence of red-light districts has not reduced the

volume of street prostitution, the level of nuisance

complaints or the harm to prostitutes.33 Creating

tolerance zones for street prostitution implies some

official approval. As is true with respect to most vices,

official disapproval has at least a marginal deterrent effect.

In many jurisdictions this response is not viable because

of legal restrictions or public opposition.

29. Legalization and decriminalization of prostitution.

The two most radical responses to street prostitution are

legalization and decriminalization.† Whatever their merits

and drawbacks, neither approach is likely to be politically

feasible in the foreseeable future in the United States,

Canada or the United Kingdom.††

† Legalization implies that the

government will regulate various

aspects of prostitution, just as it

regulates other forms of commerce.

Decriminalization implies no

government regulation.

†† Prostitution itself is not illegal in

either Canada or the United

Kingdom, as it is in most of the

United States, but nearly all forms of

soliciting prostitution on the street

are illegal, so the net effect is

substantially the same–street

prostitution is outlawed. Prostitution

has been legalized in the Netherlands,

but recently criminalized in Sweden.

Some forms of indoor prostitution

have been made legal in Victoria,

Australia, but street prostitution

remains illegal. The legalization of

prostitution in several Nevada

counties has not eliminated the

problems associated with street

prostitution in the cities of Reno and

Las Vegas.
Appendix 31

Appendix: Summary of Responses to

Street Prostitution

The table below summarizes the responses to street

prostitution, the mechanism by which they are intended to

work, the conditions under which they ought to work best,

and some factors you should consider before implementing a

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses to

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy

will involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem.

1.

1a.

16

17

Enforcing laws

prohibiting

soliciting,

patronizing and

loitering for the

purposes of

prostitution

Enforcing laws

prohibiting

prostitution and

the solicitation

thereof

Temporarily

removes

prostitutes and

clients from the

streets 

Temporarily

removes

prostitutes and

clients from the

streets; increases

the costs of

business; deters

arrested clients

from reoffending 

...there are

follow-up

programs to help

prostitutes quit or

switch to indoor

venues, and

enforcement is

combined with

other effective

responses

...a prosecution

will result in

meaningful

sanctions against

the prostitute,

and the pool of

potential clients is

relatively small 

Strategy is

expensive; has

only a short-term

impact; may

increase

prostitution by

displacing the

problem to new

locations, and by

compelling

prostitutes to

work more to pay

fines

Strategy is

expensive;

difficult to obtain

admissible

evidence; jail time

is usually limited

or none;

discourages

prostitutes from

calling police

when they are

victims; creates

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients
32 Street Prostitution

1a. (cont’d)

1b.

1c.

2.

17

18

18

Enforcing laws

prohibiting

conduct

associated with

prostitution and

the solicitation

thereof

Intensively

enforcing

prostitution laws

against prostitutes

and/or clients for

short periods

Establishing a

highly visible

police presence

Deters prostitutes

from soliciting

and clients from

searching for

prostitutes on the

streets, without

requiring proof

of actual sexual

transactions

Temporarily

removes

prostitutes from

the streets; deters

potential clients

from frequenting

the area

Discourages both

prostitutes and

clients from

negotiations

...a prosecution

will result in

meaningful

sanctions against

the prostitute, and

the pool of

potential clients is

relatively small

...there is media

coverage, and the

campaign is

followed by

changes to the

environment

where the street

prostitution

occurs

...followed by

changes to the

environment

where street

prostitution

occurs

additional incentives

to engage in

prostitution to pay

fines; prosecutors

may elect not to

prosecute; the

population of

potential clients is

large enough that

general deterrence

is difficult to

achieve solely by

arrest strategies;

arresting clients

requires a sufficient

number of female

police officers

Legality (courts

have struck down

some such laws for

being either vague

or overly broad);

the population of

potential clients is

large enough that

general deterrence

is difficult to

achieve solely by

arrest strategies

Media coverage can

have the opposite

effect of promoting

prostitution by

advertising the

location of

prostitution strolls 

Labor intensive;

creates the

perception that the

area is unsafe

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations
Appendix 33

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

18

19

19

20

20

Relaxing the

regulation of

indoor

prostitution

venues

Enhancing

fines/penalties

for prostitutionrelated offenses

committed within

specified highactivity zones

Banning

prostitutes or

clients from

geographic areas

Imposing

community

service sentences

in lieu of

incarceration or

fines

Encouraging

community

members to

publicly protest

against prostitutes

or clients

Gives street

prostitutes some

incentive to

relocate to indoor

venues

Displaces the

street prostitution

market from a

particular area

Reduces the

opportunities for

prostitutes and

clients to solicit

and patronize 

Creates

meaningful

consequences for

prostitutes'

offending;

consumes

prostitutes' time

Creates the

impression that

offenders will be

constantly

monitored and

reported;

increases the

pressure on

public officials to

address the

problem

...street

prostitutes are

able to work in

indoor venues

...followed by

changes to the

environment

where street

prostitution

occurs

...there is

adequate

monitoring of

bans

...there is

adequate

monitoring of

compliance with

sentences

...the community

is willing to

sustain protests

and remain lawful

May be perceived as

condoning

prostitution

Displacement may

be to areas where

the impact is even

worse 

Requires legal

authority; may

displace prostitutes

to new areas outside

the prohibited zone,

which, if remote,

may prove more

hazardous to them

Requires monitoring

by the court and

corrections officials

Risks of

overzealousness

(vigilantism);

displacement to

other locations

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations
34 Street Prostitution

8.

9.

10.

11.

20

21

22

23

Educating and

warning high-risk

prostitute and

client populations 

Identifying and

targeting the

worst offenders 

Serving

restraining

orders/civil

injunctions

against habitual

prostitutes

Mediating

conflicts between

prostitutes and

the community

Deters young

people from

getting into

prostitution;

discourages

potential clients;

education

programs for

arrested clients

deter repeat

offending

Deters the most

problematic

offenders;

conserves police

resources

Effectively

controls and

deters the

activities of large

numbers of

prostitutes

working in a

particular area

Keeps prostitutes

away from the

areas of highest

citizen complaints,

or from engaging

in the most

offensive

behaviors

...there is

evidence of the

recruitment of

prostitutes from

target

populations, the

messages are

carefully tailored

to the target

audience, and

there are adequate

resources to run

education

programs

...there are a

small number of

chronic offenders

...complainants

are willing to file

for court orders

...the community

is willing to

tolerate some

level of street

prostitution

Young people at

seriously high risk

usually have several

critical social

problems that

require attention if

they are to be kept

out of prostitution;

costs of running

programs; adequate

deterrence may be

achieved by any

form of official

intervention

There may be too

many offenders to

target

Labor-intensive and

costly to document

individuals and

activities; legality

varies by

jurisdiction

Difficult to get

prostitutes to

adhere to

agreements

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Special Responses to Deter Prostitutes
Appendix 35

12.

13.

14.

15.

23

24

24

25

Suspending or

revoking

government aid

to prostitutes

Imposing curfews

on prostitutes

Exposing clients

to publicity

Notifying those

with influence

over clients'

conduct

Encourages

prostitutes to quit 

Restricts

prostitutes'

working hours

Shames clients to

deter them from

reoffending;

discourages

potential clients

Creates

meaningful

consequences for

clients' conduct

...prostitutes are

receiving

significant

amounts of aid

without reporting

prostitution

income, and aid

agencies are

willing to take

action

...there are short

periods during

which street

prostitution is

most prevalent

...the community

and media

support public

shaming, and

most clients

solicit from

vehicles

...clients are

influenced by

informal social

controls

Implications for

dependent children;

requires adequate

social service

follow-up; may have

opposite effect of

promoting more

prostitution to

replace lost income 

Requires judicial

order as a condition

of bail or

probation; requires

monitoring by

police or

corrections officials

Media reluctance to

publicize

information deemed

unnewsworthy; risks

arousing suspicions

against innocent

people; legal

restrictions; privacy

concerns; the

potential for

geographic

displacement

The penalty may be

harsher than some

believe is fair (e.g.,

termination from

employment)

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Special Responses to Deter Clients
36 Street Prostitution

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

26

26

27

27

27

Restricting clients'

ability to drive

Helping

prostitutes to quit

Encouraging

prostitutes to

report serious

offenses to the

police

Distributing

information about

known dangerous

clients to

prostitutes 

Closing streets

and alleys,

diverting traffic or

regulating parking

Deters curbcrawling

Provides

prostitutes with

support services

to enable them to

leave prostitution;

health screening

and education

prevents the

spread of sexually

transmitted

diseases

Improves the

police ability to

investigate serious

offenses that

might otherwise

go unreported

and/or unsolved

Reduces the risk

of physical

assaults to

prostitutes

Increases the

difficulty for

clients to find and

negotiate with

prostitutes

...most clients

solicit from

vehicles

...there are

adequate and

effective social

services available,

and there are

sufficient

sanctions for

noncompliance

...police can

establish a

sufficient level of

trust among

prostitutes

...police can

establish a

sufficient level of

trust among

prostitutes

...the community

the changes affect

supports them,

and most clients

solicit from

vehicles

Legal challenges

and restrictions; low

rates of compliance

with license

suspensions and

revocations

Street prostitutes,

especially juveniles

and those managed

by pimps, are

difficult to

persuade; privacy

considerations;

prostitutes can be

hard to reach

and/or reluctant to

accept treatment

(e.g., for fear of

losing custody of

their children)

Prostitutes' giving

evidence against

pimps increases the

risks of violent

retaliation

Police can be

accused of

condoning

prostitution

Potentially costly;

can harm legitimate

commercial traffic;

may lock the

problem in rather

than forcing it out,

by creating an

inaccessible enclave;

slowing traffic may

be conducive to

curb-crawling

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Helping Prostitutes

Changing the Environment
Appendix 37

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

28

28

28

29

29

29

Enforcing zoning,

nuisance

abatement and

business license

regulations

against properties

used for

prostitution

Warning property

owners about the

use of their

premises for

prostitution 

Redeveloping the

area economy 

Securing

abandoned

buildings

Enhancing

lighting

Conducting

sweeps

Restricts the

availability of

locations for

sexual activities;

discourages the

use of motels and

hotels for

prostitution

Improves

property owners'

capacity or

willingness to

prohibit

prostitutionrelated activities

on their property

Promotes

legitimate activity

to displace

illegitimate activity

Keeps prostitutes

and clients from

having private

places for sexual

transactions

Improves the

area's appearance;

improves natural

surveillance to

deter prostitution

Temporarily

removes

prostitutes and

clients from the

streets

...sexual

transactions take

place on

properties subject

to regulation

...sexual

transactions take

place on those

properties

...improvements

will substantially

change the

conditions that

allow street

prostitution to

flourish

...sexual

transactions take

place in

abandoned

buildings

...lighting is

inadequate, and

sexual

transactions take

place in dark,

secluded places

Civil law processes

can be cumbersome

and unfamiliar to

police; requires

support from

government lawyers 

Some property

owners may feel

they are being

unfairly accused

Costly in the short

term; potential

displacement to

more vulnerable

areas

Costs of securing

buildings; potential

displacement to

other locations

Costs of lighting

Undermines the

criminal justice

system and police

integrity; risks

arresting innocent

people

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Responses with Limited Effectiveness
38 Street Prostitution

27.

28.

29.

30

30

30

Harassing and

intimidating

prostitutes

Establishing

formal or

informal red-light

districts where

street prostitution

is tolerated

Legalization and

decriminalization

of prostitution

Discourages

prostitutes from

offending

Reduces nuisance

complaints;

increases the

police ability to

monitor street

prostitution and

related crime

Legalization

subjects

prostitution to

administrative

regulation

...the community

is willing to

tolerate some

level of street

prostitution, and

the red-light

district can be

adequately policed

and will not

attract additional

clients from other

communities

Undermines police

integrity;

geographically

displaces the

problem

Legality (ruled

unconstitutional in

Canada as a local

option); the

expansion of street

prostitution out of

the tolerance zones;

lack of public

support; ineffective

in reducing nuisance

complaints or harm

to prostitutes under

some conditions;

implies that police

condone

prostitution

Not politically

feasible in

foreseeable future

in U.S., U.K. and

Canada

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations
Endnotes 39

Endnotes

1 Goldstein (1990).

2 Benson and Matthews (1995); Hodgson (1997); Matthews (1993); van Gelder and Kaplan

(1992). 3 Cohen (1980); May, Edmunds and Hough (1999); van Gelder and Kaplan (1992).

4 Weitzer (2000).

5 Cohen (1980).

6 May, Edmunds and Hough (1999); Sterk and Elifson (1990).

7 Weitzer (1999).

8 Benson and Matthews (2000).

9 Matthews (1997); Lowman (1992).

10 Weitzer (1999).

11 Eck and Spelman (1987); Sampson and Scott (2000); Benson and Matthews (2000);

Lowman (1992); Larsen (1996); Getz (1996). 12 Weidner (1999); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999); Weitzer (1999).

13 Hubbard (1998).

14 Weitzer (2000).

15 San Diego Police Department (1994); San Bernardino Police Department (1999).

16 Larsen (1996).

17 Lowman (1992).

18 Sampson and Scott (2000).

19 Benson and Matthews (1995).

20 Canada Department of Justice (1989).

21 Getz (1996).

22 Benson and Matthews (2000).

23 Weitzer (1999).

24 Sampson and Scott (2000).

25 Golding (1994); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999); Sampson and Scott (2000).

26 Benson and Matthews (1995); Weidner (1999); Weitzer (1999).

27 Matthews (1997); Larsen (1996).

28 Sampson and Scott (2000).

29 Weidner (1999).

30 Portland Police Bureau and Campbell Resources Inc. (1991).

31 Spelman (1993); Sampson and Scott (2000).

32 Sampson and Scott (2000).

33 Benson and Matthews (1995); Golding (1994).

References 41

References

Benson, C., and R. Matthews (2000). “Police and Prostitution:

Vice Squads in Britain.” In R. Weitzer (ed.), Sex for Sale:

Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. New York:

Routledge.

–––– (1995). "Street Prostitution: Ten Facts in Search of a

Policy." International Journal of the Sociology of Law 23(4):395-

415.

Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999). "Workable Solutions

to the Problem of Street Prostitution in Buffalo." Report.

Buffalo, N.Y.: Buffalo Prostitution Task Force.

Canada Department of Justice Research Section (1989).

"Street Prostitution: Assessing the Impact of the Law."

Synthesis report. Ottawa: Canada Department of Justice.

Cohen, B. (1980). Deviant Street Networks: Prostitution in New

York City. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.

Eck, J., and W. Spelman (1987). Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented

Policing in Newport News. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive

Research Forum.

Getz, R. (1996). "High-Profile Program Successfully Drives

Prostitutes Out of Town." Community Policing Exchange

November/December:6.

Golding, R. (1994). "Prostitution in Holland." Policing

10(1):48-57.

Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-Oriented Policing. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Hodgson, J. (1997). Games Pimps Play: A Qualitative Analysis of

Street Prostitution. Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press.
42 Street Prostitution

Hubbard, P. (1998). "Community Action and the

Displacement of Street Prostitution: Evidence From British

Cities." Geoforum 29(3):269-286.

Larsen, N. (1996). "The Effect of Different Police

Enforcement Policies on the Control of Prostitution.”

Canadian Public Policy–Analyse de Politiques 22(1):40-55.

Lowman, J. (1992). "Street Prostitution Control: Some

Canadian Reflections on the Finsbury Park Experience."

British Journal of Criminology 32(1):1-17.

Matthews, R. (1997). "Developing More Effective Strategies

for Curbing Prostitution." In R. Clarke (ed.), Situational

Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (2nd ed.). Guilderland,

N.Y.: Harrow and Heston.

Matthews, R. (1993). Kerb-crawling, Prostitution and Multi-agency

Policing. Crime Prevention Unit Series, Paper 43. London: Home

Office.

May, T., A. Harocopos and M. Hough (2000). For Love or

Money: Pimps and the Management of Sex Work. Police Research

Series, Paper 134. London: Home Office.

May, T., M. Edmunds and M. Hough (1999). Street Business:

The Links Between Sex and Drug Markets. Police Research Series,

Paper 118. London: Home Office.

Persons, C. (1996). "Sex in the Sunlight: The Effectiveness,

Efficiency, Constitutionality, and Advisability of Publishing

Names and Pictures of Prostitutes' Patrons." Vanderbilt Law

Review 49:1525-1575.

Portland Police Bureau and Campbell Resources Inc. (1991).

Crime Prevention in Overnight Lodging: A Guide to Preventing

Drug Activity, Prostitution and Other Illegal Behavior in Hotels and

Motels. Portland, Ore.: City of Portland.
References 43

Sampson, R., and M. Scott (eds.) (2000). "A Prostitution

Problem in National City, Calif." Tackling Crime and Other

Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.

San Bernardino (Calif.) Police Department (1999).

"Prostitution Restraining Order Program." Submission for

the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in ProblemOriented Policing.

San Diego Police Department (1994). "Temporary Restraining

Order Keeps Prostitutes Off Streets." Problem Solving

Quarterly 7(3/4):3,10-11.

Spelman, W. (1993). "Abandoned Buildings: Magnets for

Crime?" Journal of Criminal Justice 21:481-495.

Sterk, C. and K. Elifson. (1990). "Drug-Related Violence and

Street Prostitution." In M. De La Rosa, E. Lambert and B.

Gropper (eds.). Drugs and Violence: Causes, Correlates and

Consequences. NIDA Research Monograph 103. Rockville,

Md.: U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse.

van Gelder, P. and C. Kaplan. (1992). "The Finishing

Moment: Temporal and Spatial Features of Sexual

Interactions Between Streetwalkers and Car Clients. Human

Organization 51(3): 253-263.

Weidner, R. (1999). "'I Won't Do Manhattan': A Study of the

Causes and Consequences of a Decline in Street

Prostitution." Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University.

Weitzer, R. (ed.) (2000). Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography

and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge.

Weitzer, R. (1999). "Prostitution Control in America:

Rethinking Public Policy. Crime, Law & Social Change 32:83-

102.

About the Author 45

About the Author

Michael S. Scott

Michael S. Scott is an independent police consultant based in

Savannah, Ga. He was formerly chief of police in Lauderhill,

Fla.; served in various civilian administrative positions in the

St. Louis Metropolitan, Ft. Pierce, Fla., and New York City

police departments; and was a police officer in the Madison,

Wis., Police Department. Scott developed training programs

in problem-oriented policing at the Police Executive Research

Forum (PERF), and is a judge for PERF's Herman Goldstein

Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. He is the

author of Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20

Years, and coauthor (with Rana Sampson) of Tackling Crime

and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving.

Scott holds a law degree from Harvard Law School and a

bachelor's degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Recommended Readings 47

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory

Guide for Police Problem Solvers, by John E. Eck (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 2001). This guide is a companion to the

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It provides basic

guidance to measuring and assessing problem-oriented

policing efforts. Available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
48 Street Prostitution

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 1999

Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document

produced by the National Institute of Justice in

collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A

similar publication is available for the award winners from

subsequent years. The documents are also available at

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or

ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V. Clarke

(Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98, 1998).

Explains how crime theories such as routine activity theory,

rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have

practical implications for the police in their efforts to

prevent crime.

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses

how a police agency can implement the concept.
Recommended Readings 49

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20

Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice,

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000).

Describes how the most critical elements of Herman

Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport

News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman (Police

Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the rationale

behind problem-oriented policing and the problem-solving

process, and provides examples of effective problemsolving in one agency.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships by

Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy

Rinehart, and Meg Townsend (U.S. Department of Justice,

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 1998)

(also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief

introduction to problem-solving, basic information on the

SARA model and detailed suggestions about the problemsolving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies,

Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke (Harrow and

Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and methods of

situational crime prevention, and presents over 20 case

studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.
50 Street Prostitution

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case

Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson and

Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for

Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 2001) (also available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides an introduction for police

to analyzing problems within the context of problemoriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains

many of the basics of research as it applies to police

management and problem-solving.
Other Guides in the Series 51

Other Guides in This Series

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series (available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov):

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.

Rana Sampson. 2001.

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001.

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.

Clarke. 2002.

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002.

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.

2002.

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
52 Street Prostitution

Other Related COPS Office Publications

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years.

Michael S. Scott. 2001.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case

Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S. Scott.

2000.

• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative

Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced

Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999.

• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing

Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin

Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and

Meg Townsend. 1998.

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series

and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of

Justice Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or check our website at

www.cops.usdoj.gov.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site by the address listed below.

e05011552 Created Date: June 13, 2002

www.cops.usdoj.gov