Promoting

Powerful

People

A Process

for Change

Peace Corps

isten & learn...participating activities...discuss & decide...desire, needs & problems...action tria

oals & objectives...try something...facilation & demonstration...pretesting...develop & use...list

learn...participating activities...discuss & decide...desire, needs & problems...action trials... goa

objectives...try something...facilation & demonstration...pretesting...develop & use......listen &
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i

Appendices

Promoting

Powerful People:

A Process for Change

Peace Corps

March 2000

Information Collection and Exchange

Publication No. T0104
ii Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People
iii

Appendices

 Contents

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................... vi

Section I

How to Use this Manual ........................................................................... 1

Section II

Training Sessions: Listen and Observe .............................................. 11

Introduction ........................................................................................... 13

Overview Session: Promoting Powerful People:

A Process for Change ............................................................................ 15

Session 1. What Do We Need to Learn from the Community? ... 50

Session 2. Asking Questions ............................................................ 59

Session 3. Body Language ............................................................... 71

Session 4. Community Mapping .................................................... 80

Session 5. Observation...................................................................... 84

Session 6. The Market Survey and the

Food Availability Calendar............................................ 93

Session 7. Participatory Seasonal Analysis .................................... 97

Session 8. Participatory Sorting and Ranking ............................. 103

Session 9. The Informal Interview ................................................ 108

Session 10. The Informal Interview:

Practice in the Community .......................................... 115

Section III

Training Sessions: Discuss and Decide .......................................... 119

Introduction ......................................................................................... 121

Session 1. Introduction to Discuss and Decide

and Selecting Target Groups ....................................... 123

Session 2. Identifying a Priority Desire, Need, or

Problem and Selecting an Appropriate Action

or Solution at the Community Level .......................... 131
iv Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Session 3. Identifying a Priority Issue and

Selecting an Appropriate Action

or Solution at the District, Regional,

or National Level .......................................................... 137

Session 4. Working with Community Members

to Conduct Action Trials .............................................. 144

Session 5. Defining Goals, Objectives, and Milestones ............. 151

Session 6. Selecting Communication Channels

and Nonformal Education Techniques ...................... 157

Session 7. Planning for How You Will Listen and

 Observe Once You Have Tried Something ............... 165

Session 8. Working with Community Members

to Develop an Action Plan ........................................... 172

Section IV

Training Sessions: Try Something ..................................................... 179

Introduction ......................................................................................... 181

Session 1. Counseling ..................................................................... 183

Session 2. Demonstrations and Skills Training ........................... 194

Session 3. Facilitating a Group Discussion .................................. 205

Session 4. Selecting and Using Print Materials ........................... 215

Session 5. Adapting Print Materials ............................................. 225

Session 6. Developing and Using

Locally Recorded Materials ......................................... 230

Session 7. Producing and Broadcasting

Local Radio Materials ................................................... 246

Session 8. Folk Media: Drama ....................................................... 249

Session 9. Pretesting Educational Materials ................................ 259

Session 10. Pretesting Educational Materials:

Practice in the Community .......................................... 267
v

Appendices

Section V

Training Sessions: Once You Have Tried Something,

Listen and Observe Again .................................................................... 271

Introduction ......................................................................................... 273

Session 1. Once You Have Tried Something,

Listen and Observe Again ........................................... 274

Session 2: Pre-Service Training Summary Session:

The Volunteer Listen and Observe Action Plan ....... 276

Section VI

Appendices ................................................................................................ 279

Group Dynamics Exercises ............................................................... 281

Bibliography ........................................................................................ 287
vi Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Acknowledgments

Promoting Powerful People was originally developed by the Peace Corps

and the Academy for Educational Development (AED) under the auspices

of the Nutrition Communication Project in 1995. Design of the final report

was supported by the Health Communications and Marketing for Child

Survival Project (HEALTHCOM II). The projects were funded by the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Office of

Health and Nutrition, and implemented by the AED under contract DAN5113-Z-00-7031-00 (Project 936-5113) with Vitamin A funds and contract

DPE-5984-Z-00-9018-00. Elizabeth Mills Booth of USAID was the principal

author.

After four years of field testing, this revised edition was produced by the

Peace Corps. It incorporates lessons learned from the field as well as

recent innovative work at the Peace Corps in gender and development,

Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) and other

participatory methodologies, Community Content-based Instruction, and

strength-based approaches to development.

The Peace Corps acknowledges the contributions of all staff and Volunteers

who participated in this effort.
1

How to Use this Manual

Section I

How to Use

This Manual

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
2 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People
3

How to Use this Manual

Section I:

How to Use

this Manual

Why Was this Manual

Designed the Way It Is?

Before designing Promoting Powerful People, a needs assessment

was conducted with Peace Corps trainers and Returned Peace Corps

Volunteers (RPCVs). The following three technical areas were reported

as the most important for Volunteer effectiveness:

1. Listen to the community and help the community identify

what needs to be taught. Commonly called a “community

analysis” or “family study,” the most frequently used analysis

method being taught was the knowledge, attitude, practice (KAP)

survey. However, both trainers and Volunteers expressed the need

to learn other methods.

2. Skills to enable face-to-face communication, training, and

nonformal education. The trainers emphasized that the

Volunteer training should be conducted in the same way we

expect Volunteers to act in their sites.

3. Technical background and information (both formal and

traditional) of the specific country in which the training is

being conducted.
4 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

”Promoting Powerful

People” teaches

Volunteers a process

that helps people

help themselves.

Promoting Powerful People responds to those needs and concerns.

It teaches Volunteers a process that helps people help themselves. It

focuses on the skills that Volunteers need to learn and need to

communicate with community members. The trainer models with

his/her own training style the way Volunteers should act in their

sites. The training sessions are flexible and can be easily adapted to

each country.

Who Can Use This Manual?

Everyone! Although the manual uses nutrition as an example, trainers

in agriculture, water and sanitation, health, community development,

and other sectors also can use this manual as the core of their training

design. Most sessions can be applied with little or no adaptation. If

some adaptation is necessary, suggestions about how to do it are

included.

Why Should I Use

This Training Manual?

The basic philosophy of the Peace Corps is to help people help

themselves. Participation is a key to community development. The

role of the Volunteer, therefore, is to help community members identify

their own desires, needs, and problems, and together work to make

changes.

This training provides Volunteers with a process that helps people

help themselves. This simple process is effective when applied to an

activity, such as a training or counseling session; or a project, such as

organizing community gardens, building latrines or water systems,

or increasing immunization coverage.

The training teaches the following skills needed to carry out the

process of helping people help themselves: How to

• Listen and observe in the community to understand the

community’s strengths, desires, needs, and problems.

• Discuss and decide with community members what solutions

and actions they will take to change their reality.

• Communicate effectively (counseling, training, facilitating group

discussions) with community members.

• Develop and use print, folk media, and locally recorded materials.

• Assess the results of the community’s project by listening and

observing again.
5

How to Use this Manual

What Is This Process for Change?

The training sessions are organized around the following four steps:

Step 1. Listen and observe. In this step, Volunteers work with their

counterparts and other community members to understand what

people do in their daily lives.

These sessions teach Trainees how to identify what they need to learn

from the community. They also teach skills, such as using or observing

appropriate body language, observation, asking questions,

participatory techniques, and informal interviews, which will help

them gather and understand this information.

Step 2. Discuss and decide. Next, the Volunteers and their counterparts use the information they have gathered to select a target group

or groups. They then discuss and decide with those community members what situations they would like to change, and what actions they

will take to work toward those changes.

These sessions teach Trainees how to work with their counterparts

and other community members to select target groups; identify assets

in the community and a priority need, desire, or problem; select

appropriate actions; define goals and objectives; select communication

channels and nonformal education techniques; and develop an action

plan and timeline.

Step 3. Try something. In this step, Trainees learn how to develop

and use various communication channels (interpersonal, print, locally

recorded materials, and drama) effectively. They also learn how to

pretest print and locally recorded materials with community members.

This training prepares Volunteers to work with their counterparts and

other community members to try activities that promote and support

the actions they select.

Step 4. Assess the results by returning to Step 1. Finally Volunteers and counterparts learn how to use the listening and observing

techniques in Step 1 to assess the results of the community’s work

The process is a continuous circle. Once Volunteers, their counterparts,

and other community members have tried something, they will once

again listen and observe. This time, however, they will listen and

observe to understand what they did that was successful and what

was not. They can then discuss and decide what they need to try next

to be more effective in reaching their goals and objectives.

...Volunteers and

counterparts learn how

to use the listening and

observing techniques...

to assess the results of

the community’s work.
6 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

What Should I Do

During Each Session?

Each session outline includes the following information:

Section Title

Session Number

Overview

A brief description of the session and how it relates to the overall

training. Suggestions on how to adapt the training to other sectors.

Objectives

Statement of what the Trainee will be able to do after completing the

session.

Time

The total time needed for the session.

Materials

Human, print, and other resources needed to conduct the session.

Handouts for each session immediately follow the session outline.

Vocabulary

Important vocabulary used during the session. This helps coordinate

technical training with language training. Vocabulary critical to the

session can be introduced and practiced in language training.

Delivery

Activity

Each of the discrete parts of the lesson are numbered and

described.

The final activity in each session is called Process, Generalization,

and Session Evaluation. These activities generally are the same for

each session and should be conducted as follows:

Process. Ask the Trainees what they have learned. Specifically,

ask questions concerning the objectives of the session. If a

community activity was included, ask how they felt during the

activity and how they think the community members felt.

Generalization. Discuss the following:

• What did you learn from this session?

• What more general meaning does this have for you?

• How will you use what you’ve learned by working with the

community?

[The Overview is] a brief

description of the session

and how it relates to the

overall training.
7

How to Use this Manual

Session Evaluation. Ask the Trainees to evaluate the session and

give suggestions about how to improve it in the future. Ask

questions such as the following:

• What is your general impression of this training session?

• What did you specifically like about it?

• Were there aspects you could not follow? do?

• How useful do you think it will be in your work?

• What suggestions do you have to improve this session the

next time?

• What could the trainer do differently to make this session more

effective?

Make notes and leave them for future trainers. Additional suggestions for this final activity are included in some of the sessions.

In some cases, Community Assignment will be part of the final

activity. You will ask the Trainees to practice the skills they learned

during the training session with community members. At the

beginning of the subsequent session, you should process,

generalize, and evaluate their experiences before beginning a new

topic. The Community Assignment is described in detail in each

session that includes one.

Trainer’s Notes

Notes include alternative procedures, scheduling considerations, other

related training sessions and resources, and other suggestions. Some

simply leave space for the trainer to make her/his own notes.

Make notes and leave

them for future trainers.
8 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

I Do Not Have Enough Time to Do

All the Sessions in This Manual.

Which Sessions Should I Use?

Pre-Service Training

All of the training sessions outlined in this manual would take

approximately 85 hours to complete. Each activity within the

methodology section has an estimation of time required.

If you do not have time to use all the sessions during Pre-Service

Training, review the contents and select those sessions that are most

relevant to your group of Trainees and that complement what other

trainers are doing. You probably will want to select the majority of

your sessions from Listen and Observe and Discuss and Decide,

since these are the skills Volunteers would first use when they arrive

at their sites. However, because Pre-Service Training should

demonstrate all steps in the process, select some sessions in each step

so that Trainees can experience the entire process during Pre-Service

Training.

Some ways to shorten this training during Pre-Service Training are

the following:

1. Conduct the Introductory Session to introduce the process and

skills the Trainees will learn. (2 hours, 30 minutes)

2. Select sessions from Listen and Observe that complement what

other trainers are teaching. For example, if other trainers already

are teaching Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA), or The Kinship, Education, Economics, Politics, Religion/Recreation, Associations,

and Health System (KEEPRAH) as a model for conducting a community analysis, select sessions that complement those techniques. Use that information to make the decisions during Discuss and Decide. (Time depends on the sessions you select.)

3. Conduct all or most of the Discuss and Decide sessions.

(approximately 16 hours)

4. Conduct the session on Counseling in Try Something. If time

allows, select other sessions that are most relevant to your group

of Trainees. (Time depends on the sessions you select.)

5. Adapt and conduct one or two sessions in Once You Have Tried

Something, Listen and Observe Again. (approximately 3

hours)

6. Conduct the Pre-Service Training Summary Session during

which the Trainees develop their Listen and Observe Action

Plan, a description of what they will do to learn about their

communities during their first months at their sites.

(approximately 3 hours)

All of the training

sessions outlined in this

manual would take

approximately 85 hours

to complete.
9

How to Use this Manual

Since this manual focuses on the skills Volunteers need to learn and

with which they need to communicate with community members,

you and the other trainers still will need to develop sessions

concerning the host–country setting, technical background, and the

role of the Volunteer in the community.

In-Service Training

Many sessions, particularly those in the step Try Something, are

appropriate for In-Service Training. After some months, the

Volunteers will have improved their language skills, listened and

observed in their communities, and have a better understanding of

their communities’ desires and needs.

What Other Training

Materials Do I Need?

Handouts for each session are provided in this manual, immediately

following the session plan in which they are introduced. Some of them

use nutrition as an example. If you are training Volunteers in sectors

other than nutrition, you also may be able to use these handouts.

During the training session, Trainees may be asked to give examples

of how to apply what the handout discusses to their technical area.

Technical information on maternal-child nutrition is available in the

handout, Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child

Nutrition in Section II, Training Session Promoting Powerful People: A

Process for Change. If you are using this manual to train Volunteers in

other sectors, you will need to identify local materials and/or develop

your own handouts to provide appropriate technical background.

Handouts for each session

are provided in this

manual, immediately

following the session plan

in which they are

introduced.
10 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Who Should I Involve in

My Training Sessions?

The materials section in each session lists resource people. These

include language and cross-cultural trainers, experienced Volunteers,

and community members in or near the training site.

Since the transfer of skills to Volunteer counterparts is a major Peace

Corps goal, counterparts could be involved in training sessions as

much as possible. If it isn’t possible to include them in all of PreService Training, you might at least invite them to participate in the

Pre-Service Training Summary Session: The Volunteer Listen and Observe

Action Plan. During this session, the Trainees and their counterparts

develop a plan of what they will do during the Volunteers’ first months

at their site.

Counterparts may be invited to participate in the In-Service Training

sessions. This would provide an excellent opportunity for Volunteers

and counterparts to learn skills and develop plans together.
Listen and Observe

11

Section II

Listen and Observe

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
12 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People
Listen and Observe

13

Section II:

Listen and Observe

Introduction

After the Introductory Session, the sessions in Listen and Observe

teach Trainees how to identify what they need to learn from the

community and then teach skills for gathering information. Those

skills include the following:

• Demonstrating appropriate body language

• Observation techniques

• Questioning techniques

• Participatory techniques

• Informal interviewing techniques

As mentioned in the introduction, if other trainers already are

introducing participatory appraisals such as Participatory Analysis

for Community Action (PACA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

or Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA), and community analysis such as

the Kinship, Education, Economics, Politics, Religion, Association, and

Health (KEEPRA) model, you may not need to use all these sessions.

Select the sessions that complement the techniques introduced by

others and integrate those learnings into the sessions you present.
14 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Trainer’s Notes: Many sessions in this guide ask you and the Trainees

to give feedback. Feedback is information given to individuals about

the quality of their work. Good feedback reinforces what people do

well or correctly and, at the same time, gives them specific suggestions

about what they can do to improve their knowledge or skills in the

future. It is a very important skill for you and the Trainees to learn.

Before the first session in which the Trainees will be giving feedback

(Session 2, Activity 3 or Session 3, Activity 3), distribute the handout,

How to Give Effective Feedback. At the time indicated in the session

methodology, discuss the handout. Observe the Trainees giving each

other feedback, and give them feedback on how well they did.

Feedback is information

given to individuals about

the quality of their work.
Listen and Observe

15

Section II: Training Sessions

Promoting Powerful People:

A Process for Change

Overview

This session introduces a Process for Change. The trainer uses the

design of the training as an example of how to apply the process.

Trainees then practice using the process in a simulation.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Understanding

the steps of the Process for Change is important for all Volunteers. To

adapt this session, substitute your sector’s technical content in Section

II of the Trainees’ Needs Assessment. The rest of the session is

appropriate to Trainees in all sectors and requires no adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session, Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe at least three advantages of two-way communication.

2. List the steps of the Process for Change and explain why each

step is important.

Time

2 hours, 15 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Results of the Trainees’ Needs Assessment (distributed, collected,

and collated prior to session)

• Handouts:

– Needs Assessment

– Promoting Powerful People: A Process for Change. (Distribute this

handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it and

record any comments or questions they want to discuss.)

Session Plan
16 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

• Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition or

other background information in the Trainees’ specific technical

area.

Vocabulary

Listen, observe, discuss, decide, try, process, change, participation,

target group, communication, message

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Communication Needs to be Two-Way

to be Effective

Time: 30 minutes

Most of us remember this game from our childhood. It is an

excellent exercise to demonstrate how information is distorted

when communication is only one-way.

Ask the Trainees to stand in a circle with enough space between

them so that the person on either side cannot hear what is

whispered. Begin the message and whisper it to the person next

to you. Continuing in the same direction, the listener whispers it

to the next person and so on until the person on the other side of

you receives the message. The last listener writes the message on

the board or flip chart paper.

Use this suggestion as an example of the level of complexity of

the message you should transmit: “They say there are 483 people

trapped in a cave in ______ (name of a place in your country). At

least 1,000 people are trying to provide medicine, machinery, and

help. They say that the people weren’t trapped accidentally. It

was really a kidnapping, because some of the people who are

trapped have a lot of money.”

Perform this exercise again. During the second exercise, let the

listener ask one or two questions. When the last listener writes

the message on the board or flip chart paper, note how much

closer this second message is to the original message (the one

you initiated) than the message recorded from the first exercise.

Discuss what happened when the communication was one-way

and two-way. How did the Trainees feel when the communication

was one-way? How did they feel when the communication was

two-way? What did they learn when the communication was oneway and two-way? How much clearer was the message when

the communication was two-way?
Listen and Observe

17

Generalize from the experience. Ask and discuss:

• What did you learn from all of this?

• What more general meaning does this have for you?

• How can/will you use what you have learned in working

with the community?

Activity 2: Introduction to the Process

for Change

Time: 30 minutes

Introduce the process by drawing it on flip chart paper. Ask the

Trainees to discuss each step and its importance.

Emphasize the following:

1. The process creates a dialogue with community members that

involves the Trainees in helping the community help

themselves.

2. The process can be applied to an activity, such as a group

discussion, a demonstration, a training session, or the design

of simple print materials. The process also can be applied to

a project, such as a community fair, school gardening project,

or baby-weighing project. The Volunteer can use this same

process with every activity of any size to ensure that a

dialogue with the community is created and that community

members are actively involved in identifying and solving their

own problems. Ask the Trainees to discuss the examples

provided in the handout.

3. Before Volunteers can discuss and decide, they need to do a

great deal of listening and observing, which is particularly

important in the first three to four months when Volunteers

are learning the language and becoming part of the

community. In fact, the Volunteer’s job during the first three

to four months is to listen, observe, and learn. This training

teaches the Trainees the skills needed to listen and observe

appropriately.

Listen

&

Observe

Discuss

&

Decide

Try

Something
18 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Explain how you have used and are going to use the steps of

this process in designing, implementing, and evaluating their

training. Explain the results of the Trainees’ Needs

Assessment and list at least five ways you used the results

when designing the training. Explain that during each session

you will listen to and observe what goes well and also

determine what you need to do differently next time to

improve or enhance the session. At the end of each session,

ask the Trainees again for their opinions on how they think

you can improve the session for future training.

Activity 3: Practice the Process

Time: 1 hour

Explain that the groups will perform a simple exercise in which

they apply the Process of Change. The objective of the exercise is

to apply the entire process; what the groups choose to discuss

and decide and try are not as important as practicing all parts of

the process.

Divide the Trainees into two groups: women and men. Tell them

that you want them to use the process to improve communication

between the male and female Trainees. The first step is to listen

to and observe the problems men and women have when they

communicate. Give the groups a few minutes to discuss the

questions they will ask each other regarding the communication

problems men and women have. (Examples: What do men like

about the way women communicate and why? What don’t men

like and why?)

Ask the Trainees to come back together in one group and sit

together in a circle. Give each group 10 minutes to ask their

questions. (20 minutes)

Divide the Trainees again into their two groups. Have each group

(men and women) meet and discuss what they have learned. Have

them select one action they could take that might improve the

communication between the male and female Trainees. (15

minutes)

Bring both groups together again in a circle. Have one group

explain the action it would use, then discuss and decide with the

other group what they think of it and how they might execute

this action. (20 minutes)
Listen and Observe

19

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Assignment. Ask the Trainees to try the actions

they selected for the next three to four days and observe how this

affects the communication between male and female Trainees. At

the beginning of a follow-up session, spend 20 minutes having

the groups sit together and listen to each other evaluate how

effective the action was and what they might do differently in the

future to improve it. Discuss and summarize how the process

was carried out in this exercise.

Distribute the technical handout Variety is More than the Spice of

Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition and/or other background

technical documents and ask the Trainees to read them. Explain

that those documents contain the basic technical information they

will use during their work; the Trainees should keep them as

references for their work in the community. Ask them to bring

those documents to the next session.

Trainer’s Notes

Review, revise, and adapt the Trainees’ Needs Assessment to make it

appropriate for your particular setting and training needs. When the

Trainees arrive at the training site, ask them to complete the needs

assessment. Select the training sessions you use according to the needs

of this specific group of Trainees.

In countries where Promoting Powerful People training has been

conducted and Volunteers have had an opportunity to apply the

Process for Change, substitute a panel discussion of activities and

projects they have carried out using the process.
20 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

Introductory Session

Trainee Needs Assessment

Please take a few minutes to complete the following questionnaire. Your answers will help us design the training

sessions based on your experience and needs.

Trainee Name: _____________________________________________________

I. Your Hopes and Fears

1. Briefly describe what you hope to learn during this Peace Corps training.

2. Briefly describe what you hope to be able to do after you have finished this training.

3. What are your fears about this training or about being a Peace Corps Volunteer?

Section II: Listen & Observe Trainee Needs Assessment Handout - Page 1 of 6
Listen and Observe

21

II. Your Experience in Community Nutrition

1. What three “food groups” do people need to grow, function, and remain healthy? Give an example of

each one.

Food Group Example

a.

b.

c.

2. What can deficiencies in vitamin A, iron, and iodine cause?

• Vitamin A:

• Iron:

• Iodine:

3. What foods are good sources of vitamin A, iron, and iodine?

• Vitamin A:

• Iron:

• Iodine:

4. Which people are most at risk for nutritional deficits? Check all that apply.

a. _____ Men e. _____ Breastfeeding women

b. _____ Young children f. _____ Old people

c. _____ Teenagers g. _____ Everyone in the community

d. _____ Pregnant women

Section II: Listen & Observe Trainee Needs Assessment Handout - Page 2 of 6
22 Peace Corps

Promoting Powerful People

5. Match the following terms with their definitions.

_____ Wasting a. Child is abnormally short compared to other children in the country. This results

from poor nutrition over a relatively long period of time.

_____ Stunting b. Child does not receive enough protein frequently because breastfeeding was

stopped too soon and/or the child was not fed enough protein. The most

common sign is swollen feet and legs, called edema.

_____ Marasmus c. Child does not weigh enough in relation to his/her height. This results from

poor feeding during weaning or when weight lost during an illness was not

regained.

_____ Kwashiorkor d. Child does not receive enough food. Signs include: elbows and knees larger

than the rest of the limbs; easy to see ribs; skin hanging in folds and wrinkles

over the buttocks; a head or hands and feet that seem too big relative to the rest

of the body; an old and wrinkled appearance; and an abnormally quiet

demeanor.

6. Babies who are fed only breast milk are less likely to get sick from which of the following? Check only

one.

a. _____ Diarrhea d. _____ All of the above

b. _____ Acute respiratory infections, such as pneumonia e. _____ None of the above

 c. _____ Allergies

7. At what age should a mother begin giving other foods and fluids to a baby? Check only one.

a. _____ One to two months c. _____ Four to six months

b. _____ Two to three months d. _____ It depends on the baby

8. By what age should a child be eating all of the foods prepared for the rest of the family? Check only one.

a. _____ Six months c. _____ Two years

b. _____ One year d. _____ It depends on the child

Section II: Listen & Observe Trainee Needs Assessment Handout - Page 3 of 6
Listen and Observe

23

9. How often should a young child eat every day? Check only one.

a. _____ Two times d. _____ Five times

b. _____ Three times e. _____ It depends on the child

c. _____ Four times

10. What should the mother do when the child has diarrhea or measles? Check all that apply.

a. _____ Stop feeding the child d. _____ Give only soft foods

b. _____ Give the same foods the child always eats e. _____ Give extra foods rich in vitamin A

c. _____ Offer food more frequently

11. What should the mother do after the diarrhea or measles episode? Check all that apply.

a. _____ Give the child an extra serving each day for one week

b. _____ Give the same foods the child always eats

c. _____ Offer food more frequently

d. _____ Give only soft foods

e. _____ Give extra foods rich in vitamin A

12. How much weight should a pregnant woman gain? Check only one.

a. _____ 15–20 pounds c. _____ 25–28 pounds

b. _____ 20–24 pounds d. _____ More than 30 pounds

13. What happens if a woman does not gain enough weight? Check only one.

a. _____ She often will feel exhausted.

b. _____ She will be less productive in her work.

c. _____ She will deliver a low-birth-weight baby.

d. _____ All of the above.

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III. Your Communication Skills

1. Have you ever learned about or performed any of the following? If so, mark the appropriate column.

Know Have

Skills About It Done It

Participant observation

Structured observation

Market survey

Informal interviews

Surveys

Participatory seasonal analysis

Community mapping

Participatory sorting and ranking

Selecting target groups

Identifying nutritional problems

Defining objectives

Selecting communication channels

Selecting nonformal education techniques

Action trials

Developing an action or work plan

Developing a timeline

Counseling

Demonstrations

Training

Facilitating a group discussion

Selecting and using simple print materials

Adapting print materials

Drama

Developing radio materials

Producing radio materials

Pretesting print and radio materials

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25

2. Write two examples of an open-ended question.

a.

b.

3. Write two examples of a closed-ended question.

a.

b.

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Introductory Session Answer Sheet

 for Trainees’ Needs Assessment

II. Your Experience in Community Nutrition

1. What three food groups do people need to grow, function, and remain healthy? Give an example each

one.

Food Group Examples

a. Calories Cereals, fats and oils, starchy vegetables (potatoes, cassava)

and sweets

b. Protein Peas, beans, nuts, milk, eggs, fish, meat

c. Vitamins and Minerals Most sour fruits, dark green and orange vegetables,

 (vitamin A, iron, and iodine) animal liver

2. What can deficiencies in vitamin A, iron, and iodine cause?

Vitamin A: Blindness or partial blindness; increase in risk of infant mortality from measles, diarrhea,

and other childhood diseases.

Iron: Anemia, weakness, and decreased productivity; severely iron-deficient women are more susceptible

to death.

Iodine: Goiter, lowered mental development and performance, apathy, and lethargy; in pregnant women,

increased risk of stillborn births and infant deaths.

3. What foods are good sources of vitamin A, iron, and iodine?

Vitamin A: Dark green, leafy vegetables such as spinach, greens, and amaranth; dark orange fruits and

vegetables such as carrots, yellow sweet potatoes, pumpkin, mangos, and papaya; and red palm oil.

Animal sources include liver, whole milk, eggs, and butter. Breast milk is an excellent source of vitamin

A for infants.

Iron: Animal products—meat, fish, poultry, and eggs—are especially good sources, and liver is probably

the best of all. Some plant sources also provide iron, among them leafy green vegetables, potatoes, dried

fruit, and enriched bread and cereal products. People can get the greatest benefit from the iron in those

foods by adding some source of ascorbic acid to the meal. Orange juice, for example, helps the body

absorb the iron more effectively.

Iodine: Good natural sources of iodine include such seafood as cod, shrimp, lobster, clams, flounder,

and oysters. Other foods may be good or fair sources, depending on the amount of iodine in soils, feed,

fertilizer, etc. Those foods include seeds and nuts, such as sunflower seeds and peanuts; eggs; and some

fruits and vegetables, such as pineapple and greens.

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4. Which people are most at risk for nutritional deficits?

Answers: b. Young children

c. Pregnant women

e. Breastfeeding women

5. Match the following terms with their definitions.

Answers: Wasting = c; Stunting = a; Marasmus = d; and Kwashiorkor = b.

6. Babies who are fed only breast milk are less likely to get sick from:

Answer: d. Diarrhea, Acute Respiratory Infections, and Allergies.

7. At what age should a mother begin giving other foods and fluids to a baby?

Answer: b. Two to three months

8. By what age should a child be eating all of the foods prepared for the rest of the family?

Answer: b. One year

9. How often should a young child eat every day?

Answer: d. Five times

10. What should the mother do when the child has diarrhea or measles?

Answers: b. Give the same foods the child always eats

c. Offer food more frequently

e. Give extra foods rich in vitamin A

11. What should the mother do after the diarrhea or measles episode?

Answers: a. Give the child an extra serving each day for one week

b. Give the same foods the child always eats

c. Offer food more frequently

e. Give extra foods rich in vitamin A

12. How much weight should a pregnant woman gain?

Answer: c. 25–28 pounds

13. What happens if a woman does not gain enough weight?

Answer: d. She will often feel exhausted, she will be less productive in her work, and she will deliver

a low-birth-weight baby.

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Promoting Powerful People:

A Process for Change

The basic philosophy of the Peace Corps is to help people help themselves. Participation is a key to community

development. As a Volunteer, your job is to help community members learn how to identify and solve their own

problems.

This training will teach you a simple process that helps people help themselves. You can apply this process to an

activity, such as a training or counseling session. You can also apply the process to a project, such as organizing

community gardens, building latrines or water systems, or increasing immunization coverage. This process

creates a dialogue with community members and involves them in helping them help themselves.

Listen and Observe. Work with your counterpart and other community members to listen and observe what

people are doing about a certain situation and why.

Discuss and Decide. You and your counterpart use the information gathered by listening and observing in the

community to select a target group. You then discuss the situation and decide with those community members

what actions they will take to improve or change the situation.

Try Something. Work with your counterpart and other community members to try activities that promote and

support the actions they selected.

As you can see, the process is a continuous circle. After you, your counterpart, and other community members

have tried something, you all will again listen and observe. This time, however, you will listen and observe to

understand what was and was not successful in what you did. You can then use that information to discuss and

decide what you need to try next to be more effective in reaching your goals and objectives.

The skills you will learn during this training will help you to carry out each step in this process. The training is

designed to give you experience in all steps of the process so you can then apply them in your work.

Example of Using this Process for a Project

Nancy was a Volunteer assigned to work in a clinic to improve the nutritional status of her community. Her

counterpart was Sarah, the clinic nurse. When she arrived in her community, Nancy and Sarah spent the first

several months listening and observing to understand what the nutritional status of the people was and what

community resources existed to help improve the nutritional deficiencies. They reviewed clinic records, talked

with local leaders, and visited mothers in their homes. Performing those activities together helped them develop

a good team relationship built on mutual respect and trust. Talking every day to Sarah and other people in the

community also helped improve Nancy’s language skills.

Nancy and Sarah found that several children and adults in the community had vitamin A deficiency. They also

found that there was an active women’s club that was interested in improving their children’s health. They

decided to work with this group to carry out the next step of the process—discuss and decide. Nancy and Sarah

held several meetings with the women’s club where they discussed the vitamin A deficiency and some possible

steps the group could take to improve the intake of vitamin A. The club members decided that they would work

to promote the use of green-leafy vegetables in children’s weaning foods. They tried several new recipes in

action trials and found two recipes that were the easiest to make and most acceptable to both the women and

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29

their children. They then worked together to develop an action plan of what steps they would take to promote

those new recipes throughout the community.

Nancy, Sarah, and the members of the women’s club then tried something by carrying out their action plan. First,

Nancy and Sarah taught the club members how to give effective counseling sessions. They also worked with the

club members to develop a short, locally recorded program that promoted the new recipes and explained why

mothers should give them to their children. As part of one meeting, they pretested pictures of babies with the

club members and asked the women to select the best one to use during their promotional activities.

During the next month, the women’s club members visited all mothers of young children in the community and

counseled them on how to make the new weaning recipes. After each visit, they left the picture of the happy,

healthy baby with each mother to remind her to make the new foods. The locally recorded program was played

daily over the town’s loudspeaker.

After all mothers in the community were visited, Nancy, Sarah, and the members of the women’s club listened

and observed to understand what had been successful in what they had tried, and what they needed to do to be

more effective in promoting the new weaning foods. They visited mothers in their homes and asked them to

prepare one of the new recipes. They talked with the mothers about their experience with the new foods, problems

they had encountered, and other suggestions they had based on their experience. They also talked with several

local leaders about how they perceived the club’s work. They found that the community was generally enthusiastic

about the new recipes and the active role the women’s club was taking in promoting children’s health. About

half the women in the community were using the new recipes and the others wanted to try it, but “hadn’t had

time.” The mothers who had tried the new recipes said that one of them took much longer to make than the

other. Many mothers hadn’t heard the loudspeaker announcements because they were working in the fields

during the times they were played.

Reflecting on what they learned, Nancy, Sarah, and the club members discussed what they had done that was

successful and decided to continue their promotion. However, this time they decided they would focus more on

the recipe that took the least amount of time. They also decided to play the loudspeaker announcements in the

evening when mothers were at home. They developed a new action plan and continued with the process.

Example of Applying the Process to an Activity

When Nancy and Sarah developed the training on giving an effective counseling session for members of the

women’s club, they first observed how the club members communicated with each other. They asked the members

if any of them had ever received training in how to counsel or communicate with community members; two of

them had. When they gave the training session, they discussed and decided with the group why this training

was important and what the group would learn. During the training, the participants tried doing counseling

sessions several times in role plays. During each role play, the other club members listened and observed. After

each role play, they discussed and decided what each woman was doing well and what she could do better the

next time to improve her counseling session.

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Variety Is More than the Spice of Life

Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition

Table of Contents

I. Elements of a Good Diet: Variety Is More than the Spice of Life

II. Getting Enough Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins

A. Carbohydrates

B. Fats

C. Proteins

III. Some Vital Micronutrients: Vitamin A, Iron, and Iodine

A. Vitamin A

B. Iron

C. Iodine

IV. Nutrition for Women

A. Women and Anemia

B. Nutrition for Pregnant Women

C. Nutrition for Breastfeeding Women

V. Infant and Child Nutrition

A. Types of Malnutrition

B. Breast Milk, the Best Milk

C. Weaning Infants

D. Feeding Sick Children

E. Growth Monitoring

VI. Summary: Key Nutritional Actions to Improve Women’s and Children’s Nutrition

A. Actions to Improve Women’s Nutrition During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

B. Actions to Improve Infant’s and Children’s Nutrition

Appendix: Some Important Vitamins and Minerals

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I. Elements of a Good Diet: Variety Is More than the Spice of Life

People need to eat a variety of foods to stay healthy. Macronutrients provide energy (measured in units called

calories) to fuel and maintain the body. Micronutrients fill other functions that are vital to health and well-being

(see Appendix).

One way to group the nutrients is according to their main function in the body.

Nutrient Primary Function Some Examples of Ways to

Food Sources Remember

Carbohydrate Provide energy Grains, fats/oils, Force Food

Fat starchy vegetables Burning fire

(potatoes, cassava), Color yellow

sweets

Protein Promote growth in Peas, beans, nuts, Construction Food

children milk, eggs, fish, meat Growing child

Repair tissues Color red

Vitamins Protect from illness Most sour fruits, dark Protection Food

Minerals* green and orange Umbrella or roof

vegetables, animal liver Color green

* Although people need to get a number of vitamins and minerals from their diet, this handbook focuses on

vitamin A, iron, and iodine because these are among the most problematic in many developing countries of

the world.

Just as people keep reserves of grain for future need, the human body actually stores some nutrients. Fat is one

obvious way that the body stores energy. Certain vitamins and minerals also circulate in the bloodstream and

are stored in different organs, such as the liver, bones, skin, eyes, teeth, and hair. However, the body is not able

to store protein nor many kinds of vitamins, and these must be constantly provided through the diet.

When the supply of Force Foods (carbohydrates and fat) is not adequate, the body uses whatever else is being

eaten for energy. As the supply runs out, the body “ shuts down” in an effort to protect the most vital organs,

including the heart and brain. People notice the lack of energy first, feeling weak and tired; eventually they

may not be able to perform even the most simple task because all available energy in the body is being used to

keep the heart beating, the body temperature stable, and other bodily functions operating.

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II. Getting Enough Carbohydrates, Fats, and Protein

Carbohydrates, fats, and protein provide the fuel and “ building materials” the body needs to run and

maintain itself. In general, people need the following amounts of fuel:

• About 1600 calories for elderly people and inactive women

• About 2200 calories for children, adolescent girls, active women, and nonactive men

• About 2800 calories for adolescent boys, active men, and very active women

Sixty percent of those calories should come from carbohydrates, 25 to 30 percent from fat, and the rest from

protein.

A. Carbohydrates

Both starches (complex carbohydrate) and sugar (simple carbohydrate) can provide energy. Starches,

especially grains (rice, wheat, millet, rye, and corn) and root vegetables (cassava, potatoes) are

tremendously important in the diets of many people in developing countries. In fact, as much as 80

percent of the calories consumed by many of these people come from carbohydrate sources.

Sugars, such as sucrose and fructose, are appealing to many people, but they do not supply vitamins or

minerals, only energy. Starches, on the other hand, are usually found in foods that also provide vitamins,

minerals, fiber, and sometimes protein. A diet that provides a good variety of grains, fruits, and vegetables

has a number of nutritional benefits.

On the other hand, a diet composed of carbohydrate and little else—that is very low in protein, for

example—leaves people at risk for health problems such as infectious disease. In a community in which

80 percent of calories come from a staple carbohydrate such as rice, it will be important to encourage

people to increase their intake of other foods—especially protein.

B. Fats

The most vital function of fat is as a store of energy for the body. When fat is released from fat cells for

fuel, it “spares” protein for growth and the repair of tissues. But fat is important for other reasons: It

makes food more appealing and satisfying, keeps skin looking healthy, protects and “ cushions” vital

organs, and helps to regulate blood pressure, sexual development, and the central nervous system.

Dietary fat is a concentrated energy source, providing more than twice the calories per gram as

carbohydrate and protein. In communities in which Force Food consumption is low and calorie intake

is marginal, adding a little fat to the diet is a good recommendation because it provides good caloric

benefit. Unless getting more calories into the diet is a top nutritional priority, people should try to get

most of their fat intake in unsaturated fat, which is generally from plant sources—for example, from

olive oil and corn oil. Fat in and from animals (including butter, lard, and suet) tends to be predominantly

saturated fat, which has been linked to cardiovascular disease. Coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel

oil also contain predominantly saturated fat. For a woman who consumes 1800 calories to get about 25

percent of them in fat, she would have to consume about 50 grams of fat, equivalent to approximately

3.5 tablespoons of oil or butter.

C. Protein

Protein also supplies calories. Unless a person is not consuming enough Force Food, the body uses the

protein for building and maintaining body structures rather than for energy. All the proteins in the body

and in food are made up of building blocks called amino acids. The body is able to make all but nine of

the 20 amino acids; those nine essential amino acids must be provided in the foods eaten each day.

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Protein is found in many different kinds of food—meat, milk, grains, and vegetables. Animal foods

provide a great deal of protein, and the protein contains all nine of the essential amino acids. Grains and

vegetables have less protein, and the protein is usually lacking at least one of the essential amino acids.

But that does not mean that people have to eat animal foods to get all the protein they need. If a food

that lacks one amino acid is eaten with another that lacks a different amino acid, the protein of those

foods complement one another. A meal of rice and beans or pea soup and cornbread, for example, is a

good amino acid/protein source.

People do not need large amounts of protein each day to stay healthy, only around 10 percent to 18

percent of calories. For a woman who consumes 1800 calories a day, this is about 55 grams of protein,

equivalent to approximately four ounces of meat, a cup of milk, two slices of bread, and two ounces of

rice.

III. Some Vital Micronutrients: Vitamin A, Iron, and Iodine

The Appendix lists the major vitamins and minerals that are considered important or essential for human

health. In many rural areas of the world, low intakes of vitamin A and the minerals iron and iodine are the

most serious micronutrient deficiencies.

A. Vitamin A

Vitamin A plays an important role in vision, cell differentiation, bone growth, and resistance to infection.

Vitamin A helps protect the body’s surface areas, such as the skin, mouth, intestinal system, and

respiratory tract from germs. It is particularly important to protect children from severe consequences

of diseases such as diarrhea, measles, and acute respiratory illnesses.

A deficiency of vitamin A also can lead to night blindness (xerophthalmia) and, with prolonged deficiency,

to gradual destruction of the eye and permanent blindness. Adults can usually recognize night blindness

in themselves when they cannot see well at dusk or night time and bump into things as they are walking

around. In children, night blindness is harder to detect, but an observant mother or health worker can

suspect night blindness when a child displays the following behaviors:

• Ceases to play after sunset

• Sits quietly in a corner away from playmates

• Repeatedly bumps into objects

Night blindness can be both prevented and cured by eating enough vitamin A-rich foods. In countries

where vitamin A deficiency is common (Bangladesh, Benin, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana,

Guatemala, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Micronesia, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria,

the Philippines, Sri Lanka, the Sudan, Tanzania, Viet Nam, Yemen, and Zambia), you will find that

people may have a name for night blindness. Existence and common recognition of a local word for

night blindness is a good marker of a past or present vitamin A deficiency problem. You can determine

whether there is a local term for night blindness by asking 10 to 15 people if they know a word or phrase

that describes the inability to see at dusk or twilight.

The most common cause of vitamin A deficiency is inadequate consumption of foods rich in vitamin A.

However, there are two other causes of vitamin A deficiency:

When people are ill, their bodies typically do not absorb as much vitamin A, even though they eat

vitamin A-rich foods. Therefore, when people, especially children, are sick, they need to eat an extra

serving of a vitamin A-rich food each day.

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When people do not eat enough fat, oils, or protein foods, they cannot absorb and utilize plant

vitamin A. People need to eat a variety of these foods to ensure that they absorb the vitamin A they

are eating.

Children between six months and six years of age are at greatest risk for vitamin A deficiency because

their nutritional demands are high, their consumption of vitamin A-rich foods may be limited, and

illnesses such as diarrhea deplete their bodies’ vitamin A reserve.

Increasing consumption of vitamin A-rich foods is considered the safest, most sustainable long-term

measure to prevent vitamin A deficiency.

However, in some countries where vitamin A deficiency is a common problem, government and other

health care programs are distributing vitamin A capsules or liquids once every six months to children

between the ages of one and five years and to mothers in the first months after delivery.

The best sources of vitamin A are animal products such as liver, whole milk, eggs, and butter. Breast

milk is an excellent source of vitamin A for infants. Animal sources of vitamin A can be used directly by

the body.

Plants also are important sources of vitamin A. Plants contain beta-carotene, nutrients that can be

converted by the body into vitamin A. The best plant sources of vitamin A are dark green, leafy vegetables,

dark orange fruits and vegetables, and red palm oil. Examples of vitamin A-rich plant foods include

spinach, greens, amaranth, carrots, yellow sweet potato, pumpkin, ripe mango, papaya, baobab leaves,

basil leaves, cassava leaves, cow pea leaves, kale, red palm oil, red pepper, red pimento, and red sorrel.

The chart, Daily Vitamin A Requirements, shows how much vitamin A-rich food women and children should

eat to prevent vitamin A deficiency:

Daily Vitamin A Requirements (amounts are approximate)

Age Group Foods Sources (examples)

Children Breastfeeding Carrots or Mango or DGLV*

• 0-5 months Exclusive breastfeeding

• 6-11 months Breastfeeding 1/3 cup 1/4 cup 1/4 cup

• 12-34 months 1/2 cup 1/3 cup 1/3 cup

• 4-6 years 3/4 cup 1/2 cup 1/2 cup

Pregnant women 2 cups 1 cup 1 cup

Lactating women 3 cups 1 1/2 cups 1 1/2 cups

* DGLV = dark green, leafy vegetables

Source: Vital Nutrients: Supporting Life, Health, and Productivity through Iron, Iodine, and Vitamin A Nutrition

(Adapted from Rosen DS: Conducting a Qualitative Assessment of Vitamin A Deficiency, A Field Guide for

Program Managers. Helen Keller International, 1992.)

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B. Iron

The mineral iron must be supplied regularly in the diet. If food sources of iron or supplements are not

adequate, iron deficiency anemia may result. A person with iron deficiency will be tired and may have

trouble performing his/her work. It is also believed that iron deficiency may impair the immune system,

making people more susceptible to infectious disease. Iron deficiency causes children to become listless,

apathetic, and irritable, and it may affect their ability to learn. Deficiency in this mineral can take a

tremendous toll on a community’s well-being and productivity with few obvious signs.

As with vitamin A, the most common cause of iron deficiency is a lack of foods in the diet that have

adequate amounts of the nutrient. However, small amounts of iron are regularly lost in stools and urine,

and greater amounts through menstruation. People who have lost or donated blood may also have a

deficiency of iron, at least until the supply is replenished from food.

Breastfed infants generally are not iron-deficient, at least until about six or seven months of age.

Throughout the growing years of childhood and adolescence, however, both boys and girls are at risk

for iron deficiency. When adolescent girls begin to menstruate, their risk increases further. Women in

their reproductive years—especially when they are menstruating, pregnant, or breastfeeding—are much

more likely than men to have iron deficiency.

A few good food sources of iron include animal products. Meat, fish, poultry, and eggs are especially

good sources; liver is the best of all. However, some plant sources also provide iron, among them leafy

green vegetables, dried fruit, and enriched bread and cereal products. People can get the greatest benefit

from the iron in these foods by adding some source of ascorbic acid to the meal. Oranges, for example,

help the body absorb iron more effectively. Tea, on the other hand, can interfere with absorption.

The table, Recommended Intake of Iron, indicates how much iron (in milligrams) children, men, and

women need to get each day, depending on sex, age, and how much of the diet is provided by animal

foods. Because the iron in animal foods is absorbed so effectively by the body, the iron requirements are

shaped by the proportion of calories they provide.

Recommended Intake of Iron (according to type of diet)

10 % of Animal Foods Animal Foods Animal Foods

Absorbed Iron Required below 10 % of with 10–25 % of over 25 % of

Intake Calories Calories Calories

(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)

Infants 0-4 months 0.5 * * *

5-12 months 1.0 10 7 5

Children 1-12 years 1.0 10 7 5

Boys 13-16 years 1.8 18 12 9

Girls 13-16 years 2.4 24 18 12

Menstruating women 2.8 28 19 14

Men/nonmenstruating women .9 9 6 5

* Breastfeeding assumed to be adequate. (From FAO/WHO Expert Group Report: Requirements of Ascorbic Acid, Vitamin D, Vitamin

B12, Folate, and Iron. WHO Tech Rep Serv, No. 452. Geneva: World Health Organization.)

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The recommended amounts of iron can be gotten from the diet in a variety of foods. For example, an

average 60-gram serving of calf liver provides nearly 10 miligrams; a 90-gram portion of cooked chicken,

nearly two miligrams; a 50-gram egg, about one miligram; and three slices (70 grams) of bread, 1.7

miligrams.

C. Iodine

Iodine is a component of a hormone produced by the thyroid gland and, therefore, is important to

metabolic functions of the body. The problems caused by iodine deficiency range from swelling of the

thyroid gland, called goiter, to severe cretinism with mental retardation.

Although many animal and plant foods provide iodine, the amount of iodine depends to a great extent

on the environment. For example, sources of iodine are common around the seashore, in seafood, and in

coastal soils. Therefore, the diets of people who live near the sea and who eat a good amount of seafood

are unlikely to be deficient in iodine. Plants grown in these regions and the animals that feed on them

also tend to be high in iodine.

In inland communities, iodine is less likely to be found in the soils, so the foods produced in those

regions will be low in iodine. In mountainous areas, such as those in parts of South America, lack of

dietary iodine can pose serious health problems. Food processing and cooking practices can decrease

the amount of iodine available from food sources; and when people have diarrhea, extra iodine can be

lost from the body in stools.

In regions in which little iodine occurs naturally, iodized salt can be an important source of the mineral.

Good, natural sources of iodine include such seafood as cod, shrimp, lobster, clams, flounder, and oysters.

Other foods may be good or fair sources, depending on the amount of iodine in soils, feed, and fertilizer.

Those foods include seeds and nuts, such as sunflower seeds and peanuts; eggs; and some fruits and

vegetables, such as pineapple and greens.

In regions with little naturally occurring iodine, everyone may be at risk for deficiencies. However,

growing children and pregnant and breastfeeding women have special needs. The demands of the

developing fetus and of breast milk production may produce iodine deficiency in a mother.

The amount of iodine-rich food that people should eat each day is somewhat difficult to estimate. The

amount depends in part on how much iodine they are getting from all sources, including from their

drinking water. Only small amounts of the mineral are needed to avoid deficiency. It is estimated that

adults should get about 150 micrograms from various sources; that is what a person would get in about

two grams of iodized salt. Pregnant and breastfeeding women need 25 to 50 micrograms more. A

breastfeeding infant is unlikely to have iodine deficiency unless its mother is severely deficient. After

weaning, however, children need to be assured of good dietary sources, about 90 micrograms a day.

IV. Nutrition for Women

A. Women and Anemia

When women do not get enough Force Foods (carbohydrates and fat) and their calorie intake is too low,

it is usually fairly obvious because they look thin. But other kinds of food deficiencies are often harder

to spot. For example, women often feel run down and tired because they do not eat enough foods with

iron and suffer from anemia. Women are more prone to anemia because they regularly lose blood through

the menstrual cycle, and their diets tend to be more limited than men’s. Men, women, and children also

may suffer from intestinal parasites, which cause blood loss and anemia.

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B. Nutrition for Pregnant Women

For her child to develop well, a woman needs to gain about 25 to 28 pounds (11 to 12.5 kilograms)

during her nine months of pregnancy. She should gain the weight gradually and steadily. If her weight

increases or decreases suddenly, she should see a doctor. During the first three months, she should

expect to gain about two to five pounds (one to two kilograms). During the last six months of pregnancy,

she needs to gain about one pound (a bit less than .5 kilogram) each week, so that by nine months, she

has gained about 22 pounds (11 kilograms).

The baby accounts for only a small portion of the weight gained during pregnancy.

Weight Where the weight goes

3.3 kg Baby

0.7 kg Placenta

1.0 kg Uterus

4.0 kg Blood and fluids

2.0 kg Changes in getting the body ready for breastfeeding

Total: 11 kg

A pregnant woman’s body will protect her fetus at her expense. This means that whatever protective

nutrients are stored in the woman’s body or are consumed as food will be used first to develop the

growing fetus. Her body will use whatever is left over for her own growth and health. This can be a

problem because many pregnant women do not eat enough food or get enough variety in their diet to

meet their own needs. For example, pregnant women who suffer from night blindness are not eating an

adequate amount of vitamin A-rich foods. Their bodies are beginning to drain down their stores of the

nutrient, beginning with the amount needed by the eyes. In some African countries, many rural people

know that night blindness occurs among pregnant women, but consider it a normal symptom of

pregnancy that vanishes after birth. In fact, it is something that could be prevented by eating more foods

with vitamin A!

Only during the last two or three months of pregnancy does a baby gain enough weight to be healthy at

birth. Many rural women cut down on eating during the last few months of pregnancy, thinking this

will prevent a difficult delivery. However, if a woman is undernourished, she is will be weak and will be

more apt to have problems at delivery.

A woman who is too thin at the start of her pregnancy, who continues to be very active, or who does not

gain enough weight during her pregnancy may experience the following:

• Often feel exhausted

• Be less productive in her work

• Deliver a low-birth-weight infant who might not survive or who will be sickly

It is crucial, therefore, that a woman gain enough weight and build up her nutrient stores before and

during her pregnancy. If she is physically active during her pregnancy, she will need to eat more to gain

the recommended weight, since physical activity uses up the energy she has stored from eating.

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Women can have enough nutrients for both themselves and their unborn babies by consuming sufficient

calories and a variety of Force, Protection, and Construction Foods during pregnancy. If a pregnant

woman regularly eats small quantities of a variety of foods—dark green, leafy vegetables, fruit, peanuts,

and beans—she will stay healthy, her unborn child will grow, and her breast milk will flow well. While

it helps to eat slightly more food each day, quality is more important than quantity.

C. Nutrition for Breastfeeding Women

Most new mothers make enough breast milk without eating special foods. Women will remain healthier

if they continue to eat as they should during pregnancy, adding small quantities of milk, peanuts, or

fruit to their normal intake of Force Foods (carbohydrates and fat). An extra portion of Force Food will

help ensure a good flow of breast milk, as well as the woman’s health. Breastfeeding women should

also drink extra liquids to help the milk flow.

V. Infant and Child Nutrition

Child malnutrition is a major health problem worldwide because infants and very young children are

particularly susceptible to nutritional problems. A child has special needs for the energy and nutrients

provided by food because, in addition to needing nutritious foods the way adults do—for daily activities

and fighting off illness—a child is also growing rapidly, physically and mentally. Children who do not

receive enough Force, Construction, and Protection Foods will be smaller and less intelligent than other

children. A child who is severely malnourished for a long time may, if given better food, catch up in physical

growth, but he or she is less likely to catch up in mental development.

A. Types of Malnutrition

The following four types of malnutrition are those that are most common in children between the ages

of six and 18 months.

Wasting. Children who are wasting become very lean in relation to their length. This abnormal thinness

is most common in children older than six months of age who are breastfed but do not receive other

foods, or who have lost weight during an illness such as diarrhea and do not eat enough to regain. For

this reason, it is important to give extra nourishing food to sick children.

When measuring children and plotting their growth on growth charts, children whose weight is below average

for their height are wasted. Those whose weight is below average for their age are at risk for coming wasted.

Stunting. This abnormal shortness is generally not apparent until children become eight to 10 months

of age because the condition results from general poor nutrition over a relatively long time. It is hard to

recognize stunting when a whole village is poorly nourished, and all the children of the same age are

about the same height. However, these children often will be much shorter than children of the same

age in other areas of the same country.

When measuring children and plotting their growth on growth charts, children whose height is below average

for their age are at risk of becoming stunted. Only weighing children during growth monitoring sessions will

not identify stunting because stunted children often have a normal weight for their age.

Marasmus. This condition is marked by severe wasting that results from the child not receiving enough

food in general. It often occurs in the first year of life when an infant is weaned early and is fed foods

that are not appropriate complements to breast milk (such as over-diluted, starchy staple foods). Children

who suffer frequently from diarrhea are at risk for becoming marasmic because they do not eat enough

to fight the illness. Marasmic children often have some or all of the following physical conditions: elbows

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and knees that are larger than the rest of the limbs; ribs that are easy to see; skin that hangs in folds and

wrinkles over the buttocks; thighs that are straight from buttocks to knees and without the folds of fat

that healthy children have; a head or hands and feet that seem too big for the rest of the body; and an

old, wrinkled appearance. Children with marasmus tend to be very quiet.

Kwashiorkor: Kwashiorkor results from a deficiency in protein. The name kwashiorkor comes from

Ghana and refers to the illness of the child that is taken off the breast when a younger sibling is born.

Children under two years of age who are taken off the breast and not given Construction Foods (protein)

may get kwashiorkor. The most telling symptom is swollen feet and legs, or edema. You can identify

edema by gently pressing the child’s swollen hand or foot and seeing whether the indentation remains

briefly. Children may also develop a swollen face, a swollen abdomen and enlarged liver, reddish hair

all over or in patches, and dry, cracked skin that flakes off. Children with kwashiorkor tend to be quiet,

listless, and noninteractive. Kwashiorkor should be treated as an emergency, because children easily die

if this condition is not corrected. It may take months of proper feeding for a child with kwashiorkor to

recuperate.

Although it is important to be aware of these serious conditions, it is unusual to see children with

extreme forms of malnutrition. This is because these children are weak and have insufficient stores of

nutrients causing them to be more likely to die from diarrhea and other infectious diseases than wellnourished children.

B. Breast Milk, the Best Milk

Exclusive breastfeeding refers to feeding an infant only breast milk, without giving any

additional liquids or foods such as sugar water, herbal teas, juices, or baby formula. Exclusive

breastfeeding is the best way to feed young infants. Breast milk contains all the liquid and nutrients

that infants need for the first six months of life, even in very hot weather.

Besides containing all the nutrients infants need to grow, breast milk also provides antibodies and other

components that protect the child against disease. Infants who are fed only breast milk are less likely to

get sick from diarrhea, acute respiratory infections such as pneumonia and allergies, and a number of

other diseases. Putting a newborn to the breast immediately after birth (preferably within the first hour

of life) ensures that she or he receives colostrum, the thick, yellowish first milk especially rich in protein,

vitamin A, and disease-fighting antibodies. Several other reasons why immediate breastfeeding is good

for infants and mothers are as follows:

• It helps the newborn pass meconium, the black, liquid stools left from pregnancy

• It prevents a new mother’s breasts from becoming engorged

• It helps bring on the contractions that expel the placenta from the mother’s uterus and reduces

bleeding

Infants who are given sugar water, herbal teas, juices, or other liquids at birth, may not suck as hard on

the breast, and the mother’s milk supply will decrease, making it hard for her to provide all the liquid

and nutrients her baby needs. Also, young infants fed other liquids or foods besides breast milk are at

greatly increased risk for infections caused by dirty water, foods, utensils, or containers. Exclusive

breastfeeding until six months of age prevents these infections. Young infants do not need the extra

nutrients provided by other foods. Breast milk alone is both the best food and best liquid for them.

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How Can Mothers Breastfeed Successfully?

The more a child suckles, the more milk a mother produces. Mothers need to nurse frequently and

on demand—that is, whenever the infant is hungry. It is not unusual for infants to go through periods of

wanting to nurse every hour or so. If a mother tries to feed her infant according to a schedule, especially

if she spaces the feedings too far apart, her baby may become hungry and fussy between feedings. And

because it is the infant’s suckling that stimulates the production of breast milk, the mother’s breasts will

produce less and less milk, making it even more difficult to keep the infant satisfied.

Many mothers believe that they cannot produce enough milk to breastfeed and start feeding their infants

other products too early and unnecessarily. If mothers give their babies bottles, the children will be

suckling less and the mothers will actually produce less milk. When a mother believes she has insufficient

milk, she actually needs to breastfeed more frequently to produce more milk, instead of giving supplements

or powdered milk.

C. Weaning Infants

By around six months of age, infants need a small quantity of food in addition to breast milk. The mother

should give breast milk when the baby wants it, but also begin to offer a little porridge made from the

local staples. In some countries, mothers wean their children with watery porridge. Porridge can be

made more nutritious by cooking it with milk (breast milk, cow’s milk, or goat’s milk) and enriching it

with a little oil or sugar. A small amount will give the baby a lot of energy to grow. If the porridge is

made with water, milk can be added after it is prepared. The porridge should be thick, and fed from a

clean cup or bowl with a clean spoon. At first, the infant should get two or three small spoonfuls of

porridge twice a day.

Within a couple of weeks, a variety of other available foods should be added to make the porridge even

more healthy. Good foods to add are peas or beans such as pounded peanuts or soybeans and/or animal

foods such as fish and/or vegetables. Oil or sugar should be added whenever possible. The chart, Some

Ideas for a Healthy Porridge, shows how porridge was made better in one African country by adding

some Construction (protein) and Protection (vitamins and minerals) Foods:

Some Ideas for a Healthy Porridge

Millet + breast + oil + pounded + squash

milk or sugar ground nuts

(Force) (Construction) (Protection)

Good Better Best

Infants may need a few weeks to get accustomed to eating the new porridge mixes. Expect the younger

baby to eat about three to six spoonfuls of thick mixed porridge at least three times a day, in addition to

being breastfed. Mothers may continue to feed their infants this thick porridge well into the first year of

life, gradually increasing the quantity and adding other foods.

An important note: Porridge must be as fresh and clean as possible, because babies catch infections

and become ill easily. Feed the baby with a clean spoon from a clean cup or bowl.

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When infants are around eight months old, they can begin to eat soft fruit and cooked, mashed vegetables.

Again, mothers should be sure that the fruits and vegetables are clean. A cooked, mashed egg yolk is

also a very good food for babies learning to eat adult foods. Babies’ stomachs are small, so they cannot

eat a lot of food at one time; feeding some kind of good food five or six times a day helps them grow.

Parents should try to make sure that children eat as much of the “sauce foods” as they do of the staple

food at any one meal to ensure variety and full protection from illness.

By the time infants are about one year old, they should be able to eat all foods being prepared for the rest

of the family. Fish or meat should be cut into small pieces and all the bones taken out. Seeds and pits

might also need to be removed from vegetables if these are not completely softened by the cooking. A

small portion should be taken out of the pot before any strong seasoning or hot pepper is added. Extra

oil or sauce can be added and mashed into the food to make it softer. Small pieces of fruit or other foods

should be offered between meals. As children get older and begin to eat more adult foods, it is important

that they continue getting Protection and Construction, as well as Force Foods.

Young children need special attention when they are eating. Their appetites may change from day to

day. Some days they will need extra help and attention to eat enough to grow, especially when they are ill.

This sometimes takes a lot of insistence, and some mothers simply do not have the time to do it. Then

other family members, including older siblings, can help the younger children to eat. Even if young

children are able to feed themselves, they need to be supervised as they eat to ensure that they get all the

nutrients they need. The easiest way to supervise children when they are eating is to feed them from

their own separate bowl or calabash. This makes it easy for the busy mother or caretaker to know how

much the child is eating, and the child does not have to fight with other children for food.

D. Feeding Sick Children

Diarrhea is by far the most common health concern of mothers with young children. It is also one of the

most common causes of malnutrition and infant deaths around the world. Children with diarrhea may

reject food, or their caretakers may not understand the importance of feeding them while and after they

are sick.

Even when suffering from watery or bloody stools, a child can absorb the nutrients from most foods.

The child’s body will use these nutrients to fight the illness, gain weight, and grow. Usually, the amount

of stool lost will not increase when the child is fed. Children with diarrhea who are breastfeeding will

actually lose less stool and will recover faster.

• If a child is dehydrated, rehydration is the first priority: Get liquids into him/her.

• A sick child needs special foods with extra energy and nutrients to fight the illness.

• As children get better, they need extra foods to speed up the return to health.

• Sick children should get the same Force Foods, such as porridge and soft foods, that they get

when they are healthy. More encouragement and smaller, more frequent feedings may be needed

if a child does not want to eat.

• It is especially important for children with diarrhea to be fed with a clean spoon and cup or

bowl because they can easily catch other illnesses.

• For one week after the diarrhea goes away, children need at least one extra meal a day to build

up lost stores and protect their bodies.

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The following examples of common, easily digested foods are especially good for children with diarrhea:

• Breast milk (or animal milk when used as a mix for infant foods such as porridge)

• Rice mixed with vegetables

• Enriched porridge

• Mashed fruit (especially ripe bananas)

• Eggs

• Coconut water

Avoid giving children carbonated drinks during diarrhea because they can aggravate the diarrhea.

E. Growth Monitoring

Most countries in the world have growth monitoring programs and activities in which young children

are weighed (and sometimes measured, as well) every month. Their growth is noted down on a “growth

monitoring chart;” most countries use a standardized chart developed by UNICEF. Monthly weighing

allows the health worker and the mother to understand if the child is gaining weight as she/he should

be and to identify children who are losing weight because of their diet or frequent illnesses. The health

worker then helps the mother identify exactly what she should do to help the child gain more weight

and “catch up” to where she/he should be on the growth monitoring chart. The following describes a

sample procedure for weighing children.

Begin to observe possible places where the scale can hang as soon as you walk toward the household. Be

selective about where you place the scale. It is best to measure outdoors during daylight hours. If it is

cold or raining, or if too many people congregate and interfere with the measurements, it may be more

comfortable to weigh a child indoors. Make sure there is adequate light.

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Control the Child

When you weigh, you must control the child. The strength and mobility of even very young children

should not be underestimated. Be firm yet gentle with children. Your own sense of calm and self

confidence will be felt by the mother and the child. When a child has contact with the weighing pants,

you must hold and control the child so the child will not trip or fall. Never leave a child alone with the

scales. Always have physical contact with the child except when you must let go of a child for a few

seconds while taking the weight.

Coping with Stress

Since weighing requires touching and handling children, normal stress levels for this type of work are

high.

Explain the weighing procedure to the mother and, to a limited extent, the child, to help minimize

possible resistance, fears, or discomfort they may feel. You must determine if the child or mother is

under so much stress that the weighing must stop. Remember, young children often are uncooperative;

they tend to cry, scream, and kick, and sometimes bite. If a child is under severe stress and is crying

excessively try to calm the child or return the child to the mother for a moment before proceeding with

the weighing.

Do not weigh a child in any of the following situations:

a. The mother refuses

 b. The child is too sick or too distressed

c. The child is physically deformed, which will interfere with or give an incorrect measurement

Recording Measurements and Being Careful

Record the measurements in pencil. If you make an error, completely erase the error and rewrite the

correct numbers. Keep objects out of your hands and pencils out of your mouth, hair, or breast pocket

when you weigh and measure so that neither the child nor you will get hurt due to carelessness. When

you are not using a pencil, place it in your equipment pack or pencil case. Make sure you do not have

long fingernails. Remove interfering rings and watches before you weigh and measure. Do not smoke

when you are in a household or when you weigh.

Strive for Improvement

You can be an expert measurer if you strive for improvement and follow every step of every procedure

the same way every time. The quality and speed of your measurements will improve with practice. You

may be working with a partner to form a team. If so, you will be responsible for not only your own

work, but also for the quality of work of your team.

You will be required to weigh many children. Do not take these procedures for granted even though

they may seem simple and repetitious. It is easy to make errors when you are not careful. Do not omit

any steps. Concentrate on what you are doing as you perform the following steps:

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1. Measurer or Assistant. Hang the scale from a tree branch, ceiling beam, tripod, or pole held

by two people. You may need a piece of rope to hang the scale at eye level. Ask the mother to

undress the child.

2. Measurer. Attach a pair of the empty weighing pants, infant sling, or basket to the hook of the

scale and adjust the scale to zero; then remove it from the scale.

3. Measurer. Have the mother hold the child. Put your arms through the leg holes of the pants.

Grasp the child’s feet and pull the legs through the holes. Make certain the strap of the pants is

in front of the child.

4. Measurer. Attach the strap of the pants to the hook of the scale. Do not carry the child by the

strap only. Gently lower the child and allow the child to hang freely.

5. Assistant. Stand behind and to one side of the measurer ready to record the measurement.

Have the child’s growth chart ready.

6. Measurer and Assistant. Check the child’s position. Make sure the child is hanging freely and

not touching anything. Repeat any steps as necessary.

7. Measurer. Hold the scale and read the weight to the nearest 0.1 kg. Call out the measurement

when the child is still and the scale needle is stationary. Even children who are very active,

which causes the needle to wobble greatly, will become still long enough to take a reading. Wait

for the needle to stop moving.

8. Assistant. Immediately record the measurement on the growth chart and show it to the measurer.

9. Measurer. As the assistant records the measurement, hold the child in one arm and gently lift

the child by the body. Do not lift the child by the strap of the weighing pants. Release the strap

from the hook of the scale with your free hand.

10. Measurer. Check the recorded measurement on the growth chart for accuracy and legibility.

Instruct the assistant to erase and correct any errors.

* If the assistant is untrained (for example, the mother), then weight should be taken by one person

only, the trained measurer, who should also record the measurement on the questionnaire.

Adapted from “Improving Young Child Feeding During Diarrhoea,” Marcia Griffeths et al, The

Weaning Project, Manoff International for Pritech, Management Sciences for Health, June, 1988.

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VI. Summary: Key Nutritional Actions to Improve Women’s and

Children’s Nutrition

(Adapted from Facts for Life, A Communication Challenge, UNICEF, WHO, and UNESCO, 1991.)

A. Actions to Improve Women’s Nutrition During Pregnancy and

Breastfeeding

A pregnant woman should take the following actions:

• Action 1. Eat more food than she normally eats.

– Increase the amount of food she eats each day.

– Eat at least one extra serving each day of a Construction Food (protein), a Force Food

(carbohydrate and/or fat), and a Protection Food (a food rich in vitamins and minerals).

– Be weighed as soon as she knows she is pregnant. It is important that she gain weight every

month during pregnancy and that she gain a total of 20 to 33 pounds (10 to 12 kilograms).

• Action 2. Eat a variety of foods from all three major food groups each day.

B. Actions to Improve Infant’s and Children’s Nutrition

Mothers should take the following action:

• Action 1. Give only breast milk to infants until they are six months old. Bottle-feeding

can lead to serious illness and even death.

– Start breastfeeding as soon after birth as possible.

– Feed her infant only breast milk for the first four to six months.

– Continue to breastfeed into the second year of the child’s life, if possible.

Parents should take the following action:

• Action 2. Monitor the child’s weight and weight gain.

– Weigh their child every month from the time it is born until it is three years of age.

– Take a child who does not gain weight for two months to a health worker to determine the

cause of the problem and take action. The action would depend on whether the child is

failing to gain because of illness, poor food, or lack of attention (see the following key actions).

• Action 3. Begin to feed the child other foods in addition to breast milk when he or she

is between four and six months of age.

– Breastfeed before giving other foods at first, to ensure a good supply of breast milk.

– Add boiled, peeled, and mashed vegetables to a young child’s gruel or other weaning food

at least once a day.

– Give the child a good variety of foods.

– Begin feeding the infant food prepared for the rest of the family when he or she is about

eight months old. Mash the vegetables, fish, or meat well before feeding it to the child.

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• Action 4. Feed a child under three years of age five or six times a day. A child’s energy

needs, for its size, are greater than an adult’s, but its stomach is smaller, so it cannot eat much at

one meal.

– Give the child snacks of whatever is available in the home.

– Enrich the child’s gruel or porridge with mashed vegetables and a little oil or fat.

– Between meals, give a child dried foods or fresh snacks—for instance, fruits, bread, patties,

biscuits, nuts, coconut, or bananas.

Note: Feed the child foods that have not been standing for several hours. These foods

become highly contaminated. If it is not possible to feed a child freshly cooked, fresh, or

dried food five or six times a day, remember that breast milk is always clean and free from

germs.

• Action 5. Add a small amount of mashed vegetables and extra fat or oil—for instance,

butter, ghee, crushed nuts, or vegetable, soya, coconut, corn, or ground nut oil—to the

family’s usual food before feeding it to a child under three years of age. The family’s

normal food needs to be enriched to meet the special energy needs of a growing child.

• Action 6: Feed a child at least one vitamin A-rich animal or plant food, for example,

small bits of liver or red and orange fruits and vegetables, every day.

– Provide vitamin A-rich food to a child who has had diarrhea or measles; these illnesses

cause vitamin A to be lost from the child’s body. And breastfeed the child more often.

– Give a child who cannot see well at dusk or at night more red and orange fruits and

vegetables, or dark green leaf sauce. If possible, give the child three small pieces of liver at

least once a week until he or she can see well at night. Take the child to the health center.

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• Action 7: Feed a child who has been ill extra meals for at least a week after the illness

subsides so he or she can catch up on the growth lost during the illness. The child is not

fully recovered until she/he is at least the same weight as when the illness began. A

sick child, especially if she/he has diarrhea or measles, will have little appetite. And

less of whatever food the child does manage to eat is absorbed into the body. If this

happens several times a year, the child will become malnourished.

– Encourage a child who is ill to take food and drink. This can be very difficult if the child

does not want to eat, so offer the child favorite foods (usually soft, sweet foods) a little at a

time and as often as possible.

– Give a child who has diarrhea plenty to drink. If the child is still being breastfed, breastfeed

more often. Give oral rehydration solution to a child who has diarrhea for more than one

day.

– Take the child to a health worker or clinic if illness and poor appetite persist for more than

a few days.

It is also important to protect a child’s growth by preventing illness.

– Get the child fully immunized before the age of one year.

– Give breast milk only for the first four to six months, then introduce other foods and continue

to breastfeed.

– Always use latrines and keep hands, food, and kitchens clean.

• Action 8: Help a child under two years of age to eat, especially when the child is ill.

Children need to have people talk, play, and show love to them. This is essential for a child’s

physical, mental, and emotional growth. Children need a close, sensitive, and caring relationship

with the adult or adults who care for them. They need stimulation. Lack of attention makes a

child unhappy. A neglected child loses interest in life, has less appetite, and may fail to grow

normally in mind and body.

– Supervise a young child while she/he eats. If the child is not eating well, help him/her eat.

Watch to see if the child finishes his or her portions, and give more food if the child is still

hungry. If there are many children in the family, or if the mother does not have time to help

the child to eat, other family members, including older siblings, should take responsibility

for ensuring that the child is eating enough and the right kinds of foods each day.

– Talk, sing, or play with the child to encourage eating. Urge the child to eat “ just one more

bite.” It sometimes helps to hold the child.
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Appendix

Some Important Vitamins and Minerals

Some Vitamin Food Sources Body Function

A Dark green, orange, yellow, red Vital for vision, bone growth,

(beta vegetables and fruits (pumpkin, carrots, maintenance of lining of lungs,

carotene) spinach, greens); fortified bladder, eyelids, sinus passages

 milk products

D Fortified milk; fatty fish; eggs Helps bone growth

E Vegetable oils (soybean, corn, Maintains, protects cell membranes

 safflower); margarine; nuts; whole from damage

 grains; leafy, green vegetables

K Leafy, green vegetables; broccoli; Helps blood clotting

cauliflower; dairy products

Thiamine Pork; whole grain/enriched grain Helps convert food energy into body

(B1) products; greens; dried beans energy; supports normal appetite,

nervous system function

Riboflavin Dairy products; eggs; dark green Helps convert food energy into body

(B1) vegetables; enriched breads/cereals; energy; promotes healthy skin, normal

 beef, lamb, chicken; salmon, tuna vision

Niacin Poultry, meat, eggs, fish; enriched Helps convert food energy into body

(B3) breads/grains; nuts; dried beans energy; promotes health of skin, nerves

Pyridoxine Whole grain breads/cereals, Helps body use protein and form

(B6) oats; fish, pork; peanuts, walnuts antibodies, red blood cells

B12 Poultry; eggs; milk (found almost Helps build body cells

exclusively in animal foods)

C Citrus fruits, melons, strawberries, Helps body form connective tissue

tomatoes, potatoes, dark green (bones, arteries), absorb iron, use

vegetables protein, vitamins, minerals

Folic acid Leafy, green vegetables; dried peas/ Helps build body cells, manufacture

beans; cauliflower; broccoli; oranges; protein

corn; green peas; whole wheat bread
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Appendix

Some Important Vitamins and Minerals

Some Minerals Food Sources Body Function

Potassium Milk; cantaloupe, bananas, oranges; Maintains heartbeat, helps in

beans/peas, lima beans; dried transmission of nerve impulses,

fruit; potatoes contraction of muscles

Calcium Milk products; leafy, green vegetables; Forms foundation of bones, teeth;

 dried beans/peas regulates heartbeat, transmission of

nerve impulses; helps blood clotting

Phosphorus Milk products; meat, poultry, fish; Forms foundation of bones, teeth;

cereal; peas, beans helps build body cells

Magnesium Green leaves; nuts; cereals, grains; Helps body manufacture protein,

seafood convert food energy to body energy;

relaxes muscles; helps teeth resist

decay; transmission of nerve impulses

Iron Meat, eggs, poultry, fish; dried beans; As component of all body cells/

fortified breads/cereals protein, transports oxygen in blood

Iodine Seafood; iodized salt; milk products Component of hormone that regulates

body energy expenditure

Fluoride Tea; fluoridated water; fish Helps teeth resist decay

Sodium Table salt, salt added to processed Regulates body fluid; helps in

foods transmission of nerve impulses,

contraction of muscles

Zinc Milk; meat, poultry, fish; whole grain Helps normal growth processes,

breads/cereals maintains body tissues, assists in

insulin production, maintains normal

sense of taste
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Session Plan

Section II: Session 1

What Do We Need to

Learn from the Community?

Overview

This session introduces the first step of the Process for Change, Listen

and Observe. Trainees begin to identify what information they will

need to gather from the community to live and work effectively there,

and where they might listen and observe to gather this information.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Identifying

what they need to learn from the community is important for all

Volunteers. However, you will need to adapt the handout and Activity

2 to your specific technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session, Trainees will be able to :

1. List at least five aspects of community life that the Volunteer, his/

her counterparts, and other community members need to explore

to develop their activities and projects within the community.

2. List the information they need to gather from the community to

make these decisions.

Time

2 hours

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition

(in previous Session: Promoting Powerful People: A Process for

Change) and/or other background technical handouts
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Listen and Observe

– What We Need to Learn about Nutrition from the Community

Vocabulary

Identify, solution, action, needs, resources, community, counterpart,

nutrition, pregnancy, names of different types of foods, weight,

weaning, vitamin

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction

Time: 30 minutes

Refer to the drawing of the process for change. Explain that this

session is the introduction to the first step of the process. The

subsequent sessions will teach them the skills they need to listen

and observe in the community.

Explain that listening and observing will help the Volunteer, his/

her counterparts, and other community members gather essential

information needed to make decisions about community action.

Topic 1. What resources, beyond people, such as roads, buildings,

water, available land, institutions, and so on, exist in the

community?

Topic 2. What are the best ways to communicate with people?

What methods are already in use? What communication channels

(interpersonal, mass media, print, and folk media) and

educational techniques exist for men, women, girls, and boys?

Topic 3. Where are the most effective places to conduct promotion

activities? Where do men and women, boys and girls spend their

time? When during the day or week is the best time for activities

for men, women, girls, and boys?

Topic 4. What is important to the men and the women, the boys

and the girls of the community? What are the principal desires,

needs and problems of each group?

Topic 5. With whom do my counterpart and I need to work

(individuals, community groups, and agencies) to improve or

change the situation, to contribute to solving the problems in a

way that builds on and strengthens community resources and

current activities?

Explain that Volunteers are most successful when they help the

community identify their own needs and then identify solutions

or actions to change the situation. Many Volunteers arrive at their

site with a set idea about what the problem is and what they are
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going to do about it. Frequently their idea of a priority problem is

very different from that of the community. Volunteers then feel

frustrated because the community resists working on something

it does not see as important.

Explain that the Trainees will need to be very flexible when they

arrive at their site. Although this training focuses on nutrition,

they may find that the community members perceive other areas

as more important. Volunteers should work with the men and

women, boys and girls to change or improve the situations they

find unacceptable. As they work on their own priorities, the

community will gain skills and confidence in changing their

situation. Meanwhile, the Volunteer can raise consciousness of

nutrition issues. They can then build nutrition activities on top of

successes in other areas, after they have gained the confidence of

the community.

Emphasize that no matter what the groups within the community

define as their priority, the Volunteers can use the same process

and skills they learn in this training to help community members

help themselves regarding whatever change they desire.

Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: What We Need to Learn About Nutrition from the Community (Small

Group Work)

Time: 45 minutes

Explain that in this session the Trainees will begin to list the

information they and their counterparts will need to gather from

the men and women of the community in order to jointly make

decisions on activities in the community.

Divide the Trainees into three groups and assign each the topics

listed below. Ask each group to generate a list of questions they

would need to ask or information they would need to gather to

understand the current situation. Have them write their ideas on

flip chart paper divided into two columns: Type of Information

Needed and Source of Information.

GROUP A

Topic 1. What is important to the men and women, boys and

girls of the community? What are the principal needs, desires, or

problems of each group in the community?

Topic 2. With whom (individuals, community groups, and

agencies) do my counterpart and I need to work to identify their

needs or desires and do it in a way that builds on and strengthens

community resources and activities?
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Listen and Observe

GROUP B

Topic 3. Which solution or action do we need to promote? More

specifically—

• Which solution or action should we promote to improve

women’s nutrition?

• Which solution or action should we promote to improve

children’s nutrition?

Ask this group to refer to the section, “Recommendations for

Nutritional Actions that Can Improve Women’s and Children’s

Nutrition” in Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic MaternalChild Nutrition.

GROUP C

Topic 4. Where are the most effective places to conduct

promotional activities?

Topic 5. What are the best ways to communicate with people?

What communication channels (interpersonal, mass media, print,

and folk media) and educational techniques should we use?

Activity 3: What We Need to Learn About Nutrition from the Community Handout

Time: 30 minutes

Distribute the handout What We Need to Learn About Nutrition from

the Community and ask the Trainees to read it. In their groups,

have them compare these questions with the ones they developed

and add to their lists any questions they have not considered.

Have each group make a flip chart showing their lists, and ask

one member to type these up for distribution. Ask them to bring

the list of questions to all future sessions so they can use it as a

guide to what they should listen for and observe in the community

during the training.

Explain that in addition to learning how the community operates

in general, we need to learn more about current health practices

and beliefs. The handout outlines 11 important issues for health.

Divide the Trainees into groups, one group per handout topic.

Consider how, where, and with whom you can gather this

information. Relate it to the earlier charts. There must be at least

two methods per question.
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Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

Explain that in the next several sessions, the Trainees will learn

skills to help them gather the information from the community.

Describe the sessions you have selected to teach these skills.

Emphasize that the activities they will perform in the next sessions

are the same as those they should do when they first arrive in

their sites.

Ask for and answer questions.

Trainer’s Notes
55

Listen and Observe

What We Need to Learn About Nutrition

from the Community

Topic A: Nutrition During Pregnancy

What nutritional information is known and acted on in the community?

1. How much weight do women think they should gain during pregnancy and why?

2 . What foods do people believe are “good” and “bad” for pregnant women and why (benefits and

disadvantages)?

3. What foods do pregnant women actually eat and why?

Note specifically:

• Construction foods (protein)

• Force foods (carbohydrates and fats)

• Protection foods (vitamins and minerals, especially iron)

4. How much (more or less than normal) food do people believe is good for pregnant women and why?

5. Do women go to the clinic for prenatal care when they think they are pregnant? Why or why not?

Topic B: Monitoring Growth

1. How do people perceive a healthy child’s growth? What signs do they look for that indicate the child is

or is not “growing well”?

2. Do mothers take their children to be weighed each month? Why or why not?

3. What happens when they take children to be weighed? Does the health worker give them advice about

what to do? Do they understand what the health worker tells them about the results? Do they act on

that advice?

Topic C: Breastfeeding

1. When (how soon after birth) do mothers begin breastfeeding? Why (benefits and disadvantages)? Do

they give anything else to the baby to eat after it is born and/or during the first days? Why (benefits and

disadvantages)?

2. Do mothers exclusively breastfeed (give only breast milk and do not give water, juice, or any other

liquids) to their babies? If so, for how long and why?

3. Do any parents bottlefeed their children? Why do they begin to introduce bottles (advantages and

disadvantages, both social and medical)? What does it cost them to bottlefeed?

4. How long do mothers breastfeed their children after they have begun giving them other foods?

5. What do parents perceive are the benefits of giving only breast milk for the first four to six months and

for continuing breastfeeding until the child is at least two-years old? What are the disadvantages?

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Topic D: Weaning

1. At what age do parents begin giving other foods to children and why? What foods do they give?

2. What foods are considered “good” and “bad” for infants and why?

3. Which force, construction, and protection foods are already in their diets? Do infants receive all three

types of food every day? Is there any variety from meal to meal, day to day?

4. What foods are available and affordable?

5. What is the position of various family members in terms of the order and quality of the food that they

eat? Who eats “first” and “last”? Who gets the largest servings?

Topic E: Feeding Five to Six Times a Day

1. How many times a day do most parents currently feed their child and why?

2. How many times do they believe a child should be fed and why?

3. What constraints and problems do parents perceive in feeding their child five to six times a day (mother

is in the field working, baby is asleep, etc.)? What solutions can they find to overcome these constraints

(ask an older sibling or other family member to feed the baby, wait until the baby wakes up, etc.)?

4. What “snack foods” (foods that have not been contaminated by standing for several hours such as

fruits, bread, patties, biscuits, nuts, coconut, bananas) are easily available that the parents might feed

the baby between meals?

Topic F: Adding Fat or Oil to Children’s Food

1. What sources of fat are readily available in the community for children?

2. Do parents currently provide children with foods high in fat, or add fat or oil to children’s foods? Why

or why not?

3. What problems or barriers do parents have to doing this and what solutions do they suggest for

overcoming or solving those problems or barriers?

Topic G: Vitamin A

1. Is vitamin A deficiency a problem in the country or community where you are working?

2. Are there local words/vocabulary for the inability to see at dusk or twilight (night blindness)? Do many

people know and use them?

3. What vitamin A-rich foods are found in the community and during what times of the year?

4. Which of these foods do people consider to be “good” and “bad” for young children and why?

5. What ideas do community members have for increasing vitamin A-rich food in young children’s diets

each day?

6. Which of these foods do some young children already eat? How much and how often do they eat them?

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Listen and Observe

7. Does the government or other agency distribute vitamin A capsules? If so, do mothers seek these capsules?

Why or why not?

Topic H: Feeding During and After Illness

1. What do parents consider to be a healthy child and an unhealthy child? What signs do they look for and

why?

2. How do parents feed their child when she/he is ill and why? What foods and how much of them do

they give and why? What liquids and how much of them do they give and why?

3. What do they do and/or think they should do if the child does not want to eat when she/he is ill and

why?

4. What problems do they have when they offer the child the food she/he likes (usually soft, sweet foods)

a little at a time and as often as possible and what solutions can they find to solve those problems?

5. What signs do parents look for in their child that makes them take the child to the health center? What

do they do when the child loses his/her appetite for several days and why?

6. What signs do parents look for that tell them that their child has completely recovered from the illness?

Is regained weight one of them?

7. How do parents feed their child after the illness is over and why (increase the amount, change the types

of foods)?

8. Do parents complete their child’s immunization schedule? Why or why not?

Topic I: Supervising or Helping the Child to Eat

1. How and where do young children eat and why?

2. Does anyone supervise how much and what the young child eats? Why or why not? Who is it?

3. Does anyone help the young child to eat if he is not eating well? Why or why not? Who is it? How do

they do it (hold the child, talk, sing, bribe, threaten)?

4. Does the child have his/her own bowl? If not, who else is eating from the pot?

5. Who decides when the child should stop eating—the child or someone else?

6. What problems do mothers have in supervising and/or helping a young child to eat at each meal and

what solutions do they suggest to solve those problems?

7. If the mother is too busy or is not at home during all the meals, who else could supervise or help be

responsible for making sure the young child eats enough and eats a variety of foods?

Topic J: Iron and Iodine

1. To what extent do people connect extreme tiredness with lack of iron-rich foods?

2. What iron-rich foods are available locally, at what cost?

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3. What age and sex groups are most likely to eat these foods? Are there any culturally based beliefs or

taboos that prevent young adolescent girls, and/or pregnant or breastfeeding mothers from eating any

of these foods?

4. Are iron and folate tablets available at the community clinic?

5. Do pregnant women receive iron and folate tablets?

Topic K: Iodized Salt

1. Given the geographical locations and sources of foods for the community, how likely is iodine deficiency?

2. If there are good natural sources of iodine-rich foods, who in the family is likely to eat them? Are there

reasons growing children and pregnant or breastfeeding women could not eat them?

3. Is iodized salt available in the community?

4. How much does non-iodized salt cost?

5. How much does iodized salt cost?

6. Do families buy and use iodiozed salt?

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Listen and Observe

Section II: Session 2

Asking Questions

Session Plan

Overview

Knowing how to ask questions is one of the most important skills a

Volunteer can learn. The questions Volunteers ask and how they ask

them will determine how much and what they are able to learn about

and communicate with community members.

In the Asking Questions session, the Trainees learn the differences

among open-ended, closed-ended, and leading questions. They

practice using open and closed-ended questions. They also learn about

and practice four probing techniques that will help them understand

more completely the culture and community in which they are living.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Knowing how

to ask questions is important to all Volunteers. Adapt the Community

Practice assignment to make it relevant to your specific training area.

Objectives

By the end of the session, the Trainees will be able to:

1. Give at least two examples each of open-ended, closed-ended,

and leading questions.

2. Demonstrate and explain at least three probing techniques.

3. Give appropriate and useful feedback to each other.

Time

3 hours
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Asking Questions. Distribute the handout before the session. Ask

Trainees to read it and record comments and questions they

want to discuss. They should complete the “Asking Questions

Worksheet” so you can discuss it during the session.

– How to Give Effective Feedback Section

– Asking Questions Observation Checklist

Staff

Cross-cultural trainer to discuss cultural factors related to asking

questions in the country in which your training is being conducted.

Historical factors might make people wary of direct questions. There

may be a preferred question style.

Resources

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklet 4 (ICE no.

M0054).

Vocabulary

Why, what, who, when, where, tell me more about, explain more

about, suppose that, opinion

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Open-Ended, ClosedEnded, and Leading Questions

Time: 15 minutes

Ask the Trainees to give definitions of open-ended, closed-ended,

and leading questions. Write their words on flip chart paper. Ask

the Trainees to give examples of each type of question in English

and in the language in which they will be working.

Emphasize that they should try to use more open-ended than

closed-ended questions to understand what people do and why.

They may start with a closed-ended question, but should then

ask an open-ended question to further explore and understand

the reasons why community members act or believe the way they

do.

T
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Listen and Observe

Emphasize that they should not ask any leading questions.

Leading questions do not allow community members to tell what

they really think and know. They encourage community members

to say that they agree with the Volunteer, even if they don’t!

Ask the cross-cultural trainer to discuss cultural factors related

to asking questions in the country in which your training is being

conducted. Ask him/her to discuss why community members

might tell Volunteers what they think the Volunteers want to hear

and what Volunteers can do to change this conduct.

Activity 2: Identifying and Writing Open-Ended

and Closed-Ended Questions

Time: 30 minutes

Review the “Asking Questions Worksheet” in the handout. Decide

if each question is open-ended, closed-ended, or leading.

Ask each Trainee to read one of his/her examples of open-ended

and closed-ended questions. The group should decide whether

she/he has phrased it correctly. The Trainees should correct their

questions if necessary.

Discuss sharing the handout with counterparts after they develop

a good relationship since counterparts may not be familiar with

these questioning and probing techniques. Volunteers and

counterparts can both use these techniques to learn from each

other and from other community members.

Activity 3: Practice Asking Questions

Time: 45 minutes

Ask the Trainees to make an observation checklist with the

following columns on a piece of paper.

Number of Open- Number of Closed- Number of

Ended Questions Ended Questions Leading Questions

Divide the Trainees into small groups of four participants each. If

counterparts are present at the training, have two Volunteercounterpart pairs work together. Each group defines the topic

they will talk about. One person in each group asks questions,

one answers, and two observe.

• The person asking questions will practice learning from one

of the people in the group using more open-ended questions

than closed-ended questions. If the person asking questions
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finds him/herself asking a closed-ended question, she/he

should ask an open-ended question to obtain more

information. She/he should ask no leading questions!

• The observers will decide if each question is an open-ended,

closed-ended, or leading question, then complete the

observation checklist by placing a mark in the appropriate

column each time the person asks a question.

Teach the Trainees how to give good feedback. Before starting

the practice, discuss the idea of giving and accepting feedback.

Write on a flip chart the purpose of feedback: Feedback is given

to reinforce what is appropriate and to suggest how to change

what is inappropriate. To be useful, feedback must be:

• Specific. Describe exactly what the person did well and what

she/he could do better next time. Describes behaviors you

observed. If it is not clear why someone did something, ask

them to explain.

• Constructive. Describe in positive terms what the person

could do better next time. Say, “Try ...” instead of “Don’t do...”

• Pleasant. Always give feedback in a setting and manner that

does not embarrass the other person. Remember, you are

working together to improve his/her knowledge and skills.

Distribute the handout How to Give Effective Feedback for their

reference.

After five minutes stop the activity. The observers should give

feedback to the person asking questions on how well she/he used

open-ended and closed-ended questions.

Rotate roles until each person in the group has practiced asking

questions.
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Listen and Observe

Activity 4: Probing Techniques

Time: 15 minutes

Ask the Trainees to list and define the four probing techniques

discussed in their handout and write them on flip chart paper.

Discuss why probing techniques are important.

Activity 5: Practice Using Probing Techniques

Time: 45 minutes

Review the “Asking Questions Observation Checklist” in the

handout. Divide the Trainees into small groups of four participants

each. If counterparts are present at the training, have two

Volunteer-counterpart pairs work together. Each group defines

the topics they will discuss. As in the previous exercise, one person

in each group asks questions, one answers the questions, and two

observe.

• The person asking questions should try to use all four probing

techniques discussed. She/he should continue to practice using

open-ended questions. She/he should ask no leading

questions.

• The observers should complete the “Asking Questions

Observation Checklist” by recording all actions observed on

the list. They also should make sure to record each time the

person being observed asks an open-ended, closed-ended, and

leading question.

After five minutes, ask the observers to give feedback to the person

asking questions on how well she/he used the probing techniques

and open-ended questions.

Rotate roles until each person in the group has practiced using

the probing techniques.

Activity 6: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 30 minutes

Review the practice sessions with some questions, such as

1. What types of questions provided the most information?

2. What were some of the difficulties in formulating good

questions?

3. In what ways might you prepare yourself for asking questions

prior to an interview?
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Assign pairs of Volunteers to review the questions they developed

and those provided on the What We Need to Learn About Nutrition

from the Community handout. Each pair of Volunteers should work

on one topic only. Their task is to take these questions and see

how they might need to be adapted for use in an interview. After

about 10 minutes, ask each pair to share one revised question

with the full group.

Community Practice. Ask the Trainees to practice using openended and closed-ended questions and the four probing

techniques in their homes this evening. After they have practiced,

they should review the checklist and record in their diaries what

they did well and what they need to work on. At the beginning

of the following session, discuss and help them process their

experiences.

Trainer’s Notes
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Listen and Observe

Asking Questions

Knowing how to ask questions is one of the most important skills a Volunteer can learn. It is also an important

area in which to get good cultural information. Some question forms may be more acceptable than others; some

may be offensive. The questions you ask and how you ask them will determine what and how much you are

able to learn from and communicate with community members. You will be able to learn and communicate just

about anything if you ask the right questions in the right way! Some types of questions you will be asking

include the following:

• Experience/behavior questions help you find out about what a person does or has done. They help

you to obtain descriptions of experiences, behaviors, actions, and activities that would have been

observable if you had been present. Example: If you were pregnant, what would I see you eating?

• Opinion/value questions help you understand people’s goals, intentions, desires, and values. Examples:

What do you think about ...? What do you believe about...? What would you like to see happen? What

is your opinion of...? What do people in the community think about...?

• Feeling questions help you understand emotional responses to a person’s experiences and thoughts.

Example: How do you feel about the way your baby is eating?

• Knowledge questions help you find out what factual information the person knows. Examples: What

foods are good for young children? What should a woman eat when she is pregnant?

• Sensory questions help you determine what is seen, heard, touched, tasted, and smelled. Example:

How does this new weaning food taste to you?

• Background/demographic questions help you understand the person with whom you are speaking in

relation to other people. Examples: a person’s age, education, occupation, place of birth, and relatives in

the village.

I. Ways to Ask Questions

Three ways to ask questions are closed-ended, open-ended, and leading.

Closed-ended questions generally are answered with a “yes” or “no” or with another one-word answer. Below

are examples of closed-ended questions:

• How many children do you have?

• How much do these beans cost?

• What did you give your child to eat today?

• How old was your baby when you stopped breastfeeding?

Open-ended questions allow people to talk more about what they think, do, and feel. They typically begin with

the words why, how, and what, or phrases such as: Tell me about ..., Explain to me ..., and Describe.... Openended questions have no right or wrong answer; they invite people to describe their own life experiences. Here

are some examples of open-ended questions:

• Why do you think greens are bad for your baby?

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• What foods do you think are good foods for your baby?

• Tell me more about what women should not eat when they are pregnant.

Leading questions do just what they sound like they do—they lead people to give the answers that they think

you want them to give. Leading questions begin with phrases such as: Don’t you think that ..., Don’t you agree

that ..., Isn’t it right that ..., and, I think ...—what do you think? The following are examples of leading questions:

• Don’t you think that women should eat more meat when they are pregnant?

• Don’t you agree that women should breastfeed until the baby is two years old?

• Isn’t it right that babies should eat several times a day?

You need to use both closed-ended and open-ended questions to learn from and communicate with the

community. However, try to use more open-ended than closed-ended questions to understand what people do

and why. You may start with a closed-ended question, but use an open-ended one to explore further and

understand the reasons why community members act or believe the way that they do.

Don’t use any leading questions. Leading questions do not allow community members to tell you what they

really think and know. They encourage community members to say that they agree with you even if they don’t.

II. Exploring People’s Answers—Probing Techniques

When you begin talking with community members, you will find that you need to further explore what they are

saying. People will not to tell you everything at once. This is particularly true if this is the first time you have

talked with the person about what she/he does and how she/he thinks and feels.

The questions you ask and the probing techniques you use will depend on what the person has already told

you. To explore a person’s answers, you need to really listen to what she/he is saying to you.

Several probing techniques you can use to explore a person’s answers are as follows:

• Remain silent for a few moments. In some cultures, people do not speak as quickly or readily as many

Americans do. The person may be wondering why you want to know this information. She/he may be

considering the different things she/he could tell you about it. Remaining silent will give the person

time to think about what she/he wants to say.

• Repeat the person’s words as a question. Suppose the mother says to you, “I think bananas would

improve my child’s diarrhea.” Ask back, “Do you think bananas would help your child’s diarrhea?”

• Ask the person to place him/herself in the position of somebody else. For example, ask: “Suppose a

woman is pregnant; what foods do you think she should eat?” “Suppose a child has diarrhea; what

foods do you think he should not eat?” “Suppose a person could buy anything she wanted for her child

to eat; what would she buy?” This technique is especially useful if you see that the person is uncomfortable

talking about his/her own experience; it may be culturally inappropriate to discuss some topics about

oneself.

• Ask the person to explain further. Ask questions or make statements such as: “What do you mean by

that?” “Tell me more about that.” “I’m not sure I understand what you mean.” “You started to say

something about ...—tell me more about it.” “You mentioned something about....” This technique will

help the person explain more completely.

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Asking Questions Worksheet

Decide if each question is an open-ended, closed-ended, or leading question and write your answer in the blank.

_________ How long did you breastfeed your last child?

_________ Don’t you think that everyone knows that children should be breastfed for two years?

_________ Why do you think these foods are bad for young children?

_________ How much weight do you think a woman should gain when she is pregnant?

_________ Explain more about how a woman should eat when she is pregnant.

_________ At what age do you think you should begin giving other foods to your baby?

_________ Isn’t it true that most mothers give their babies teas to drink?

_________ Tell me about what happened when you gave your child the new weaning food.

_________ What problems did you have when you tried to feed your child six times a day?

_________ How many times a day do you feed your child?

_________ Why do you think that some mothers don’t like to give green leafy vegetables to their infants?

Write three closed-ended questions.

1.

2.

3.

Write three open-ended questions.

1.

2.

3.

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Asking Questions Observation Checklist

Place a mark in the “Number of Times” column for the appropriate row each time you observe the particular

probing technique:

Exploring Technique Number of Times

The questioner remains silent a few moments to

give the other person time to think

The questioner repeats the other person’s words

as a question

The questioner asks the person to place him/herself

in the place of somebody else

The questioner asks the other person to explain

further using questions such as:

– What do you mean by that?

– Tell me more about that.

– I’m not sure I understand what you mean.

– You started to say something about ...

 —tell me more about it

– You mentioned something about....

Place a mark in the appropriate column each time the questioner asks a question. Decide whether it is an openended, closed-ended, or leading question.

Number of Open- Number of Closed- Number of

Ended Questions Ended Questions Leading Questions

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Listen and Observe

Asking Questions Worksheet

Decide if each question is an open-ended, closed-ended, or leading question, and write your answer in the

blank.

Closed-ended

How long did you breastfeed your last child?

Leading

Don’t you think that everyone knows that children should be breastfed for two years?

Open-ended

Why do you think these foods are bad for young children?

Closed-ended

How much weight do you think a woman should gain when she is pregnant?

Open-ended

Explain more about how a woman should eat when she is pregnant?

Closed-ended

At what age do you think you should begin giving other foods to your baby?

Leading

Isn’t it true that most mothers give their babies teas to drink?

Open-ended

Tell me about what happened when you gave your child the new weaning food.

Open-ended

What problems did you have when you tried to feed your child six times a day?

Closed-ended

How many times a day do you feed your child?

Open-ended

Why do you think some mothers don’t like to give green leafy vegetables to their infants?

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How to Give Effective Feedback

Feedback is information given to individuals about the quality of their work. Good feedback reinforces what

people are doing well or correctly and, at the same time, gives them specific suggestions about what they can do

to improve their knowledge or skills in the future. Knowing how to give effective feedback is an important skill

for you to learn and use in your work.

To be effective, feedback should be—

• Specific. Describe exactly what the person did well and what she/he could do better next time. Describes

behaviors you observed. If it is not clear why someone did something, ask them to explain.

• Constructive. Describe in positive terms what the person could do better next time. Say, “Try ...”

instead of “Don’t do...”

• Pleasant. Always give feedback in a setting and manner that does not embarrass the other person.

Remember, you are working together to improve his/her knowledge and skills.

Individual feedback also depends on the person’s current level of knowledge or skills. Beginners should be

given verbal approval for any improvement, even if it is just a small step toward achieving the final goal. Praise

them for doing something right, no matter how small.

You will practice giving feedback many times during this training. In each case, you will observe another Trainee

practicing the skills you are learning during the training session. You will be given a checklist of the actions the

Trainee should take when practicing those skills. While you are observing, place a mark beside each action you

observe him/her taking. When the Trainee has finished, you will give him/her feedback, in the following way,

on how well she/he did:

• First, praise the person for the specific actions that she/he did well—the actions you observed the person

taking and marked on the checklist.

• Then, give suggestions to the person about the specific actions that she/he can do better next time—the

actions you did not observe the person taking and did not mark on the checklist.

Be positive in both your praise and your advice. The person you observe should record the actions she/he

performed well and what she/he plans to do better next time she/he practices the skill.

When and how to provide feedback is culturally based. The way feedback will be given during training is an

acceptable American style. In your host culture, it may be very inappropriate even to praise someone publicly,

let alone criticize or correct their behavior in any way. Often criticism must go through a third party, not direct

confrontation. Make it a high priority to learn about these issues in the culture where you will be working. Learn

how and when praise and correction may be offered: by whom, what types of phrases, and in what setting.

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Section II: Session 3

Body Language

Overview

Communication is both verbal and nonverbal. While Trainees may

have very limited verbal facilities at first, they can quickly learn

appropriate body language. How Volunteers greet people, sit, stand,

and move, and the type of eye contact they make, will affect how

community members accept, talk, and listen to them. Appropriate

body language needs to be learned in each culture.

In this session, Trainees work with cross-cultural and language trainers

to define what is appropriate body language in the specific settings

in their communities.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Appropriate

body language is important for all Volunteers. This session can be

used without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session the Trainees will be able to:

1. Demonstrate or describe how to do the following in both informal

(people’s home or a party) and formal (the office or a meeting)

settings:

• Dress appropriately for the setting where they will be working.

• Greet people (enter and leave a person’s home, an office, a

meeting).

• Sit and stand.

• Make appropriate eye contact.

2. Provide other body language cues that are important in the

specific country and culture where the training is being conducted.

Session Plan
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Time

2 hours, 15 minutes

Staff

Cross-cultural coordinator and host–country national (HCN) staff

Materials

• Flip chart paper, markers

• Handout: My Body Language

Preparation

Propose to the cross-cultural coordinator that she/he lead a session

on perceptions, which should proceed this session. Sessions that

explore cultural influences on perception are found in the Gender

and Development Training Manual, Booklet 3: Skills Training

(ICE no. M0054), and in the Culture Matters Trainer’s Guide,

sections 3.5–3.6 (ICE no. T0103).

Vocabulary

Sit, stand, greet, eye contact, body language, typical words for greeting

and departing in informal and formal settings

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Demonstration of Entering

and Leaving a Home

Time: 10 minutes

Ask the language and cross-cultural trainers or experienced

Volunteers to act out a role play of the correct way to enter, greet,

stand, talk, and leave a family’s home. If the Trainees’ language

skills are low, the trainers should only greet and say good-bye in

the country’s language and use English for the rest of the

conversation. The family members should include both men and

women, boys and girls, if they would possibly all be part of such

a visit.
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Activity 2: Discussion

Time: 20 minutes

Discuss what the Trainees observed and have the language and

cross-cultural trainer explain correct body language in more detail,

paying specific attention to the differences in body language based

on sex, age, and other important cultural cues. For example, how

you greet older people compared to children or teenagers. If

counterparts are present, ask them to take a major role in this

discussion. Distribute the handout, My Body Language. As a group,

complete Section I, “My Body Language in an Informal Setting,”

of the handout.

Activity 3: Practice

Time: 30 minutes

Before starting the practice, remind the Trainees about giving and

accepting feedback. Ask them what the purpose of feedback is:

Feedback is given to reinforce what is appropriate and to suggest

how to change what is inappropriate. Ask how to make feedback

useful. It must be:

• Specific. Describe exactly what the person did well and what

she/he could do better next time. Describes behaviors you

observed. If it is not clear why someone did something, ask

them to explain.

• Constructive. Describe in positive terms what the person

could do better next time. Say, “Try ...” instead of “Don’t do...”

• Pleasant. Always give feedback in a setting and manner that

does not embarrass the other person. Remember, you are

working together to improve his/her knowledge and skills.

Divide the Trainees into small groups, ensuring that each group

includes a language or cross-cultural trainer. (The number of

groups depends on the number of language and cross-cultural

trainers.) Ask each group to practice entering and leaving a

family’s home. The language and cross-cultural trainers will play

the role of the mother or father. If counterparts are present, ask

them to play these roles. Other Trainees in the group can play the

roles of other family members. One person in each group should

practice entering and leaving the family’s home, and another

person should observe the role play and, following the guidelines

the group has defined in “My Body Language in an Informal

Setting,” observe how well the Trainee is using appropriate body

language.

After the role play, the observer and language and cross-cultural

trainer or counterparts should give feedback to the Trainee on

his/her body language during the role play.
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Rotate roles until all the Trainees have practiced entering and

leaving a home.

Activity 4: Demonstration of Entering

and Leaving a Formal Setting

(Office, meeting, or visit to a formal or informal

leader, such as village chief, mayor, or traditional

healer)

Time: 10 minutes

This activity is the same as Activity 1, but it is conducted in a

formal setting. The setting will depend on where the majority of

Trainees will be working. For example, if they will be working at

the community level, demonstrate the body language they should

use with village chiefs, mayors, or other local leaders. If they will

be working at district or regional levels, demonstrate appropriate

body language in an office setting.

Activity 5: Discussion

Time: 20 minutes

Discuss what the Trainees observed and have the language and

cross-cultural trainer explain appropriate body language in more

detail, paying specific attention to the differences in body

language based on sex, age, and other important cultural cues.

As a group, complete Section II, “My Body Language in a Formal

Setting,” of the handout My Body Language.

Activity 6: Practice

Time: 30 minutes

This activity is the same as Activity 3 but is conducted in a formal

setting.

Activity 7: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice: Ask the Trainees to work in pairs and

practice entering and leaving an informal setting during the

evening. For example, the Trainees can practice by visiting each

other’s families. As one person in the pair enters and leaves the

informal settings, the other can observe, keeping in mind what
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the group defined on the My Body Language handout. After leaving

the home, the observer should give feedback to the other Trainee.

At the beginning of the following session, have the Trainees

process and generalize about their experience.

Trainer’s Notes

This session could also be part of an early language training session

if there is insufficient time to teach it during technical training.

However, do not skip it. Inappropriate body language and missing

other important cultural cues can get Volunteers off to a bad start

with their counterparts and other community members.
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My Body Language

Body language is an important part of communication. How you greet people, sit, stand, and move, and the

type of eye contact you make, will affect how people in the community accept you and what they will tell you

about themselves. What is considered appropriate body language is different in each culture. In this exercise

you will work as a group to define some guidelines on how you should dress, sit, stand, and move, and the type

of eye contact you should make, while you are learning from and communicating with community members.

For more thoughts on this topic, you should refer to Culture Matters: The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural

Workbook (ICE no. T0087), chapter 3 .

I. My Body Language in an Informal Setting

1. Describe how you will dress when you go into an informal setting.

2. Describe how you will enter a home or compound.

3. Describe how you will greet the various family members (in what order, what words you will use, and

so on).

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4. Describe where and how you will sit in the family home.

5. Describe the type of eye contact you will make when talking with different family members.

6. Describe how you will say good-bye when you leave a family’s home or compound (in what order,

what words, and gestures you will use to each family member).

7. Describe other important body language you will demonstrate when you visit families in their homes

or compounds.

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II. My Body Language in a Formal Setting

1. Describe the formal setting for which this body language is appropriate (such as an office, meeting, or a

formal leader’s home).

2. Describe how you will dress when you go into a formal setting.

3. Describe how you will enter the formal setting.

4. Describe how you will greet the people you find in the formal setting (in what order, what words and

gestures you will use).

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5. Describe where and how you will sit in the formal setting.

6. Describe the type of eye contact you will make when you talk with people in the formal setting.

7. Describe how you will say good-bye when you leave a formal setting (in what order you will speak to

those assembled, what words and gestures you will use, and so on).

8. Describe other important body language you will demonstrate when working in a formal setting.

Other notes on body language in this culture:

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Section II: Session 4

Community Mapping

Session Plan

Overview

Many trainers we interviewed during the development of this guide

said Volunteers found it difficult to get started in the community;

“It’s easier for them to sit in their rooms and read!”

Community mapping is an easy exercise that will introduce Trainees

to using observation skills to learn about their community. During

their walking tour of the community, Volunteers will observe and be

observed by a wide variety of community members. They will begin

to use observation to understand how the community is organized.

This session on community mapping is a good way for Volunteers to

“get their feet wet” in the community before they begin doing more

structured observation.

Note to Trainers from Sectors Other than Nutrition: This exercise

is appropriate for all Volunteers without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Draw a map of the site where the training is being conducted.

2. State two ways the physical layout of the community might affect

the way community members act or function.

Time

2 hours

Materials

Flip chart paper and markers
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Preparation

Consider different ways of grouping the Trainees to do the mapping:

by gender groups, with a child or an adult from the community, and

so on. Each of these groups will produce different kinds of maps and

good discussion about different perceptions and use of community

space and services can be generated.

Resources

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklets 5 and 8

(ICE no. M0054) discusses different ways to conduct community

mapping exercises. Culture Matters: The Peace Corps CrossCultural Workbook (ICE no. T0087) discusses observation techniques,

and the importance of observation in Chapter 1: “Understanding

Culture.”

Vocabulary

Health center, town center, school, police station, well, bridge, house,

church, mosque, other local terms for significant structures they will

find in the site

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Walking Tour

Time: 15 minutes

Explain to the Trainees that they are to take a walking tour of the

site. If possible, they should ask a child of their host family to

accompany them. Even if the Trainees’ language skills are very

basic at this point, children can help explain how the community

is organized, where various leaders live, and where important

community centers such as schools and health centers are located.

This will also give Trainees practice using the language in a

nonthreatening situation.

Ask the Trainees to make a map of the community creating

symbols to indicate features of the community. If counterparts

are present at the training, ask the Volunteer to work with his/

her counterpart to develop a map.

Ask for and answer any questions concerning the symbols.

T
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Activity 2: Walking Tour

Time: 1 hour

During this time, the Trainees will walk through the community

and develop their maps.

Activity 3: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 45 minutes

Process: Ask the Trainees how the exercise made them feel and

why.

• Ask them to discuss what reactions they had from the

community members while they performed the exercise.

• Ask the Trainees to share and compare their maps.

• Ask them to discuss how the physical layout might affect the

way different community members act or function. Include

the following:

– How far from their homes are services, such as wells,

clinics, and schools?

– Who lives in the center of town compared with who lives

on the edge of town?

– Why did the town grow and develop the way it did and

what might happen in the future?

Generalization. Emphasize that the Trainees should take

walking tours several times as soon as they arrive in their site as

a way of getting to know the community. This simple exercise

can be an effective way of breaking the ice with community

members, giving them a chance to see the Volunteer and get to

know him/her in a nonthreatening way. It also establishes the

tone of the first months—Volunteers need to demonstrate that

they are open to learning about and from the community. Also

emphasize that they should take walking tours with their

counterparts and other community members. Such an activity

gives the counterpart and community members the opportunity

to share what they know about the community and to introduce

the Volunteer to other people. Taking walking tours with several

community members will help the Volunteer understand various

people’s perspectives about the community.
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Trainer’s Notes

You may want to divide this session into two separate days. Conduct

Activity 1 at the end of a session and ask the Trainees to develop the

map during the late afternoon and evening when children are out of

school. Conduct Activities 2 and 3 at the beginning of a second session.
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Section II: Session 5

Observation

Session Plan

Overview

The ability to observe is one of the most important skills that

Volunteers can have to learn about the culture and community in

which they will be living. The Observation session introduces Trainees

to unstructured observation, particularly participant observation.

Participant observation enables Trainees to integrate themselves into

the culture. By actually doing an activity with community members,

Volunteers can better understand exactly what community members

do and why.

The Observation session also introduces the Trainees to several

structured observation techniques that will be useful in their

community work—performance, duration, frequency, and products

observation, as well as action trials.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Learning how

to observe and to use observation to understand the community is

important for all Volunteers. Adapt the session objectives and what

the Trainees observe to your specific technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe the differences between structured and unstructured

observations.

2. Perform participant observation and describe exactly what they

will observe in the families where they are living.

3. Describe how to conduct performance, duration, frequency, and

products observation, as well as Action Trials.

Time

Two 1 hour, 30 minute sessions, 2–3 days apart
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Listen and Observe

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout: How to Use Observation to Learn about Your Community.

Distribute the handout before the session. Ask Trainees to read it

and record observations and questions they want to discuss.

Preparation

Prior to this session, discuss the possibility of coordinating this session

with the cross-cultural one on perceptions, and the difference between

making judgements and stating facts.

Resources

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklet 4: Skills

Training (ICE no. M0054) has a session on observation.

Culture Matters: The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook

discusses observation techniques, and the importance of observation

in Chapter 1: Understanding Culture (ICE no. T0087).

Vocabulary

Participant, performance, duration, frequency, products observation;

action trials; words related to eating and meal times, looking, listening

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Day One (1 hour, 30 minutes)

Activity 1: Introduction to Using Observation to

Learn about the Community

Time: 30 minutes

Discuss each section of the handout including unstructured and

structured observation; participant observation; performance,

duration, frequency, products observation; and action trials.

T
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Activity 2: Decide What to Observe (Small Group

Work)

Time: 30 minutes

Divide the Trainees into small groups. If counterparts are present

during the training, assign three Volunteer-counterpart pairs to

work together.

Ask them to look at the “What We Need to Learn from the

Community” list (from Session 1) and to decide exactly what they

will observe during the participant observation they will conduct

during the next two to three days.

Activity 3: Decide What to Observe (Small Group

Reports)

Time: 30 minutes

Ask each group to share their discussion and decisions with the

rest of the participants. Compare the similarities and differences

among the groups.

Explain that in this session and subsequent sessions they will learn

new skills and use these skills to learn from community members.

They will use this information in the next step of the process—

Discuss and Decide. Therefore, the Trainees should begin

keeping a diary. One section of the diary should describe the skill

or technique they used and what they learned about using that

skill. In another section they should record what they learned

from the community.

Tell the Trainees the date of the second session. Remind them

that they are to keep a diary of their observations. Remind them

to be careful which adjectives they use and to be very concrete in

their descriptions.

Day Two (1 hour, 30 minutes)

Activity 1: How Did it Go? (Large Group Work)

Tme: 10 minutes

Ask the Trainees to discuss their experiences. How did they feel

when they were doing the observation? When they were recording

their detailed notes?
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Listen and Observe

Activity 2: What Did We Learn? (Small Group

Work)

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to go back into their same small groups from

the first day of this session. Each Trainee-counterpart pair should

read his/her notes to the group. The group should do the

following:

1. Decide whether the Trainee’s notes are concrete or whether

she/he is using adjectives that are too general, vague, or

value-laden. If so, ask the Trainee to describe what she/he

observed more concretely and have him/her edit his/her

notes appropriately.

2. Begin to develop a list of “How and What Family Members

Eat and Why” by summarizing the most important points on

flip chart paper.

Activity 3: What Did We Learn (Large Group

Work)

Time: 30 minutes

Ask each group to share the results of their observations with the

rest of the participants. Discuss similarities and differences among

the groups. Keep the results visible by taping the flip chart papers

on the wall. You will add information in later sessions.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 20 minutes

Process and generalize. Ask Trainees to reflect on their learning

by observation, using questions such as:

1. What are some of the difficulties encountered when

describing observations?

2. How can you balance your tendency to assign meaning or

make judgements based on your culture?

3. How can you remember clearly what you observe if taking

notes at the time is culturally inappropriate?

4. How do you anticipate using good observation skills in your

work?
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Community Practice. Ask the Trainees to continue their

participant observation each day and to add key points to the

“How and What Family Members Eat and Why” flip chart paper.

Use the results during the Discuss and Decide sessions to

identify a priority problem and select an appropriate solution or

action.

Trainer’s Notes
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How to Use Observation to Learn

About Your Community

Observation means watching or noticing by using all five senses: seeing, touching, tasting, hearing, and smelling.

One person cannot observe everything, especially not at the same time. Not only are our observations limited,

they are colored by our culture, upbringing, and personal experience.

Because it is impossible to observe everything at the same time, and because we put our own interpretations on

what we observe, observation can be used as a reliable source of information only when our observations are

focused and systematic. Focused means that our observations are directed at what we want to know, learn, and

understand. Systematic means that the observations follow a fixed plan, so that things are observed in a thorough,

efficient, and unbiased way. Observation is a skill that must be learned.

Observation is one of the most important ways for Volunteers to learn about the culture and community in

which they are living. It has the advantage of providing first-hand information. It also enables you to become

discovery-oriented to find out what is actually happening. When you are still learning the language, your

observations will be particularly important because you may not be able to talk in as much detail as you would

like about what people say they do, know, or believe. Later on, observation will help you focus on specific

nutritional actions and compare what people say they do with what they actually do in their daily lives.

Observation can give you qualitative and quantitative information. Qualitative information helps you discover,

explore, describe, and understand what people do about their own and their family’s nutrition. It provides

depth and detail. Quantitative information helps you understand how frequently, how long, and with what

intensity people do certain actions. We generally use open or unstructured observation to obtain qualitative

information and structured observation to obtain quantitative information.

Open or Unstructured Observation

Open or unstructured observations are not organized in a complete or detailed way. This method allows for a

good deal of flexibility, the only restriction being that the observations should be focused and systematic. Open

observation is particularly useful when you first arrive at your site. It will help you understand what people do

in relation to their physical and cultural context. For example, observing families preparing and eating meals

will teach you a lot about nutrition within its physical and cultural context. As you learn more of the language,

you can begin to talk with people about the reasons why they do what they do.

As a Volunteer living in a community, generally you will be doing what is called “participant observation.” In

participant observation, the observer shares the life and activities of the people in the community. Through

participation, you will share and experience preparing food, feeding children, sharing family meals, and other

nutrition-related actions. Participant observation will help you get an insider’s view of what is happening. You

can consider almost everything you do with community members as an opportunity to conduct “participant

observation” and to learn about the culture and community in which you live. Indeed, your job during the first

few months at your site is just that—learning about the culture and the community through participant

observation and other questioning and listening skills you will learn in future sessions.

To make your observations focused and systematic, you first need to decide what you are going to observe; you

then need to record what you have observed for later reference. In fact, the difference between participant

observation and casual observation is the recording of what is observed. Don’t trust your memory! Keep a daily

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diary of what you observe in relation to nutrition. In this diary, record exactly what you observe about how and

what men and women and boys and girls in your community eat. This diary also will be a useful reference for

other Volunteers who come to your site after you leave. They can compare what you observed with what they

are observing.

There is only one important rule about making observations and taking notes: Beware of adjectives! For example,

instead of writing, “They served the child a large portion of beans and the child could not eat it all,” think and

write, “They served the child about one cup of beans; the child ate only about one-half of them.” “Large” is a

very relative term. How you perceive “small,” “dirty,” “poor,” and other such adjectives is based on your life

experiences and values; your perception will change the longer you are in the village and consciously try to be

less judgemental. Be concrete in your descriptions.

Tip for Recording Your Observations: While you are writing, think, “If someone else read this, would they be

able to visualize exactly what I observed?”

Structured Observation

Observations are described as structured when an observation list that contains a fixed number of points to

notice is used, and when this list is applied in a predetermined number of situations, or with a predetermined

number of people. Structured observations generally provide quantitative information. Perform structured

observations only after you have done quite a bit of unstructured observation so you can understand exactly

what you want to measure.

Several types of structured observations are as follows:

Performance Observation. Use this type of observation to understand if a person is performing a certain

action or skill in the correct way. Use performance observation when you conduct skills training sessions.

After you decide what you want people to learn during the training session, break the skills down into a

series of measurable, observable steps. Then observe or have the participants observe each other performing

the skills and record the number of steps they have performed correctly. You will practice developing and

applying performance checklists in future sessions.

Duration Recording. Use duration recording to understand how long a person is performing a certain

action or skill. For example, how long an infant breastfeeds at each breast is important to ensure that a

mother produces enough breast milk. However, many mothers use their breasts as pacifiers. As soon as the

baby stops crying, they take the child off the breast. This can cause the mother to produce less and less milk

as time goes by. You might (discretely) observe how long mothers in your village breastfeed at one sitting.

You might also record how long mothers have to wait to weigh their children at growth monitoring sessions.

If mothers have to wait a long time, they might not return for future sessions. If appropriate, at some time,

you might use the information you have collected to talk with the clinic staff about how to make the wait

shorter or how to provide educational activities as mothers wait. The following is an example of an observation

sheet for duration observation.

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How Long Do Mothers Have to Wait?

Duration Observation of Growth Monitoring Session

Time Arrived Time Left Total Duration

Mother 1 7:55 8:15 20 minutes

Mother 2 7:55 8:30 35 minutes

Mother 3 8:02 8:57 51 minutes

Mother 4 8:05 9:15 70 minutes

Frequency Observation. This type of observation will help you understand how often (if at all) people are

doing a certain nutritional action. In this case, you simply count the number of times a certain action occurs

during a designated time. For example, you might count how many times a woman breastfeeds in a day, how

many times a clinic worker praises a mother during a growth monitoring session, or how many spoonfuls of

weaning food a child eats. The following example shows how a Volunteer used an observation sheet for frequency

observation.

How Much Weaning Food is Baby Eating?

Frequency Observation

Day Number of Spoonfuls

1 6

2 7

3 8

4 6

5 6

Products Observation. In this case, you simply count the number of “products” or effects of certain nutritional

actions. For example, to understand whether mothers in your village are exclusively breastfeeding, you might

visit each home and count the number of homes where you observe bottles, nipples, or powdered milk. You

would then know whether mixed feeding is an issue in your village because you would know exactly how

many women are bottlefeeding.

Growth Monitoring. Based on this type of “products observation,” for example, you might observe the effects

of weaning and breastfeeding behaviors by measuring the weight of the children.

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Action Trials. After you have worked with community members to identify a priority nutritional problem and

select an appropriate nutritional solution or action, you will need to discuss and adapt that solution or action

with community members in Action Trials. In Action Trials, you ask a few selected mothers to try out a nutritional

action. For example, you might ask a few mothers to add a green leafy vegetable to the rice or stew that they feed

their young children each day. First, you would teach the mothers how to prepare the food and ask them to feed

this to their young children for several days. Next, you would visit them, observe them making the food, and

discuss with them what advantages and disadvantages they perceive in preparing and serving this food, what

problems they have had, how they resolved them, and what suggestions they have for teaching this to other

mothers.

Action trials are very important because they are another way to involve community members in identifying

and solving their own problems. Before you try something and begin promoting any new nutritional action,

you will need to use Action Trials to discuss that action with community members and decide how it will be

adapted to meet their needs. You will learn how to conduct Action Trials in another session.

No matter how well your counterpart knows the community, there will be situations when she/he also can

benefit in using observation, especially one of the structured observation techniques, to see the community in

new ways. For example, your counterpart may not have observed how many spoonfuls of food young children

eat, how long mothers have to wait at growth monitoring sessions, or how well people are performing a certain

skill. Share this handout with your counterpart. Discuss ways you can use observation to learn more about what

community members do. Include a discussion about where it is appropriate to observe and whether or not it is

wise to take notes during observation periods. Using techniques together and discussing what you each observed

and have learned is very important. It will help you identify where you are imposing your own cultural judgement

on what you see. Remember, this is a process where you and your counterpart are learning from each other.

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Section II: Session 6

The Market Survey and the

Foods Availability Calendar

Session Plan

Overview

To understand why people eat the way they do, Volunteers need to

understand what foods are available, at what times of the year, and

at what price. Volunteers can work with their counterparts and other

community members to conduct market surveys to gather this

information and to develop a Foods Availability Calendar specifically

for their site.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: You may omit

this session from your training. However, you might want to adapt

the idea of Volunteers observing a specific activity or action of

importance to their work and mapping its seasonality with their

counterparts.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Conduct a market survey.

2. Use the information gathered to develop a Foods Availability

Calendar.

Time

2 hours, 30 minutes

Materials

Flip chart paper and markers
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Vocabulary

Names of common foods, numbers, “how much does this cost” and

other bargaining terms, months of the year

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Market Survey

Time: 15 minutes

Divide the Trainees into pairs and ask them to visit the market in

the site where the training is being conducted. If counterparts are

present at the training, assign the Trainee to work with his/her

counterpart.

Ask them to (1) observe and record all the foods being sold in the

market, (2) find out and record the price of each of these foods,

and (3) if their language skills are sufficient, determine which

months of the year those foods are available and at what price.

Ask them to organize that information in the following way:

Market Survey Form

Village:____________________________ Date:____________

Food Item Price per Quantity Months Available

Other Comments:
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Activity 2: Visit to the Market

Time: 1 hour

Ask the Trainees to visit a local market and make a list of all the

available foods, the months they are available, and their prices.

Activity 3: Foods Availability Calendar

Time: 1 hour

Ask the Trainees their impressions of their visit: what happened,

how did they feel, what problems did they have?

Ask the Trainees to name the foods they observed and the prices

they were quoted. Write the foods and their prices on flip chart

paper as indicated below.

Food Item Price per Quantity Months Available

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Rice 20¢/lb

Squash 15¢/lb

Ask the Trainees what they learned about in which months these

foods are available. Make a line on the flip chart paper under the

corresponding months. Discuss how much and why the price

fluctuates during these different months.

Discuss the nutritional benefits of each food.

Discuss how the price of foods might be a factor in the family

nutrition.

Explain to the Trainees that they should conduct the market

survey with their counterparts several times a year to develop

their own Foods Availability Calendar. This is a simple activity

that can help develop a good Volunteer/counterpart relationship,

because the counterpart can take the lead in teaching the Volunteer

about what foods are available, during what months, and at what

prices. This activity can help build a team spirit of mutual learning

and trust. They may also want to do this with groups within the

community. The calendar can include a number of related items

that men and women can describe and discuss, such as weather

patterns, periods of illness, and so on.
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Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice. Ask the Trainees to observe and record

what foods are available in the homes where they are living. At

the beginning of the following session, ask the Trainees to report

their findings, and mark the numbers down on the Foods

Availability Calendar. Discuss why some foods might not be

present (price, food taboos, etc.).

Trainer’s Notes

The organization of this session will depend on the number of Trainees

and the number and size of the markets available in the site where

the training is being conducted. The important thing in this exercise

is that each Trainee has the opportunity to observe, begin to ask

questions, and to organize the information she/he gathers so that it

will help him/her understand more about his/her community and

to make decisions about nutritional recommendations. You also may

want to involve local girls and/or adolescents in this exercise, using

them as guides and sources of information.

References

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklets 3 and 8

(ICE no. M0054).

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Section II: Session 7

Participatory

Seasonal Analysis

Session Plan

Overview

The Participatory Seasonal Analysis is a technique developed as a

part of the Rapid but Relaxed Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA),

and more recently, Participatory Analysis for Community Action

(PACA). The Volunteer and his/her counterpart can use this technique

to involve community members in completing the Foods Availability

Calendar. The factual information regarding available foods will be

complemented by the community members’ perceptions concerning

those foods.

To conduct the Participatory Seasonal Analysis, the Volunteer and

his/her counterpart identify several key people within the community

and ask those persons to help them understand what foods are

available and when—using seeds, stones, sticks, chalk, or paper to

help visualize their availability. During the process, they use their

questioning and probing skills to understand more about community

members’ perceptions concerning these foods.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: This technique

originally was developed to help people understand how community

members perceive the agricultural cycle. It can be adapted to

understand agriculture, health, nutrition, or any other condition that

varies seasonally. For example, it might be used to understand how

people perceive seasonal cycles of disease and illness, water

availability and shortages, and cooperative or other market activities.

The objective is to involve community members in analyzing their

own realities and, at the same time, help Volunteers and their

counterparts understand how community members perceive the

relationships between a series of activities and their daily lives.

Objective

After the session, the Trainees will be able to explain the steps of a

Participatory Seasonal Analysis.
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Time

2 hours, 15 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout: Participatory Seasonal Analysis.

Preparation

Distribute the handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it

and record comments and questions they want to discuss.

Resources

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklets 5 and 8

(ICE no. M0054).

Vocabulary

Participatory, seasonal, analysis, season, month, year, day, activity,

work, available, key informant, festival, harvest, planting

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Participatory

Seasonal Analysis

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of

this type of technique.

Ask Trainees to list and describe each step.

Ask for and answer questions.

Discuss sharing the handout with counterparts after they have

developed a good relationship since counterparts may not be

familiar with this technique. They also may not be accustomed to

asking open-ended questions and using the probing techniques.

Volunteers should ask counterparts to help with their first

Participatory Seasonal Analysis. Afterward, they should talk

about the experience, what they have learned, and what they

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might do differently the next time they perform a Participatory

Seasonal Analysis. Remind Trainees that this is a process in which

they and their counterparts learn from each other.

Activity 2: Conduct a Participatory Seasonal

Analysis

Time: 1 hour

Conduct a Participatory Seasonal Analysis with one to four people

from the village where the training is being conducted. These

should be people who are accustomed to talking with Volunteers

and will not be intimidated by performing this exercise in front

of the entire group. Ask the Trainees to observe the process.

Activity 3: Summarize the Information Gathered

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to summarize the information they gathered

during the Participatory Seasonal Analysis on the Foods

Availability Calendar. Record on flip chart paper the knowledge

and beliefs concerning specific foods. You will use this information

in a later session.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice. Ask the Trainees to work in pairs to

perform a Participatory Seasonal Analysis with one of the

Trainee’s families. If counterparts are present at the training, ask

each Volunteer to work with his/her counterpart. Give them a

specific time to do the exercise (for example, during a weekend).

The goal is to allow them to practice using this technique in a

nonthreatening setting shortly after they have observed it. Later,

use the first part of a session or have a separate meeting to discuss

their experiences and to summarize the information they gather

on the Foods Availability Calendar. It is important that they have

sufficient time to process and generalize about their experiences.

Trainer’s Notes

Make sure the Trainees summarize their information on the Foods

Availability Calendar and “What We Need to Learn about Nutrition

from the Community.” You will need this information for the sessions

in Discuss and Decide.
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Participatory Seasonal Analysis

The Participatory Seasonal Analysis is a technique developed as a part of the Rapid but Relaxed Participatory

Rural Appraisal (PRA), and more recently, Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA). It can be used

to understand agricultural, health, nutrition, or any other condition which varies seasonally, and the relationship

between factors. All of the participatory techniques share a common philosophy: (1) the role of the teacher and

learner are reversed — community members teach the person who is facilitating the activity, and (2) rapport

with community members is essential. This rapport requires that the Volunteer has respect for community

members and an interest in what they know, say, and show. It helps to establish a partnership between

development worker and community. It also requires patience—no rushing and no interrupting.

Use the Participatory Seasonal Analysis to involve community members in completing the Foods Availability

Calendar. The factual information about the foods that are available during specific months will be complemented

by the community members’ perceptions concerning those foods.

To conduct the Participatory Seasonal Analysis, you and your counterparts need to identify several key persons

within the community and ask them to help you understand what foods are available and when. Use seeds,

stones, sticks, chalk, or paper to help visualize their availability. During the process, you will use your questioning

and probing skills to understand more about community members’ perceptions.

You can also use this technique to understand timelines and trends. For example, you might ask older people to

show you what they ate when they were children in comparison to what is available now.

How to Conduct a Participatory Seasonal Analysis

1. Decide who you hope will share their knowledge (for example, women, men, children, leaders). It may be

useful to have different groups do this activity and then compare and analyze their results.

2. Find one or more persons who are able and willing to share their perceptions with you. These persons, often

called “key informants,” are particularly knowledgeable and are people with whom the Volunteer develops

an ongoing relationship of information exchange and discussion. Key informants can provide information

about themselves and other people. Be careful that selected people represent different subgroups represented

in the community. General characteristics of good key informants include: (1) their views and knowledge

reflect those of a larger group of people, and (2) they like to communicate and exchange information. Get to

know various people in your community before selecting key informants; be careful when choosing them.

3. Find a suitable place with enough space so you will not be interrupted by a lot of people.

4. Ask when their year starts and the names of the divisions of the year. These might be months, but they could

also be seasons or some other divisions. Eighteen months or several seasons show patterns more clearly

than 12 months.

5. Mark the units on the ground or floor with a line, stones, or chalk.

6. Ask the participants to mark important times of the year, such as festivals, harvest, planting, or the hungry

season, with stones, seeds, fruits, lengths of stick, chalk, drawing on the ground, or whatever is available.

Section II: Listen and Observe Seasonal Analysis Handout - Page 1 of 3
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7. Ask the participants to mark when common foods and foods you are specifically interested in (for example,

foods high in vitamin A) are available.

8. Discuss, probe, encourage, debate.

9. Record information on paper and share it with the key informant to make sure you have recorded accurately.

Tips

Dos Don’ts

Let them do it! Don’t impose your calendar.

Discuss, encourage, think. Don’t lecture. Listen and learn.

The only rule is that there are no rules. Let the

community members make their own calendar.

On the following page is an example of an agricultural seasonal calendar developed with community members

in an African setting. Note that the calendar shows the relationship between seasons, crops, labor, animals,

diseases and health, and cultural events.

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Section II: Listen and Observe Seasonal Analysis Handout - Page 3 of 3

Agricultural Seasonal Calendar

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

RAIN

(Niger 9/95)

millet

maize

intensive male labor period

intensive female labor period

gardens

grasshoppers (crops)

kids (goats)

newcastle (poultry) outbreak

measles (humans)

RAMADAN

hunger period hunger period

maize
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Session Plan

Section II: Session 8

Participatory Sorting

and Ranking

Overview

Participatory Sorting and Ranking is another Rapid but Relaxed

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) technique. Volunteers and their

counterparts can use this technique to understand how community

members group different foods and their preferences within each

group. They can also use their questioning and probing skills to

understand more about the benefits community members perceive

each food to have.

Notes to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Participatory

Sorting and Ranking was originally developed to be applied to

agriculture. However, it can be used to understand how community

members group and rank anything—food, agricultural materials

(seeds, fertilizers, and so on), illnesses, firewood, latrines, water

pumps. The list is almost endless. Simply adapt the topic of the sorting

and ranking exercise (Activity 2) to make this session appropriate for

your technical area.

Objective

By the end of the session the Trainees will be able to describe the

steps used to conduct a Participatory Sorting and Ranking exercise.

Time

2 hours, 15 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout: How to Do Participatory Sorting and Ranking.
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Preparation

Distribute the handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it

and record any comments and questions they want to discuss.

Vocabulary

Sort, rank, participatory, best, worst, important

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Participatory Sorting

and Ranking

Time: 30 minutes

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using this technique.

Discuss each step and answer questions.

Explain that Trainees may share the handout with counterparts

after they have developed a good relationship. This can help the

counterpart learn more about the technique. Volunteers should

ask counterparts to help with their first Participatory Sorting and

Ranking. Afterward, talk about the experience, what they have

learned, and what they might do differently the next time they

perform this type of exercise. Volunteers should be reminded that

this is a process where they and their counterparts learn from

each other.

Activity 2: Participatory Sorting and Ranking

Demonstration

Time: 1 hour

Demonstrate a Participatory Sorting and Ranking exercise with

one to four people from the village where the training is being

conducted. These should be people who are used to talking with

Volunteers and will not be intimidated by performing this exercise

in front of the entire group. Have the Trainees observe the process.

Alternatively, you can do the demonstration using members of

the training group. Allow them to sort and rank items of interest

to them.
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Activity 3: Summarize the Information Gathered

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees what they learned from the participants.

Summarize the information you have gathered on flip chart paper

and keep it in the session room. You will use this information in a

later session.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice Assignment. Ask the Trainees to work in

pairs to perform a Participatory Sorting and Ranking exercise with

one of the Trainee’s families or someone else in the community

with whom they have developed rapport. If counterparts are

present at the training, ask the Volunteer and his/her counterpart

to work together. Give them time to do it (for example, an

afternoon, evening, weekend). The goal is to allow them to practice

using this technique in a nonthreatening setting shortly after they

have observed it. Afterwards, use the first part of a session or

have a separate meeting to discuss their experience, process, and

generalize and to summarize the information they gathered. It is

very important that you give them time to process and get

feedback on their experiences.

Trainer’s Notes

If you have never conducted a Participatory Sorting and Ranking

exercise, it can be a lot of fun as well as being an excellent technique

to learn from community members. Practice using this technique

before training begins so you can model it correctly for the Trainees.

References

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklets 5 and 8

(ICE no. M0054).

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How to Do Participatory Sorting

and Ranking

Participatory Sorting and Ranking is a technique developed as a part of the Rapid but Relaxed Participatory

Rural Appraisal (PRA). Use it to understand how community members group and rank almost anything—food,

agricultural materials (seeds, fertilizers, and so on), illnesses, firewood, what they want to talk about in a group

discussion. The list is almost endless. All of the PRA techniques share a common philosophy: (1) the role of the

teacher and learner are reversed; community members teach the person who is facilitating the analysis, and (2)

rapport with community members is essential. This rapport requires that the Volunteer have respect for

community members and interest in what they know, say, and show. It also requires patience—not rushing and

not interrupting.

You and your counterpart can use this technique to understand how community members group different

foods and the preferences they have within each group. Then, use your questioning and probing skills to

understand more about the benefits community members perceive each food to have.

As in the Participatory Seasonal Analysis, you and your counterpart need to identify several key informants

within the community and ask them to help you with this exercise.

How to Conduct Participatory Sorting and Ranking

1. Decide what you want sorted and ranked (trees, types of seeds, fuel types, illnesses, and so on). This handout

uses food for examples.

2. Find one or several people (key informants) who are able and willing to share their ideas and perceptions

with you.

3. Find a suitable place with enough space so you will not be interrupted by a lot of people.

4. Ask the participants to sort or group a number of items and use your questioning skills to understand why

they are grouping them this way. Examples: Ask them to list the foods that are good or bad for babies,

pregnant women, or women to eat. Use your questioning skills to understand why they think these foods

are good or bad. This will give you the criteria to rank each food within the group.

5. Ask the participants to rank or score, on the basis of their criteria, the items in each group. For example,

participants might say that some foods are bad for children because they believe they cause diarrhea. In this

case, your criteria would be whether the “bad” foods are more or less likely to cause diarrhea.

When participants rank items, they decide which one is best, next best, and so on through the worst. An

easy way to rank items is to use the actual objects and have participants physically place them in their own

ranking order. For example, ask participants to place different foods in order of best, next best, and so on.

• Other scoring methods are possible: each person has three votes for their three choices, or they rate each

one on a scale of one to ten.

• Use your questioning skills to understand why they ranked or scored the items the way they did. What

makes this item better or worse than the others?

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Listen and Observe

6. Ask other questions such as: “If you could have only one, which would you have?” “Why?”; “How many or

much would you like to have each day or week?”; or “How many or much do you actually have each day or

week?” “Why?”

7. Discuss, probe, encourage, debate.

8. Record the information on paper and share it with the key informants to verify it is what they said.

Tips

Dos Don’ts

Ask questions to understand why participants Tell participants how you think they should

sort and rank items the way they do. rank the items.

Follow up (probe) on points of interest. Don’t lecture. Listen and learn!

Try the same exercise with different types of

people—men, women, children.

For example, have boys and girls or women and men do the same exercise in separate groups. Then have

them compare and discuss their lists. They might find they have different frames of reference or different

needs based on their tasks.

You might ask participants to rank items without sorting them. For example, you might want to explore

how community members rank foods rich in vitamin A. You could bring the vitamin A foods available in

the community to the group and ask them to rank the foods on the basis of several criteria, such as: Which

are best/worst for children to eat? Which ones are most/least available or easiest/hardest for families to

obtain/purchase? Which ones do children like/dislike? Which ones can children eat most/least of?

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Section II: Session 9

The Informal Interview

Session Plan

Overview

In the Informal Interview session, Trainees learn the differences and

similarities between the informal interview, a survey, and the process

used to perform both. They develop an informal interview guide that

they can use when learning from community members. They then

practice informal interviewing through role playing.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: The informal

interview is a useful way for all Volunteers to learn about their

community. To adapt this session, simply ask the Trainees to develop

interview guides relevant to your technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session, the Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe an informal interview and a survey.

2. Use an observation checklist to describe and demonstrate the steps

of an interview.

3. Explain the informal interview guides they have developed.

Time

3 hours

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– The Informal Interview and the Survey

– Informal Interview Observation Checklist
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Preparation

Distribute the handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it

and record any comments and questions they want to discuss.

Staff

Cross-cultural/language trainers and/or experienced Volunteers

Resources

The Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklet 4 (ICE

no. M0054).

Vocabulary

Interview, informal, survey, quantitative, qualitative, conversation,

beliefs, knowledge, practices, questions, behavior, activities, thoughts

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Informal Interview and the Survey

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees for definitions of the informal interview and

survey and write these on flip chart paper. Discuss the differences

and similarities. Explain that in the next two sessions you will

teach them how to conduct an informal interview.

Ask the Trainees to list and discuss the steps involved in

conducting an interview.

Review and discuss the checklist and adapt it to your setting

(adding culturally appropriate actions).

Discuss the use of informal interviews with counterparts.

Depending on the Volunteer’s assignment, his/her counterpart

may have experience in conducting surveys or informal

interviews. If so, the counterpart can help the Volunteer improve

his/her skills in using these techniques. If the counterpart does

not have experience with these techniques, share the handout with

him/her. Volunteers should ask their counterparts to accompany

them during an informal interview to observe how it is done and

to give the Volunteer feedback. She/he will have important

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insights on body language, the way questions are asked, and what

people are telling the Volunteer. Volunteers and counterparts

should alternate conducting informal interviews and giving each

other feedback until both feel comfortable doing them on their

own. Remember, this is a process in which Volunteers and

counterparts learn from each other and from their experiences.

Activity 2: Develop an Interview Guide (Small

Group Work)

Time: 30 minutes

Divide the participants into groups and have them work together

to develop the interview guides they will use during the role plays

and community practice. If counterparts are present at the

training, ask a number of Volunteer–counterpart pairs to work

together. The number of groups and the type of interview guides

developed will depend on the technical area and who is

interviewed (community members, formal leaders, and/or

informal leaders). Suggestions for different interview guides they

could develop include health center staff, mayor or other formal

leader, informal community leader, midwife, or mothers of young

children. Each guide should contain a maximum of five or six

questions.

Activity 3: Review the Interview Guides (Large

Group Work)

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the groups to share their interview guides. Examine the

similar and different questions. Refine the guides so they can be

used during the following role play and in the community

practice.

Activity 4: Demonstration of an Interview

Time: 30 minutes

Ask two language trainers, cross-cultural trainers, and/or

experienced Volunteers to perform a short role play (five to 10

minutes) to demonstrate the correct way to conduct an interview

using one of the guides just developed. They need not ask all

questions in the guide; the idea is for the Trainees to observe all

the steps of the interview process. Ask the Trainees to observe

and complete the Informal Interview Observation Checklist by

recording the actions the person playing the role of the Volunteer

takes during the interview.
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Listen and Observe

After the role play, remind the Trainees how to give good feedback.

Ask the Trainees to give feedback to the person playing the

Volunteer on how well she/he conducted the interview.

Activity 5: Role Plays of an Informal Interview

Time: 45 minutes

Divide the Trainees into small groups. Assign one experienced

Volunteer, cross-cultural, or language trainer to play the role of

the community member in each group. If counterparts are present

at the training, assign the Volunteer–counterpart pair to the same

group. The counterpart may play the role of the community

member in some of the interviews; however, it is important that

she/he also has an opportunity to practice conducting an informal

interview.

Ask the Trainees to practice conducting an informal interview.

The other members of the group will observe and complete the

Informal Interview Observation Checklist. After each role play, they

should give feedback to the person conducting the interview on

what she/he did well and what specific actions she/he can do

better next time to improve.

Rotate until everyone has conducted at least one or, optimally,

two interviews. They need not ask all questions in the interview

guide. It is more important that they practice all of the steps of

the interview process. The more practice they can get before they

go into the community, the more self-confidence they will have

in their interviewing skills.

Activity 6: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice Assignment. If there is time between this

and the next session, ask Trainees to practice conducting an

informal interview in their homes with family members. Ask them

to work in pairs—one Trainee conducting the interview, and the

other observing the interview, completing the Informal Interview

Observation Checklist, and giving feedback. Again, the more

practice Trainees have conducting informal interviews during the

training, the more self-confidence they will develop, and the more

likely they will conduct informal interviews in their site.
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Trainer’s Notes

The interview guide and role play should be written and conducted

in the language in which the Trainees will be working. In the next

session, they will apply these skills in the community and use that

language. Therefore, they should begin to use their language skills

during the role play.

In this exercise and all Community Practice Assignments involving a

checklist, work with the cross-cultural trainer to assess whether the

checklist should be visible during the observation or if the observer

should complete it immediately following.
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The Informal Interview

and the Survey

The informal interview is a conversation between two people on a particular subject. In an informal interview,

sometimes called an in-depth interview, use open-ended questions and probing techniques to understand people’s

beliefs, knowledge, and practices in great detail. Two types of informal interviews are as follows:

Open: Identify the subject (for example, what foods are good for young children to eat) and allow the other

person to speak freely about his opinions, experiences, and views related to that subject. Use probing

techniques to help the other person elaborate and explain his or her opinions completely.

Structured: Prepare a guide to the questions you want to discuss with the other person. This ensures that

everyone you talk with answers the same questions.

The survey is a research technique for obtaining quantitative information that can be projected onto a larger

population group. In surveys, you use a previously designed and tested questionnaire. The questionnaire generally

contains more closed-ended questions than open-ended ones.

Follow the same procedure, described below, for both informal interviews and surveys:

Introduction. Greet the other person in a culturally appropriate way, introduce yourself, and ask the person’s

name.

Motivation. Motivate the person to talk with you and give his or her opinions. Explain the purpose of the

visit and the importance of any opinions or information that she/he might provide. Explain that the

information is confidential and will not be used for any other purposes. Help him/her feel at ease by

mentioning the names of acquaintances with whom you have talked (but not what they told you). Ask if the

person has time to talk with you right now. If not, ask when you could come back.

Conduct the Interview. Conduct the interview in an atmosphere of trust. Use the person’s name frequently

(if appropriate in the culture in which you are working) and treat him/her with respect and genuine

friendship. You should not disagree with or discuss the person’s views, but, rather, accept them. Remember,

you are there to learn from that person! In an informal interview, use as many open-ended questions as you

can. If you find yourself asking a closed-ended question, use an open-ended one or a probing technique to

find out more. Don’t ask any leading questions.

End the Interview. Thank the person for his/her collaboration and help. Repeat how important his/her

opinion is and how much you have learned. If possible, give him/her practical examples of how the

information gathered will be used.

The attached Informal Interview Observation Checklist will help you conduct an informal interview. Review it

before and after each interview to help improve your skills. Use this checklist to train others to conduct an

interview, too.

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Informal Interview Observation Checklist

Greet the person and introduce self in a culturally appropriate way.

Inquire about the person’s personal well being, family, and so on.

Ask if the person is free to talk; explain the purpose of the visit.

Set up an alternate time if the person is too busy to talk at the moment.

Offer to participate in any activity that may be going on or starting up (for example, cooking or weeding a

garden).

Use appropriate body language (sit or stand appropriately).

Demonstrate appropriate eye contact.

Ask more open-ended questions than closed ones.

Ask no leading questions.

Remain silent for a few moments to give the other person time to think.

Repeat the other person’s words as a question.

Ask the person to talk about other people’s experience rather than his/her own if it appears that the

person is uncomfortable talking about his/her own experience.

Ask the other person to explain further. Ask questions such as: “What do you mean by that?” “Tell me

more about that.” “I’m not sure I understand what you mean.” “You started to say something about ...—

tell me more about it”. “You mentioned something about....”

Do not stay too long.

Use culturally appropriate body language and salutations to leave (do not leave abruptly).

Thank the person for his/her time and help.

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Listen and Observe

Section II: Session 10

The Informal Interview:

Practice in the Community

Session Plan

Overview

In this session, the Trainees practice conducting informal interviews

with community members using the interview guides they developed

in Session 9.

Note to Trainers in Sectors other Than Nutrition: Knowing how

to conduct interviews with community members is an important skill

for all Trainees. This session can be applied without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session the Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe an informal interview and a survey.

2. Using an observation checklist, describe and demonstrate the

steps of an interview.

3. Explain the informal interview guides they have developed.

Time

3 hours

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Interview guides

Vocabulary

Key words from the interview guides developed
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Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Review the Interview Process

Time: 15 minutes

Ask Trainees to review the purpose and steps of informal

interviews. If Trainees have already practiced in their homes,

review their checklists and give feedback.

Activity 2: Practice in the Community

Time: 1 hour, 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to work in pairs and conduct informal interviews

in the community using the guides they developed in Session 9.

If counterparts are present at the training, ask Volunteers to work

with their counterparts. One person in each pair should observe

the interview, complete the Informal Interview Observation Checklist,

and give feedback.

Activity 3: Summarize the Information Gathered

Time: 1 hour

Ask the Trainees to discuss how well they did with their informal

interviews. Review the checklists and give specific feedback on

what the Trainees did well and on what they need to do better

next time.

Ask the Trainees to discuss what new information they learned

from the interview and record this information on flip chart paper.

Save this information to use for making decisions during later

sessions in Discuss and Decide.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

Ask Trainees to generalize some of their learnings with questions

such as:

1. What is valuable about informal interviews?

2. What helped you get information easily?

3. What, if any difficulties did you have with interviews? How

can you overcome them?
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Trainer’s Notes

If some of the Trainees are to talk with formal leaders, such as mayors

or clinic staff, they probably will need to visit them in advance to set

up a time for the interview.
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Discuss and Decide

Section III

Discuss and

Decide

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
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Discuss and Decide

Section III

Discuss and Decide

Introduction

The Discuss and Decide sessions teach Trainees how to work with

their counterparts to select a target group and then to work with those

community members to identify their desires, needs, and problems

and what actions they will take to change a specific situation. The

sessions include how to do the following:

• Select target groups

• Identify a priority situation to change and determine appropriate

action

• Define goals and objectives

• Select communication channels and nonformal education

techniques

• Develop an Action Plan and timeline

Trainer’s Notes: At the beginning of each session, remind the Trainees

that the decisions the training group makes during the training

sessions are not the final decisions that the Trainees will work on in

their community. They will need to discuss and decide with their

counterparts and other people in their community to make these

decisions in their sites. The training sessions will take them through
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the process of making these decisions so they can apply the process

in their work.

Trainers are encouraged to incorporate sessions from Section IV Try

Something into Section III Discuss and Decide. As early as Section

III, Session 2, facilitation skills become relevant to the Volunteers’

ability to successfully manage the Discuss and Decide process. The

Discuss and Decide sessions become an opportune time to train

Section IV, Session 3 on facilitating a group discussion. Trainers may

find other similar opportunities to blend Sections III and IV.

Resource

The New Project Design and Management Workshop Training

Manual (ICE no. T0107)

T
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Discuss and Decide

Section III: Session 1

Introduction to

Discuss and Decide and

Selecting Target Groups

Session Plan

Overview

This session introduces how Volunteers will discuss and decide with

community members what is important to them. It then teaches how

to work with counterparts to select target groups.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Knowing how

to work with counterparts to select target groups is important for all

Volunteers. You can use this session without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session the Trainees will be able to:

1. List what they will discuss and decide with their counterparts

and other community members.

2. Define and explain primary and secondary target groups.

3. Explain the importance of working with local leaders from the

beginning of their community work.

Time

1 hour, 45 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Flip chart papers containing the Food Availability Calendar, How and

What do Women and Children Eat and Why, and other information
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that the Trainees have gathered from the community during earlier

sessions.

• The Trainees’ diaries with information they have gathered from

the community.

• Handout: Discuss and Decide Worksheet. This handout will be used

during all the sessions in Section III.

Vocabulary

Target group, primary, secondary, community leaders, education, age,

role model, informal leaders, influence, status, factors

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Discuss and Decide

Time: 15 minutes

Draw or refer back to the drawing of the process for change.

Explain that the previous sessions focused on the first step of the

process—listen and observe. The following sessions will teach

them the skills they need to discuss and decide.

Distribute the Discuss and Decide Worksheet and ask a Trainee to

read the decisions the group will be making; these are outlined in

the worksheet. Discuss any questions on the decisions.

Activity 2: Introduction to Target Groups

Time: 45 minutes

Explain that people in every community are different, but

frequently educational materials and projects treat them as if they

are all the same. The Trainees and their counterparts will be more

effective in their work if they understand the differences among

people and tailor their messages, nonformal education techniques,

and activities to the specific needs of each group.

Primary Groups

Write this definition of primary group on flip chart paper: Primary

groups are those people who will actually do the nutrition action

we are promoting.

Explain that the primary audience for many nutrition activities

are pregnant women or mothers of young children. Explain that

the primary audience categories may be too broad. Trainees will

find that there are different kinds of mothers in the community.

Ask the Trainees for ideas about factors or background influences
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Discuss and Decide

that might make mothers different from each other and that might

affect whether they will try or continue doing the nutrition action.

Write the following factors on the flip chart paper under primary

groups:

• Level of education

• Degree of wealth

• Language

• Single mothers or two-parent families

• Age

• Number of children

• Child at risk or sick frequently

• Status in the community (opinion leaders)

• Rank of wife in polygamous cultures (first, second, third)

Discuss the effect each of these factors might have on whether

these mothers will try something new.

Explain that there are no right or wrong answers. They will want

to find individuals or groups of people in their community who

are open and willing to try something new and select them as

their first primary group. Emphasize that they should always

work in partnership with their own community’s human

resources.

Secondary Groups

Write this definition of secondary groups on flip chart paper:

Secondary groups are those people who most influence the

primary group.

Ask the Trainees to list who the secondary groups might be and

discuss why each one might be important. Include the following:

• Fathers

• Grandparents

• Formal leaders

• Informal leaders

• Midwives

• School teachers

• Health workers and other community development

workers

• Other wives of the same spouse

• Religious leaders

• Women’s leaders (ostracism by peer group is a powerful

force)
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Ask the Trainees to brainstorm ways that secondary groups might

influence the primary group. Include the following:

• Giving permission or “blessing” to try a new action

• Being role models of the action

• Providing information

• Rewarding people for taking the action

• Training people in new skills

• Providing physical or emotional support

Emphasize that the Trainees frequently will need to work with

members of the secondary group before they can begin working

with the primary group. Discuss examples of when this might be

the case for each of the secondary groups.

Ask for and answer questions concerning selection of target

groups.

Activity 3: Select the Target Groups for

the Pre-Service Training Sessions

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to review the information they gathered in the

community about local leaders and resources and to select the

primary and secondary groups they will work with during this

training. Facilitate the discussion. After they have reached

consensus, have them complete Section I of the Discuss and Decide

Worksheet. Remind them that they would make this decision at

their site with their counterparts and the community members.

Ask them to bring the worksheet with them to the next seven

training sessions.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

It is very important to model the correct way to facilitate a

discussion in this and other sessions. Review Section IV, Try

Something, Session 3 for guidelines on facilitating a group

discussion. You may wish to train facilitation skills as an

immediate follow-up to this session.
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Trainer’s Notes
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Discuss and Decide Worksheet

Work with your counterparts, local leaders, and other community members to decide the following:

I. Who are our target groups?

• Primary Group:

• Secondary Group:

II. What is the priority desire, need, or problem of this target group?

III. What is the action or solution that the community wants to pursue?

(What barriers do people have in taking this action or solution? What benefits do they perceive in taking

this action or solution?)

IV. What are the community’s goal and objectives?

• Goal:

• Objectives:

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Discuss and Decide

V. What communication channels are available for use in reaching the target groups?

• Primary Group:

• Secondary Group:

VI. What nonformal education techniques are familiar to our community that we can use?

VII. When and where will our promotion activities take place?

VIII. What will we do to listen and observe how effective we were in reaching our goal and objectives once we

have tried something?

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IX. What is our Action Plan?

Action Plan

Activity Resource Responsible Date

Needs Persons Completed

X. What is our Timeline?

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Discuss and Decide

Section III: Session 2

Identifying a Priority Desire,

Need, or Problem and Selecting

an Appropriate Action or

Solution at the Community Level

Session Plan

Overview

This session is designed for Volunteers working at the community

level. It teaches them how to work with their counterpart, local leaders,

and other community members to make these decisions. Session 3

describes a methodology to make these decisions for Volunteers

working at the district, regional, or national level.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Knowing how

to work with counterparts and community members to identify a

priority desire, need, or problem and select an appropriate action or

solution is important for all Volunteers working at the community

level. Adapt the decisions to be made to your specific technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to describe how to

work with community members to identify a priority problem and

select an appropriate solution or action.

Time

2 hours, 30 minutes
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition

and/or other technical documents.

– Identifying a Priority Desire, Need, or Problem and Selecting an

Appropriate Action or Solution at the Community Level

– Discuss and Decide Worksheet

• Flip chart papers containing the Food Availability Calendar, How and

What do Women and Children Eat and Why, and other information

that the Trainees have gathered from the community during earlier

sessions.

• Trainees’ diaries with the information they have gathered from the

community.

• Community members of the target group the Trainees selected in

Session 1.

Preparation

Distribute the handout Identifying a Priority Desire, Need, or Problem

and Selecting an Appropriate Action or Solution at the Community Level

before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it and record questions

and comments they want to discuss.

Vocabulary

Priority, solution, action, appropriate, decision, involvement,

investment, agreement, facilitator, discussion, information, definition,

organize, ideas, benefits, disadvantages, problems, behavior, activity

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Identifying a

Priority Desire, Need, or Problem

and Selecting an Appropriate Action

or Solution

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to discuss why it is important to involve

community members in identifying a priority desire, need, or

problem and selecting an appropriate solution or action.
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Discuss and Decide

Ask the Trainees to describe what they and their counterparts

need to do to involve the community members in these decisions.

Discuss the process in detail. Discuss how the methods learned

by Volunteers in Section II, Listen and Observe can be used to

inform the process of identifying a priority issue. Discuss why it

important to help community members select one priority issue

to work on.

Activity 2: Practice—Working with Community

Members

Time: 1 hour

Facilitate a meeting with community members who are

representatives of the target group the Trainees selected; model

how to identify a priority issue and select an appropriate action

or solution. Model ways that information gathered through such

activities as surveys, a Foods Availability Calendar, or informal

interviews can be used to inform the process. You probably will

not come to any final decisions during this first meeting, but try

to model as much of the process as possible.

Activity 3: Summarize the Practice Session

Time: 45 minutes

Ask the Trainees, “If no decisions were made in this meeting, what

would the Volunteer and his/her counterpart need to do next?”

Ask the Trainees to define, on the basis of the priority issue and

appropriate action or solution they will work on during this

training, what they learned from community members in this

session. Facilitate their discussion. After they have reached

consensus, ask them to complete Sections II and III of the Discuss

and Decide Worksheet.

Emphasize that the Trainees and their counterparts will assist

community members in making these decisions during several

meetings to gain a true consensus about the issue and action on

which they will focus. Because of the time constraints of the

training, they have to move forward much more quickly than

they will in their real community work.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

Ask Trainees to reflect on the process of identifying an issue to

work on as a community. Use questions, such as:
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1. What are some ways you as Volunteers can gain entry into

the community and gain the confidence of the community?

2. What are critical steps in learning about the communities

resources and needs?

3. What are some important considerations in working with the

community to determine an issue they wish to work on?

Trainer’s Notes

It is very important that you demonstrate the correct way to facilitate

such a meeting. Review Section IV, Try Something, Session 3 for

guidelines on how to facilitate a group discussion.
135

Discuss and Decide

Identifying a Priority Desire, Need, or

Problem and Selecting an Appropriate Action

or Solution at the Community Level

After you and your counterparts select your target groups, you will need to work with these community members

to identify a priority issue and select an appropriate action or solution to work on that issue. Working with

community members to define their own needs and solutions will ensure that you (and your counterparts) are

not imposing your solutions and ideas. How you involve those community members will depend on some of

the issues you identified while you were listening and observing in the community and on the target groups

you selected to work with.

To involve community members in identifying issues and selecting appropriate actions, do the following:

1. Meet with members of your primary and secondary target groups, either individually or as a group. For

example, you and your counterparts may decide that your primary target group is mothers of children

under five years of age and your secondary target group is health center staff and midwives. You determined

that there is an active mothers club in your community and decided to work with that group. In such a

situation, you may want to meet first with the clinic staff and midwives, then arrange a meeting between

them and the mothers club to further discuss and decide what issue they will focus on and actions they will

promote.

The roles for you and your counterpart in these meetings are as facilitators for the discussion. You will not

be making the decisions, but, rather, providing information on which the community members can make

decisions and helping them organize their ideas.

2. Share with the group the information you have gathered and work together to define a priority issue they

will focus on. Encourage the group to focus on one issue at a time. Focusing on only one issue is sometimes

difficult to do; it is hard to select one when there is so much to do. Remind them that they can apply the

lessons learned from this experience to other priority issues in the future.

3. Solicit their ideas first, then share with the group other actions to address the issue. Group members may be

unfamiliar with some of the potential solutions. For example, the women in the mothers club may decide

that they want to focus on improving their children’s health. However, they may not know about some of

the ways to do this, such as:

• Mothers need to monitor their children’s growth and weight gain

• Children should eat at least five times every day to grow

• Vitamin A is very important, as is knowing the foods that are rich in this vitamin

• Children need to be helped to eat when they are sick

Share with them the information you have gathered in the community about the resources they have that

might best help them work on the issue they have identified.

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Facilitate the discussion to help them select the action they will undertake. Encourage them to work on one

action at a time. This is sometimes difficult to do; it is hard for people to select one action. Emphasize that

working on even one action can be very complex. Focusing on one or two actions will make their work

manageable. Community members can use the lessons learned from this experience to promote another

action in the future.

When community members are selecting an action, ask them to consider the following:

• Which action can have the most immediate impact on the issue?

• Which action is the easiest to do? Which one is the least complex? Which one has the least cost to people

in terms of time, energy, money, and status?

• Which action gives the most immediate and visible benefits?

• Which action is most similar to what people are already doing? Which one fits best into their current

beliefs and practices?

• Which action is already a priority of other individuals, agencies, and organizations in the community?

You may need to meet with community members several times to help them to select an action. Be careful

not to push the group to make a decision before the participants are ready. At the same time, help them

organize their ideas, solutions, and actions.

4. Ask community members to determine why people in the community should take this action. What benefits

will people perceive by doing it? People will try something new only if they believe that the results will be

better for them than what they are presently doing. Therefore, they need to understand why they should

take action.

However, why you think they should do something and why they think they should do something may be

completely different. For example, you and your counterpart may think that mothers should feed their

children soft foods during diarrhea episodes because it will increase nutrient absorption; however, mothers

may believe that they should feed their children soft foods during diarrhea episodes because the stomach is

weakened by diarrhea and other foods will make the diarrhea worse.

Only community members can determine what benefits people will perceive with taking the new action.

Ask them to discuss and decide what benefits other community members will be able to observe if they take

action.

5. If the action is a project or activity, such as constructing a health center, starting a community garden, or

beginning a well-baby program, work with community members to develop a goal and objectives, as well

as an Action Plan and Timeline to implement them. In other sessions, you will learn how to work with

community members to develop these.

6. If the action is a behavior that people need to do every day, such as providing an improved weaning food,

increasing the amount of food that children eat, or feeding children differently during diarrhea episodes,

ask the community members to help you and your counterparts conduct Action Trials. You will learn how

to conduct Action Trials in another session.

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Discuss and Decide

Section III: Session 3

Identifying a Priority Issue and

Selecting an Appropriate Action

or Solution at the District,

 Regional, or National Level

Session Plan

Overview

This session is designed for Volunteers who work at the district,

regional, or national level. It teaches them how to use the information

gathered from the community and work with their counterparts and

a local interdisciplinary team to identify a priority issue and an action

or solution at those levels.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: This session is

important to all Volunteers working at the district, regional, or national

level. To adapt this session, select an interdisciplinary team

appropriate for your technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Use technical information, such as Variety is More than the Spice of

Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition and information gathered from

the community, to work with an interdisciplinary group to identify

a priority problem in the group’s district, region, or country.

2. Select an appropriate action to work toward changing that

situation.

Time

2 hours, 15 minutes
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition

from the Introductory Session or other technical background

documents.

– Identifying a Priority Issue and Selecting an Appropriate Action or

Solution at the District, Regional, or National Level.

– Selecting a Priority Action and Discuss and Decide worksheets.

• Flip chart papers containing the Food Availability Calendar, How and

What do Women and Children Eat and Why, and other information

that the Trainees have gathered from the community during earlier

sessions

• The Trainees’ diaries with the information they have gathered from

the community

Preparation

1. Distribute the handout Identifying a Priority Issue and Selecting an

Appropriate Action or Solution at the District, Regional, or National

Level before the session. Ask the Trainees and the interdisciplinary

team members to read it and record questions and comments they

want to discuss.

2. Assemble a host-country interdisciplinary team. This team should

include at least one member of each of the following groups:

• Counterparts

• Technical experts, such as a nutritionist

• Social researchers, such as anthropologists or sociologists who

have conducted research at the district, regional, or national

level

• Service providers in the area where you are working, such as

community development workers, nurses, educators

• Community leaders, formal or informal

Vocabulary

Benefits, priority, similar, disadvantages, promoting, choosing,

problems, collaboration, impact, results
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Discuss and Decide

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Identify a Priority Issue

Time: 1 hour

Ask one or two of the Trainees to summarize and explain the

information they gathered from the community for the group and

the local interdisciplinary team.

Using that information as a basis for their decisions, ask the local

interdisciplinary team to work with the Trainees to identify the

priority nutritional issues in the community where the training

is being conducted. Facilitate the discussion with the objective of

selecting one issue to focus on during the rest of the training.

Write that issue on flip chart paper. Ask the Trainees to complete

Section II of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Activity 2: Select an Appropriate Action or

Solution

Time: 1 hour

Explain that the Trainees will now need to work with the

interdisciplinary team to select an appropriate action that will

work toward changing the situation or resolving this problem.

Selecting an appropriate action is difficult because of the many

actions the Volunteer and his/her counterparts could promote.

Most community workers (and Volunteers), faced with the

enormous need to improve people’s lives, will want to do

everything at once. However, experience shows that community

workers will be more successful in their work if they focus on

one or two key actions. They can use the experience of promoting

this action to improve their communication skills. It is especially

important during training and during the first year at their site

that Volunteers focus on one or two key actions and use that

experience to develop their skills (and those of their community

members, local leaders, and counterparts) in organizing and

supporting the community to change or improve their situation.

They will find that promoting even one action is much more

complex and difficult than they think.

Ask one of the Trainees to read the criteria for selecting an action

from the Selecting a Priority Action Worksheet.

Ask the interdisciplinary team and the Trainees to list the potential

actions they might suggest and write them on flip chart paper.

Number them and use the handout to analyze each one. Facilitate

the discussion with the objective of selecting one action based on

the results. When the group has reached consensus, ask the

Trainees to complete Section III of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.
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Activity 3: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

Process this session with several questions. Use questions that

allow participants to appreciate the difficulty of the work they

have just done but are sensitive to direct criticism of individuals.

Sample questions:

1. What is the new perspective you gained during this session?

2. What are some of the challenges in trying to decide on action

other people should take?

3. What is something you learned that will be useful in your

work?

Trainer’s Notes

This session may be a relatively difficult one for both you and the

Trainees for several reasons:

• Many technical experts are used to selecting actions without

considering the questions posed on the Selecting a Priority Action

Worksheet. This is the reason so many development programs are

not successful. “Experts” in the capital recommend actions without

first listening, observing, and learning from the community. They

select actions that simply are not feasible for people to do, or go

against cultural beliefs and practices. In this session, you may

actually be training the technical expert and other members of the

interdisciplinary team to listen to the community when selecting

a nutrition action. You will, therefore, need to be careful when

selecting your technical expert and other members of your team.

Select people who seem to be open to using the information you

have gathered from the community to identify a priority issue and

select an appropriate action.

• It is hard to select one action when there are so many desires, needs,

and problems and so much to do. Emphasize that, at least during

this training, the Trainees need to focus on one action. After they

have gone through the entire process focusing on one action, they

will realize how complex their work can be. Focusing on one or

two actions makes their work manageable.

• Trainees (and the technical experts) will want to include their own

perspective and biases to answer the questions on the worksheet.

Emphasize that they constantly need to refer to the information

they have gathered from the community. That information must

drive the decision-making process. This approach will ensure that

the community is participating in the process and that the

Volunteers and their counterparts are responding to community

needs and cultural mores.
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Discuss and Decide

• Making such decisions is hard work. Monitor the group’s energy

and take breaks or do a group dynamic exercise (preferably

physical), if necessary. You may want to break the session into two

parts; however, the interdisciplinary team needs to be present

during both parts.
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Identifying a Priority Issue and Selecting an

Appropriate Action or Solution at the District,

Regional, or National Level

It is important to do this work in collaboration with an interdisciplinary team. In addition to you and your

counterparts, this team should include at least one member of each of the following groups:

1. Technical experts in the area in which you are working, such as a nutritionist, agronomist, epidemiologist,

or physician

2. Social researchers, such as anthropologists or sociologists who have conducted research at the district,

regional, or national level

3. Service providers in the area where you are working, such as community development workers, nurses,

and educators

4. Community leaders, formal or informal

Each of these types of people will have a different perspective and provide an important contribution to the

process.

List a maximum of five possible actions (those that can help address the issue you selected) on a sheet of paper

and number them. Use the information you gathered from the community to answer the questions on the

worksheet for each action. Select the action that has the most number of “yes” responses. In some cases, you will

discover the following:

• The answer is not a simple “yes” or “no”; it is “sometimes” and “for some people.”

• You don’t have enough information to answer the questions and need to gather more from the community.

• People have different opinions in discussing these questions. An active (and sometimes heated) discussion

is normal and is actually an important part of the process. Allow enough time to discuss everyone’s

opinions.

The worksheet is simply a tool to help you ask the right questions when you are selecting an action or solution.

Just remember—as much as possible, to answer the questions, use the information you gathered from the

community, not your own opinion.

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Selecting a Priority Action Worksheet

Question Action

12345

Can this action have a relatively immediate impact

on the issue you selected?

Is this action similar to what people are already doing?

Is this action relatively easy to do (not complex)?

Does this action fit in with existing cultural beliefs about

foods and nutrition?

Does this action have a low cost in terms of money, time,

energy, and/or status?

Does this action have positive results or benefits that can

be perceived by the person who will be performing it?

Is this action clearly addressing a priority of community

leaders and organizations?

Total Yes:

Total No:

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Section III: Session 4

Working with

Community Members to

Conduct Action Trials

Session Plan

Overview

Action Trials are another effective way to involve community members

in identifying their desires, needs, and problems, and working toward

changing their situation. During these trials, the Volunteers and their

counterparts work with members of their target groups to develop,

test, and adapt the action to community members’ needs and

resources. Action Trials can be done either individually or with a

group.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Knowing how

to do Action Trials that involve community members in the

development and adaptation of an action to be promoted can be an

important technique for all Volunteers to learn. Adapt the Action Trial

to your specific technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Explain the steps of an Action Trial.

2. Describe the two ways that an Action Trial can be conducted—

individually or in a group.

3. Explain and apply the Action Trial Checklist.

Time

2 hours, 30 minutes
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Variety is More than the Spice of Life: Basic Maternal-Child Nutrition

and/or other technical background information.

– How to Work with Community Members to Conduct Action Trials.

Distribute the handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to

read it and record questions and comments they would like to

discuss.

– Action Trial Checklist and Discuss and Decide worksheets.

• Flip chart papers containing the Food Availability Calendar, How and

What do Women and Children Eat and Why, and other information

that the Trainees gathered from the community during earlier

sessions

• Trainees’ diaries with the information they gathered from the

community

Preparation

Invite community members of the target groups selected by Trainees

to participate in this session

Vocabulary

Priority, solution, action, appropriate, involve, develop, test, discuss,

decide, target group, collaboration, individual, group session, action,

recommendation, trial

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Action Trials

Time: 30 minutes

Ask Trainees to describe an Action Trial and to include the

following in their descriptions:

• Why is it important?

• When should it be done?

• Who should be involved?

Ask Trainees to discuss each step of the process and how they

apply the steps to a group and an individual.
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Ask community members if they have ever participated in Action

Trials before. If so, have them describe them.

Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: Demonstration of an Action Trial

Time: 1 hour

Demonstrate an Action Trial on a specific nutrition action (adding

oil, making a new weaning food) with two to five members of

the selected target audience and ask the Trainees to observe and

apply the Action Trial Checklist.

Activity 3: Summarize the Results of the Action

Trial

Time: 45 minutes

Ask the Trainees to compare and discuss the results of their

checklists and to give you feedback on how you conducted the

Action Trial.

Ask the Trainees and community members to summarize the

results of the Action Trial and to decide what changes they would

make in the action/recommendation based on the trial. Facilitate

the discussion. After they reach consensus, have them add their

decisions to Sections II and III of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Emphasize that the Trainees and their counterparts will help

community members make these decisions during several Action

Trials to gain a true consensus about the changes needed to make

them appropriate to community members’ needs. Because of the

time constraints of the training, they have to move forward much

more quickly than they will in their real community work.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

If counterparts are not involved in the training, discuss sharing the

handouts with counterparts after Volunteers have developed a

good relationship with them. Ask Volunteers to work with

counterparts to develop an Action Trial using all the steps outlined

in this handout. Have them observe each other and give each

other feedback about what they did well and what they need to

do better the next time.

Ask how Volunteers might handle counterparts’ resistance.

Discuss opportunities to use this technique to help identify what
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the Volunteer will do for a secondary project. Encourage

Volunteers to share their experiences with their counterparts and

to ask for help by having counterparts observe as the Volunteer

facilitates with community members. Counterparts should be

asked for feedback so the process is one of learning together and

learning from one another.

Community Practice Assignment. Ask the Trainees to work in

pairs and conduct the same trial with their family members. If

counterparts are present at the training, ask Volunteers to work

with their counterparts. One person in each pair acts as the

observer, completes the checklist, and gives feedback to the other

on what she/he is doing well and what she/he needs to do better

next time. Give them a specific amount of time (for example, two

or three days) to organize and conduct the Action Trial. At the

beginning of the appropriate session, discuss their experiences,

compare the checklists, and give feedback. It is important to give

the Trainees sufficient time to process and generalize about this

experience.

Trainer’s Notes

Carefully consider who from the community will be involved in this

session. They can be involved more than simply as a demonstration

group. They might also do the community practice assignment and

return for the processing session.
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How to Work with Community Members

to Conduct Action Trials

The Action Trial is a way to actively involve community members in the development and adaptation of a

solution, action, or recommendation. In these trials, you and your counterparts work with community members

to develop the new solution or action and ask them to try taking the action for several days. You will then

discuss and decide with them what changes need to be made in the action to make it easier for other community

members to adapt.

Use the following Action Trial steps to develop, test, discuss, and decide any nutrition, health, or agriculture

action or recommendation with community members:

1. Identify several people who are members of your primary target group and are able and willing to

share their perceptions with you. For example, if the nutrition recommendation is for a new weaning

food recipe, identify several mothers of young children who would be able and willing to share their

perceptions with you.

2. Explain the purpose of the trial to the person and ask for their collaboration.

3. Ask the person what they are presently doing concerning the action.

4. Discuss the new recommendation or action with them. Ask them to help you try out the recommendation

or action.

Ask about their immediate reaction. Are they willing to try? If they are willing, what convinced them?

What do they like? If they are not willing, what don’t they like? Could there be a problem with other

family or homestead members disagreeing? What would they say?

5. Demonstrate the action and ask them to try it with you. Help them successfully complete the action at

least once. Observe and record the questions or changes they suggest.

6. Ask about the following:

• What benefits or advantages do they anticipate from taking the new action? (Did they like it? Why?

What exactly did they like about it?)

• What disadvantages do they expect from the new action? (What exactly did they not like about it?

Does it take too much time? Energy? Cost too much? Go against food taboos?)

• What suggestions do they have to make the action easier to do?

• Would they continue to recommend the recipe or action? Why or why not?

• How would they teach or talk to another person about the action? Ask them to show you how they

would teach another person.

7. Make changes in the recommendation or action on the basis of the person’s suggestions.

The Action Trial can be done in two ways—with individuals or in a group session.

Group Session. Identify two to five members of your target group and ask them to help you take the new

action during a group session. Arrange to hold the group discussion in a neutral place where there will not

be many distractions. You also need to provide the food you will need (for example, leafy green vegetables).

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However, arrange to use the other materials (for example, pots and pans) that your target group would

typically use. Take all the steps during the group session.

Individually. Visit each person in his/her home. During the first visit take Steps 1 to 5. Then, ask the person

to try to do the action for a period of time, usually two to three days. Visit the person again at the end of the

time and ask him/her to do the action for you. Observe and record the changes and questions she/he has,

then ask the questions listed in Step 6 above.

Whether you do the Action Trial with individuals or in a group session depends on the action or recommendation

that the community members select. If the nutrition action is very different from what people currently are

doing, you will first want to do a group trial. During this trial, the community members will develop the action

that you could then ask individuals to try in their homes. The more community participation you can get in

developing and refining the action or recommendation, the better.

To help do your Action Trials and to improve your skills, review the following checklist before and after you

conduct each trial. Use it to train other people in conducting Action Trials.

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Action Trial Checklist

Greet the person and introduce self in a culturally appropriate way.

Ask about the person’s personal well-being, family, and so on.

Ask if the person has a few minutes to talk. Set up an alternate time if the person is too busy to talk at the

moment.

Explain the purpose of the trial and ask for his/her collaboration.

Ask the person what she/he is doing now concerning the nutrition action.

Discuss the new recommendation or action with him/her. Record his/her questions and reactions.

Demonstrate the action.

Ask him/her to try it with you. Help him/her to successfully complete the action at least once. Observe

and record any changes and questions she/he has.

Ask the person to try the action for two to three days. Set up a time for a follow-up visit.

Ask what benefits or advantages the person perceives with taking the new action.

Ask what disadvantages she/he perceives with taking the new action.

Ask what suggestions she/he has to make the action easier to do.

Ask him/her to show you how she/he would teach another person to take the new action. Records the

process and words used.

Ask more open-ended questions than closed-ended ones.

Use no leading questions.

Remain silent for a few moments to give the person time to think.

Repeat the person’s words as a question.

Ask the other person to explain further. Use questions and statements such as: “What do you mean by

that?” “Tell me more about that.” “I’m not sure I understand what you mean.” “You started to say something

about ...—tell me more about it.” “You mentioned something about ....”

Do not stay too long.

Thank the person for his/her time and help.

Use culturally appropriate body language and salutations to leave (do not leave abruptly).

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Section III: Session 5

Defining Goals, Objectives,

and Milestones

Session Plan

Overview

This session teaches Trainees how to help community members define

goals, objectives, and milestones.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Helping

community members define their goals, objectives, and milestones is

important for all Volunteers. Simply adapt the examples in the

handout to your specific training area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Explain the difference between a macro (national or regional-level)

and micro (community-level) plan.

2. State what information should be included in a “good” goal or

objective statement.

3. State the standards for a “good” goal or objective statement.

Time

2 hours, 15 minutes

Staff

Associate Peace Corps Director (APCD) responsible for the Trainees’

technical area
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– How to Get Where You’re Going—Defining Goals, Objectives, and

Milestones

– Discuss and Decide Worksheet

Preparation

Distribute How to Get Where You’re Going—Defining Goals, Objectives,

and Milestones handout before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it

and note questions and comments they would like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Goal, objective, micro, macro, milestone, plan of action, measurable,

feasible, relevant, standards, define, discussion, monitor, identify

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Goals and Objectives

Time: 30 minutes

Introduce the session by noting that even though people in the

community agree that a situation needs changing, they are

unlikely to do anything about it unless they can agree on what

action to take. After the group agrees on measurable goals and

objectives, they can then start developing a plan of action to reach

them.

Ask the Trainees to discuss the differences between a macro-level

and micro-level goal. Ask the APCD to discuss the relationships

between government’s goals, the Peace Corps Project Plan goals,

and the Volunteer’s job descriptions.

Activity 2: Practice Writing Objectives

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to follow the guidelines in the handout and write,

individually, a community-level objective for one of the following

program goals. Trainees may write their objectives on blackboards

or flip chart paper so they are easier to review.
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“Within five years, reduce the amount of malnutrition in

children under two years of age by 50 percent.”

“Within two years, reduce the number of children who

demonstrate signs of vitamin A deficiency by 50 percent.”

Ask each Trainee to present his/her objective and have the group

decide whether it meets the standards and includes the

information needed for a good objective. As a group rewrite the

objective if the group decides that it needs improvement.

Ask the group to summarize what makes a good goal and

objective. Some of the questions you can use to guide this

discussion are listed below:

• Why is it important to state, in measurable terms, what

you expect as an outcome?

• What information do you need to include in the objective?

• How do you measure a good objective and one that needs

rewriting?

• What may happen if you establish a clear, measurable

objective that is not feasible to achieve?

The conclusions of the discussion on what information an

objective should include are as follows:

• Who is expected to do how much of what, where, and by

when?

The standards for a good objective are the following:

• Measurable—based on behavior that you can observe.

• Relevant—related to the defined problem.

• Feasible—has a reasonable chance for success.

Emphasize that all objectives, whether at the national, community,

activity, or training session level, should meet the standards and

contain the same “who, what, how much, where, and by when”

information. Only the kind of information will differ with the

different levels.

Emphasize that goals and objectives must be defined with

counterparts and other community members; they cannot be

established just by the Volunteer. Establishing objectives without

involving community members will lead to objectives that are

not feasible, as well as to a great deal of frustration on the part of

the Volunteer.

Ask for questions and comments.
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Activity 3: Define the Goals and Objectives

Time: 1 hour

Review what the group decided in Sections I, II, and III of the

Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Facilitate a group discussion during which the Trainees develop

the program goal for the action that they have selected to work

on during the training. Make sure that the program goal meets

the standards and includes the information needed for a good

goal or objective. Have the Trainees write that goal in Section IV

of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Facilitate a group discussion during which the Trainees define at

least three objectives that would contribute to that goal. Make

sure the objectives meet the standards by including all the needed

information. Have the Trainees write their objectives in Section

IV of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Select one of the objectives and facilitate a group discussion during

which the Trainees define at least three milestones that would

contribute to reaching that objective.

Emphasize that Volunteers and their counterparts would take the

same role that you have taken when the community members

are defining their goal, objectives, and milestones—facilitating

the group discussions. It may take several meetings for

community members to gain a real consensus about the group’s

goal and objectives. Due to the time constraints of the training,

they have to move forward much more quickly than they will in

their real community work.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes
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How to Get Where You’re Going Defining Goals,

Objectives, and Milestones

People can agree that a situation exists that needs changing and still not solve it. This can happen even if everyone

agrees that something should be done. To change a situation, people first need to agree what they want to

achieve and how they will achieve it—their goals and objectives.

Goals and objectives can be established at both the macro (national or regional) level or the micro (community)

level.

• Macro level: Such goals and objectives are designed for the national level, or at least for several regions

of the country. In most countries, the Ministry of Health has a national health and nutrition plan. Your

APCD has worked with both the Ministry of Health and the community to translate this plan into the

Peace Corps Project Plan for your country. Your job descriptions were developed according to this Project

Plan.

• Micro level: You will be working with community members to develop goals and objectives to address

specific health and nutrition issues in your community. For each issue that you and the community

decide to address, you will help community members define goals and objectives to change the situation.

Your role in this process is as a facilitator—helping community members define what they will do to

change the specific situation they have identified.

Goals and objectives answer the following questions: Who is expected to do how much of what, where, and by

when?

For example, you, your counterpart, and other community members decided that infant malnutrition is a serious

problem in your site. This then becomes your goal: Reduce malnutrition of children under two years of age by

50 percent in two years.

Objectives define more specifically what needs to be done to achieve this goal. For example, many possible

strategies could be used to accomplish the goal of reducing malnutrition. You might teach mothers how to

prepare more nutritious weaning foods, reduce the amount of bottlefeeding, or start home gardens where families

could grow more nutritious foods for their children. The following then may become your objectives:

1. Within two years, 80 percent of mothers of children between six and eight months of age will feed their

children an improved weaning food each day.

2. Within two years, 80 percent of mothers of children under two years of age will not use bottles to feed

their children.

3. Within two years, at least 10 families will have started a home garden.

To define an objective, you will need to facilitate group discussions with community members and help them

decide the following:

1. Who is going to do the action? For example, mothers of children under two years of age.

2. What is the job or task that will be done, or the change expected? For example, mothers of children

under two years of age will not use bottles to feed their children.

3. How much—quantity, quality, and/or time standards—will they apply to the objective? For example,

80 percent of mothers of children under two years of age will not use bottles to feed their children.

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4. When will this occur? For example, within two years, 80 percent of mothers of children under two years

of age will not use bottles to feed their children.

5. Where will this occur? For example, within two years, 80 percent of mothers with children under two

years of age, who live in the villages of San Juan and Sabana Grande, will not use bottles to feed their

children.

Remember that a good objective must be:

• Measurable—based on behavior that you can observe.

• Relevant—related to the defined problem.

• Feasible—has a reasonable chance for success.

Incremental progress toward achieving objectives also should be defined so that community members can monitor

the extent to which they are moving toward their goal and objectives. These are called milestones. As an example,

let’s take one of the objectives, “Within two years, 80 percent of mothers of children between the ages of six and

eight months of age will feed an improved weaning food to their children each day,” and develop several

milestones.

1. By month two, they will have conducted a nutritional assessment to understand the amount of

malnutrition of children under one year of age.

2. By month three, they will have conducted Action Trials to test various weaning foods with community

mothers.

3. By month four, they will have developed an annual action plan with community members.

4. By month six, they will have made two home visits to all of the mothers who have children under one

year of age to teach them the new weaning foods.

5. By month eight, they will have made a home visit to all of the children under one year of age to monitor

their progress and to refine the activities based on the mothers’ suggestions.

6. By month twelve, they will have conducted a follow-up nutritional assessment to understand the effects

of the new weaning food on the children’s nutritional status.

Your every day tasks and activities are linked to these milestones. They can help you and your community

determine whether you are reaching your goals and objectives. Your pre-service and in-service training sessions

will teach you the skills you need to help community members reach each milestone.

You have opportunity for creativity and flexibility in how you and the community work toward achieving the

milestones. Your community will have the best ideas about how to go about the work. Your job is primarily to

facilitate the community’s work in identifying their goals and objectives and then to support them in implementing

their milestones.

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Section III: Session 6

Selecting Communication

Channels and Nonformal

Education Techniques

Session Plan

Overview

This session introduces the principle communication channels—

interpersonal, print, mass media, and folk media—and various types

of nonformal education techniques. It also teaches Trainees how to

select the most appropriate channels and techniques for a specific

target group.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Selecting

communication channels and nonformal education techniques that

are appropriate and relevant to a specific target group is important

for all Volunteers. You can use this session without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Name and give at least two examples of four basic channels of

communication—interpersonal, mass media, print, and folk

media.

2. Name and describe at least three nonformal education techniques.

Time

2 hours

Materials

• Handouts:

– Selecting Nonformal Education Techniques

– Discuss and Decide Worksheet
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Preparation

Distribute the Selecting Nonformal Education Techniques handout before

the session. Ask the Trainees to read it and note questions and

comments they would like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Interpersonal, mass media, print materials, folk media, demonstration,

training, role play, lecture, counseling, communication channel,

education, select, involve, motivate, increase, support, help,

networking, organization

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Selecting

Communication Channels

Time: 30 minutes

Write “Communication Channels” and “Sources of Information”

on flip chart paper. Ask the Trainees to name examples they

observed in the community; write them on the flip chart paper.

Explain that these sources of information generally are divided

into the following four areas or “channels”:

1. Interpersonal (any face-to-face contact)

2. Print (posters, bulletins, flyers)

3. Mass media (radio, television, and loudspeakers)

4. Folk media (dance, drama, puppets)

Ask the Trainees to group their listed sources of information under

each of these channels.

Emphasize that people learn best and are more likely to try a

new action when they hear the same message several times

through several different sources of information. To promote their

nutrition action effectively, trainers will need to repeat the message

many times through several channels.

Take two minutes to brainstorm how these types of

communication channels are used in the United States to educate

Americans about proper nutrition and the food pyramid. Try to

find as many examples as possible. Focus on children as a target

group. Observe how many different ways and times the message

is repeated.
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Discuss and Decide

Explain that the channels they select will depend on their target

group. For example, print materials would not be effective if the

target group is not literate.

Ask Trainees for examples of potentially effective communication

channels for each of the following:

• Literate men

• Illiterate men

• Schoolchildren

• Teenagers

• Literate women

• Illiterate women

Discuss the differences among the channels they might use to

communicate with each group; why there would be such

differences.

Activity 2: Select the Communication Channels

for the Pre-Service Training Sessions

Time: 30 minutes

Ask Trainees to select communication channels they would use

for the target groups they selected. Facilitate the discussion. After

the group reaches consensus, have the Trainees fill out Section V

of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Activity 3: Selecting Nonformal Education

Techniques

Time: 45 minutes

Write Selecting Nonformal Education Techniques on flip chart paper.

Ask the Trainees to list as many techniques as they can and write

them below the title.

Review and discuss Section I, Types of Nonformal Education

Techniques, of the session handout. Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of each technique.

Discuss Section II, How to Select Nonformal Education Techniques,

of the handout. Ask Trainees to fill in the final section and discuss

their answers.

Discuss Section III, Putting Education Techniques into Practice, of

the handout.

Discuss sharing the handout and working with counterparts and

other community members. They already may be familiar with

and have experience using some communication channels and
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nonformal education techniques. Counterparts can take a

leadership role in developing and implementing those techniques

with which they have experience and which are appropriate to

the target group. Remind Volunteers to use these opportunities

to learn from working together.

Ask Trainees to select the nonformal education techniques they

will use to promote the nutrition action they selected and decide

when and where they would carry out these activities. Facilitate

the discussion. After the group has reached a consensus, have

the Trainees write their decisions in Sections VI and VII of the

Discuss and Decide Worksheet. In future sessions, you will teach

them how to do the techniques they selected.

Emphasize that this session has given them practice in how to

select communication channels and nonformal education

techniques. However, they will need to work with their

counterparts and other community members to make these

decisions in their own communities. Remind them that it might

take several meetings with community members to make the

decisions necessary to reach a consensus. Because of the time

constraints of the training, they are having to move forward much

more quickly than they will in their real community work.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes
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Discuss and Decide

Selecting Nonformal Education Techniques

I. Types of Nonformal Education Techniques

Several of the nonformal education techniques that can help you in your community work are as follows:

Type Description Uses

Lecture Presentation given for a subject a) Introduction of a subject to a

or project. group

b) Give information

c) Encourage enthusiasm

Demonstration Presentation that shows people a) Show technique, procedure, or

how to do something. process

b) Give information

Training Activity in which people learn and a) Develop and evaluate new skills or

practice new skills or actions. actions

b) Develop self-confidence in

performing specific skills, actions, or

tasks

Counseling An exercise in which the counselor a) Identify specific problems

works with the individual or group b) Develop and try specific solutions

to identify a specific situation they for that problem

wish to change, try a specific solution

to encourage that change, and support

and reward people when the solutions

are applied effectively.

Group Discussion Interaction within a group in which a) Study a question or problem

everyone states their views on a real b) Analyze or evaluate a specific topic

or simulated experience.

Projective Using drama, pictures, or locally a) Present problems faced by the

recorded materials to present and participants; these techniques can

discuss real-life situations. present new information, model

new behaviors, and help participants

stand back and look at issues in a

new and different way.

Role Play Two or more individuals are asked to a) Provide the opportunity to see

respond spontaneously to a situation others’ feelings, attitudes and roles

by acting and reacting the way each b) Identify alternative solutions to a

thinks that his/her “character” might situation

act.

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Type Description Uses

Case Study A description of a specific situation a) Discuss problems within a context

(written or dramatized), which is b) Introduce discussion of similar

discussed by a group problems within a case study

Brainstorming A technique used to generate a a) Gather many ideas for discussion

number of ideas for later discussion; b) Trigger new ideas

to think of new solutions c) Develop spontaneous solutions to

situations

II. How to Select Nonformal Education Techniques

The nonformal education technique you select will depend on the following factors:

• Who is the target group?

• What are your goal and objectives?

• What do you expect them to be able to do by the end of the activity?

• How can you best involve the learners in the activity?

• Where you are going to do the activity? Be sure to build on and use local community events and gatherings

to conduct your nutrition promotion activities. For example, the market might be a good place to show

a new recipe and ask mothers to try it.

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Look at the following objectives, which you might have, and select the possible techniques that you might

use.

Objective Type of Action Possible Techniques

Needed

Increase knowledge about Information

good nutrition

Increase the number of parents Information/support

who seek vitamin A capsules for

their children every six months

Increase number of mothers who Information/skills/support

are exclusively breastfeeding

Increase good training/ Information/support

nutrition actions

Motivate others to support Support from family/community

mothers’ new feeding and

nutrition actions

Increase skills Training

Help a group organize a garden, Community organization/

“nutrition fair,” or other project planning

nutrition promotion activity

Increase coordination among Networking/community

people, groups or organizations organization

within the community for a

nutrition project or activity

Increase coordination among Networking/community

people, groups, or organizations organization

in the community with outside

sources of funding, materials,

and support

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III. Putting Education Techniques into Practice

Three things to consider when using these education techniques are as follows:

• When to find people

• Where to find people

• How to involve people

When to find people. Choose the right time. Women often do the same chores, such as go to the market, at the

same time each day. There are moments during the day in which mothers simply are too busy to participate in

other activities. Plan an educational activity at a time that is best for those involved.

Where to find people. Choose a convenient place. Find out where your target group normally gathers—

markets, schools, work places, clubs, and other group meetings. For example, you could set up displays and

demonstrations at the market when mothers are gathered there. There may also be places where people gather

socially or a small community building that is used for important meetings. Work with community members

and counterparts to decide the easiest place to reach your target group.

How to involve people. There are many ways to involve people. First, you will involve your counterparts and

other community members in deciding what communication channels and education techniques to use. You

also should involve your counterparts, local leaders, and other community members in organizing the event or

activity.

Some education techniques, such as skills training, role plays, and group discussions, require more participation.

But even when you give a lecture or show a film, you should involve people by asking questions, asking them to

do things, and asking them to summarize what they have learned and how they can apply it in their daily life.

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Section III: Session 7

Planning for How You

Will Listen and Observe

Once You Have Tried Something

Session Plan

Overview

After the Volunteers, their counterparts, and other community

members have tried something, they will once again listen and

observe. This time, however, they will listen and observe in order to

understand what they did that was successful and what was not. They

can then use that information to discuss and decide with the group

or community what they will try next in order to be more effective in

reaching their goals and objectives.

This session discusses the various types of listening and observing

that the Volunteer, his/her counterparts, and other community

members can do to monitor and evaluate the process and effect of

their activities.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Learning how

to plan how they will listen and observe in order to monitor and

evaluate the process and effect of their activities is important for all

Volunteers. Simply adapt the examples in Activity 2 to your technical

area.

Objective

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to describe at least four

ways they could work with their counterparts and other community

members to listen and observe in order to understand to what degree

they have achieved their goal and objectives.

Time

2 hours
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Materials

• Handouts:

– After You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again!

– Discuss and Decide Worksheet

• Flip chart paper and markers

Preparation

Distribute the handout After You Have Tried Something, Listen and

Observe Again! to the Trainees before the session. Ask them to read it

and to note comments and questions they would like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Effective, successful, quantity, quality, knowledge, attitudes, behavior,

structure

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction

Time: 30 minutes

Draw or refer back to the drawing of the process. Explain that

now the group is going to discuss and plan for how they will

listen and observe once they have tried something.

Explain that what the Trainee would listen for and observe will

depend of the goals and objectives they and the community

members have established.

Ask the Trainees to begin to list what they would want to learn in

this step. Write their ideas on flip chart paper. Be sure that they

include the following:

• How effective were we? (How well did we do toward reaching

our objective?)

• What was successful? (What did we do well?)

• What do we need to better next time?

• What should we do next?

Emphasize that frequently people focus on what they did wrong.

The idea of this step is to first identify what they did right, reward

and build on that, and then look at what they can do better next

time.
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Emphasize that the Volunteer and his/her counterparts should

listen and observe no matter what size or scale the objective or

activity. Remind the Trainees that you are listening and observing

during and after each training session and using that information

to improve the future sessions.

Ask Volunteers if they have already observed evaluation

techniques or practices in place in the community. If counterparts

are technical professionals (clinic nurses, nutritionists, etc.), they

already may be required to do certain things to measure how

well they carried out their work as a part of their job. Volunteers

should be encouraged to talk with them and learn about the ways

they presently evaluate their work. In some cases, counterparts

and other community members may be unfamiliar with listening

and observing to understand whether they have achieved their

objectives and what they need to do to improve their activities in

the future. Volunteers should be encouraged to help them select

techniques that are simple and practical. These should be ones

which appear meaningful to counterparts and other community

members.

Ask the Trainees to list when they would listen and observe.

Write their ideas on flip chart paper. Make sure they include the

following:

• Every day after work

• At the end of every meeting or group session

• At regular times when carrying out a project (such as after each

step or activity)

• Whenever major problems arise

• At regular times (weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually)

• After any individual activity

Activity 2: Practice with Listening and Observing

After You Have Tried Something

Time: 30 minutes

Ask the Trainees to give examples of what they would be watching

and listening for in some or all of the following objectives. Write

them on flip chart paper. Alternatively put one or two topics on

each of several flip charts and post around the room. Have the

Trainees work in pairs or groups at each chart. They can rotate to

read each others charts.

1. 90 percent of children are exclusively breastfed.

2. 90 percent of pregnant women will eat an extra portion of

protein every day while they are pregnant.
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3. All clinic staff will be able to correctly weigh a child during a

growth monitoring session.

4. Mothers will be able to correctly make a new weaning food.

5. All of the members of a group session will actively participate

in making the group decisions.

6. Local leaders will provide seeds, ground, and support for a

community vegetable garden.

7. Parents will know the date that their child should receive a

vitamin A capsule.

8. All children under two-years-old will be participating in the

growth monitoring session.

9. A weekly home visit to provide counseling will be made to

every family with a child under one-year-old.

Summarize the answers the Trainees have given. Note that there

are many ways to listen and observe depending on what you

want to learn. These include:

• Reviewing clinic records and growth monitoring charts

• Observation in clinics, growth monitoring sessions, at group

sessions, and in people’s homes

• Informal interviews, asking questions

• Formal surveys

• Nutritional assessments

The technique selected will depend on their goal and objectives

Activity 3: Planning for Listening and Observing

After You Have Tried Something

Time: 45 minutes

Ask the group to decide what they would listen for and observe

based on the decisions they have made about target groups, goals,

objectives, communication channels, and education techniques.

Facilitate the discussion with the objective of defining three or

four ways they would listen and observe. When the group has

reached a consensus, ask the Trainees to write their conclusions

in Section VIII of the Discuss and Decide Worksheet.

Emphasize that this session has given them practice in planning

how to listen and observe once they have tried something.

However, they will need to work with their counterpart and other

community members to make these decisions in their own

communities. Remind them that it might take several meetings

with community members to make these decisions in order to
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reach a consensus. Due to the time constraints of the training,

they are having to move forward much more quickly than they

will in their real community work.

Ask for and answer questions concerning this step.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes
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After You Have Tried Something,

Listen and Observe Again!

The process for change is a continuous circle. After you have tried something, you will need to listen and

observe again in order to understand what you have tried that was successful and what was not. You can then

use that information to discuss and decide what you will try next to achieve your goal and objectives. Listening

and observing can be as unstructured as asking questions or doing informal interviews and observation or as

formal as doing a survey and/or nutritional assessment.

I. What to Listen for and Observe

What you will listen for and observe will depend on the goals and objectives you and the community members

have established. However, in any situation, you will want to know:

• How effective were we? (How well did we do toward reaching our objective?)

• What was successful? (What did we do right/well?)

• What do we need to better next time?

• What should we do next?

Note that you first want to understand what you did well. Frequently people use this step to focus on what they

did wrong. It is empowering if you and your counterparts first look at what you and the community members

did right, reward and build on that, and then look at what you can do better next time.

II. When to Listen and Observe

You should listen and observe no matter what size or scale the objective or activity. These could include:

• Every day after work

• At the end of every meeting or group session

• At regular times when carrying out a project (such as after each step or activity)

• Whenever major problems arise

• At regular times (weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually)

• After any individual activity

III. Ideas on How to Listen and Observe

The following are ideas about what you and your counterparts might listen for and observe in your community.

• Quantity or amount: How many persons were reached, how many posters were distributed, how

many home visits were made?

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• Quality: What do people (local leaders, the participants, health workers, the students) think and feel

about what is happening?

• Changes in knowledge: What do people know about the nutrition action compared to before.

• Changes in attitude: Community support for the program or project, requests for further activities/

cooperation, less opposition by people or groups who had previously been against the activity.

• Changes in behavior: Increased participation in growth monitoring sessions, well-baby or pre-natal

clinics; increased sale of milk, meat, vegetables, or other foods; increased number of women who

exclusively breastfeed their child or other nutrition action, increased number of clinic staff with nutrition

communication skills.

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Section III: Session 8

Working with

Community Members to

Develop an Action Plan

Session Plan

Overview

This session teaches Trainees how to work with counterparts, local

organizations, and/or other community leaders to develop an Action

Plan and timeline for their activities.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Learning how

to work with community members to develop an Action Plan and

timeline for their work is important for all Volunteers. You will need

to adapt the examples in the methodology and the handout to reflect

your technical area.

Objective

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to explain how they

would develop an Action Plan and timeline with their counterparts

and other community members.

Time

1 hour, 45 minutes

Materials

• Handouts:

– Working with Community Members to Develop an Action Plan and

Timeline

– Discuss and Decide Worksheet

• Flip chart paper and markers
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Discuss and Decide

Preparation

Distribute the handout Working with Community Members to Develop

an Action Plan and Timeline to the Trainees before the session. Ask

them to read it and to note down comments and questions they

would like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Action, plan, timeline, simple, practical, feasible, monitor,

responsible, manageable, define, activity, assessment

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Developing an

Action Plan and Timeline with Your

Counterparts and Other

Community Members

Time: 30 minutes

Explain that developing an Action Plan is the link between the

step Discuss and Decide and what they will actually do

during the next step, Try Something.

Discuss each section of the handout Developing an Action Plan

and Timeline. Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: Demonstration of How to Develop

an Action Plan and Timeline

Time: 1 hour

Demonstrate how to develop an Action Plan and timeline by

facilitating a group session with the Trainees in which they

determine an Action Plan and timeline for the rest of the

training.

Activity 3: Process, Generalization, and

Session Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As a way to apply the process, ask Trainees to develop an action

plan and timeline for a group meal or party they can hold within

the next few days or week.
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Trainer’s Notes
175

Discuss and Decide

Working with Community Members to Develop

an Action Plan and Timeline

Developing an Action Plan and timeline is the link between the Discuss and Decide step and what you, your

counterpart, and other community members will actually do during the next step, Try Something. To ensure

that the Action Plan and timeline are carried out, you will need to involve your counterparts and/or other

community members in making these decisions.

The complexity of the Action Plan and timeline will depend on whether your counterparts and/or community

members are literate. In any case, keep it simple, practical, and feasible. Start with something small and easily

manageable. Then build on your successes.

You have already learned how to assist community members in defining their goal, objectives, and milestones.

The Action Plan takes those milestones one step further and defines exactly what will be done, by whom, and by

what date. To develop your Action Plan and timeline, help community members discuss and decide each of the

following:

1. What needs to be done and by when?

2. What resources do we need to do it?

3. Who will be responsible for carrying out each activity?

List each activity in order of priority. Use the chart on the next page to help organize your decisions. Review the

Action Plan each week to monitor progress and make adjustments.

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Action Plan

Activity Resource Needs Responsible Person

Date __________________________________________

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Section III: Discuss and Decide Action Plan Handout - Page 3 of 3

The second part of an Action Plan is the Timeline. It provides a good picture of the Action Plan at a glance. Begin

the Timeline at the start of the project or activity. Then make a line to indicate where the activity starts and ends.

Make crosses or Xes to indicate a limited activity. Lines that end with a vertical bar indicate where the activity

starts and ends. Lines with arrows indicate an on-going activity.

The following Timeline was developed by a Volunteer and clinic staff. Their purpose was to increase participation

in growth monitoring sessions. The objective was to achieve 80 percent participation by mothers of children two

years old and under.

Activity Month

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Conduct home visits, weighing of all children under X

two years of age. Develop list of all children under

two years of age.

Review the growth charts to assess nutritional status. X

Discuss with local leaders how to promote sessions X

Conduct group discussion at all community meetings X

—men’s cooperative meetings, women’s clubs, etc., to

promote sessions.

Have loudspeaker announcements the day before and X X X X X X XX X X

the day of each session.

Conduct growth monitoring sessions. X X X X X X

Compare participants with lists of children. X X X X X X

Conduct visits to homes of mothers who did not X X X X

participate. Conduct counseling sessions.

Listen and observe during the growth monitoring and X X X X XX X X X

counseling sessions.

Review the growth monitoring charts to evaluate X

nutritional status.

Notes on Developing an Action Plan and Timeline with Your Counterpart: If your counterpart does not

have experience in developing this kind of Action Plan and timeline, share this handout with him/her. The two

of you can work together to facilitate the discussion and model how to organize the plan and timeline. Eventually,

in future sessions, your counterpart or other community members should be able to facilitate the discussion.

Your role then would be to support and assist the community members.
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Try Something

Section IV

Try

Something

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
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Try Something

Section IV

Try Something

Introduction

These sessions teach Trainees how to work with their counterparts

and other community members to promote and support the actions

they selected. Trainees are taught how to develop and use various

communication channels—interpersonal, print, locally recorded

materials, and folk media—effectively. They are also taught how to

pretest print and locally recorded materials. Select the sessions that

are most relevant to your specific group of Trainees. All Trainees

should be trained in the counseling and group facilitation skills since

those skills are essential to the Listen and Observe and Discuss

and Decide processes.

Trainees can be tasked with learning some of the methods of this

session. They can then model or “train” them to other Volunteers. In

that way, all content of this section can be covered, but with subgroups

of Trainees paying special attention to particular methods.

These sessions also could be used during in-service training, after the

Trainees have developed their language skills, listened and observed

in their communities, and worked with community members to

develop their Action Plans.
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Trainer’s Notes: In the first session you teach, draw or refer back to

the drawing of the process for change. Explain that after discussing

and deciding what they will do with community members, the next

step is to try something. Describe the sessions you decide to teach

concerning this step. Explain that you selected these sessions because

of the specific needs of your training group. Emphasize that the

Trainees should do the same when they are selecting educational

techniques and activities for their target groups.
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Try Something

Section IV: Session 1

Counseling

Session Plan

Overview

In this session, Trainees learn about and practice how to do an effective

counseling session.

Notes to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Counseling is

an important skill for all Volunteers. You can use this session without

adapting it. Simply organize the role play and practice sessions around

your specific technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session, Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe and demonstrate the eight steps of a counseling session.

2. Apply the Counseling Session Observation Checklist.

Time

3 hours

Staff

Cross-cultural and language trainers and/or experienced Volunteers

if counterparts are not present at the training session.

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Effective Counseling

– Counseling Observation Checklist

– Reflecting Back Checklist
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Preparation

Distribute the handout Effective Counseling before the session and ask

Trainees to read it and to note the questions and comments they would

like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Praise, advise, counsel, reflect back, paraphrase, thank, opinion,

meaning, identify, solution, respect, communication, conversation

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Remind Trainees that interpersonal communication is only one of the

channels they can use to promote their nutrition action. Emphasize

that to promote their nutrition action effectively, they will need to

repeat the message many times through several channels.

Activity 1: Introduction to Counseling

Time: 30 minutes

Ask Trainees to list the eight steps of a counseling session. Write

them on a flip chart and discuss each one.

Ask two Trainees to read the sample counseling session presented

in the handout. Ask the other Trainees to apply the Counseling

Session Observation Checklist. They will not be able to check off

some of the actions because they will be hearing only the

discussion and not observing it; but this activity will give them

practice using the checklist before they apply it in the role plays.

Discuss what items they checked off. What specific actions did

the Volunteer do well? What could she/he do better next time?

Was this a good counseling session?

Activity 2: Practice with Reflecting Back

Time: 30 minutes

Explain that the Trainees have already practiced most of the skills

necessary to do an effective counseling session—asking questions,

using probing techniques, and giving feedback. Before they

practice doing a counseling session, they will practice a new skill—

reflecting back by parroting or paraphrasing.

Remind the Trainees that paraphrasing is a little more difficult to

do than simply parroting, but it can be more effective because it
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Try Something

shows that the Trainee really understand what the other person

is saying and is sympathetic to how she/he feels.

Emphasize that when they are reflecting back, they must be sure

their tone of voice or body language does not indicate that they

disapprove or disagree with what the person has said and that

they must be very careful not to change the other person’s

meaning. They are not judging what the person says. They are

reflecting back that they understand what she/he is telling them

and, at the same time, acknowledging his/her feelings.

Ask the Trainees to brainstorm four to five “controversial”

subjects—subjects about which the Trainees will have different

opinions.

Divide Trainees into small groups of three people each. If

counterparts are participating in the training, assign two Trainee–

counterpart pairs to work together. Ask each group to select the

topic(s) they will discuss—one on which at least two people in

the group have different opinions. Explain that:

• One person in each group will play the role of the listener.

She/he will practice reflecting back what the other person

has said without changing the other person’s meaning or

showing in any way that she/he does not agree with what

the other person is saying.

• One person in each group will play the role of the speaker.

She/he will explain her opinion on the topic. The speaker

can correct the listener at any time if she/he feels that the

listener is not reflecting back correctly on what she/he said.

• One person (or two people) in each group will be the

observer(s). She/he will use the Reflecting Back Observation

Checklist in the handout to note how well the listener

reflects back what the speaker says. Specifically, she/he

will note if the listener reflects back what the speaker says

without changing the meaning. She/he also will note if

the listener is reflecting back in a way that is not

judgmental.

Each role play should last only three to five minutes. After the

role play, the observer and the speaker should give feedback to

the listener on how well she/he reflected back during the role

play.

Remind the Trainees how to give effective feedback.

Rotate roles until everyone has had a chance to be the speaker

and the listener at least twice.

Ask the Trainees: What have you found useful about reflecting

back? What was easy or difficult?
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Activity 3: Demonstration of a Counseling

Session

Time: 30 minutes

Ask two cross-cultural trainers, language trainers, or experienced

Volunteers to demonstrate a counseling session concerning the

nutrition action that the group selected. Ask Trainees to apply

the Counseling Session Observation Checklist provided in the

handout. After the role play, ask the Trainees to give feedback to

the person who played the role of the Volunteer. Discuss what

they learned from the observation and how they will apply it in

their own counseling session.

Activity 4: Practice with Individual Counseling

Sessions

Time: 1 hour, 15 minutes

Divide Trainees into groups of four. If counterparts are not present

at the training session, assign one cross-cultural trainer, language

trainer, or experienced Volunteer to each group to play the role of

the mother in the role play. If counterparts are present at the

training, assign two Volunteer–counterpart pairs to work together.

One of the counterparts can then play the role of the mother;

however, be sure they also have an opportunity to practice doing

a counseling session.

One Trainee will play the role of the counselor and the other two

will be the observers and apply the Counseling Session Observation

Checklist. After each role play, the observers will give feedback to

the “counselor” on what she/he did well and what she/he needs

to do better next time. Remind the Trainees how to give good

feedback.

Rotate until everyone has had a chance to be the counselor at

least once. If possible, have them practice twice.

Activity 5: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Process. Emphasize that the counseling session steps follow the

four steps of the communication process. Refer back to the

drawing of the four-step process and ask Trainees which

counseling steps pertain to which steps of the four-step change

process.

Listen and Observe. Ask what the person is doing about the

action you are promoting.
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Discuss and Decide. Reflect back what the person told you so

that she/he knows you understand what she/he said and

acknowledge how she/he feels. Praise what the person currently

is doing correctly. Advise what else she/he could do and why.

Work together to develop a solution. Observe what is already

available in the home or other setting that can help him/her do

that action. Ask checking questions about what she/he

understands and what she/he plans to try.

Try Something. Ask the person to try what you have decided

for a period of time. Plan for a follow-up visit.

Community Practice. Ask the Trainees to work in pairs and

practice doing at least one counseling session in the community.

Have one Trainee do the counseling and one Trainee observe. If

counterparts are present at the training, assign the Trainee to work

with his/her counterpart. Counterparts may already be doing

counseling sessions as a normal part of their work, however, they

may be unfamiliar with all of the steps outlined in the handout.

Trainees should share the handout with their counterparts, discuss

which parts the counterpart already incorporates into their own

sessions, and adapt the checklist if needed.

After each counseling session that the Volunteer and counterpart

do together, the observer should give feedback to the counselor.

Remind Trainees that this is a process in which the Volunteers

and their counterparts learn from each other. Set a date for a

follow-up session (it might be the next day or you might want to

allow several days for this practice). Review their experiences,

compare the checklists, give feedback, process, and generalize.

Trainer’s Notes

Try to do the role plays in the local language. Even if it goes slowly, it

will help Trainees gain confidence in using the language and

counseling skills before they practice in the community.
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Effective Counseling

One of your principle roles as a Volunteer will be as a counselor. A good deal of your time will be spent visiting

people in their homes. You can use each of these visits as an informal counseling session.

Effective counseling is a two-way communication in which the counselor and the other person work together to

identify and try new solutions to the person’s problems. It must be done in an environment of mutual trust and

respect in which the counselor is learning from the person as much as the person is learning from the counselor.

The key to effective counseling is to build on what people are already doing correctly. Look for what the person

is doing right. Praise him/her for doing it. Then advise him/her about what else she/he can do and why.

The eight steps to effective counseling are as follows:

STEP 1: Create a comfortable, safe, personal environment. Greet the person. Ask about his/her family.

Ask if you can help with whatever task she/he is doing. Become part of whatever is happening

in the home or other setting. If you see that this is not a good time for your visit, ask him/her

when might be a better time.

STEP 2: Ask what the person is doing about the action you are promoting. Use open-ended questions

and probing techniques to understand what she/he currently is doing and why.

STEP 3: Reflect back what the person told you so that she/he knows you understand what she/he said

and acknowledge how she/he feels. This level of understanding is very important. People will

be more likely to take your advice if they feel that you understand and are sympathetic to their

feelings.

To reflect back, listen carefully to what the person tells you and parrot or paraphrase it back to

him/her. Parroting is simply repeating word for word exactly what the person said. Paraphrasing

is saying in your own words what the person told you. When you parrot and paraphrase, you

acknowledge the person’s feelings or empathize with him/her. When you reflect back, you

must be sure that your tone of voice or body language does not indicate that you disapprove or

disagree with what the person has said, and you must be careful that you do not change the

person’s meaning.

STEP 4: Praise what the person is currently doing correctly. Be very specific in your praise.

STEP 5: Advise what else she/he could do and why. Give only one message in each counseling session.

STEP 6: Work together to develop a solution. Observe what is already available in the home or other

setting that can help him/her to do the action.

STEP 7: Ask checking questions about what she/he understood and what she/he plans to try.

STEP 8: Plan for a follow-up visit.

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Sample Counseling Dialogue

The following example of a counseling session between a Volunteer and a mother in Central America demonstrates

the eight steps.

Volunteer: Good morning, Marta. How are you today?

Marta: Good morning! I’m fine.

Volunteer: And how is little Tomas today.

Marta: He’s fine too, thank God.

(Volunteer plays with Tomas for a few minutes.)

Volunteer: I see you’re shelling beans. Can I help you?

Marta: Sure, thank you.

(Volunteer helps mother shell beans.)

Volunteer: So how is little Tomas eating these days?

Marta: Well, actually I’m a little worried about him. He doesn’t seem to want to eat much.

Volunteer: What are you giving him to eat?

Marta: Well, I give him what we eat—a little rice, mashed beans, and, of course, tortillas.

Volunteer: In other words, you are feeding him rice, beans, and tortillas—those are all very good for Tomas.

That’s really good that he’s eating all of those things. Do you ever give him any fruit?

Marta: Oh yes. He loves bananas and mangos.

Volunteer: How often do you give him bananas and mangos?

Marta: Oh, maybe once or twice a week.

(Volunteer observes that there are bananas and mangos in the home.)

Volunteer: You are saying that he really likes fruit. That’s very good. It’s very important for children to eat

fruit because they protect children from illness. What else does he like to eat?

Marta: Well, that’s about all we eat. I know I should give him meat, but we can’t afford it.

Volunteer: Yes, I know what you mean—meat is really expensive. You know, Marta, you’re giving Tomas

the right foods to eat, but he needs to eat more of them every day.

Marta: What do you mean?

Volunteer: Remember how we talked about how a child needs to eat half as much as an adult every day?

Marta: Yes. It still seems hard to believe! A child is so much smaller than an adult.

Volunteer: That’s right, and a child’s stomach is smaller than an adult’s too. That’s why Tomas can’t eat a

lot of food at one time. In order to eat enough food every day, he needs to eat more frequently

than you do. He needs to eat at least five times a day to get enough food to eat. How many times

do you feed him every day?

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Marta: Well, breakfast, lunch, and dinner. That’s three times. Sometimes I’ll give him a little fruit or a

tortilla after his nap in the afternoon.

Volunteer: That’s a very good idea. Giving snacks is a good way to increase the number of times a child

eats every day. Fruit and tortillas are good snacks for Tomas to eat. What do you think you

could do to make sure that Tomas eats five times every day?

Marta: I could give him a snack every morning and afternoon. That would be five times, wouldn’t it?

Volunteer: Yes, giving him a snack every morning and afternoon would be five times. That would be very

good. What problems do you think you might have in giving Tomas a snack every morning and

afternoon?

Marta: Well, sometimes I go to the market or to wash clothes in the morning. I wouldn’t be able to give

him a snack then.

Volunteer: Do you take Tomas with you?

Marta: No. I leave him with my mother. She likes to see him as often as she can.

Volunteer: Could you ask your mother to give him a snack, too?

Marta: Sure! She’d be happy to give him a snack.

Volunteer: That’s great! Do you have any other questions or doubts about feeding Tomas five times a day?

Marta: What kinds of snacks are best? I can’t afford special foods.

Volunteer: Anything that you have available in your home. Fruit, tortillas, bread. The important thing is

that Tomas eats at least five times every day. That will help him to eat enough food to grow.

Marta: That’s good to know. I always worry that Tomas isn’t eating enough. He’s smaller than my

sister’s child was at that age.

Volunteer: I know you worry. You’re a good mother and want to do the best for Tomas. So, let’s hear what

you’ve decided that you’re going to try to do.

Marta: Well, I want to feed Tomas five times a day so I’m going to give him breakfast, lunch, and

dinner, and in the morning and afternoon I’m going to give him a snack.

Volunteer: What are you going to give him for a snack?

Marta: Fruit, tortillas, bread—whatever I have in my house. And sometimes I might buy him a little

cake!

(Marta and Volunteer laugh)

Volunteer: Marta, that’s really great. Why don’t you try feeding Tomas five times a day for a week and I’ll

come back and visit you to see how you’re doing.

Marta: That would be nice. It’s always nice to see you.

Volunteer: Well, I’d better go. I’m supposed to visit Anna to see her new baby.

Marta: Thanks for the visit and for helping me shell the beans.

Volunteer: You’re welcome. See you next week.

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Counseling Observation Checklist

1. Create a Comfortable, Safe, and Personal Environment

Greet the person in a culturally appropriate way.

Inquire about the person’s personal well-being, family, etc.

Ask if the person is free to talk.

Set up an alternate time if the person is too busy to talk at the moment.

Offer to participate in any activity that may be going on or starting up. (For example, cooking or weeding

a garden).

Use appropriate body language (sit or stand appropriately).

Use appropriate eye contact.

Do not criticize the person during the visit.

2. Ask Questions

Use more open-ended questions than closed ones.

Use no leading questions.

Use probing techniques.

3. Reflect Back

Reflect back what the person has said in a nonjudgmental way (without showing disagreement with

what the person has said).

Reflect back what the person has said without changing the meaning.

Parrot or paraphrase what the person says.

4. Praise Helpful Practices

Praise and encourage the person’s helpful practices.

Be specific about what the person has done correctly.

5. Advise What Else to Do and Why

Advise what else the person needs to do.

Explain why she/he needs to do it.

Give only one message in one visit.

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6. Work Together to Develop a Solution

Ask the person to develop a solution to show how to do the action.

Observe what is available to help him/her do the action and suggest those.

7. Ask Checking Questions

Ask questions concerning what the person has understood.

Ask questions concerning what the person plans to do.

8. Plan for a Follow-Up Visit

Tell the person she/he will return for a follow-up visit

Set up a time for the next visit.

Use culturally appropriate body language and salutations to leave (do not leave abruptly).

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Reflecting Back Observation Checklist

Action Number of Times

The listener reflects back what the speaker said

in a nonjudgmental way.

The listener reflects back what the speaker said

in a judgmental way.

The listener reflects back what the speaker said

without changing the meaning.

The listener changes the meaning of what

the speaker said.

The listener parrots what the speaker said.

The listener paraphrases what the speaker said.

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Section IV: Session 2

Demonstrations

and Skills Training

Overview

This session teaches Trainees how to do demonstrations and skills

training. In the first half-hour activity, the trainer introduces the

basic steps and discusses how to apply those steps to a

demonstration, an informal training session (with community

members), and a formal training session (with professional

people—teachers, clinic workers, etc.). During the second fourhour session, the Trainees practice doing skills training.

Notes to Trainers from Sectors Other than Nutrition:

Knowing how to do demonstrations and skills training is

important for all Volunteers. This session does not need adaptation

to make it useful to your technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session, the Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe and demonstrate the six steps of skills training.

2. Describe how they would use these steps for a demonstration,

an informal training session, and a formal training session.

3. Apply the “Demonstration and Training Checklist” and give

feedback to other Trainees.

4. Describe and demonstrate how to create a food dryer.

Time

4 hours, 30 minutes

Session Plan
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– How to Do Demonstrations

– Demonstration Checklist

– How to Dry Fruit

• Locally available materials with which to build simple food dryers.

Preparation

1. Ask the Trainees to read the handouts before the session and to

note any comments or questions they would like to discuss.

2. Invite community members to participate in the demonstrations

of food drying. These participants may be members of the

Trainees’ host families, members of a local women’s or youth

group, or school children. There should be at least four community

members for each Trainee’s demonstration.

3. Since the Trainees will be doing their demonstrations in the local

language, you should arrange for the language trainers to help

them with the vocabulary.

Vocabulary

Preparation, maintenance, feedback, reinforcement, modeling,

demonstration, formal/informal training session, food dryer, basket,

protection, ripe, insects, ventilation, spoiled, moisture, assessment,

goals, objectives, materials, follow-up

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Skills Training

Time: 30 minutes

Write the six steps of skills training on flip chart paper and ask

the Trainees to explain each one using a simple example with

which group members would be familiar, such as how to tie your

shoes, or how to brush teeth. By using an example, you will be

able to see how well the Trainees understand the process, and to

ask and answer questions as you go along.

Remind Trainees that you have been following these steps in all

of your training sessions. Discuss the importance of practice,
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feedback, and assignments to teach and maintain new skills. Ask

how comfortable and confident they felt with new skills after

practicing them in role plays and after practicing them with

community members.

Ask Trainees to explain how they would apply these steps to the

following:

1. A demonstration

2. An informal training session (with a group of community

members)

3. A formal training session.

Ask each Trainee to develop a 10 minute training session on food

drying. Give them time (at least two days) to do all of the points

under preparation including trying out the training session with

a friend or counterpart. Counterparts already may be doing

training and demonstrations as a normal part of their work.

However, they may be unfamiliar with all of the steps described

in the handout. Volunteers and counterparts should briefly discuss

which parts of the process are new to the counterpart,

remembering that all parts are likely to be new to the Volunteers.

Remind Trainees that this is a process in which they and their

counterparts learn from each other.

Tell Trainees that they will be performing this demonstration with

community members, and they will need to do it in the local

language. Encourage them to work with language trainers to learn

the necessary vocabulary. Ask them to bring the “Training

Checklist” they develop to the session. If counterparts are

participating in the training, ask the Trainees and counterparts to

work together to develop the training session.

BREAK

Activity 2: Practice Training

Time: 3 hours, 45 minutes

Ask each Trainee–counterpart pair to demonstrate their training

session for their community member participants doing all six

steps. During each session, ask two Trainees–counterparts to

apply the Training Checklist and give feedback to the people doing

the training session. Remind the Trainees how to give good

feedback.
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Activity 3: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Process. Emphasize that the steps to do skills training follow the

steps of the process for change. Refer back to the drawing of the

process and ask Trainees which training steps pertain to which

steps of the process.

Listen and Observe includes the step of Preparation.

Discuss and Decide includes Instructions.

Try Something includes Modeling, Practice, and Maintenance.

Listen and Observe once you have tried something includes

Feedback and Reinforcement.

Generalize from this experience. Ask Trainees to work with a

partner to list at least two other examples of demonstrations or

skills trainings that they could deliver in their community to

address priority issues.

Trainer’s Notes
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How to Dry Fruit

Resources

The ideas for this handout were taken from Food From Dryland Gardens, now out of print (ICE no. HE 324),

Pages 314-315. Refer to this text, if a copy is in your Resource Center, or to one of the following books for more

detailed information:

AT032 Food Drying

T0020 Improved Food Drying and Storage Training Manual

AT037 Understanding Solar Food Dryers

AG281 Fruit and Vegetable Processing

M0010 Preserving Food by Drying

Food drying is a very simple and effective way to store foods for later consumption. Drying concentrates the

foods’ nutrients and preserves them for times when these nutrients may not be available in fresh foods.

Creating the Dryer

1. Materials for the dryer should be locally available. It is important to shield the drying food from direct

sunlight and exposure to bacteria, insects, and dirt. Woven baskets and mats make ideal dryers because

they are well ventilated, but the stiff surfaces can also be used to shade and protect the drying food. Cloth,

netting, or wood can also be used, although painted surfaces and metals other than stainless steel should be

avoided.

2. The dryer surfaces should be clean and dry.

3. Elevating the drying area by placing it on legs will discourage many crawling insects from getting into the

food. It is still more effective to place the legs in containers of water which would prevent the insects from

crawling up the legs.

4. The dryer should be placed in a shaded area with good ventilation.

Selecting and Preparing Foods for Drying

1. Produce should be dried when it is ripe. It should be washed carefully and examined for any bruising or

signs of spoilage.

2. Drying time for produce is affected by many variables, including climate, amount of moisture in the food,

and the size of the food. Cutting foods into too many small pieces causes nutrient loss through oxidation.

However, large pieces may take longer to dry, and bacteria may grow in the moist interior of the foods after

the exterior has dried. It will be necessary for you to consider these factors and to experiment with small

initial batches. Turning foods over occasionally will help them to dry faster and more evenly.

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How to do Demonstrations

Volunteers often act as trainers in their communities, a role in which they teach people how to do new actions

and skills. The six steps to skills training are as follows:

1. Preparation

2. Instructions

3. Modeling

4. Practice

5. Feedback and reinforcement

6. Maintenance

Each of these steps is described in more detail below, using the example of a demonstration for constructing a

food dryer. This activity may be conducted with any target audience who has expressed an interest in the

information. Possibilities include: Host Families, members of a local women’s group, school children, members

of a youth group, and so on.

Step 1 – Preparation

Listen and observe. Do a needs assessment.

What do participants already know and do? What do they want and need to learn?

Decide what you want the participants to be able to know and do after the session. Establish your training goals

and objectives.

Break down skills (especially complex ones) into small steps. Then make these steps into a checklist that an

observer can apply to understand what specific steps the participant is doing well and what she/he needs to do

next time to improve.

Prepare in advance all required materials.

Try doing the demonstration or training session with friends, counterparts, or colleagues to make sure that

everything works correctly and you are comfortable with the training steps. Listen and observe what went well

and what you need to do better next time.

Step 2 – Instructions

Create a comfortable environment and introduce the subject.

Ask what the participants already know about making food dryers.

Ask them to discuss why they need to learn about this food preservation technique.

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Step 3 – Modeling

Explain and show, slowly and carefully, each step of the construction of a simple food dryer.

Stop to answer questions and ask the participants questions.

Step 4 – Practice

Ask participants to choose the optimal place for a food dryer and to practice making one, and placing produce

in it to dry.

Practicing the skill or action once greatly helps the participants to move from knowing about a skill or action to

being able to do it. Practicing the skill or action several times allows them to go even further and become confident

about their skill level. People who are confident about their abilities to do a new skill are more likely to use it in

their everyday life. Limit the number of skills or actions you teach in each session so that the participants have

enough time for repeated practice with each one.

Step 5 – Feedback and Reinforcement

Give each participant individual feedback on what she/he did well while practicing the skill (what was checked

off on the checklist) and what she/he could do better next time to improve. Feedback acts as reinforcement and

encourages people to try the skill again with specific ideas on what to improve.

Feedback should be specific, positive, and constructive. Don’t criticize people. Catch them doing something

right and praise them for it. Then you can offer a specific suggestion about what they could do better next time.

Use descriptive rather than judgmental language. Support general statements with specific examples.

Step 6 – Maintenance

Maintenance is perhaps the most important part of skills training. Participants need to practice their new skill or

action immediately after they learn it, before they forget what to do. Again, repeated practice will give them

more confidence in the new skill. Ask the participants to make their own food dryers at their houses. You can

then visit them at home to make sure the proper procedure has been followed. Ask the participants to describe

what they did during the practice; give them feedback. Listen carefully to what they say and make adaptations

based on their experience. These “lessons learned” can then feed into the design of the next training session or

demonstration.

Demonstrations usually include only Steps 1 through 3 with one person practicing the skill and receiving feedback.

At that point, you would end the demonstration by asking the audience what they learned from the demonstration

and what they will do when they return home. Demonstrations are an excellent way to introduce new skills and

actions and to generate interest in learning more about them. However, because they do not include repeated

practice during and after the session, you cannot be sure that people will actually be able to do the new skill or

action.

Both informal (with community members) and formal (with professional staff—teachers and clinic staff, for

example) training sessions should include all six steps. By including all steps, you will be able to observe what

participants learned and design future sessions based on that observation. In informal training, you probably

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would use the Training Checklist you developed as a reference. You would review it before and after each

session to see what you might have to emphasize in follow-up sessions. In formal training, however, you would

usually distribute the checklist as part of the session and teach participants how to use it to give each other

feedback. The checklist also will be a useful reminder for participants when they return home after the training.

They can use it to practice their new skills in the professional setting.

As a Volunteer, you will have many opportunities to do demonstrations and skills trainings on a variety of

different topics. Some possibilities are:

Nutrition-related Demonstration

1. You could research weaning foods in your community and do a demonstration of how to make a clean,

healthy and inexpensive first food for babies. You could teach community members how to make these

foods, and teach them how to do demonstrations for mothers. In this way, even after you have left the

village, the demonstrations can continue.

2. You could work with your counterpart to teach village health workers about counseling their patients. In

this way, health messages can be passes to community members who might live to far away or be too poor

to come regularly to the clinic where the health staff works.

3. You could work with a community group to start a garden project. Garden projects are excellent for many

reasons: they encourage good nutrition, and in some cases, are income generators for their gardeners. You

will probably find that many people in your community know quite a bit about gardening and will be

happy to share their knowledge and skills. In addition, you can refer to the following books, available

through ICE:

AG050 Dry Season Gardening for Improving Child Nutrition

AG074 Gardening for Better Nutrition

AG130 How to Grow More Vegetables

AG243 School Garden Manual: A Step-by-Step Handbook for Teachers and Trainers Interested

in Taking a First Step Toward Agricultural Development

Please see the Whole ICE Catalog for further resources.

Non-Nutrition-related Demonstrations

1. You could demonstrate to your community how to build a drainage ditch at a local water source. In one

community in Burkina Faso, the main village pump had very poor drainage. The water collected in puddles

around the pump, and this attracted animals and mosquitoes to the area. The Volunteer explained the

importance of proper drainage to the management committee of her health clinic, and together they

brainstormed how the problem could be resolved. They decided to create a shallow drainage ditch, lined

with rocks, which fed into a deep hole which was filled with rocks. This way, the water ran into the hole, but

the animals could not wallow in it, and the mosquitoes could not breed in it. This intervention was successful

for a number of reasons: it resolved the drainage problem, it did not cost any money to build, and the

committee members felt a sense of investment and pride: not only did they come up with the idea for the

ditch themselves, but they did all of the manual labor, and were seen by the whole village as people who

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cared. Because the management committee fixed the drainage problem, people were more willing to support

them in their other projects.

2. You could demonstrate how to put on a condom for the members of your community. Condoms are very

effective both for preventing pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, but many

people in developing countries are unfamiliar with how to use them appropriately.

3. You could demonstrate how to filter water, or how to treat water with bleach or by boiling, if water purity is

a problem in your area.

The following Demonstration and Skills Training Observation Checklist will help you design and implement

effective demonstration and training sessions.

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Demonstration Checklist

Before the Session

Do a knowledge and skills assessment.

Decide what you want the participants to know after the session.

Decide what you want the participants to do after the session.

Establish your goals and objectives.

Break down skills (especially complex ones) into small steps.

Make these steps into a checklist.

Prepare in advance all required materials.

Try the session with a friend, colleague, or counterpart.

Listen and observe what went well and what you need to do better next time.

Make changes based on what you have learned from trying it.

During the Session Instructions

Create a comfortable environment (greet people, etc.).

Introduce the subject.

Ask what the participants already know about the subject.

Tell about the skill or action.

Ask participants to discuss why they need to be able to learn this skill or action.

Modeling

Explain and show, slowly and carefully, each step of the skill or action.

Answer questions.

Ask participants questions about what they have observed.

If time allows, do the skill or action one more time, but this time have the participants tell you what to

do next.

Or, show an inappropriate example or “how not to do it” and have the participants correct you.

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Practice

** Ask a participant to demonstrate the new skill or action.

* Ask each participant to practice the new skill at least twice during the session.

* Ask the participants to establish the who, what, when, and where of the role play to resemble the

real-life situations they will face later.

* Apply the Observation Checklist that you developed and check off each step that the other participant

is doing correctly. (Formal training only. This can be done by the trainer or another Trainee.)

Feedback and Reinforcement

Give each participant feedback (praise) on the specific actions that she/he did well while practicing

the skill (what was checked off on the checklist).

Give each participant feedback about what specific action she/he could do better next time (what was

not checked off on the checklist).

Be positive in your feedback.

Praise what the person does right before making suggestions for improvements.

Maintenance

Ask participants to try the new skill or action in the setting in which they will normally be doing it.

Ask questions concerning what the participants understand.

Ask questions concerning what the participants plan to do when they return home.

* Set a time for a follow-up session (either a group session or individual visit).

Follow-Up Session

* Ask each participant to describe and/or demonstrate what she/he did during their practice and give

him/her feedback.

* Ask participants what problems she/he had during the practice.

* Ask participants to develop a solution for the problem.

* Omit this action in a demonstration.

** Use only in a demonstration.

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Section IV: Session 3

Facilitating a

Group Discussion

Session Plan

Overview

This session introduces Trainees to the skills necessary for facilitating

a group discussion and gives them practice applying those skills while

creating seasonal calendars with school children.

Notes to Trainers from Sectors Other than Nutrition: Facilitating

group discussions is an important skill for all Volunteers. This session

needs no adaptation to make it useful to your technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe at least three facilitating skills, including questioning,

paraphrasing, and summarizing.

2. Describe two ways to encourage a timid group member to

participate.

3. Describe two ways to discourage a group member from

dominating the discussion.

4. Describe and demonstrate the three steps of facilitating a group

discussion.

5. Practice their skills while facilitating the creation of a seasonal

calendar by a group of school children.

6. Apply the Facilitating a Group Discussion Checklist and give

feedback to other Trainees on their skills.

Time

Two sessions: Activity 1 – 1 hour, 45 minutes; Activity 2 – 3 hours
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Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout:

– How to Facilitate a Group Discussion

– Facilitating a Group Discussion Checklist

– Working with Women’s Groups

Preparation

1. Ask the Trainees to read the handout before the session and note

the comments and questions they would like to discuss.

2. This activity is designed to be conducted with groups of school

children, at least four students for each pair of Trainees. It will be

necessary to recruit them beforehand.

Vocabulary

Facilitate, group discussion, timid, dominant, question, paraphrase,

summarize, redirect, labor, income-generating, wage-earning,

weather, seasons, disease, involve, include, participate, opinion

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Facilitating a Group

Discussion

Time: 1 hour, 45 minutes

Review the skills needed to facilitate a group discussion. Ask for

and answer questions.

Divide the Trainees into groups of three. Allow each group to

select a topic of mutual interest. The choice should be open to

any topic such as a current world or national issue; what they

like and dislike about a hobby, sport, or other personal interest

they pursue; or any other topic that will allow them some room

for approximately a half hour of conversation. Spend no more

than five minutes on the choice of topic. Then ask each member

of the group individually to develop four or five questions related

to the topic. Allow a few minutes for this work. Ultimately, each

member of the group will be given 10 minutes to ask one or more

of their questions of the other two group members and to try to

use probing skills, paraphrasing and summarizing as the
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discussion proceeds. Start the discussion period, calling time at

the end of each 10–minute segment. Allow five minutes at the

end of the three turns for group members to reflect on what they

tried to do, or saw others doing to facilitate the discussion.

Next, briefly review the three parts of a group discussion. Write

each one on flip chart paper and ask the Trainees to discuss them.

Ask for and answer questions.

Remind the Trainees that you have been using the skills needed

to facilitate a group discussion in all of the training sessions.

Discuss how well they believe you have used each skill.

Review the seasonal calendar idea with the Trainees.

Explain that in the next session the Trainees will practice

facilitating a group discussion by creating a seasonal calendar

with the groups of school children. Give them at least two days

to prepare for the session.

Activity 2: Practice Group Discussion

Time: 3 hours

Divide the Trainees into pairs. One person will facilitate the

discussion, while the other will be the observer, applying the

checklist and giving feedback to the facilitator on what she/he

did well and what she/he should do next time to improve. If

counterparts are present at the training, assign a counterpart to

each pair in order to observe.

Remind the Trainees how to give good feedback.

Tell the Trainees they have 30 minutes in which to create the

calendar with their group, and then 20 minutes to discuss its

implications.

The Trainees who are facilitating will need to combine their

mastery of the seasonal calendar with their proficiency in

facilitating group discussions in order to succeed with the exercise.

Ask them to use the guidelines given to them in Listen and

Observe, Section 7: “Participatory Seasonal Analysis,” in order

to structure the discussion.

The students should be divided into groups of boys and girls so

that comparisons between the finished calendars will be richer.

The categories of information to focus upon are:

1. Labor activities, both wage-earning and income-generating,

as well as house work and animal raising

2. Differences in weather between seasons

3. Periods of particular susceptibility to disease

4. Food availability
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Emphasize that since this is the first time they are facilitating a

group discussion, the Trainees are not expected to use all of the

facilitation skills. However, they should try to do all of the steps.

Resources

Gender and Development Training Manual, Booklet 4 (ICE no.

M0054) has helpful information about facilitating group discussions,

while Booklets 5 and 8 have suggestions for seasonal calendar

activities.

Trainer’s Notes

Since this is the first time they have practiced facilitating a group

discussion, the Trainees can practice in English. However, they should

be encouraged to practice in the language in which they will be

working.

This session assumes that Trainees have already been taught the

questioning skills in Listen and Observe, Session 2.

T
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How to Facilitate a Group Discussion

One of your roles as a Volunteer will be to facilitate group discussions to help community members identify and

solve their own problems. A group discussion session provides an excellent technique for meeting the following

objectives:

• Provide individuals who have common needs or problems an opportunity to share experiences and

work together to identify and try solutions.

• Create a supportive group environment in which participants can encourage each other to take action

to solve a problem.

Regardless of the objective of the session, the skills you use and the steps of the process are the same.

I. Facilitating Skills

Question Asking. When you are facilitating, you will need to use open-ended questions, closed-ended questions,

and probing techniques to help participants talk about their experiences and identify solutions. Be careful not to

use any leading questions at all, since the objective of the session is to help participants reach their own conclusions,

not yours!

Paraphrasing. By paraphrasing, you demonstrate that you understand what the other person has said and

help clarify ideas. The process of paraphrasing is very much like catching a ball and throwing one back. The best

way to paraphrase is to listen intently to what the other is saying. If, while the other person is talking, you worry

about what you are going to say next, you are not likely to hear enough of the message to paraphrase it correctly.

Summarizing. The purposes of summarizing are to: pull important ideas, facts, or information together; establish

a basis for further discussion or make a transition; review progress; and/or check for clarity or agreement.

Summarizing requires you to listen carefully in order to organize and present information systematically.

Summarized information ensures that everyone is clear about what transpired in that portion of the discussion.

Some starter phrases to help you begin a summary are:

• There seem to be some key ideas expressed here

• If I understand, you feel this way about the situation

• I think we agree on this decision—what we are saying is that we intend to

One of the most important roles of summarizing is that it gives you an opportunity to check for agreement. If

people do not agree, it is better for you (and them) to know during the discussion than to find out later when

what the group supposedly agreed on does not happen! One of the most common frustrations Volunteers have

is that they think agreement was reached to do something, yet things do not occur as planned afterwards. In

many instances, that is because participants really were not in agreement during the discussion.

Involving Everyone in the Group. In every group discussion, there will be some people who will want to talk

a great deal and some who will be much more timid. Your job as facilitator is to ensure that everyone has an

opportunity to discuss his/her experiences and to contribute to the decisions the group makes. Some ways to

ensure that everyone participates include the following:

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The dominant participant

• Avoid eye contact, or turn your body slightly away from the person.

• Call on other people by name and ask for his/her opinion.

• If necessary, politely thank the participant for his/her opinion and say that you’d like to have the

ideas of other group members as well.

The timid participant

• Use eye contact to pull the timid participant into the discussion. Look directly at him/her when you

ask the question.

• Observe the timid participant closely to see when she/he is ready to speak.

• Ask an easy, nonthreatening question that encourages a direct response. If the participant becomes

too ill at ease, continue the discussion with other participants and come back to him/her later.

The “leader” participant

• Be aware if one of the participants of the group is considered to be an “informal leader.” The other

participants will frequently defer to this person and wait for him/her to make the decisions.

• Use the techniques for the timid participant mentioned above to involve other members. However,

it will be important not to insult the informal leader. Frequently, if this person says that the group

will do something, they really will.

Other Facilitation Skills. A number of helpful facilitation skills, some verbal and some nonverbal, include the

following:

• Nodding one’s head

• Picking up on the last word or two of someone else’s sentence

• Repeating a sentence or part of a sentence

• Asking someone to “say more about that”

• Maintaining eye contact, open body position

II. Steps of a Group Discussion

The steps of a group discussion are similar to those for a counseling session. However, in this case, your role is

to help the group discuss their experiences and identify problems and solutions.

Step 1. Create a Comfortable, Personal Environment.

Arrange for the meeting in a convenient place with as few distractions as possible. Greet people. Inquire

about their well–being, family, etc. Ask them to sit in a circle or semicircle to break down the teacher/

student atmosphere. Wait a reasonable amount of time until most or all of the invited participants are

assembled. If appropriate, use an icebreaker or group dynamic exercise to motivate the group and open up

the discussion.

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Step 2. Opening.

Introduce the purpose for which the group has gathered and briefly share your observations about the

common problem the participants share. Ask group members what they think about the problem. Emphasize

that the group is here to work together to solve the problem. The participants should feel free to say whatever

is on their minds and expect to learn from and help each other. If it has not been decided before-hand, ask

the group how long they would like to meet and establish, as a group, the time the meeting will end.

Step 3. Discussion.

Return to the purpose of the meeting and facilitate the discussion using all of the skills described above.

Some of the topics you might discuss include the following:

• Why does this problem exist?

• What have other people done to solve the problem? What was successful? What could we learn

from it?

• What new ideas does the group have?

• How can we go about trying these ideas?

It is natural for a group discussion to go in many directions. You should not worry too much if the discussion

turns from the proposed topic to another one. Part of the supportive environment of the group is generated

when people feel free to talk together as friends. Wait for a time and then reintroduce the topic, starting from

where the group left off.

Participants may not resolve their problems in one sitting. Be careful not to push the group to make a

decision before they are ready. At the same time, help participants to organize their ideas and actions. Being

a facilitator is a balancing act!

Step 4. Summary and Closing.

Ask participants to summarize what they decided during the session and what they will do next. Establish

a date and time for the next meeting or activity. Finally, thank them for participating.

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Facilitating a Group Discussion Checklist

The following checklist will help you plan and facilitate a group discussion. You also can use it to teach other

people how to plan and facilitate a group discussion.

Create a Comfortable, Safe, and Personal Environment

Greet people. Inquire about their well-being, family, etc.

Seat people in a circle or semicircle.

(If appropriate) Use an icebreaker or group dynamic exercise to motivate the group.

Opening

Introduce the purpose for which the group has gathered.

Briefly share your observations about the common problem the participants share.

Seek confirmation that this problem is in fact common to all.

Emphasize that the group is here to work together to solve the problem. (The participants should feel

free to say whatever is on their minds and expect to learn from and help each other.)

If it has not been decided before hand, ask the group how long they would like to meet today and

establish, as a group, the time the meeting will end.

Discussion

Return to the purpose of the meeting and facilitate the discussion.

Ask why this problem exists.

Ask what other people have done to solve the problem. Ask what was successful. Ask what they could

learn from it.

Ask what new ideas the group has. Ask how they can go about trying these ideas.

Use open-ended questions, closed-ended questions, and probing techniques to understand everyone’s

experience and ideas.

Use no leading questions.

Paraphrase to demonstrate that you understand what the other person said and helps clarify ideas.

Summarize to pull important ideas together, clarify, and check for agreement.

Involve everyone in the group.

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Permit the group to “stray from the topic,” but then reintroduce the topic, starting from where the

group left off.

Summary and Closing

End the meeting on time or when the participants become restless or uncomfortable.

Ask participants to summarize what they have learned.

Ask participants to summarize what they have decided to do next.

Establish a date and time for the next meeting or activity.

Thank the group for their participation.

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Working with Women’s Groups

All over the world, in traditional societies, women have primary responsibility for the health of their families.

Women are responsible for cooking, housework, and child care, which means that they are an obvious starting

point for Volunteers hoping to make a difference in the quality of nutrition in their communities. In many sites

there are pre-existing women’s groups with whom Volunteers can work, but sometimes it may be necessary for

Volunteers to encourage the formation of these groups. Groups should be made up of women who live close to

each other and have similar time schedules and interests. In the formation of such groups, a Volunteer’s role is

to present the idea to women and to ask them to discuss it and think about whether or not they are interested in

being part of a group.

Women’s groups are a useful forum for discussions which can then be followed by actions undertaken to improve

the current situation. In order for discussions to be most productive, participants should be limited to 10 or 12

women, with two “leaders” for each group. The role of “leaders” in these groups is to facilitate the expression of

ideas and encourage members to put their ideas into practice.

Many of the activities described in Promoting Powerful People are well-suited for use with women’s groups.

Women Working Together (ICE no. WD003) is a source for other activities for groups, which include incomegenerating projects.

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Section IV: Session 4

Selecting and Using

Print Materials

Session Plan

Overview

This session teaches Trainees how to select appropriate print materials.

It provides a checklist that Trainees and their counterparts can use to

evaluate and select print materials that already are available in their

country. It also teaches Trainees how to use print materials effectively

in group discussions and gives them practice doing that in role plays.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Selecting and

using print materials effectively is important for most Volunteers. You

can use this session without adaptation. In Activity 2, simply select

print materials that reflect your technical area.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Name three ways to use print materials.

2. Name three rules for selecting a simple print material.

3. Use the Selecting Appropriate Print Materials Checklist to identify

effective, locally available print materials.

4. Describe and demonstrate how to use a print material effectively

in a group discussion.

Time

Two Sessions: First Part – 1hour, 30 minutes; Second Part – 3 hours
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Materials

• Handouts:

– Selecting and Using Print Materials Effectively

– Selecting Appropriate Print Materials Checklist

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Four or five different locally-produced print materials

Preparation

Distribute the handout Selecting and Using Print Materials Effectively

before the session. Ask the Trainees to read it and make notes

concerning the comments and questions they would like to discuss.

Vocabulary

Realistic, appropriate, advertisement, pamphlet, poster, material,

resource, compare, picture, message, display, group

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

First Part – 1 hour, 30 minutes

Activity 1: Introduction to Selecting and Using

Print Materials

Time: 15 minutes

Review Section I, “What Can You Do with Print Materials?” in

the handout. On flip chart paper, write ways that materials can

be used and ask Trainees to discuss them. Brainstorm new ideas

and write them down as well.

Ask for and answer questions.

Review Section IV, “Selecting Print Materials,” in the handout.

Write down each criterion and ask Trainees to discuss them.

Review the checklist.

Ask for and answer questions.
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Activity 2: Selecting Print Materials—Practice

Time: 45 minutes

Display four to five locally produced print materials. These could

be educational materials, such as posters or pamphlets, prepared

by the government or other local organizations, or commercial

materials, such as advertisements or calendars. Select both good

and bad examples. Ask Trainees to work in pairs and apply the

Selecting Appropriate Print Materials Checklistto each one. Ask them

to talk about how they might use each print material. If

counterparts are present at the training, ask Volunteers to work

with their counterparts. Give them 15 minutes to evaluate the

materials.

Ask Trainees to share and compare their results and ideas about

how they might use each material in their work.

Ask Trainees how they will apply what they just learned in their

work.

Activity 3: Using Print Materials—Introduction

and Assignment

Time: 30 minutes

Review Section III, “How to Use Print Materials in a Group

Discussion or Presentation,” in the handout. Ask Trainees to

discuss each point. Review the checklist.

Ask for and answer questions.

Divide Trainees into small groups of six. If counterparts are

participating in the training, ask three Volunteer–counterpart pairs

to work together. Ask them to develop a short group discussion

using one of the print materials.

Note: Counterparts already may be using print materials in their

discussions, group talks, and counseling sessions; however, they

may not be familiar with all of the ideas discussed in this handout.

Trainees should be encouraged to observe how counterparts use

print materials and learn from what they do well.

One person in each group will facilitate the discussion using the

print materials they have selected. Two people should be the

observers, apply the Using Print Materials Effectively in a Group

Discussion Checklist, and give feedback to the facilitator on what

she/he did well and what she/he should do next time to improve.

The rest will play the role of the participants in the group.

Give Trainees time to develop their group discussions using the

selected print materials.
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Second Part – 3 hours

Activity 4: Using Print Materials—Practice

Time: 2 hours, 45 minutes

Remind Trainees how to give good feedback.

Each group session should last 15 minutes and feedback about

five minutes. Warn the facilitators when 10 minutes have passed

so they can move into summarizing and closing the group session.

This schedule will give everyone a chance to practice.

Rotate until each person in the group has practiced facilitating a

group discussion.

Activity 5: Process, Generalization, Session

Evaluation, and Community Practice

Assignment

Time: 15 minutes

Community Practice Assignment. If time allows and Trainees’

language skills are at an appropriate level, ask them to work in

pairs to organize and conduct a group session using print

materials with community members. Have one Trainee facilitate

and the other observe and give feedback. If counterparts are

present, ask the Trainee to work with his/her counterpart. Set a

date for a follow-up session. Review their experiences, compare

the checklists, give feedback, process, and generalize. A

particularly useful application of this activity would be for the

Trainees to work with groups of women to discuss nutrition issues

using print materials as a visual aid. This would give Trainees

valuable experience which they could use when they are at their

sites working with women’s groups. Distribute the handout

Working With Women’s Groups so that Trainees may use it as a

resource at their sites.

Trainer’s Notes

The Trainees should try to do this session in the language in which

they will be working.
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Selecting and Using

Print Materials Effectively

To have an effect on what your target group knows and does, you will need to repeat one message many times

through several channels. Print materials may be one of the communication channels you can use to communicate

with your target group.

Whenever possible, use actual materials during your discussions, group talks, and counseling sessions. For

example, use fruits and vegetables, rather than pictures, when discussing what vitamin A-rich foods children

should eat every day. However, print materials, if carefully selected and used, can be an effective way to help

people understand new information, discuss their experiences, and identify solutions to problems.

I. What Can You Do with Print Materials?

Of the many ways to use print materials, a few of the most common include the following:

Problem Pictures. Show a picture illustrating a general problem in the community (for example, a malnourished

child) as a non-threatening way to identify local problems and discuss what can be done about them. Ask the

following questions:

• What do you see in this picture? What is happening here?

• What are the reasons this is happening?

• What could we do about his problem?

Comparative Pictures. Two pictures can be used to contrast desirable and undesirable conditions or harmful

and beneficial practices. For example, show a picture of a mother breastfeeding and a mother bottlefeeding. This

provides a way for the group or individual to analyze why a nutrition problem exists and consider specific

alternatives.

Picture Story with a Gap. In this case you would show the first pictures of the story and then have the group

or individual tell the end of the story with the problem solved. This involves them in understanding their

problems and identifying potential solutions.

A Picture Series. Use a picture series to tell a nutrition story. For example, use pictures to tell the story of a

young child who eats vitamin A-rich foods every day.

Pictures Drawn by Community Members. Drawing pictures of community nutrition problems and goals is a

way that community members can express themselves and examine their perceptions, needs, and options.

Drawing pictures is an effective technique with children. Tell the children a story about good nutrition. Ask the

children to draw what they learned and to take the picture home and share the story with their parents.

II. Selecting Print Materials

Four rules to selecting effective print materials are the materials should—

1. Have one clear message

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2. Be simple

3. Be realistic

4. Be appropriate for the target group

Have One Clear Message

• Each illustration should communicate one single, distinct message.

Be Simple

• Illustrations should not contain extraneous details; those details can distract the audience from the

central message.

• Leave plenty of white space. White space makes the material easier to read, follow, and understand.

• If it has any text at all, use a type style and size that are easy to read. For example, italic typefaces are

more difficult to read. The text should use upper and lower case letters (unless it is in Arabic). Text

presented in only upper case letters is more difficult to read.

• Illustrations should use the clearest style, the best of which are—

1. Photographs without extraneous details

2. Complete drawings

3. Line drawings

Be Realistic

• Use familiar images. People understand and are attracted to pictures that seem familiar to them.

Expressions, clothing, buildings, and other objects should be the same as the cultural context of the

audience.

• Use realistic illustrations. People and objects should be portrayed as they occur in day-to-day life. Lowliterate audiences have trouble understanding maps, parts of things or people, or anatomical drawings.

• Illustrate objects in scale and in context. For example, the picture should show all of the body, rather

than just the head and mouth. Low-literate audiences have trouble understanding why the head is

“floating in the air.”

Be Appropriate for the Target Group

• Use appropriate colors. In some cultures, colors have their own meaning. For example, in India and

some parts of Asia, red is a symbol of happiness, while in some parts of Africa, it is a symbol of death.

• Use appropriate symbols. Crosses, arrows, check marks, inserts, and balloons that represent conversations

and thoughts usually are not understood by people who have not been taught what they mean.

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• Use a positive approach, not scare tactics. Experience shows that a fear approach leads people to deny

the problem or to feel that they have no power over changing the situation.

• If the print materials include more than one picture, arrange them in the sequence that is most logical to

the audience.

You will not always know if the materials you select are understandable, relevant, and appropriate to your

target group. In this case, it is best to talk with some community members and ask them what they see and

understand in the picture. You can then adapt the picture according to their ideas. This activity is called pretesting.

You will learn how to pretest print and other materials in another session.

III. How to Use Print Materials in a Group Discussion or

Presentation

The following information will help people understand and learn from the print materials you are using.

1. Make sure the picture is still. Tape or tack it to a wall, tree, or any other stable object. Moving it around

can confuse or distract people who look at it.

2. Make sure that everyone can see it. Ask yourself:

• Is it large enough for the whole group to see?

• Am I standing in front of it?

• Is anything blocking the view of anyone?

3. Show the picture while you are talking about the topic it illustrates.

• Show it long enough for everyone to look at it.

• Put it aside when you finish talking about the topic. If you leave it up, people might continue

looking at it rather than listening to the discussion.

4. Ask what people see and understand in the picture.

5. Explain any pictures or symbols that may be unfamiliar, especially with people who are not used to

learning from pictures.

6. Point to parts of the picture as you talk about them.

7. Encourage people to handle or experiment with the pictures and to make them their own.

• Put them on display and leave them for people to talk about after the discussion.

• Make up activities in which the learners make and use their own pictures.

The following checklists will help you and your counterparts select and use simple print materials effectively.

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Selecting Appropriate

Print Materials Checklist

Use this checklist to select the print materials you use in your group and individual discussions and counseling

sessions. Select materials that meet most or all of the criteria on this checklist.

Clear Message

Has one single, distinct message.

Simple

Does not contain extraneous details.

Leaves plenty of white space.

Text is in block lettering (except in Arabic).

Text uses upper- and lower-case letters (except in Arabic).

Pictures are either photographs, complete drawings, or line drawings.

Realistic

Uses familiar images (looks like people in your target group).

Uses realistic illustrations (people or objects portrayed as they occur in the day-to-day life of your target

group).

Illustrates objects in scale and in context (no “floating” hands or heads!).

Appropriate for the Target Group

Uses appropriate colors.

Uses appropriate symbols (no or few crosses, arrows, check marks, inserts, and balloons that represent

conversations and thoughts).

Uses a positive approach, not scare tactics.

If more than one picture, they are arranged in the sequence that is most logical to the target group.

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Using Print Materials Effectively

in a Group Discussion Checklist

(You will notice that this is the “How to Facilitate a Group Discussion” onto which actions about how to use

print materials have been added.)

Creates a Comfortable, Safe, and Personal Environment

Arrange for the meeting in a convenient place with as few distractions as possible.

Tape or tack picture to a wall, tree, or any other stable object.

Greet people. Inquire about their well being, family, etc.

Seat people in a circle or semicircle.

(If appropriate) Use an icebreaker or group dynamic exercise to motivate the group.

Opening

Introduce the purpose for which the group has gathered.

Briefly share your observations about the common problem the participants share.

Seek confirmation that this problem is in fact common to all.

Emphasize that the group is here to work together to solve the problem. (Participants should feel free to

say whatever is on their minds and expect to learn from and help each other.)

If it has not been decided before-hand, ask the group how long they would like to meet today and

establish, as a group, the time the meeting will end.

Discussion

Make sure everyone can see the print material.

Show the picture while you are talking about the topic it illustrates.

Ask what people see and understand in the picture.

Explain any pictures or symbols that may be unfamiliar.

Point to the parts of the picture as you talk about them.

Ask why this problem exists.

Ask what other people have done to solve the problem. Ask what was successful. Ask what they could

learn from it.

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Ask what new ideas the group has. Ask how they can go about trying these ideas.

Use open-ended questions, closed-ended questions, and probing techniques to understand everyone’s

experiences and ideas.

Use no leading questions.

Paraphrase to demonstrate that you understand what the other person said and help clarify ideas.

Summarize to pull important ideas together, clarify, and check for agreement.

Involve everyone in the group.

Permit the group to “stray from the topic,” but then reintroduce the topic, starting from where the

group left off.

Summary and Closing

End the meeting on time or when the participants become restless or uncomfortable.

Ask participants to summarize what they have learned.

Ask participants to summarize what they have decided to do next.

Thank the group for their participation.

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Section IV: Session 5

Adapting Print

Materials

Session Plan

Overview

Print materials are one of the channels that Volunteers and their

counterparts can use to communicate with their target groups.

However, many print materials need to be adapted to make them

appropriate, understandable, and relevant to a specific target group.

Most Volunteers and their counterparts are not artists and do not know

how to make print materials from scratch.

This session teaches the Trainees two techniques—tracing and

sketching—that will help them adapt locally available print materials.

Notes to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Adapting print

materials to make them relevant to specific target groups can be

important to all Volunteers. You can use this session without

adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Trace a picture using a light source.

2. Adapt a picture using tracing and sketching.

Time

1 hour, 30 minutes

Materials

• Handout: Adapting Print Materials

• The following materials for each Trainee:

– Copies of two pictures (one that the Trainees will use to trace

and one that the Trainees will adapt using tracing and sketching)
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– thin, white paper

– pencil

– eraser

– if desired, crayons or colored pencils or markers

• Two or three of the following: ruler or straight edge, tape

Preparation

Distribute the handout Adapting Print Materials before the session.

Ask the Trainees to read it and to note comments and questions they

would like to discuss during the session.

Vocabulary

Adapt, trace, sketch, pictures, materials, carbon, visual aids

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Tracing and

Sketching

Time: 15 minutes

Ask the Trainees for their questions and comments concerning

the handout.

Activity 2: Practice with Tracing

Time: 30 minutes

Distribute the materials and the first picture to each Trainee. Ask

Trainees to trace the picture using the technique described in the

handout.

When everyone is finished, compare pictures; discuss problems,

solutions, and new ideas.

Activity 3: Practice with Sketching and Tracing

Time: 30 minutes

Distribute the second picture to each Trainee and ask them to

trace it, but to change it in some way by “sketching” in the new

piece. If necessary, you should model the new position to give

the Trainees something to sketch.
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When everyone is finished, compare pictures; discuss problems

and solutions.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

Discuss the use of the handout. Counterparts already may know

some techniques to adapt print materials and can teach Volunteers.

If counterparts do not have experience with the techniques,

Volunteers and counterparts can work together. Adapting print

materials is an excellent activity to do as a team and learn together.

Trainer’s Notes

If one of the Trainees or counterparts is artistic, use this person as a

resource during the session.
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Adapting Print Materials

Visual aids can make new information easier to understand. Unfortunately, visual aids that fit your needs are

not always available.

You can use tracing techniques to make visual aids that do not require many materials or any special skills in

drawing. Magazines, books, posters, and many other materials contain photographs and drawings that can be

used to make visual aids for health training and public health education.

For example, a health worker in a rural clinic may need a poster on child spacing that shows a family with two

or three children who are obviously happy and healthy. The only available and suitable pictures show only

larger groups of people. By using tracing techniques, the health worker can make the needed poster by combining

tracings of individuals from different pictures to create a family group.

The two primary tracing techniques to be learned are simple tracing and transferring a picture using carbon.

The skills that comprise the primary tracing techniques are:

1. Simple tracing

2. Tracing using a light source

3. Making your own carbon paper

4. Transferring a picture to another piece of paper using the carbon transfer technique

5. Outlining figures in black and coloring them in, using available coloring materials

Before using one of the tracing or transfer techniques that you will learn, decide which pictures to trace and how

much detail to copy from those pictures to communicate your message. The amount of detail can range from

only an outline of the shape of the picture to a very detailed drawing.

The basic shape of an object can communicate what it is if the object has a distinctive shape and if the group you

are teaching is familiar with the object. For example, the round shape of an orange also looks like a ball. More

detail is needed for people to be able to tell it is an orange. The basic outline shape of a pineapple can communicate

the idea of a pineapple, if the group is familiar with pineapples.

More detail provides more information about the real object or person the tracing represents. Too much detail

can be distracting. The person looking at the pictures may pay more attention to the background or details of the

costumes than to the central subject.

It is important to try out your drawing with the people for whom the drawing is intended. You should choose

shapes, simple drawings, or detailed drawings carefully based on the idea you want to show the groups of

people you want to teach.

Evaluation

After each activity, do the following:

1. Compare your traced drawing with the original picture. Did you trace enough of the person or objects

to communicate what it is? Did you copy too many details so that the drawing is cluttered and confusing

or possibly distracting?

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2. Show the drawing to a few people from the group with whom you plan to use it or to people with

similar backgrounds and interests. Ask them what they see. If these people are confused in any way by

the picture, ask them why. Make changes in the picture until it does communicate your message.

Simple Tracing Technique

1. Choose a picture from a magazine, poster, or some other source.

2. Place a piece of thin paper (paper you can see through) over the picture. Use paper clips or pins to hold

the two pieces together. Do not use tape, because it may damage the original picture.

3. If you cannot see the picture through the paper, hold both pieces against a light source such as a window

or an overhead projector.

4. Using a pencil, carefully trace the parts of the picture you wish to use. Use only as much detail as you

think you need.

5. Finish the drawing on the thin paper by covering your pencil lines with ink, paint, crayon, or colored

marking pens. Erase any pencil marks not covered by color or ink. The figures will show up better if you

outline them with black and then color inside the black lines.

Carbon Transfer Technique

To use the tracing technique, you need to use thin, white paper so that the picture will show through the paper.

The thin paper will not last a very long time, so you may want to transfer your tracing to a thicker piece of paper,

such as drawing paper. This activity explains how to transfer your tracing from one piece of paper to another.

1. Trace any picture on thin, white paper.

2. Use a piece of carbon paper or make your own, like this:

Cover the back of your tracing with pencil lead by using the side of a soft-lead pencil. You can use a

piece of charcoal from your kitchen fire, if pencils are scarce. You could also rub the pencil lead into a

separate piece of paper and use it like you would use carbon paper.

3. Place the paper with carbon (bought or made) on top of a sheet of drawing paper. The carbon side

should be touching the drawing paper.

4. If you are using a separate piece of carbon paper, place your tracing on top of the carbon paper.

5. Fasten the two or three pieces of paper together with paper clips or pins.

6. Trace over the lines of the drawing using a soft-lead pencil with a fairly sharp point. As you trace the

lines, the pressure of the pencil will transfer the picture onto the drawing paper.

7. You can complete your drawing by using pen and ink, crayons, paint, or colored markers to color the

visual aid. Remember to outline the lines in black and then to color inside the lines.

8. Erase any carbon or pencil lines that are not covered.

(This handout is adapted from Technical Health Training Manual, Peace Corps ICE, Training Manual No.

T0035, Session 24, Attachment 24.)

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Section IV: Session 6

Developing and Using

Locally Recorded Materials

Session Plan

Overview

Locally recorded materials are one of the channels that Volunteers

and their counterparts can use to communicate with their target

groups. They provide another way to create community participation

and involve community members in solving their own problems.

Locally recorded materials can be broadcast on radio stations and

loudspeakers. They can be used during group discussions or

counseling sessions as an effective, attractive way to introduce new

information and stimulate discussion. Volunteers from different sites

can share these materials as well, linking communities and creating

new support networks for nutritional and other development actions.

This session teaches Trainees how to create, develop, and use locally

recorded materials.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Developing

and using locally recorded materials could be an important activity

for all Volunteers. To adapt this session, simply ask the Trainees to

record materials concerning your technical area during Activity 2,

“Practice Recording Materials”.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. State three ways to use locally recorded materials.

2. State at least three things they can record in the community.

3. List and describe the steps of recording local materials.

4. Record local materials that are clear and understandable.

Time

2 hours, 45 minutes
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Materials

• Tape recorders, tapes, and batteries

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handouts:

– Developing and Using Locally Recorded Materials

– Selecting Radio Spots Worksheet

Preparation

Distribute the handout Developing and Using Locally Recorded Materials

before the session. Ask Trainees to read it and to note the comments

and questions they would like to discuss during the session.

Vocabulary

Spot, program, jingle, monologue, dialogue, microphone, recording,

testimonial, recommendations, broadcast, loudspeaker,

announcement, promote, format, plot, message, target audience,

spontaneous, rehearse, background, edit, script, voice, sound effects

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Developing Locally

Recorded Materials

Time: 45 minutes

Ask Trainees to find a partner with whom they will write and

perform a jingle related to the ways in which locally recorded

materials can be used or to what can be recorded. Both topics are

described fully in the handout. Allow 10 to 15 minutes to create

the jingles and then have each pair perform it.

Example: Volunteers can see success

when they put their message to the test,

On radio or broadcast,

In a group may be the best,

Sharing work will take them far,

They can create a radio star!

Ask Trainees to list what they might record in the community.

Write them on flip chart paper and discuss each one. Encourage

Trainees to think of other ideas not listed in the handout.
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Ask Trainees to list the steps of recording local materials. Discuss

each one.

Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: Practice Recording Materials

Time: 1 hour

Ask Trainees to practice recording materials.

First, ask them to practice recording each other. Have them

practice in different places (for example, inside and outside of a

building) so they will understand how to place the microphone

in relation to the person they are recording. Have them listen to

the recordings and determine what they need to do to make them

clearer.

Then ask them to record a community member or members in

their home, office, work, or other setting.

Explain that the goal is to return with a short recorded piece (30

to 60 seconds) that is clear and understandable. If you are going

to visit and work with a radio station, ask the Trainees to record a

20 to 30 second testimonial of a mother who has tried the nutrition

recommendation. (During the next activity of this session, the

Trainees will select the best one.) When you visit the radio station

during Session 7, you can use the testimonial to create an

adaptation of the spot described in the handout.

Activity 3: Listen to and Evaluate the Materials

Time: 45 minutes

Ask each Trainee to play his/her material for the group and

discuss each one. What problems did they encounter and how

did they resolve them? How did they feel while they were

recording the material? How do they think community members

felt about being recorded?

If you are going to make a spot at the radio station, ask the group

to select the best testimonial.
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Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes
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Developing and Using

Locally Recorded Materials

To promote any action effectively, you and your counterparts need to repeat one message many times through

several channels. Locally recorded materials are one of the channels that Volunteers and their counterparts can

use to communicate with their target groups. They are an additional way to create community participation and

involve community members in solving their own problems. As a Volunteer living and working in a community,

you are in an excellent position to record local materials that promote nutrition and other development actions

and recommendations.

Locally recorded materials can be used in several ways.

They can be broadcast on the radio. Radio has proved to be an effective channel to promote nutrition and other

development actions and recommendations. Radio can reach many people frequently. Well-developed and wellproduced radio materials can be an attractive way to teach people new information and model effective nutrition

actions. As you listen to the radio in your country, you will notice that many of the materials sound the same.

Community members talking about their own experiences is a simple way to make effective and attractive radio

materials.

They can be broadcast on loudspeaker systems. Many villages and cities have loudspeaker systems. You can

play recorded materials over the loudspeaker at appropriate times. For example, you might promote and announce

the growth monitoring session or other community activity on loudspeakers. In this way, everyone within hearing

will know that it is going on!

They can be used during group discussions or individual and group counseling sessions. This is a very effective

way to introduce new information, model a new solution or action, and stimulate discussion.

Volunteers from different sites can share locally recorded materials. In this way, they can create a communication

network among people who share similar problems and solutions.

In Africa and most of the Near East, most radio and television stations are owned by the government. In such

countries, you probably will use your recorded materials locally—on loudspeakers and for individual and group

sessions. However, in Latin America and Asia, many small, privately owned radio stations will work with you

to broadcast your locally produced materials.

I. What Can You Record?

Almost anything might be interesting to record in the community, but the following ideas may help you think

more specifically about what to record:

• Announcements concerning the date and time of an activity or program, which could be recorded by

the people involved or by a local leader.

• Announcements recognizing people for doing something correctly, such as naming mothers who

participated in growth monitoring sessions, the clinic nurse for doing something special, or people who

contributed to a nutrition fair, school garden, or any other community activity. People like to hear their

names and be recognized and rewarded for what they have done.

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• Testimonials of people who tried the action you are promoting and tell about benefits they perceive.

They also might discuss any problems they encountered and how they resolved them. You can use such

testimonials as spots on the radio and also in counseling or group discussion sessions.

• Formal and informal leaders voicing their support of an action or activity you are promoting and

encouraging community members to take part.

• Interviews with local leaders, organizers, and community members concerning an event or activity or

concerning the importance of the action you are promoting. You can play the interviews over loudspeakers

to demonstrate opinion leader support for activities or nutrition recommendations.

• Local drama or music on the action you are promoting, which you can use to enliven group counseling

and discussion sessions, as well as broadcast on local radio stations.

• School programs on the action you are promoting, which you can broadcast or share in group sessions.

• Songs, which you and community members can write about the solution or action you are promoting.

Community adults or children can sing it. You might also have a song contest and record and play all of

the songs that people develop. You can broadcast songs on the radio or loudspeaker or play and teach

them at group or individual sessions.

II. Types and Formats of Radio Materials

The following summarizes the types and formats of radio and other recorded materials that you might produce.

Two additional radio formats are as follows:

1. The radio drama in which a plot develops around a central person or group of people and their

relationships.

2. The magazine format—a radio program that uses a combination of the above formats and may treat

several themes.

These formats are much more complicated and expensive to produce. You would use these only if a counterpart

with radio experience is available to produce them.

Most recorded materials, whether a spot (30–60 seconds) or a program (5–15 minutes), have the same general

structure:

Opening. Usually the same in most programs, it is music over which an announcement is made concerning

the name or purpose of the material.

Content. The basic information.

Close. A summary of the content. In a series, you can use the close to invite people to listen to the next

program.

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III. How to Develop Radio Spots

The following guidelines will help you develop effective radio spots:

1. Effective radio spots explain the specific action that people should take to solve their problem. During

Discuss and Decide, you worked with your counterparts and other community members to select an

appropriate solution or action to a specific problem. You can now use radio spots to describe that action

to a wider audience. Frequently, educational radio materials simply raise awareness of the problem

without giving concrete solutions. Your radio spots will have more impact if they suggest one simple

action that your target audience can carry out.

2. Effective radio spots explain why people should do what the spot suggests. People will try something

new only if they believe the results will be better for them than what they currently are doing. They

therefore need to understand why they should do what you are asking.

3. Effective radio spots have only one message in each spot. Experience in using radio spots to teach

demonstrates that people remember only one message in each spot. If you use more than one message

in your radio spot, people will confuse them. Putting only one message in each radio spot makes it more

likely that people will understand and remember that message.

4. Effective radio spots repeat the one message at least twice. Repeating the message at least twice will

increase the number of times your target audience can hear it and also will make it more likely that they

will remember, understand, and act on it.

5. Effective radio spots use characters and voices that your target audience trusts to give them information.

People will be more likely to listen to your radio spots and do what you are suggesting if they believe in

and trust the people who are talking in them. The person who talks in your radio materials is called the

“source of information.”

The source of information you select will depend on your message and your target audience. It could be

a real or fictional person. You could develop a fictional character who represents a trustworthy source of

information, such as a Dr. Healthy, Mama Knowsbest, or Nurse Caresalot. You also could use a real

person who is well-respected by your target audience—a popular actress or other well-known person.

In most countries, community members talking about their own experience provide excellent sources

of information for radio spots.

6. Effective radio spots use the same words and phrases as the target audience. People cannot try to do

what you are suggesting if they don’t understand what you are saying. Don’t use technical words in

your radio spots. For example, you might want to say “stomach” instead of “digestive system” or “foods

that are good for your baby” instead of “nutritious foods.”

A radio spot should have the same natural, spontaneous sound of a conversation, sometimes with the

imperfections of that conversation. Imagine the face of one of the people in your target audience as you

are developing the spot and write to that person. Read your spot aloud several times to really hear how

it will sound over the air.

7. Effective radio spots are fun to listen to. Too many radio spots are boring to listen to; they sound like a

teacher giving a lecture in a classroom!

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BAD, BUT TYPICAL RADIO SPOT

Music: (anything available when the message is recorded)

Male Announcer 1: Mothers, it’s important to counteract the adverse

nutritional effects of diarrhea. Children should be

offered a nutritionally complete diet during diarrhea

episodes. This diet should be formulated to maximize

its digestibility and palatability. Optimal feeding will

depend on the age of the child and will be determined

to some extent by the child’s usual feeding practices.

Male Announcer 2: This message was brought to you by the Ministry of

Health.

This typical spot would make any target audience feel lectured to. It would bore, confuse, and possibly

offend the audience, who probably would not really listen again to the spot the next time it was broadcast.

Your radio materials should use music, words, and sound effects in a way that make people want to

listen to them. They should create a picture in people’s minds. With radio, the listener can travel to new

places, meet new people, look at his neighbors in new ways, and feel and see things in his imagination

that he never thought of before. When you listen to good radio material, you should be able to shut your

eyes and “see” who is talking, where they are, and what they are doing.

Try something different to make your spots fun to listen to—a new song, format, sound effect, jingle, or

source of information—something that will make people stop and listen to your radio materials. As

mentioned, using locally recorded materials, with voices of real people, is a very effective way to make

your radio spots attractive and fun to listen to.

8. Effective radio spots make people feel happy, loving, or confident that they can do what the spots are

asking. One of the best ways to make people want to listen to your radio materials is to make them feel

something after they listen—happy, affectionate, energetic, capable of doing what you are asking. People

are more likely to do something if they feel good about it.

9. Effective radio spots model people doing the action correctly and being rewarded or praised for it.

Everyone likes to be praised for what they have done. Radio spots are a powerful way to show people

being praised for doing the right action.

The following example of an effective spot uses local voices and an announcer to promote a nutrition action. You

can adapt this spot to your own nutrition action or to any other technical area.

INFANT FEEDING SPOT

Music: (anything available when the message is recorded)

Announcer: Feeding your child five times a day can help him grow

strong and healthy. Listen to the voice of experience.

Mother: (Locally recorded and edited at the radio station)

“I was really worried about my little Abdul. I knew

he wasn’t getting enough to eat. Then my sister told

me that children’s stomachs are smaller than adults.”

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“They need to eat more frequently to get enough food

to grow. So I tried feeding him five times a day.”

“Well, it sure worked! Just look at him—isn’t he a

prize!”

Announcer: The voice of experience knows that feeding your child

five times a day will help him get enough food to

grow strong and healthy. Try it!

The worksheet at the end of this handout can help you evaluate whether you have developed an effective

radio spot.

IV. How to Record Your Materials

Recording in the field, rather than in a studio, requires a good “ear” for the general acoustics of the place where

the recording is taking place. Too much echo in the room or the sounds of traffic, voices, or animals can distort

the recording and make it hard to understand what people are saying. When you first arrive at the place where

you will be recording, listen carefully to the environmental sounds. If they are too loud, try to change the place

where you will be recording. When recording in an office, one of the best places to record is next to an open

window to reduce the echo of the room.

Sometimes environmental sounds can be used to create an interesting, attractive effect and give the listener an

image of the scene where the recording is taking place. For example, if you are interviewing a mother in her

home, you might first record the sounds of children laughing and the sounds of her cooking. You, or another

interviewer, could then say, “We’re at the home of Mrs. ___________________. She’s busy preparing a new food

for her baby. Mrs. ______________, tell us about what you’re doing”.

A. Tips on How to Place the Microphone

The distance between the microphone and the sound you are recording will depend somewhat on your tape

recorder. Generally, you should place the microphone about 9 to 12 inches away from the person’s mouth.

Be sure not to move it around while the person is talking. If you want only the person’s voice to be heard,

place the microphone inclined toward him/her.

Hold the microphone just below the person’s mouth so that she/he is talking over the microphone and not

directly into it. Talking directly into a microphone will create “pops” and “whistles” on certain consonants.

If an environmental sound is very loud and you don’t want it to be heard on the recording, ask the person to

sit in front of the sound with his/her back to it. In this way, she/he will, at least, partially protect the

microphone with his/her body.

Wind often can be a problem when you are recording in the open. Good quality microphones have a wind

protector (usually a piece of foam rubber). You can make a simple wind protector by covering the microphone

with a thin handkerchief or other piece of material. In this case, you may need to place the microphone

closer to the person than normal.

B. Steps In Recording

Step 1. Preparation

a. Before going to the place where you will be recording, practice recording with your tape

recorder so that you are familiar with how close you need to hold the microphone. Be

sure that you have extra batteries and tape!

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b. When you arrive at the place where you will be recording, listen to the environmental

sounds. Clap your hands or shout something to hear how much echo there is in the room.

Set up your microphone and the person you will be recording accordingly.

c. Always ask permission from the people you will be recording.

d. Have a general conversation with the person. Explain how you will be using the recording.

Tell him/her about how long you would like the recording to be. Ask if she/he has any

questions.

e. Remember, the person you are recording is the star. Make him/her feel comfortable, safe,

and appreciated—not defensive!

f. Test your microphone and sound levels. Ask the person to speak and record 10 to 20

seconds, listen to it, and make adjustments.

g. Mark the recording by stating briefly who or what you are recording and the date. This

will help you later when you are editing, especially if you have several recordings on one

tape.

Step 2. The Recording

a. Use your questioning and probing skills. Ask only open-ended questions; if you ask a

closed-ended question, follow up with an open-ended one or another probing technique

to allow the person to say more than just “yes” or “no”. Do not use any leading questions.

b. Make your questions short.

c. Ask only one question at a time.

d. Listen, Listen, Listen to what the person is saying. His/her answer should be the basis of

the next question.

e. Let the person talk. Don’t interrupt.

f. Sometimes you will want to summarize what the person has said. Be sure to reflect back

his/her meaning without changing or judging it.

Step 3. After the Recording

Thank the person for his/her participation and collaboration. If the person was nervous during

the recording, a few comments from you about how well it went and what a nice job she/he

did, will help him/her relax.

Have fun! Your materials may not sound professional at first. Even people with experience

sometimes forget to hit the record button and record an entire interview on play! However,

with practice, you can create high-quality, attractive, locally recorded materials.

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V. How to Edit and Use Your Materials

A. Editing and Using Locally Recorded Materials at the Community Level

If you use your materials locally—either on loudspeakers or in group and individual sessions—you could

simply play the section of the recording you want people to hear. Before you play it, be sure that it is cued

up; that is, that it will begin playing exactly the portion of the tape you want people to hear. Recorded

materials can lose their effect if you have to spend time searching for the piece you want to use. If possible,

copy the section you want to use onto another tape.

B. Editing and Broadcasting Locally Recorded Materials on the Radio

If you are going to broadcast your materials, you will need to work with radio station personnel to edit

them. Before you go to the station, have a good idea of what you want to use. Don’t expect them to listen to

all of the materials and help you choose. Cue up or mark in some way the sections you want to use. You

probably will want to combine your recording with a local announcer to create a spot or mini-program.

If this is the first time the radio station personnel have edited local materials, the idea of using local voices

may be new or strange to them. They may even feel that only professionals should talk on the radio. You

should meet first with the station manager and get his/her support for trying this new format. If the station

staff say they will not broadcast the spot, ask if you could produce it for Volunteers’ use during group

discussions. When they hear the recording, they might be more open to using it. Be patient and make the

situation fun.

Always pretest your spot before it is broadcast to ensure that it is understandable, relevant, and attractive to

your target group. You will learn how to pretest spots in another session.

Ask the radio station to broadcast your spots enough times for your primary target group to hear them,

understand them, remember them, and to try what you are suggesting. Repetition is key to the effective use

of radio. People need to hear one message many times before they can understand it, accept it, and try what

you are suggesting. Think about how many times you hear and see a Pepsi or Coca Cola commercial!

Often, educational spots are broadcast just a few times. These spots will have no effect on what people know

or do. Because spots are so short, they must be repeated more often for people to be able to learn from them.

It is the repetition of that single message that will give your radio spots impact. Generally, to have an impact,

each radio spot needs to be broadcast at least three to four times each day during the hours your target

group is listening for three to four months.

Ask your target group what times they listen to the radio station that you will be working with and ask the

station manager to broadcast the spot at least three to four times a day during those hours for three to four

months. The station manager may not want or be able to give you that much free time, but try to get as close

to this ideal as possible.

After several months, listen and observe in the community to understand whether you should continue

playing the spot or develop a new one. Ask members of your target group the following questions:

• Have they heard the radio spot?

• What have they learned from the spot?

• Are they doing what the spot suggested? Why or why not?

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The information you gather will help you to understand what changes you need to make in your materials,

messages, and broadcast schedule. Read the following examples of the types of decisions you might make

based on the information you gather from your target group.

Research Finding

• Your target group has not heard the spot because they are not listening to the radio at the time the

spot is being broadcast.

• Your target group says they heard “something about health and nutrition on the radio,” but they

don’t remember exactly what they heard.

• Your target group remembers one of your spots, but not the other.

• Your target group misunderstands the spot.

• Some members of your target group have tried what the spot suggests and like it.

• Some members of your target group tried what the spot suggests and have problems or questions.

• Most of your target group tried what the spot suggests and like it.

Changes to be Made

• Change the hour the spot is broadcast to times that your target group is listening.

• Continue playing the same spot. If possible, increase the frequency with which it is broadcast.

• Increase the broadcast frequency of the spot that your target audience does not remember. Continue

playing the spot people remember, but not as frequently. Or—develop a new (more attractive) spot

about the message that people do not remember.

• Develop a new spot that makes the message more clear. Pretest the spot to ensure that it is

understandable to your target group.

• Develop a new spot that features testimonials about the positive experiences of those people.

• Develop a new spot that promotes solutions to the problems or answers their questions.

• Develop a new spot that reinforces what people are doing correctly.

• Develop a new spot on another action or solution.

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VI. Radio Terminology

The following terms will help you talk in the same terms with people at the radio station when you produce

your materials.

A. General Radio Terms

Frequency The average number of times an audience is exposed to a specific radio

material or message.

Jingle The program slogan (frequently the reason why people should do what

you are asking), usually put to music. It generally lasts five to 10 seconds.

Magazine program A radio program, usually 15 to 30 minutes long, that uses a combination of

formats and may treat several themes.

Prime time Hours when the largest number of people are listening to the radio station.

The station manager will charge the highest price for materials broadcast

during these hours.

Radio drama A series of radio programs in which a plot develops around a central person

or group of persons and their relationships.

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B. Script Writing and Production Terms

Cross-fade A technique in which two different sounds or musical passages are

manipulated simultaneously, one being faded in, the other faded out.

Dead air A time of silence in which nothing is being broadcast and it seems that the

radio station has been damaged or has interrupted its broadcast.

Echo An acoustic effect that can make voices and sound effects sound like they

have a small “echo” around them. Used to give emphasis to text or to create

a certain mood.

Edit To correct, add, or delete materials after they are recorded.

Fade-in To increase the sound from zero up to normal volume.

Fade-out To decrease the sound from normal, or whatever the present sound is, down

to zero.

Fade-down To lower the volume, but not out completely; often used like fade-under.

Fade-under To lower the volume when other materials, usually voices, are to be given

prominence.

Microphone An instrument that converts sound into electrical current so that it can be

(also called “mike”) recorded. Four kinds of microphones are (1) directional, which receives

sound only from directly in front of the microphone (if you talk to the side

of the microphone, your voice will not be recorded clearly or at all); (2) bidirectional, which receives sound from two sides of the microphone; (3)

omni-directional, which receives sound from all around the microphone;

and (4) cardioid, which receives sound in an area shaped like a heart; that

is, in front and to the sides of the microphone, but not below or behind it.

Musical bed A mixture of voices and music in which the voices are in the foreground

and the music in the background.

Musical curtain The use of music to change or end scenes or moods.

Narrator A neutral person (one who is not playing a specific character) who reads

(or announcer) the script.

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Open microphone A microphone that is connected and receiving sound and/or recording.

Any sound will be picked up.

Pause A brief time, usually not more than three seconds, in which no sound is

heard.

Producer A person who coordinates the radio production and gives direction to the

studio operator, actors, musicians, and announcers.

Program closing The ending of a radio program, similar to the program opening, that usually

invites people to listen to the next program and gives the time, date, and

what the next program will be about.

Program opening A standardized opening that uses the same musical theme, sound effects,

or signature and voices to help the listener identify the program quickly.

Script The format for writing radio materials; the blueprint or map that permits

you to produce the radio materials efficiently.

Segue The movement from one effect or passage to another, without any change

 in volume. (pronounced say-gway)

Splice A technique that unites two pieces of a radio material together by cutting

and taping the ends of magnetic tape.

Sound effects Any sound, natural or artificial, occurring in a radio material that is not

voice or music.

Studio The place that contains tape recorders and other equipment necessary to

produce radio materials.

Studio operator A person who runs the equipment during radio production and editing.

Transition The phrase, music, or sound effect that is used to separate scenes or portions

of a broadcast, or that signifies the end of a scene; also can resolve the

mood of one scene and set the mood for the following scene.

Up (or full) At full volume.

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Selecting Radio Spots Worksheet

Have someone read the radio script aloud several times and rate it on the following scale. Rate each criteria on

a scale of 0 (none or not at all) to 10 (very highly). Select the spot(s) with the highest scores. Rewrite the spot if it

does not score more than 80.

_________ 1. It is clear who the target group is for this spot. Who is it? What elements of the spot make it clear

that this is the target audience?

_________ 2. The spot asks the target group to do a concrete action. What is it?

_________ 3. The spot tells the target group the reason why they should perform this action.

_________ 4. The spot has one message. What is it?

_________ 5. The message is repeated at least twice.

_________ 6. The spot is different from other materials you hear on the radio right now.

_________ 7. The spot uses sources of information that your target group trusts to give them information.

_________ 8. The spot makes listeners feel happy, loving, or confident that they can do what you are asking.

How will the spot make your target group feel?

_________ 9. The spot shows people being rewarded or praised for doing the right action.

_________ 10. The spot uses the phrases and words that your target group uses.

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Section IV: Session 7

Producing and Broadcasting

Local Radio Materials

Session Plan

Overview

This session teaches Trainees how to produce and broadcast local radio

materials. Radio is one channel that Volunteers and their counterparts

can use to communicate and promote nutrition actions and

recommendations. Radio materials (particularly spots) are an effective

channel for promoting nutrition and other development actions and

recommendations. Radio can reach many people frequently. When

well-developed and well-produced, radio can be an attractive way to

teach people new information and model effective nutrition actions.

During this session, Trainees will visit a radio station, talk with the

personnel, and observe the production studios. If possible, they will

produce a 30-second spot.

Objectives

By the end of the session the Trainees will be able to describe the

following:

1. The target audience of the radio station.

2. The station “reach” (what area of the country it covers).

3. What are the prime times (the times of highest audience

listenership).

4. What kinds of programs and spots the station produces and if

they get materials from other sources.

5. What types of music the station plays.

6. How many and what type of staff the station has.

7. What type of production facilities the station has, what types of

microphones it has, and how they edit tape.

8. What type of sound effects the station has.

9. What type of support the station would be willing to give for

community radio materials to be produced and broadcast.
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Time

About 3 hours, depending on what you hope to do at the station and

on travel time.

Materials

• Radio station

• Taped materials

Vocabulary

Frequency, prime time, radio program, radio spot, reach, target

audience, echo, edit, open microphone, on-air, producer, operator,

sound effects, studio, cardioid, unidirectional, multidirectional

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Session

Time: 15 minutes

Ask Trainees to generate and make note of a list of questions they

want to ask the station personnel. Write them on the flip chart

paper for discussion after the visit. Make sure they include

questions that correlate with the session objectives.

Activity 2: Visit the Station

Time: 2 hours

Tour the station and have the Trainees ask the questions they have

developed. Depending on the facilities and what you have agreed

with the station manager, record or observe something being

recorded in the studio. If you were able to arrange it with the

station manager, record the spot you have developed.
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Activity 3: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 45 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes

This session will depend on the country, the radio station, and the

type of collaboration the station is willing to offer. You should visit

the station before the session and talk with the radio station manager.

Discuss the purpose and objectives of Sessions 6 and 7. Ask if it would

be possible to produce a 30-second spot during the visit. Show him/

her the copy of the spot. If it is not possible to record a spot, ask if the

Trainees can record or observe something being recorded in the studio.

Don’t be surprised if the station staff want to interview you or some

of the Trainees on air (live!) during your visit. You may wish to prepare

for this possibility by taking a few minutes with the Trainees ahead

of time to brainstorm questions they may be asked and how they

might answer.
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Section IV: Session 8

Folk Media: Drama

Session Plan

Introduction

Societies have been communicating important social lessons for

generations through proverbs, anecdotes, stories, rituals, and dance.

Yet, development workers frequently ignore traditional media in favor

of relatively didactic approaches to transferring information. Just as

drama and narratives add color, character, and humor to daily life,

they also can infuse local relevance and enthusiasm into education

programs.

People often need to see examples of how recommended actions can

be carried out within their family and community. Narratives and

drama accomplish this by drawing on the creative potential of the

population to communicate diverse messages to a variety of

audiences.

Village drama is developed most successfully through an existing

organization, such as a local health committee or a women’s

cooperative. If necessary, however, you also can create a Village

Animation Team. Training members of a community group to

successfully stage skits takes approximately two to three days.

Keeping the skits short (three to eight minutes) allows village actors

to learn the parts quickly and interchange roles with little difficulty.

Phase I: Developing model skits

Overview

Phase I includes four activities that teach Trainees how to develop

model skits from problems or actions identified by the community.
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Objectives

By the end of the session, Trainees will be able to:

1. Describe six advantages of using skits for communicating

information to rural populations.

2. Work with a group of school children to carry out the six steps of

developing a core scenario for village-level drama.

3. Pretest the core scenario and develop a model skit.

Time

4 hours, 30 minutes, to learn about and create scenarios

5 hours, to pretest and finalize skits

Materials

• Handouts: Folk Media Drama, Phase I

Preparation

Pairs of Trainees will be asked to work with groups of five students

to develop the skits. It will be necessary to recruit students between

the ages of 11 and 18 and explain to their parents what they will be

doing and what the time commitment is. If Trainees are living with

families they could recruit the students in their neighborhoods, but

they would need to be notified well in advance.

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Review and Discuss Handout 1 with

Trainees

Time: 30 minutes

Activity 2: Create Core Scenarios from Role

Plays

Time: 4 hours

Note: To develop a skit, we begin with a role play. Role plays

and skits are cousins. Both are highly participatory but, because

skits are rehearsed beforehand and presented in a more polished
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form, they permit a sharper focus on a specific issue than role

plays.

STEP 1: Discuss with Trainees and students a priority

problem and solution or action that community

members identified.

STEP 2: List the realistic actions that families and/or the

community can take to alleviate the problem.

Note: realistic actions—

• Cost nothing or very little money.

• Are culturally appropriate.

• Require only a modest change in the way

things are typically carried out.

STEP 3: Ask pairs of Trainees to work with groups of five

students to develop three to eight minute role plays

around one of the problems or actions identified by

the community. In general, the role plays should—

• Present a villager who has a problem such

as diarrhea.

• Show the villager wanting to overcome the

problem but not being sure how to do so or

running into an obstacle.

• Demonstrate that with the help of a friend

or health worker, or through perseverance,

the villager successfully overcomes the

problem.

Trainer’s Notes: Remind the Trainees and students

that the goal of the role plays is to get “into the skin”

of the people involved. Remember, the easiest way

to kill a good role play or skit is to drag it out.

STEP 4: Have each group present their role play.

STEP 5: Suggest ways each role play can be strengthened by—

• Reflecting more completely on an everyday

community situation.

• Enhancing the drama between the obstacle

and the solution to the problem.

• Intensifying the humor by exaggerating the

personalities of the characters, using props,

etc.

STEP 6: Have new groups develop and perform “second

draft” role plays that take into account the Trainees’

suggestions.
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Trainer’s Notes: These “second draft” role plays should be much

improved versions of the original presentations. The “second

draft” role plays constitute core scenarios, which will be pretested

and further developed into model skits.

Activity 3: Pretesting Core Scenarios with the

Population

Time: 4+ hours

Pretesting is a key step in further developing the core scenarios

into model skits.

Have each team practice and perform skits based on the core

scenarios developed in Activity 1.

Trainer’s Notes: At this point, the role plays evolve into skits

because they are rehearsed and incorporate costumes and props

as appropriate.

Set up a time and place to present the skits in front of a village

audience.

Present each skit to the audience (maximum of three skits at any

one time).

After each skit is performed, conduct a focus-group-type

discussion with the audience. Key questions to be asked are the

following:

• What lesson did this story teach us?

• Has this situation ever happened in our village?

• Do you think....acted wisely (correctly, responsible) in the

situation?
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Trainer’s Notes: These discussions are not only a way of

pretesting the core scenarios but also serve as a final check on

unforeseen conditions that might prevent the actions you are

promoting from being carried out by the population.

Activity 4: Finalizing the Model Skits

Time: 1 hour

Taking comments and recommendations of the village audience

from the group discussions, you can now work with the students

to finalize and write the scenarios into model skits, using the

following form:

Situation: In two or three sentences, describe the situation

the skit presents.

Role A: Describe the personality of the person and the initial

action she or he should take.

Roles B & C: Describe the personality of the second (or third)

person and how they interact with the first person.

Message: If the principle message is not obvious from the

scenario, include one or two sentences stating the message

promoted by the skit.

Remember: It is important to balance the humor with the

serious part of the skit. If the skit is only humorous, frequently

the audience will not capture the main message. Skits that

are just serious are usually boring.

Example: Pregnant Woman with Night Blindness

Here is an example of a skit that was used in a Niger vitamin A

communication project.

Situation: A pregnant woman with night blindness returns

home from a prenatal consultation where she learned what

foods she must eat to be cured. She explains what she has

learned to her husband.

Role A: Halima—You are a timid woman who is pregnant

and has night blindness. After two months of suffering with

night blindness, you have the courage to go to the dispensary.

The nurse tells you to eat 50 francs (10 cents) of liver each

week and eat dark green, leafy vegetables each day to cure

the night blindness. You must now explain the nurse’s

recommendations to your husband.

Role B: Abdou—You are Halima’s husband. You are a rich,

miserly businessman. According to you, it is sufficient to eat

rice and sauce, and night blindness is a natural consequence

of pregnancy. You believe that since night blindness always

disappears when the baby is born, it is not serious.
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Trainer’s Notes: The scenario encourages the actors to come up

with their own creative solution to the problem. Halima must

eventually show or convince Abdou that the nurse’s

recommendations make sense and can help not only her but the

rest of the family.

Phase II: Training villagers to

perform skits

Overview

In this session, Trainees will continue working with their student

groups to finalize and perform the skits. At their sites, Volunteers can

work with a range of different village animation groups to create other

skits on different topics. Training villagers to perform skits may be

one of the most exciting activities for Volunteers to carry out. Many

villagers are natural actors who innately understand the goal of village

drama.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Coach student teams so they are able to stage and perform village

drama.

2. Describe activities that will help extend the reach of village drama.

Time

Four to five 3-hour sessions

Materials

• Flip chart paper, markers

• Handout: Next Steps, Phase II

Delivery

Activity 1: Practice Sessions

Time: Two 3-hour sessions

The goal of the training is to provide a sufficient number of

practice sessions so the Student Animation Team feels comfortable

performing the skits.
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In some cases a project will organize a two- to three-day training

workshop for three or four teams. The advantage of this approach

is that by working with a number of trainers and student teams

together, the group can see the same health problem addressed

in a variety of ways.

Activity 2: Going Public

Time: One or two 3-hour sessions

Arrange to perform the skits in front of an audience of 10 to 15

people. Following each performance conduct a short 10-minute

discussion about the skit’s principle theme and how families can

overcome obstacles and successfully carry out the action that the

skit is promoting.

Activity 3: Next Steps

Time: 1 hour

Distribute the handout Next Steps to the Trainees and ask them to

discuss it. Ask them to brainstorm different groups of people

whom they could work with at their sites and how to approach

these people. Write their ideas on flip chart paper and encourage

the Trainees to take notes.
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Folk Media Drama, Phase I

Best Situations

• Encourage active community participation in solutions to health problems.

• Present models from the village perspective of how new health actions can be discussed and carried

out.

• Mobilize community members to take action and solve problems within their communities.

Description

Members of a student team act out humorous or dramatic situations that relate to health actions being promoted.

They perform the skits for their friends and families.

Advantages of skits

• Village skits are one of the most participatory activities you can organize in a village.

• Since skits are a traditional media in many parts of the world, the population eagerly becomes involved

in the productions.

• Skits provide an excellent opportunity for the community to take initiatives and to express their own

ideas.

• Since skits are often humorous, they provide a balance between education and entertainment. Humor

makes people relax and helps them think and talk about an issue that might otherwise be too sensitive

to bring up.

• Village skits provide models of how others feel and act in real life situations. They show how families

cope with various problems and how different family members negotiate new actions.

• Skits can be performed at night, when people are free to watch.

Length of skits

Each skit should take no longer than three to eight minutes, followed by a discussion of similar length. Two or

three skits can be presented during one session.

Useful materials

Providing model scenarios, developed around key messages, helps inexperienced teams get started. After a

team gains experience, it will be able to develop its own scenarios.

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Tips for organizing skits

• Skits provide a great way for a village health committee to demonstrate that it is actively engaged in the

community’s development.

• All village members, including youth, children, and village elders should be encouraged to participate.

• Performing skits in separate areas of the village encourages all members of the community to see them.

• Keep the skits short. The audience will become bored if they drag on.

• Teams should practice a skit at least five times before performing in public.

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Next Steps, Phase II

The opportunities for developing a Village Animation Team are many. Depending on the amount of time the

players can put into the team, the following factors may be open for discussion.

1. Volunteer Role. Your role is to coach and to encourage. As the group creates more original material,

you will need to help them focus their skits on a few key messages.

2. Frequency. Experience shows that the effect of skits is greatest when they are performed at least once a

week. Many teams will want to perform skits more frequently because they enjoy the recognition that

they provide.

3. Dry season activity. It is best to plan an eight– to 12–week theater season, after which the team can rest

and regroup. In many countries, village theater is performed in the dry season, when agricultural work

is less demanding.

4. Extension Activities. Village teams can reach a larger audience by performing the skits in new settings,

such as:

• Neighboring villages

• Markets

• Schools (or they can train school children how to perform the skits themselves)

5. Theater Festivals. Regional theater festivals, which bring together three to five teams for an exchange

of their best skits, generate tremendous enthusiasm for community activities. Preparations for a festival

are not difficult if the festival is modeled as closely as possible to a traditional ceremony. Festivals are

great for helping relaunch activities at the end of the annual rainy season. The participation of local

authorities and journalists will create high visibility for your project activities. At the end of the festival,

you can further motivate participants by presenting them with a diploma in recognition of “community

services rendered.”

6. The Radio Connection. Radio broadcasts of village-level drama can create widespread publicity about

local problems and motivate community teams to raise the quality and intensify the schedule of their

community productions. Contact the regional radio station and invite a technician to come to the village

and record the village skits.

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Section IV: Session 9

Pretesting

Educational Materials

Session Plan

Overview

Pretesting educational materials is another important way of listening

to community members and involving them in solving their own

problems. Pretests permit Volunteers and their counterparts to

evaluate whether materials are appropriate for and understandable

and relevant to their target group. They also enable Volunteers to make

changes in those materials based on their target group’s opinions.

In this session, Trainees discuss what pretests measure, adapt a sample

pretest guide, and practice using the guide in role plays. In Session 10

they practice pretesting a material in the community and making

changes in that material based on the results of the pretest.

Notes to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Pretesting

educational materials is important for all Volunteers. You can use these

sessions as they are designed without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session, Trainees will be able to:

1. List at least two reasons why materials should be pretested.

2. Name the five things that pretests measure.

3. Revise a pretest guide to make it appropriate to the target group

and material they are testing.

4. Apply the pretest guide in a role play following the steps of the

How to Do a Pretest Checklist.

5. Apply the How to Do a Pretest Checklist and give feedback to other

Trainees.
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Time

3 hours

Staff

Cross-cultural/language trainers or experienced Volunteers if

counterparts are not present at the session

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout: Pretesting Educational Materials

• Materials to be tested, which might be print or locally recorded

materials the Trainees developed or print materials that already

exist in the country. If you are pretesting recorded materials, the

Trainees will need portable tape recorders that they can take to

people’s homes.

Preparation

Distribute the handout Pretesting Educational Materials before the

session. Ask the Trainees to read it and to note the comments and

questions they would like to discuss during the session.

The number of materials will depend on the number of Trainees. There

should be at least four Trainees testing the same materials so they can

practice making changes in the materials based on the pretest results

in the next session.

Vocabulary

Pretest, comprehension, attraction, acceptability, personal relevance,

persuasion, strengths, weaknesses, target group, motivation, offend,

significance, realistic, suggestions

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to Pretesting

Time: 15 minutes

Ask Trainees why they should pretest materials, what materials
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they should pretest, and what pretests measure. Write key words

on flip chart paper.

Ask Trainees to list the steps of the pretest interview and discuss

each one.

Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: Adapt the Pretest Guide

Time: 30 minutes

Depending on the materials to be pretested, divide the Trainees

into small groups of at least four people each and ask them to

adapt the “Pretest Interview Guide” for their target group and

material. If counterparts are participating in the training, assign

two Volunteer–counterpart pairs to work together.

Activity 3: Practice with the Pretest Guide in

Role Plays

Time: 2 hours

Ask the groups to practice using the pretest guide they developed

in role plays. If counterparts are not present at the session, assign

one cross-cultural trainer, language trainer, or experienced

Volunteer to each group to play the role of the person being

interviewed. If counterparts are present at the training, ask them

to play the role of the person being interviewed. However, be

sure that they also have a chance to practice conducting a pretest

interview.

One person in the group will conduct the interview and the others

will be the observers and apply the How to Do a Pretest Checklist.

After each role play, the observers should give feedback to the

“pretester” on what she/he did well and what she/he needs to

do better next time.

Remind Trainees how to give good feedback.

Rotate until everyone practices pretesting in a role play at least

once.
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Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes

This session assumes that Trainees have already learned how to ask

questions, probe, and conduct an informal interview.
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Pretesting Educational Materials

Pretesting educational materials is another important way of listening to community members and involving

them in identifying and solving their own problems. Educational materials should always be pretested before

they are used to ensure that they are understandable, relevant, and attractive to your target group. To pretest

materials, you simply show it to representatives of your target group and ask them a series of questions about

what they understand and perceive. You can then improve the materials based on their reactions. Pretesting

materials will help you to do the following:

• Learn what people understand and perceive about the material.

• Identify strengths and weaknesses in materials.

• Revise and improve materials.

You can pretest any type of educational material—posters, pictures, flyers, and recorded materials. You may be

surprised how many changes you might need to make in a material to make it appropriate for and understandable

and relevant to the target group with whom you want to communicate!

I. What Can You Learn From Pretests?

Pretesting is generally designed to provide information about the following:

Comprehension. Do people understand what the material says? Do any elements distract them or cause

confusion?

Acceptability. Is there anything in the material that is offensive? Is there anything that people perceive to

be false and unrealistic?

Personal Relevance. Does your target group perceive that this material is talking to/made for them or for

“others”?

Persuasion. Does the material convince the target group to do what you are asking?

Attraction. Is the material interesting enough to attract and hold the attention of the target group? Do

people like it?

II. How Many Pretests Do You Need to Do?

The number of pretests you do depends on the target group of the material. If you are going to use the print or

recorded materials only in your community, you probably will need to interview four to five people. Those

people generally represent your target audience. However, you also might want to interview a few local leaders

to make sure that nothing is offensive to them. Generally, in pretests, you will begin hearing the same information

after four to five interviews. If people are having very different reactions to the material, you should do more

pretests to understand why people are perceiving it differently.

If you are going to use the print or recorded materials on a larger scale—for example, in several communities, a

department, or a district, or on a national scale—you will need to pretest the materials with 35 to 50 representatives

of the target group from those areas. In that case, you would need to adapt the Pretest Interview Guide into a

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formal questionnaire, select a sample, and tabulate and analyze the information just as you would a survey.

Most Volunteers will not be involved in pretesting materials at this level. However, if you are, seek local

counterparts or resources with experience in conducting research to help you in this process.

III. Steps of the Pretest Process

To conduct a pretest, you basically follow the steps of an informal interview. You will show the print material or

play the recorded material to the person and ask a series of questions about what she/he understood and

perceived.

STEP 1. Introduction. Greet the other person in a culturally appropriate way, introduce yourself, ask

the person’s name.

STEP 2. Motivation. Motivate the person to talk with you and give his/her opinions. Explain the purpose

of the visit and the importance of any opinions or information that she/he might provide. Explain

that the information is confidential and will not be used for any other purposes. Help him/her

feel at ease by mentioning the names of acquaintances who you have talked with. Ask if the

person has time to talk with you right now. If not, ask when you could come back. Ask the

person if she/he has any questions or concerns before you begin.

STEP 3. The Interview Itself. Show or play the material for the person and ask the questions on the

Pretest Interview Guide. If it is a print material, allow the person to hold it and study it up close.

Give him/her sufficient time to look at it before you begin asking questions.

Conduct the interview in an atmosphere of trust. Use the person’s name frequently (if it is

culturally appropriate) and treat him/her with respect and genuine friendship. You should not

disagree with or discuss the person’s views, but rather accept them. Remember, you are there to

learn from that person! Use as many open-ended questions as you can. If you find yourself

using a closed-ended question, use an open-ended one or a probing technique to find out more.

Do not use any leading questions.

STEP 4. End the Interview. Thank the person for his/her collaboration and help. Repeat how important

his/her opinion is and how much you have learned. If possible, give him/her practical examples

of how the information being gathered will be used.

The following sample Pretest Interview Guide can assist you in the interview. You will need to

adapt it based on the target group and the material you are testing. Be sure to ask at least one

question for each area—comprehension, acceptability, personal relevance, attraction, and

persuasion.

The How to Do a Pretest Checklist will help you conduct a pretest interview. Review it before and

after you do each interview to help you improve your skills. You also can use it to train other

people how to conduct a pretest interview.

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Pretest Interview Guide

Comprehension

1. What do you think is happening in this picture/recording?

2. What is the main idea in this picture/recording?

3. Is there anything in this picture/recording that is confusing to you?

4. If you are testing a series of pictures, ask the person to “put them in order” for you.

Acceptability

1. Does this picture/recording have anything in it that might bother or offend people you know? If yes,

what?

2. Does the picture/recording have anything in it that you don’t believe to be true? If yes, what?

3. Is there anything in the picture/recording that seems unrealistic to you? If yes, what?

4. Which of these phrases best describes how you feel about the picture/recording? Believable/not

believable.

5. For print materials, ask questions concerning specific colors and symbols such as crosses, arrows, check

marks, inserts, and balloons that represent conversations and thoughts. For radio materials, ask questions

concerning specific sounds, sound effects, voices, and music.

Personal Relevance

Do you believe this picture/recording is meant for someone like you or for other people? If for someone like

you, why? If for others, who and why?

Persuasion

1. Is this picture/recording asking people to do something? What is it asking them to do?

2. How likely is it that people will do what it is asking? Why or why not?

Attraction

1. Is there anything in this picture/recording that you particularly like? What?

2. Is there anything in this picture/recording that you particularly dislike? What?

3. What suggestions do you have for making this picture/recording better?

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How to Do a Pretest Checklist

Greet the person and introduce self in a culturally appropriate way.

Inquire about the person’s personal well-being, family, etc.

Ask if the person is free to talk, explaining the purpose of the visit.

Set up an alternate time if the person is too busy to talk at the moment.

Use appropriate body language (sit or stand appropriately).

Ask the person if she/he has any questions or concerns before you begin.

Show or play the material to the person.

If it is print material, give it to the person to let him/her study it.

Use appropriate eye contact.

Use more open-ended questions than closed ones.

Use no leading questions.

Remain silent a few moments to give the other person time to think.

Repeat the other person’s words as a question.

Ask the person to talk about “other people’s” experience rather than his/her own if you see the person is

uncomfortable talking about his/her own experience.

Ask the other person to explain further. Use phrases such as “What do you mean by that?” “Tell me more

about that.” “I’m not sure I understand what you mean.” “You started to say something about...tell me

more about it.” “You mentioned something about ...”

Check for comprehension of the material.

Check for acceptability of the material.

Check the personal relevance of the material to the target group.

Check the persuasiveness of the material.

Check the power of the material to attract the interest and attention of the target group.

Use culturally appropriate body language and salutations to leave. (Do not leave abruptly.)

Thank the person for his/her time and help.

Section IV: Try Something Pretesting Materials Handout – Page 4 of 4
267

Try Something

Section IV: Session 10

Pretesting

Educational Materials:

Practice in the Community

Overview

In this session Trainees practice pretesting a material with community

members and making changes in that material based on their reactions.

Objectives

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to:

1. Conduct a pretest interview with community members.

2. Organize the results of a pretest and use them to make changes

in the material.

Time

2 hours, 45 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• Handout: Making Changes in Your Materials After the Pretest

• Materials to be tested

• Pretest Guide developed in the previous session

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Session Plan
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Activity 1: Introduction to the Practice in the

Community

Time: 10 minutes

Explain that each Trainee should conduct one pretest interview

of the material with a community member who is a representative

of the target group. Assign sections of the town to different

Trainees so they will not be interviewing the same person or

“running into each other.”

Ask for and answer questions.

Activity 2: Practice in the Community

Time: 50 minutes

The actual pretest interview should take only about 15 to 20

minutes, but the allotted time gives Trainees time to find and

interview someone without time pressures.

Activity 3: Decide What Changes to Make in the

Material Based on Pretest Results

Time: 1 hour, 30 minutes

Ask Trainees how the pretest interviews went. How did they feel

while they were doing them? What problems did they encounter

and how did they resolve them? How do they think the

community members felt during the pretests?

Divide Trainees into small groups depending on the material they

tested. Distribute the handout. Ask each group to discuss the

questions on the handout and decide what changes they would

make in the material based on the results of their pretests.

Ask a representative from each group to present what the group

decided to change in their materials based on the pretest results.

Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.
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Try Something

Trainer’s Notes

This session assumes that Trainees already have learned how to ask

questions, probe, and conduct an informal interview.
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Making Changes in Your Materials

After the Pretest

Use the following questions to guide your discussions concerning the changes you should make in the materials

based on the pretests. Write the changes you will make on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Was there anything in the picture/recording that people did not understand? If so, what should you do

to make it clearer, more understandable?

2. Was there anything in the picture/recording that bothered or offended people? If so, take it out or

change it.

3. Was there anything in the picture/recording that people did not believe to be true? If so, take it out or

change it.

4. Was there anything in the picture/recording that seemed unrealistic to people? If so, take it out or

change it.

5. For print materials, was there a specific color or symbol that people did not like or understand or found

confusing? For radio materials, was there a specific sound, sound effect, voice, or music that people did

not like or understand or found confusing? If so, take it out or change it.

6. Did people think that this picture/recording was meant for other people, not themselves? Who did

they think it was made for and why? How can you change the material to make it more relevant for

your target group?

7. Did people understand what the picture/recording was asking people to do? If not, how can you

change it to make it clearer what the material is asking people to do?

8. Was there anything in the picture/recording that people particularly liked? If so, use it in other similar

materials.

9. Was there anything in the picture/recording that people particularly disliked? If so, take it out or

change it.

10. What suggestions did people have to make the picture/recording better? Use as many of them as you

can.

Section IV: Try Something Making Changes Handout – Page 1 of 1
271

Once You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again

Section V

Once You Have Tried Something,

Listen and Observe Again

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
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273

Once You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again

Section V:

Once You Have Tried Something,

Listen and Observe Again

Introduction

In Once You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again

you assess the results by returning to Step 1 – Listen and Observe.

Finally Volunteers and counterparts learn how to use the listening

and observing techniques in Step 1 to assess the results of the

community’s work

The process is a continuous circle. Once Volunteers, their counterparts,

and other community members have tried something, they will once

again listen and observe. This time, however, they will listen and

observe to understand what they did that was successful and what

was not. They can then discuss and decide what they need to try next

to be more effective in reaching their goals and objectives.
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Section V: Session 1

Once You Have Tried Something,

Listen And Observe Again

Session Plan

Overview

In this session Trainees decide what they will do to listen and observe

and evaluate the activities they carried out during the training. You

will then need to design the training sessions necessary to conduct

those activities based on the decisions they make.

Objective

By the end of the session Trainees will be able to explain the activities

they will carry out to listen and observe in order to evaluate the

activities they carried out during the training.

Time

1 hour, 30 minutes

Materials

• Flip chart paper and markers

• The Discuss and Decide Worksheet

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction

Time: 15 minutes

Draw or refer back to the drawing of the process for change.

Remind Trainees that once they have worked with community
275

Once You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again

members to try something, they need to listen and observe to

understand what was successful and what they need to do next

to build on their successes.

Activity 2: Review Section VIII of the Discuss and

Decide Worksheet

Time: 1 hour

Ask Trainees to review Section VIII, “What will we do to listen

and observe how effective we were in reaching our goal and

objectives once we have tried something” of the Discuss and Decide

Worksheet.

Ask them to discuss the techniques they selected and decide which

of them would be feasible to try during the next two training

sessions to evaluate the activities they conducted during the

training. Facilitate the discussion with the purpose of arriving at

consensus concerning the two activities they will carry out and

the timeline for the sessions.

Activity 3: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes
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Section V: Session 2

Pre-Service Training

Summary Session:

The Volunteer Listen and

Observe Action Plan

Session Plan

Overview

This session ends the Pre-Service Training sessions. During this

session, the trainer emphasizes that in the first several months of

service, the Volunteers’ “job” is to listen and observe and to learn as

much as they can about their communities. The Trainees work with

their counterparts to review and revise their lists of “What I Need to

Learn from the Community” and make an action plan of exactly what

they will do to gather that information during the first three to four

months in their site.

Note to Trainers in Sectors Other than Nutrition: Developing a

work plan is important for all Volunteers. You can use this session

methodology without adaptation.

Objectives

By the end of the session each Trainee will be able to demonstrate

and explain his/her Listen, Observe, and Learn Action Plan.

Time

3 hours

Staff

Trainees’ counterparts. It is critical that counterparts are brought in

for at least this training session so the Trainee and his/her counterpart

can work together to develop their Action Plan.
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Once You Have Tried Something, Listen and Observe Again

Materials

• Each Trainee should bring his/her list of What I Need to Learn from

the Community from Section II, Session 1.

Delivery

Explain the purpose and objectives of the session.

Activity 1: Introduction to the Session

Time: 15 minutes

Draw or refer back to the drawing of the process for change.

Ask Trainees to review the steps of the process and determine

why each one is important.

Emphasize that in the first several months of service, the

Volunteers’ job is to listen and observe and to learn as much as

they can about their community.

Activity 2: Develop the Listen, Observe, and

Learn Action Plan

Time: 1 hour

Ask each Trainee to work with his/her counterpart to develop a

Listen, Observe, and Learn Action Plan, which will set out what

they will do to learn from and about the community during the

first three months the Volunteers are at their sites. They should

base their plan on the Trainee’s list of “What I Need to Learn

from the Community.”

Explain that their written plans will be given to the appropriate

Associate Peace Corps Director (APCD) who can then provide

follow-up and support during his/her site visits.

Activity 3: Revise the Listen and Observe Action

Plans

Time: 1 hour, 30 minutes

Ask the Trainee–counterpart pairs to share their work plans.

Divide them into groups of three to five pairs each so there is

enough time for each pair to discuss their plan in some detail.

Assign a trainer to each group.

Give the Trainee–counterpart pairs time to make changes in their

work plans based on the ideas they heard during the group

discussion.
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Activity 4: Process, Generalization, and Session

Evaluation

Time: 15 minutes

As appropriate.

Trainer’s Notes

Be sure and give the written plans to the appropriate APCD after the

training so that she/he can provide follow-up support and

supervision.
279

Appendices

Section VI

Appendices

Listen &

Observe

Discuss &

Decide

Try

Something

A Process for Change
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281

Appendices

Section VI :

Group Dynamics

Exercises

Introduction

Group dynamics exercises are an important part of training and group

discussions. They are useful for speeding up, enhancing, and

improving the quality of group interaction. They can be used in a

variety of ways, including the following:

• At the beginning of a session to set the stage for active

participation

• During a session to energize participants when the trainer/

facilitator perceives that they are becoming sluggish or tired

• Between technical sessions to reach a higher level of concentration

for the next activity.

The following exercises can be used by the trainer during Pre-Service

Trainings and In-Service Trainings and by Volunteers during their

work in the community. Of the many group dynamic exercises, some

are quite complex and require a highly trained facilitator. We selected

basic exercises that do not require a great deal of preparation or

materials and that can be conducted in 15 minutes to one hour. Only

three of these exercises require that participants are literate.
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Getting To Know One Another

Cobweb

Have participants form a circle. Give one a ball of string, yarn, or

cord and ask him/her to say his/her name, date of birth, type of work,

expectation of the workshop, or favorite hobby, etc. When she/he

finishes, she/he holds the end of the string and throws or passes the

ball to another participant. The person who receives the string then

presents himself, holds a portion of the string, and throws or passes

the ball to another participant. The process continues until all

participants are connected with the string “cobweb.” The participants

then disentangle the cobweb in the reverse order in which it was built.

However, this time, before returning the ball of string to the one who

passed it to him/her, each person tries to repeat the information that

was presented by that person.

This exercise is also an excellent one for the Volunteer to use in the

community to understand how people are related. Instead of telling

their names, etc., the participants tell how they are related to the person

they are throwing the string to. When the cobweb is untangled, the

Volunteer must repeat how the people are related.

The Volunteer also might cut several lengths of different colored string.

Participants could give strings to all of the people in the group with

whom they are related. They could then observe the web of

interrelatedness that exists between members of the group.

Fish Bowl

Divide participants into two equal size groups, forming an outer circle

and inner circle, with everyone looking toward the inside. Start some

music, sing, or clap and have the two circles move in opposite

direction. After ten seconds, stop the music and the people from the

inner circle turn around and face the partner from the outer circle.

Each one tells the other about a problem and gives advice. After several

minutes, the music continues and the two circles move again. This

can continue until you think all participants have received advice from

a number of partners.

Name Tags

The facilitator gives each participant a name tag and asks participants

to fill them out and wear them. She/he then directs the participants

to introduce themselves to someone in the group whom they do not

know. Both persons are to exchange information about themselves

for two minutes.

When time is called, the facilitator directs each participant to exchange

name tags with the person she/he is talking to. She/he should then

This exercise is also an

excellent one for the

Volunteer to use in the

community to understand

how people are related.
283

Appendices

go on to meet another participant, but this time, instead of talking

about him/herself, she/he should discuss the person whose name

tag she/he is wearing! (Two minutes)

When the facilitator calls time, the participants switch name tags again

and find another person to talk to, talking only about the person whose

name tags they are wearing.

The facilitator continues this process for as many rounds as necessary

for the size of the group, so that most of the participants have met.

The facilitator then tells the participants to retrieve their own name

tags.

During the group discussion, each participant makes a brief statement

of who they are, as in round one. Participants also may share reactions

concerning the experience. How did it feel to be another person?

Icebreakers

Breakthrough

Tell participants to remove breakable and valuable items such as

glasses and jewelry and to split into two equal-size groups, A and B,

in two lines, facing one another. Ask Group A to break through Group

B. No one is allowed to talk. Usually the breakthrough occurs relatively

easily. Before a second try, tell the two groups they have five to 10

minutes to plan strategy for breakthrough and the defense. With this

preparation, the breakthrough is comparatively difficult.

During group discussion, the participants should process the

importance of coordination and communication, which may lead to

a discussion about reaching the group’s goals by communicating and

acting collectively.

The Human Web

Tell participants to form a big circle facing inward and to stretch out

and cross their arms in front of themselves. Then ask them to close

their eyes, slowly advance toward the middle of the circle and grasp

one fellow participant’s hand with each of their hands. The facilitator

should ensure that three hands do not join and that the hands, not

wrists, are grasped. When everyone has grasped two other hands

firmly, the facilitator tells the participants to open their eyes and

“untangle the human web”. The web may end up in a number of

smaller circles of participants, sometimes intertwined. The exercise

can be repeated to show different results. This icebreaker brings people

together and breaks the status feeling in hierarchies.

During group discussion,

the participants should

process the importance of

coordination and

communication, which may

lead to a discussion about

reaching the group’s goals

by communicating and

acting collectively.
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The Mail

Participants and facilitators sit in a circle on the exact number of chairs

minus one. One person stands in the middle and announces, “I have

a letter for those who (for example)...are wearing black shoes...have a

mustache....don’t like spinach, etc. The participants who are wearing

black shoes, for example, have to change chairs. The person in the

middles uses the movement of people to sit on one of the empty chairs.

The one who is left without a chair now stands in the middle and

delivers another letter. This exercise gets people moving around and

forces them to observe and discover things about fellow participants.

Streets and Avenues

The group splits into four or five groups. Each group builds rows in

the form of streets by grasping hands in one direction. When the

facilitator says, “avenues,” the participants make a quarter turn to

the left and grasp the hands of the people who are now beside them.

An order for “streets” returns the group to their original position.

Two participants take the role of cat and mouse. The cat has to catch

the mouse. By giving orders for the formation of “streets” and

“avenues,” the facilitator tries to keep the cat away from the mouse.

Neither are allowed to pass through a row. Everyone has to react

quickly so that the cat does not catch the mouse. Participants also can

take the facilitator’s role. This exercise energizes group spirit and

concentration.

Numbers

For this exercise, you will need two sets of ten 8” x 10” pieces of

cardboard or paper numbered from 0 to 9. Divide 20 people into two

teams. Give each team one of the sets and have each team member

take one of the number cards. The facilitator says a number, for

example, 827. The participants who have the number 8, the number

2, and the number 7 in each team run to the front and form the number.

The team that forms the number first is awarded a point. For the team

that loses the game, give them a “penance” to perform. This exercise

should be performed very quickly. It is a good way to increase group

energy and concentration.

Team Building

What Do We Want to Do?

The facilitator explains that a group works together most effectively

if members define together and share common goals. Give each

participant four cards. On two of the cards, have them write what

they hope the group can achieve. On the other two, have them write

[This exercise] is a good

way to increase group

energy and concentration.
285

Appendices

what they fear might happen and/or what they want to avoid

happening. (The types of goals will vary depending on whether the

activity is a training workshop, a staff meeting, or club meeting.)

Rules for Card Writing: Write only one idea per card. Use key words

instead of full sentences. Write in large letters in both capital and lower

case so the words can be read from a distance. Limit words to a threeline maximum.

The facilitator collects the cards, keeping the hopes and fears in two

separate piles. Starting with hopes, she/he holds up each card up so

that it is clearly visible to the participants and reads its contents. The

facilitator never asks who wrote the card; clarification comes from

group discussion. The facilitator then pins the cards on a board in

front of the group. In the beginning, she/he pins the cards far apart.

As she/he reads a new card, she/he asks participants if it belongs in

the cluster with an existing card, or needs to be a new cluster. She/he

pins associated ideas in the same cluster, according to the instructions

of the group members. After all cards are on the board, the participants

review the clusters and label each group. If desired, the goal clusters

can be prioritized by giving participants a number of dots or pins to

vote with. They can then be asked to vote for the most important goal

to solve immediately, the most important topics to discuss during

this meeting, etc.

House-Tree-Dog

Divide participants into pairs. Give each pair a sheet of flip chart or

other large paper and a marker or crayon. Tell them to sit at a table or

on the floor, face to face, with the paper between them. The facilitator

then gives the following instructions:

“Without talking, hold the marker and jointly draw a house, a tree,

and a dog. (If the group is literate, have them sign their names, as

well.) You are allowed to talk when everyone has finished the

drawing.”

After all participants complete their drawings, have each pair present

their picture to the group and explain their experience in creating a

common picture. If participants are literate, the facilitator can write

the key words described by each person concerning the process on a

flip chart. The group then discusses what went on between people

based on these points.

Sharing Common Goals

For this exercise, you will need flip chart paper and markers. The

facilitator asks for three volunteers. Two are asked to leave the room

(or to go to an area where she/he cannot see what is happening) and

one is asked to stay. The facilitator asks the first volunteer to draw

anything she/he wants at the bottom of the page. After she/he has

[The participants] can

then be asked to vote for

the most important goal

to solve immediately, the

most important topics to

discuss during this

meeting, etc.
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finished, the facilitator covers what the volunteer has drawn with a

page of newspaper or flip chart paper, leaving just a few of the lines

of the drawing uncovered. The second volunteer is called in and asked

to “complete the drawing” based on the lines that are visible. His/

her drawing also is covered, except for a few lines. The third volunteer

is asked to do the same. The facilitator then uncovers the three

drawings. During the discussion, the group should analyze the

importance of all of the team members’ knowing and agreeing on

shared objectives to work in a coordinated way.
287

Appendices

Section VI:

Bibliography

Sources for parts of this training manual and recommended materials to

supplement the manual are listed below.

Resources Available From ICE

Communication for Health and Behavior Change, A Developing

Country Perspective. Graeff, Elder, and Booth; Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1993.

(ICE no. HE275)

Helping Health Workers Learn. David Werner and Bill Bower; The

Hesperian Foundation, 1991. (ICE no. HE061)

Learning to Listen to Mothers, Strengthening Communication

Skills for Nutrition in Growth Promotion. Nutrition

Communication Project; Academy for Educational Development,

1993. (ICE no. HE272)

Technical Health Training Manual (ICE no. T0035)

A Workshop Design for the Training of Trainers, WASH Technical

Report No. 73. Frelick, Graeme; Water and Sanitation for Health

Project and USAID; June, 1991. (ICE no. TR062)

Other Resources

Actions Speak. International Water and Sanitation Centre; The Hague,

Netherlands, 1993.

Anthropological Research, The Structure of Inquiry, Second

Edition. Pelto and Pelto; Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Community-Based Initiatives to Eradicate Guinea Worm. Peace

Corps and the United States Agency for International Development;

1991.

Handbook for Excellence in Focus Group Research. Mary Debus;

Porter/Novelli, Academy for Educational Development, Agency for

International Development, 1989.
288 Peace Corps

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A Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations

Training, Volume I. J. William Pfeiffer and John E. Jones; Pfeiffer

and Company, 1981.

Introduction to the Design and Production of Educational and

Promotional Radio Materials. Booth, Elizabeth Mills; Academy for

Educational Development, 1992.

Joining Together, Group Theory and Group Skills. David W. and

Frank P. Johnson; Prentice-Hall, 1978.

Lateral Thinking, Creativity Step by Step. Edward de Bono; Harper

and Row, 1970.

VIPP, Visualization in Participatory Programs, A Manual for

Facilitators and Trainers Involved in Participatory Group Events.

Program Communication and Information Section, UNICEF

Bangladesh, in cooperation with the Training and Staff Development

Sections, UNICEF, New York, 1993.