WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

1

TECHNICAL REFERENCE DOCUMENT

PROTECT AND MONITOR OUR OCEAN RESOURCES

1. Introduction

Ocean resources include living marine resources such as fish, marine mammals and sea 

birds, corals, kelp, plankton and algae, and non-living resources such as shoreline, oil and 

gas reserves, sand, salt and sea water itself. These resources account for a significant 

portion of the U.S. economy in goods and services; recent estimates for just the coastal 

areas alone are 28 million jobs, millions in goods and services, and an attractive tourist 

destination for 180 million Americans every year. The health and availability of these 

resources affect millions of U.S. citizens, tourists and our bordering neighbors. U.S. 

coastal areas are among the most developed in the nation, with over half of our 

population residing within less than one-fifth of the land area in the contiguous U.S. 

Coastal and ocean management is critically important to the environment, economy and 

public safety. Our ability to actively observe, protect and sustain U.S. coastal and ocean 

resources is essential to ensure these societal benefits for future generations. 

Fundamental to management of ocean resources is the requirement to balance the need 

for increasing energy, coastal development, marine transportation and national security 

demands with preserving healthy and sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems and 

coastal communities. Critical living ocean resource issues include declining fish stocks, 

loss of marine mammals, sea turtles, bird species and populations, introduction and 

proliferation of nonindigenous species, loss of biodiversity, and degradation and 

restructuring of relevant coastal and marine habitats including water quality. In 

particular, declining fish stocks pose a threat to global food security and global 

economies, calling for accurate and timely information about surrounding environmental 

conditions and status and effects of ecological interactions, from phytoplankton to 

humans. There is also an increasing need to quantify and predict the effects of climate 

change, including sea level rise and effects of extreme weather events, on coastal and 

open ocean resources. 

Many U.S. ocean resources are found in the coastal regions (top of the watershed to the 

Exclusive Economic Zone, or EEZ), some of interest to the U.S. such as migratory sea 

birds, fish and marine mammals range well beyond U.S. borders. Our coastal waters are 

contiguous with those of neighboring nations and the ocean waters circulate on a global 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

2

scale. The physical and biogeochemical variability that influences marine resources off 

our coasts may originate in international waters. In addition to large scale ocean flows 

and patterns of variability, there are large scale coupled ocean-atmosphere patterns of 

variability, in which ocean conditions at locations remote from the U.S. cause our 

weather and climate to vary. Thus, the U.S. effort to monitor ocean resources must cover 

both the region out to the EEZ and, in partnership with other nations, the adjacent coastal 

waters and the global blue water ocean. 

To make the most effective decisions for protecting and preserving ocean resources, 

accurate information from an ocean observing system is required to allow for detection 

and prediction of the causes and consequences of changes in marine and coastal 

ecosystems, watersheds and non-living resources. The recommendations of the U.S. 

Commission on Ocean Policy (2004), lessons learned during the White Water to Blue 

Water Partnership Initiative (see http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2003/18969.htm) and 

other reports and studies endorse an ecosystem approach and/or a watershed approach for 

the ocean observing system. This system should be able to assess and predict phenomena 

such as impacts of climate change and weather events like coastal storms, natural and 

man-made hazards such as oil spills and pollution, and other stressors such as fishing, 

recreational activities, marine transportation, coastal construction and development and 

ocean drilling/exploration. Observations gathered from ships, aircraft, satellites, drifters, 

buoys and other remote and in situ sensors are needed for a wide range of physical, 

biological, chemical, geological and atmospheric variables within U.S. coastal regions, 

islands and territories, and open ocean regions. Coordination of this information obtained 

at various time and space scales, from periodic sampling to real time observations, and 

from existing, nascent and planned networks is complex and will demand dedicated 

resources, commitment and focus to accomplish. Just as important will be the 

development and implementation of coupled physical-biological (ecological) models, of 

data assimilation techniques and of products and services that translate available 

information into rapid and long term assessments, forecasts and decision tools for a wide 

range of users, supported by a responsive research enterprise. Ongoing evaluation of the 

efficacy of the observing systems and ongoing guidance of its evolution are needed so 

that the results of research programs and pilot projects, including new tools, lessons on 

scales of variability, and new models and data assimilation methods, can be introduced. 

User input concerning usefulness and improvements of the products and services is also a 

key part of the system evaluation.

A crucial requirement for an “integrated” ocean observing system is the recognition that 

there are communities of living organisms that occupy the physical environment and that 

those communities (including humans) are influenced by the physical environment, and 

influence each other and the environment by consuming resources. Living resource 

managers recognize the need for information on environmental processes as these affect 

the range of consumable and protected species that they seek to maintain for society’s 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

3

benefit. Similarly, the physical oceanographic and climate scientists and managers need 

to recognize the dependence of ecosystems on physical processes, and seek to understand 

how they affect the physical-climate system. Addressing both abiotic and biotic 

information needs will ensure that the observing system addresses both coastal and ocean 

resource issues and the requirements of ecosystem approach to management.

These ocean resource management requirements call for a sustained, integrated ocean 

observing system (IOOS) that is robust, rigorous, reliable, responsive and effective. 

Initial plans for the U.S. contribution to a Global Ocean Observing System, IOOS, have 

been developed under the umbrella of the National Oceanographic Research Leadership 

Council (NORLC). NORL established an office, OCEAN.US, to coordinate the 

development and implementation of IOOS. More details about this structure are found at 

http://www.nopp.org.

2. User Requirements

User groups

User groups for ocean resource information include a wide range of users with various 

data and information needs, capabilities and missions, including, but not limited to, 

federal agencies, state and local governments who have federal laws and mandates to 

fulfill, the shipping industry, port authorities, law enforcement, public health sector, 

insurance industry, economic development boards, coastal resource managers, regulatory 

authorities, non-governmental organizations, tourist industry, coastal engineers, 

sanitation district officials, emergency managers, research scientists, recreational users, 

home owners, fishing industry, and the military. Some users are also suppliers of critical 

ocean information. Users can be coastal managers who make rapid (e.g. beach closures) 

and long range (e.g. development zoning) decisions on coastal resources, ship captains 

navigating ports and harbors, wind surfers trying to locate the best currents, oil and gas 

companies drilling for oil, or researchers developing a new technique to remotely monitor 

salinity. Detailed lists of users can be found in a variety of recent reports listed in the 

references, including: the U.S Commission on Ocean Policy (2004); National Ocean 

Oceanographic Partnership Program/ National Ocean Research Leadership Council (1999 

and 2003); Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (2000); NOAA et al. (1999); 

and OCEAN.US (2002). 

Information needs

Ocean resource users need a wide variety of information ranging from raw data and data 

products to assessments, predictions, and decision tools. They need to be able to find the 

data or information products they need, overlay or compare with other data and products, 

and translate the information into actions and decisions. Key users need data and 

information to help predict and mitigate events that affect the marine/watershed 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

4

environment, as well as related economic interests. Data sets and models are needed for 

immediate action (e.g. response to an impending HAB), as well as for long term planning 

(e.g. mitigation of coastal inundation caused by sea-level rise).

High level requirements of these users include:

• improved weather forecasts, climate predictions and information products 

to help mitigate natural hazards

• assessments of the state and health of marine ecosystems, watersheds and 

the resources they support

• a sound scientific basis to inform environmental policies that take into 

account natural and anthropogenic changes in marine ecosystems and the 

effects of these changes on people.

General information needs include:

• More accurate estimates of inputs of freshwater, sediments, nutrients, 

organisms and contaminants from all sources into coastal waters;

• Better understanding of how geomorphology and depth govern the 

response of coastal ecosystems to external forcings

• Improved marine meteorological forecasts, nowcasts, ocean and coastal 

circulation models 

• More timely quantification and detection of environmental trends, such as 

climate change and coastal population shifts, and their impacts on 

ecosystems

• Better understanding of ecosystem dynamics and its effect on marine 

resources

• Better assessments of the impacts of weather and climate change 

variability and natural and introduced disease, toxins and predation on 

coastal and blue water ecosystems and communities including fish and 

shellfish stocks

• Improved seasonal and longer term climate forecasts from coupled models 

assimilating ocean observations to support better planning of energy use 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

5

for heating, cooling, and production of water resources management, and 

of agriculture

Examples of specific local or regional issues that need to be addressed include nutrient 

enrichment, oxygen depletion, harmful algal blooms (HABs), chemical contamination, 

fish kills, habitat loss, shoreline erosion, increasing susceptibility of coastal communities 

to natural hazards, declines in marine resources, loss of biodiversity, and invasions of 

non-indigenous species. An ecosystem-based management approach also requires 

temporal and spatial analyses of data collected by the observing system, to include: 

• climatologies, including from paleo-oceanographic data, of core variables 

(hindcasts and quantification of past natural variability);

• improved nowcasts of the spatial distribution of core variables (fields); 

• forecasts of changes in these fields that affect the distribution and 

abundance of living organisms and the condition of habitats upon which 

they depend; and 

• sites designated as marine protected areas and sentinel/research sites.

Measurement parameters and system components

In order to address these user needs and implement an ecosystem/watershed-based 

approach to protecting and managing ocean resources, a variety of physical, biological, 

chemical, geological and atmospheric parameters must be monitored. Such observations 

are critical inputs into sophisticated models, timely and rapid forecasts, and assessments 

of the status and trends of marine ecosystems and watersheds. Coverage includes the 

coastal regions, and of the global ocean in order to address the impacts of remote regions 

on the U.S. land and ocean, to detect change in critical regions such as the high latitudes, 

and to monitor, understand, and predict the circulation of the global ocean and its 

interaction with the atmosphere and land.

An initial list of “core” (required) parameters has been developed for IOOS and is found 

in Appendix I, along with the federal observing systems which provide these parameters 

on a routine, sustained basis. Also available in OCEAN.US (2002) are listings of 

existing or required information products derived from the observing data. These 

products vary in their level of complexity and detail, ranging from coastal weather map 

facsimiles, to combined in situ and remotely sensed data products, to outputs of 

sophisticated, coupled physical-ecological models. 

Critical components of an integrated ocean observing system include: 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

6

• platforms from which observations are made (ships, small boats, aircraft, 

satellites, and land stations) and the ongoing maintenance, overhauls and 

replacements needed to sustain this capacity;

• stable, sustained near-real-time data sets from in situ and remote sensors;

• operational models (including data assimilation models) that provide 

outputs in near-real-time; 

• robust calibration and validation for all systems (operational, preoperational, pilot and research), to ensure the accuracy and stability of 

data inputs and model outputs;

• development of new sensors, techniques, assessment tools, models, and 

data management and analysis tools; 

• processes to transition high value research projects into the operational 

system; 

• skilled personnel to develop, operate and enhance the system; 

• open access to and distribution of real-time, non-real time and archived 

data, with standardization of data formats to facilitate data use; 

• derived products, decision tools and assessments, based on user 

requirements; 

• ongoing evaluation of system performance, including oversight of the 

evolution of the system to ensure continuity, accuracy and efficiency;

• comprehensive coverage of U.S. coastal waters and the global ocean 

through national and international partnerships;

• evolution and improvement of the system as new knowledge and 

technologies become available.

 

IOOS Development

The need to more effectively integrate and enhance existing observing systems to protect 

and monitor ocean resources has been recognized and is being addressed at the U.S. 

national level by the development of the IOOS. IOOS is being designed to be robust, 

rigorous, reliable, responsive, and effective, and it will provide data and products in 

support of other IWGEO themes. Appendix I provides a list of the seven societal goals 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

7

of IOOS, which are very similar to IWGEO themes. IOOS will consist of a national 

“backbone” of existing federal systems providing observations of key parameters at 

global and coastal scales (Appendix II, Table 1, Table 2, Table 3), a data management 

and communications process managed by federal agencies (Data Management and 

Communications System (DMAC) plan, see www.ocean.us), and a network of regional 

associations (RAs) whose purpose is to coordinate the many sub-regional observation 

programs into regional coastal ocean observing systems (RCOOSs). The RAs will 

include stakeholders from the broad ocean community, including state, local, and tribal 

governments; academia; private sector companies; and non-governmental organizations. 

They will serve the entire coast of the U.S., including the Great Lakes. The RCOOSs 

may comprise some or all of the portions of the national “backbone” located in the 

region, augmented by all other sustained observing systems in the region, such as water 

quality data collected by sanitary districts and networks operated by academic institutions 

that support local and regional user requirements. Detailed IOOS implementation and 

DMAC plans are found at www.ocean.us. 

The initial IOOS will be only the existing federal system comprising the “national 

backbone” that provides sustained and reliable measurements of core parameters 

(Appendix II Tables 1, 2 and 3) at both global and coastal scales. These components are 

considered “operational” or “pre-operational”. Other initial elements are research 

systems and other projects to demonstrate integration, improvements or new technologies 

and methods (“pilot projects), and the Data Management and Communications system. 

Appendix III lists the core IOOS parameters in priority order based on applicability to the 

seven IOOS themes. Appendix IV highlights candidate data management and 

communication standards and protocols proposed for IOOS. 

For the global ocean, the national backbone systems will provide one or more of the 

following measurements in a sustainable, routine and standardized fashion:

• sea surface wind, wave and current fields;

• sea level;

• surface and interior fields of temperature and salinity;

• heat flux across the air-sea interface; and

• sea ice distribution and extent. 

For coastal areas, the initial IOOS backbone will also supply the following parameters, in 

addition to those listed above for the global ocean: 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

8

• surface and interior fields of chlorophyll-a and macrozooplankton 

abundance; 

• extent and condition of benthic habitats;

• distributions of spawning stocks of harvestable fish species, including 

protected species stock identification and structure, abundance and 

seasonal distribution, habitat requirements and prey species status; and 

• land-sea freshwater flows and associated transports of sediments, nutrients 

and contaminants.

The optimal composition of the IOOS backbone, e.g., the systems that will be 

“integrated” at appropriate time and space scales to provide required products and 

information to users, will need to be determined, and will be based on collated and 

prioritized user requirements. Instrumentation from state and local governments, private 

sector or academic systems that is sustained and standardized (see a comprehensive 

listing in U.S. Ocean Commission, 2004) is also expected to be part of IOOS. These 

observational systems should be designed to allow for expansion as new operational 

instrumentation becomes available, as well as for the deployment of research 

instrumentation. Considerable detail about the stage of readiness for deployed 

observational systems is found in OCEAN.US (2002). Both backbone and RCOOS 

needs will be surveyed annually and a prioritized list of needs provided by the National 

Federation of Regional Associations (NFRA) as information to the funding agencies.

Based on the guiding principle of agreed upon standards, protocols and data formats 

(Appendix IV), the data management and communication system also includes easily 

accessible databases of required measurements, with formats that allow for integration at 

the user desktop, allow for intercomparisons and modeling hindcasts and forecasts, allow 

for assessments and simulations, and allow for development of products that illustrate 

current conditions, temporal variability and long term trends/future conditions. The 

system should provide data and information products at the user desktop, cell phone or 

bridge of the ship, for all range of user skills and expertise. Additionally, IOOS must 

support machine-to-machine interoperability with semantic meaning; i.e. incorporate 

some collection of methodologies that promote the scripted exchange of data between 

computers, with all computers involved in the transaction capable of determining both the 

syntax and the semantics of the exchanged data without human intervention.

IOOS is not the only U.S. contribution to GEOSS, though. There are important 

components of the U.S. contribution not included in IOOS. They include other 

measurement systems providing data to the ocean community, the many research efforts 

such as ORION that are producing data of value to a GEOSS, and the considerable 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

9

satellite data collected by NASA satellites. The IOOS concept provides the framework to 

integrate disparate, existing observing systems under a common data management and 

communication system.”

3. Existing Capabilities and Commonalities 

There are many existing capabilities for monitoring ocean resources within federal 

agencies, state and local government, private companies, academic institutions, tribes and 

others. Some have been in place for decades or years, while others are implemented only 

for short term projects or studies. These systems were designed to support national 

mandates, living marine resource conservation, local management issues, specific 

research projects and other clients with varying purposes and user needs. They can be 

considered global, national, regional or local in nature, are in various states of readiness, 

and have various levels of support. Monitoring systems are based on surface (land and 

water), underwater and airborne or satellite platforms, and include in situ and remotely 

sensed measurements, and manual or autonomous operations. 

Specific sensor types and networks include:

• Remote sensing instruments on aircraft, satellite and land-based platforms, 

such as: passive electro-optical imaging sensors (multispectral and 

hyperspectral) and active electro-optical (lidar); passive microwave 

(radiometers and sounders) and active microwave (altimeters, 

scatterometers, and Synthetic Aperature Radar), and high frequency radar; 

and 

• Ship-based measurements, such as: net sampling; manual and pumped 

measurements of physical, chemical, optical and biological properties; and 

acoustic measurements of bathymetry and currents

• Coastal, open ocean, or land-based in situ systems that allow for 

unattended (autonomous or semi-autonomous) operation, such as: wind, 

wave and temperature sensors on moored buoys; drifters; shore based 

platforms such as tide gauges; water quality sensors; and autonomous 

underwater vehicles (AUVs). 

• In water measurements that require attended operation, such as: manual 

sampling of underwater species; remotely operated vehicles (ROVs); 

underwater video/photography; and underwater laboratories. 

• Sentinel and research sites located at the shoreline; in bays, estuaries, 

rivers, offshore, and the deep ocean; and on the ocean floor
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

10

• Systematic regional fisheries and protected species surveys conducted by 

observers on ships and aircraft to establish seasonal indices of abundance 

and distribution, and, from these, key indicator species over time

• Long-term sampling programs that measure contaminants in the water 

column, sediments and marine organisms, such as NOAA’s National 

Status and Trends Program. 

Orbital sensors are available on satellite missions, such as NOAA’s Polar-orbiting 

Operational Environmental Satellites and Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites; DOD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, NASA’s Landsat, 

SeaWiFS, Terra, Aqua, TRMM, TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites; and various 

commercial ventures. Examples of global in situ systems include the Argo buoys, and 

the U.S. contribution of drifting buoys. Global systems that combine in situ and satellite 

assets include NOAA’s contribution to Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) 

and the U.S. Climate Observation Program. National in situ systems include NOAA’s 

National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) networks of weather buoys and land-based 

measurement stations, National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON), Physical 

Operational Real- Time System (PORTS), and NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System 

(NEOS); EPA’s National Coastal Assessment Program and National Estuary Program; 

and the USGS stream gauge network. Some of these systems may not be sustainable due 

to budget restraints. Examples of regional and local systems include the Rutgers 

University Coastal Ocean Observation Laboratory and the water quality monitoring 

networks of Southern California’s sanitation districts. There are existing private sector 

networks that are also deployed. 

Many of these deployed systems measure the same variables using the same, similar, or 

even different equipment and techniques. They may have different data collection 

frequencies, spatial scales, data quality control and processing procedures, and formats 

residing in databases or other media. Data may be available in real time, in a delayed 

mode, after days, months or years of processing and analysis, or not at all. An inventory 

of deployed systems is found in U.S. Ocean Commission (2004), in OCEAN.US (2002) 

and in other reports such as the Department of Commerce/NOAA, December 2003 draft 

report “NOAA’s Integrated Environmental Observation and Data Management System”. 

A listing of the systems considered as initial candidates for IOOS, along with measured 

parameters, is found in Appendix II. 

NOAA’s Ecosystem Observing System (NEOS) provides an example of an end-to-end 

coastal and oceanic ecological observing system for living marine resources (LMRs) that 

supports the NOAA’s ecosystems management mandates. NEOS encompasses routine, 

operational and pre-operational observations (e.g., resource surveys), product 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

11

development (e.g., assessments and forecasts), and research necessary to improve the 

technical capability of the Observation System to monitor and assess LMRs. Operational 

systems are the final part of a continuum ranging from research to pilot projects to preoperational and then operational activities. An operational system is defined as one with 

routine and sustained provision of data and data products in forms and at rates specified 

by user groups, and is run by operational groups, with researchers functioning as 

advisories and users. A pre-operational system is defined as one that incorporates new 

techniques from pilot projects into operational systems that are likely to lead to value 

added product(s) and is run primarily by operational groups, but with involvement of 

researchers (Ocean U.S. (2003) U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System part I). 

NEOS also includes data management and production of routine technical reports (e.g., 

LMR stock assessments). This system will link to efforts of the EPA and USGS as 

outlined in subchapter 4.6. A companion to NEOS is the Ocean Biogeographical 

Information System (OBIS), considered to be a candidate for the main depository (portal) 

for the storage and disposition of biological data to be collected. See 

http://www.iobis.org for more details. 

For the most part, currently deployed systems are not linked in terms of data discovery, 

availability or integration (ability to “overlay” datasets). Instrumentation for 

meteorological measurements, water temperature, salinity, and current speed and 

direction is available and widely deployed, but may not be available in some critical 

coastal or open ocean areas. Instruments used for water quality measurements are 

available, with others in varying degrees of development, but they are not uniformly 

deployed in threatened areas or baseline sites. Bio-optical instrumentation is available 

and used in an operational mode, with more instruments ready for transition from 

research to operations, but maintenance issues, such as bio-fouling, are still a significant 

problem and spatial coverage remains inadequate. Nearly operational nutrient sensors are 

being considered for various issues such as eutrophication in aquatic environments, 

occurrence of HABs, etc. Some of the new technology incorporates automated and 

above water measurements required for the calibration of satellite remote sensing data, 

but more sites are needed, especially in coastal regimes. Automated instrumentation for 

the detection of HABs is not available, though there are several promising technologies 

under development.

4. Major Gaps and Challenges

By the very nature of the complexity, interrelationships, time scales involved and extent 

of the phenomena involved in protecting and monitoring ocean resources, the 

implementation and evolution of a sustained and integrated, locally relevant and globally 

deployed ocean observing system will be a substantial challenge. This system can and 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

12

should look to the example of the weather system for best practices and policies, 

standards and protocols and, if possible, for leveraging existing assets and lessons learned 

from international efforts such as EuroGOOS. All major components are required for 

full implementation and evolution of the system : data acquisition/data processing/data 

management (infrastructure); data and product communication; modeling of physicalecosystem/watershed systems; research and development of new products, services and 

observational techniques; skilled personnel and administrative/financial systems. A 

concentrated effort will be required to more thoroughly understand marine ecosystems 

and the watershed environment, determine the optimum, best-value observing system to 

put in place, evolve and determine effectiveness on a regular basis, establish the key 

indicators of change, and determine how to implement and interpret assessments of 

interactions among ecosystems and the human population to make the most informed 

decisions about ocean resour ces. 

Crucial to successful implementation will be the recognition that biases and paradigms 

exist that must be overcome. 

Differentiating the effects of human activities from natural processes will require 

knowledge of the coherence of changes that are occurring locally on global scales and 

comparative analysis of such changes in the context of larger scale forcing. Therefore 

observations, analyses and comparative studies are needed well beyond the borders of the 

U.S., involving other countries in an integrated effort. Knowledge, data, infrastructure 

and expertise must be shared among nations for the most effective effort. Integration of 

observations with models, ecosystem characterization, simulation and decision support 

services for ecosystem-based management practice need more emphasis, and the placebased distributed nature of problems, solutions, observations and connections to 

managers must be taken into account. A significant, cooperative effort will be necessary 

to develop a monitoring system for living marine resources, building on existing 

programs within the federal agencies and of other partners within the IOOS.

Requirements/User Needs

Preliminary assessments of user needs have determined that enhancements to our 

observations of key variables in both time and space are needed for coastal and open 

ocean regions, prioritized according to the following criteria:

• the need for a consistent set of backbone (“core”) measurements 

(Appendix II), over multiple scales, local to global, hours to decades, for 

the open ocean, coasts, Great Lakes to a) monitor and assess near shore 

processes, b) obtain spatially adequate and synoptic long term time series, 

c) provide transects and vertical profiles of key parameters, and d) provide 

high resolution vertical profiles;
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

13

• the need for time series with appropriate temporal and vertical resolution 

of key variables at “sentinel or research sites” to measure and record 

variability at key coastal and open ocean sites, thus establishing baseline 

conditions, documenting variability and providing the data needed to 

assess the performance of and improve models;

• recommendations for indicators (products) of ecosystem condition, by 

panels of experts both within the U.S. and internationally, and in reports 

such as the Heinz Center (2002) report on “The State of the Nation’s 

Ecosystems”. 

A comprehensive detailed, ongoing assessment of the needed data that are available is 

necessary, which could be based on existing OCEAN.US and U.S. Commission on Ocean 

Policy documents. This assessment should be compared with user needs, which include 

representatives from state and local agencies (including Homeland Security agencies), 

private and academic sectors, along with the general public. As stated in the U.S. 

Commission on Ocean Policy report, user inputs are critical to defining specific 

information needs, operational requirements and outputs that would be most useful for 

various ocean resource needs. These needs will, in turn, drive observation system 

improvements. Special emphasis is needed for observations of biogeochemical 

parameters in addition to physical measurements in near-coastal (“green”) and coastal 

(“brown”) water environments, including wetlands.

Data management and communication

A robust data communications system and easily accessible databases that allow for rapid 

delivery of information and products is needed to overcome a considerable gap in data 

availability and access for ocean resource data. Key to data availability will be 

establishing standards and protocols for data discovery and transport that all operators 

follow, and a data communication system that supports the diversity and range of 

environmental and biological data transmissions from the ocean bottom and throughout 

the water column, in real time and in delayed mode. Data dissemination is also a 

substantial gap, as there is not a Global Telecommunications System equivalent for ocean 

data, and presently it is difficult and expensive to collect data from under water and in 

remote areas.

Research

An ecosystem approach to management that is adaptive and relies on data collected from 

ocean observing infrastructure would serve as the underlying concept for managing ocean 

resources. This lack of understanding presents a significant challenge for the ocean 

research community. The development and adoption of an ecosystem approach to coastal 

and ocean resource management will need to be incremental and collaborative, with clear 

definitions and technical guidelines building on existing capabilities. The controls on 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

14

physical, chemical, and geological oceanographic processes, as well as the biological and 

ecological complexity involved in an ecosystem approach to management, must be better 

constrained. An important contribution of the OOI/ORION Program 

(http://www.orionocean.org/) and the research component of IOOS will be to provide an 

improved understanding of the state of marine ecosystems, their natural sources of 

variability and their sensitivity to potential changes in the global climate system. This 

new knowledge will lead to a more effective application of ecosystem principles for 

managing resources. Also critical is an understanding of the socio-economic variables 

and trends related to ocean resource management. Some level of standards and protocols 

for research projects and pilot projects, perhaps as part of the transition from research to 

operations, is necessary to help manage existing and future efforts as IOOS develops. 

An important product from this research will be improved data assimilation techniques 

and models that integrate physical, biological, geological and chemical data. Scientific 

research is essential for developing an effective and efficient operational observing 

system that will enable the monitoring and stewardship of coastal and ocean resources. 

To define an observatory network, it is essential that the spatial extent of the system and 

the temporal resolution of the data are optimized to meet user community needs. Often 

the design of an observing system is constrained for logistic and economic reasons and 

therefore the networks are rarely optimized to investigate the processes they are 

established to monitor. To overcome this, Observing System Simulation Experiments 

(OSSEs) utilize numerical models to assess the quality of potential sampling strategies, 

the results of which can then be used to optimize the observing system. 

Dedicated basic and applied research is also needed to support improvements to existing 

or development of new measurement systems (remote sensing and in situ ) to improve 

fundamental observing strategies for monitoring and managing resources, and to provide 

the basis for advances in forecasting and prediction. New technologies are required, 

principally in the realm of sensors that measure critical biological and chemical 

parameters in the ocean. Of particular concern are the high latitude oceans, since they are 

critical in the large scale heat balance and carbon cycle of the Earth system and in the 

global scale, thermohaline circulation of the ocean. They are particularly sensitive to 

climate change and the recipient of contaminants from lower latitudes, and yet their 

ecosystems have global importance. Observing the bathymetery, chemistry, physics and 

biology of the Antarctic and Arctic oceans will be a challenge and require new techniques 

and special instruments. Evolutionary changes in in situ measurements of key variables 

are expected from the public, private and academic sectors, with corresponding 

improvements in data communication, local data processing, and in assimilation of new 

data into predictive models. For example, more accurate and comprehensive remote 

sensing of key variables, particularly in coastal regions, is anticipated from new sensors 

on new satellite, aircraft, vessel, and autonomous vehicle platforms. Transitioning new 

knowledge into better measurements systems and improved deployment strategies for 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

15

IOOS requires effective partnerships between researchers, resource managers and those 

designing and implementing IOOS components. 

A well-designed integrated ocean observing system requires that data quality be assured 

through well-developed calibration and validation programs. Calibration and validation 

must be a continual process through the deployment of any remote or in situ sensor. This 

ensures that variability observed in the data is caused by changes in physical and 

biogeochemical conditions in the environment, not by sensor drift. Similarly, to ensure 

the best possible data products, verification, maintenance, and improvements are required 

through the deployment history of the sensors. Calibration and validation programs are 

particularly important when multiple sensors are used for similar data products. Good 

examples are ocean color data products from SeaWiFS (SeaStar- OrbImage spacecraft) 

and MODIS (AQUA and TERRA- NASA spacecraft), where a calibration program was 

developed to ensure equivalence between these three satellite sensors. Similarly, when 

sensors failed or are deactivated and are substituted by new sensors, a good calibration 

record is needed to ensure continuity of equivalent, high-quality data. This is particularly 

important for sensor systems collecting climate data records. Future sensor systems must 

include in their design and execution calibration and validation programs. Ad hoc

calibration/validation activities should be avoided and instead standards and protocols 

established. Calibration and validation of data is as important as data archiving and 

distribution. This effort requires a robust infrastructure of ships, aircraft, sensor systems, 

laboratory and personnel that must also be considered when designing a sustained 

system. 

Observational and other gaps/challenges

Issues to overcome with respect to the observing components include: insufficient spatial 

distributions of observing sites; monitoring at inappropriate or inadequate time scales or 

patterns of variability; collection of measurements in different units and of varying 

quality; and delays in data collection, quality control and dissemination. Appendix V 

provides examples of a partial gap analysis for some observational parameters. 

OCEAN.US (2002) also contains considerable detail about gaps for all required IOOS 

parameters. Some key observational gaps are outlined below.

Remote sensing measurements:

• Improved procedures for calibrating and representing data in coastal 

waters

• Precise sea surface height and surface vector wind measurements

• Finer scale resolution sensors for sea surface temperature (SST), salinity, 

winds, ocean color (specific information can be obtained from NOAA 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

16

Observations Requirements document at www.nosc.noaa.gov for 

example) 

• Continuity in ocean color, winds and sea surface height measurements

• Improved systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats 

(intertidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

• Acquisition of ocean color imagery (multi- and hyperspectral) of coastal 

areas at sufficient frequency and optical resolution to identify and analyze 

changes in the spatial distribution and extent of coastal and nearshore 

habitats

• Integration of in situ measurements with remotely-sensed observations. 

Ship-based measurements:

• Expanded ship-based measurements of temperature and salinity profiles 

(need to equip more ships of opportunity)

• Better determination of global fluxes of heat, fresh water and carbon (need 

to repeat a World Ocean Circulation Experiment [WOCE] – type 

experiment)

• Comprehensive and standardized fisheries and protected species surveys 

to measure relative abundance from fishery-independent data to improve 

the quality of living marine resources (LMR )stock assessments and the 

understanding of population dynamics, e.g. more days at sea

• Multi-beam sonar measurements to collect detailed bathymetry and 

habitat information, particularly in nearshore and shelf environments, but 

also in watersheds and out to the EEZ

In situ measurements:

• Long-term, continuous measurements of river flow volume at more sites. 

• Additional sites for water level measurements 

• More frequent sampling of key properties, such as sediment load, nutrient 

concentration and selected chemical contaminants, at more sites
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

17

• Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats 

(intertidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

• Expanded coastal network of moored instruments at more locations that 

measure meteorological variables (including atmospheric deposition) and 

oceanographic properties (physical, chemical, biological)

• Additional deep ocean observatories and sentinel sites

• New remote sensing/AUV technologies/techniques to obtain fisherydependent and fishery-independent data

• Innovative and cost effective techniques to eliminate the need for manual 

sampling, photography, etc.

• Standardization of methodologies for biological community sampling 

• Improve methods for validation of benthic habitat map products

Other challenges include needs for the following, arranged by subject area:

Observing system development and management:

• Coordination of federal agencies that manage, assess, map, and chart 

resources, with the goal of creating standardized, easily accessible 

national maps that incorporate living and non-living marine resource data 

along with bathymetry, topography, and other natural features. 

Investigate expansion of existing and creation of new data clearinghouses 

for marine spatial data to more effectively share multi-agency data.

• Inclusion of pipelines, off shore platforms, vessels, and related research 

and monitoring programs in IOOS.

• Flexible data policy for classified data and other datasets involving 

commercial interests (e.g., fishing information, precise geophysical 

information of interest to the oil and gas industry, etc.)

Resource management support:

• Tools to transform measurements into products such as predictions of 

environmental change. 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

18

• A systematic, sustained, monitoring system for water quality on national 

or global geographic scales necessary to meet the needs for assessment of 

impacts of decreasing water quality on living marine resources, habitats, 

and human health and the economy.

Research:

• Assimilation of remotely sensed data into models. 

• Continued improvement of coupled biological-physical models. 

• Identification and establishment of additional sentinel and research sites. 

• Closing gaps in knowledge of ecosystem effects upon LMR’s, including 

the effects of environmental variability and climate change, functional 

habitat alteration, and long-term environmental degradation

• Closing gaps in knowledge of multispecies interactions so they can be 

incorporated, along with ecosystem considerations, into stock assessments 

and management advice

• Systematic research, monitoring, assessment, and technology 

development required to truly achieve meaningful sediment management. 

The impacts on natural sediment processes of dredging, infrastructure 

projects, farming, urban development, any many other necessary and 

beneficial human activities are not well understood. 

• Collaborative projects among scientists and commercial and recreational 

fisherman to increase understanding of mutual needs and expertise. 

• Research on the impacts of all types of vessel pollution. 

• Expand multidisciplinary studies of the evolution, ecology, chemistry, and 

molecular biology of marine species, discover potential marine 

bioproducts, and develop practical compounds

• Additional research in other parts of the world. 

• Identification of the critical research and data needs related to coral reef 

ecosystems, through the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

19

• Additional research into ocean acoustics and the potential impacts of noise 

on marine mammals 

• Expansion of marine aquaculture research, development, training, 

extension, and technology transfer programs

• Socioeconomic research to examine the human dimensions and economic 

values of the nation’s oceans and coasts and encourage ocean research 

agencies to include socioeconomic research as part of their efforts. 

Infrastructure –

• An analysis of ship and aircraft time, including small boats, required to 

support the initial and evolving system.

• An analysis of information technology and instrumentation required to 

support research, calibration/validation, transition to operations, modeling 

and OSSE’s required for the initial and evolving system.

• An analysis of types and skills of personnel required for the initial and 

evolving system.

5. Future Earth Observation Systems that May Fill Gaps

Evolutionary changes in in situ measurements of key variables are expected, with 

corresponding changes in data communication and local initial data processing (QC/QA 

checks for example). More accurate and comprehensive remote sensing of key variables 

in coastal regions is expected in the next generation of U.S. satellites (GOES-R, 

NPOESS), aircraft, ships and AUVs. Additional details will be identified in the process 

of developing gap analyses and future requirements. An example of current and future 

EO systems for ocean resources is found in Appendix VIII. Future needs are also 

documented in OCEAN.US, 2002. 

“Foreign systems” requiring partnerships with other governments and agencies that are 

expected to be useful for ocean resources and are reasonable certain are:

• Aquarius from Argentina and the U.S. (CONAE/NASA). This is an ESSP 

mission whose purpose is to measure ocean salinity with an L-band 

radiometer. It is currently scheduled for flight in 2008.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

20

• GPM-Core (Global Precipitation Mission) from Japan and the U.S. 

(JAXA/NASA) will carry a radar for measuring precipitation, and is 

presently scheduled for launch in 2008.

• Metop is a series of three satellites from ESA/EUMETSAT. With 

NPOESS, they will comprise a joint U.S./European environmental 

monitoring constellation of four satellites, by about 2009. Some of the 

instruments on Metop are U.S.-provided. The three satellites are planned 

for launch in 2005, 2009, and 2013.

Many other international systems with ocean resource applicability are planned or 

envisioned for the coming decade. Some of these are to be realized in partnership with 

the U.S., while many others are purely “foreign” systems. Most of the purely foreign 

systems come from countries that do not readily share such data with the U.S. today; this 

issue will need to be addressed through the GEO process. The purely foreign future 

systems that appear to be reasonably certain are:

• IRS-P7/Oceansat-2 from India, which includes ocean color imagery, 

scatterometry, and passive microwave imagery. It is currently scheduled 

for launch in 2005.

• RISAT from India, which is a C-band SAR mission, scheduled for launch 

no earlier than 2006.

• Megha-Tropiques from India and France, whose payload includes the 

MADRAS microwave imager, scheduled for launch no earlier than 2006.

• HY-2 and HY-3 from China (PRC), whose payloads have variously been 

defined as measuring ocean color and temperature, or ocean wind, wave 

height and temperature. The earliest possible launch dates appear to be 

2004 and 2006, respectively.

• The FY-3 series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites from China, 

due to begin replacing the current FY-1 series no earlier than 2005. The 

payload includes visible/infrared and microwave imagers that appear to 

have oceanographic utility.

• RADARSAT-2 and 3 from Canada, both flying C-band SAR systems that 

are useful for studies of sea ice. RADARSAT-2 is scheduled for launch in 

or after 2005, while the payload modifications and launch date for 

RADARSAT-3 remain poorly defined.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

21

• SMOS from France and Spain, carrying an L-band sparse-aperture thinned 

array radiometer dubbed MIRAS that will measure ocean salinity.

• The Okean series from Russia and Ukraine (the versions from Ukraine are 

also dubbed Sich). The satellites in this series have been delayed due to 

funding problems, their future is uncertain, and satellite designations can 

be confusing. It appears that Okean-01-N9/Sich-1M will be launched in 

2004, carrying infrared and microwave imagers.

Much work remains to be done to ensure the ready availability of data from the majority 

of these systems.

6. Interagency and International Partnerships

Federal agencies are involved with a number of national and international partnerships 

involving ocean resource data. U.S. federal agencies and the U.S. ocean research 

community have played lead roles in development of the global ocean observing system 

(GOOS), global and basin scale satellite systems and of international research programs 

of global scope, including WOCE, JGOFS, TOGA, CLIVAR, SOLAS, CEOS, and 

IMBER. These efforts do much to lay the foundations for the partnering required to 

achieve the required coverage of the global ocean and of coastal waters contiguous to 

those of the U.S. The GEO process must continue to support the efforts of the U.S. ocean 

research community, and strengthen and formalize critical international partnerships, so 

that global coverage and open access to all nation’s ocean data are assured. Appendix 

VI contains a table showing a partial list of existing partnerships. A partial list of 

national and international partnerships is found in Appendix VI. 

In addition, there has been considerable national and international activity and 

cooperation over the past 10 years toward the development of an IOOS. There has been 

an interagency effort to create a national and international network of observations, data 

management and analyses that systematically acquire and disseminate data and 

information on past, present and future states of the oceans, particularly with the 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). IOOS is the U.S. component of a larger Global Ocean 

Observing system (GOOS) that is being developed under the auspices of IOC/UNESCO. 

IOOS is being developed as a national partnership among federal and state agencies and 

regional associations that represent both users and operators of the system. The National 

Ocean Research Leadership Council (NORLC) develops policies and procedures for 

IOOS design and implementation, and receives advice from the Ocean Research 

Advisory Panel. NORLC approved the establishment of an office (OCEAN.US), having 

the charter to oversee the development of a national capability for integrating and 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

22

sustaining ocean observations and predictions. NORLC’s Executive Committee 

(EXCOM) oversees all the activities of the OCEAN.US office, and is composed of 

representatives from 10 federal agencies (see http://www.nopp.org). Participating 

government agencies and regional associations implement those elements of the IOOS 

that are consistent with their missions, goals, and priorities. International coordination 

and cooperation is maintained through the U.S. Global Ocean Observing System steering 

committee, which is represented in the GOOS effort. 

Joint partnerships within relevant IWGEO agencies are required for:

• the development of a strategy for assessment, monitoring, research, and 

technology development to enhance sediment management;

• a national water quality monitoring network that coordinates existing and 

planned monitoring efforts, including monitoring of atmospheric 

deposition, and that provides timely and useful information products that 

are easily accessible to the public and linked to output from the IOOS

• a plan for transferring new technologies to an operational mode in the 

IOOS; 

• a joint ocean and coastal information management and communications 

program to generate information products relevant to national, regional, 

state, and local needs on an operational basis;

• periodic review and declassification of appropriate oceanographic data for 

access by the ocean community.

• making use of industry platforms (ships, drilling and production rigs) for 

sampling the surface and interior of the ocean and providing to industry 

the information about currents, waves to support exploration into deeper 

waters and more challenging environments in search of petroleum and gas 

hydrates resources

7. U.S. Capacity Building Needs

Current capabilities and capacities are insufficient to satisfy national and international 

ocean resource observing requirements. At a minimum, capacity building must involve 

developing and maintaining technical expertise and infrastructure (people, systems, data 

management, platforms, ships, aircraft) of federal and state observations networks, 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

23

research efforts and data management required to participate in an integrated ocean 

observing system.

Key areas for capacity building are data management and communication, combining 

remotely sensed data with in situ data, a system to transition research into operations, and 

providing enhanced sensor packages that are automated and require less maintenance 

than currently for biogeochemical measurements, and remotely sensed technologies 

including remotely-operated vehicles, small automated free flyers, and/or modeling to 

increase the observational network capacity. 

Other specific needs include: 

• Additional habitat conservation and restoration assessments, monitoring, 

research, and education; 

• Additional sustainable development and conservation of renewable ocean 

and coastal resources through grants to all coastal states;

• expanded national ocean exploration program

• Developing a robust and cost effective data communication system that 

work well underwater and handles all forms of ocean resource data

8. Conclusions

A basic objective of ocean observing systems for the coming decade is to help generate 

the optimal value (i.e. maximize net benefits) to society from our nation’s oceans and 

coastal resources in a sustainable, economically viable and environmentally healthy 

manner. Priorities include ensuring food security through sustainable management of 

natural and aquaculture fisheries, improving water quality and management of sediments 

and shorelines, promoting safe and free transit and navigation, and minimizing and/or 

mitigating the occurrence of coastal and ocean-related hazards. Taken together, these 

priorities will promote healthy coastal and ocean environments that ensure sustained 

ecosystem health, including that of human populations. The system also support the 

other IWGEO theme areas. 

The highest priority actions needed to protect and monitor ocean resources include the 

following: 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

24

1. Maintain infrastructure to operate existing global and coastal elements of the 

national ocean observing backbone (Appendix II) and promote integration of 

these existing systems;

2. Enhance the global and national backbone by a) continuing to implement 

Argo, tide gauge stations and ship-based networks and increase the coverage 

of coastal and open ocean time series stations (fixed and drifting buoys, 

CMAN); b) adding biological and chemical sensors (salinity, bio-optics, 

nutrients, dissolved oxygen, pCO2) to coastal and near coastal sites; c) adding 

sea level gauges and river water quality and level instrumentation at more 

coastal sites; and d) more frequently sampling sediment load, nutrient 

concentration and selected chemical contaminants (USGS, NOAA, Navy, 

EPA and USACE systems);

3. Establish standards and protocols for measurements, data exchange and 

management to allow for rapid access to diverse data from disparate sources. 

Implement data standards and protocols for metadata management and data 

discovery, data transport, uniform on-line browse and archive for the core 

national backbone ocean parameters collected from existing observing 

networks. 

4. Institute a yearly planning process to involve all components of an integrated 

ocean observing system, to determine priorities and implementation plans.

Priorities for general and other specific investments for IOOS have been documented in 

NOAA et al (1999), NOPP (1999), OCEAN.US documents (see www.ocean.us), the U.S. 

Commission on Ocean Policy (2004), and are highlighted below. Additional details 

about timelines for implementation, and preliminary estimates of amount and cost of 

enhancements are found in OCEAN.US, 2002. All recommendations should be 

coordinated within the IOOS community and among the IWGEO agencies in order to 

prioritize the type, location and frequency of measurements needed to appropriately 

monitor local, regional and national conditions, using an agreed upon and cost effective 

approach. 

 

An ideal observing system development schedule follows, arranged by timeframe (which 

could be modified as more information becomes available):

Immediate implementation (e.g., begin now, complete in 1-2 years) –

1) Reaffirm the initial IOOS core set of variables to be collected by the national 

backbone with user groups. The core variables should include appropriate 

biological, chemical, geological, and physical variables. This effort will 

require an initial inventory of parameters currently collected by national 

backbone components and regional observing systems.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

25

2) Develop and maintain a comprehensive inventory of federal and regional 

observing system capabilities (platforms and sensors). 

3) Develop a process to continuously assess the effectiveness and relevance of 

deployed observing systems for monitoring ocean resources.

4) Implement data standards and protocols for metadata management and data 

discovery, data transport, uniform on-line browse and archive for all 

core/backbone ocean parameters. 

5) Establish national and regional research and modeling priorities to address 

key ocean resource issues. 

6) With key user input, identify information products that address key ocean 

resource issues.

7) Maintain existing capacity for high resolution bathymetric surveys of the 

continental shelf to support marine transportation, national security, 

recreational and commercial fishing and energy industry interests. 

Short term implementation (e.g begin planning or implementation and complete in 3-5 

years)

1) Integrate global observations with coastal/regional observations to improve the 

detection and prediction of the effects of global scale weather and climate patterns 

on ecosystems. 

2) Facilitate capacity building within regions (which include public, private and 

academic sectors) by developing and sustaining regional associations (RA) and 

regional coastal ocean observing systems (RCOOS). 

3) Expand and enhance moored instruments in inland seas (estuaries, bays, sounds 

Great Lakes) and in the EEZ for synoptic measurements of meteorological and 

oceanographic properties. 

4) Establish a national surface current mapping system in the coastal areas and out to 

200 km. 

5) Increase the frequency of high resolution bathymetric surveys of the continental 

shelf to support marine transportation, national security, recreational and 

commercial fishing and energy industry interests. 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

26

6) Increase the frequency of combined topographic shoreline and nearshore 

bathymetric surveys.

7) Continue to implement global ocean time series observatories and the Global 

Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment

Longer-term implementation (e.g. begin planning or implementation now and complete 

in 5-10 years) –

1) Develop operational in situ and/or remotely sensed systems to monitor and predict 

changes in selected species of living resources and quality and quantity of coastal 

habitats.

2) Develop nowcast/forecast systems for currents, water levels and winds (PORTS) 

for all major U.S. ports and coastal waters.

3) Ensure continuity of calibrated, consistent satellite ocean color data sets.

4) Develop statistical modeling capabilities that integrate biological (e.g., primary 

production, fishery, protected resource) information and environmental 

information (e.g., physical, chemical, geological) to understand ecosystem forcing 

mechanisms that affect LMR dynamics and status, to develop forecasts and to 

evaluate coastal and ocean resource management alternatives and performance.

5) Establish a network of sentinel (reference) stations to provide baseline data to 

assess the significance of local variability and develop early warning indicators. 

6) Develop indices of ecosystem health from observing system measurements. 

7) Better integrate existing observing networks by minimizing redundancy in data 

collection and optimizing data and information exchange. 

8) Transition remote sensing capabilities of ocean topography, ocean vector winds, 

ocean color, SST and sea ice from research to operations, sustain this capability 

and make more accessible.

9) Develop in situ and/or remotely sensed systems to monitor and predict changes in 

selected species of living resources and quality and quantity of coastal habitats 

(intertidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

10) Establish systematic LMR surveys and assessments to develop information on 

LMR status trends over time
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

27

References

Bierce, R., 2004. Who’s In Charge of Our Fish”, Blueplanet Quarterly, Ocean 

Conservancy, Winter 2004, Vol. 3, Issue 3, pp. 26-31. 

National Coastal Condition Report (II), EPA, http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/nccr2

Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, December 

2003, NOAA’s Integrated Environmental Observation and Data Management System, 

Washington, D.C., 61 pp.

The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, 2002. The 

State of the Nation’s Ecosystems: Measuring the Lands, Waters and Living Resources or 

the United States, Washington D.C. xxii + 276 pp. 

Nowlin, Worth D. Jr., Melbourne Briscoe, Ed Harrison, Mike Johnson, and Robert 

Weller, 2002. Detecting and Predicting Climate Variability: A Theme for the U.S. 

Integrated Ocean Observing System. Background document for Ocean.US Workshop: 

Implementation Plan for the U.S. Ocean Observing System, March 10–15, 2002, Airlie 

House, Warrenton, Virginia, USA. 17 pp. 

http://www.ocean.us/documents/docs/BAKDOC1_ClimatePaper.doc (accessed March 

24, 2004).

NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 21, 2000. The Potential 

Consequences of Climate Variability and Change on Coastal Areas and Marine 

Resources -- A Report of the Coasatal Areas and Marine Resources Sector Team, U.S. 

National Assessment of the Potentia l Consequences of Climate Variability and Change, 

U.S. Global Change Research Program, October 2000, Silver Spring, MD, USA. 163 pp.

NASA Earth Science Enterprise, 2000. Understanding Earth System Change: NASA's 

Earth Science Enterprise Research Strategy for 2000-2010. 

http://www.earth.nasa.gov/visions/researchstrat/http://www.earth.nasa.gov/visions/resear

chstrat/Research_Strategy.htm (accessed February 20, 2004). Chapter 5.

Kite-Powell, Hauke, Charles Colgan, and Rodney Weiher, 2002. Economics of a U.S. 

Integrated Ocean Observing System. Background document for Ocean.US Workshop: 

Implementation Plan for the U.S. Ocean Observing System, March 10–15, 2002, Airlie 

House, Warrenton, Virginia, USA. 11 pp. 

http://www.ocean.us/documents/docs/BAKDOC9_Economics.doc (accessed March 24, 

2004).
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

28

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003. 2003-2008 EPA Strategic Plan – Direction 

for the Future. September 30, 2003. 239 pp. http://www.epa.gov/ocfo/plan/2003sp.pdf 

(accessed February 20, 2004). pp 35,42.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2003. A Nation Prepared: Federal Emergency 

Management Agency Strategic Plan, Fiscal Years 2003 – 2008. 67 pp. 

http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema_strat_plan_fy03-08(append).pdf (accessed 

February 20, 2004). pp9 .

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2003. New Priorities for the 21st 

Century: NOAA’s Strategic Plan for FY 2003 – 2008 and Beyond. March 31, 2003. 23 

pp. http://www.spo.noaa.gov/pdfs/FinalMarch31st.pdf (accessed February 20, 2004).

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, 2004. NMFS Strategic Plan For Fisheries 

Research. February 2004. 156 pp. 

http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st2/s_plan/2004/comprehensivefisheryresearchprogram.pdf 

(accessed March 24, 2004. See chapters on Comprehensive Fishery Research Program 

and major Fishery Research Goals and Objectives.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2004. NOAA National Ocean 

Service Web site. http://www.nos.noaa.gov/ (accessed March 24, 2004). See Coral Reef 

Conservation, marine Protected Areas, Ocean Exploration, Oil and Chemical Spills, 

Coastal Ecosystem Science, Coastal Management, Coastal Monitoring and Observations, 

Contaminants in the Environment, Ecological Forecasting, Aerial Photography and 

Shoreline mapping, Tides and Currents.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2004. Coastal Inlets Research Program Technical 

Publications. Web site. February 24. http://cirp.wes.army.mil/cirp/cirppubs.html 

(accessed March 24, 2004).

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2004. Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne 

Lidar Survey: Publications. Web site. 

http://shoals.sam.usace.army.mil/Pages/publications.htm (accessed March 24, 2004).

Bohlen, Steven R., Robert B. Halley, Stephen H. Hickman, Samuel Y. Johnson, Jacob B. 

Lowenstern, Daniel R. Muhs, Geoffrey S. Plumlee, George A. Thompson, David L. 

Trauger, and Mary Lou Zoback, 1998. Geology for a Changing World – A Science 

Strategy for the Geologic Division of the U.S. Geological Survey, 2000-2010. U.S. 

Geological Survey Circular 1172. http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1172/ (accessed Februa ry 

20, 2004). See Science Goal 4.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

29

NASA Earth Science Applications Directorate, 2004. Applications: Coastal Management. 

Web site. http://www.esa.ssc.nasa.gov/application.aspx?app=coastal (accessed March 24, 

2004). See list of project abstracts.

NOAA National Ocean Service, 1999. Sustaining America’s Coastal Communities and 

Resources: A Strategic Framework for the Coastal Zone Management Program. Office of 

Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, the Coastal Programs Division, and the 

Coastal States, Territories and Commonwealths. 14 pp. 

http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/pdf/strat_plan99.pdf (accessed March 24, 2004).

Cohen, Robert, Arthur Allen, Jonathan Berkson, James Kendall, and Michael Szabados. 

2002. Facilitating Safe and Efficient Marine Operations: A Theme for the U.S. Integrated 

Sustained Ocean Observing System. Background document for Ocean.US Workshop: 

Implementation Plan for the U.S. Ocean Observing System, March 10–15, 2002, Airlie 

House, Warrenton, Virginia, USA. 7 pp. 

http://www.ocean.us/documents/docs/BAKDOC2_Safeandeffmarineops.doc (accessed 

March 24, 2004).

National Ocean Partnership Program, 2004. Toward a U.S. Plan for an Integrated, 

Sustained Ocean Observing System. 95 pp. 

http://www.nopp.org/resources/nopp/towardintegrated.pdf (accessed March 24, 2004).

U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, 2004. An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century. 

http://oceancommission.gov/ Washington, D.C., Sept. 2004. 455 pp. 

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 2000. Strategic Design Plan for the 

Coastal Component of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). Intergovernmental 

Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO, IOC/INF-1146, GOOS Report No. 90, 99 pp. 

2000.

Ocean.US, 2002. Building Consensus: Toward an Integrated and Sustained Ocean 

Observing System (IOOS). Ocean.US, Arlington, VA. 175pp

NOAA et al, 1999. An Ocean Observing System for U.S. Coastal Waters First Steps. A 

U.S. Coastal-Global Ocean Observing System (C-GOOS) Report, UMCES Contribution 

No. 3217, 49pp.

NMFS, 1999. Our Living Oceans, Report on the status of U.S. Living marine Resources, 

1999. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/SPO-41. 

http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/olo99.htm
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

30

Appendix I: The seven societal goals and related sub goals of the IOOS

SOCIETAL GOALS

Improve weather 

forecasts & predictions 

of climate change

Improve safety & 

efficiency of marine 

operations

Provide more timely 

predictions of natural 

hazards & their impacts

Improve national 

security

Reduce public health 

risks

Sustain, protect & 

restore healthy marine & 

estuarine ecosystems

 SUBGOALS

(1) Obtain improved estimates of surface fields & surface fluxes; 

(2) improve predictions on seasonal & longer time scales; (3) 

Detect & assess the impact of climate change on the coastal zone; 

(4) Establish & maintain infrastructure & techniques to ensure 

efficient data acquisition & effective use of information.

(1) Maintain navigable waterways; (2) Improve search, rescue, & 

emergency response capabilities; (3) Ensure safe and efficient 

marine operations.

(1) Improve data acquisition capabilities on time-space scales 

required to assess the physical & ecological contributions to 

hazard-risk; (2) Improve predictions; (3) Provide timely 

dissemination & convenient online access to real-time hazards, 

observations, & warnings; (4) Complete metadata & retrospective 

information on all aspects of disaster reduction; (5) Improve 

observational capabilities by making them functional over wider 

areas, for longer periods, & greater reliability.

(1) Improve the effectiveness of maritime homeland security & 

war-fighting effectiveness abroad; (2) Improve safety & efficiency 

of operations at sea; (3) Establish the capability to detect & predict 

the dispersion of airborne & water-borne contaminants in ports, 

harbors, & the littoral zone at home & abroad; (4) Support 

environmental stewardship; (5) Improved at-sea system 

performance through more accurate characterization & prediction 

of the marine boundary layer.

(1) Establish nationally standardized measures of the risk of illness 

or injury from exposure to pathogens, toxins, hazards, & 

dangerous marine animals (water contact); (2) Establish nationally 

standardized measures of the risk of illness from consuming 

seafood.

(1) Determine regional ecological climatologies for sea surface 

temperature, salinity, dissolved nutrients, chlorophyll-a, & harmful 

algal species; (2) Provide more timely detection & improved 

predictions of changes in the spatial distribution & condition of 

biological structured habitats (coral reefs, sea grasses, mangroves, 

& tidal marshes), in species diversity, of indicators of coastal 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

31

Sustain, protect & 

restore marine resources

eutrophication, of harmful algae (presence, growth, movement & 

toxicity), of non-native species (presence & probability of 

invasion), of diseases in & mass mortalities of marine animals 

(fish, mammals, birds), of the effects of habitat modification on 

species diversity; (3) Monitor anthropogenic contaminants & their 

effects on organisms & ecosystems. 

(1) Provide improved & more timely prediction of annual 

fluctuations in spawning stock size, distribution, recruitment, & 

sustainable yields for exploitable fish stocks; (2) More timely 

detection of changes in the spatial extent & condition of essential 

fish habitat; (3) Improved predictions of the effects of fishing on 

habitats & biodiversity; (4) Establish & monitor the effectiveness 

of Marine Protected Areas. 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

32

Appendix II: National Backbone Elements for the Global and Coastal U.S. 

Components of the initial Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS)

Table 1. GLOBAL: Pre-operational and operational programs that constitute the global 

component of the initial IOOS listed by core variable and by the responsible federal 

agency.

VARIABLE NOAA NAVY

Temperature

Geostationary satellites (GOES)

Polar-orbiting operational environmental 

satellite (POES)

Voluntary observing ships

Ships of opportunity

Dedicated Ships

Moored Buoys (Tropical Array)a

Drifting Buoy Array

Arctic flux & sea ice

NWLON

Integrated buoy 

program

Ocean Survey Ships

Salinity

Voluntary observing ships

Ships of opportunity

Dedicated Ships

Drifting Buoy Array

Arctic flux & sea ice

Integrated buoy 

program

Ocean Survey Ships

Waves

Geosat Follow-on

Ocean Survey Ships

Integrated buoy 

program

Currents,

Sea surface 

topography

Moored Buoys (Tropical array) a Ocean Survey Ships

Winds

Dedicated Ships

Drifting Buoy Array

Arctic flux and sea ice

Tide Gauge Network

WINDSAT

Integrated buoy 

program

Ocean Survey Ships

Sea Level NWLON Geosat Follow-on
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

33

a NOAA uses data from in situ measurements and remote sensing (e.g., sea surface 

temperature, roughness and height) to provide operational predictions of El NinoSouthern Oscillation (ENSO) events as well as sea surface wind, wave, and current field.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

34

Table 2 COASTAL: Pre-operational and operational programs that constitute the 

national backbone of the coastal component of the initial IOOS* are listed by federal 

agency for each core variable.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

35

Core Variable NOAA Navy USACE USGS EPA

Sea surface 

winds

C-MANa, NWLONb

NDBCc, PORTSd

Integrated 

buoy program

Stream flow Stream 

gauging, 

NSIP, 

NASQAN

Temperature GOES, POESe,NDBC, 

C-MAN, NWLON, 

PORTS, LMR-ESf

Integrated 

buoy program

Salinity

LMR-ES, PORTS

Integrated 

buoy program

Coastal Sea 

LevelTopography

NWLON ADFCg

NSIP

Waves NDBC

Integrated 

buoy program

Coastal Field 

Data 

Collection 

Program

Currents

NDBC, PORTS, 

National Current 

Observation Program 

Dissolved 

Inorganic 

Nutrients

LMR-ES

Habitat assessment

National 

Coastal 

Assessment 

(NCA), 

Program;Nat

ional Estuary 

Program 

(NEP)

Chlorophyll LMR-ES NCA,NEP

Habitat &

Bathymetry

Hydrographic Survey

Coral reef mapping

Coral reef monitoring

Coastal mapping

Topographic change 

mapping Benthic habitat 

mapping Habitat 

assessment

Coastal change 

assessment mapping

Hydrographic 

Surveying

Coral reef 

mapping & 

monitoring

Coastal 

change 

mapping

Benthic 

habitat 

mapping

NCA,NEP
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

36

a Coastal-Marine Automated Network

b National Water Level Operational Network

c National Data Buoy Center (moored meteorological sensors)

d Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System

e Polar orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (includes AVHRR)

f Living Marine Resources-Ecosystems Survey

g Altimeter Data Fusion Center

h Population statistics = sex, weight, length, and stomach contents

* EPA programs were added after the initial IOOS list was published

Table 3. NON-OCEANIC VARIABLES: required to quantify important drivers of change 

in ocean and coastal systems. Atmospheric measurements over the ocean and measurements of 

surface water transports from land are considered part of the IOOS.

Atmospheric Terrestrial Human Use

Wind vectors River & stream flows Sea food contamination

Air temperature Ground water discharge Sea food pathogens

Atmospheric pressure Mass transport of sediments Fish catch & effort

Precipitation (dry, wet) Mass transport of nutrients Sea food consumption

Humidity Mass transport of 

contaminants

Beach usage

Aerosol concentration Generation of underwater 

sound

Ambient noise

Atmospheric visibility

Core Variable NOAA Navy USACE USGS EPA

Plankton 

Abundance

LMR-ES NCA,NEP

Abundance & 

distribution of 

LMRs & 

protected 

species

LMR-ES

National observer

NCA, NEP 

(fish species)

Populationh

Statistics

LMR-ES

National observer

NCA, NEP

Fish Catch

National observer

Recreational fisheries

Commercial statistics
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

37

Cloud cover
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

38

APPENDIX III. Cross-walk of Core Variables Required 

for Ocean Resources and IOOS Themes

Provisional IOOS core variables, listed in priority order, and the corresponding societal 

goals for which each variable is most relevant. These are nearly identical to similar suites 

of core variables identified in the GOOS/GCOS action plan, the EuroGOOS survey, the 

Coastal Ocean Observations Panel of the IOC, and in the 1999 NORLC report to 

Congress. Physical variables are ranked high because they are required to achieve all 

seven societal goals. Variables in bold were also identified by the Coastal Ocean 

Observations Panel as core variables using a similar procedure. This list of variables is 

augmented by data on atmospheric, land-based and anthropogenic forcings in Appendix 

II.

Core 

Variables

Weather 

& 

Climate

Marine 

Operati

ons

Natural 

Hazards

National 

Security

Public 

Health

Healthy 

Ecosyste

ms

Sustained 

Resources

Salinity X X X X X X

Temperature X X X X X

Bathymetry X X X X X X X

Sea Level X X X X X X

Surface 

waves X X X X X X X

Surface 

currents X X X X X X X

Ice 

distribution

X X X X

Contaminant

s

X X X X

Dissolved 

Nutrients X X X

Fish species X X

Fish 

abundance

X X

Zooplankton 

species X X X

Optical 

properties X X X

Heat flux X X X
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

39

Ocean color X X X X

Bottom 

character X X X X

Pathogens X X X X

Dissolved 

O2

X X

Phytoplankt

on species X X X X X X

Zooplankton 

abundance X X
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

40

APPENDIX IV. Candidate standards and protocol-related activities identified in 

the DMAC Plan.

DMAC 

Component

Existing 

Element

Sponsoring 

Agency

URL

Metadata FGDCa and 

GOSb

USGSahttp://www.fgdc.gov/metadata/metadata.html

http://www.geo-one-stop.gov/index.html

Data 

Discovery

GCMDc 

NCDDCd 

CSCe

NASA 

NOAA 

http://gcmd.gsfc.nasa.gov/

http://www.ncddc.noaa.gov

http://www.csc.noaa.gov

Data 

Transport

OPeNDAPf Navy, 

NASA, 

NOAA, 

NSF

http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/packages/dods/

On-Line 

Browse

LASg NOAA http://www.feret.noaa.gov/LAS/

Data Archive NSFh NOAA, 

DOE

www.nsf.gov/pubsys/ods/getpub.cfm?ods_key=

nsf94126

Data 

Communicati

ons

GTSi WMO and 

NOAA

www.wmo.ch/web/www/TEM/gts.html

a

Federal Geographic Data Committee: The FGDC steering committee is composed of 

representatives from nineteen Cabinet level and independent federal agencies including: 

DOC, DOI, DOD, NSF, NASA, EPA, DOT, DOE, DoA. Funding for FGDC is 

appropriated through DOI/USGS.

b

 The Geospatial One-Stop (GOS) is sponsored by the Federal Office of Management and 

Budget to streamline access to geospatial information for users. Both GOS and FGDC 

support the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and the E-Government initiative. 

NSDI focuses on the technologies, policies, and people necessary to promote sharing of 

geospatial data. E-Government emphasizes the use of Internet-based technology to 

simplify interactions with the Government.

c

 NASA Global Change Master Directory

d

 NOAA National Coastal Data Development Center

e

 NOAA Coastal Services Center

f

 Open Source Project for a Network Data Access Protocol

g

 Live Access Server

h

 The NSF policy statement is under revision

i

 The Global Telecommunications System is the worldwide terrestrial satellite 

telecommunications network that serves data to World Meteorological Organization 

member nations for forecast operations under the international World Weather Watch.
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

41
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protecting and Monitoring Our Ocean Resouce Technical Reference Document 

42

Appendix V. – Partial Gap Analysis

Variable Data Sources Gaps

SST

Voluntary Observing Ship 

(VOS), Drifters, Orbital 

Sensors

Low quality data sets (VOS); 

Clouds/aerosols are a problem 

with satellite data and the data 

needs in situ help

SSS VOS, Drifters, Buoys Low quality data; need more in 

situ data; need orbital capability

Subsurface SST, SSS

VOS, XBTs, Tropical 

Atmosphere-Ocean buoy 

array (TAO)

Limited Salinity data for Global 

Ocean

Surface Currents; Tide 

Data

NDBC network, CoastalMarine Automated Network 

(C-MAN) shore stations, 

VOS, TAO, PORTS, Orbital 

Sensors

Poor data quality in currents; 

poor spatial coverage; Continuity 

in Sea wind fields and ocean 

surface topography not 

vouchsafed

Sediment Size and 

Chemistry; Benthos 

Characteristics

Ship monitor data, in situ

estuarine sites, Mussel 

Watch site network, Coastal 

Intensive Sites Network 

(CISNet) pilot studies, 

Satellite image data

More sites needed in crucial areas 

– more geographic coverage; 

Chlorophyll and sediment 

estimates from satellite sensor 

data in coastal waters need 

refinement; need better 

algorithms to extract bottom type 

in clearer coastal water areas

Global Sea Level GLOSS, NOAA NWLON

Network needs updating; more 

complete geographic coverage 

needed

Event Induced Sea 

Level Shifts (e.g. 

Hurricanes, Tsunamis)

Satellite imagery, Hurricane 

Hunter flights; Pacific Rim 

array of tide gauges

Good for detecting hurricanes or 

tsunamis but forecasting needs 

refinement; for tsunamis need 

more detectors in source areas

CO2 Flux VOS; research cruises Relative dearth of global data

Sea Ice Drifters, Satellite, Airborne 

Lidar

Cloudiness in polar regions a 

problem for passive sensors; 

adequate active sensors needed
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

43

Appendix VI. Partial Listing of National and International Partnerships

Partnership Participating Agencies

Climate Change Science Program 

(CCSP)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA)

National Science Foundation (NSF)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA)

Department of Energy (DOE)

Department of the Interior (DOI)

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Coastal Ocean Observations Panel 

(COOP)

NOAA, NSF, NASA, DOE, EPA

U.S. Navy (USN)

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA)

Minerals Management Service (MMS)

Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP)

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Department of State (DOS)

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

Integrated and Sustained Ocean 

Observing System (IOOS)

USN, NOAA, NSF, NASA, DOE, EPA, USCG, 

USGS, DARPA, MMS, OSTP, OMB, DOS, 

USACE

Global Ocean Observing System 

(GOOS)

USN, NOAA, NSF, NASA, DOE, EPA, USCG, 

USGS, DARPA, MMS, OSTP, OMB, DOS, 

USACE

Global Water and Energy Cycle 

(GWEC) NOAA, NSF, NASA

Global Ocean Data Assimilation 

Experiment (GODAE) NOAA, NSF, DOE, NASA, USN

Climate Variability and 

Predictability (CLIVAR)

NOAA, DOE, NSF, NASA

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study 

(JGOFS)

NOAA, DOE, NSF, NASA, USN

World Ocean Circulation 

Experiment (WOCE)

NOAA, NASA

World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO)

NOAA, NASA

World Climate Research Program 

(WCRP)

USN, NOAA, NSF, NASA, DOE, EPA, USCG, USGS, OSTP
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

44

Partnership Participating Agencies

U.S. Global Change Research 

(USGCR)

DOE, NIH, DOS, DOI, EPA, NASA, NSF, USDA

Dept. of Defense (DOD)

Agency for Internationa l Development,

Smithsonian
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

45

APPENDIX VII : Examples for Capacity Building

Variable Gaps Capacity Building

SST

Low quality datasets (VOS); 

Clouds/aerosols are a problem 

with satellite data and the data 

needs in situ help

Need more SSS drifters 

deployed; further development 

of networked buoy systems; 

possible use of Brillouin Lidar

SSS Low quality data; need more in 

situ data; need orbital capability

Deploy more SSS sensors –

both in situ and orbital (e.g. 

SMOS, Aquarius)

Subsurface SST, SSS Limited Salinity data for Global 

Ocean

Develop profiling buoy 

networks and drifters; possible 

use of Brillouin Lidar

Surface Currents; Tide 

Data

Poor data quality; poor spatial 

coverage; Increased coastal 

coverage needed; Continuity in 

Sea wind fields and ocean 

surface topography not 

vouchsafed; need high 

resolution tide gauges with GPS 

receivers on them

Increased coastal coverage 

needed; need high resolution 

tide gauges with GPS receivers 

on them; orbital SAR data

Sediment Size and 

Chemistry; Benthos 

Characteristics

More sites needed in crucial 

areas – more geographic 

coverage; Chlorophyll and 

sediment estimates from 

satellite sensor data in coastal 

waters need refinement; need 

better algorithms to extract 

bottom type in clearer coastal 

water areas

Data synergy using 

hydrographic lidars and 

hyperspectral sensors; multiwavelength lidars; improved 

hyperspectral algorithms

Global Sea Level

Network needs updating; more 

complete geographic coverage 

needed

Increased coastal coverage is 

needed; data needs to integrated 

into high resolution global 

coastal network

Event Induced Sea Level 

Shifts (e.g. Hurricanes, 

Tsunamis)

Good for detecting hurricanes 

or tsunamis but forecasting 

needs refinement; for tsunamis 

need more detectors in source 

areas

Need high density satellite and 

airborne remotely sensed 

winds; UAV use for outer wind 

structure; wind algorithm 

development
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

46

Variable Gaps Capacity Building

CO2, heat and freshwater 

flux Increased coverage is needed Increased coverage is needed to resolve poor spatial resolution

Sea Ice

Cloudiness in polar regions a 

problem for passive sensors; 

active sensor lack needed 

spatial resolution

Orbital/Suborbital active 

sensors needed (with improved 

spatial resolution)
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

47

APPENDIX VIII. Examples of Future Earth Observing Systems

Parameter/ 

Question

Implementation

Details

In Situ 

Measurements

Technical

Readiness

Operational 

Potential thru 

2014

Partnership

Potential

Global 

Precipitation (V1)

Requires 6-8 satellite 

constellation for

time resolution

Rain gauges, 

buoys, weather 

radar

(NOAA, WWW)

Demonstrated by 

TRMM and passive 

μwave imagers

TBD; only passive 

μwave currently 

planned

Excellent –

several needed

Ocean Surface 

Topography (V2)

Prefer orbits that 

avoid tidal aliasing

Tide gauges

(Global Geodedic 

Network)

Demonstrated. 

Development 

needed for denser 

coverage

Under study by 

NPOESS

Continuation of 

current 

partnerships 

likely

Ocean Surface 

Winds (V2)

Active / passive 

μwave technique 

required

ships, buoys

(NOAA, WWW)

Demonstrated by 

NSCAT and 

Seawinds

NPOESS 

requirement may 

be fulfilled

Seawinds and 

follow-on 

cooperation with 

Japan

Sea Surface 

Temperature (V2)

Both IR and 

microwave needed 

for all-weather 

observation

ships, buoys

(NOAA, WWW) Excellent NPOESS requirement

EUMETSAT 

coordination

Sea Ice Extent 

(V2)

Microwave sensors 

needed for allweather 

measurements 

Ships, airborne 

reconnaissance 

(Navy, USCG, 

NOAA)

Excellent NPOESS 

requirement

NASDA 

cooperation

Marine Primary 

Productivity (V3)

Very precise intersatellite calibration is 

essential

NASA-SIMBIOS 

time series studies Demonstrated Partially provided by NPOESS

Cooperation with 

Japan, Europe 

possible

Ice Surface 

Topography (V5)

Excellent vertical 

resolution and 

accuracy needed for 

mass balance studies

GPS (NASA, 

NSF)

ICEsat lidar 

altimetry 

demonstration 

Not currently an 

operational 

requirement

Coordination 

with European 

radar altimetry 

satellite

Gravity Field 

(V6)

Requires high 

precision Geodetic networks GRACE demo. pending

DOD interest in 

precise geoid Possible

Total Solar 

Irradiance (F1)

High absolute 

accuracy, overlap of 

successive records 

required 

global surface 

networks, buoys 

(BSRN, WRDC, 

SURFRAD, 

NOAA)

Excellent NPOESS 

requirement Possible

Solar UV 

Irradiance (F1)

Spectral resolution & 

good radiometric 

accuracy req’d

USGCRP UV 

network, NDSC 

(multiagency)

Excellent

NPOESS 

measurement 

planned

Strong history of 

cooperation

Earth radiation 

Budget (R1)

Broadband 

radiometry Buoys (NOAA) Excellent Planned on NPOESS Possible

Snow Cover & 

Accumulation 

(R1)

Need to assess snow 

depth or water 

equivalent 

quantitatively

Snow transects

(NOAA/NWS)

Awaiting 

demonstration

NPOESS 

requirement for 

snow cover

Possible

Marine 

Productivity in 

Coastal regions 

(R2)

High spatial and 

temporal resolutions 

needed 

NASA-SIMBIOS; 

Coastal bio-optics 

(NOAA, EPA)

Excellent Possible NPOESS 

derived product Active currently 
WORKING MATERIAL—Does not Represent U.S. GOVERNMENT POLICY

FOR TECHNICAL REVIEW ONLY

November 8, 2004 Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resources Technical Reference Document 

48

Parameter/ 

Question

Implementation

Details

In Situ 

Measurements

Technical

Readiness

Operational 

Potential thru 

2014

Partnership

Potential

Carbon Sources 

and Sinks (R2)

CO2, CH4 column 

mapping is most 

promising approach;

Flask network, 

buoys (NOAA), 

Ameriflux/Flux

Net (DOE, USDA, 

NASA)

Experimental 

technique, needs 

further develop. 

Not currently an 

operational 

requirement

Possible

Sea Surface 

Salinity (R3)

Very high 

radiometric precision 

needed for passive 

μwave observation

Ships and 

moored/drifting 

buoys 

(NOAA/NSF)

Approaching 

readiness (done 

from aircraft)

Unfulfilled 

NPOESS 

requirement; 

Aquarius Sensor

Likely with 

European Space 

Agency

Sea Ice Thickness 

(R3)

Significance of ice 

freeboard 

observations remains 

to be established 

Moored buoys 

(ONR)

High spatial 

resolution radar; 

develop. needed

Desirable

Possible with 

domestic / 

international 

partners

Polar ice sheet 

velocity (R5)

Synthetic aperture 

radar interferometry; 

high latitude 

coverage (polar orbit) 

needed

GPS (NASA, 

NSF) Demonstrated Desirable Possible

Active μwave 

technique

ships, buoys

(NOAA, WWW)

Demonstrated by 

NSCAT and 

SeaWinds 

Yes

Seawinds 

cooperation with 

Japan; 

Ocean Surface EUMETSAT

Winds (C1) Passive μwave 

radiometry / 

polarimetry to be 

demonstrated

N/A

Windsat/Coriolis 

demonstration 

funded by DOD, 

USN, NPOESS

NPOESS 

requirement may 

be fulfilled

Possible

Primary 

Productivity (C2)

Global 1 km or better 

resolution needed

NASA-SIMBIOS, 

GOOS, GTOS, 

crop, forest 

inventories 

(USDA, FAO), 

LTER (NSF)

Excellent NPOESS 

requirement

EUMETSAT 

coordination

Coastal Region 

Properties and 

Productivity (C3)

Multispectral 

radiometry at high 

spatial and temporal 

resolution from GEO 

Coastal 

observations 

(NOAA, EPA)

Excellent Not currently Possible

Deep Ocean 

Circulation (P3)

Requires in situ

oceanographic 

observations

Ships and ARGO 

floats (NOAA, 

NSF)

WOCE, GODAE 

research projects 

provide initial data 

base

Operational Global 

Ocean Observing 

System is being 

envisaged 

Multi-agency, 

international 

cooperation is 

anticipated