NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS 

Statistical Analysis Report February 2001

Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Reports 

From Bachelor’s Degree to Work

Major Field of Study and Employment Outcomes 

of 1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients Who 

Did Not Enroll in Graduate Education by 1997 

Laura J. Horn 

Lisa Zahn 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

C. Dennis Carroll 

National Center for Education Statistics 

U.S. Department of Education 

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 2001–165 
U.S. Department of Education

Roderick Paige

Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Gary W. Phillips

Acting Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and

reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate to

collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the condition of education in the United States;

conduct and publish reports and specialized analyses of the meaning and significance of such statistics; assist state

and local education agencies in improving their statistical systems; and review and report on education activities in

foreign countries.

NCES activities are designed to address high priority education data needs; provide consistent, reliable, complete,

and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely, useful, and high quality data to the U.S.

Department of Education, the Congress, the states, other education policymakers, practitioners, data users, and the

general public.

We strive to make our products available in a variety of formats and in language that is appropriate to a variety of

audiences. You, as our customer, are the best judge of our success in communicating information effectively. If you

have any comments or suggestions about this or any other NCES product or report, we would like to hear from you.

Please direct your comments to:

National Center for Education Statistics

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

1990 K Street NW

Washington, DC 20006-5574

February 2001

The NCES World Wide Web Home Page is: http://nces.ed.gov

The NCES World Wide Web Electronic Catalog is: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/index.asp

Suggested Citation

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. From Bachelor’s Degree to Work:

Major Field of Study and Employment Outcomes of 1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients Who Did Not

Enroll in Graduate Education by 1997, NCES 2001–165, by Laura J. Horn and Lisa Zahn. Project Officer:

C. Dennis Carroll. Washington, DC: 2001.

For ordering information on this report, write:

U.S. Department of Education

ED Pubs

P.O. Box 1398

Jessup, MD 20794-1398

or call toll free 1-877-4ED-PUBS or go to the Internet: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html

Contact:

Aurora D’Amico

(202) 502-7334
iii 

Executive Summary 

The analysis described in this report investigates the relationship between undergraduate major and early employment outcomes among 1992–

93 college graduates who did not pursue graduate 

education within four years after earning their 

bachelor’s degree (i.e., as of 1997). These college 

graduates represented 70 percent of all graduates, 

and most entered the labor market immediately 

after finishing their degree. 

The 1992–93 college graduates entered a labor 

market in the midst of an economic recovery following a two-year recession (Mishel and Bernstein 1994, p. 13). By 1997, the economy was 

strong and jobs were plentiful. Four years after 

most earned their bachelor’s degree, nearly all 

college graduates who had not enrolled in graduate school were working full time. The findings of 

this study confirm what has been reported consistently in other studies about earnings: college 

graduates who major in the applied fields of engineering, business, computer science, nursing, and 

other health fields earn higher than average fulltime salaries. 

This study also examined other aspects of employment including job stability, job benefits, and 

job satisfaction. Taking into account all these aspects along with salary, engineering and computer 

science stood out as the fields with the most consistent favorable employment outcomes for bachelor’s degree recipients. In contrast, education and 

humanities and arts majors experienced the least 

favorable outcomes. Graduates of nursing, business, and engineering programs experienced 

greater than average job stability. 

Results were mixed for social science and biological science majors. Those in social sciences 

reported lower than average salaries in 1994, but 

not in 1997. The opposite was true for those majoring in biological and interdisciplinary sciences: 

they reported average salaries in 1994, but in 1997 

their salaries were lower than average. The salaries of mathematics and physical science majors 

did not differ from those of all graduates in either 

year, nor did the rate at which their full-time salaries increased between 1994 and 1997. 

Field of Study 

By far, the most popular undergraduate field of 

study was business. Over one-quarter (28 percent) 

of 1992–93 college graduates who did not attend 

graduate school by 1997 had majored in a business-related field. Following business, 15 and 13 

percent, respectively, had majored in social sciences or humanities and arts. Nearly 1 in 10 had 

majored in education (9 percent), while approximately 7 percent had majored in engineering or 

architecture1 (figure A). 

Consistent with historically gender-dominated 

fields, men were more likely to major in engineering (13 versus 2 percent), computer science (4 

versus 2 percent), and business (32 versus 24 percent), while women were more likely to major in 

education (13 versus 4 percent), nursing (6 versus 

1 percent), and other health fields (4 versus 2 percent). 

 

1Nearly all were engineering majors; less than 1 percent of all 

graduates majored in architecture. Henceforth, they are referred to as “engineering majors.” 
Executive Summary 

iv 

Figure A—Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled

Figure B— in graduate education by 1997

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.





















































Percentage distribution of majors

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

6

7

9

13

15

28

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Social work/protective services

Mathematics/physical sciences

Computer science

Health/other

Health/nursing

Biological/interdisciplinary sciences

Other*

Communications/journalism

Engineering/architecture

Education

Humanities and arts

Social sciences

Business

Percent

Business fields tended to attract older college 

graduates: more than one-third of graduates age 30 

or older when receiving their bachelor’s degree 

had majored in business (35 percent), compared 

with just over one-quarter (27 percent) of those 23 

or younger. Asian/Pacific Islander college graduates were more likely than black, non-Hispanic 

graduates to favor engineering as a major. To further illustrate racial/ethnic group differences in 

undergraduate major, a report based on the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) institutional survey in 1992 also showed 

that black, non-Hispanic graduates were more 

likely than others to complete degrees in business 

management and were less likely to earn degrees 

in education or health (U.S. Department of Education 1995). 
Executive Summary 

v 

1997 Employment Status and 

Occupation 

Unemployment was not a problem for most 

1992–93 college graduates who had not pursued 

graduate education. In 1997, within four years of 

graduating, just 2 percent were unemployed,2

while almost all (86 percent) reported working full 

time. Compared with all graduates, business, engineering and computer science majors were more 

likely to be employed full time (over 90 percent), 

while humanities and arts majors were less likely 

to work full time (79 percent). 

Job stability, as measured by the percentage of 

graduates with any unemployment spells, the 

number of jobs worked since bachelor’s degree 

attainment, and the average number of months 

worked in the April 1997 job, was high for graduates who had majored in nursing, engineering, or 

business. Graduates in all three fields worked in 

fewer jobs than all graduates and had worked in 

their April 1997 job longer (table A). Nursing majors also were much less likely to report any spells 

of unemployment since earning their bachelor’s 

degree. Conversely, those with majors in communications/journalism or humanities and arts fields 

worked in more jobs since graduation and fewer 

months in their April 1997 job than all graduates. 

College graduates who had majored in applied 

fields3 were very likely to be employed in occupations related to their majors (table B). This was 

 

2As a point of comparison, the overall unemployment rate 

was 5 percent in 1997 (U.S. Department of Labor 1999, table 

56). 

3Applied fields in this study are education, business, engineering/architecture, computer science, nursing, other health 

fields, social work/protective services, and communications/journalism. 

especially true for those majoring in nursing and 

other health fields, among whom 96 percent and 

68 percent, respectively, were employed as medical professionals. In addition, nearly threequarters of education majors (74 percent) worked 

as teachers, and 60 percent of engineering majors 

as engineers.4 Similarly, 60 percent of social 

work/protective service majors were working in 

social service fields. There was an exception to 

this pattern, however, for communications/ 

journalism majors who were more likely than 

graduates in any other field to be working in service occupations (33 percent). 

For academic fields,5 roughly one-quarter of 

college graduates with majors in either biological 

sciences or mathematics/physical sciences were 

working as teachers, and roughly the same percentage in both fields worked in occupations related to research, science, or technical work. 

Social science majors, on the other hand, were 

likely to be employed in business occupations (32 

percent), followed by either service occupations 

(18 percent) or human and protective services (16 

percent). 

Full-Time Salaries 

As shown in table C, college graduates with 

degrees in nursing or other health fields reported 

higher than average full-time salaries for their 

April 1994 job, compared with all graduates 

($34,194 and $35,515, respectively, versus 

$26,464).6 The same applied to those who had 

 

4The National Science Foundation reports that 57 percent of 

engineering majors work in a job closely related to their degree 1 to 5 years after bachelor’s degree attainment (National 

Science Board 2000, Appendix table 3–1). 

5Academic fields include humanities and arts, biological sciences, mathematics and physical sciences, and social sciences. 

6The 1994 salaries are in 1997 dollars for comparability to 

1997 salaries. 
Executive Summary 

vi 

Table A—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, the average 

Table A—number of jobs worked, the percentage with any unemployment, and the average number of months worked at

Table A—April 1997 job, by major field of study

Average number Percentage with Number of

of jobs begun any unemployment months worked in

since graduation since graduation April 1997 job1

 Total 2.3 39.5 27.5

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 2.6 51.7 28.1

 Business 1.9 33.1 29.8

 Engineering/architecture 1.8 40.6 32.0

 Computer science 1.9 39.4 29.6

 Health/nursing 1.6 19.0 32.8

 Health/other 1.9 30.0 30.9

 Communications/journalism 2.8 47.3 24.3

 Social work/protective services 2.2 36.6 29.3

 Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 2.9 46.5 23.9

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 2.5 48.8 25.3

 Mathematics/physical sciences 2.5 42.9 27.5

 Social sciences 2.5 41.9 25.2

 Other2 2.3 34.8 25.9

1

Maximum possible is 52. Dates were bounded between 1/1/93 and 4/30/97.

2

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Compared to all graduates: gray box = higher than average; white box = lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

majored in either engineering ($32,217) or business ($29,017). In contrast, education majors had 

lower than average 1994 full-time salaries 

($20,443),7 as did those with majors in social 

work/protective services ($21,328), communications/journalism ($22,170), humanities and arts 

($22,359), and social sciences ($23,166). 

 

7It is possible that some of the salaries reported by education 

majors (73 percent of whom were working as educators) were 

for a 9-month academic year rather than a 12-month year. 

In 1997, with a few exceptions, similar salary 

patterns emerged. The exceptions were computer 

science majors who earned a substantially higher 

than average 1997 salary ($44,624 versus 

$34,310), and biological science majors who 

earned a lower than average salary ($28,760). In 

addition, communications/journalism majors no 

longer earned lower than average salaries in 1997. 

For education majors, graduates not only reported 
Executive Summary

vii

Table B—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 

Table B—1997, according to their occupation in April 1997, by major field of study

 Engi- Human/

Busi- neering/ protec- Adminisness software Editors/ tive trative/

or engineers/ Com- Medical writers/ service Research/ clerical/ Mech- Service

Edu- manage- archi- puter profes- per- profes- scientists/ legal anics occucators ment tecture science sionals formers sionals technical support laborers pations

 Total 12.5 29.3 5.4 4.9 7.0 4.9 5.9 4.7 5.5 3.9 14.6 

Bachelor’s degree major1

 Applied fields

 Education 73.9 7.0 0.0 0.3 2.1 1.0 1.4 1.2 4.3 2.8 5.2 

 Business 3.7 55.8 0.8 5.2 0.5 0.9 2.0 1.8 4.7 3.5 20.3 

 Engineering 1.4 7.5 59.7 6.1 1.1 1.0 0.5 9.0 1.2 7.5 3.9 

 Computer science 3.7 12.5 12.9 57.9 1.0 0.0 0.9 3.3 1.3 2.2 3.3 

 Nursing 0.5 2.8 0.0 0.5 96.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 Health/other 7.3 7.5 0.0 0.9 68.3 0.0 3.3 3.6 2.7 0.5 6.0 

 Comm./journalism 4.1 22.8 0.3 2.8 0.6 23.0 1.9 3.2 5.6 2.5 33.0 

 Social work/prot. serv. 6.8 10.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 59.8 0.9 10.9 1.6 6.7 

 Academic fields

 Humanities 17.8 23.4 1.0 3.7 2.0 17.0 4.8 4.0 6.3 3.8 15.0 

 Biological/interdis./sci. 24.6 14.6 1.5 0.8 16.2 1.7 1.5 23.6 2.3 5.2 6.2 

 Math/phys. sciences 26.2 11.5 9.0 7.3 0.8 0.6 1.7 24.0 5.8 4.0 8.4 

 Social sciences 8.8 31.9 0.3 1.2 3.1 2.3 16.4 3.5 9.3 3.0 17.7 

 Other2 8.0 32.0 1.2 1.5 3.5 5.6 8.8 5.0 5.4 12.3 15.2 

1

For full labels of major fields see table A.

2

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Details do not sum to 100 because the “other” occupation group (1.4 percent) is not included. Gray boxes indicate the 

occupations with the highest percentage of graduates for a given major. If less than 50 percent, then two or more occupations (up to 

50 percent) were identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

lower than average salaries in both 1994 and 1997

but also experienced lower rates of salary increase

than did all graduates.

Job Benefits and Job Satisfaction

With respect to their job held in April 1997,

engineering majors reported very favorable outcomes and were generally very satisfied with their

employment. For example, engineering was the

only field in which graduates were more likely

than all graduates to report that their job both required a degree and had definite career potential

(54 versus 38 percent). Engineering majors also

were more likely than all graduates to report that

their jobs provided health insurance, paid vacations, retirement benefits, family leave, and outside job training (table D1). Computer science
Executive Summary 

viii 

Table C—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, full-time 

Table A—salaries in 1994 and 1997, and for those employed full-time in both 1994 and 1997, the average percent increase

Table A—in salary between 1994 and 1997, by major field of study

Full-time Full-time Percent increase in

1994 salary in 1997 salary if full time in

1997 dollars salary 1994 and 1997

 Total $26,464 $34,310 24.5

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 20,443 24,543 18.2

 Business 29,017 37,448 25.1

 Engineering/architecture 32,217 42,931 25.2

 Computer science 29,428 44,624 31.2

 Health/nursing 34,194 37,012 10.9

 Health/other 35,515 42,066 17.2

 Communications/journalism 22,170 32,294 28.7

 Social work/protective services 21,328 27,350 21.7

 Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 22,359 29,630 25.6

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 25,380 28,760 22.4

 Mathematics/physical sciences 25,958 31,565 23.6

 Social sciences 23,166 33,463 26.8

 Other* 24,694 33,374 23.4

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, 

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Compared to all graduates: gray box = higher than average; white box = lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

majors also fared well with respect to job benefits: 

they were more likely than all graduates to report 

receiving health insurance benefits, paid sick 

leave, paid vacation, retirement, and family leave 

benefits. In contrast, humanities and arts majors 

were less likely than all graduates to report receiving any of the benefits reported in the survey, 

while education majors were less likely to report 

working in jobs that provided paid vacations. 

Few differences were found across fields of 

study with respect to measures of job satisfaction 

(table D2). Engineering majors and health (other 

than nursing) majors were more likely than all 

graduates to report being very satisfied with pay. 

Conversely, education and humanities and arts 

majors were less likely to be very satisfied with 

pay. Engineering was the only field in which majors were more likely than all graduates to report 
Executive Summary

ix

Table D1—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table D1—percentage reporting various job benefits offered at their April 1997 job, by major field of study

Paid Job training

Health sick Paid Family outside

insurance leave vacation Retirement leave the job

 Total 85.9 83.0 86.1 78.0 66.1 43.8

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 81.4 83.3 74.6 77.8 60.3 44.0

 Business 90.1 84.5 91.2 81.1 67.3 47.2

 Engineering/architecture 93.2 85.0 94.7 85.9 73.9 54.2

 Computer science 94.8 91.5 95.4 87.9 79.7 48.2

 Health/nursing 87.5 87.7 87.2 86.8 68.9 55.8

 Health/other 88.5 84.2 88.1 82.5 73.6 42.1

 Communications/journalism 83.7 80.9 84.3 77.1 65.2 38.6

 Social work/protective services 83.1 84.7 87.3 76.7 64.6 40.7

 Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 78.1 76.7 79.4 67.7 58.5 37.1

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 79.7 80.7 79.8 71.9 57.3 37.8

 Mathematics/physical sciences 89.5 86.5 81.4 80.6 79.8 40.7

 Social sciences 85.8 82.9 85.2 76.8 66.8 43.7

 Other* 84.0 77.9 80.9 74.0 63.3 42.6

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Compared to all graduates: gray box = more likely than average to report; white box = less likely than average to report

(p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

high satisfaction with co-workers, while computer

science was the only field in which majors reported high satisfaction with working conditions

more often than all graduates. Finally, education

was the only field in which majors were more

likely than all graduates to report being very satisfied with the challenge the job offered.

Gender Differences

The findings of the study illustrated substantial

gender differences in earnings among 1992–93

bachelor’s degree recipients who did not enroll in

graduate school by 1997. These differences were

more apparent in 1997, four years after most

graduates had earned their bachelor’s degree, than

when graduates first entered the labor market.

Looking at individual fields of study, in 1994 men

with majors in business, computer science, communications/journalism, and social sciences

earned higher salaries than women majoring in

these fields. By 1997, men earned more than

women in all fields of study except engineering,

health (other than nursing), and humanities and

arts (figure B).
Executive Summary 

x 

Table D2—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, percentage

Table B2—reporting being very satisfied with various aspects of their April 1997 job, by major field of study

 Job Job Fringe Promotion Co- Working

 Pay security challenge benefits opportunity workers conditions

 Total 32.6 63.0 55.8 52.8 38.3 79.6 55.6

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 27.0 64.1 66.3 45.8 31.8 78.7 50.4

 Business 34.3 61.5 52.7 54.3 42.1 80.0 58.5

 Engineering/architecture 42.0 60.4 60.4 57.6 46.1 85.4 54.4

 Computer science 40.7 62.8 59.7 65.9 43.9 78.7 69.4

 Health/nursing 38.0 55.8 62.1 48.4 33.5 79.1 41.6

 Health/other 48.4 70.4 63.3 54.4 27.3 75.9 51.9

 Communications/journalism 30.9 63.3 54.6 60.1 42.3 81.3 56.5

 Social work/protective services 33.9 66.9 60.4 53.7 33.6 76.9 48.9

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 26.6 60.7 53.1 51.0 34.1 79.2 54.9

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 23.9 57.6 50.8 41.5 28.1 73.4 46.4

 Mathematics/physical sciences 38.1 62.5 49.9 51.5 30.5 77.7 52.7

 Social sciences 29.3 66.0 52.9 50.8 36.4 79.7 53.7

 Other* 34.1 69.0 59.0 50.6 44.2 82.4 59.9

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Compared to all graduates: gray box = more likely than average to report; white box = less likely than average to report

(p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

Very satisfied with

In a multivariate analysis conducted separately 

for men and women, several factors, including 

age, race/ethnicity, and work experience were associated with women’s 1997 salaries, but not with 

men’s salaries. Specifically, after controlling for 

related variables including major field of study, 

women age 30 or older when they received their 

bachelor’s degree earned higher salaries than 

women 23 or younger, as did Asian/Pacific Islander women compared with white women, and 

women who did not work in any overlapping jobs 

compared with those who did. For men, on the 

other hand, only major field of study and institution attended (those attending doctoral-granting 

private, not-for-profit institutions earned more 

than men in comparable public institutions) predicted their 1997 salaries. These results suggest 

that women may be subjected to greater scrutiny 

in entering and advancing in the labor market. 

Finally, when asked why they took their 1997 

jobs, women were more likely to report that they 

chose their job because it provided interesting 

work. In contrast, men were more likely to do so 

for the job’s advancement opportunities or income 

potential. 
 Executive Summary 

xi 

Figure B—Average full-time salaries for men and women in 1997 among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had

Figure B—not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, by major field of study

1

Male and female salaries not statistically different.

2

Not enough men for a reliable estimate.

3

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.













































38,881

42,822

40,520

32,908

30,297

29,809

28,889

28,741

28,362

26,800

25,552

23,284

30,596

47,697

42,952

45,241

41,436

0

37,454

36,947

33,636

31,495

31,443

29,800

28,421

38,415

36,932

36,593

$0 $5,000 $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $30,000 $35,000 $40,000 $45,000 $50,000

Computer science

Engineering/architecture

Health/other

Business

Other

Health/nursing

Social sciences

Communications/journalism

Mathematics/physical sciences

Humanities and arts

Biological/interdisciplinary sciences

Social work/protective services

Education

Total

Full-time salary



 Men

Women

1

1

1

2

3
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
xiii 

Foreword 

This study investigates the relationship between undergraduate major and employment outcomes for college graduates who did not enroll in graduate school. The analysis is based on the 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93), which tracks students who received a 

bachelor’s degree in academic year 1992–93. Participants were sampled and surveyed in their 

year of graduation as part of the 1993 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93). 

The base-year study consisted of two components: an institutional survey that provided extensive 

information on students’ enrollment and financial aid and a student survey. The First Follow-up 

(B&B:93/94) was conducted 1 year later, and provided additional information that is comparable 

to that collected in the Recent College Graduates (RCG) series of cross-sectional surveys. As part 

of the First Follow-up, participants’ undergraduate transcripts were also collected from the B&B 

sample institutions. In 1997 (approximately 4 years after graduation), B&B participants were 

contacted again for the Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97). In both follow-up surveys, participants 

reported on many aspects of their employment. 

While B&B:93/94 provided continuity with earlier cross-sectional surveys, B&B:93/97 

highlights the benefits of B&B’s longitudinal design. Some issues, such as access to and participation in graduate education and labor market outcomes require a longer time lag than 1 year after graduation to observe outcomes of interest. Furthermore, the longitudinal design permits a 

comparison of outcomes at different points in time for bachelor’s degree recipients. 
xiv 

Acknowledgments 

The authors wish to thank the many individuals who contributed to this report. At NCES 

Paula Knepper provided a comprehensive technical review of the methods and content. Roz Korb 

also reviewed the first draft and Bruce Taylor reviewed the final draft and served as the adjudication chairman. Other Department of Education reviewers included Donald Conner (Office of 

Postsecondary Education), Joanell Porter (Elementary, Secondary Longitudinal Studies Division), and Michael Ross (Early Childhood and International and Crosscutting Studies). Special 

thanks also to Brian Trzebiatowski of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities for his review of the final draft. 

At MPR Associates, special thanks go to Barbara Kridl for overseeing the production process, Francesca Tussing and Renee Macalino for formatting the tables and preparing the final layout, and Andrea Livingston for editing and proofreading the report. Helen Jang provided 

invaluable administrative and technical support at all stages of development and production. 
xv 

Table of Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword.................................................................................................................................... xiii

Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xiv 

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. xvi

List of Figures............................................................................................................................ xix

Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

Data and Methods..................................................................................................................... 3

Study Sample......................................................................................................................... 5

Methods................................................................................................................................. 8 

Major Field of Study................................................................................................................. 9

Labor Market Outcomes.......................................................................................................... 13

Employment Status in 1994 and 1997................................................................................... 13 

Full-Time Salaries in 1994 and 1997 .................................................................................... 17 

Salary Distribution ................................................................................................................ 23 

1997 Occupations.................................................................................................................. 27 

Job Requirements .................................................................................................................. 31 

Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business ............................................. 41 

Summary and Conclusions....................................................................................................... 59

References.................................................................................................................................. 63 

Appendix A—Glossary ............................................................................................................. 65 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology .................................................................. 75 
xvi 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Executive Summary Tables 

A Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, the average number of jobs worked, the percentage with any 

unemployment, and the average number of months worked at April 1997 job, by 

major field of study ......................................................................................................... vi 

B Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled 

in graduate school by 1997, according to their occupation in April 1997, by major 

field of study.................................................................................................................... vii 

C Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, full-time salaries in 1994 and 1997, and for those employed fulltime in both 1994 and 1997, the average percent increase in salary between 1994 and 

1997, by major field of study .......................................................................................... viii 

D1 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting various job benefits offered at their April 

1997 job, by major field of study .................................................................................... ix 

D2 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting being very satisfied with various aspects of 

their April 1997 job, by major field of study................................................................... x 

Text Tables 

1 The study sample: percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not 

enrolled in graduate education by 1997........................................................................... 7 

2 Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997 ..................................... 10 

3a Percentage distributions of employment status in 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 

bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997 ........ 14 
List of Tables 

xvii 

Table Page 

3b Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage who experienced any unemployment spells between 

graduating from college and 1997, and among those who did, the average number of 

spells and the average total number of months unemployed........................................... 18 

3c The average number of jobs begun since graduation and the average number of 

months worked at April 1997 job among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who 

had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997.............................................................. 20 

4a Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 

and the average percentage increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working 

full time ........................................................................................................................... 22 

4b Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 

and the average percentage increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working 

full time, by gender ......................................................................................................... 24 

5 Percentage full-time salary distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who 

had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997 in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 

April 1997 ....................................................................................................................... 26 

6 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled 

in graduate school by 1997, according to their occupation in April 1997, by major 

field of study.................................................................................................................... 28 

7 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting various job attributes for the April 1997 

job.................................................................................................................................... 32 

8 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting various benefits offered at their April 1997 

job.................................................................................................................................... 35 

9 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting being very satisfied with various aspects of 

their April 1997 job......................................................................................................... 37 

10 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, percentage reporting various reasons for taking their April 1997 

job.................................................................................................................................... 39 
List of Tables

xviii

Table Page

11a Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree

recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted

after controlling for variables listed in the table.............................................................. 43

11b Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 male bachelor’s degree

recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted

after controlling for variables listed in the table.............................................................. 46

11c Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 female bachelor’s degree

recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted

after controlling for variables listed in the table.............................................................. 48

12a Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93

bachelor’s degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not

enrolled in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables

listed in the table ............................................................................................................. 50

12b Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93

male bachelor’s degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not

enrolled in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables

listed in the table ............................................................................................................. 52

12c Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93

female bachelor’s degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had

not enrolled in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables

listed in the table ............................................................................................................. 54

13 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients reporting that their April 1997 job

both required a bachelor’s degree and had definite career potential among those who

had not enrolled in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted for variables listed in the

table ................................................................................................................................. 57

B1 Standard errors for table 2: Percentage distribution of major field of study for

1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education

by 1997............................................................................................................................ 78
xix 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary Figures 

A Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997 ..................................... iv 

B Average full-time salaries for men and women in 1997 among 1992–93 bachelor’s 

degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, by major field 

of study............................................................................................................................ xi 

Text Figures 

1 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate 

education by 1997, by major field of study..................................................................... 6 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
1 

Introduction 

No one disputes the economic benefits of earning a bachelor’s degree.1 College graduates 

as a whole earn considerably more than high school graduates, and the wage gap between these 

two groups has been growing.2 In addition, more and more students are enrolling in college to 

increase their employment opportunities and marketability. For example, in 1999, three-quarters 

of college freshmen reported that “being able to make more money” strongly influenced their decision to attend college (Sax et al. 1999, p. 50). In contrast, just over half (54 percent) reported 

the same in 1976 (Astin 1993, p. 245). 

Among college graduates, however, students’ employment outcomes vary considerably according to what they choose to study. A number of researchers have demonstrated the effect of 

undergraduate major on career earnings (e.g., Grogger and Eide 1995; Rumberger and Thomas 

1993). There is general consensus from these and other studies that applied undergraduate fields 

such as engineering, business, and to a lesser extent, health, command higher salaries than do 

fields in humanities and arts and social sciences. According to Pascarella and Terenzini (1991), 

one explanation for these differences may be that the applied fields such as business or engineering are “characterized by a relatively well defined body of knowledge and skills, an emphasis on 

scientific or quantitative methods of inquiry, and quite often, an applied orientation” (p. 516). For 

jobs not directly related to college majors, employers also may use undergraduate major as a way 

of sorting out applicants, believing that those majoring in more applied and quantitative fields 

have had more rigorous training or are generally brighter than other students (Pascarella and Terenzini 1991). 

However, some evidence indicates that social science and humanities and arts majors have 

greater potential for succeeding in corporate management positions than do their counterparts 

majoring in engineering and mathematics. In a study conducted by AT&T in 1984, the author 

concluded that undergraduate major “was the strongest predictor of managerial performance and 

progress” for employees participating in a longitudinal study of managers (AT&T 1984, p. ii). 

While humanities and arts and social science majors were relatively weak in quantitative abilities, they were particularly strong in interpersonal and verbal skills. According to the same study, 

 

1For a review, see chapter on “Economic Benefits of College,” in Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, pp. 500–537).

2According to Mishel and Bernstein (1994, p. 138), the “college wage premium” (as a ratio of high school graduates’ earnings to 

college graduates’ earnings) grew from about 0.29 to 0.43 from 1970 to 1989. Between 1989 and 1995, the gap grew at a much 

slower rate, to 0.45. 
Introduction

2 

business majors were a “strong second” in managerial abilities. In contrast, though they exhibited 

strong quantitative skills, engineers and mathematics/science majors were relatively weak with 

respect to other managerial characteristics. 

Despite college students’ increased motivation to seek a college education in order to position themselves better in the labor market, and despite the growth in the technology industry, between 1986–87 and 1996–97 students actually moved away from majoring in certain applied 

fields such as engineering and computer science. For example, the number of degrees awarded in 

engineering fields declined 19 percent, and those awarded in computer and information sciences 

dropped 37 percent (U.S. Department of Education 1999, table 255). At the same time, due in 

large part to increased enrollment by women, the number of degrees conferred in social science, 

psychology, and biological sciences increased substantially over the same 10-year period. 

How have recent college graduates fared in the job market with respect to their undergraduate field of study? That is the main question addressed in this study. This study adds to earlier 

research on how students’ undergraduate major affects their employment in several ways. First, it 

is based on relatively recent data—students who earned their bachelor’s degree in 1992–93—and 

is limited to students who had never enrolled in graduate education. Second, it analyzes changes 

in graduates’ employment status and annual salary between the time they first entered the labor 

market (one year after graduation) and four years later. Third, the analysis also examines the association between undergraduate major and other employment outcomes such as the job stability, 

the availability of benefits, and the general job satisfaction reported by college graduates. 

Because the survey used for this study extends four years after most of the participants 

completed their bachelor’s degree, a major consideration that this study could not address is 

long-term outcomes. But consistent with the AT&T study discussed above, there is some evidence that college graduates who major in humanities and arts and social science fields do better 

with respect to earnings and job advancement in the long term (i.e., 10 years or more later) than 

their peers who major in applied fields.3 

 

3As reported by Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) in their review. 
3 

Data and Methods 

The analysis is based on data from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

(B&B) representing college graduates who received their bachelor’s degree in the academic year 

1992–93. Survey participants were initially sampled from the National Postsecondary Student 

Aid Study (NPSAS:93) and were first surveyed in their senior year of college. They were later 

followed up in 1994 and 1997, approximately one year and four years after graduation. For this 

study, the sample is based on respondents who participated in all three surveys, approximately 83 

percent (about 9,000) of respondents among the original eligible participants. The sample was 

further limited to graduates who had not enrolled in graduate school as of 1997, about 70 percent 

of all graduates. 

The main analytic variable used in the study is undergraduate field of study. It is based on 

the major listed on students’ undergraduate transcripts. If more than one major was reported, the 

variable is based on the first one listed. Major was aggregated and coded to distinguish among 

different applied fields of study. For example, nursing was distinguished from other health fields, 

and computer science from engineering. 

APPLIED FIELDS

Education 

 Early childhood 

 Elementary 

 Secondary 

 Special 

 Physical 

 Other 

Business 

 Accounting 

 Finance 

 Business/management systems 

 Management/business administration 

 Marketing/distribution 

Engineering/architecture 

 Architecture 

 Engineering: Electrical 

 Engineering: Chemical 

 Engineering: Civil 

 Engineering: Mechanical 

 Engineering: Other 

 Engineering technology 

Computer science 

 Computer programming 

 Computer and information sciences 

Health/nursing 

 Health: Nursing 

Health/other

 Allied health: Dental/medical tech 

 Allied health: Community/mental health 

 Health/phys ed/recreation (HPER) 

 Allied health: Nurse assisting 

 Allied health: General and other 

 Health: Audiology 
Data and Methods 

4 

 Health: Clinical health science 

 Health: Health/hospital administration 

 Health: Other 

 Health: Dietetics 

Communications/journalism 

 Journalism 

 Communications 

 Communication technology 

Social work/protective services 

 Clinical pastoral care 

 Protective services 

 Social work 

 Public administration, NOT social work 

ACADEMIC FIELDS

Humanities/arts/history/liberal studies 

 American civilization 

 Area studies 

 African American studies 

 Ethnic studies, NOT black/area studies 

 Spanish 

 Foreign Languages: Non-European 

 Foreign Languages: European, NOT Spanish 

 Letters: English/American literature. 

 Letters: Creative/technical writing 

 Letters: Other 

 Liberal studies 

 Women’s studies 

 Philosophy 

 Religious studies 

 History 

 Design 

 Speech/drama 

 Film arts 

 Music 

 Art history/fine arts 

 Fine and performing arts: Other 

Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 

 Biological science: Zoology 

 Biological science: Botany 

 Biological science: Biochemistry 

 Biophysics 

 Biological science: Other 

 Interdisciplinary: Environmental studies 

 Interdisciplinary: Biopsychology 

 Interdisciplinary: Integrated/general 

Mathematics/physical sciences 

 Mathematics: Statistics 

 Mathematics: NOT statistics 

 Physical science: Chemistry 

 Physical science: Earth science 

 Physical science: Physics 

 Physical science: NOT chemistry/physics/earth 

science 

Social sciences 

 Psychology 

 Anthropology/archaeology 

 Economics 

 Geography 

 Sociology 

 Political science 

 International relations 

 City planning 

Other 

 Agriculture 

 Agricultural science 

 Natural resources 

 Forestry 

 Textiles 

 Home economics: Other 

 Vocational home economics guidance 

 Law: Paralegal, includes pre-law 

 Law 

 Library/archival science 

 Military science 

 Interdisciplinary: Other 

 Leisure studies 

 Basic/personal skills 

 Industrial arts: Construction 

 Commercial art 

 Precision production 

 Transportation: Air 
Data and Methods 

5 

In addition to salary and employment status, respondents reported on various benefits offered at their April 1997 job, including health, vacation, sick leave, and retirement benefits. 

These benefits and graduates’ reported satisfaction with various other aspects of their 1997 job, 

including pay, promotion opportunities, education benefits, job challenge, job security, working 

conditions, and co-workers, are presented here with respect to major field of study. 

Of course, in addition to field of study, other factors may influence employment outcomes 

and earnings.4 In particular, many studies have reported gender differences in earnings within 

occupations as a contributing factor (Clery, Lee, and Knapp 1998; Fitzgerald 2000; Hecker 1998; 

Rumberger and Thomas 1993). Thus, for several outcomes, the findings for men and women are 

presented separately. 

Study Sample 

The study is based on 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997. College graduates who do not seek graduate education differ somewhat 

from those who do, especially with respect to undergraduate field of study. Since those who major in applied fields are often trained for specific occupations, they are more likely to enter the 

labor market immediately after graduation than are their peers who major in more academic subjects. For instance, roughly 8 in 10 of those majoring in business, nursing, computer science, and 

communications/journalism had not enrolled in graduate school as of 1997 (figure 1). In contrast, 

roughly half of 1992–93 college graduates majoring in either biological-related sciences or 

mathematics and physical sciences, and about three-fifths of social science majors, had not enrolled in graduate school. 

Bachelor’s degree recipients who did not enroll in graduate education also differed with respect to their demographic characteristics (table 1). Because older students may have family and 

financial obligations that make it more difficult to attend graduate school, those who were older 

than the traditional age at the time of their bachelor’s degree (i.e., 23 years or older) were more 

likely not to enroll in graduate school and thus, more likely to be included in the study sample. 

Consistent with their older ages, married graduates were more likely not to enroll in graduate 

school. 

 

4Even within field of study, course taking may also vary and possibly affect employment outcomes. See for example, the difference between men’s and women’s biological science course taking in Adelman (1991, p. 12). 
Data and Methods

6 

Figure 1—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, by

Figure 1—major field of study

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

Percent with no graduate enrollment

80

62

49

48

64

72

82

67

79

79

65

84

66

70

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Other*

Social sciences

Mathematics/physical sciences

Biological/interdisciplinary sciences

Humanities and arts

Academic fields

Social work/protective services

Communications/journalism

Health/other

Health/nursing

Computer science

Engineering/architecture

Business

Education

Applied fields

Total

Percent

Applied fields

Academic fields

Whether or not college graduates’ parents had attained a graduate degree also was related to 

students’ enrollment in graduate school. College graduates whose parents had attained no more 

than a bachelor’s degree were more likely not to enroll in graduate school than their peers whose 

parents had earned an advanced degree. 

Finally, as measured by cumulative grade point average (GPA), differences in academic 

performance also emerged. As undergraduate GPA declined, so the likelihood of not enrolling in
Data and Methods 

7 

Table 1—The study sample: percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in 

Table 1—graduate education by 1997

No graduate

enrollment

 Total 70.4

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 65.8

 Business 84.1

 Engineering/architecture 65.4

 Computer science 79.4

 Health/nursing 79.2

 Health/other 67.1

 Communications/journalism 81.5

 Academic fields

 Social work/protective services 72.1

 Humanities and arts 64.3

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 47.7

 Mathematics/physical sciences 48.6

 Social sciences 61.6

 Other* 79.7

Gender

 Male 70.5

 Female 70.3

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 79.4

 Asian/Pacific Islander 69.0

 Black, non-Hispanic 68.8

 Hispanic 67.6

 White, non-Hispanic 70.7

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 63.4

 23–24 77.5

 25–29 78.2

 30 or older 73.9

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 75.5

 Some postsecondary education 73.2

 Bachelor’s degree 70.9

 Advanced degree 61.4

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 66.7

 Married/cohabit as married 73.6

 Divorced/separated/widowed 70.4
Data and Methods

8 

Table 1—The study sample: percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in 

Table 1—graduate education by 1997—Continued

No graduate

enrollment

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 80.9

 3.0 to 3.49 73.6

 3.5 or higher 62.0

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 69.8

 Nondoctorate 75.1

 Private, not-for-profit

 Doctorate 62.6

 Nondoctorate 70.6

 Private, for profit 75.1

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

graduate school increased (e.g., 19 percent with GPAs under 3.0 had enrolled, compared with 38 

percent with GPAs of 3.5 or higher). 

Methods 

Two types of descriptive analyses are presented in the report. The first two sections (“Major 

Field of Study” and “Labor Market Outcomes”) examine the relationship between major field of 

study and employment outcomes by comparing graduates in one field of study to all graduates. In 

this way, the experiences of graduates in specific fields are compared to the “average experience.” Since the two groups being compared are not independent (i.e., graduates in each major 

are also part of the whole), proper statistical techniques were used to take this into account (see 

appendix B). In all the tables supporting discussions of specific majors compared with all graduates, estimates significantly greater than the average (i.e. the total line of the table) are shaded in 

gray. Estimates significantly less than the average are in a box without shading. 

The third section of the report presents a multivariate analysis, in which business, the largest undergraduate field of study, was used as the base comparison group against which each other 

field is compared. The models controlled for demographic characteristics, college attended and 

GPA, and work experience. 
9 

Major Field of Study 

Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who did not enroll in graduate school, more 

than one-quarter (28 percent) had majored in a business-related field (table 2). Following business, the next most popular majors were social sciences and humanities and arts: 15 percent and 

13 percent, respectively, of college graduates with no graduate education had obtained bachelor’s 

degrees in these fields. 

Several demographic differences were apparent for graduates who had majored in applied 

fields, but with the exception of gender, there were few differences among those who had majored in fields considered to be more academic (women were more likely than men to major in 

the humanities and arts).5

Among the applied fields, men were more likely to major in more quantitative and technical fields, while women tended to major in fields associated with helping professions. Specifically, men were more likely to major in business (32 versus 24 percent), engineering (13 versus 2 

percent), and computer science (4 versus 2 percent), while women were more likely to major in 

education (13 versus 4 percent), nursing (6 versus 1 percent), and other health fields (4 versus 2 

percent). 

Business fields tended to attract older college graduates. More than one-third of college 

graduates who were 30 or older when receiving the bachelor’s degree had majored in business 

(35 percent), compared with just over one-quarter (27 percent) of those 22 or younger. College 

graduates in their mid-20s (ages 23–29) majored in engineering at higher rates than did their 

younger or older counterparts.6

Some racial/ethnic group differences were also found, especially with respect to engineering majors. Asian/Pacific Islander graduates were more likely than their black, non-Hispanic 

counterparts to major in engineering (13 versus 5 percent). However, despite what appear to be 

substantial differences between Asian graduates (13 percent) and graduates from other racial/ethnic groups (5 to 7 percent), there was not enough statistical evidence to conclude that they 

 

5This was especially true for the field of psychology, in which nearly three-quarters of majors are women (B&B:94/97 Data 

Analysis System). 

6This may be partly due to the fact that some engineering programs require five years of study; thus, students entering at age 18 

would be about 23 at graduation. 
Table 2—Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in grad

Social HumanBiological/ M

 Engineering/ Communi- work/ ities interdis- m archi- Computer Health/ Health/ cations/ protective and ciplinary ph

Education Business tecture science nursing other journalism services arts sciences sc

 Total 8.5 27.9 6.9 2.8 3.5 3.3 6.3 2.3 12.9 3.8 Gender Male 3.7 32.4 12.7 3.9 0.5 2.1 6.0 1.9 11.4 3.5  Female 12.5 24.2 2.1 1.9 6.1 4.4 6.5 2.6 14.2 4.1 Race/ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 4.0 20.1 4.9 8.7 3.8 4.8 2.2 1.7 17.2 1.9  Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 36.0 12.7 6.3 3.0 4.0 3.3 0.9 8.3 5.3  Black, non-Hispanic 3.7 30.8 4.5 4.1 5.0 2.5 5.9 3.5 13.4 4.6  Hispanic 10.7 22.4 6.0 3.6 3.7 4.1 5.1 3.9 13.5 3.6  White, non-Hispanic 9.1 27.6 6.9 2.5 3.5 3.3 6.6 2.2 13.0 3.7 Age at bachelor’s degree 22 or younger 7.5 26.9 5.3 2.3 1.9 2.3 8.5 1.9 14.8 4.2  23–24 8.4 23.2 9.9 2.6 2.8 3.4 7.2 2.7 12.4 3.4  25–29 8.9 30.4 8.9 4.1 3.9 3.5 3.4 1.8 10.0 5.2  30 or older 10.6 35.3 4.8 3.5 8.1 5.6 2.0 2.8 11.5 2.4 Parents’ highest level of education High school or less 10.8 31.9 5.7 2.8 4.6 3.5 4.8 2.8 9.9 3.2  Some postsecondary education 7.4 29.8 6.8 2.5 3.9 3.7 5.5 2.6 12.6 3.1  Bachelor’s degree 7.4 26.3 8.8 2.8 3.3 3.4 7.9 2.0 13.4 3.8  Advanced degree 7.5 21.1 7.5 2.9 2.2 2.7 7.5 1.2 17.9 5.3 Marital status in 1997 Never married 5.0 26.3 7.2 3.0 1.7 2.5 8.8 2.2 15.5 4.2  Married/cohabit as married 11.1 29.1 7.0 2.8 4.6 3.7 4.6 2.2 10.9 3.4  Divorced/separated/widowed 9.9 28.8 3.4 1.9 6.7 5.6 3.9 4.0 14.2 4.6 

Applied fields Academic f
Table 2—Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in grad

Table 2——Continued

Social Human- Biological/ M

 Engineering/ Communi- work/ ities interdis- m archi- Computer Health/ Health/ cations/ protective and ciplinary ph

Education Business tecture science nursing other journalism services arts sciences sc

Undergraduate GPA Less than 3.0 4.5 29.6 9.8 2.7 2.7 2.4 6.8 2.2 10.5 4.8  3.0 to 3.49 6.8 28.9 7.6 2.6 3.4 2.7 7.5 2.0 11.4 3.9  3.5 or higher 12.6 27.2 4.6 2.8 4.4 4.5 4.8 2.6 15.4 3.0 Institution type Public Doctorate 7.9 22.7 10.3 2.6 4.2 4.4 7.2 1.5 12.1 4.0  Nondoctorate 12.3 28.2 4.2 3.3 2.9 2.4 5.2 3.6 11.7 4.3  Private, not-for-profit  Doctorate 5.3 24.5 8.6 1.7 2.4 2.6 8.9 1.5 18.6 3.2  Nondoctorate 7.9 39.1 1.5 3.4 3.8 2.5 4.3 3.2 13.5 3.1  Private, for profit 2.4 51.1 7.8 2.7 3.3 4.7 2.6 0.3 5.6 3.5 

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, basic/personal skills, iproduction, transportation.NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-u

Analysis System.

Applied fields Academic f
Major Field of Study 

12 

were more or less likely than Hispanic, white, or American Indian/Alaskan Native students to 

study engineering. However, if one looks at all bachelor’s degrees conferred in the 1992–93 academic year using the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), definite differences were reported: Asian graduates were more likely, and black graduates less likely than 

others to complete engineering degrees. In addition, black graduates were less likely to earn degrees in education or health (U.S. Department of Education 1995).7 

Finally, undergraduate major was related to the type of college or university attended. For 

those who did not enroll in graduate school, bachelor’s degree recipients who attended public 

institutions that do not grant doctorate degrees were more likely than those in all other institutions to major in education (12 versus 2 to 8 percent) (table 2). In contrast, those who attended 

comparable private, not-for-profit institutions were more likely than others to major in business 

(40 versus 23 to 28 percent). 

 

7However, IPEDS estimates also include those who earned bachelor’s degrees and subsequently enrolled in graduate education. 
13 

Labor Market Outcomes 

Employment Status in 1994 and 1997

1992–93 college graduates entered a labor market at the start of an economic recovery following a recession lasting from 1990 through March 1991 (Mishel and Bernstein 1994, p. 13). In 

1997, three years after college graduates’ first entry into the labor market in 1994, the economy 

was strong and labor market tight. By 1997, just 2 percent of college graduates who had not enrolled in graduate school were unemployed and 86 percent worked full time. However, there 

were some differences in employment status when taking field of study into account. In both 

1994 and 1997, graduates who had majored in business, engineering, or computer science were 

more likely than all college graduates to be employed full time, while those with humanities and 

arts majors were less likely to be so (table 3a). In 1994, but not 1997, those who majored in education were less likely than all graduates to work full time and more likely to work part time, and 

those who majored in biological sciences also were less likely to work full time. 

Demographic differences, especially gender differences, were related to employment status. 

Consistent with traditional gender roles, where women more often work in the home and men 

outside the home, women were less likely to be employed full time in both 1994 and 1997, and 

they more often worked part time, or were out of the labor force. 

When considering race/ethnicity, few measurable differences were found to be related to 

how much graduates worked.8 In 1994, but not 1997, white, non-Hispanic graduates were more 

likely than Hispanic graduates to work full time. Even though it appears as though Asian/Pacific 

Islanders were more likely to work full-time in 1994 than Hispanics, there is not enough statistical evidence to draw this conclusion. In 1997, black, non-Hispanic graduates were more likely to 

work full time (92 percent) than their white, non-Hispanic counterparts (86 percent).

Unemployment 

In April 1994, there were no measurable differences in graduates’ unemployment rates with 

respect to field of study when compared with all graduates as a whole. However, three years 

 

8Readers should bear in mind that the sample of minority racial/ethnic groups while representative are relatively small. Therefore, some estimates that look different may not be statistically significant. 
Table 3a—Percentage distributions of employment status in 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had n

Table 3a—education by 1997

Unemployed U

 (includes with (in

Full-time Part-time and without Out of Full-time Part-time a

 employment employment benefits) labor force employment employment  Total 80.5 11.0 4.5 4.0 86.1 6.6 Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 72.8 21.4 2.9 2.9 82.2 9.7  Business 89.5 5.3 3.1 2.1 90.7 3.6  Engineering/architecture 87.1 5.1 7.0 0.8 95.4 1.6  Computer science 88.3 4.8 5.3 1.7 95.9 2.8  Health/nursing 81.8 13.1 2.9 2.3 73.5 18.3  Health/other 77.0 11.8 5.8 5.3 82.1 12.5  Communications/journalism 84.9 9.8 2.6 2.8 86.3 7.1  Social work/protective services 78.2 14.0 2.6 5.3 83.4 7.2 

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 73.0 15.3 5.9 5.8 78.7 11.1  Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 65.5 14.8 9.2 10.5 80.6 9.4  Mathematics/physical sciences 73.6 15.5 4.5 6.4 88.5 3.8  Social sciences 78.8 10.5 5.4 5.4 84.4 6.5  Other* 78.2 11.2 6.1 4.5 84.5 8.0 

Employment status April 1994 Employment statu
Table 3a—Percentage distributions of employment status in 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had n

Table 3a—education by 1997—Continued

Unemployed U

 (includes with (in

Full-time Part-time and without Out of Full-time Part-time a

 employment employment benefits) labor force employment employment Gender Male 84.8 7.9 4.5 2.8 91.6 3.9  Female 76.9 13.7 4.4 5.0 81.6 8.8 Race/ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 74.3 11.1 5.5 9.1 67.0 18.6  Asian/Pacific Islander 81.1 9.5 4.5 5.0 85.9 4.8  Black, non-Hispanic 77.1 10.8 8.6 3.5 92.2 3.0  Hispanic 71.9 11.3 10.5 6.4 83.2 7.8  White, non-Hispanic 81.3 11.2 3.8 3.7 86.1 6.8 Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 81.7 11.2 3.3 3.9 88.5 5.0  23–24 82.4 10.5 4.2 2.9 86.9 5.6 

 25–29 79.5 11.0 5.9 3.6 84.4 8.3 

 30 or older 76.0 11.6 6.0 6.4 81.4 10.0 Parents’ highest level of education High school or less 79.6 11.4 5.2 3.9 86.2 6.5  Some postsecondary education 80.0 12.6 4.4 3.0 87.7 6.4  Bachelor’s degree 82.6 10.1 3.6 3.7 87.7 6.0  Advanced degree 80.1 10.0 4.7 5.2 83.1 7.6 Marital status in 1997 Never married 79.8 12.0 5.0 3.2 89.1 5.2  Married/cohabit as married 81.6 10.3 3.9 4.3 83.7 7.6  Divorced/separated/widowed 75.3 11.5 5.8 7.4 87.0 6.7 

Employment status April 1994 Employment statu
Table 3a—Percentage distributions of employment status in 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had n

Table 3a—education by 1997—Continued

Unemployed U

 (includes with (in

Full-time Part-time and without Out of Full-time Part-time a

 employment employment benefits) labor force employment employment Undergraduate GPA Less than 3.0 81.1 10.0 5.7 3.2 87.9 4.3  3.0 to 3.49 82.1 10.4 4.1 3.4 86.8 6.5  3.5 or higher 79.3 11.8 3.7 5.1 85.0 7.3 Institution type Public Doctorate 83.5 8.6 4.6 3.4 87.2 6.5  Nondoctorate 75.5 14.8 5.7 4.1 85.3 6.9  Private, not-for-profit  Doctorate 82.9 9.9 2.0 5.2 85.2 5.9  Nondoctorate 80.3 11.2 4.1 4.4 85.4 7.3  Private, for profit 73.8 16.7 4.8 4.8 85.2 4.2 

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, basic/personaprecision production, transportation.NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding. Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Second Data Analysis System.

Employment status April 1994 Employment statu
 Labor Market Outcomes 

17 

later, in April 1997, graduates who had majored in computer science or health fields other than 

nursing had lower unemployment rates than all graduates (0.5 versus 2.1 percent) (table 3a). 

Examining the number of spells of unemployment between the time of bachelor’s degree 

(1992–93) and four years later in 1997, education majors were more likely and nursing majors 

less likely than all graduates to report any spells of unemployment. Among those with any unemployment, the average number of unemployment spells was 1.3 (table 3b). Only those who had 

majored in nursing or business reported fewer average unemployment spells than did all graduates (1.1 and 1.2, respectively). However, there were no measurable differences across fields in 

the average duration of unemployment spells. For those who reported any unemployment, the 

range was from 6 to 9 months. 

Employment Stability 

Under the assumption that having fewer jobs implies greater job stability, which may or 

may not be true in today’s labor market, those who had majored in nursing, business, computer 

science, and engineering, experienced greater job stability. That is, they had worked in fewer jobs 

than all graduates as a whole since earning their bachelor’s degrees (1.6 to 1.9 versus 2.3) (table 

3c). In contrast, those who had majored in education, communications/journalism, or humanities 

and arts reported more jobs, on average (2.6, 2.8, and 2.9, respectively), than all graduates (2.3). 

Correspondingly, similar patterns emerged when examining the length of time graduates 

had worked in their April 1997 job. Looking at all 1992–93 college graduates, the average time 

spent in these jobs was just over two years (28 months, of a maximum of 52 months). When 

comparing the duration of the April 1997 job across fields of study, those with degrees in nursing, engineering, or business had worked longer than all graduates (33, 32, and 30 months, respectively). Graduates with degrees in humanities and arts, biological sciences, or social 

sciences, on the other hand, had worked fewer months (24, 24 and 25 months, respectively, versus 28 months). Nevertheless, majors in these three fields still had worked in their April 1997 

occupations for an average of two years. 

Full-Time Salaries in 1994 and 1997 

As noted earlier, the economy was growing when the 1992–93 college graduates entered 

the job market. While most graduates were working full time in both 1994 and 1997, their salaries and, to a lesser extent, benefits differed according to undergraduate field of study. In both 

1994 and 1997, college graduates with no graduate education who had majored in business, engineering, nursing and other health fields earned higher than average full-time salaries (table 4a). 
Labor Market Outcomes

18

Table 3b—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 4b—percentage who experienced any unemployment spells between graduating from college and 1997,

Table 4b—and among those who did, the average number of spells and the average total number of months

Table 4b—unemployed 

Average 

Any Average number of

 unemployment number months 

spells of spells unemployed

 Total 39.5 1.3 6.8 

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 51.7 1.4 6.1 

 Business 33.1 1.2 6.1 

 Engineering/architecture 40.6 1.3 6.6 

 Computer science 39.4 1.2 7.4 

 Health/nursing 19.0 1.1 6.0 

 Health/other 30.0 1.3 6.3 

 Communications/journalism 47.3 1.3 6.1 

 Social work/protective services 36.6 1.4 7.1 

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 46.5 1.4 7.5 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 48.8 1.3 8.5 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 42.9 1.3 7.4 

 Social sciences 41.9 1.4 7.1 

 Other* 34.8 1.4 6.0 

Gender

 Male 40.4 1.3 6.7 

 Female 38.7 1.3 6.8 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 35.5 — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 40.6 1.2 7.0 

 Black, non-Hispanic 43.8 1.3 8.2 

 Hispanic 44.7 1.4 9.5 

 White, non-Hispanic 38.9 1.3 6.4 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 42.6 1.3 6.0 

 23–24 41.6 1.3 6.4 

 25–29 38.0 1.4 7.7 

 30 or older 29.9 1.3 9.1 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 40.0 1.3 7.4 

 Some postsecondary education 36.7 1.3 6.9 

 Bachelor’s degree 38.2 1.3 6.4 

 Advanced degree 43.4 1.3 6.3 

 
 Labor Market Outcomes 

19 

Table 3b—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 4b—percentage who experienced any unemployment spells between graduating from college and 1997,

Table 4b—and among those who did, the average number of spells and the average total number of months

Table 4b—unemployed—Continued 

Average 

Any Average number of

 unemployment number months 

spells of spells unemployed

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 44.2 1.4 7.0 

 Married/cohabit as married 36.0 1.3 6.4 

 Divorced/separated/widowed 37.7 1.4 7.9 

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 44.6 1.4 6.8 

 3.0 to 3.49 38.4 1.3 7.0 

 3.5 or higher 38.6 1.3 6.3 

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 39.7 1.3 6.3 

 Nondoctorate 41.5 1.4 7.5 

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 40.6 1.3 6.0 

 Nondoctorate 37.5 1.3 7.0 

 Private, for profit 29.8 1.4 8.0 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

In contrast, those who had majored in education, social work/protective services, or humanities 

and arts earned lower than average salaries. 

Some findings were specific to one point in time. For example, in 1997, but not in 1994, 

computer science majors earned a higher salary than all graduates. Correspondingly, these graduates experienced a substantially higher percent increase in average salary, compared with all 

graduates who worked full time in both years. In 1994, but not in 1997, communications/journalism majors earned lower than average salaries and thus, had higher than average salary increases between 1994 and 1997. 

Also, there were gender differences in average salaries among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients employed full time. In both 1994 and 1997, men earned higher average salaries than 
Labor Market Outcomes

20

Table 3c—The average number of jobs begun since graduation and the average number of months worked

Table 3c—at April 1997 job among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate

Table 3c—education by 1997

Average Number

number of jobs of months

begun since worked at

graduation April 1997 job1

 Total 2.3 27.5

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 2.6 28.1

 Business 1.9 29.9

 Engineering/architecture 1.8 32.0

 Computer science 1.9 29.6

 Health/nursing 1.6 32.8

 Health/other 1.9 30.9

 Communications/journalism 2.8 24.3

 Social work/protective services 2.2 29.3

 Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 2.9 23.9

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 2.5 25.3

 Mathematics/physical sciences 2.5 27.5

 Social sciences 2.5 25.2

 Other2 2.3 25.9

Gender

 Male 2.2 28.4

 Female 2.4 26.8

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 2.0 25.7

 Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 26.0

 Black, non-Hispanic 2.3 29.1

 Hispanic 2.1 26.7

 White, non-Hispanic 2.3 27.6

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 2.7 25.2

 23–24 2.4 26.8

 25–29 2.0 28.1

 30 or older 1.4 34.2

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 2.1 29.0

 Some postsecondary education 2.2 27.3

 Bachelor’s degree 2.4 27.2

 Advanced degree 2.6 25.3
 Labor Market Outcomes 

21 

Table 3c—The average number of jobs begun since graduation and the average number of months worked

Table 3c—at April 1997 job among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate

Table 3c—education by 1997—Continued

Average Number

number of jobs of months

begun since worked at

graduation April 1997 job1

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 2.7 25.3

 Married/cohabit as married 2.0 29.3

 Divorced/separated/widowed 2.2 27.9

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 2.5 27.4

 3.0 to 3.49 2.3 27.3

 3.5 or higher 2.2 28.0

Institution Type

 Public

 Doctorate 2.3 27.4

 Nondoctorate 2.3 27.1

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 2.3 27.2

 Nondoctorate 2.2 28.7

 Private, for profit 1.9 27.5

1

Maximum possible is 52 months. Dates were bounded between 1/1/93 and 4/30/97.

2

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding. Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white 

indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

women (table 4b) and men experienced a higher percent increase, overall, in salary between 1994 

and 1997. When examining the gender difference in the percent increase in salary by undergraduate major, however, with one exception, there was not enough statistical evidence to conclude that men experienced a higher increase. The one exception was for majors in social work 

and protective services, where men reported a 28 percent increase in salary, compared with an 18 

percent increase for women. 

In 1994, men earned higher salaries than women among those who had majored in business, computer science, communications/journalism, and social sciences. Among graduates majoring in education, social work, biological sciences, and mathematics and physical sciences, 

1994 salaries for men and women were not measurably different. However, three years 
Labor Market Outcomes

22

Table 4a—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 4a—the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 and the average percentage

Table 4a—increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working full time

If full time in

1994 both 1994 and 1997,

 full-time salary 1997 percent increase 

in 1997 dollars full-time salary in salary

 Total $26,464 $34,310 24.5 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 20,443 24,543 18.2 

 Business 29,017 37,448 25.1 

 Engineering/architecture 32,217 42,931 25.2 

 Computer science 29,428 44,624 31.2 

 Health/nursing 34,194 37,012 10.9 

 Health/other 35,515 42,066 17.2 

 Communications/journalism 22,170 32,294 28.7 

 Social work/protective services 21,328 27,350 21.7 

 Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 22,359 29,630 25.6 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 25,380 28,760 22.4 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 25,958 31,565 23.6 

 Social sciences 23,166 33,463 26.8 

 Other* 24,694 33,374 23.4 

Gender

 Male 28,531 38,415 26.3 

 Female 24,603 30,596 22.9 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 26,819 — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 26,939 39,442 26.4 

 Black, non-Hispanic 25,053 30,583 21.6 

 Hispanic 25,711 32,081 21.1 

 White, non-Hispanic 26,574 34,424 24.8 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 24,339 32,841 26.9 

 23–24 24,276 33,757 26.7 

 25–29 27,703 35,946 22.9 

 30 or older 34,683 37,886 16.0 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 27,076 33,680 23.1 

 Some postsecondary education 26,556 33,703 23.0 

 Bachelor’s degree 26,218 35,164 25.9 

 Advanced degree 25,304 34,652 26.7 
 Labor Market Outcomes 

23 

Table 4a—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 4a—the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 and the average percentage

Table 4a—increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working full time—Continued

If full time in

1994 both 1994 and 1997,

 full-time salary 1997 percent increase 

in 1997 dollars full-time salary in salary

Marital status in 1997

 Never married $24,236 $33,136 26.6 

 Married/cohabit as married 28,020 35,274 23.3 

 Divorced/separated/widowed 28,020 34,784 21.0 

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 25,017 32,337 25.9 

 3.0 to 3.49 25,782 34,634 25.1 

 3.5 or higher 28,222 35,624 23.5 

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 26,252 34,455 24.7 

 Nondoctorate 24,694 32,201 25.2 

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 27,729 38,962 27.0 

 Nondoctorate 28,742 33,811 20.9 

 Private, for profit 24,502 33,683 29.5 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

later, in 1997, men earned higher salaries in these fields than women. In 1997, men and women 

earned comparable salaries only among those who had majored in engineering, health fields other 

than nursing, or humanities and arts. 

Salary Distribution

In addition to looking at average salaries, it is informative to examine both ends of the salary distribution. For this analysis, the low end of the salary distribution was set at less than 

$25,000 and the high end at $50,000 or more. In 1994, college graduates who had majored in 

education were more likely than all graduates as a whole to earn a full-time annual salary of less 

than $25,000 (table 5). The same was true for majors in communications/journalism, humanities 

and arts, biology, and social sciences. Looking at high-end salaries, those majoring in health 
Labor Market Outcomes

24

Table 4b—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 5b—the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 and the average percentage

Table 5b—increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working full time, by gender

 Males Females Males Females Males Females

 Total $28,531 $24,603 $38,415 $30,596 26.3 22.9 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 22,642 19,742 28,421 23,284 21.6 17.0 

 Business 31,061 26,613 41,436 32,908 26.3 23.8 

 Engineering/architecture 32,460 30,964 42,952 42,822 25.1 25.5 

 Computer science 31,602 24,877 47,697 38,881 29.8 34.3 

 Health/nursing — 34,257 — 36,932 — 10.2 

 Health/other 36,792 34,916 45,241 40,520 14.9 18.5 

 Communications/journalism 24,289 20,620 36,947 28,934 31.0 27.2 

 Academic fields

 Social work/protective services 22,173 20,837 29,800 25,552 28.2 18.2 

 Humanities and arts 23,489 21,541 31,495 28,362 26.4 25.1 

 Biological/interdisciplinary science 25,516 25,273 31,443 26,800 23.2 21.8 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 28,103 23,866 33,636 28,741 21.4 26.4 

 Social sciences 25,409 21,238 37,454 29,809 27.1 26.5 

 Other2 26,212 23,142 36,593 30,297 25.1 21.5 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 26,770 27,191 39,826 39,076 25.9 26.9 

 Black, non-Hispanic 25,743 24,666 32,848 29,318 21.0 21.9 

 Hispanic 28,893 23,569 36,335 29,390 24.0 19.4 

 White, non-Hispanic 28,766 24,548 38,753 30,264 26.7 22.9 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 26,858 22,620 38,172 29,268 29.4 25.2 

 23–24 25,922 22,201 36,994 29,521 28.3 24.7 

 25–29 29,042 25,821 38,234 32,266 24.3 20.4 

 30 or older 37,860 32,328 42,302 34,348 16.7 15.5 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 29,858 24,777 37,935 30,186 24.7 21.8 

 Some postsecondary education 28,186 25,141 36,739 31,229 24.4 21.8 

 Bachelor’s degree 27,888 24,678 39,573 30,862 28.1 23.9 

 Advanced degree 27,552 23,112 39,210 30,103 28.9 24.5 

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 25,658 22,776 36,090 30,156 27.7 25.4 

 Married/cohabit as married 30,951 25,501 40,460 30,622 25.0 21.6 

 Divorced/separated/widowed 28,583 27,754 39,384 32,945 27.1 18.2 

full-time salary

full-time salary

If full time in

both 1994 and 1997,

percent increase in salary

1994

1997

in 1997 dollars

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1
 Labor Market Outcomes 

25 

Table 4b—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 5b—the average annual salary in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and 1997 and the average percentage

Table 5b—increase between 1994 and 1997 among those working full time, by gender—Continued

 Males Females Males Females Males Females

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 $26,487 $23,132 $35,798 $27,827 28.4 22.4 

 3.0 to 3.49 27,713 23,753 38,259 30,862 25.9 24.3 

 3.5 or higher 31,420 26,088 41,426 31,790 25.6 21.9 

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 28,136 24,420 38,041 30,788 26.5 22.8 

 Nondoctorate 27,811 21,927 36,676 28,418 26.6 23.8 

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 29,412 26,175 44,574 33,693 29.4 24.8 

 Nondoctorate 30,667 27,387 37,245 31,345 21.8 20.2 

 Private, for profit 25,937 22,773 38,653 29,147 32.0 27.2 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

1

Male average significantly higher (p<0.05).

2

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

in 1997 dollars full-time salary percent increase in salary

1994 If full time in

full-time salary 1997 both 1994 and 1997,

fields other than nursing were more likely than all college graduates to earn $50,000 or more in 

1994. In no other field of study were graduates significantly more likely than all graduates to earn 

$50,000 or more. 

By 1997, humanities and arts majors and education majors were the only graduates more 

likely to earn less than $25,000 compared to all graduates. Education majors were also much less 

likely to earn $50,000 or more than all graduates, as were graduates who had majored in social 

work, humanities and arts, and biological science fields. On the other hand, graduates with majors in business, engineering, computer science, nursing, and other health fields were less likely 

than all graduates to be earning under $25,000. And, with the exception of nursing, these graduates were all more likely than all graduates to be earning salaries of $50,000 or more. 
Labor Market Outcomes

26

Table 5—Percentage full-time salary distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not 

Table 5—enrolled in graduate education by 1997 in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and April 1997 

Less $50,000 Less $50,000

than $25,000– $35,000– or than $25,000– $35,000– or

$25,000 34,999 49,999 more $25,000 34,999 49,999 more

 Total 53.4 30.6 12.1 3.9 28.1 32.5 25.9 13.5 

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 80.5 18.0 1.0 0.5 59.2 34.7 3.9 2.2 

 Business 44.3 36.1 14.3 5.3 20.6 29.4 31.7 18.2 

 Engineering/architecture 20.9 38.9 37.5 2.7 6.5 18.4 50.4 24.7 

 Computer science 37.1 37.4 17.1 8.5 15.8 17.5 38.2 28.5 

 Health/nursing 10.3 52.6 31.9 5.3 6.6 31.7 51.4 10.3 

 Health/other 27.8 24.6 30.1 17.5 9.2 27.3 32.7 30.8 

 Communications/journalism 73.6 18.6 6.4 1.4 32.1 39.4 17.2 11.4 

Academic fields

 Social work/protective services 75.9 22.5 0.8 0.9 41.4 39.0 17.3 2.3 

 Humanities and arts 70.5 22.1 5.9 1.5 35.8 42.0 15.7 6.4 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 67.2 25.9 3.6 3.4 36.4 43.2 15.9 4.4 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 50.6 38.2 8.2 3.1 27.3 35.9 29.5 7.3 

 Social sciences 66.7 24.7 6.1 2.6 32.4 34.8 20.7 12.1 

 Other* 55.6 35.3 7.7 1.3 31.8 31.3 23.1 13.9 

Gender

 Male 42.8 36.5 15.6 5.2 21.1 28.4 30.8 19.6 

 Female 63.0 25.3 9.0 2.7 34.5 36.1 21.5 8.0 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 62.1 21.7 11.7 4.5 — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 44.7 37.6 13.4 4.3 12.8 35.4 34.4 17.4 

 Black, non-Hispanic 62.0 26.1 10.2 1.8 35.7 35.8 17.3 11.3 

 Hispanic 48.9 37.0 11.6 2.5 31.0 31.3 28.7 9.0 

 White, non-Hispanic 53.4 30.3 12.2 4.1 28.2 32.2 25.9 13.7 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 60.6 29.6 8.2 1.6 30.3 34.1 24.9 10.8 

 23–24 59.6 29.7 8.5 2.2 29.1 33.5 25.1 12.3 

 25–29 46.2 32.9 16.5 4.3 26.7 30.4 27.7 15.2 

 30 or older 30.3 32.7 24.8 12.2 22.6 28.3 27.9 21.3 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 52.2 29.5 13.6 4.7 28.9 33.1 24.9 13.2 

 Some postsecondary education 51.4 33.4 11.4 3.7 30.7 32.1 25.0 12.2 

 Bachelor’s degree 53.9 30.8 12.4 3.0 26.2 31.1 28.0 14.8 

 Advanced degree 57.6 27.9 11.0 3.5 27.5 34.2 24.9 13.5 

1994 salary 1997 salary
 Labor Market Outcomes 

27 

Table 5—Percentage full-time salary distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not 

Table 5—enrolled in graduate education by 1997 in April 1994 (in 1997 dollars) and April 1997 

Table 5——Continued

 Less $50,000 Less $50,000

 than $25,000– $35,000– or than $25,000– $35,000– or

 $25,000 34,999 49,999 more $25,000 34,999 49,999 more

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 58.5 31.0 8.5 2.0 29.3 34.0 25.5 11.2 

 Married/cohabit as married 50.5 29.7 14.6 5.2 27.3 30.9 26.5 15.3 

 Divorced/separated/widowed 43.6 37.7 13.5 5.2 26.2 35.1 23.6 15.2 

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 57.8 31.2 8.1 2.9 31.2 35.1 23.5 10.2 

 3.0 to 3.49 53.9 31.2 11.9 3.0 27.2 32.5 26.0 14.3 

 3.5 or higher 49.6 30.8 14.3 5.3 25.9 30.4 28.7 15.0 

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 52.4 31.9 11.9 3.7 26.7 32.5 28.2 12.7 

 Nondoctorate 58.8 31.0 8.6 1.6 32.2 36.1 21.0 10.7 

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 51.2 25.3 19.3 4.3 19.1 31.5 27.4 22.0 

 Nondoctorate 50.0 30.4 13.0 6.7 32.7 27.0 26.4 13.8 

 Private, for profit 55.7 31.6 7.5 5.2 25.5 37.8 23.6 13.1 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, 

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding. Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates

significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

1994 salary 1997 salary

1997 Occupations 

About four years after earning their degrees, for most applied fields, bachelor’s degree recipients were very likely to be employed in occupations obviously related to their major. For example, because they are trained for a specific occupation, nearly all nursing majors were 

employed as medical professionals (96 percent), as were just over two-thirds (68 percent) of 

those who majored in other health fields (table 6). Likewise, three-quarters (74 percent) of education majors were employed as teachers or educators, 56 percent of business majors worked in 
Table 6—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, acc

Table 6—occupation in April 1997, by major field of study

 Engi- Human/ AdminisBusiness neering/ protective trative/

or software Medical Editors/ service Research/ clerical/ 

manage- engineers/ Computer profes- writers/ profes- scientists/ legal Mec

Educators ment architecture science sionals performers sionals technical support lab

 Total 12.5 29.3 5.4 4.9 7.0 4.9 5.9 4.7 5.5 3Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 73.9 7.0 0.0 0.3 2.1 1.0 1.4 1.2 4.3 2 Business 3.7 55.8 0.8 5.2 0.5 0.9 2.0 1.8 4.7 3 Engineering/architecture 1.4 7.5 59.7 6.1 1.1 1.0 0.5 9.0 1.2 7 Computer science 3.7 12.5 12.9 57.9 1.0 0.0 0.9 3.3 1.3 2 Health/nursing 0.5 2.8 0.0 0.5 96.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 Health/other 7.3 7.5 0.0 0.9 68.3 0.0 3.3 3.6 2.7 0 Communications/journalism 4.1 22.8 0.3 2.8 0.6 23.0 1.9 3.2 5.6 2 Social work/protective services 6.8 10.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 59.8 0.9 10.9 1

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 17.8 23.4 1.0 3.7 2.0 17.0 4.8 4.0 6.3 3 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 24.6 14.6 1.5 0.8 15.2 1.7 1.5 23.6 2.3 5 Mathematics/physical sciences 26.2 11.5 9.0 7.3 0.8 0.6 1.7 24.0 5.8 4 Social sciences 8.8 31.9 0.3 1.2 3.1 2.3 16.4 3.5 9.3 3 Other* 8.0 32.0 1.2 1.5 3.5 5.6 8.8 5.0 5.4 12

April occupation in 1997
Table 6—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, acc

Table 6—occupation in April 1997, by major field of study—Continued

 Engi- Human/ AdminisBusiness neering/ protective trative/

or software Medical Editors/ service Research/ clerical/ 

manage- engineers/ Computer profes- writers/ profes- scientists/ legal Mec

Educators ment architecture science sionals performers sionals technical support lab

Gender Male 7.1 29.7 9.2 7.0 2.7 4.0 5.6 6.5 2.8 6 Female 17.5 29.0 2.0 3.0 10.9 5.8 6.3 3.0 7.9 1Race/ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 6.9 37.6 5.8 6.8 9.7 0.9 8.9 0.0 2.3 0 Asian/Pacific Islander 16.5 26.9 7.6 8.7 6.7 6.1 1.8 7.3 5.5 0 Black, non-Hispanic 11.7 28.0 2.0 6.0 9.4 3.3 10.1 4.1 10.2 3 Hispanic 16.0 30.4 5.8 4.3 8.2 5.0 11.7 2.9 5.7 1 White, non-Hispanic 12.2 29.4 5.6 4.7 6.7 5.0 5.5 4.7 5.0 4Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 11.9 32.6 4.0 4.1 4.4 7.2 4.7 3.9 6.5 3 23–24 13.1 25.8 7.3 4.7 5.9 3.8 6.8 5.2 4.3 4 25–29 10.7 27.2 7.3 6.3 8.9 3.7 5.9 5.9 4.4 4 30 or older 14.7 28.8 4.6 6.4 13.4 1.7 7.7 4.9 5.5 4Parents’ highest level of education High school or less 14.4 29.6 4.6 4.8 8.4 3.7 7.3 4.7 5.8 3

 Some postsecondary education 14.8 30.7 5.0 4.0 6.9 3.8 7.2 4.6 5.0 4 Bachelor’s degree 9.3 29.6 7.2 6.1 6.3 5.4 4.3 4.5 4.9 5 Advanced degree 11.9 26.7 5.4 4.7 5.8 7.5 4.2 4.9 5.8 2Marital status in 1997 Never married 8.8 31.3 4.8 5.1 4.8 6.5 5.7 5.1 6.4 3 Married/cohabit as married 15.3 28.0 6.2 4.8 8.0 4.0 5.6 4.4 4.6 3 Divorced/separated/widowed 16.2 25.9 2.7 4.5 14.5 0.9 9.5 4.4 6.7 5

April occupation in 1997
Table 6—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, acc

Table 6—occupation in April 1997, by major field of study—Continued

 Engi- Human/ AdminisBusiness neering/ protective trative/

or software Medical Editors/ service Research/ clerical/ 

manage- engineers/ Computer profes- writers/ profes- scientists/ legal Mec

Educators ment architecture science sionals performers sionals technical support lab

Undergraduate GPA Less than 3.0 7.2 30.9 6.3 4.3 4.9 2.4 7.1 5.6 5.3 6 3.0 to 3.49 11.7 29.2 5.6 5.0 6.9 5.5 5.4 4.7 5.1 3 3.5 or higher 15.8 30.0 4.7 5.2 8.5 5.5 5.7 4.2 5.2 2Institution type Public Doctorate 11.0 28.1 7.8 5.0 8.5 4.6 5.5 4.8 4.7 3 Nondoctorate 17.4 29.2 3.7 4.7 5.6 3.3 7.0 4.2 5.2 4 Private, not-for-profit  Doctorate 8.0 31.2 6.4 4.8 5.5 7.3 5.8 5.4 7.0 2 Nondoctorate 11.4 33.0 1.9 5.5 6.4 4.3 6.4 3.5 5.4 5 Private, for profit 17.9 20.6 3.7 2.8 5.5 13.7 1.8 9.4 11.0 5

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, basic/personal skills, iproduction, transportation.NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding. Zeroes may be estimates less than 0.00. Gray boxes indicate the occupations with the highest percentage If less than 50 percent, then two or more occupations (up to 50 percent) were identified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-u

Analysis System.

April occupation in 1997
 Labor Market Outcomes 

31 

business occupations, 60 percent of engineering majors in engineering, 58 percent of computer 

science majors in computer science, and 60 percent of social work/protective services majors in 

human or protective services. 

Unlike other applied fields, graduates with degrees in communications/journalism were 

more likely than graduates in any other field of study to be employed in service occupations: 

fully one-third of these graduates were employed in such jobs.9 About one in five communications/journalism majors were employed in business occupations, and the same percentage reported working as editors, writers, or performers. 

For academic majors who did not enroll in graduate school, the link between undergraduate 

field of study and employment in 1997 was not as obvious. However, there were some clear connections. For example, nearly one-quarter of graduates majoring in biological science or mathematics and physical science fields were employed in occupations related to science, research, or 

technical work. And roughly the same percentage of these graduates were employed as educators. 

This is understandable since science and mathematics teachers often specialize in the subject 

matter that they teach. 

Some graduates who had majored in academic fields were employed in jobs that were not 

obviously related to their major. For example, nearly one-fourth (23 percent) of humanities and 

arts majors and nearly one-third of social science majors worked in business occupations. Also, a 

relatively large proportion of social science majors were employed in service occupations (18 

percent). 

Job Requirements 

College graduates were asked about their perceptions regarding the skill level required by 

their April 1997 job and its career potential. In particular, they reported on whether a bachelor’s 

degree was required, whether the job had definite career potential, and whether the job built on 

skills from a previous job. Reports varied among graduates across undergraduate fields of study. 

For example, graduates who had majored in education, engineering, nursing, and other health 

fields were more likely than all graduates to report that a degree was required for their April 1997 

job (75 to 81 percent versus 61 percent) (table 7). In contrast, those with majors in business, humanities and arts, or social sciences were less likely to report that a degree was required. 

While just over one-half (55 percent) of college graduates reported that their April 1997 job 

had definite career potential, only education majors were less likely than all graduates to report 

 

9For definition of service occupations, see entry for the variable B2AJOBR in appendix A. 
Labor Market Outcomes

32

Table 7—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, 

Table 8—percentage reporting various job attributes for the April 1997 job 

 Degree required

 Degree Definite and definite Built on skills

 required career potential career potential from prior job

 

 Total 60.8 55.4 37.9 69.2

Bachelor’s degree major

 Applied fields

 Education 75.3 44.8 37.1 62.9

 Business 55.5 58.4 37.2 69.8

 Engineering/architecture 80.2 62.6 53.5 67.7

 Computer science 69.0 62.6 46.0 68.3

 Health/nursing 75.4 56.3 43.4 83.9

 Health/other 81.0 53.5 46.6 71.1

 Communications/journalism 59.1 59.1 40.9 72.6

Academic fields

 Social work/protective services 60.0 41.4 26.5 70.7

 Humanities and arts 53.6 54.0 33.4 68.7

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 64.7 49.8 37.3 66.1

 Mathematics/physical sciences 73.4 49.2 41.5 54.7

 Social sciences 53.7 53.3 32.6 68.8

 Other* 57.5 58.8 38.0 73.9

Gender

 Male 58.4 59.3 39.0 69.0

 Female 62.9 52.1 36.9 69.4

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 49.7 69.0 35.6 64.1

 Asian/Pacific Islander 59.7 54.9 39.7 69.3

 Black, non-Hispanic 53.9 44.8 26.6 72.5

 Hispanic 57.2 52.8 35.0 67.0

 White, non-Hispanic 61.6 56.3 38.8 69.1

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 64.6 57.0 40.5 67.7

 23–24 57.9 57.1 37.1 68.0

 25–29 57.5 53.0 36.5 69.4

 30 or older 58.4 51.1 33.9 75.0

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 58.0 54.5 35.6 67.7

 Some postsecondary education 64.6 55.1 40.4 68.8

 Bachelor’s degree 61.7 58.4 39.0 69.5

 Advanced degree 61.8 54.2 38.5 70.6
 Labor Market Outcomes 

33 

Table 7—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, 

Table 8—percentage reporting various job attributes for the April 1997 job—Continued 

 Degree required

 Degree Definite and definite Built on skills

 required career potential career potential from prior job

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 58.3 53.7 35.2 68.6

 Married/cohabit as married 62.7 57.4 40.1 69.4

 Divorced/separated/widowed 61.6 51.1 37.0 73.5

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 56.0 50.3 33.6 68.0

 3.0 to 3.49 58.5 58.7 38.2 67.8

 3.5 or higher 66.7 56.5 41.5 72.4

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 64.7 57.2 40.8 68.3

 Nondoctorate 60.6 54.4 37.5 70.2

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 60.8 57.8 39.0 68.2

 Nondoctorate 53.7 52.3 31.8 70.0

 Private, for profit 52.2 49.0 33.0 72.8

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

their job had definite career potential (45 versus 55 percent). Although the same appears to be 

true for social work majors, there is not enough statistical evidence to draw this conclusion. 

Over one-third (38 percent) of graduates reported that their April 1997 job both required a 

degree and had definite career potential. With two exceptions, there were no measurable differences between the reports of those with specific majors and all graduates. Engineering majors 

reported both job attributes more often than all graduates (54 versus 38 percent) while social science majors (33 percent) were less likely to do so. 

Finally, over two-thirds (69 percent) of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients reported that 

their April 1997 job built on skills they had acquired from a previous job. There was little variation across fields for whether or not graduates believed that previous skills were required. Only 

those who had majored in nursing were more likely than all graduates to report this job attribute 

(84 percent), and in no field were college graduates significantly less likely to report the same. 
Labor Market Outcomes

34

Job Benefits

To get a complete picture of job compensation, job benefits that college graduates receive

should be taken into account. With respect to their April 1997 job, graduates were asked whether

they received health insurance, paid sick leave, paid vacation, retirement, family leave, and job

training outside the job (table 8). Engineering and computer science majors were more likely

than all graduates to report all benefits with two exceptions: engineering majors were not more

likely to get paid sick leave and computer science majors were not more likely to get outside job

training. In contrast, humanities and arts majors were less likely than all graduates to report having any of the benefits. Nursing majors were more likely than all graduates to report that their

April 1997 job provided retirement benefits, while those majoring in mathematics or physical

sciences were more likely to report that their job provided family leave benefits. Nursing graduates also reported having outside job training more often than all graduates, while humanities and

arts majors were less likely to report the same.

Job Satisfaction

Graduates reported on the level of satisfaction they experienced with pay, job security, job

challenge, fringe benefits, promotion opportunity, co-workers, and working conditions in their

April 1997 job. There were few differences across fields of study (table 9). Consistent with their

higher than average salaries, both engineering and health majors (other than nursing) were more

likely than all graduates to report high satisfaction with their rate of pay, while education and

humanities and arts majors were less likely to do so.10 Education was the only field in which

majors were more likely than average to report being very satisfied with the challenge that their

jobs offered, while engineering was the only field in which majors were more likely than average

to report high satisfaction with co-workers. Computer science was the only field in which majors

were more likely than all graduates to report being very satisfied with working conditions, while

nursing majors were less likely than all graduates to report the same.

Satisfaction with their April 1997 job also varied with graduates’ demographic and academic characteristics. Women were less likely than men to report being very satisfied with opportunities for promotion at their job. College graduates with a GPA less than 3.0 were less likely

to report being very satisfied with the challenge of their job than graduates with a GPA of 3.0 or

higher.

 

10While it appears that biological science majors also were less likely to report satisfaction with pay, there is not enough statistical evidence to draw this conclusion.
 Labor Market Outcomes 

35 

Table 8—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, 

Table 8—percentage reporting various benefits offered at their April 1997 job

Job training

 Health Paid Paid Family outside

 insurance sick leave vacation Retirement leave the job

 Total 85.9 83.0 86.1 78.0 66.1 43.8

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 81.4 83.3 74.6 77.8 60.3 44.0

 Business 90.1 84.5 91.2 81.1 67.3 47.2

 Engineering/architecture 93.2 85.0 94.7 85.9 73.9 54.2

 Computer science 94.8 91.5 95.4 87.9 79.7 48.2

 Health/nursing 87.5 87.7 87.2 86.8 68.9 55.8

 Health/other 88.5 84.2 88.1 82.5 73.6 42.1

 Communications/journalism 83.7 80.9 84.3 77.1 65.2 38.6

 Social work/protective services 83.1 84.7 87.3 76.7 64.6 40.7

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 78.1 76.7 79.4 67.7 58.5 37.1

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 79.7 80.7 79.8 71.9 57.3 37.8

 Mathematics/physical sciences 89.5 86.5 81.4 80.6 79.8 40.7

 Social sciences 85.8 82.9 85.2 76.8 66.8 43.7

 Other* 84.0 77.9 80.9 74.0 63.3 42.6

Gender

 Male 88.1 82.9 87.9 79.1 64.6 43.0

 Female 84.1 83.1 84.5 77.1 67.3 44.5

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 65.9 65.5 70.3 62.8 51.5 40.7

 Asian/Pacific Islander 91.7 91.6 94.6 83.7 69.3 54.5

 Black, non-Hispanic 90.0 87.3 91.5 84.3 71.9 42.3

 Hispanic 84.4 86.6 84.6 80.7 73.1 39.3

 White, non-Hispanic 85.5 82.2 85.4 77.2 65.2 43.7

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 87.4 84.9 87.6 77.9 69.9 43.6

 23–24 85.6 82.0 84.9 76.9 66.6 43.0

 25–29 83.5 78.3 85.9 77.0 61.9 44.3

 30 or older 85.0 84.0 84.5 81.1 59.6 45.5

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 86.5 84.0 86.5 79.3 66.4 46.3

 Some postsecondary education 87.3 83.8 87.5 79.6 68.5 45.7

 Bachelor’s degree 87.1 82.2 86.3 78.2 66.3 44.0

 Advanced degree 82.0 82.1 84.1 74.5 63.3 40.2
Labor Market Outcomes

36

Table 8—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 9—percentage reporting various benefits offered at their April 1997 job—Continued

Job training

 Health Paid Paid Family outside

 insurance sick leave vacation Retirement leave the job

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 85.3 81.4 85.6 76.5 67.4 41.2

 Married/cohabit as married 86.4 84.2 86.4 79.4 65.4 45.8

 Divorced/separated/widowed 86.4 84.5 87.0 78.4 62.5 46.4

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 85.0 82.1 87.5 76.8 66.3 39.8

 3.0 to 3.49 86.2 81.9 86.1 78.0 66.0 44.0

 3.5 or higher 87.1 85.4 85.6 79.7 66.8 47.1

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 86.3 84.0 85.7 78.6 68.7 45.0

 Nondoctorate 85.8 83.4 86.5 78.8 65.7 45.2

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate granting 84.3 81.7 86.3 75.6 64.9 42.6

 Nondoctorate 85.1 79.7 85.2 76.2 62.4 39.6

 Private, for profit 91.8 89.9 90.9 83.9 61.5 46.7

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

Reasons for Selecting April 1997 Job

The 1992–93 college graduates were asked a range of questions about their reasons for selecting their April 1997 job. Reasons included whether the job provided interesting work, was

intellectually challenging, required previous experience, and provided opportunity for advancement. Graduates also were asked whether the job offered a good starting income, income potential, and job security. Differences seemed to be related to the graduates’ undergraduate field of

study. With the exception of the job providing interesting work and requiring previous experience, education majors were less likely than all graduates to report choosing their job for any

other reason (i.e., for income reasons, intellectual reasons, advancement opportunities, or job security; table 10). Business majors were more likely than average to report selecting their job because of advancement opportunities. But, business also was the only field in which graduates

were less likely than average to report having selected their job because it provided interesting

work.
 Labor Market Outcomes 

37 

Table 9—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, 

Table 9—percentage reporting being very satisfied with various aspects of their April 1997 job 

Job Job Fringe Promotion Working

 Pay security challenge benefits opportunity Co-workers conditions

 Total 32.6 63.0 55.8 52.8 38.3 79.6 55.6

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 27.0 64.1 66.3 45.8 31.8 78.7 50.4

 Business 34.3 61.5 52.7 54.3 42.1 80.0 58.5

 Engineering/architecture 42.0 60.4 60.4 57.6 46.1 85.4 54.4

 Computer science 40.7 62.8 59.7 65.9 43.9 78.7 69.4

 Health/nursing 38.0 55.8 62.1 48.4 33.5 79.1 41.6

 Health/other 48.4 70.4 63.3 54.4 27.3 75.9 51.9

 Communications/journalism 30.9 63.3 54.6 60.1 42.3 81.3 56.5

 Social work/protective services 33.9 66.9 60.4 53.7 33.6 76.9 48.9

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 26.6 60.7 53.1 51.0 34.1 79.2 54.9

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 23.9 57.6 50.8 41.5 28.1 73.4 46.4

 Mathematics/physical sciences 38.1 62.5 49.9 51.5 30.5 77.7 52.7

 Social sciences 29.3 66.0 52.9 50.8 36.4 79.7 53.7

 Other* 34.1 69.0 59.0 50.6 44.2 82.4 59.9

Gender

 Male 33.4 62.3 54.2 52.9 41.5 79.1 56.4

 Female 31.9 63.6 57.1 52.7 35.6 80.1 55.0

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 49.9 57.5 68.2 49.0 42.2 76.1 64.7

 Asian/Pacific Islander 23.4 57.3 51.6 40.6 28.2 65.7 56.2

 Black, non-Hispanic 22.9 48.4 43.5 46.9 29.7 75.7 43.4

 Hispanic 32.9 66.8 59.2 55.9 42.7 78.6 54.0

 White, non-Hispanic 33.7 64.4 56.5 53.9 39.3 80.7 56.6

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 34.1 67.1 55.7 54.5 40.1 81.4 55.8

 23–24 31.6 65.6 58.5 54.6 41.0 79.5 59.8

 25–29 31.6 59.3 51.7 48.2 37.1 78.7 50.3

 30 or older 30.9 52.0 55.2 49.7 30.3 75.9 53.1

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 34.6 61.8 58.8 52.9 37.0 80.1 56.5

 Some postsecondary education 29.6 64.0 56.5 52.8 38.7 77.4 53.8

 Bachelor’s degree 33.7 63.9 56.1 54.9 41.4 80.5 55.8

 Advanced degree 31.9 64.1 52.1 51.7 36.6 81.7 57.2
Labor Market Outcomes

38

Table 9—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997, 

Table 9—percentage reporting being very satisfied with various aspects of their April 1997 job 

Table 9——Continued

Job Job Fringe Promotion Working

 Pay security challenge benefits opportunity Co-workers conditions

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 30.8 62.5 52.4 54.0 38.6 78.7 54.8

 Married/cohabit as married 34.6 63.5 58.5 52.6 38.3 80.5 56.7

 Divorced/separated/widowed 27.8 61.5 55.7 46.0 35.7 78.8 53.0

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 31.0 60.6 49.4 53.4 38.0 79.8 54.8

 3.0 to 3.49 32.3 66.3 57.0 54.2 39.2 79.3 58.6

 3.5 or higher 34.1 60.8 58.1 52.2 39.0 80.1 52.2

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 33.6 64.9 56.8 53.8 39.3 80.5 56.6

 Nondoctorate 31.4 63.2 56.7 52.8 38.2 79.2 55.1

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 33.1 64.6 55.4 52.4 39.3 81.4 52.2

 Nondoctorate 32.2 57.4 52.4 51.2 35.5 78.5 54.6

 Private, for profit 30.3 61.9 56.2 50.9 37.5 71.6 64.6

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.

Nursing majors were less likely than average to report choosing their jobs because of income potential, as were those with majors in social work or protective services. Also, graduates

who majored in the biological sciences were less likely to report choosing their jobs for advancement opportunities.

Three gender differences emerged with regard to the reasons that graduates selected their

jobs. Women were more likely than men to have selected their April 1997 job because the work

was interesting. In contrast, men more often chose their job because of advancement opportunities or income potential.
 Labor Market Outcomes 

39 

Table 10—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 11—percentage reporting various reasons for taking their April 1997 job 

Better Good

 Interesting Intellectual Previous advancement income Income Job

 work work experience opportunities to start potential security

 

 Total 17.2 8.9 8.2 17.2 11.6 11.1 5.5

Bachelor’s degree major

Applied fields

 Education 20.3 4.2 9.2 4.5 5.3 5.7 2.6

 Business 13.5 10.1 7.6 24.3 13.2 15.0 5.5

 Engineering/architecture 23.5 10.7 8.2 16.1 16.6 13.6 6.3

 Computer science 19.6 8.4 7.8 18.7 14.1 10.9 5.8

 Health/nursing 27.2 7.8 9.1 14.9 8.1 3.9 4.8

 Health/other 26.6 9.6 10.2 16.1 17.3 9.0 6.2

 Communications/journalism 14.7 8.6 8.0 19.0 13.9 8.5 5.9

 Social work/protective services 27.1 8.2 10.7 14.1 8.2 4.4 7.1

Academic fields

 Humanities and arts 14.3 7.3 6.8 14.4 12.1 9.4 5.5

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 20.7 6.3 7.9 7.7 7.4 8.9 8.9

 Mathematics/physical sciences 24.9 7.6 14.5 13.3 8.5 9.5 4.5

 Social sciences 15.1 8.5 9.4 18.3 11.5 12.7 6.4

 Other* 18.8 5.1 9.3 17.4 8.1 9.5 4.9

Gender

 Male 13.9 7.7 7.3 19.5 13.0 13.9 5.4

 Female 20.2 9.9 9.0 15.2 10.3 8.7 5.5

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 12.9 6.8 3.5 22.9 8.3 17.3 4.6

 Asian/Pacific Islander 16.5 21.1 5.9 21.1 12.1 10.3 6.8

 Black, non-Hispanic 13.2 6.6 9.6 12.3 12.6 6.8 6.1

 Hispanic 17.7 7.3 6.3 15.0 9.9 8.0 5.5

 White, non-Hispanic 17.6 8.6 8.3 17.4 11.6 11.5 5.4

Age at bachelor’s degree

 22 or younger 17.4 9.9 7.6 19.2 12.3 11.3 4.9

 23–24 19.2 8.3 8.3 17.1 12.1 13.5 6.2

 25–29 13.9 7.0 8.0 16.5 9.6 10.4 5.5

 30 or older 16.2 8.4 9.5 13.0 9.9 7.6 5.8

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or less 16.9 8.1 9.4 15.6 11.0 10.4 6.0

 Some postsecondary education 19.6 9.4 7.5 16.6 11.4 11.2 5.2

 Bachelor’s degree 16.3 9.5 6.6 18.7 11.4 12.3 5.9

 Advanced degree 17.0 8.8 8.4 18.2 11.8 10.2 3.9
Labor Market Outcomes

40

Table 10—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had not enrolled in graduate education by 1997,

Table 11—percentage reporting various reasons for taking their April 1997 job—Continued 

Better Good

 Interesting Intellectual Previous advancement income Income Job

 work work experience opportunities to start potential security

Marital status in 1997

 Never married 17.0 10.9 8.3 19.0 11.2 13.4 5.8

 Married/cohabit as married 17.3 7.0 7.9 15.9 11.9 9.3 4.8

 Divorced/separated/widowed 17.9 11.4 9.9 15.8 11.4 10.1 9.4

Undergraduate GPA

 Less than 3.0 14.7 5.7 5.8 17.7 11.1 11.5 5.6

 3.0 to 3.49 16.9 10.5 8.0 18.4 12.4 11.4 6.2

 3.5 or higher 19.1 9.2 9.4 16.4 11.2 10.3 4.8

Institution type

 Public

 Doctorate 16.9 8.1 8.0 18.1 12.3 11.4 5.1

 Nondoctorate 19.1 8.4 8.0 16.8 11.0 11.1 7.0

 Private, not-for-profit 

 Doctorate 17.9 10.7 7.4 17.0 11.5 12.1 4.2

 Nondoctorate 15.1 8.9 9.5 15.8 10.6 9.3 5.4

 Private, for profit 16.8 15.9 7.8 18.2 12.6 14.2 3.9

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies,

basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: Gray boxes indicate majors significantly higher than average, white indicates significantly lower than average (p<0.05).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal

Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
41 

Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

The analysis thus far has been limited to bivariate comparisons and in particular, comparisons of graduates in specific fields of study to all graduates as a whole. While this type of analysis is useful to gain insight into the general patterns of employment outcomes with respect to 

major, many other factors also may play a role in how college graduates fare in the labor market. 

Gender and age, for example, are highly correlated with employment outcomes. In order to take 

multiple factors into account, it is necessary to use statistical techniques that hold related variables constant while looking at the independent effects of individual variables. To do so usually 

requires the use of a comparison group or in the case of this study, a particular field of study 

against which to compare other fields. The natural point of comparison is business, the field of 

study that dominates undergraduate education. As was shown in figure A, over one-quarter of all 

1992–93 undergraduates had majored in a business-related field. Thus, the multivariate analysis 

compares specific majors to business after holding other variables constant. In other words, taking into account factors such as age, gender, marital status, employment experience, and other 

variables that may affect employment outcomes, the analysis compares college graduates in each 

major with those in business. 

Three linear regression models were developed with the following outcome or dependent 

variables: (1) 1997 full-time salary, (2) the percent increase in full-time salaries for those who 

worked full time in both 1994 and 1997, and (3) the percentage of graduates reporting that their 

1997 occupation both required a bachelor’s degree and had definite career potential. Models 1 

and 2 (1997 salary and percent increase in salary) were run separately for men and women. The 

sample for model 1 was limited to those who worked full time in 1997; model 2 included those 

who worked full time in both 1994 and 1997; and model 3 included all graduates (i.e. those with 

no graduate enrollment). 

Along with undergraduate major, the independent variables included in the models reflect 

student demographic characteristics (gender, race/ethnicity, age at bachelor’s degree, parents’ 

highest education); family responsibilities (marital status, parenthood); performance in college 

(cumulative GPA); undergraduate institution attended; and work experience. Work experience 

variables included employment while enrolled in college, ever worked in overlapping jobs simultaneously, worked in two or more jobs since graduation, worked in one job versus two or more, 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

42 

and the average number of months worked in the 1997 job. Finally, like the bivariate analysis, 

only bachelor’s degree recipients with no graduate enrollment were included in the analysis. 

The results of the first regression analysis—1997 full-time salaries—are shown in table 

11a. The first column displays the unadjusted average full-time salaries of college graduates with 

no graduate education before controlling for the other variables. The second column displays the 

average salaries after controlling for all the independent variables listed in the table. In other 

words, they are the expected salaries after holding all other variables constant. The italicized 

category for each variable is the reference group against which all comparisons and tests of statistical significance are made. Asterisks indicate when a particular category of a variable is significantly different from the reference group. When asterisks appear in both columns, one can draw 

the same conclusion as when interpreting the unadjusted results. When asterisks appear in only 

one column, it means that the adjustment procedure may lead to a different interpretation than 

when one uses only unadjusted estimates. For example, before adjustment, the average salaries 

for graduates in several fields differed from those in business. After adjustment, however, only 

education and humanities and arts remained different from business. Graduates in either education or humanities and arts earned less than their peers in business, while graduates in no other 

field earned significantly more than those in business. The change between the unadjusted and 

adjusted salaries is likely due the interrelationship of several variables, but in particular, to age 

and employment experience. Older graduates were more likely to major in business (see table 2), 

and these graduates presumably have more employment experience, which in turn is associated 

with higher salaries. Thus, when age and employment experience are controlled for, the average 

adjusted salary for business appears lower than the unadjusted amount and the adjusted salaries 

for several other fields appear higher. 

In addition to field of study, three other variables included in the model remained significant predictors of 1997 salaries after controlling for related variables: gender, GPA, and institution first attended. Men earned substantially more than women, graduates with GPAs under 3.0 

earned less than those with GPAs of 3.5 or higher, and those attending private, not-for-profit doctorate institutions earned more than their counterparts attending comparable public institutions. 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

43 

Table 11a—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who

Table 12a—had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 12a—variables listed in the table

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total $34,310 $34,310 $43,526 $3,357 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 24,543* 26,876* -9,196 2,511 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 31,565* 31,076 -4,996 4,189 

 Social science 33,463* 33,840 -2,231 1,977 

 Other5 33,374 35,075 -997 3,805 

 Engineering/architecture 42,931* 39,719 3,648 2,566 

 Computer science 44,624* 42,866 6,795 3,652 

 Health/nursing 37,012 38,519 2,447 3,668 

 Health/other 42,006* 42,226 6,154 3,670 

 Communications/journalism 32,294* 33,244 -2,828 2,718 

 Social work/protective services 27,350* 28,682 -7,389 4,211 

 Humanities and arts 29,630* 30,037* -6,034 2,119 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 28,760* 30,230 -5,842 3,395 

 Business 37,448 36,071 † † 

Gender

 Female 30,596* 31,322* -6,290 1,326 

 Male 38,415 37,612 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — — 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 39,442* 38,535 4,218 3,199 

 Black, non-Hispanic 30,583* 32,355 -1,962 2,622 

 Hispanic 32,081 32,803 -1,514 2,906 

 White, non-Hispanic 34,424 34,317 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 33,757 33,620 62 1,567 

 25–29 35,947* 34,641 1,083 2,065 

 30 or older 37,586* 37,137 3,579 2,510 

 22 or younger 32,841 33,558 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 35,226* 35,049 1,698 1,374 

 Not married 33,136 33,351 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 34,801 32,014 -2,733 2,362 

 No 34,046 34,746 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 33,689 33,765 -1,192 1,272 

 Bachelor’s or higher 34,920 34,957 † † 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

44 

Table 11a—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who

Table 11a—had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 11a—variables listed in the table—Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work $33,383* $33,605 -$2,318 $1,945 

 Part-time 33,261* 33,982 -1,942 1,741 

 Full-time 37,639 35,923 † † 

Overlapping jobs in 1997

 Yes 27,770* 31,223 -3,598 1,866 

 No 35,392 34,821 † † 

Number of jobs worked since bachelor’s

 2 or more 32,467* 33,523 -2,252 1,746 

 1 job 37,739 35,775 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 32,338* 32,065* -3,712 1,860 

 3.10–3.49 34,634 34,041 -1,736 1,404 

 3.5 or higher 35,624 35,777 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 32,201 33,221 -759 1,581 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 33,811 33,603 -377 1,795 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 38,962* 39,184* 5,205 2,036 

 Private, for-profit 33,683 32,686 -1,294 3,544 

 Public, doctorate 34,455 33,980 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The estimates are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared. A control was also added for number of

months worked in April 1997 job.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

45 

When models predicting 1997 full-time salaries were run separately for men and women, 

GPA was no longer significant. Otherwise, the results for men mirrored those for all graduates: 

men who had majored in education or humanities and arts earned less than business majors and 

those attending private, not-for-profit institutions earned more than their counterparts attending 

comparable public institutions (table 11b). For women, on the other hand, there were several factors related to their 1997 salaries that were not related to men’s (table 11c). Those who had majored in either engineering or other health fields reported substantially higher salaries than their 

peers who had majored in business. And unlike graduates as a whole and their male peers, 

women who had majored in humanities and arts did not earn significantly less than women who 

had majored business. In addition, women’s age at bachelor’s degree, race/ethnicity, and employment experience all independently influenced their 1997 salaries. Specifically, women age 

30 or older (compared with those under 23), Asian/Pacific Islanders (compared with white 

graduates), and women who never worked in overlapping jobs (compared with those who did) 

earned higher salaries. It is not clear why so many more variables were associated with women’s 

1997 salary compared with men’s. Whether women are subjected to greater scrutiny in advancing 

through their professions or whether there is more variation among women college graduates 

with respect to their employment tenure cannot be determined from the data. 

When looking at college graduates who worked full time in both 1994 and 1997, after controlling for related variables, only two factors were associated with the percent increase in salaries between 1994 and 1997: age and major field of study (table 12a). College graduates age 30 

or older experienced a smaller percent increase in salary than their counterparts age 22 or 

younger, and those who had majored in either education or nursing experienced a lower percent 

increase in salary than did business majors. The finding for age is consistent with the fact that 

college graduates age 30 or older earned substantially higher salaries in 1994 than did their counterparts age 22 or younger (see table 4a); older graduates also reported working in fewer jobs (table 3c), giving them fewer opportunities for pay increases. Similarly, nursing majors also started 

out at a relatively high rate of pay (i.e., their 1994 salary was higher than average). Education majors, on the other hand, started with low salaries and they remained low between 1994 and 1997. 

When models for men and women were run separately, age was the only factor included in 

the model that predicted the average percent increase in salary for men (table 12b). Otherwise, 

male college graduates working full time in both 1994 and 1997 appeared to be advancing in salary at roughly the same rate regardless of major field of study, employment experiences, and 

variables other than age that were included in the model. For women, field of study was the only 

predictor of salary increases (table 12c). That is, women who were nursing majors or education 

majors experienced lower percent increases in salary than did women who were business majors.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

46 

Table 11b—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 male bachelor’s degree recipients 

Table 12a—who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 12a—variables listed in the table 

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total $38,415 $38,415 $46,036 $5,788 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 28,421* 28,792* -11,834 5,546 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 33,636 34,270 -6,356 6,655 

 Social science 37,454 37,474 -3,152 3,384 

 Other5 36,593 38,109 -2,517 7,929 

 Engineering/architecture 42,952 41,938 1,312 3,540 

 Computer science 47,697 46,847 6,221 5,493 

 Health/nursing — — — —

 Health/other 45,241 45,475 4,849 7,526 

 Communications/journalism 36,947 37,065 -3,561 4,903 

 Social work/protective services 29,800* 31,248 -9,378 7,757 

 Humanities and arts 31,495* 31,431* -9,195 3,837 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 31,443* 33,249 -7,377 6,199 

 Business 41,436 40,626 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 39,826 39,169 492 5,458 

 Black, non-Hispanic 32,848 33,892 -4,785 5,162 

 Hispanic 36,335 37,560 -1,117 5,656 

 White, non-Hispanic 38,753 38,677 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 36,995 37,859 -651 2,669 

 25–29 38,234 37,882 -628 3,295 

 30 or older 42,302* 40,095 1,585 4,401 

 22 or younger 37,580 38,510 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 40,393* 40,174 3,828 2,366 

 Not married 36,090 36,347 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 37,912 36,451 -2,251 4,279 

 No 40,127 38,702 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 37,492 37,398 -2,112 2,198 

 Bachelor’s or higher 39,400 39,510 † † 

Males
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

47 

Table 11b—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 male bachelor’s degree recipients

Table 12a—who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 12a—variables listed in the table—Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work $38,549 $38,208 -$1,892 $3,419 

 Part-time 37,011* 37,769 -2,331 2,992 

 Full-time 40,933 40,100 † † 

Overlapping jobs begun since bachelor’s

 Yes 32,116* 35,125 -3,701 3,574 

 No 39,203 38,827 † † 

Number of jobs begun since bachelor’s

 2 or more 36,565* 37,426 -2,698 3,010 

 1 job 41,609 40,123 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 35,799* 36,745 -3,660 3,156 

 3.10–3.49 38,259 37,929 -2,475 2,520 

 3.5 or higher 41,426 40,404 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 36,676 37,412 -534 2,770 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 37,245 36,344 -1,602 3,253 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 44,574 45,009* 7,063 3,505 

 Private, for-profit 38,653 37,461 -485 6,137 

 Public, doctorate 38,041 37,946 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The estimates are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared. A control was also added for number of

months worked in April 1997 job.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

48 

Table 11c—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 female bachelor’s degree recipients 

Table 12a—who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 12a—variables listed in the table 

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total $30,596 $30,596 $35,164 $3,384 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 23,284* 24,661* -6,978 2,326 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 28,741 29,618 -2,021 4,834 

 Social science 29,809 30,208 -1,431 2,102 

 Other5 30,297 32,400 762 3,548 

 Engineering/architecture 42,822* 41,472* 9,834 4,433 

 Computer science 38,881 38,817 7,178 4,613 

 Health/nursing 36,931 35,527 3,888 2,990 

 Health/other 40,520* 39,320* 7,681 3,434 

 Communications/journalism 28,934 29,849 -1,789 2,752 

 Social work/protective services 25,552* 25,668 -5,971 4,202 

 Humanities and arts 28,362* 28,278 -3,360 2,153 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 26,800* 27,815 -3,824 3,414 

 Business 32,908 31,639 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 39,076* 38,317* 7,929 3,413 

 Black, non-Hispanic 29,318 29,769 -619 2,509 

 Hispanic 29,390 28,577 -1,811 2,816 

 White, non-Hispanic 30,265 30,389 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 29,521 29,815 724 1,679 

 25–29 32,265* 32,027 2,937 2,429 

 30 or older 34,348* 34,756* 5,666 2,631 

 22 or younger 29,269 29,090 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 30,921 30,477 -288 1,457 

 Not married 30,155 30,765 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 31,646 27,837 -3,398 2,436 

 No 30,412 31,234 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 30,574 30,403 -444 1,339 

 Bachelor’s or higher 30,504 30,847 † † 

Females
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

49 

Table 11c—Average full-time salary reported in April 1997 for 1992–93 female bachelor’s degree recipients 

Table 12a—who had not enrolled in graduate school by 1997, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for

Table 12a—variables listed in the table—Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work $28,785* $29,423 -$2,761 $2,062 

 Part-time 30,023* 30,536 -1,648 1,855 

 Full-time 34,387 32,185 † † 

Overlapping jobs begun since bachelor’s

 Yes 25,195 27,606* -3,602 1,812 

 No 31,701 31,208 † † 

Number of jobs begun since bachelor’s

 2 or more 28,944* 30,017 -1,734 1,843 

 1 job 33,892 31,751 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 27,827* 27,807 -3,906 2,012 

 3.10–3.49 30,862 30,487 -1,226 1,433 

 3.5 or higher 31,790 31,713 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 28,418* 29,398 -1,116 1,651 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 31,345 30,894 380 1,814 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 33,693 33,743 3,229 2,146 

 Private, for-profit 29,147 27,607 -2,907 3,766 

 Public, doctorate 30,788 30,514 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The estimates are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared. A control was also added for number of 

months worked in April 1997 job.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

50 

Table 12a—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s

Table 13a—degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in graduate

Table 13a—school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total 24.6 24.6 27.2 3.92 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 18.2* 18.8* -7.1 3.04 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 23.6 23.2 -2.6 5.22 

 Social science 26.8 26.2 0.4 2.31 

 Other5 23.4 24.7 -1.2 4.59 

 Engineering/architecture 25.2 24.3 -1.6 2.94 

 Computer science 31.2 32.4 6.6 4.18 

 Health/nursing 10.9* 13.8* -12.1 4.32 

 Health/other 17.2* 18.6 -7.2 4.33 

 Communications/journalism 28.7 27.1 1.3 3.13 

 Social work/protective services 22.2 23.2 -2.6 5.12 

 Humanities and arts 25.6 25.0 -0.8 2.56 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 22.4 21.0 -4.8 4.36 

 Business 25.1 25.8 † † 

Gender

 Female 22.9* 23.5 -2.1 1.55 

 Male 26.3 25.6 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 26.4 24.7 -0.1 3.70 

 Black, non-Hispanic 21.6 22.4 -2.4 3.14 

 Hispanic 21.3 22.6 -2.1 3.59 

 White, non-Hispanic 24.8 24.8 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 26.6 26.3 0.3 1.85 

 25–29 22.9* 23.1 -3.0 2.44 

 30 or older 16.1* 18.7* -7.3 3.04 

 22 or younger 26.9 26.1 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 23.1* 24.5 -0.1 1.62 

 Not married 26.6 24.6 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 17.9* 25.1 0.7 2.86 

 No 26.3 24.4 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 23.0* 24.0 -1.3 1.50 

 Bachelor’s or higher 26.1 25.2 † † 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

51 

Table 12a—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 bachelor’s

Table 13a—degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in graduate

Table 13a—school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table—Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work 25.5* 25.0 1.7 2.30 

 Part-time 25.8* 24.9 1.6 2.03 

 Full-time 20.4 23.3 † † 

Overlapping jobs begun since bachelor’s

 Yes 26.3 25.1 0.7 2.38 

 No 24.3 24.5 † † 

Number of jobs begun since bachelor’s

 2 or more 26.8* 25.6 2.9 2.05 

 1 job 20.8 22.7 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 25.8 24.5 -0.2 2.20 

 3.10–3.49 25.2 24.5 -0.1 1.65 

 3.5 or higher 23.5 24.6 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 25.2 25.3 1.0 1.88 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 21.0* 22.3 -2.1 2.10 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 27.0 26.0 1.7 2.36 

 Private, for-profit 29.5 30.3 6.0 4.48 

 Public, doctorate 24.7 24.3 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The percentages are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

52 

Table 12b—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 male bachelor’s

Table 13a—degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in graduate

Table 13a—school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table 

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total 26.3 26.3 29.5 5.84 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 21.6 22.4 -5.1 5.77 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 21.4 22.3 -5.1 7.41 

 Social science 27.1 26.1 -1.4 3.47 

 Other5 25.1 29.8 2.3 8.20 

 Engineering/architecture 25.1 24.8 -2.7 3.56 

 Computer science 29.8 31.9 4.4 5.52 

 Health/nursing — — — —

 Health/other 14.9* 16.4 -11.0 7.26 

 Communications/journalism 31.0 29.4 1.9 4.97 

 Social work/protective services 28.2 28.8 1.4 8.23 

 Humanities and arts 26.4 25.7 -1.8 3.98 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 23.2 21.7 -5.8 6.73 

 Business 26.3 27.5 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 25.9 25.8 -0.9 5.46 

 Black, non-Hispanic 21.0* 20.8 -5.9 5.49 

 Hispanic 24.0 25.0 -1.7 5.87 

 White, non-Hispanic 26.7 26.7 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 28.3 28.0 -0.6 2.72 

 25–29 24.3 24.8 -3.7 3.39 

 30 or older 16.7* 18.9* -9.7 4.47 

 22 or younger 29.5 28.5 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 25.2* 26.7 0.9 2.42 

 Not married 27.2 25.8 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 19.6* 26.8 0.6 4.31 

 No 27.2 26.2 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 24.6* 25.2 -2.3 2.25 

 Bachelor’s or higher 28.5 27.5 † † 

Males
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

53 

Table 12b—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 male bachelor’s

Table 13a—degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in graduate

Table 13a—school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table—Continued 

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work 27.4 26.9 2.4 3.45 

 Part-time 27.9* 26.9 2.5 3.04 

 Full-time 21.6 24.4 † † 

Overlapping jobs in 1997

 Yes 31.1* 30.1 4.2 4.00 

 No 25.8 25.9 † † 

Number of jobs worked since bachelor's

 2 or more 28.7* 27.0 1.7 3.04 

 1 job 22.7 25.3 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 28.5 27.6 1.0 3.22 

 3.10–3.49 25.9 25.6 -0.9 2.56 

 3.5 or higher 25.6 26.6 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 26.6 26.3 -0.2 2.82 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 21.9* 22.9 -3.6 3.30 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 29.4 28.3 1.8 3.54 

 Private, for-profit 32.0 33.9 7.4 6.57 

 Public, doctorate 26.5 26.5 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The percentages are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

54 

Table 12c—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 female 

Table 13a—bachelor’s degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in 

Table 13a—graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table 

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

 Total 22.9 22.9 24.1 5.25 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 17.0* 16.9* -7.7 3.73 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 26.4 25.3 0.7 7.77 

 Social science 26.5 25.9 1.3 3.27 

 Other5 21.5 21.7 -2.8 5.68 

 Engineering/architecture 25.4 24.5 -0.1 6.76 

 Computer science 34.3* 34.9 10.3 6.96 

 Health/nursing 10.2* 12.1* -12.5 4.59 

 Health/other 18.4 19.4 -5.2 5.54 

 Communications/journalism 27.2 25.3 0.8 4.17 

 Social work/protective services 18.2 18.9 -5.7 6.76 

 Humanities and arts 25.1 24.4 -0.1 3.48 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 21.8 20.6 -4.0 5.95 

 Business 23.8 24.6 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native — — — —

 Asian/Pacific Islander 26.9 23.4 0.4 5.27 

 Black, non-Hispanic 21.9 21.8 -1.2 3.94 

 Hispanic 14.4 19.7 -3.3 4.73 

 White, non-Hispanic 22.9 23.1 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 24.7 24.9 1.1 2.66 

 25–29 20.4 21.0 -2.8 3.83 

 30 or older 15.5* 18.8 -5.1 4.40 

 22 or younger 25.2 23.8 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 21.1* 22.4 -1.3 2.29 

 Not married 25.4 23.7 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 16.8* 23.2 0.4 4.09 

 No 25.0 22.8 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 21.8 22.7 -0.3 2.12 

 Bachelor’s or higher 24.2 23.1 † † 

Females
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

55 

Table 12c—Average percent increase in full-time salary between 1994 and 1997 for 1992–93 female 

Table 13a—bachelor’s degree recipients who worked full time in 1994 and 1997 and had not enrolled in 

Table 13a—graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted after controlling for variables listed in the table

Table 13a——Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3

error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work 23.4 23.5 1.6 3.29 

 Part-time 23.9 23.1 1.2 2.86 

 Full-time 19.2 21.9 † † 

Overlapping jobs in 1997

 No 22.8 21.7 -1.4 3.06 

 Yes 23.5 23.1 † † 

Number of jobs worked since bachelor's

 2 or more 25.1* 24.2 3.8 2.93 

 1 job 18.8 20.5 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 22.4 20.9 -2.2 3.21 

 3.10–3.49 24.3* 23.4 0.4 2.26 

 3.5 or higher 21.9 23.0 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 23.8 24.0 1.5 2.64 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 26.1 21.3 -1.2 2.84 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 24.8 23.8 1.3 3.31 

 Private, for profit 27.2 26.6 4.1 6.50 

 Public, doctorate 22.8 22.5 † † 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The percentages are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

56 

In addition to salary, college graduates also reported whether their job placed them on a 

definite career track and whether a degree was required for their job. Because a relatively large 

percentage of graduates reported either that a degree was required or that their job held definite 

career potential, in this analysis, the two attributes were combined into one composite variable so 

that only those reporting both job attributes were considered (38 percent of graduates). As shown 

in table 13, after controlling for related variables, field of study was the only variable that was 

significantly associated with the outcome. Specifically, engineering majors were more likely than 

business majors to report both job attributes. Engineering is often a highly specialized major 

leading to a very specific career track, which may explain why majors are so much more likely to 

be in a career track position requiring a bachelor’s degree. However, compared with business, in 

no other field of study were college graduates more or less likely to report that their job was on a 

definite career track and that a degree was required. 

In summary, the data from the models predicting 1997 full-time salaries confirm the earnings disadvantage of education majors. This remained true for both men and women when separate models were run. In addition, for men but not for women, humanities and arts majors also 

earned significantly less than those who majored in business. Among women, but not men, those 

who majored in engineering or health other than nursing enjoyed an earnings premium compared 

with business majors. 

The data from the other two models (i.e., salary increase and career track employment) 

suggest that once college graduates are established in full-time employment, undergraduate major 

has at most a modest influence on either salary advancement or the degree of career potential that 

their occupations hold. However, it should be remembered that this analysis was limited to those 

employed full time. It is possible that major field of study may exert more influence on part-time 

or temporary employment earnings. 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business 

57 

Table 13—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients reporting that their April 1997 job both

Table 14—required a bachelor’s degree and had definite career potential among those who had not enrolled

Table 14—in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted for variables listed in the table

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3error4

 Total 37.9 37.9 48.1 6.60 

Bachelor’s degree major

 Education 37.1 36.2 -1.3 5.77 

 Mathematics/physical sciences 41.5 40.4 3.0 9.79 

 Social science 32.6 32.3 -5.2 4.62 

 Other5 38.0 39.6 2.1 8.79 

 Engineering/architecture 53.5* 53.4* 15.9 6.23 

 Computer science 46.0 46.6 9.2 8.93 

 Health/nursing 43.4 44.8 7.3 8.25 

 Health/other 46.6 46.6 9.2 8.33 

 Communications/journalism 40.9 39.7 2.2 6.37 

 Social work/protective services 26.5 28.0 -9.5 9.85 

 Humanities and arts 33.4 32.5 -4.9 4.86 

 Biological/interdisciplinary sciences 37.3 37.7 0.2 7.84 

 Business 37.3 37.4 † † 

Gender

 Female 36.9 37.2 -1.6 3.11 

 Male 39.1 38.8 † † 

Race/ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 35.6 36.7 -1.7 17.64 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 39.8 39.8 1.4 7.04 

 Black, non-Hispanic 26.6* 31.0 -7.4 6.22 

 Hispanic 35.0 37.3 -1.1 6.78 

 White, non-Hispanic 38.9 38.4 † † 

Age at bachelor’s degree

 23–24 37.2 36.5 -4.9 3.66 

 25–29 36.6 35.3 -6.1 4.75 

 30 or older 33.9* 33.9 -7.5 5.66 

 22 or younger 40.5 41.4 † † 

Marital status in 1997

 Married/cohabit as married 39.9* 40.6 6.3 3.24 

 Not married 35.3 34.3 † † 

Children in 1997

 Yes 33.6* 34.7 -3.9 5.37 

 No 39.5 38.6 † † 

Parents’ highest level of education

 High school or some college 37.4 38.0 0.1 2.98 

 Bachelor’s or higher 38.9 37.9 † † 
Multivariate Analysis: Comparing Other Majors to Business

58 

Table 13—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients reporting that their April 1997 job both

Table 14—required a bachelor’s degree and had definite career potential among those who had not enrolled

Table 14—in graduate school, unadjusted and adjusted for variables listed in the table—Continued

 Unadjusted Adjusted Least squares Standard 

 estimates1 estimates2 coefficient3error4

Employment while enrolled

 No work 35.7 34.8 -4.9 4.48 

 Part-time 39.4 38.9 -0.8 4.07 

 Full-time 36.7 39.7 † † 

Cumulative GPA

 Less than 3.0 33.6* 32.8 -8.6 4.38 

 3.10–3.49 38.3 37.3 -4.1 3.28 

 3.5 or higher 41.5 41.3 † † 

Institution first attended

 Public, nondoctorate 37.6 38.7 -1.3 3.67 

 Private, not-for-profit nondoctorate 31.8* 32.6 -7.3 4.17 

 Private, not-for-profit doctorate 39.0 38.8 -1.2 4.75 

 Private, for profit 33.0 32.5 -7.4 7.97 

 Public, doctorate 40.9 40.0 † † 

*p<0.05.

†Not applicable for the reference group.

1

The estimates are from the B&B:97 Undergraduate Data Analysis System.

2

The percentages are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

3

Least squares coefficient (see appendix B).

4

Standard error of least squares coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B).

5

Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure 

studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts, precision production, transportation.

NOTE: The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared. A control was also added for number of 

months worked in April 1997 job.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (B&B:93/97), Data Analysis System.
59 

Summary and Conclusions 

College graduates who received their bachelor’s degree in 1992–93 entered a labor market 

at a time of economic recovery and prosperity. While a small proportion of them experienced unemployment, most reported working full time. However, for those who had not enrolled in 

graduate education by 1997 their employment outcomes did vary with undergraduate major. The 

findings in this study concerning salary are consistent with earlier research analyzing the effect of 

college major. Graduates in certain applied fields such as engineering, business, computer science, nursing, and other health fields earned higher than average salaries either when they first 

entered the labor market in 1994 or three years later in 1997, while those in education, social 

work/protective services and humanities and arts earned lower than average salaries. 

However, when examining other job attributes such as job stability, job benefits, and job 

satisfaction, differences across fields of study were relatively modest. Consider, for example, that 

most college graduates (83 to 86 percent) reported that their jobs provided health insurance, paid 

sick leave, or paid vacations. The only field in which graduates consistently reported having 

these benefits less often was humanities and arts, yet three-quarters or more of these majors (77 

to 79 percent) reported receiving these benefits. Similarly, there was little variation in the extent 

to which college graduates reported high satisfaction with job attributes other than pay. Half or 

more reported being very satisfied with job security (63 percent), job challenge (56 percent), 

fringe benefits (53 percent), co-workers (80 percent), and working conditions (56 percent). And 

there was little variation in satisfaction with their 1997 job with respect to major. Even when 

looking at salary advancement for those working full time in both 1994 and 1997, the average 

percent increase in salary was 25 percent, and only in the field of computer science did graduates 

report a higher than average increase (31 percent). 

However, one field stood out from the others with respect to almost all job attributes: engineering majors consistently experienced very positive outcomes for both salary and job benefits. 

Not only did they report higher than average salaries but they also were more likely than all 

graduates to report job benefits such as health insurance, paid vacations, retirement benefits, family leave, and outside job training. College graduates who had majored in computer science fields 

also reported very positive outcomes relative to all graduates. They earned higher than average 

salaries in 1997 and were more likely than average to report most job benefits including health 

insurance, paid sick leave, paid vacation, retirement benefits and family leave. 
Summary and Conclusions

60 

Nursing majors stood out with respect to job stability. Nursing was the only field in which 

graduates experienced better than average job stability for all three indicators examined: they had 

worked in fewer jobs, experienced fewer spells of unemployment, and had worked in their April 

1997 job longer than all graduates as a whole. 

In contrast, education majors and humanities and arts majors fared relatively poorly compared to all graduates, especially with respect to salary. Education was the only field in which 

majors reported lower than average full-time salaries in both 1994 and 1997, and they experienced a lower than average salary increase between the two time periods. Humanities and arts 

majors reported lower than average salaries in both 1994 and 1997, and they consistently reported receiving all job benefits (health, sick leave, paid vacations, retirement benefits, family 

leave, and job training) less often than all graduates. 

In the multivariate analysis, where specific fields of study were compared to business after 

holding related variables constant, education majors earned lower salaries among both men and 

women. The same was true for humanities and arts majors but only for men. Women who had 

majored in humanities and arts did not earn significantly less than business majors once related 

variables were controlled. In addition, among women, but not men, engineering majors and 

health (other than nursing) majors earned more than business majors. With respect to salary increases between 1994 and 1997, among those employed full time in both years, education was 

one of only two fields (nursing being the other) in which graduates earned lower salary increases 

than did business majors. Finally, engineering was the only field in which graduates were more 

likely than business majors to report that their 1997 job both required a bachelor’s degree and 

held definite career potential. 

The multivariate analysis also demonstrated that even after controlling for major, background characteristics, college GPA, and work experience, men earned considerably higher salaries than women in 1997. Several factors that influenced women’s salaries in 1997 did not have a 

comparable effect on men’s salaries. These included age at bachelor’s degree (women 30 or older 

earned higher salaries than those under 23); race/ethnicity (female Asian/Pacific Islander graduates earned higher salaries than their white counterparts); and work experience (women who had 

ever worked in overlapping jobs earned less than their peers who did not). The discrepancy between factors that predict the salaries of men and women in 1997 suggests that women may be 

subjected to greater scrutiny than men in attaining higher paying positions in the marketplace. 

There were three fields of study in which graduates appeared to reach gender equity in earnings. In the fields of engineering, health fields other than nursing, and humanities and arts men 

and women earned comparable salaries four years after receiving their bachelor’s degree. Again, 
 Summary and Conclusions 

61 

however, these results reflect very early labor market experiences for those who never enrolled in 

graduate education, at most five years after college graduation. Results for longer-term effects 

remain to be determined from subsequent follow-up surveys of the same cohort. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
63 

References 

Adelman, C. (1991). Women at Thirtysomething: Paradoxes of Attainment. U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. 

Astin, W.A. (1993). What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited. San Francisco: 

Jossey-Bass, Inc. 

AT&T. (1984, December). College Experiences and Managerial Performance. Human Resources 

Studies Group Report to Management. New York: Author. 

Clery, S.B., Lee, J.B., and Knapp, L.G. (1998). Gender Differences in Earnings Among Young 

Adults Entering the Labor Market (NCES 98–086). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Fitzgerald, R.A. (2000). College Quality and the Earnings of Recent College Graduates (NCES 

2000–043). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Grogger, J., and Eide, E. (1995). Changes in College Skills and the Rise of the College Wage 

Premium. Journal of Human Resources, 30: 280–310. 

Hecker, D.E. (1998, March). Earnings of College Graduates: Women Compared With Men. 

Monthly Labor Review: 62–71. 

Henke, R., Zahn, L., and Geis, S. (forthcoming). Occupation Stability Among Recent College 

Graduates: Are New Teachers More Likely Than Others to Change Occupations? U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Mishel, L., and Bernstein, J. (1994). The State of Working America: 1994–95. Armonk, NY: Economic Policy Institute, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. 

National Science Board. (2000). Science and Engineering Indicators—2000 (Vol. 1) (NSB–00–1). 

Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. 

Pascarella, E.T., and Terenzini, P.T. (1991). How College Affects Students. San Francisco: JosseyBass, Inc. 
References

64 

Rumberger, R., and Thomas, S. (1993). The Economics Returns to College Major, Quality, and 

Performance: A Multilevel Analysis of Recent Graduates. Economics of Education Review, 

12: 1–19. 

Sax, L., Astin, A., Korn, W., and Mahoney, K. (1999). The American Freshmen: National Norms 

for Fall 1999. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). Digest of Education Statistics: 1999 (NCES 2000-031). 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1995). Degrees and 

Other Awards Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education: 1992–93 (NCES 95–722). 

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

U.S. Department of Labor. (1999). Report on the American Workforce. Washington, DC: Bureau 

of Labor Statistics. Available: http://www.bls.gov/opub/rtaw/rtawhome.htm [December 5, 

2000]. 
65 

Appendix A—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The variables were taken directly from the B&B:1993/1997 

Data Analysis System (DAS), an NCES software application that generates tables from the B&B:1993/1997 data. A 

description of the DAS software can be found in appendix B. 

In the index below, the variables are organized by general topic and, within topic, listed in the order they appear in 

the report. The glossary is in alphabetical order by variable label (displayed in capital letters to the right of the 

name). All variables labels beginning with B2 are based on data collected in 1997. 

GLOSSARY INDEX

STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Institution type .........................................SECTOR_B 

Age when received bachelor’s degree.... B2AGATBA 

Race/ethnicity........................................... B2ETHNIC 

Gender...........................................................B2RSEX 

Number of months of any graduate study 

after bachelor’s degree ....................... B2ENGRAD 

Grade point average in undergraduate 

major.........................................................GPAMAJ 

Undergraduate major............................... MAJWORK 

Highest education level by either parent ...PAREDUC 

Marital status as of 1997 ..........................B2MAR497 

Children as of 1997...................................... B2CHLD 

SALARY AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS

Annual salary for April 1997 job .............B2APRSAL 

April 1994 salary in 1997 constant 

dollars..................................................... SAL94_97 

Percent increase between 1994 and 1997 

April annual salaries ................................PCTINCR 

Employment status in April 1994..............B2EM9404 

Employment status in April 1997..............B2EM9704 

Employment/enrollment status in April 

1997...................................................... B2NM9704 

Total number of months unemployed.....B2UNEMPD 

Number of unemployment spells.............B2UNEMSP 

Average hours worked per week 

while enrolled ...................................... EMWKHR4 

JOB CHARACTERISTICS

Health insurance provided at April 

1997 job................................................ B2AJBN01 

Retirement benefits provided at April 

1997 job.................................................B2AJBN02 

Paid vacation provided at April 

1997 job ................................................B2AJBN03 

Paid sick leave provided at April 

1997 job.................................................B2AJBN04 

Family-related benefits provided at 

April 1997 job .......................................B2AJBN06 

April job required college/graduate 

degree ...................................................B2AJDEGR 

Number of months worked in April 

1997 job..................................................B2AJMOS 

April 1997 occupation................................ B2AJOBR 

April job built on skills from other job .... B2AJPREV 

Reasons for taking April 1997 job 

Had previous work experience in area.. B2AJRE03 

Related to field of study......................... B2AJRE04 

Good income to start ............................. B2AJRE05 

Good income potential .......................... B2AJRE06 

Good job security .................................. B2AJRE07 

Better advancement opportunity............ B2AJRE08 

Interesting work..................................... B2AJRE10 

Intellectually challenging work.............. B2AJRE11 

Satisfaction with aspects of April 1997 job 

Pay..........................................................B2AJST01

Fringe benefits........................................B2AJST02 

Job challenge ..........................................B2AJST03 

Working conditions................................B2AJST04 

Promotion opportunity............................B2AJST05 

Job security.............................................B2AJST06 

Co-workers.............................................B2AJST08 

April 1997 job provided training in last 

12 months ............................................B2EMPTRN 

Number of jobs begun since 

bachelor’s degree.....................................B2JOBN2 

Total number of jobs held since 

last interview ........................................ B2TOTALJ 

Job required bachelor’s degree and had 

definite career potential ...........................JOBBA97 
Appendix A—Glossary 

66 

Age when received bachelor’s degree B2AGATBA

Indicates the student’s age when he or she received a bachelor’s degree in 1992–93. 

Health insurance provided at April 1997 job B2AJBN01 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Does/Did) your job provide health or dental insurance (Yes/No)?” 

Retirement benefits provided at April 1997 job B2AJBN02 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Does/Did) your job provide retirement benefits (Yes/No)?” 

Paid vacation provided at April 1997 job B2AJBN03 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Does/Did) your job provide paid vacation or holidays (Yes/No)?” 

Paid sick leave provided at April 1997 job B2AJBN04 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Does/Did) your job provide paid sick leave (Yes/No)?” 

Family-related benefits provided at April 1997 job B2AJBN06 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Does/Did) your job provide family-related benefits such as maternity 

leave, child care, or elder care (Yes/No)?” 

April 1997 job required college/graduate degree B2AJDEGR 

Student’s response to the following question: “Was a college degree required to obtain this job (Yes/No)?” 

Number of months worked in April 1997 job B2AJMOS 

Indicates the number of months student worked in his or her April 1997 job between 1/1/93 and 4/30/97. 

April 1997 occupation B2AJOBR 

Indicates the respondent’s occupation in April 1997. For this analysis, occupations were aggregated into 12 categories, including the following: 

Educators K–12 teachers, instructors other than K–12 teachers 

Business and management Business/financial support services, financial services professionals, managers—executive, managers—midlevel, managers—supervisory, office, other 

Engineering/software engineers/architecture Engineers, architects, software engineers 
Appendix A—Glossary 

67 

Computer science Computer systems/related professions/technical workers, computer programmers 

Medical professionals Medical practice professionals, medical licensed professionals, 

medical services 

Editors/writers/reporters/performers Editors, writers, reporters, public relations, performers/artists 

Human/protective service professionals Protective services, criminal justice administrators, human services professionals 

Research, scientists, technical Scientists, statistician professionals, research assistants, 

laboratory technicians, technical/professional workers—other, 

computer and computer equipment operators 

Administrative/clerical/legal support Secretaries, specialized secretaries, receptionists, cashiers, 

tellers, sales clerks, clerks—data entry, clerical—other 

Mechanics, laborers Farmers, foresters, farm/forest laborers, laborer (other than 

farm), mechanics, repairers, service technicians, craftsmen, 

skilled operatives, transport operatives (other than pilots) 

Service industries Personal services, cooks, chefs, bakers, cake decorators, 

sales/purchasing, customer service, health/recreation services 

Other, military, uncodeable Military, uncodeable, other employed, unemployed—

homemakers, unemployed - other 

April 1997 job built on skills from other job B2AJPREV 

Student’s response to the following question: “Does/Did your position build on specific skills or knowledge acquired 

in previous jobs (Yes/No)?” 

Reasons for taking April 1997 job 

Student’s responses to the following question: “Why did you accept this position?” 

Previous work experience in the area B2AJRE03 

Related to field of study B2AJRE04 

Good income to start B2AJRE05

Good income potential B2AJRE06 

Job security B2AJRE07

Better opportunity for advancement B2AJRE08

Interesting work B2AJRE10

Intellectually challenging work B2AJRE11
Appendix A—Glossary 

68 

Satisfaction with aspects of April 1997 job 

Student’s response to the following question: “(Are/were) you very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, or dissatisfied with 

the following aspects of your employment”? 

The pay B2AJST01

The fringe benefits B2AJST02

The importance and challenge of your job B2AJST03

The working conditions B2AJST04

Your opportunity for promotion B2AJST05

Your job security B2AJST06

Your relationship with co-workers B2AJST08

Dissatisfied 

Somewhat satisfied 

Very satisfied 

Annual salary for April 1997 job B2APRSAL 

Total annual salary of April 1997 job was calculated using items on pay rate and salary. The original wording was as 

follows: “How much were you earning at [JOB] in the last month you were employed? [ELSE] in April of this year? 

Include any commissions, tips or bonuses.” 

Less than $25,000 

$25,000–34,999 

$35,000–49,999 

$50,000 or more 

Children as of 1997 B2CHLD 

Response to question “Do you have any children? Please include adopted, foster, and step children.” (Yes/No) 

Employment status April 1994 B2EM9404 

Indicates the student’s employment status in April 1994 as reported by the student. 

Full-time Work 35 or more hours 

Part-time Work less than 35 hours 

Unemployed Not working but actively looking for work, with or without 

unemployment benefits 

Out of labor force Not working and not looking for work 
Appendix A—Glossary 

69 

Employment status April 1997 B2EM9704 

Indicates the student’s employment status in April 1997 as reported by the student. 

Full-time Work 35 or more hours 

Part-time Work less than 35 hours 

Unemployed Not working but actively looking for work, with or without 

unemployment benefits 

Out of labor force Not working and not looking for work 

April 1997 job provided training in last 12 months B2EMPTRN 

Student’s response to the question “In the last twelve months, did your job provide any training other than informal 

on-the-job training or tuition-reimbursed courses taken through a regular college (Yes/No)?” 

If yes, student was asked how many courses, formal training seminars, or other employer-provided 

training activities he or she participated in. 

Number of months of any graduate study after bachelor’s degree B2ENGRAD 

Indicates the total number of months of graduate study since completion of bachelor’s degree. Used to filter out 

those with any graduate study (B2EJGRAD>0). 

Race/ethnicity B2ETHNIC 

Indicates the student’s race and ethnicity. 

American Indian/Alaskan native A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North 

America and who maintains cultural identification through 

tribal affiliation or community recognition. 

Asian or Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the peoples of the Far East, 

Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, or Pacific Islands. 

This includes people from China, Japan, Korea, the Philippine 

Islands, Samoa, India, and Vietnam. 

Black, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of 

Africa, not of Hispanic origin. 

Hispanic A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South 

American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of 

race. 

White, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the original peoples of 

Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East (except those of Hispanic origin). 
Appendix A—Glossary 

70 

Full-time/part-time April 1997 job B2FPJOB 

Full-time/part-time status of main job held in April 1997. “Full time” is defined as 30 or more hours per week, except for those who were teaching in April 1997, in which case “full time” was defined by the respondent. 

Full-time 

Part-time 

Number of jobs begun since bachelor’s degree B2JOBN2 

Indicates number of jobs begun since receiving a bachelor’s degree. 

One 

Two 

Three or more jobs 

Marital status as of April 1997 B2MAR497 

Indicates student’s marital status as of April 1997. For this analysis, the categories were defined as follows: 

Single, never married 

Married or cohabit as married 

Divorced, separated, or widowed 

Employ/enroll status April 1997 B2NM9704 

Indicates the employment/enrollment status of respondent in April 1997. 

Full-time enrolled 

 Employed 

 Not employed 

Part-time enrolled 

 Employed 

 Not employed 

Not enrolled but employed 

Neither enrolled nor employed 

Gender B2RSEX 

Male 

Female 
Appendix A—Glossary 

71 

Total number of jobs held since last interview B2TOTALJ 

Calculated total number of jobs (teaching and non-teaching) since last interview in 1994. 

None 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 or more 

Total number of months unemployed B2UNEMPD 

Longest period of continuous unemployment (in months) since graduation. 

Number of unemployment spells B2UNEMSP 

The total number of spells (continuous month(s)) of unemployment since graduation. 

Average hours work/week while enrolled EMWKHR4 

Average hours worked per week while enrolled 1992-93 revised. The variable is a revised version of EMWKHR3 

which classified students who worked during 1992-93 but did not work while enrolled as missing. 

Grade point average in undergraduate major GPAMAJ 

Student-reported grade point average in undergraduate major. 

Job required bachelor’s degree and had definite career potential JOBBA97 

Indicates whether or not a bachelor’s degree was required for the April 1997 job and its level of career potential 

(Yes/No). 

Field-of-study, first major recoded MAJWORK 

Identifies the graduate’s undergraduate major field of study, based on first major listed on students’ transcripts. For 

this analysis, the categories were aggregated as follows: 

Education Early childhood, elementary, secondary, special, physical, 

other. 

Business Accounting, finance, business/management systems, management/business administration, marketing/distribution. 

Engineering/architecture Architecture, engineering—electrical, chemical, civil, mechanical, other, technology. 

Computer science Computer programming, computer and information sciences. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

72 

Health/nursing Health—nursing. 

Health/other Allied health—dental/medical tech, community/mental health, 

nurse assisting, general and other, health—phys ed/recreation 

(HPER), audiology, clinical health science, health/hospital 

administration, other, dietetics. 

Communications/journalism Journalism, communications, communication technology. 

Humanities/arts/history/liberal studies American civilization, area studies, African American studies, 

ethnic studies, Spanish, foreign languages—non-European, 

European, letters—English/American literature, creative/technical writing, other, liberal studies, women’s studies, 

philosophy, religious studies, history, design, speech/drama, 

film arts, music, art history/fine arts, fine and performing 

arts—other. 

Biological/interdisciplinary sciences Biological science—zoology, botany, biochemistry, other, 

biophysics, interdisciplinary—environmental studies, biopsychology, integrated/general. 

Mathematics/physical sciences Mathematics—statistics, physical science—chemistry, earth 

science, physics. 

Social work/protective services Clinical pastoral care, protective services, social work, public 

administration. 

Social sciences Psychology, anthropology/archaeology, economics, geography, sociology, political science, international relations, city 

planning. 

Other Agriculture, agricultural science, natural resources, forestry, 

textiles, home economics—other, vocational home economics 

guidance, law—paralegal, includes pre-law, law, library/archival science, military science, interdisciplinary—

other, leisure studies, basic/personal skills, industrial arts—

construction, commercial art, precision production, transportation—air. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

73 

Highest education level by either parent PAREDUC 

Student’s response to the question “What is the highest grade or level of education completed by either of your parents?” 

High school or less Less than high school 

 GED 

 High school graduation 

Some college 1 year but less than 2 years 

 Less than 2 years of college 

 Associate’s degree 

Bachelor’s or higher Bachelor’s degree (4–5 year degree) 

 Master’s degree or equivalent 

 First professional degree 

 Other advanced professional degree 

 Doctorate (PhD, EdD) 

Percent increase between 1994 and 1997 April annual salaries PCTINCR

Percent increase between April 1994 salary (adjusted to 1997 dollars) and April 1997 salary. If the percent increase 

was less than zero, it was re-coded to zero. Salaries less than $500 or greater than $1,000,000 were excluded (approximately 12 cases). If either the 1994 or the 1997 salary was missing, the variable was coded as missing. 

April 1994 annual salary in 1997 constant dollars SAL94_97

April 1994 annual salary adjusted with the Consumer Price Index (CPI) to 1997 dollars. The ratio of 1997 to 1994 

CPI is 1.083, which is what 1994 salary was multiplied by to calculate 1997 dollars. 

Institution type SECTOR_B 

Institution type (level and control). 

Public, less-than-2-year 

Public, 2-year 

Public, non-PhD granting 

Public, PhD granting 

Private, not-for-profit, less-than-4-year 

Private, not-for-profit, 4-year, non-PhD granting 

Private, not-for-profit, 4-year, PhD granting 

Private, for-profit, less-than-2-year 

Private, for-profit, 2-years-or-more 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
75 

Appendix BTechnical Notes and Methodology 

The Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study11

The data analyzed in this report came from the First and Second Follow-ups of the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/94 and B&B:93/97), a study that tracks the 

experiences of a cohort of college graduates who received baccalaureate degrees during the 

1992–93 academic year and were first interviewed as part of the National Postsecondary Student 

Aid Study (NPSAS:93). This group’s experiences in the areas of academic enrollments, degree 

completions, employment, public service, and other adult decisions have been followed through 

1997. The data derived from this survey provide critical information about college graduates’ 

postsecondary education outcomes, including graduate and professional program access, labor 

market experience, and rates of return on investment in education. 

The B&B: 93/94 survey was the first follow-up interview of NPSAS:93 participants who 

received their bachelor’s degrees between July 1992 and June 1993. Of 12,500 NPSAS:93 respondents who were identified as potentially eligible for the first follow-up survey, about 1,500 

were determined to be ineligible. A total of 10,080 eligible individuals completed the 1994 interview. 

The B&B:93/97 survey is the second follow-up interview of the B&B cohort. The first followup interview (B&B:93/94) collected information from respondents 1 year after they received 

the bachelor’s degree; the second follow-up (B&B:93/97) collected data 4 years after they received the bachelor’s degree. Data collection for B&B:93/97 took place between April and December 1997. A total of 11,192 individuals in the B&B cohort were determined eligible for 

follow-up in 1997. For the second followup, the number of interviews completed was 10,093, 

yielding a response rate of 90 percent. A total of 9,274 individuals (83 percent of the sample) responded to all three rounds of the B&B study. Referred to as “the B&B panel sample,” these respondents became the base sample of the analyses presented in this report. 

The NPSAS:93 sample, while representative and statistically accurate, was not a simple 

random sample. Instead, the survey sample was selected using a more complex three-step proce-

 

11The text in this section is based on excerpts from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study: 1993/97 Methodology 

Report, (NCES 1999–159) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999). 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

76 

dure with stratified samples and differential probabilities of selection at each level. Postsecondary institutions were initially selected within geographic strata. Once institutions were organized 

by zip code and state, they were further stratified by control (i.e., public; private, not-for-profit; 

or private, for-profit) and degree offering (less-than-2-year, 2- to 3-year, 4-year nondoctorategranting, and 4-year doctorate-granting).11

For more information about the NPSAS:93 survey, refer to the Methodology Report for the 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 1992–93 (NCES 95–211, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995). For more information on 

procedures for the Baccalaureate and Beyond First Follow-up Study (B&B:93/94), consult the 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study Methodology Reports (NCES 96–149 and NCES 

1999–159, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996. For second follow-up, consult NCES 1999–159). 

Sample weights. B&B:93/97 final weights were calculated by making a nonresponse adjustment to the baseline B&B weight calculated for B&B:93/94. This baseline B&B weight is an 

adjustment of the baseline NPSAS:93 weight. All analyses in this report are weighted to compensate for unequal probability of selection into the B&B sample and to adjust for nonresponse. The 

B&B panel weight, based on respondents who participated in all three surveys, is used in the report. A complete description of the weighting methodology is available in the methodology reports cited above. 

Accuracy of Estimates 

The statistics in this report are estimates derived from a sample. Two broad categories of 

error occur in such estimates: sampling and nonsampling errors. Sampling errors occur because 

observations are made only on samples of students, not on entire populations. Surveys of population universes are not subject to sampling errors. Estimates based on a sample will differ somewhat from those that would have been obtained by a complete census of the relevant population 

using the same survey instruments, instructions, and procedures. The standard error of a statistic 

is a measure of the variation due to sampling; it indicates the precision of the statistic obtained in 

a particular sample. In addition, the standard errors for two sample statistics can be used to estimate the precision of the difference between the two statistics and to help determine whether the 

difference based on the sample is large enough so that it represents the population difference. 

 

11The NPSAS universe excludes institutions offering only correspondence courses, institutions enrolling only their own employees, and U.S. service academies. For this B&B cohort, institutions were further stratified by the number of degrees in education 

they had awarded in the past. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

77 

Nonsampling errors occur not only in sample surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations. Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a number of sources: inability to obtain 

complete information about all students in all institutions in the sample (some students or institutions refused to participate, or students participated but answered only certain items); ambiguous 

definitions; differences in interpreting questions; inability or unwillingness to give correct information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing data. Although nonsampling errors due to questionnaire and item 

nonresponse can be reduced somewhat by the adjustment of sample weights and imputation procedures, correcting nonsampling errors or gauging the effects of these errors is usually difficult. 

Data Analysis System 

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the B&B:93/97 Data Analysis 

System (DAS). The DAS software makes it possible for users to specify and generate their own 

tables from the B&B:93/97 data. With the DAS, users can replicate or expand upon the tables 

presented in this report. In addition to the table estimates, the DAS calculates proper standard 

errors12 and weighted sample sizes for these estimates. For example, table B1 contains estimated 

standard errors that correspond to the estimates presented in table 2 and was generated by the 

B&B:93/97 DAS. If the number of valid cases is too small to produce a reliable estimate (fewer 

than 30 cases), the DAS prints the message “low N” instead of the estimate. 

In addition to tables, the DAS will also produce a correlation matrix of selected variables to 

be used for linear regression models. Included in the output with the correlation matrix are the 

design effects (DEFTs) for each variable in the matrix. Since statistical procedures generally 

compute standard errors based on an assumption of simple random sampling, the standard errors 

must be adjusted with the design effects to take into account B&B’s complex sample design. 

(See discussion under “Statistical Procedures” below for the adjustment procedure.) 

For more information about the B&B:93/97 and other Data Analysis Systems, consult the 

NCES DAS website (nces.ed.gov/das) or contact: 

Aurora D’Amico 

National Center for Education Statistics 

1990 K Street, NW 

Room 8115 

Washington, DC 20006 

(202) 502-7334; Internet address: 

Aurora_D’Amico@ed.gov 

 

12The B&B sample is not a simple random sample, and therefore simple random sample techniques for estimating sampling error 

cannot be applied to these data. The DAS takes into account the complexity of the sampling procedures and calculates standard 

errors appropriate for such samples. The method for computing sampling errors used by the DAS involves approximating the 

estimator by the linear terms of a Taylor series expansion. The procedure is typically referred to as the Taylor series method.
Table B1—Standard errors for table 2: Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipient

Table B1—in graduate education by 1997 

Social HumanBiological/ M

 Engineering/ Communi- work/ ities interdis- m archi- Computer Health/ Health/ cations/ protective and ciplinary ph

Education Business tecture science nursing other journalism services arts sciences sc

 Total 0.50 1.07 0.53 0.25 0.36 0.37 0.45 0.25 0.59 0.31 Gender Male 0.49 1.62 1.00 0.41 0.16 0.35 0.61 0.33 0.85 0.40  Female 0.76 1.18 0.29 0.28 0.61 0.52 0.53 0.33 0.76 0.44 Race/ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 2.93 7.72 3.46 6.30 2.29 3.21 2.18 1.70 6.21 1.77  Asian/Pacific Islander 0.87 7.83 2.57 1.99 1.14 1.25 1.53 0.52 2.27 1.43  Black, non-Hispanic 1.01 3.44 1.31 1.27 1.58 0.84 1.37 0.83 2.25 1.88  Hispanic 2.23 3.54 1.57 1.13 1.46 1.72 1.28 1.70 2.30 1.19  White, non-Hispanic 0.56 1.12 0.55 0.24 0.37 0.39 0.51 0.27 0.63 0.31 Age at bachelor’s degree 22 or younger 0.63 1.37 0.67 0.30 0.33 0.38 0.81 0.35 0.86 0.43  23–24 0.84 2.01 1.05 0.41 0.48 0.57 0.79 0.52 1.08 0.53  25–29 1.01 2.51 1.11 0.83 0.78 0.71 0.69 0.42 1.36 1.10  30 or older 1.18 2.66 0.81 0.69 1.11 1.07 0.53 0.53 1.37 0.49 Parents’ highest level of education High school or less 0.84 1.68 0.61 0.40 0.58 0.55 0.64 0.42 0.98 0.51  Some postsecondary education 0.81 2.55 1.05 0.45 0.76 0.65 0.76 0.54 1.14 0.53  Bachelor’s degree 0.84 1.83 1.05 0.48 0.69 0.61 0.95 0.47 1.06 0.53  Advanced degree 0.90 1.83 0.93 0.58 0.41 0.67 0.93 0.30 1.31 0.81 Marital status in 1997 Never married 0.50 1.38 0.70 0.38 0.32 0.41 0.83 0.36 0.93 0.49  Married/cohabit as married 0.75 1.44 0.67 0.35 0.51 0.52 0.45 0.32 0.73 0.41  Divorced/separated/widowed 1.97 3.79 1.12 0.78 1.44 1.42 0.96 1.00 2.34 1.40 

Applied fields Academic f
Table B1—Standard errors for table 2: Percentage distribution of major field of study for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipient

Table B1—in graduate education by 1997—Continued

Social Human- Biological/ M

 Engineering/ Communi- work/ ities interdis- m archi- Computer Health/ Health/ cations/ protective and ciplinary ph

Education Business tecture science nursing other journalism services arts sciences sc

Undergraduate GPA Less than 3.0 0.76 2.14 1.35 0.57 0.50 0.56 1.01 0.56 1.17 0.84  3.0 to 3.49 0.56 1.57 0.74 0.34 0.44 0.39 0.69 0.32 0.81 0.46  3.5 or higher 0.96 1.71 0.56 0.42 0.67 0.67 0.60 0.40 1.00 0.39 Institution type Public Doctorate 0.74 1.49 0.98 0.44 0.67 0.69 0.77 0.30 0.92 0.49  Nondoctorate 1.21 1.78 0.75 0.47 0.53 0.52 0.64 0.57 1.05 0.68  Private, not-for-profit  Doctorate 1.15 2.57 1.58 0.44 0.76 0.93 1.71 0.50 2.05 0.71  Nondoctorate 1.05 2.68 0.53 0.57 0.75 0.81 0.78 0.83 1.36 0.56  Private, for profit 1.08 11.12 3.56 1.85 1.81 2.07 1.97 0.29 2.72 1.87 

*Other includes agriculture, natural resources, forestry, textiles, home economics, law, library science, military science, leisure studies, basic/personal skills, iproduction, transportation.NOTE: Details may not sum to 100 due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-u

Analysis System.

Applied fields Academic f
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

80 

Statistical Procedures 

Differences Between Means 

The descriptive comparisons were tested in this report using Student’s t statistic. Differences between estimates are tested against the probability of a Type I error,13 or significance 

level. The significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values for the differences between each pair of means or proportions and comparing these with published tables of 

significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing. 

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the following formula: 

2

2

2

1

1 2

se se

E E

t

+

− = (1) 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When estimates are not independent, a covariance term must be added to the formula: 

E -E

se + se - 2(r)se se

1 2

1

2

2

2

1 2

 (2) 

where r is the correlation between the two estimates.14 This formula is used when comparing two 

percentages from a distribution that adds to 100. If the comparison is between the mean of a subgroup and the mean of the total group, which is the primary comparison in this report, the following formula is used: 

2

sub

2

tot

2

sub

sub tot

se se 2p se

E E

+ −

− (3) 

 

13A Type I error occurs when one concludes that a difference observed in a sample reflects a true difference in the population 

from which the sample was drawn, when no such difference is present. 

14U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Note from the Chief Statistician, no. 2, 1993. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

81 

where p is the proportion of the total group contained in the subgroup.15 The estimates, standard 

errors, and correlations can all be obtained from the DAS. 

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons 

based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading since the 

magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or percentages 

but also to the number of students in the specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a small 

difference compared across a large number of students would produce a large t statistic. 

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests for each comparison occurs when making multiple comparisons among categories of an independent variable. For example, when making 

paired comparisons among different levels of income, the probability of a Type I error for these 

comparisons taken as a group is larger than the probability for a single comparison. When more 

than one difference between groups of related characteristics or “families” are tested for statistical significance, one must apply a standard that assures a level of significance for all of those 

comparisons taken together. 

Comparisons were made in this report only when p< .05/k for a particular pairwise comparison, where that comparison was one of k tests within a family. This guarantees both that the 

individual comparison would have p< .05 and that for k comparisons within a family of possible 

comparisons, the significance level for all the comparisons will sum to p< .05.16

For example, in a comparison of males and females, only one comparison is possible 

(males versus females). In this family, k=1, and the comparison can be evaluated without adjusting the significance level. When students are divided into five racial/ethnic groups and all possible comparisons are made, then k=10 and the significance level of each test must be p< .05/10, or 

p< .005. The formula for calculating family size (k) is as follows: 

k j j = ( ) −1

2 (4) 

where j is the number of categories for the variable being tested. In the case of race/ethnicity, 

there are five racial/ethnic groups (American Indian/Alaskan Native; Asian/Pacific Islander; 

black, non-Hispanic; Hispanic; and white, non-Hispanic), so substituting 5 for j in equation 4, 

 

15Ibid. 

16The standard that p≤ .05/k for each comparison is more stringent than the criterion that the significance level of the comparisons should sum to p≤ .05. For tables showing the t statistic required to ensure that p≤ .05/k for a particular family size and degrees of freedom, see Olive Jean Dunn, “Multiple Comparisons Among Means,” Journal of the American Statistical Association

56 (1961): 52–64. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

82 

k = 5(5 -1)

2

=10

Adjustment of Means to Control for Background Variation 

Tabular results are limited by sample size when attempting to control for additional factors 

that may account for the variation observed between two variables. For example, when examining the percentages of those who completed a degree or were still enrolled in postsecondary education 3 years after their initial enrollment, it is impossible to know to what extent the observed 

variation is due to socioeconomic status (SES) differences and to what extent it is due to differences in other factors related to SES, such as type of institution attended, intensity of enrollment, 

and so on. However, if a nested table were produced showing SES within type of institution attended within enrollment intensity, the cell sizes would be too small to identify the patterns. 

When the sample size becomes too small to support controls for another level of variation, one 

must use other methods to take such variation into account. 

To overcome this difficulty, multiple linear regression was used to obtain means that were 

adjusted for covariation among a list of control variables.17 Adjusted means for subgroups were 

obtained by regressing the dependent variable on a set of descriptive variables such as gender, 

race–ethnicity, SES, and so on. Substituting ones or zeros for the subgroup characteristic(s) of 

interest and the mean proportions for the other variables results in an estimate of the adjusted 

proportion for the specified subgroup, holding all other variables constant. For example, consider 

a hypothetical case in which two variables, age and gender, are used to describe an outcome, Y

(such as percentage of graduates working in a job requiring a bachelor’s degree and with definite 

career potential). The variables age and gender are recoded into a dummy variable representing 

age, A, and a dummy variable representing gender, G: 

Age A

 24 years or older 1 

 Less than 24 years old 0 

 and 

Gender G

 Female 1 

 Male 0 

The following regression equation is then estimated from the correlation matrix output from the 

DAS: 

 

17For more information about weighted least squares regression, see Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Applied Regression: An Introduction, Vol. 22 (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1980); William D. Berry and Stanley Feldman, Multiple Regression in 

Practice, Vol. 50 (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1987). 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology

83

ˆ Y = a + b1A+ b2G (5)

To estimate the adjusted mean for any subgroup evaluated at the mean of all other variables, one substitutes the appropriate values for that subgroup’s dummy variables (1 or 0) and the

mean for the dummy variable(s) representing all other subgroups. For example, suppose Y represents attainment, and is being described by age (A) and gender (G), coded as shown above, with

means as follows:

Variable Mean

A 0.355

G 0.521

Next, suppose the regression equation results in:

ˆ Y = 0.15 + 0.17A + 0.01G (6)

To estimate the adjusted value for older students, one substitutes the appropriate parameter

estimates and variable values into equation 6.

Variable Parameter Value

a 0.15 —

A 0.17 1.000

G 0.01 0.521

This results in:

ˆ Y = 0.15 +(0.17)(1) + (0.01)(0.521) = 0.325

In this case, the adjusted mean for older students is 0.325 and represents the expected outcome for older students who resemble the average student across the other variables (in this example, gender). In other words, the adjusted percentage who worked in a job requiring a

bachelor’s degree with definite career potential controlling for age and gender is 32.5 percent

(0.325 x 100 for conversion to a percentage).

It is relatively straightforward to produce a multivariate model using the DAS, since one of

the DAS output options is a correlation matrix, computed using pairwise missing values. In regression analysis, there are several common approaches to the problem of missing data. The two

simplest are pairwise deletion of missing data and listwise deletion of missing data. In pairwise
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

84 

deletion, each correlation is calculated using all of the cases for the two relevant variables. For 

example, suppose you have a regression analysis that uses variables X1, X2, and X3. The regression is based on the correlation matrix between X1, X2, and X3. In pairwise deletion the correlation between X1 and X2 is based on the nonmissing cases for X1 and X2. Cases missing on 

either X1 or X2 would be excluded from the calculation of the correlation. In listwise deletion 

the correlation between X1 and X2 would be based on the nonmissing values for X1, X2, and 

X3. That is, all of the cases with missing data on any of the three variables would be excluded 

from the analysis.18

The correlation matrix can be used by most statistical software packages as the input data 

for least squares regression. That is the approach used for this report, with an additional adjustment to incorporate the complex sample design into the statistical significance tests of the parameter estimates (described below). For tabular presentation, parameter estimates and standard 

errors were multiplied by 100 to match the scale used for reporting unadjusted and adjusted percentages. 

Most statistical software packages assume simple random sampling when computing standard errors of parameter estimates. Because of the complex sampling design used for the NPSAS 

survey, this assumption is incorrect. A better approximation of their standard errors is to multiply 

each standard error by the design effect associated with the dependent variable (DEFT),19 where 

the DEFT is the ratio of the true standard error to the standard error computed under the assumption of simple random sampling. It is calculated by the DAS and produced with the correlation 

matrix. 

 

18Although the DAS simplifies the process of making regression models, it also limits the range of models. Analysts who wish to 

use an approach other than pairwise treatment of missing values or to estimate probit/logit models (which are the most appropriate for models with categorical dependent variables) can apply for a restricted data license from NCES. See John H. Aldrich and

Forrest D. Nelson, Linear Probability, Logit and Probit Models (Quantitative Applications in Social Sciences, Vol. 45) (Beverly 

Hills, CA: Sage, 1984). 

19The adjustment procedure and its limitations are described in C.J. Skinner, D. Holt, and T.M.F. Smith, eds., Analysis of Complex Surveys (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989).