Executive Summary: 

Report of the 

Interagency Task Force on 

Carbon Capture and Storage 

August 2010 

Executive Summary 

Introduction 

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) refers to a set of technologies that can greatly reduce 

carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from new and existing coal- and gas-fired power plants, 

industrial processes, and other stationary sources of CO2. In its application to electricity 

generation, CCS could play an important role in achieving national and global greenhouse gas 

(GHG) reduction goals. However, widespread cost-effective deployment of CCS will occur only 

if the technology is commercially available and a supportive national policy framework is in 

place. 

In keeping with that objective, on February 3, 2010, President Obama established an 

Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage composed of 14 Executive 

Departments and Federal Agencies. The Task Force, co-chaired by the Department of Energy 

(DOE) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), was charged with proposing a plan to 

overcome the barriers to the widespread, cost-effective deployment of CCS within ten years, 

with a goal of bringing five to ten commercial demonstration projects online by 2016. 

Composed of more than 100 Federal employees, the Task Force examined challenges facing 

early CCS projects as well as factors that could inhibit widespread commercial deployment of 

CCS. In developing the findings and recommendations outlined in this report, the Task Force 

relied on published literature and individual input from more than 100 experts and 

stakeholders, as well as public comments submitted to the Task Force. The Task Force also 

held a large public meeting and several targeted stakeholder briefings. 

While CCS can be applied to a variety of stationary sources of CO2, its application to coal-fired 

power plant emissions offers the greatest potential for GHG reductions. Coal has served as an 

important domestic source of reliable, affordable energy for decades, and the coal industry has 

provided stable and quality high-paying jobs for American workers. At the same time, coal-fired 

power plants are the largest contributor to U.S. greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and coal 

combustion accounts for 40 percent of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the 

consumption of energy. EPA and Energy Information Administration (EIA) assessments of 

recent climate and energy legislative proposals show that, if available on a cost-effective basis, 

CCS can over time play a large role in reducing the overall cost of meeting domestic emissions 

reduction targets. By playing a leadership role in efforts to develop and deploy CCS 

technologies to reduce GHG emissions, the United States can preserve the option of using an 

affordable, abundant, and domestic energy resource, help improve national security, help to 

maximize production from existing oil fields through enhanced oil recovery (EOR), and assist in 

the creation of new technologies for export. 

While there are no insurmountable technological, legal, institutional, regulatory or other 

barriers that prevent CCS from playing a role in reducing GHG emissions, early CCS projects 

Executive Summary 1 
 

 

 

face economic challenges related to climate policy uncertainty, first-of-a-kind technology risks, 

and the current high cost of CCS relative to other technologies. Administration analyses of 

proposed climate change legislation suggest that CCS technologies will not be widely deployed 

in the next two decades absent financial incentives that supplement projected carbon prices. In 

addition to the challenges associated with cost, these projects will need to meet regulatory 

requirements that are currently under development. Long-standing regulatory programs are 

being adapted to meet the circumstances of CCS, but limited experience and institutional 

capacity at the Federal and State1

 level may hinder implementation of CCS-specific 

requirements. Key legal issues, such as long-term liability and property rights, also need 

resolution. 

A climate policy designed to reduce our Nation’s GHG emissions is the most important step 

for commercial deployment of low-carbon technologies such as CCS, because it will create a 

stable, long-term framework for private investments. A concerted effort to properly address 

financial, economic, technological, legal, institutional, and social barriers will enable CCS to be a 

viable climate change mitigation option that can over time play an important role in reducing 

the overall cost of meeting domestic and global emissions reduction targets. Federal and State 

agencies can use existing authorities and programs to begin addressing these barriers while 

ensuring appropriate safeguards are in place to protect the environment and public health and 

safety. 

Status of CCS Technologies 

CCS is a three-step process that includes capture and compression of CO2 from power plants 

or industrial sources; transport of the captured CO2 (usually in pipelines); and storage of that 

CO2 in geologic formations, such as deep saline formations, oil and gas reservoirs, and 

unmineable coal seams. Technologies exist for all three components of CCS. 

 Capture of CO2 from industrial gas streams has occurred since the 1930s using a variety 

of approaches to separate CO2 from other gases. These processes have been used in the 

natural gas industry and to produce food and chemical-grade CO2. Existing capture 

technologies are energy-intensive, and consequently their application to coal-fired power 

plants and other industrial sources is expensive. 

 The history of transporting CO2 via pipelines in the United States spans nearly 40 years. 

Approximately 50 million tonnes of CO2 are transported each year in the United States 

through 3,600 miles of existing CO2 pipelines. 

1

 References to “States” also include Tribal governments. 

Report of the Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage 2 
 

 Globally, there are four commercial CCS facilities sequestering captured CO2 into deep 

geologic formations and applying a suite of technologies to monitor and verify that the 

CO2 remains sequestered.2,3 These four sites represent 25 years of cumulative 

experience on safely and effectively storing anthropogenic CO2 in appropriate deep 

geologic formations (Dooley et al., 2009). DOE estimates that there are hundreds to 

thousands of years of storage potential in similar geologic formations in North America 

(NETL, 2008). Similarly, the Department of the Interior’s U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

is leveraging DOE’s efforts to generate a comprehensive catalogue of national 

sequestration potential. 

Though CCS technologies exist, “scaling up” these existing processes and integrating them with 

coal-based power generation poses technical, economic, and regulatory challenges. In the 

electricity sector, estimates of the incremental costs of new coal-fired plants with CCS relative 

to new conventional coal-fired plants typically range from $60 to $95 per tonne of CO2 avoided 

(DOE, 2010a). Approximately 70–90 percent of that cost is associated with capture and 

compression. Some of this cost could be offset by the use of CO2 for EOR for which there is an 

existing market, but EOR options may not be available for many projects. 

Research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) programs such as those currently being 

conducted by DOE can help reduce project uncertainty and improve technology cost and 

performance. The focus of CCS RD&D is twofold: 1) to demonstrate the operation of current 

CCS technologies integrated at an appropriate scale to prove safe and reliable capture and 

storage; and 2) to develop improved CO2 capture component technologies and advanced 

power generation technologies to significantly reduce the cost of CCS, to facilitate widespread 

cost-effective deployment after 2020. 

Status of CCS in the United States 

The Federal government is already pursuing a set of concrete initiatives to speed the 

commercial development of safe, affordable, and broadly deployable CCS technologies in the 

United States, including: RD&D of CCS technologies; the development of regulations that 

address the safety, efficacy, and environmental soundness of injecting and storing carbon 

dioxide underground; and the assessment of the country's geologic capacity to store carbon 

dioxide. All of this work builds on the firm scientific basis that now exists for the viability of 

CCS technology. 

2

 Since the 1970s, engineered injection of CO2 into geologic reservoirs has taken place for purposes of enhanced 

oil recovery, resulting in the development of many aspects of reservoir management and operation needed for safe 

large-scale injection and geologic storage of CO2. 

3

 Sleipner in the North Sea, Snøhvit in the Barents Sea, In Salah in Algeria, and Weyburn in Canada. 

Executive Summary 3 
 

Long-term integrated testing and validation programs are needed for technical, economic, and 

regulatory reasons. DOE is currently pursuing multiple demonstration projects using $3.4 

billion of available budgetary resources from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act4 in 

addition to prior year appropriations. Various other incentives, such as tax credits and loan 

guarantees, are also available to many projects. 

Up to ten integrated CCS demonstration projects supported by DOE are intended to begin 

operation by 2016 in the United States. These demonstrations will integrate current CCS 

technologies with commercial-scale power and industrial plants to prove that they can be 

permitted and operated safely and reliably. New power plant applications will focus on 

integrating pre-combustion CO2 capture, transport, and storage with Integrated Gasification 

Combined Cycle (IGCC) technology. Power plant retrofit and industrial applications will 

demonstrate integrated post-combustion capture. These projects, plus others supported by 

Federal loan guarantees, tax incentives, and State-level drivers, cover a large group of potential 

CCS options. However, some proposed demonstration projects may not proceed for 

economic or other reasons. Looking toward long-term deployment, additional actions may be 

required to help overcome the uncertainty of evolving climate change policy and the high cost 

of applying currently available CCS technology, consistent with addressing market failures. 

Barriers to CCS Deployment 

The lack of comprehensive climate change legislation is the key barrier to CCS deployment. 

Without a carbon price and appropriate financial incentives for new technologies, there is no 

stable framework for investment in low-carbon technologies such as CCS. Significant Federal 

incentives for early deployment of CCS are in place, including RD&D efforts to push CCS 

technology development, and market-pull mechanisms such as tax credits and loan guarantees. 

However, many of these projects are being planned by the private sector in anticipation of 

requirements to reduce GHG emissions, and the foremost economic challenge to these 

projects is ongoing policy uncertainty regarding the value of GHG emissions reductions. 

Even with financial support, challenges such as legal and regulatory uncertainty can hinder the 

development of CCS projects. Regulatory uncertainty has been widely identified as a barrier to 

CCS deployment. Though early CCS projects can proceed under existing laws, there is limited 

experience at the Federal and State levels in applying the regulatory framework to CCS. 

Ongoing EPA efforts will clarify the existing regulatory framework by developing requirements 

tailored for CCS, which will reduce uncertainty for early projects and help to ensure safe and 

effective deployment. Experience gained from regulating and permitting the first five to ten CCS 

projects will further inform potential changes to existing requirements and the need for an 

enhanced regulatory framework for widespread CCS deployment. 

4

 Public Law 111-5. 

Report of the Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage 4 
The Task Force identified a range of views concerning potential long-term liabilities (i.e., those 

arising after closure of a CO2 storage site) and the extent of any potential impacts on 

widespread deployment. Many States planning CCS projects are taking steps to address longterm liabilities associated with geologic storage of CO2. The Task Force’s preliminary 

assessment is that the existing Federal and State legal framework should be adequate for at 

least an initial group of five to ten commercial-scale projects. However, because of divergent 

views on the topic and limited time to analyze a complex set of underlying issues and drivers, 

additional analysis is needed to determine the most appropriate legal or regulatory structures 

for addressing potential long-term liabilities associated with widespread deployment. 

Aggregation of pore space and associated property rights are also important for CCS projects. 

Historically, pore space issues have been handled by States. Several States are taking actions to 

address aggregation of pore space for geologic storage on private lands. Based on experience 

thus far, the Task Force believes States are best positioned to address pore space issues on 

private lands. 

Public awareness and support are critical to the development of new energy technologies and 

are widely viewed as vital for CCS projects (IPCC, 2005; CRS, 2008; IEA, 2009c). Whether the 

public will support or oppose commercial-scale CCS projects is largely unknown (Malone et al., 

2010), and the public’s reaction may be project-specific. However, enhanced and coordinated 

public outreach will improve awareness of the role of CCS as one option to reduce GHG 

emissions. Integration of public information, education, and outreach efforts throughout the 

lifecycle of CCS projects will help identify key issues, foster public understanding, and build 

trust between communities and project developers. 

Proposed Plan to Overcome Barriers 

Support for Technology Development 

To foster the success of early CCS projects, including five to ten commercial-scale 

demonstrations by 2016, DOE and EPA should create a Federal agency roundtable to act as a 

single point of contact for project developers seeking assistance to overcome financial, 

technical, regulatory, and social barriers facing planned or existing projects. As needed, this 

roundtable should provide technical support to State and Federal permitting authorities and 

permit applicants. This roundtable should also create a technical committee composed of 

experts from the power and industrial sectors, NGOs, State officials, and research community. 

Together with DOE and EPA, the technical committee would conduct a periodic review of CCS 

demonstration projects to track their progress and, broadly, identify any additional research, 

risk management, or regulatory needs. The technical committee could also, as requested by 

DOE or EPA, provide input on a range of CCS technical, economic, or policy issues. 

Executive Summary 5 
 

DOE should continually review the adequacy of capture technologies and classes of storage 

reservoirs to enable safe and cost-effective widespread CCS deployment within ten years. This 

ongoing assessment, coupled with input from the technical committee outlined above, will assist 

the Administration in targeting any remaining technology gaps. 

Increased Federal coordination would enhance the government's ability to assist these projects 

by providing more effective incentives and/or addressing barriers. DOE, in coordination with 

EPA, Treasury, and USDA, should track the use and efficacy of Federal financial support for 

CCS projects. Increased coordination will enhance the government's ability to tailor Federal 

funding and assistance to each project’s market context, improve the clarity of eligibility criteria 

for projects to receive Federal support, allocate resources efficiently, and enable the 

Administration to more effectively consult with Congress and the States on the efficacy of 

existing incentives. 

The Administration should continue to support international collaboration that complements 

domestic CCS efforts and facilitates the global deployment of CCS. Most CCS technology 

RD&D is being supported by the United States and other developed countries. Leveraging 

resources and sharing results across these countries will improve the viability of CCS and 

potentially speed up global commercialization. Energy and economic modeling suggests that 

CCS in coal-dependent emerging economies plays a key role under some future policy and 

economic scenarios in achieving global climate change mitigation goals. The United States 

should continue its cooperation with large coal-dependent emerging economies with rapidly 

expanding power sectors, to facilitate a constructive dialogue and help to avert the locking in of 

inefficient, high-GHG emission power generation assets for decades. Failure to do so may make 

subsequent CCS deployment more difficult and increase the cost of global climate change 

mitigation. 

Providing Legal & Regulatory Clarity and Support 

Federal agencies must work together to design requirements for CCS using existing authorities 

in complementary ways. By late 2010, EPA should finalize rulemakings for geologic 

sequestration wells under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and GHG reporting for CO2 

storage facilities under the Clean Air Act (CAA), and propose a Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act (RCRA) applicability rule for CO2 that is captured from an emission source for 

purposes of sequestration. EPA guidance to support implementation of these rules should also 

be provided at the same time. By late 2011, EPA should finalize the RCRA applicability rule. EPA 

and the Department of the Interior (DOI) should immediately formalize coordination and 

prepare a strategy to develop regulatory frameworks for CCS for onshore and offshore Federal 

lands. Ratification of the London Protocol (LP) and associated amendment of the Marine 

Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) as well as amendment of the Outer 

Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) will ensure a comprehensive statutory framework for the 

storage of CO2 on the outer continental shelf. 

Report of the Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage 6 
 

Federal and State agencies must work together to enhance regulatory and technical capacity for 

safe and effective CCS deployment. Specifically, EPA, in coordination with DOE, DOI, and State 

agencies, should develop capacity-building programs for underground injection control 

regulators. Educating permit writers and other key officials will greatly enhance their capability 

and efficiency in issuing and enforcing technically sound permits. These programs should 

leverage existing efforts such as the DOE Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships (RCSPs). 

DOE and EPA should also identify data needs and tools to support regulatory development, 

permitting, and project development. 

The Task Force emphasizes that appropriate monitoring, oversight, and accountability for CCS 

activities will be essential to ensure the integrity of CCS operations, enable a sustainable CCS 

industry, and provide a strong foundation for public confidence. DOE and EPA, in consultation 

with other agencies, should track regulatory implementation for early commercial CCS 

demonstration projects and consider whether additional statutory revisions are needed. This 

will enable the Administration to more effectively consult with Congress and the States if the 

existing framework proves ineffective. 

Federal agencies should begin to develop National Environmental and Policy Act (NEPA) 

analyses related to CCS as early as possible to help ensure timely completion of robust and 

comprehensive environmental reviews. Where appropriate to Federal agency decision-making, 

agencies should consider development of Programmatic Environmental Impact Statements for 

use in tiered NEPA analysis and initiate this process. CEQ should consider development of 

CCS-specific NEPA guidance. 

Efforts to improve long-term liability and stewardship frameworks should continue. By late 

2011, EPA, DOE, Department of Justice (DOJ), DOI, and Treasury should further evaluate and 

provide recommendations to address long-term liability and stewardship in the context of 

existing and planned regulatory frameworks. Of the seven options identified by the Task Force, 

the following four approaches, or combinations thereof, should be considered: (1) reliance on 

the existing framework for long-term liability and stewardship; (2) adoption of substantive or 

procedural limitations on claims; (3) creation of an industry-financed trust fund to support longterm stewardship activities and compensate parties for various types and forms of losses or 

damages that occur after site closure; and (4) transfer of liability to the Federal government 

after site closure (with certain contingencies). Open-ended Federal indemnification should not 

be used to address long-term liabilities associated with CO2 storage. 

Public Outreach 

To enhance and coordinate public outreach for CCS, DOE and EPA should leverage existing 

efforts to coordinate among Federal agencies, States, industry, and NGOs to gather information 

and evaluate potential key concerns around CCS in different areas of the United States. Using 

this information, DOE and EPA should develop a comprehensive outreach strategy among the 

Executive Summary 7 
Federal government, States, industry, and NGOs having two components: a broad strategy for 

public outreach, targeted at the general public and decision makers, and a more focused 

engagement with communities that are candidates for CCS projects, to address issues such as 

environmental justice. A first step should be to immediately establish a clearinghouse for public 

access to unbiased, high-quality information on CCS. Over time, outreach tools should be 

developed for project developers and regulators with input from DOE, EPA, Department of 

Transportation (DOT), and DOI. 

Conclusion 

CCS can play an important role in domestic GHG emissions reductions while preserving the 

option of using abundant domestic fossil energy resources. However, barriers hamper nearterm and long-term demonstration and deployment of CCS technology. While the largest of 

these barriers is the absence of a Federal policy to reduce GHG emissions, the Task Force has 

outlined specific actions the Federal government could take under existing authority and 

resources to address these barriers. For widespread cost-effective deployment of CCS, 

additional action may be needed to address specific barriers, such as long-term liability and 

stewardship. Timely development of cost-effective CCS could reduce the costs of achieving our 

Nation’s climate change goals. 

CCS can also play a major role in reducing GHG emissions globally. Continued leadership to 

develop and deploy CCS technologies as one option to address global climate change will 

position the United States as a leader in climate change technologies and markets. However, 

widespread cost-effective deployment of CCS will occur only if the technology is commercially 

available at economically competitive prices and supportive national policy frameworks are in 

place. 

Report of the Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage 8