NUREG-0396

EPA 520/1-78-016

PLANNING BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANS

IN SUPPORT OF

LIGHT WATER NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

A Report Prepared by a

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

Task Force on Emergency Planning

H. E. Collins B. K. Grimes"

Co-Chairmen of Task Force

F. Galpin**

Senior EPA Representative

Manuscript Completed: November 1978

Date Published: December 1978

*Office of State Programs

"Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Washington, D.C. 20555

'"Office of Radiation Programs

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington. D. C. 20460
FOREWORD

The purpose of this report is to provide a basis for Federal ,State and

local government emergency preparedness organizations to determine the

appropriate degree of emergency response planning efforts in the environs

of nuclear power plants. The report is the product of a Task Force of

NRC and EPA representatives formed in 1976 to address this issue. The

Task Force hopes that the guidance provided here will be used to supplement

the extensive emergency planning guidance already published by NRC and

EPA.

This report introduces the concept of generic Emergency Planning Zones

as a basis for the planning of response actions which would result in

dose savings in the environs of nuclear facilities in the event of a

serious power reactor accident. Application of the Task Force guidance

should result in the development of more uniform emergency plans from

site to site but should not result in a large incremental increase in

the resources required to implement the existing planning elements.

This is particularly true of recently licensed plants where planning

elements have been implemented at substantial distances from reactor

sites.

This report represents a consensus view of the Task Force on the

planning basis guidance and on a number of important issues related

to emergency planning which were considered in the development of

i
the guidance. As of the publication date of.this report, these

recommendations had not been formally adopted by the NRC or EPA and

therefore represent only Task Force views. However, the concept of

a generic area in which to plan has received general acceptance by the

variety of groups commenting on drafts of this report. If adopted by

the NRC, the Task Force expects that the key elements of the guidance

would be incorporated in the NRC's primary emergency planning guidance

publication for States and their local governments (NUREG-75/111) and

therefore used by Federal agencies as a part of the basis for concurrence

in State and local government Radiological Emergency Response Plans in

support of power reactor facilities.

ii
NRC/EPA TASK FORCE

ON

EMERGENCY PLANNING

Membership on the Task Force on Emergency Planning was drawn from both

the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States

Environmental Protection Agency and is listed below.

Co-Chairmen

Harold E. Collins, Assistant Director for Emergency Preparedness, Office

of State Programs, NRC

Brian K. Grimes, Assistant Director for Engineering and Projects, Division

of Operating Reactors, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, NRC

Senior EPA Representative

Floyd L. Galpin, DirectorEnvironmental Analysis Division, Office of

Radiation Programs, EPA

Members

*Roger M. Blond, Senior Risk Analyst, Probabilistic Analysis Staff, Uffice of

Nuclear Regulatory Research, NRC

Harry W. Calley, Chief, Protective Action Planning and Investigation

Branch, Office of Radiation Programs, EPA

Leo B. Higginbotham, Acting Director, Division of Fuel Facilities and

Materials Safety & Inspection, Office of Inspection and Enforcement, NRC

C. Vernon Hodge, Transportation Specialist, Transportation Branch, Office

of Nuclear Material Safety & Safeguards, NRC

Michael T. Jamgochian, Nuclear Engineer, Site Designation Standards Branch,

Office of Standards Development, NRC

Joe Logsdon, Health Physicist, Protective Action Planning and Investigation

Branch, Office of Radiation Programs, EPA

James A. Martin, Reactor Safety Engineer, Accident Analysis Branch, Office

of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, NRC

Jerry Swift, Environmental Engineer (Radiation), Technology Assessment

Division, Office of Radiation Programs, EPA

Consultants to the Task Force

Fredric D. Anderson, Senior Nuclear Safety Engineer, Site Designation

Standards Branch, Office of Standards Development, NRC

Delbert F. Bunch, Director, Program Support Staff, Office of Nuclear

Reactor Regulation, NRC

R. Wayne Houston, Chief, Accident Analysis Branch, Office of Nuclear

Reactor Regulation, NRC

Legal Consultants Acquired by the Task Force

Joseph Scinto, Deputy Director, Hearing Division, Office of Executive Legal

Director, NRC

Royal J. Voegeli, Attorney, Office of theExecutive Legal Director, NRC

* Replaced Ian B. Wall, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research effective

May 15, 1978. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Two major versions of this Task Force report have been reviewed by

interested Federal agencies, and a limited number of State and

local government emergency preparedness representatives. Many written

comments and suggestions were received on the two major draft versions

and all of the comments were carefully considered in preparing the

final version of this report. The report was significantly improved

as a result of the comments and suggestions.

The Task Force wishes to thank all of those who provided comments and

critiques of the report during the two year period of its development

and in particular the Interorganizational Advisory Committee on

Radiological Emergency Response Planning and Preparedness, of the

Conference of (State) Radiation Control Program Directors.

Members of the committee also included representatives of the National

Association of State Directors for Disaster Preparedness and the U.S.

Civil Defense Council.

iv
TWBIE OF CONs

I. Introduction 1

Arcident Cansiderations 4

II. Planning Needs 7

III. ieamnended, Planning Basis 11

A. Brgncy Planning Zcnes 11

B. Size of the Emergency Planning Zcne 15

C. Tim Factors Associated with e-leases 18

D. Radiological Characteristics of Releases 20

IV. Conclusios 24

References 25

Glossary 26

Apendix I - Rationale for the Planning Basis I-1

A. General Considerations I-1

B. Consequnce Oxsiderations I-4

1. Design Basis Accidents 1-4

2. Class 9 Accidents I-6

C. Probability Cbnsiderations I-7

D. Ehergency Planning Cansierations Derived

frao SitingMeteoroloqical models, and

Licensing Criteria 1-12

1. Siting 1-12

2. Meteorological Omsiderations 1-20

3. Licensing considerations 1-26

E. Nargency Planning Ccnsiderations Derived

frat the Reactor Safety Stuiy (PSH-l1400) 1-36

F. Examination of Offsite nmergency Protection

?easures for OCore Melt Accidents 1-44

Refemas 1-53

V
TABLE OF Ot;IM (Cmn't.)

Appendix II - Balcground Concerning the Report I:-1

A. NRC Peactor Siting and Ergency Planning - gulations IB. Federal Guidance Effort II-3

C. Reactor Accident onsideraticns 11-8

D. Establishlent of the Task Farce II-13

Peferenes II-15

Appendix III - Pelated Issws Caisidered By

the Task Force II-1

A. Issue: wther and to what extent, socalled "Class 9" events having axmsegunoes

beyond the mrxst serious design basis

acciients analyzed for siting purposes,

should be onsidered in develping amrgency

plans III-1

B. Issue: Is there a need to plan beyond the

IDW Population Zone? III-5

C. Issue: Wnether there is a conflict between

Protective Action Guides for plum exposures and dose criteria for siting and design of

nuclear power facilities III-8

D; Issue: Mether the guidanoe in this dacnirnt

for offsite emergency planning can be

separated from siting considerations in the

NRC licensing prooess III-12

references 111-17

vi
TANlE OF CONTENTIS (CMi't.)

List of Tables

Table I

1. Guidance al Size of the Brgency Planning Zoe 17

2. Guidance cm Initiation and Duration of Release 20

3. idadiccies with Significant Contributions to

D onnant Exposure Modes 23

I-1. Felation of Turbulence Types to Vbather

Conditions 1-15

1-2. Uper Bound Plure Exposure Pathway Projected

Doses Based on 10 CER Part 100.11 Values 1-17

vii
TA=l OF COUTENIS (Con't. )

List of Figures

Figure

1. Cbncept of Eergency Planing Zanes 12

I-1. Dose Falloff with Distance 1-18

1-2. Crosswind Versus DRmind Distances 1-21

I-3. Wind Persistence (22 1/20 sector) 1-23

1-4. Wind Persistence (67 1/2° sector) I-24

I-S. Exanple of Tie-DoseDistance Pelationshiips

far Worst Case MA Thyroid Dose (Inhalation) -

Plume Exposure Pathway I-29

1-6. Thyroid Dose Versus Distance (LA-LOCA) I-30

1-7. Cumulative Fteguency of Thyroid Dose at

10 idles I-31

I-8. Ahle Body Dose Versus Distance (M8A-IOC) 1-32

1-9. Cumulative Freuency of 1le Body Dose at

10 miles 1-33

1-10. Thyroid Ingestion Dose Versus Distance 1-35

I-fl. Conditional Probability of Whole Body Dose

Versus Distance given Core Melt 1-38

1-12. mditional Probability of Iag Dose Versus

Distance given Core Malt 1-39

1-13. Conditional Probability of Thyroid Dose Versus

Distance given Core Melt 1-40

I-14. Conditial Probability of Thyroid Ingestion

Dose Versus Distance given Core Melt 1-42

1-15. Conditional Probability of Exceeding PAss

given PWR "nrelt-through" releases 1-46

1-16. Conditional Probability of Exceeding PASs

given PWR 'atmospheric" releases 1-46

viii
SJBIE OF CanS (Cn't. )

List of Figures (Can't.)

Figure #

1-17. Early Fatalities for Selected Protective

kAtips, I-48

I-18. Early Injuries for Selected FPotective Actions 1-48

ix
I. INTRODUCTION

Nuclear facility licensees are required by.NRC regulations to develop

emergency response plans~l). Portions of these regulations require

the licensees to coordinate their plans with State and local agencies.

Published Federal guidance(2'3) recommends that State and local

governments formalize their emergency response plans in support of

these facilities to protect public health and safety in the unlikely

event of a significant release of radioactive material from a nuclear

facility to the environment.

Present Federal guidance* suggests the use of a spectrum of accidents as

a basis for developing emergency response plans. For various reasons,*

in 1976 an ad horc Task Force of the Conference of (State) Radiation

Control Program Directors passed a resolution requesting NRC to "make

a determination of the most severe accident basis for which radiological

emergency response plans should be developed by offsi-te agencies".

Additionally, the NRC and EPA received other comments from State and

local governments relating to this recommendation.

*See Appendix II.
- 2 -

In November'1976, a Task Force consisting of NRC and EPA representatives

was convened to address this Conference request and related issues.

The Task Force reviewed what is currently being done in terms of

emergency planning for newly licensed plants and found that substantial

efforts were being made both in on-site and off-site planning. It

also reviewed current guidance from Federal Agencies regarding emergency

response planning (23,4) and concluded that adequate guidance was

available or was being developed with regard to the elements of a

plan. While the previous guidance has not precisely specified distances

to which planning elements should be applied, the actual current

application of previous guidance on a case basis during the licensing

process has in practice extended to substantial distances from

reactor sites, i.e.,.independent of specific Low Population Zone

distances used for siting purposes. However, information regarding

the consequences and characteristics of the accident situation for

which planning was being recommended had not been fully defined.

The Task Force accepts the principle noted in existing NRC and EPA

guidance(2 ' 3) that acceptable values for emergency doses to the

public under the actual conditions of a nuclear accident cannot be

predetermined. The emergency actions taken in any individual case
- 3 -

must be based on the actual conditions that exist and are projected

at the time of an accident. For very serious accidents, predetermined

protective actions would be taken if projected doses, at any place and

time during an actual accident, appeared to be at or above the applicable proposed Protective Action Guides (PAGs), based on information

readily available in the reactor control room, i.e., at predetermined

emergency action levels(4). Of course, ad hoc actions, based on

plant or environmental measurements, could be taken at any time.

The concept of Protective Action Guides was introduced to radiological emergency response planning to assist public health and other

governmental authorities in deciding how much of a radiation hazard

in the environment constitutes a basis for initiating emergency

protective actions. These guides (PAGs) are expressed in units

of radiation dose (rem) and represent trigger or initiation levels,

which warrant pre-selected protective actions for the public if

the projected (future) dose received by an individual in the

absence of a protective action exceeds the PAG. PAGs are defined

or definable for all pathways of radiation exposure to man and

are proposed as guidance to be used as a basis for taking action

to minimize the impact on individuals.
- 4 -

The nature of PAGs is such that they cannot be used to assure that

a given level of exposure to individuals in the population is

prevented. In any particular response situation, a range of

doses may be experienced, principally depending on the distance

from the point of release. Some*of these doses may be well in

excess of the PAG levels and clearly warrant the initiation of

any feasible protective actions. This does not mean, however,

that doses above PAG levels can be prevented or that emergency

response plans should have as their objective preventing doses

above PAG levels. Furthermore, PAGs represent only trigger levels

and are not intended to represent acceptable dose levels. PAGs are

tools to be used as a decision aid in the actual response situation.

Methods for the implementation of Protective Action Guides are an

essential element of emergency planning. These include the predetermination of emergency conditions for which planned protective

actions such as shelter and/or evacuation would be implemented

offsite. Detkils of these methods are being provided as separate

guidance( 3' 4 ) and are not included in this report.

Accident Considerations

After considerable discussion, the Task Force concluded that there

was no specific accident sequence that could be isolated as the

one for which to plan, because each accident could have different
- 5 -

consequences, both in nature and degree. Further, the range of

possible selections for a planning basis is very large, starting

with a zero point of requiring no planning at all because significant offsite radiological accident consequences are unlikely to occur,

to planning for the worst physically possible accident regardless

of its extremely low likelihood. As an alternative to attempting

to define a specific accident sequence, the Task Force decided to

identify the bounds of the parameters for which planning is

recommended based upon a knowledge of the potential consequences,

timing, and release characteristics of a spectrum of accidents.

The Task Force recognized that more specific guidance with respect

to accidents whose consequences would be more severe than the design

basis accidents explicitly considered in the licensing process was

appropriate. Additional discussions regarding the need to plan for

consequences of such accidents (commonly known as Class 9 accidents*)

may be found in Appendix III.

The Task Force concluded that the objective of emergency response plans

should be to provide dose savings for a spectrum of accidents that

could produce offsite doses in excess of the PAGs. Although the selected

*Throughout tiis- report, "Class 9 accidents" will refer to those accidents

in which there is melting of the core and/or containment failure.
- 6 -

planning basis is independent of a specific accident sequence, a number

of accident descriptions were reviewed including the design basis accidents

with various active engineered safety features, and the accident release

categories of the Reactor Safety Study*(5).

Additional information regarding the rationale for the recommended planning

basis,the background of Federal emergency planning efforts, the Task Force

deliberations on Class 9 accidents, the relationship between emergency

planning and siting criteria, and the difference between PAGs and dose

criteria used for siting can be found in the appendices to this report.

11T1 FTiFcfe has usid information in the RSS as a basis to perform

calculations which illustrate the likelihood of certain offsite dose

levels given a core melt accident. Various aspects of the study have

been debated by reviewers and additional programs are underway to extend

or refine the study. While the RSS is considered by the Task Force to

have limited use in dealing with plant/site specific factors, it provides

the best currently available source of information on the relative

likelihood of large accidental releases of radioactivity given a core

melt event. The results derived from the RSS-based work served to

confirm the Task Force judgment that offsite planning for a generic

distance around nuclear power plants is prudent and useful.
- 7 -

II. PLANNING NEEDS

The Task Force reviewed the types of information that State and

local governments need to develop emergency response plans and

determined that the information fell into two categories; site

specific and generic. The site specific information such as

population distribution and topography must be available to State

and local officials as part of the planning process. Such information is surmiarized in Environmental Reports and Safety Analysis

Reports prepared by applicants for a permit to construct and

operate a nuclear power facility and is useful for emergency

planning purposes. Some generic information related to the

planning effort is already being provided by Federal agencies(2,3,4)*

The Federal generic guidance provided includes the topics which should

be addressed in an emergency plan(2'4), protective action guides(3)

the types of protective action appropriate(3) and emergency instrumentation considerations(4'6'7).

If it were possible to identify a single accident on which to base

emergency response planning,.one could use the release characteristics

of that single accident in connection with site specific characteristics

and other generic information to specify the planning effort. Having

determined that a single specific accident sequence for a light water
- 8 -

reactor nuclear power plant cannot be identified as a planning basis,

the Task Force chose to provide recommendations in terms of the consequences or characteristics of accidents that would be important in

determining the extent of the planning effort. The planning basis

elements needed to scope the. planning effort were determined to be:

1. The distance to which planning for the initiation of

predetermined protective actions is warranted.

2. The time dependent characteristics of potential releases

and exposures.

3. The kinds of radioactive materials that can potentially

be released to the environment.

The most important guidance for planning officials is the distance

from the nuclear facility which defines the area over which planning

for predetermined actions should be carried out. The other elements

of guidance provide supporting information for planning and preparedness.

The need for specification of distance for the major exposure

pathways is evident. The location of the population for whom actions

may be needed, responsible authorities who would carry out these

actions and the means of communication to these authorities are all

dependent on the size of the planning area.
- 9 -

Information on the time frames of the accidents is also important.

The time between the initial recognition at the nuclear facility

that a serious accident is in progress and the beginning of the

radioactive release to the surrounding environment is critical in

determining the type of protective actions which are feasible

immediately following an accident. Likewise, knowledge of the

potential duration of release and the time available before

exposures are expected several miles offsite is important in

determining what specific instructions can be given to the public.

A knowledge of kinds of radioactive materials potentially released

is necessary to decide the characteristics of monitoring instrumentation, to develop tools for estimating projected doses, and to

identify the most important exposure pathways.

In this report, emergency preparedness is related to two predominant

exposure pathways. They are:

1. Plume exposure pathway -- The principal exposure sources from

this pathway are (a) whole body external exposure to gamma

radiation from the plume and from deposited material and

(b) inhalation exposure from the passing radioactive plume.

The time of potential exposure could range from hours to

days.
- 10 -

2. Ingsti nexposure atha -- The principal exposure from

this pathway would be from ingestion of contaminated water

or foods such as milk or fresh vegetables. The time of

potential exposure could range in length from hours to

months.

The Task Force has provided separate guidance for these two exposure

pathways, although a single emergency plan would include elements

common to assessing or taking protective actions for both pathways.
- 11 -

III. RECOMMENDED PLANNING BASIS

A. Emergency Planning Zones

With regard to the area over which planning efforts should be

carried out, the Task Force recommends that "Emergency Planning

Zones" (EPZs) about each nuclear facility be defined both for

the short term "plume exposure pathway" and for the longer term

"ingestion exposure pathways." The Emergency Planning Zone

concept is illustrated in figure 1. EPZs are designated as

the areas for which planning is recommended to assure that prompt

and effective actions can be taken to protect the public in the

event of an accident. Responsible government officials should

apply the applicable planning items listed in NUREG-75/111(2)

in the development of radiological emergency response plans.

The following are example planning elements considered appropriate for the EPZs:

(1) Identify responsible onsite and offsite emergency response

organizations and the mechanisms for activating their

services,

(2) Establish effective communication networks to promptly

notify cognizant authorities and the public,

(3) Designate pre-determined actions as appropriate(2 ,3 .4)S
6M~fIGEfIjYPLANNING ZONE

so MI.

ILANNING ZONE

GO LU M E I

.. 00 so FI.

j¶i(vml

PLUME

tRAVEL

DIRECTION

URBAN

AREA

EXAMPLE RESPONSE

"~~PJLUME AREA FOR EXPOSURE THE

f ~PATHWAY.

TH4E RESPONSE

AREA INGESTION FR THE EXPOSURE PATHWAY WOULD

HAVE THE SAME

RELATIVE SHAPE

BUT WOULD BE

LARGER.

a TRANSPORT OF

MILK TO DAIRY

PROCESSING CENTER

INDICATES VARIABLE

ig / mESPOmSE 

BOUNDARYf

Figure I Concept of Emergency planning 20nct
- 13 -

(4) Develop procedures for use by emergency workers,

(5) Identify applicable radiation measurement equipment,

(6) Identify emergency operations centers and alternate

locations, assembly points, and radiation monitoring

locations,

(7) Implement training programs for emergency workers as

appropriate, and

(8) Develop test procedures for emergency response plans.

Emergency planning should predetermine appropriate emergency

responses within the EPZ as a function of population groups,

environmental conditions(3), plant conditions(4) and time

available to respond. For the plume exposure phase, shelter

and/or evacuation would likely be the principal immediate

protective actions to be recommended for the general-public

within the EPZ. The ability to best reduce exposure should

determine the appropriate response. The key to effective

planning is good communication to authorities who know what

they are going to do under pre-determined conditions.

For the ingestion exposure Emergency Planning Zone, the

planning effort involves the identification of major exposure

pathways from contaminated food and water and the associated
- 14 -

control points and mechanisms. The ingestion pathway exposures

in general would represent a longer term problem, although some early

protective actions to minimize subsequent contamination of milk or

other supplies should be initiated (e.g., put cows on stored feed).

It is expected that judgment of the planner will be used in

determining the precise size and shape of the EPZs considering

local conditions such as demography, topography and land use

characteristics, access routes, jurisdi.:tional boundaries, and

arrangements with the nuclear facility operator for notification

and response assistance.

The EPZ guidance does not change the requirements for emergency

planning, it only sets bounds on the planning problem. The Task

Force does not recommend that massive emergency preparedness programs

be established around all nuclear power stations. The following

examples are given to further clarify the Task Force guidance on

EPZs:

No special local decontamination provisions for the general public

(e.g., blankets, changes of clothing, food, special showers)

No stockpiles of anti-contamination equipment for the general

public

No construction of specially equipped fallout shelters
- 15 -

No special radiological medical provisions for the general public

No new construction of special public facilities for emergency

use

No special stockpiles of emergency animal feed

No special decontamination equipment for property and equipment

No participation by the general public in test exercises of

emergency plans.

Some capabilities in these areas, of course, already exist under

the general emergency plans of Federal and State agencies.

B. Size of the Emergency Planning Zone

Several possible rationales were considered for establishing the

size of the EPZs. These included risk, probability, cost

effectiveness and accident consequence spectrum. After reviewing

these alternatives, the Task Force chose to base the rationale

on a full spectrum of accidents and corresponding consequences

tempered by probability considerations. These rationales are

discussed more fully in Appendix I.

The Task Force agreed that emergency response plans should be

useful for responding to any accident that would produce offsite

doses in excess of the PAGs. This would include the more severe

design basis accidents and the accident spectrum analyzed in the

RSS. After reviewing the potential consequences associated with
- 16 -

these types of accidents, it was the consensus of the Task Force

that emergency plans could be based upon a gen&ric distance out

to which predetermined actions would provide dose savings for any

such accidents. Beyond this generic distance it was concluded that

actions could be taken on an ad hoc basis using the same considerations

that went into the initial action determinations.

The Task Force judgment on the extent of the Emergency Planning Zone

is derived from the characteristics of design basis and Class 9

accident consequences. Based on the information provided in Appendix

I and the applicable PAGs a radius of about 10 miles was selected

for the plume exposure pathway and a radius of about 50 miles was

selected for the ingestion exposure pathway, as shown in table 1.

Although the radius for the EPZ implies a circular area, the actual

shape would depend upon the characteristics of a particular site.

The circular or other defined area would be for planning whereas

initial response would likely involve only a portion of the total area.

The EPZ recommended is of sufficient size to provide dose savings to

the population in areas where the projected dose from design basis

accidents could be expected to exceed the applicable PAGs under

unfavorable atmospheric conditions. As illustrated in Appendix I,

consequences of less severe Class 9 accidents would not exceed the
- 17 -

PAG levels outside the recommended EPZ distance. In addition, the

EPZ is of sufficient size to provide for substantial reduction in

early severe health effects (injuries or deaths) in the event of the

more severe Class 9 accidents.

Table 1. Guidance on Size of the Emergency Planning Zone

Critical Organ and

Accident Phase Exposure Pathway EPZ Radius

Plume Exposure Whole body (external) about 10 mile radius*

Pathway

Thyroid (inhalation)

Other organs (inhalation)

Ingestion Pathway** Thyroid, whole body, about 50 mile radius***

bone marrow (ingestion)

Judgment should be used in adopting this distance based upon considerations

of local conditions such as demography, topography, land characteristics,

access routes, and local jurisdictional boundaries.

** Processing plants for milk produced within the EPZ should be included in

the emergency response plans regardless of their location.

***The recommended size of the ingestion exposure EPZ is based on an expected

revision of milk pathway Protective Action Guides based on FDA-Bureau of

Radiological Health recommendations. The Task Force understands that

measures such as placing dairy cows on stored feed will be recommended

for projected exposure levels as low as about 1.5 rem to the infant

thyroid. Should the current FRC guidelines, 10 rem 8), be maintained,

an EPZ of about 25 miles would achieve the objectives of the Task Force.
- 18 -

C. Time Factors Associated with Releases

The planning time frames are based on design basis accident

considerations and the results of calculdtions reported in the

Reactor Safety Study(5). The guidance cannot be very specific

because of the wide range of time frames associated with the

spectrum of accidents considered. Therefore, it will be

necessary for planners to consider the possible different

time periods between the initiating event and arrival of the

plume and possible time periods of releases in relationship to

time needed to implement protective actions. The Reactor Safety

Study indicates, for example, that major releases may begin in the

range of one-half hour to as much as 30 hours after an initiating

event and that the duration of the releases may range from onehalf hour to several days with the major portion of the release

occurring well within the first day. In addition, significant plume

travel times are associated with the most adverse meteorological

conditions that might result in large potential exposures far

from the site. For example, under poor dispersion conditions

associated with low windspeeds, two hours or more might be required

for the plume to travel a distance of five miles. Higher windspeeds would result in shorter travel times but would provide

more dispersion, making high exposures at long distances much

less likely. Therefore, in most cases, significant advance warning
I

- 19 -

of high concentrations should be available since NRC regulations~1'4)

require early notification of offsite authorities for major releases

of radioactive material. The warning time could be somewhat different

for reactors with different containment characteristics than those

analyzed in the Reactor Safety Study..,The range of times, however,

is judged suitably representative for the purpose of developing

emergency plans. Shorter release initiation times are typically

associated with design basis events of much smaller potential

consequences or with the more severe Reactor Safety Study accident

sequences.

The planning basis for the time dependence of a release is expressed

as a range of time values in which to implement protective action.

This range of values prior to the start of a major release is of

the order of one-half hour to several hours. The subsequent time

period over which radioactive material may be expected to be released

is of the order of one-half hour (short-term release) to a few days

(continuous release). Table 2 summarizes the Task Force guidance

on the time of the release.

The time available for action is strongly related to the time

consumed in notification that conditions exist that could cause a

major release or that a major release is occurring. Development

and periodic testing of procedures for rapid notification are encouraged.
- 20 -

Table 2 - Guidance on Initiation and Duration of Release

Time from the Initiating event

to start of atmospheric release

Time period over which radioactive

material may be continuously

released

Time at which major portion of

release may occur

Travel time for release to

evxposure point

(time after release)

0.5 hours to one day

0.5 hours to several days

0.5 hours to 1 day after

start of release

5miles - - 0.5 to 2 hours

10 miles - - 1 to 4 hours

D. Radiological Characteristics of Releases

To specify the characteristics of monitoring instrumentation,* develop

decisional aids to estimate projected doses, and identify critical

exposure modes, planners will need information on the characteristics

of potential radioactivity releases. For atmospheric releases from

nuclear power facilities, three dominant exposure modes have been

identified. These are (1) whole body (bone marrow) exposure from

external gamma radiation and from ingestion of radioactive material;

(2) thyroid exposure from inhalation or ingestion of radiodines; and

*An Interagency Task Sorce on Emergency Instrumentation (offsite) is now

preparing guidance 7 on the type and quantity of instruments needed

for the various exposure pathways. Federal agencies represented on the

Instrumentation Task Force include NRC, EPA, DCPA, HEW, and DOE.
- 21 -

(3) exposure of other organs (e.g., lung) from inhalation or

ingestion of radioactive materials. Any of these exposure modes

could dominate (i.e., result in the largest exposures) depending

upon the relative quantities of various isotopes released.

Radioactive materials produced in the operation of nuclear reactors

include fission products and transuranics generated within the

fuel material itself and activation products generated by neutron

exposure of the structural and other materials within and immediately

around the reactor core. The fission products consist of a very

large number of different kinds of isotopes (nuclides), almost all

of which are initially radioactive. The amounts of these fission

products and their potential for escape from their normal places

of confinement represent the dominant potential for consequences

to the public. Radioactive fission products exist in a variety of

physical and chemical forms of varied volatility. Virtually all

activation products and transuranics exist as non-volatile solids.

The characteristics of these materials shows quite clearly that

the potential for releases to the environment decreases dramatically

in this order: (1) gaseous materials; (2) volatile solids; and

(3) non-volatile solids. For this reason, guidance for source

terms representing hypothetical fission product activity within
- 22 -

a nuclear power plant containment structure emphasizes the development

of plans relating to the release of noble gases and of volatiles such

as iodine. However, consideration of particulate materials should not

be completely neglected. For example, capability to determine the

presence or absence of key particulate radionuclides will be needed

to identify requirements for additional resources.

Table 3 provides a list of key radionuclides that might be expected

to be dominant for each exposure pathway. More detailed lists of core

inventories are presented in Chapter 15 of recent Safety Analysis

Reports and in Appendix V of the Reactor Safety Study. Both of these

sources give details on the time histories of the release fractions

for a spectrum of postulated accidents.
Table 3

RADIONUCLIDES WITH SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO DOMINANT EXPOSURE MODES

Radionuclides with Significant

Contribution to Lung Exposure*

(Lung only controlling when

thyroid dose is reduced by iodine

blocking or there is a long delay

prior to releases).

Radionuclides with Significant

Contribution to Thyroid Exposure

Half Life

Radionuclide (days)

1-131 8.05

1-132 0.0858

1-133 0.875

1-134 0.0366

1-135 .028

Te-132 3.25

Kr-88 0.117

Radionuclides with Significant

Contribution to Whole Body Exposure

Half Life

Radionuclide (days)

1-131 8.05

Te-132 3.25

Xe-133 5.28

1-133 0.875

Xe-135 0.384

I-135 .028

Cs-134 750

Kr-88 0.117

Cs-137 11,000

Radionuclide

1-131

I-132

1-133

1-134

1-135

Cs-134

Kr-88

Cs-137

Ru-106

Te-132

Ce-144

Half Life

(days)

8.05

0.0858

0.875

0.0366

.028 1

750 N

0.117 1

1 1,000

365

3.25

284

*Derived from the more probable Reactor Safety Study fuel melt categories and from postulated design basis

accident releases.
- 24 -

IV. CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the Task Force concludes that:.

• A spectrum of accidents (not the source term from a single

accident sequence) should be considered in developing a

basis for emergency planning.

• The establishment of Emergency Planning Zones of about 10

miles for the plume exposure pathway and about 50 miles for

the ingestion pathway is sufficient to scope the areas in

which planning for the initiation of predetermined protective

action is warranted for any given nuclear power plant.

• The establishment of time frames and radiological characteristics

of releases provides supporting information for planning and

preparedness.

* If previous consideration has been given to the basic planning

elements put forth in existing guidance documents (2,3,4)

the establishment of Emergency Planning Zones should not

result in large incremental increases in required planning

and preparedness resources.
- 25 -

REFERENCES

1. 10 CFR Part 50, Licensing of Production and Utilization Facility,

Appendix E, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.

2. Guide and Check List for the Development and Evaluation of State

and Local Government Radiological Emergency Response Plans in Support

of Fixed Nuclear Facilities, NUREG-75/111, Dec. 1974, U.S. Nuclear

Regulatory Commission.

3. Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for

Nuclear Incidents, EPA-520/1-75-001, Sept. 1975, U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency.

4. Emergency Planning for Nuclear Power Plants, Regulatory Guide 1.101,

aar. 1977. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.

5. Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of Accident Risks in U.S.

Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, (NUREG-75/014), October 1975,

WASH-1400, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

6. Instrumentation for Light-Water-Cooled Nuclear Power Plants to Assess

Plant Conditions During and Following an Accident, Regulatory Guide 1.97,

Dec. 1975, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.

7. Interim Guidance on Offsite Radiation Measurement Systems, A Report to

Developers of State Radiological Emergency Response Plans by the

Federal Interagency Task Force on (offsite) Emergency Instrumentation

for Nuclear Incidents at Fixed FacilitiesAugust 1977, U.S. Nuclear

Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.

8. Federal Radiation Council Staff Report No. 5, July 1964; Staff Report

No. 7, May 1965.

9. Federal Response Plan for Peacetime Nuclear Emergencies (Interim Guidance)

April 1977, Federal Preparedness Agency, General Services Administration.

10. Disaster Operations, A Handbook for Local Governments (CPG 1-6) July

1972, & Change No. 1, June 1974, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.

11. Radiological Incident Emergency Response Planning, Fixed Facilities and

Transportation: Interagency Responsibilities, Federal Preparedness Agency

General Services Administration, Federal Register Notice, Vol. 40,

No. 248 December 24, 1975.
- 26 -

GLOSSARY

Class 9 Accident

Consequences

Core Melt Accident

An accident considered to be so low in

probability as not to require specific

additional provisions in the design of

a reactor facility. Such accidents would

involve sequences of successive failures

more severe than those postulated for

the purpose of establishing the design

basis for protective systems and engineered

safety features. (Class 9 event sequences

include those leading to total core melt

and consequent degradation of the containment boundary and those leading to gross

fuel clad failure or partial melt with

independent failures of the containment

boundary).

The results or effects (especially projected

dose rates) of a release of radioactive

material to the environment.

A postulated reactor accident in which the

fuel melts because of overheating.
- 27 -

Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ) A generic area defined about a nuclear

facility to facilitate emergency planning

offsite. It is defined for the plume and

ingestion exposure pathways. In relation

to emergency response an EPZ is an area in

which best effort is performed making use

of existing emergency plans and is not an

area in which particular criteria must be

met.

Ingestion Exposure Pathway The principal exposure from this pathway

would be from ingestion of contaminated

water or foods such as milk or fresh

vegetables. The time of potential

exposure could range in length from

hours to months.

Guidance in terms of (1) Size of Planning

Area (Distance); (2) Time Dependence of

Release; and (3) Radiological Characteristics

of Releases.

Planning Basis
- 28 -

Plume Exposure Pathway

Projected Dose

Protective Action

Protective Action Guide

The principal exposure sources from this

pathway are: (a) .whole body external

exposure to gamma radiation from the plume

and from deposited materials and (b)

inhalation exposure from the passing

radioactive plume. The time of potential

exposure could range in length from

hours to days..

An estimate of the radiation dose which

affected population groups could potentially

receive if protective actions are not taken.

An action taken to avoid or reduce a

projected dose. (Sometimes referred to

as protective measure).

Projected absorbed dose to individuals in

the general population which warrants

protective action following a contaminating

event.

Radioisotope inventory of the reactor core,

or radioisotope release to the environment,

often as a function of time.

Source Term
APPENDIX I

RATIO1ALE FOR THE PLANNING BASIS

A. General Considerations

The Task Force considered various rationales for establishing

a planning basis; including risk, probability,

cost effectiveness, and consequence spectrum.

After studying the various approaches discussed below, the

Task Force chose to base the rationale for the planning basis

on a spectrum of consequences, tempered by probability considerations.

With respect to the risk* rationale.such an approach would

establish "planning guidance" that could be compared-with

the risks associated with non-nuclear accidents. This

rationale would seemingly give a uniform basis for emergency

planning and would clearly indicate the level of risk that

could be mitigated by advanced planning. However. emergency

planning for non-nuclear hazards is not based upon quantified

risk analyses. Risk is not generally thought of in terms of

probabilities and consequences, rather it is an intuitive feeling

of the threat posed to the public. Reactors are unique in this

regard: radiation tends to be perceived as more dangerous than

other hazards because the nature of radiation effects are less comnonly

*Risk is defined as accident consequences times the probability of

accident occurrence.
I-2

understood and the public generally associates radiation

effects with the fear of nuclear weapons effects. In addition,

a risk-related rationale might imoly the determination of an

acceptable level of risk which is outside the scope of the Task

Force effort. Choosinq a risk comnarable to non-nuclear events,

therefore, was not directly used as the rationale for an emergency

planning basis.

With respect to a probability rationale, one could arrive at

"planning guidance" by selecting an accident probability

below which development of an emergency plan could not be

justified. Factors favoring using this rationale center around

providing a quantitative probability basis, which could be

compared with the probabilities of other types of emergencies

for which plans are prepared.

Factors arguing against the probability rationale are similar

to those against the risk approach. Emergency planning is not

based upon quantified probabilitiesof incidents or accidents. On

the basis of the accident Drobabilities presented in the Reactor

Safety Study (nuclear and non-nuclear) society tolerates much more

probable non-nuclear events with similar consequence spectrum

without any specific Planning. Radiological emerneency planning is

not based upon probabilities, but on public perceptions of the

problem and what could be done to protect health and safety. In

essence, it is a matter of prudence rather than necessity.
1-3

Ageneric "probability of an event" appropriate for planning has

manvimplications felt to be outside the scope of the Task Force

objective. However, the concept of accident probabilitv is imoortant

and does have a place in terms of evaluating the ranoe of the

consequences of accident sequences and setting some reasonable

bounds on the planning basis. The probability rationale was used

by the Task Force to gain additional perspective on the planning

basis finally chosen.

With respect to a cost-effectiveness rationale, the level of

emergency planning effort would be based on an analysis of

what it costs to develop different levels of such a plan and

the potential consequences that could be averted by that degree

of development. The factor favoring the cost-effectiveness

rationale is that an emergency plan could be developed on the

basis of cost per potential health effect averted. Factors

arguing against the cost-effectiveness rationale are the difficulty in arriving at costs of plan development and maintenance

and considerations that general and radiological emergency

response plans have already been developed. In addition, absent

an actual accident, it would be very difficult to assign a dollar

value to the effectiveness of the plan in terms of health effects

averted.

Lastly, the calculatedconsequences from a spectrum of postulated

accidents was considered as the rationale for the planning basis.
1-4

Such a rationale could be used to help identify desirable

planning elements and establish bounds on the planning effort.

Further, a planning basis could be easily stated and understood

in terms of the areas or distances, time frames and radiological characteristics that would correspond to the consequences from a range of possible-accidents. Consequence oriented

guidance would also provide a consistency and uniformity in

the amount of planning recommended to State and local

governments. The Task Force therefore judged that the consequences of a spectrum of accidents should be the principal

rationale behind the planning basis.

B. Consequence Considerations

The Task Force considered the complete spectrum of accidents

postulated for various purposes, including those discussed

in environmental reports (i.e. best estimate Class 1 through

8 accidents), accidents postulated for purposes of evaluating

plant designs (e.g. the DBA/LOCA), and the spectrum of

accidents assessed by the Reactor Safety Study. The Task Force

concluded that the environmental report discussions (Class 1-8)

were too limited in scope and detail to be useful in emergency

planning.

1. Design Basis Accidents

Under NRC Regulations, the site/reactor design combination must

be such that the consequences of design basis accidents are
1-5

below the plume exposure guidelines of 10 CFR Part 100. The

design basis loss-of-coolant accident (DBA-LOCA) has been

typically the most severe design basis accident in that it

results in the largest calculated offsite doses of any accident

in this class. The DBA-LOCA is not a realistic accident

scenario in that the release magnitudes are much more severe than

would be realistically expected and may exceed that of some coremelt type accidents. A best estimate assessment of the release

following a LOCA would be significantly smaller than the DBA-LOCA

used for siting purposes. An analysis of this accident has been

performed for most of the power plants licensed or under review

by NRC to determine the dose/distance relationships as computed

by traditionally conservative assumptions used under 10 CFR Part

100 requirements. Results of this study are presented later in

this appendix. The study concluded that the higher PAG plume

exposures of 25 rem (thyroid) and 5 rem (whole body) would not

be exceeded beyond 10 miles for any site analyzed. Even under

the most restrictive PAG plume exposure values of 5 rem to the

thyroid and 1 rem whole body, over 70 percent of the plants would

not require any consideration of emergency responses beyond 10

miles. It should be noted that even for the DBA-LOCA, the lower

range of the plume PAGs would likely not be exceeded outside the

low population zone (LPZ) for average meteorological conditions.
I-6

For the ingestion pathways, under the same DBA-LOCA conditions,

the downwind range within which a PAG of 1.5 rem thyroid could

be exceeded would be limited to within 50 miles even

under the conservative 10 CFR 100 assumptions. The 50 mile

distance is also justified as a maximum planning distance

because of likely significant wind shifts within this distance

that would further restrict the radius of the spread of radioactive

material.

2. Class 9 Accidents

"Class 9" accidents cover a full spectrum of releases which range

from those accidents which are of the same order as the DBA-LOCA

type of releases; i.e., doses on the order of PAGs within 10 miles;

to those accidents which release significant fractions of the

available radioactive materials in the reactor to the atmosphere,

thus having potential for life-threatening doses. The lower

range of the spectrum would include accidents in which a core

"melt-through" of the containment would occur. As in the DBA-LOCA

class, the doses from "melt-through" releases (involving

thousands of curies) generally would not exceed even the most

restrictive PAG beyond about 10 miles from a power plant. The

upper range of the core-melt accidents is categorized by those

in which the containment catastrophically fails and releases large

quantities of radioactive materials directly to the atmosphere

because of over-pressurization or a steam explosion. These
1-7

accidents have the potential to release very large quantities

(hundreds of millions of curies) of radioactive materials. There

is a full spectrum of releases between the lower and upper range

with all of these releases involving some combination of atmospheric

and melt-through accidents. These very severe accidents have the

potential for causing serious injuries and deaths. Therefore,

emergency response for these conditions must nave as its first

priority the reduction of early severe healtn effects. Stuaies(697)

have been performed which indicate znat if emergency actions such

as sheltering or evacuation were taken within about Iu miles of a

power plant, there would be significant savings of early injuries

ana deatns from even tne most "severe" atmospneric releases.

For the ingestion pathways, (due to the airborne releases and

under Class 9 accident conditions), the downwind range within

which significant contamination could occur would generally be

limited to about 50 miles from a power plant, because of wind

shifts during the release and travel periods. There may also be

conversion of iodine in the atmosphere (for long time periods)

to chemical forms which do not readily enter the ingestion pathway.

Additionally, much of the particulate materials in a cloud would

have been deposited on the ground within about 50 miles.

C. Probability Considerations

An additional perspective can be gained when the planning basis

is considered in terms of the likelihood (probability) of

accidents which could require some emergency response.
1-8

Probabilities can be used to give a perspective to the

emergency planner by comparing the chance of a reactor accident

to other emergencies for which plans.and action may be required.

This consideration forms an additional basis upon which the

Task Force selected the planning basis. The Reactor Safety

Study (RSS) estimated the probabilities* of various severe

accidents occurring at nuclear power plants. The probability of

a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) from a large pipe break was

estimated to be approximately one chance in 10,000 (lxicF4) of

occurring per reactor-year. LOCA accidents would not necessarily

lead to the melting of the reactor core since emergency core

cooling systems (ECCS) are designed to protect the core in

such an event. In fact, other accident initiating events such

as the loss-of-coolant accident from a small pipe break or

transient events have a higher chance of leading to core-melting

than do large LOCA accidents. Core-melt type accidents were

calculated to have a probability of about one chance in 20,000

of occurring per reactor-year. There is a significant degree

of uncertainty associated with both of the above probability

estimates.

* Use of the RSS probability estimates, in the context of emergency planning,

has been thoroughly examined. It is recognized that there is a large range

of uncertainties in these numbers (as indicated in the Risk Assessment

Review Group Report, NUREG/CR-0400), but the perspective gained when consldering the probabilities is important in making a rational decision

concerning a basis for emergency planning.
I-9

The degree of uncertainty is such that no differentiation can

be confidently made, on a probabilistic basis, between the

DBA/LOCA and the releases associated with less severe core-melt

categories.

As discussed in Appendix 111, the Task Force has concluded that

both the design basis accidents and less severe core-melt accidents

should be considered when selecting a basis for planning predetermined protective actions and that certain features of the

more severe core-melt accidents should be considered in planning

to assure that some capability exists to reduce the consequences

of even the most severe accidents. The low probabilities associated

with core-melt reactor accidents (e.g. one chance in 20,000 or

5 x 10 5 per reactor-year) are not easy to comprehend and additional

perspectives are useful. Within-the next few years, there will

have been accumulated approximately 500 reactor-years of civilian

nuclear power plant operation in this country. Less than 30% of

all core melt accidents.would result in high exposure outside the

recommended planning distances. Therefore, over this time period*

the probability of an accident within the USA with exposures

exceeding the plume or ingestion PAGs outside the planning basis

distances would be about 1.5 x 10-5 x 500 or about 1 chance in

* The Reactor Safety Study explicitly limits its analyses to the first

100 reactors and five years (through 1980).

** This estimate is based upon the assumptions of the RSS. It should

be noted that there is a large uncertainty on this number.
I-10

100. To restate this, there is about a 1% chance of emergency

plans being activated in the U.S. beyond the recommended EPZs

within the next few years. For a single State, this probability

drops appreciably. For a State with ten reactors within or

adjacent to its borders, the probability of exceeding PAGs

outside the planning basis radius for the plume exposure pathway

-5

is about 1.5 x 10 x 10 or about one chance in 6000 per year

according to the Reactor Safety Study analysis.

For perspective, a comparison between reactor accidents and

other emergency situations can be made. Considerations of

emergency planning for reactor accidents are quite similar

to many other emergencies; floods, for example, have many

characteristics which are comparable. Timing, response

measures and potential consequences, such as property

damage are similar for both events.

Flood risk analysis has been carried out by the Flood

Insurance Program of the Department of Housing and Urban

Development and the Corps of Engineers. Flood plains have

been designated for all areas of the country by computing

the probability of being flooded within a certain period

of time; ie., the 100-year flood plain designates those

areas which can be expected to be under water when the worst

flood in a century occurs. Even with this relatively high

probability of severe flood occurrence there are no explicit

requirements for emergency response planning.
I-ll

Hurricanes and tornadoes are two potential threats for which some

emergency planning is required. Approximately 2 hurricanes

per year may be expected to hit the Atlantic coastal States

which require emergency response. For individual States, the

hurricane frequency ranges from 0.01 to 0.65 per year.

Tornadoes have a very high probability of occurrence per year.

A severe tornado can be characterized by wind speeds of

over 200 miles per hour. Such tornadoes are capable of

lifting cars off the gmund, tearing roofs and walls

off frame houses, overturning trains, and uprooting or

snapping most trees. Emergency actions would probably be

taken for such tornadoes. The frequency of severe tornadoes

for individual States, ranges from about 0.1 to 4 per year.

Severe reactor accidents are at least 100 times less likely to

occur than these other disasters requiring emergency response.

We nevertheless believe, that it is appropriate to develop

flexible emergency response capabilities which will assure that

consequences from nuclear reactor accidents are minimized.
I-12

D. Emerqency Planning Considerations Derived from Siting,

Meteorological Models and Licensing Criteria

1. Siting

As indicated in 10 CFR Part 100 (Siting Criteria),

an applicant for a construction permit to build a nuclear

power plant must designate an exclusion area, a low population

zone (LPZ) and a population center based upon consideration

of population distribution. The exclusion area must be of such.

a size that an individual located at any point on its boundary

for two hours immediately following the onset of a postulated

design basis accident fission product release from the reactor

Dlant would not receive a total radiation dose to the whole body

of 25 rem or 300 rem to the thyroid from radioactive plume exposures.

The LPZ must be of such a size that an Individual located at any

point on its outer boundary who is exposed to the radioactive

cloud during its entire period (30 days) of passage would not

receive a total radiation dose to the whole body of 25 rem or 300

rem thyroid. Calculated doses are usually substantially less

than these doses. Protective measures are not

assumed to be taken to avoid or mitigate these doses during

the denoted time periods. In additdon, site related requirements

are placed on the exclusion area and the LPZ. The licensee must

have authority over all activities within the exclusion area,

which normally requires ownership of the area. There must
1-13

be a reasonable probability that appropriate protective

measures, including evacuation, could be taken for the

residents in the LPZ in the event of a serious.accident.

Dose guideline values are not given for the population

center, although the expected doses would be less than within the

LPZ. Demographic characteristics within 50 miles of sites

are discussed in detail in Environmental Reports and in

Chapter 2 of Safety Analysis Reports for each nuclear power

plant and in Reference 1.

Assumptions used by the NRC staff to assess conformance

with these regulations are contained in various Regulatory

Guides (eKg. Regulatory Guides 1.3 and 1.4) and the NRC staff's

Standard Review Plans for Chapter 15 of Safety Analysis

Reports submitted by applicants for construction permits and

operating licenses. Although various assumptions are utilized

in this guidance, certain common features are shared: systems

containing potentially significant quantities of radionuclides are postulated to fail for an unspecified reason,

releasing all or substantial fractions of their inventories

from their normal location to the reactor plant containment

structure;* various installed safety systems in the containment designed to mitigate the consequences of .the postulated

release, are assumed to be inoperable at the time of the event,

*In particular, for the worst case DBA/LOCA postulated for containment design, 100% of the noble gases and 50% of the radioiodines in

the reactor core are presumed to be released from the core and primary

pressure boundary to the containment, which is assumed to isolate

and leak at a-specified volumetric leak rate.
I

1-14

or are assumed to be operating in a degraded mode, or combinations thereof; the resulting fractional release to the

atmosphere is assumed to occur at ground level under extremely

unfavorable dispersion conditions, i.e., under conditions

such that the calculated dose for'the given fractional release

would not be exceeded more than five percent of the time at the

site under review; and dose models which overestimate the dose

on a plume centerline for the given release fraction are used in

the dose calculation. For all of these postulated, simultaneously

occurring circumstances, 10 CFR Part 100 dose guideline values

must not be exceeded at the specified distances from the site.

Perspective on the implications of these 10 CFR 100 reactor

siting criteria for emergency planning can be obtained by

relating the calculated doses to the EPA PAGs, to guidelines

for milk ingestion, and to certain meteorological aspects

of dispersion in the atmosphere. For ground level releases,

without a wind shift, dose decreases with downwind distance (r)

in proportion to r , where a is between 1.5 and 3, depending on

the stability class prevailing at the time. (2)(Stability classes

are measures of atmospheric dispersion and are classified

by the letters A through G, with A denoting extremely dispersive

conditions (see Table I-1)(3)). For the NRC Staff assumption

conditions (e.g., class F conditions with low wind
Table i-1-RELATION OF TURBULENCE TYPES

TO WEATHER CONDITIONS

A- Extremely unstable conditions

B- Moderately unstable conditions

C-Slightly unstable conditions

D- Neutral conditions*

E- Slightly stable conditions

F- Moderately stable conditions

Nighttime conditions

Thin overcast

Surface wind Daytime insolation Thin overcas

speed, m/sec Strong Moderate Slight cloudinesst cloudiness

<2 A A-B B

2 A-B B C E F

4 B B-C C D E

6 C C-D D D D

>6 C D D D D

e-n

.- j

*Applicable to heavy overcast, day or night.

tThe degree of cloudiness is defined as that fraction of the sky above

the local apparent horizon which is covered by clouds.

REF: METEOROLOGY AND ATOMIC ENERGY - 1968
1-16

speed) and for "average" dispersion conditions (e.g., class

D stability), a value of a - 1.5 provides a good approximation for purposes of projecting dose rates with distance

from an exclusion area boundary. Table 1-2 and figure I-1

illustrate this dose rate decrease. For illustrative purposes,

figure I-1 also shows the decrease for values of a equal to

1 and 2. Except for stability class A, which seldom

occurs, dose rate should decrease with distance within the

h/r and h/r2 curves in this figure, barring a significant

wind shift during a release period.

For purposes of this discussion, dose vs distance extrapolations of the exclusion radius dose rate for LWR accidents

are of the greatest interest. Table 1-2 presents projected

upper bound (no wind shift) values of 2 hour whole body and

thyroid doses at various distances given a 25 rem and 300 rem

dose level at an exclusion radius (r ). For a site with an

exclusion radius of one mile, the upper limits of the proposed

EPA PAGs for plume exposures would be exceeded within 3

miles (whole body PAG) and 5 miles (thyroid PAG) of the reactor

plant containment structure; the lower limits could be exceeded

within 8 miles (whole body) and 15 miles (thyroid) of the reactor

plant containment structure. For a site with an exclusion radius

of 0.5 miles (about the median for currently licensed plants),
I-17

TABLE I-2

UPPER BOUND PLUME EXPOSURE PATHWAY

PROJECTED DOSES BASED ON

10 CFR PART 100.11 VALUES

r/ro (r/r )f1 *5 O to 2 HR DOSE

Whole Body

1.

1.5

2

3

4

5

6

8

10

15

20

1.

0.54

0.35

0.19

0.13

0.089

0.068

0.044

0.032

0.017

0.011

25

14

8.8

4.8

3.3

2.2

1.7

1.1

0.8

0.43

0.28

LIMIT (REM)

THYROID

300

162

105

57

39

27

20

13

9.6

5.2

3.3

ETA

(hrs)

0.5

0.75

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

4

5

7.5

10

NOTES: (1) Dose = Dose commitment on plume centerline.

(2) r0 = Exclusion area boundary, or exclusion radius

for a given site; r/r = multiple of exclusion

radius; lefthand colugn can be read as miles if

r0 = 1 mile.

(3) Presumes 100% of noble gases and 50% of radioidines

in core inventory released to containment, constant

volumetric leak rate from containment, "five percentile"

meteorology, straight line of sight travel of the plume, and conservative dose factors for plume exposure.

(4) ETA = Estimated time of arrival of

ro = 1 mile and 2 mph wind speed.

reduce travel times and calculated

plume front based on,

Higher wind speeds

doses.
DOSE FALLOFF WITH DISTANCE

(ALONG ACYUAL PLUME TRACK)

1.0

0.8

Relative 0.6

Dose

Rate

0.4

0.2

n

rmAX ~ e I cI -

1 _

1/r

4 5

o I

0 0.5 1 2 3

Distance (Miles)

r/ro (Any Units)

0 1 2 6 8 10
1-19

these limits could be exceeded within half the denoted distances.

Calculated course-of-accident doses could be several times

larger than the above values.

A second perspective from which to peruse the data in table I-2

is that of the thyroid PAGs for the milk ingestion pathway.

The ratio of thyroid dose commitment factor (related to air

concentration) for the milk pathway to the inhalation (plume

exposure) pathway is of the order of 300 for I-131.* From

this perspective it is clear that, without a wind shift during

the release period, potential dose commitments via the milk

pathway could exceed the ingestion PAG for tens of

miles from the reactor site for the presumed conditions, given

the presence of dairy herds and pasture in the downwind direcz

tion. Clearly, wherever there is a potential to exceed a

plume exposure PAG for the thyroid, there is a much greater

potential to exceed the milk pathway thyroid PAG. Alternately,

much lower releases of radioiodine could result in projected

doses in excess of the ingestion PAG without there being a

potential to exceed plume exposure PAGs.

*For a core release, I-131 activity would be about one eighth the total

radioiodine activity. Initially (for a day or so) I-133 or I-135

activities would be dominant. Thus, although I-131 would dominate the

projected dose commitment rate, the key early indicators for monitoring

purposes would be the hard (1-2 MeV) gamma emissions from I-135.
I-20

2. Meteorological Considerations

Although actual atmospheric diffusion is unlikely to behave

as simple theory would suggest, initial projections of

dose during an incident would most likely be based in part

on the simple, theoretical, gaussian plume model (i.e., Pasquill

diffusion). Shown in figure I-2 are theoretical "widths" of

gaussian shaped plumes (4) (the concentration of a pollutant

at the ;elected width of the plume is about 1% of the centerline concentration). Travel times of plume fronts for different

wind speeds are also illustrated in figure I-2. Stability

class, wind speed and wind direction might be considerably

different at the same time at different locations in the vicinity of a site and local topography could significantly influence wind patterns. Nevertheless, the information displayed

in figure 1-2 could be useful for scoping initial emergency

response actions, especially for those areas within a couple

of miles of a site. For example, for a wind speed of 2

.miles per hour and class F stability ( corresponding

roughly to the meteorological conditions assumed for the worst

case (5%) design basis accident considered for purposes of containment design), a plume front would not arrive at a location

two miles downwind for almost one hour. For this hypothetical

case, given timely warning, and using crosswind travel, an

individual could, barring any obstacles, walk out of the potentially impacted area before the plume front extends to two miles,
o *8

o 

s

C.

0. 

:

a,'- S- U 0 4-'

.- .P- itA

*_ > 4-

cEn

Mo 

0

CA .- 

L

CA

in LL

fa C U0

o C;n

CD

_n *a .

in .- V4- EnEA

wfom

in

CA o ,-. in c'Ja

c to 4J_

__ 0 0-p- CA

to a)0

en - c U7

to o 4%

10,000a

[

eZ

o 

a *c w

oE

oI

Z 

- z2

'-U

UT

o 2

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)

11

-a

aj 77-11/11/1I"11 I .I ,,

% % 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 MILES

0.1 1 10

qKM

Firture 1-2

DOWNWIND DISTANCE
1-22

since the individual would have to travel for about six

minutes to do so. Generally, higher wind speeds result

in lower dose rates for a given release fraction (source

term), but time of arrival of a plume front at a specific

distance is shorter.

In the foregoing, on several occasions note was made of the possible

influence of a wind shift. Clearly, upon a wind shift the

plume exposure dose commitment rate of persons in the original

downwind direction, due to the passage of a plume, would

end, and a different population dose commitment rate would

begin in the new downwind direction.

NOMA 5 ) has analyzed National Weather Station meteorological

data across the United States and has presented results in

the fonn of graphical displays of the probability of hours of

wind persistence in 22.50 and 67.5° sectors (FigurelI-3 and I-4).

The study concludes that there is an even chance of a ;Ignificant wind shift occurring in the next two to four hours at

any given location in the United States. A few general observations

are of import to emergency planning and/or response:

". . . the higher the wind speed, the greater is

the tendency for the wind to remain in a given direction. Conversely, it is in the lowest wind speed categories of calm

and 1 to 5 mph that the least direction persistence is found."
-rv9-

\. 0 %I .- T

\* 18

81

REF. I. VAN DER HOVEN. WIND PERSITENCE PROBABILITY. 2

ERLTM-ARL-10. NOAA AIR RESOURCES LABORATORY.

SILVER SPRING, MD. 20910

Highest 50-percent probability of hours of wind persistence in a 22'- sector centered on the

indicated directiont.

Flguw 1-3.

USNRC 12/75
3-3 Z.7j !13.4 ^ T 7 .rA i1"*

4.5

\24.2

IN DER HOVEN. WIND PERSISTENCE PROBABILITY.

LTM-ARL-10. NOAA AIR RESOURCES LABORATORY.

.VER SPRING, MD. 20910

Highest 50-percent probability of hours of wind persistence in a 67'1 sector centered on the indicated

directions.

FlRpm 14. USNRC 12/75
I-25

and ".. . . wind roses (frequency) that favor a particular

sector will also tend to persist in that sector."

Three caveats to the meteorological discussion are worth noting. The

first has to do with precipitation. Rainfall could occur either at

the time of a radioactive release or some time during transport,

possibly many miles away from the source of the release. Rainfall

is usually a very efficient scavenger of particles in the

atmosphere. Should a radioactive release to the atmosphere

occur during rainfall, one should expect to find relatively

greater ground deposition close to the source of the release,

independent of the height of the release, than one would find

during clear weather. Underrainy conditions, relatively less

air and ground concentrations of radioactive material should

be found at greater distances from the source of the release.

On the other hand, a release could occur during dry weather

yet the release could intercept a rainfall at some distance

away; at this distance particles could be deposited on the

earth, vegetation, structures, water, etc., very efficiently.

In a strong rainfall a substantial fraction of deposited

radioactive material could even be washed away. Rainfall

interception could be the most important meteorological

phenomena of concern for the case of a strongly elevated

release, such as due to plume rise of a thermally hot

release which is probable with larger accidents.
1-26

The second caveat concerns real world meteorology. As noted

earlier, plumes or puffs do not normally follow straight lines,

especially in low wind speed conditions. Nor do they maintain

a constant windspeed and stability. Puffs can double back and

return from where they came and slow down or speed up. Clearly,

the track of a major radioactive release would be of great interest

and concern. As illustrated in Figure 7.15 of reference (3),

radiation signals well above natural background should be observed

even miles away from a plume at the center of which the dose rate

is as low as one rem per hour, and even less. Such plumes could

be tracked using aircraft and generally available instrumentation

such as Geiger counters and "cutie pies."

It is also important to realize that a substantial amount of energy

could be associated with major releases. This energy will tend to

lift the radioactive material off of the ground and form a cloud

or plume. If this occurs, tracking of the material could be much

more difficult since the wind direction can change dramatically

with attitude.

3. Licensing Considerations

NRC regulation require applicants for licenses to construct and

operate nuclear power facilities to make accident dose calculations.

Such calculations take into consideration plant designs and site

characteristics. They are based in part on the DBA-LOCA accident

scenario.

Inherent in the consequence calculations for the postulated

DBA-LOCA is the presumption of "five percentile" meteorology,

i.e., the presumption that atmospheric dispersion at a site
1-27

at the time of the postulated accident should be more favorable

(leading to lower doses) ninety-five percent of the time.

Alternately, given the postulated accident, the odds are at

least twenty to one against the doses being as large as

calculated for the DBA-LOCA. This "five-percentile" meteorology is derived from measurements made at the site during, or

previous to, the construction period. It can nominally be

characterized by class F stability and very low wind speeds

(e.g., 2 miles/hour or less), i.e., the very conditions

for which a wind shift is most likely. These data are presented

in Chapter 2 of current Safety Analysis Reports for each nuclear

power facility and are given as funcions of elapsed time and

distance.

The results of the conservative licensing calculations for the

DBA-LOCA vary from plant-to-plant because of plant design and

variation in meteorology. For this reason a large number plants

were analyzed in order to report the likely range of the conservative DBA-LOCA doses. Data from seventy safety analysis

reports were collected and used for this purpose. The seventy

plants consisted of 129 separate nuclear units. The resulting

distribution of DBA-LOCA doses calculated for these facilities arp

indicative of plants that are now operating and plants that will

be operating in the near future.

An example of the results of such calculations is shown in
1-28

figure .I-5. As is seen in the figure, the major portion of the

radioactive material will be released in the first few hours,

after the accident. Fortunately, for release durations of more

than a couple -of hours there will be'significant wind shifts

and clud meander (especially associated with the 5% to meteorological conditions postulated). Therefore, for purposes of these

calculations it was assumed that the dose of any individual

would be limited to that of the first two hours after the accident.

The results of the analysis are depicted in figures 1-6 through

I-9. Figure I-6 shows the 2 hour thyroid dose versus distance

for the 50 percentile and 10 percentile cases. The 50 percentile

curve is the median dose for all 129 units; thus half of the

units had doses less than that indicated and the other half

had greater doses. The 10 percentile curve means that 10% of

the units had doses greater than that indicated. This figure

also shows a rapid decrease in thyroid dose out to almost 10 miles

with a leveling off at greater distances. It shows that at ten

miles, the 2 hour thyroid dose would be typically about 4 rem

and that in a few cases it may exceed 10 rem. Figure,1-7 takes

the same data but plots the dose at 10 miles against the cumulative

frequency of reactor units. It can be seen that the DBA-LOCA

doses were calculated to exceed the lower PAG range for only

30% of the units.

Figure I-8 and 1-9 provide similar plots for the whole body
102

-

z

us

z

P

F

w

F

10

.I

I I I I I 1 I 

25 REM 'O

I I_-I 11 I I I V 1 1VV TF

Ni IL

5

10-1 II I lit I lii II I I It titi I I I tIll, I

102 103 1(4 105

DISTANCE (METERS)

Figure 1-5. Example of Time-Dose-Distance Relationships for Thyroid Inhalation Dose

From DBA/LOCA (5% Meteorology and Straightline Plume Trajectory)
1-30

8s

70 - 2 HOUR THYROID DOSE

60

w

40*.

> 30

20 - 10%

10

0

0 10 20 30 40

DISTANCE IMILES)

I I I

0 5 10 15 20

APPROX. TIME OF CLOUD ARRIVAL (HOURS)

Figure 1-6. Centerline Dose Versus Distance for Licensing Calculation of DBA/LOCA at 2 Hours

Assuming 5 Percentile Meteorology and Straight Line Plume Trajectory.

50% Curve is Median of 67 Actual Site Calculations

10% Curve is Highest 10% of Calculations
1-31

100

.2 HOUR THYROID DOSE

80

Ua.

O 60

IL

W 40

I.-

20

0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

X -THYROID DOSE (REM)

Figure 1-7. Cumulative Frequency of Units Versus Dose at 10 Miles for Licensing Calculation of

DBA/LOCA at 2 Hours Assuming 5 Percentile Meteorology and Straight Line

Trajectory.
1-32

6 I .l 1

5 2 HOUR WHOLE BODY DOSE

a 4

LU

0

0

W 3

0

-J 2 0.

1 10%

50°h

0

0 10 20 30 40

DISTANCE (MILES)

I I

0 5 10 15 20

APPROX. TIME OF CLOUD ARRIVAL (HOURS)

Figure 1-8. Centerline Dose Versus Distance for Licensing Calculation of DBA/LOCA at 2 Hours

Assuming 5 Percentile Meteorology and Straight Line Plume Trajectory.

50% Curve is Median of 67 Actual Site Calculations

10% Curve is Highest 10% of Calculations
1-33

100

80

a)

I--

2

II.

0

0

w

ku

M

-a

C.,

60

40

20 .

o _

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

X - WHOLE BODY DOSE (REM)

Figure l19. Cumulative Frequency of Units Versus Dose at 10 Miles for Licensing Calculation of

DBA/LOCA at 2 Hours Assuming 5 Percentile Meteorology and Straight Line

Trajectory.
I-34

dose case. The results are similar to the thyroid case.

The dose is seen to sharply decrease within 10 miles and to

decrease slowly at greater distances. At 10 miles the

whole body dose for the median plant was about 1/10 of a rem

and very few plants had doses in excess of 1/2 rem whole body.

From these results, the Task Force concluded that about a

10 mile Emergency Planning Zone for the plume exposure pathway

was justified to assure that predetermined actions would be

planned in those areas where PAGs could be exceeded in the

event of a release comparable to a design basis accident.

For the ingestion pathway, figure 1-10 was developed showing

a distance relationship of potential dose to an infant's

thyroid from milk consumption. As was done for the plume

exposure, conservative calculational techniques were used to

attempt to bound the results of the ingestion exposure. For

example, the straight line trajectory was used with no credit

taken for wind shifts. All of the assumptions of the Reactor

Safety Study for the calculation of thyroid dose from milk

ingestion were used for this analysis. The results of

.figure 1-10 show that for the DBA-LOCA,ingestion doses above

PAG's are unlikely to occur beyond about 50 miles from power plants.
1-35

so

w

IL

z

0

0

0

F

ILl

C,

2

a

B

40

30

20

10

0

0 10 20 30 40

DISTANCE (MILES)

50

I

L

0

I l I l l

1 2 3 4 5

APPROX. TIME OF CLOUD ARRIVAL (HOURS)

Figure l-10. Maximum Thyroid Dose (Milk Pathway) to Infant Versus Distance, From 1-131,

for DBA/LOCA Assuming Worst Possible Meteorology and Straight Line

Trajectory.
I-36

E. Emergency Planning Consideration Derived from

The Reactor Safety Study (WASH-1400)

The Reactor Safety Study (RSS) attempts' to provide a detailed

quantitative assessment of the probability and consequences of

"Class 9" accidents. The study concluded that the public risk

from nuclear reactor accidents was dominated by accidents in

which there was substantial damage to the reactor core and

that the probabilities of such accidents were very small.*

Since emergency planners are encouraged to develop response plans

which will be flexible enough to respond to most accident

situations, some understanding of "Class 9" accidents and the

relationships between them and emergency planning is needed.

The Reactor Safety Study developed the mathematical techniques

and data base to provide an understanding of these relationships.

To obtain an appreciation for the distances to which or areas

within which emergency planning might be required, a perspective

on the relative probabilities of certain critical doses as

a function of distance from the-power plant for these accidents

*Probability of a "core-melt" accident was estimated to be approximately 1 in 20,000 (5 x 10-5) per reactor year. There is a

large uncertainty on this number.
I-37

is needed. A set of such curves has been prepared for all

of the RSS accident release categories (figure I-11). These

curves include both Pressurized and Boiling Water Reactor (PWR

& BWR) accidents. Doses are given for the critical values

for which emergency planners should be concerned. One and

five rem whole body doses correspond to the lower range of the

PAGs; 50 rem whole body corresponds to the dosage at which

early illnesses start to occur; and 200 rem whole body is the

dose at which significant early injuries start to occur. As

can be seen from figure I-li, core melt accidents can be

severe, but the probability of large doses drops off substantially at about 10 miles from the reactor. Similar conclusions

can be reached by evaluating the other critical organs of

lung and thyroid shown in figures I-12 and 1-13, respectively.

For the lung, the doses of 5, 25, 300 and 3000 rem were plotted

as a function of distance and probability of occurence. For

the thyroid, the reference doses of 5, 25, 300 rem, which

correspond to the lower and upper PAG levels, and the guideline exposure used for siting purposes are presented.

Given a core melt accident, there is about a 70% chance of

exceeding the PAG doses at 2 miles, a 40% chance at 5 miles,

and a 30% chance at 10 miles from a power plant. That is,

the probability of exceeding PAG doses at 10 miles is 1.5 x 105
1-38

I I loll I I. I til; l I 1 1 1

0

O PAREMT

0 , 0.1 CA

&I I

c .50 REM

LL~02

0.01

0

200 REM

C.00

1 10 100 1000

DISTANCE (MILES)

Figure 1-11. Conditional Probability of Exceeding Whole Body Dose Versus Distance. Probabilities

are Conditional on a Core Melt Accident (5 x 10-5).

Whole body dose calculated includes: external dose to the whole body due to the

passing cloud, exposure to radionuclides on ground, and the dose to the whole body

from inhaled radionuclides.

Dose calculations assumed no protective actions taken, and straight line plume

trajectory.
1-39

1 ' I d I I I a II ' I I I I le

CA

LU

( Z 0.1

2 W

U.- 0

0

300 REM

0.0 REM

0.001 I .I21\|1 I * .... 22 a of a..

1 10 100 1000

DISTANCE (MILES)

Figure 1-12. Conditional Probability of Exceeding Lung Doses Versus Distance. Probabilities are

Conditional on a Core Melt Accident (5 x 105).

Lung dose calculated includes: external dose to the lung due to the passing cloud,

exposure to radionuclides on ground, and the dose to the lung from inhaled

radionuclides within 1 year. .

Dose calculations assumed no protective actions taken, and straight line trajectory.
1-40

W C REM 0

02Z 0.1

25 REM

XE

LU o 300 REM\ ILL)

-LU

>0.01

0

0.001

1 10 100 1000

DISTANCE (MILES)

Figure 1-13. Conditional Probability of Exceeding Thyroid Doses Versus Distance. Probabilities

are Conditional on a Core Melt Accident (5 x 10-5).

Thyroid dose calculated includes: external dose to the thyroid due to the passing cloud, exposure to radionuclides on ground, and the dose to the thyroid from

inhaled radionuclides.

Dose calculations assumed no protective actions taken, and straight line trajectory.
1-41

per reactor year* (one chance in 50,000 per reactor-year) from

the Reactor Safety Study analysis.

Based in part upon the above information the Task Force judged

that a 10 mile plume EPZ would be appropriate to deal with

core melt accidents.

Potential ingestion doses to the thyroid (through the cow/milk

pathway) from core melt accidents are given in figure I-14.

The distance for which emergency planning is needed is not easily

determined from the information given in the figure. It is

evident that doses can potentially be quite high out to

considerable distances.

The current PAG for milk ingestion is 30 rem thyroid to an

individual and 10 rem thyroid to a suitable sample of the

population (usually calculated on the basis of an infant's

thyroid). Given a core melt accident, there is a near

100% chance of exceeding the 10 reim thyroid PAG from milk

ingestion at 1 mile, about an 80% chance at 10 miles and a 40%

chance at 25 miles from a power plant. A planning basis

for milk ingestion on the order of 25 miles would therefore

approximately correspond to the 10 mile plume exposure distance

*There is a large uncertainty on this number.
1-42

1

0

5

cI -

2

W

I-U

0i L

25-

CM UJ

jE

0U

Ul IL

_ LU

C.

W Z 0 U

Ul _ Ul 4

Im.>

0

I-to

&

0.1

0.01

0.001 LI

Figure 1-14.

10 100 1000

DISTANCE (MILES)

Conditional Probability of Exceeding Thyroid Dose to an Infant Versus Distance.

Probabilifies are Conditional on a Core Melt Accident (5 x 1o5).

Thyroid dose calculated is due solely to radionuclide ingestion through the milk

consumption pathway.

Dose calculations assumed no protective actions taken, and straight line trajectory.
I-43

if current FRC guidance were used. However, because the

Task Force is aware that revision of the FRC guides

may result in recommendations for certain -types of preventive measures (such as putting cows on stored feed)

at projected doses substantially below these levels,*

the Task Force chose an ingestion pathway EPZ on the order

of 50 miles.

*The recom:mended size of the ingesticn exposure EP.Z is based on an expected

revision of milk pathway Protective Action Guidelines by FDA-Bureau of

Radiological Health. The Task Force understands that measures such as

placing dairy cows on stored feed will be recommended for projected

exposure levels as low as about 1.5 rem to the infant thyroid. Should

the current FRC guidelines be mai.itained,anf EPZ of about 25 miles would

be recommended by the Task Force.
1-44

F. Examination of Offsite Emergency Prntpctive Moaqires for

Core Melt Accidents

A recent study (6, 7) has been published which is of general

use to those responsible for emergency response planning for

reactor accidents in understanding the "Class 9" accident

relationships and specifically the core "melt-through" and

"atmospheric" accident classes. This study was undertaken to

evaluate, in terms of public radiation exposure and health

effects, the relative merits of possible offsite emergency

protective measures for response to potential nuclear reactor

accidents involving serious reactor accidents. Three types of

protective measures were examined and compared: evacuation;

sheltering followed by population relocation, and medical

(iodine) prophylaxis. This study was based upon the Reactor

Safety Study results and methodologies. The conclusions of

the study not only give a perspective on the relative merits

of a given protective measure, the conclusions also confirm

the Task Force recommendations on the distances and times

for which planning is appropriate.
I45

Figuresl -15 and 116 give the additional perspective of the

study on the probabilities and needs for emergency planning

in terms of the core "melt-through" and "atmospheric" categories

and a range of expected emergency actions. Figure I -lSshows

the probabilities of exceeding thyroid and whole body PAGs

versus distance from the reactor, conditional on the occurrence

of a'lnelt-through" release. The probabilities are calculated

for an individual located outdoors, and are presented for

both lower and upper PAG levels for each organ. A similar curve

is shown in fi gure 1-16 for the"atmospheric!' releases.

The figure indicates that both whole body and thyroid

PAGs are likely to be exceeded at very large distances*

from the reactor (and correspondingly over very large areas)

if an "atmospheric" accident were to occur. Doses in excess

of threshold levels for early health effects are confined to

smaller areas much closer to the reactor. Therefore, in the

unlikely event that an accident of this magnitude were to occur,

responsible authorities might choose to direct their available

*Caution must be used in interpreting the large distances indicated.

The RSS consequence model assumes an invariant wind direction following

the release of radioactive material. However, because of the time

required by the cloud to travel large distances, it is likely that the

wind directions will, in fact, shift and that the predicted dose levels

would not be observed at the reported radial distance. Rather, the

distance applies more closely to the trajectory of the released cloud.
snU

9

)I- 1

I 3

Jr f

tx

e

0 jg

>- 5. is s

x or

i

I V

6

o r

2-- -C &is

3 g

V0cc

061

0.

THYROIO2 (AG -Srem)

0.l_ THYROIb\

oPAG - 25 rem)

WHOLE BODY

_PAG- I rem)

g *! W0OE BiODYb -

0.0 _ (PAG *5 rem)

0.V

1 10 100 IODD

DISTANCE (MILES)

Figura 1.16. Oxiditiaml Protbaility o* Weeding Thyroid and whole Protective ktion

Oulde. (l) Verms Diatance for on Individual Located Ojtdors.a Probabilities

are tditimal on a 1" 'Atxoaric itlease (FIlR 1-51.

0sieiding factor toe airborne radionuclides * i.:. Mielding factor for

radionuclideu deposited on ground * 0.7. I-day epure t- *-lionumlides

on ground.

1

bhole lady (thyroid) doat calculated includess external dose to the u4hole

body (thyroid) due to the pasiing cloud and 1-day ewposure to radionuclides

on ground, atd the do"e to the uhole bedy ithyroid) from inihaled radionuelides

within I year.

07

DISTANCE tMILESI

Figure 1.15. Owedtiaual ftbaility of bwdin Thyroid and WOle " trote tiv Action

oulde I- ) Versus Diat e e for n Individua. Located Otduors.

tebbilties are ewditina1l en a %Ielt-1hrouqh roleate MP 6 tnd 71.

0Auieldi" factor for airborne radlonuclides - 1.0. Shildirq factor for

radiwuclides depolited on ground * 0.7. iday e*oue to radionuclidee on

grond.

b*ol bodt ("t old) dO calculated inctlude external de to the whole

body (fthyroid) u to the psing cloud nd I-day ceposure to radionuclides

on grouxd*, ad the do. to the ahole biy (thyroid) from inualed rdiionucliden

within I year.
I-47

resources towards limiting the life- and injury-threatening

doses to individuals in those closer areas. Then, if sufficient

resources are available, protective measures might also be

implemented for individuals at larger distances for whom PAGs

are, or are likely to be, exceeded.

Mean** numbers of projected early fatalities and injuries

within selected radial intervals, conditional on an 'Natmospheric" release are compared for evacuation and sheltering

strategies in figures 1-17 and 1-18. Seven strategies are

included, as defined in the key to these figures. Strategy

1 assumes that no immediate protective actions are taken.

2, 3, and 4 are selected sheltering strategies. Strategies

3 and 4 represent sheltering for regions in which.a large

fraction of homes have basements. Effective exposure

durations to ground contamination for these two strategi2s

are 1 day and 6 hours, respectively. Strategy 2 represents sheltering for regions in which most homes do not

have basements, with 6 hours of effective exposure to ground

contamination. Strategies 5, 6, and 7 represent evacuation

with 5, 3 and 1 hours of delay time, respectively. The results

presented in figures 1-17 and 1-18 assume a uniform population

density of 100 people per square mile. The corresponding

** The mean refers to the average of 91 stratified weather sequences

iwhich were used to calculate a frequency distribution of early

public health effects.
_JC

cm-C M = a ,3

W. W

U r,- L:J LLA

VI VI

0:

L

VA Ce

L.J OU

;= ;R

_J =

I.CCL.

COA

L C)

>. ig J

cc -C

ZS cc

in it Wb.-

M is

0 -1. Ce M r,

CA iN _J = -C Lai ?"

02

x W2 z

MZs

:E

I

40 i

30 iL

U.

-InM

el

i

4

70

2

10- 3

4

I

0 -

IL 1 b~J 2 ±__ 3 

I

10

0

2

3

457

12343.

I

1 234S67 12345a7

*17

7 __X - - - - - - - -

0 -5 5-10 10-15 15 -25 l

0 -5 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 -25

RADIAL INTERVAL (MILES)

Flamre 1.17. won as of Projecta fatly fatalities within selected %dial

intstvysl for £vsuation and Shelteringq Sttategles. Giveni a MRW

*A qIItic' ftlease (PiM 3-5). A (lIlfot.n Poplation tDmetY

of 100 Seras'. per 9~*w m ile is Asind

lb late protective action. Was! (0.71. 0.3) .I-a" exposire

to rmiionsuclides on gcurd

2.9hlterlnj, S'a 10.75. 0.33). &twuir esa r to radionucslides Onl

qroisaf

4. Sheltering. gil (0.5, 0.06). 64%ou exposire to radionucl ides on

S. Evacuation. S howr delay time, 1S OM.

6. Prncition, 3 hoar delay time, 10 wn.

7. teyac'tion. I ~wc dalay time, 10 MR.

aDhIeldln 9 factors (alrihonn radionuclides. gtouri contamination).

p~hielding ractore for no proteetive action mere- ctosan to be the saua foe'

shelterlii in area" %&** mt mas de not he,. basemnts is". refevence 46).

RADIAL INTERVAL (MILES)

Flgur, 1.1R. Men lemet ot Projected arly Injurles within selected erlal

Intertva ls ftor evcuation nd Shlterinq Strategies. GClvn a Mm

*Atqden-ic' Plesse (tV 1-5). A Uniform aulation bv"Ity

of 100 Persns Otr Square Nile Ie ASSamd.

1 b

1. Ob 11latt protective action. S sr 10.75. 0.31). It-AY tousare

to radlonuclides on qrouvl.

2. Shelterinq, qPms 10.75. 0.33). 4.hout e-posurp to radlonuclides on

grourn.

3. Shelttring, KP. (10.5. 0.06). t1day eIposnroe to radloiclle on qrote-.

4. sht1tnlI,?. %? * (0.5, 0.06). 4-hour tepre to radlonuclides on

qroauni.

5. Evacuatlon. S tour delay tir . 10 Wm.

6. tEvauatlon, 3 %r A-lay time, 10 mm.

7. tencation. I hour delay time, In mm.

'Stisloinq factorS (alrtorne radloucilies. 4rm j contamination).

qh factors faeldin fot "n protoctlve action were chotnm to he the saws an for

hvtterlnl In areas %hete omt hes dn not hwa-P hvints (Sei rerer-oe 4i.
I-49

number of projected early fatalities and injuries for any particular site would depend on the actual population distribution surrounding the site. Nevertheless, the relative comparison of numbers for the strategies indicated is nearly

independent of the population distribution within a given

interval.

Several observations can be drawn from the results

presented in figures 1-17 and 1-18. Most early fatalities

resulting from "atmospheric" accidents are projected to

occur within approximately 10 miles of the reactor, while early

injuries are likely out to somewhat larger distances.*

Within 5 miles of the reactor, evacuation appears to be more

effective in reducing the number of early health effects

than sheltering, as long as the delay time and nonparticipating

segment of the population are kept sufficiently small.

This distinction is not as apparent in the 5 to 10 mile

interval. Throughout both of the intervals from O to 10 miles,

the importance of a rapid and efficient implementation of

either evacuation or sheltering is evident (small delay

times for evacuation, small ground exposure times for sheltering).

*Projected early fatalities and injuries in the 15 to 25 mile

interval are higher than for the 10-15 mile interval because

the interval is twice as wide.
I-O

Note that evacuation (i.e., removal of population from

hazardous area) with delay times of 1 hour or less will

reduce the projected number early public health effects

to roughly 0 in any radial interval, and will always be

the most effective response measure for a severe accident,

if it can be achieved. In the-intervals beyond 10 miles,

there is little apparent distinction between the effectiveness of evacuation and sheltering strategies in terms of

projected early fatalities or injuries. The mean number of

early fatalities is 0 in both of these intervals, and projected

early injuries, although not 0, are greatly reduced for each

of the protective strategies investigated.

Several important conclusions about the relative effectiveness of the protective measures examined, the distances to

which or areas within which they might be required, and

the time available for their implementation, were drawn by

the study from the results provided by these analyses. For

the "melt-through" class, projected whole body and thyroid

doses in excess of PAGs for those organs are, for all practical

purposes, confined to areas within 10 miles of the reactor.

Emergency response planning for this type of accident should

therefore be primarily directed towards limiting the dose to

those individuals located within that distance. Evacuation

appears to provide the greatest benefit of any protective measure.
I- 51

However, sheltering, particularly in areas where most homes

have basements, also offers substantial benefit, and may in

many cases offer an acceptable alternative to evacuation. Iodine

prophylaxis, if administered in sufficient time, cduld also

offer substantial reduction in the projected dose to the

thyroid.

'Atmospheric" accidents could result in the occurrence of significant numbers of early fatalities and injuries. However, doses

in excess of threshold levels for significant early health

effects (about 200 rem whole body) are generally confined

to areas much closer to the reactor. Therefore, given an

"atmospheric" accidentresponsible authorities should concentrate

their immediately available resources on limiting the lifeand injury-threatening doses to individuals in those closer

areas.* Within 5 miles of the reactor, evacuation appears to be

more effective than sheltering in reducing the number of early

health effects, as long as the delay time and nonparticipating

fraction of the population can be kept sufficiently small.

Between 5 and 10 miles, this distinction is not as apparent,

and sheltering in areas where basements are widely available

(followed by rapid relocation) may be as effective as

evacuation with relatively small delay times. For all affected

*Then, when time permits, protective measures might be implemented

for individuals at larger distances for whom PAGs are, or are

likely to Be, exceeded.
1-52

areas within approximately 10 miles of the reactor, the speed

and efficiency with which either evacuation or sheltering

and relocation are implemented strongly influence the number

of projected early health effects. For areas beyond 10 miles,

there is little apparent distinction between the effectiveness

of evacuation and sheltering strategies in terms of projected

early fatalities or injuries. Therefore, although protective

actions may be required for individuals located in areas further than 10 miles from the reactor for an atmospheric

release, the actual measures used and how rapidly or efficiently

they are implemented, will not strongly influence the number

of projected early health effects.
1-53

REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX I

(1) D. Bunch, K. Murphy and J. Reyes.

Demographic. Statistics Pertaining to Nuclear Power Reactor

Sites. (Draft) NUREG-0348. USNRC Washington, D. C. 20555

Dec. 1977

(2) D. Bruce Turner. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates.

AP-26. USEPA Office of Air Programs, Research Triangle Park,

NC 27711. 1970 Revision.

(3) USAEC. Meteorology and Atomic Energy - 1968. D. Slade, ed

TID-24190. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va.

22151

(4) J. A. Martin, Jr. Doses While Traveling Under Well Established

Plumes. Health Physics Jr. V. 32, n.4, pp. 305-307, April 1977..

(5) I. Van der Hoven. Wind Persistence Probability. ERLTM-ARL-10.

NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD 20910

(6) Aldrich, D. C., Examination of Offsite Radiological BEergc

Protective Measures For Nuclear Reactor Accidents Involving

Core Melt, MIT, Department of Nuclear Engineering, March, 1978.

(7) Aldrich, D. C., et al, "Examination of Offsite Emergency Protective

Measures For Core Melt Accidents," American Nuclear Society Topical

Meetinq, NewDert Beach, Ca., May, 1978.
APPENDIX II

BACKGROUND CONCERNING THIS REPORT

The commercial nuclear power industry has expanded greatly in the last

several years and is expected to grow even larger in the years ahead as

more plants go into operation. The industry to date has had an excellent

safety record. The Federal government recognizes this excellent safety

record and the efforts by the nuclear industry to continue to reduce even

further the likelihood of accidents. It also recognizes, however, that

the probability of an accident involving a significant release of radioactive material, although small, is not zero. It has been and continues

to be Federal policy to adopt a cautious attitude with respect to the

potential of these facilities for the release of radioactive materials

in hazardous quantities. Such emergency situations are the focus of

attention of Federal radiological emergency preparedness activities.

A. NRC Reactor Siting and Emergency Planning Regulations

The U. S. NRC, as the agency with the principal regulatory authority

for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, has

long recognized that emergencies could arise in the operation of

such plants. One of its regulations, Reactor Site Criteria (10 CFR

Part 100 published in 1962(1)) states that a capability for taking

protective measures on behalf of the public in the event of a serious

II-1
accident should be established within a region called the low

population zone (LPZ) surrounding a nuclear power plant site.

Whether a specific number of people can, for example, be evacuated

from a specific area, or instructed to take shelter, on a timely

basis will depend on many factors such as: egress routes, availability of sheltering, the scope and extent of advance planning,

and the actual distribution of residents within the area.

In 1970, explicit requirements for plans to cope with emergencies

were published in 10 CFR 50, Appendix E. In accordance with

provisions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, these requirements

are directed to applicants who apply for licenses to operate these

facilities rather than to State or local governments. With respect

to a planning basis, NRC regulations in 10 CFR 50, Appendix E, do

not provide explicit guidance as to the character or magnitude of

accidental releases to the environment which should be considered

in the development of nuclear facility or State and local government

emergency plans. The Appendix E regulations also do not include

any explicit references to the low population zone or other

particular geographical areas other than "within and outside

the site boundary". They do, however, require that applicants

for construction permits for these facilities provide sufficient

I1-2
information to "assure compatibility of proposed (facility) emergency

plans with facility design features, site layout, and site location

with respect to such considerations as access routes, surrounding

population distributions, and land use".

Neither the NRC nor the other Federal agencies have statutory authority

over State and local governments with respect to emergency planning

related to nuclear facilities. In the regulation of nuclear power

plants, however, NRC requires licensees to develop an emergency

response plan which contains provisions for the protection of the

public. The implementation of any protective actions offsite,

however, is necessarily the responsibility of offsite organizations.

The NRC requires that the licensee develop procedures for notifying

local, State and Federal agencies. NRC also requires that licensees'

emergency plans contain agreements reached with local, State and

Federal agencies which provide for the early warning of the public

and the implementation of any appropriate protective actions.

B. Federal Guidance Effort

The legal authority and responsibility of local, State and Federal

governments for offsite response was recognized when 10 CFR 50,

Appendix E was published. NRC regulations require licensees to

I I-3
incorporate provisions for participation by offsite authorities

or organizations whose assistance may be required in the event of

a radiological emergency in periodic drills to test response plans.

As the NRC staff gained experience with these requirements, it

became concerned with the abilities of State and local governments

to discharge their responsibilities should the need ever arise.

This concern in part gave rise to a.Federal Register Notice(2)

which started an Interagency program for providing radiological

emergency response planning guidance and related training to

State and local government organizations. NRC exercises the

lead role in this activity and several Federal Agencies, including

EPA, participate. Guidance has been published by NRC, EPA and other

Federal agencies for use by State and local governments in developing

radiological emergency response plans.

It has been Federal policy to encourage planning for a variety of

radiological consequence situations "within and outside the site

boundary" and the Task Force reemphasizes the necessity for

emergency planners to consider a wide spectrum of situations.

Existing Federal guidance documents are constructive in this

regard. But these documents are not sufficiently definitive as

evidenced by the continuing dialogue among Federal, State and

I I-4
local agencies and licensees on this subject. Existing Federal

guidance which bears on the basis for developing offsite emergency

plans is summarized below.

1. 1970 - "The licensee should give particular attention to

protective measures that may be necessary for individuals

within the low population zone ..."(3)

2. 1974 - The NRC staff's acceptance criteria for preliminary

planning at Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) review

stage refers to a basis of "calculated radiological dose

consequences of an airborne release following the most

serious design basis accident."(4)

3. .1974 - The NRC's principal guidance document(5) for State

and local government emergency planners contains the following

under an introductory heading of "Magnitude of the Accident:"

"The evaluation of sites and plant designs, required testing

programs, and quality assurance for the operation of such

facilities all provide substantial assurance that accidents

with serious consequences to the public health and safety

are not likely to occur. Nevertheless, highly unlikely

sequences of events are postulated and their potential

consequences analyzed by the applicant in the Safety Analysis

Report which accompanies each application and by the (NRC)

11-5
staff in its Safety Evaluation Report for each plant. The

(NRC) considers that it is reasonable, for purposes of

emergency planning relative to nuclear facilities, to

prepare for the potential consequences of accidents of

severity up to and including the most serious design basis

accident analyzed for siting purposes."

..."The (NRC) recognizes that accidents with more severe

potential consequences than design basis accidents can be

hypothesized. However, the probability of such accidents

is exceedingly low. Emergency plans properly designed to

cope with design basis accidents'would also provide

significant protection against more severe accidents, since

such plans provide for all of the major elements and functions

of emergency preparedness. An added element of confidence

can be gained, however, if States and local governments

assure that their plans for responding to radiological

emergencies are coordinated with their plans for dealing

with floods, earthquakes, or other disaster situations which

might necessitate large scale displacement of people and the

provision of shelter, food, medical aid, and other emergency

services. Communications, traffic control, evacuation, public

notification and other emergency responses will tend to be

I 1-6
the same whether or not the emergency involves radiological

considerations. The (Department of Energy's) Radiological

Assistance Program (RAP), the Federal Interagency Radiological

Assistance Plan (IRAP) and other Radiological Emergency

Assistance Plans, which are a part of the Federal capability,

provide significant additional emergency resources in the event

of a serious accident."

This introductory text in the "Guide and Checklist"(5)

document was written for the express purpose of providing

interpretive guidance to the meaning of the enumerated

checklist elements in this document.

4. 1975 - With respect to evacuation as a protective measure,

applicants are requested to provide "plots showing projected

ground-level doses for stationary individuals, -- resulting

from the most serious design basis accident analyzed in the

Safety Analysis Report. These should be based on the same

isotopic release rates to the atmosphere and the same

dispersion model as are acceptable for use in Chapter 15

of the PSAR for the purpose of showing conformance to the

siting dose criteria of 10 CFR Part 100.",(6)

I1-7
5. 1975 - With respect to the levels at which emergency actions

should be initiated, EPA issued as Agency guidance, portions

of the 'Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective

Actions for Nuclear Incidents" which provided PAGs for plume

exposure and application procedures for these PAGs.(7)

These bear on the areas or distances for which plans might be

implemented.

6. 1977 - "Planning and implementation of measures to cope with

plant related emergencies outside the site boundary with

particular emphasis on the low population zone should be a

coordinated effort involving the licensee, and local, State,

and Federal agencies having emergency responsibilities."(8)

C. Reactor Accident Considerations

Current NRC regulatory practice requires that events which may be

anticipated to occur one or more times during the lifetime of a

facility lead to no significant releases of radioactive material

to the environment. No design or mode of operation is, however,

entirely risk free. Despite the efforts made to prevent accidental

releases of significant quantities of radioactive material, the

possibility does in fact exist that such accidents may occur. Each

application for a license is accompanied by a detailed assessment

II-8
of such postulated accidents, and NRC staff performs an independent

evaluation of these accidents before a nuclear facility license is

granted.

The NRC staff has provided guidance to applicants as to the type of

accidents to be considered in the design of nuclear power plants (see

for example, Sections 2.3 and 15 of Regulatory Guide 1.70(9) and

particularly Table 15-1 of that guide). The recommended approach

by the NRC staff is to organize the postulated accidents to ensure

that a broad spectrum of events have been considered and then to

categorize the events by type and expected frequency so that only

the limiting (i.e., more severe) cases in each group need to be

quantitatively analyzed.

NRC staff has categorized postulated accidents into four major

groups as follows:

1. Events of moderate frequency (anticipated operational

occurrences) leading to no significant radioactive

releases from the facility.

2. Events of low probability with potential for small

radioactive release from the facility.

11-9
3. Events of very low probability with potential for large

radioactive releases from the facility and whose consequences

are evaluated to establish the performance requirements

of engineered safety features and to evaluate the acceptability of the reactor site. These events, some of which

assume unlikely failures or fission product releases are

referred to as design basis accidents (DBAs).

4. A fourth group of accidents, the so-called "Class 9"*

accidents, which include any situation not specifically

included in the foregoing groups of events and which

typically are represented by some combination of failures

which lead to coremelting and/or containment failure.

These larger events are generally considered in the

regulatory process by reducing their probability of

occurrence to acceptably low values through design

of the plant and its engineered safety features. This

group includes external events such as severe natural

phenomena as well as accidents initiated within the

*The first three groups have also been divided into eight categories in some

accident assessments. The eight categories plus a 'Class 9" category are

defined in the proposed Annex to Appendix D to 10 CFR Part 50 dated

December 1, 1971. (Also listed in HUREG 0099, Regulatory Guide 4.2,

Appendix I).

11-10
facility. Unlike groups 1 through 3, the consequences

of events in group 4, are not specifically analyzed

in most applications.

One design basis accident in the third group routinely considered in

the safety analysis performed by the staff is a loss-of-coolant accident

(LOCA) where it is assumed that a large fission product release from

the containment also occurs. The analysis of this accident is used in

connection with the site suitability evaluations done to establish

compliance with 10 CFR Part 100 of the NRC regulations by comparing

computed accident consequences with exposure guidelines given in the

regulations.

The Task Force considers the events described in NRC Regulatory Guide

1.70 as a useful source of information on the type of events in

groups 1 through 3 above. Each application will have detailed information on these possible events, including important plant and sitespecific factors that affect the probability and consequences of

accidents. Safety Analysis Reports submitted by licensees are not

likely to include a discussion of Class 9 accidents. Other documents,

such as the Reactor Safety Study(10), discuss the Class 9 type

accidents and their consequences. The Task Force believes that

the findings on types of severe accidents reported in WASH-1400

provide a useful supplement to the Safety Analysis Reports in

developing a basis for emergency planning.

II-lI
The current version of NRC Regulatory Guide 1.70 requests applicants

to provide two separate analyses of accident consequences: one using

conservative assumptions to verify that plant design is adequate

and a second using best estimate assumptions. One purpose for the

latter assessment is to illustrate the margins of conservatism used

in designing plant engineered safety features. This provision is

a recent addition and consequently* there are few analyses of this

type actually available. Therefore, while the nuclear facility

Safety Analysis Report will contain a great deal of information

on credible accidents and how they are accommodated by design,

there is likely to be little information provided on the -expected

consequences of such initiating events.

Best estimate consequences of a number of representative initiating

events are addressed in the staff's environmental impact statements.

The Task Force has reviewed the summary information on accident

consequences provided in connection with these statements and we

conclude that these best estimate analyses are too limited in scope

and detail to be useful in emergency planning. It is apparent,

however, from these analyses as well as from the NRC Regulatory

Guide 1.70 analyses, that best estimate consequences are likely

to be a factor of 10 or so smaller, from the standpoint of

meteorological considerations alone, than the consequences of

11-12
accidents as typically presented in Safety Analysis Reports and

in NRC staff safety evaluation reports for the purpose of site

and plant design feature evaluation.

D. Establishment of the Task Force

To prepare adequate emergency response procedures, basic information

regarding an accident, such as the time characteristics of an

acrident, the radioactive material release characteristics, and

the extent of the area potentially impacted is required. Past

practice has been to use a spectrum of accidents, including

design basis accidents for emergency response planning. These

accidents, however, were developed for the specific purposes of

reactor siting and the design of containment and engineered

safety features. Further, the description of the DBAs in Safety

Analysis Reports does not always contain the information needed

for developing emergency response plans. In addition, since the

publication of the Reactor Safety Study in 1975, there has been

some concern and confusion among State and local goverment

emergency response planning and preparedness organizations

as to how the accidents described in the Reactor Safety Study

relate to emergency planning.

11-13
As a result of some perceived confusion in how accident analyses

should relate to emergency planning, the Conference of (State)

Radiation Control Program Directors passed a resolution in 1976

requesting NRC to "make a determination of the most severe accident

basis for which radiological emergency response plans should be

developed by offsite agencies." Additionally, the NRC and EPA

received correspondence from a few States, and local governments

in this regard.

In response to this dialogue, a Task Force consisting of NRC and

EPA representatives was assembled to address this Conference request

and related issues in November 1976. The Task Force interpreted

the request as a charge to provide a clearer definition of the types

of radiological accidents for which States and local governments

should plan and develop preparedness programs.

11-14
Appendix II

REFERENCES

1. Title 10 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 100 Reactor Site

Criteria.

2. Radiological Incident Emergency Response Planning, Fixed

Facilities and Transportation: Interagency Responsibilities,

Federal Preparedness Agency, General Services Administration,

Federal Register Notice, Vol. 40, No. 248, December 24, 1975.

3. "Guides to the Preparation of Emergency Plans for Production and

Utilization Facilities, December 1970, U. S. Atomic Energy

Com-mi'ission.

4. "Standard Review Plan for the Review of Safety Analysis Reports for

Nuclear Power Plants," Section 13.3 - Emergency Planning,. NUREG 75/087,

September 1975, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

5. Guide and Check List for the Development and Evaluation of State and

Local Government Radiological Emergency Response Plans in Support of

Fixed Nuclear Facilities, NUREG 75/111, Dec. 1974, U. S. Nuclear

Regulatory Commission.

6. "Standard Format and Content of Safety Analysis Reports for Nuclear

Power Plants, LWR Edition," Section 13.3 - Emergency Planning, NUREG

75/094 (Rev. 2), September 1975, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

7. Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for Nuclear

Incidents, EPA-520/1-75-001, September, 1975, U. S. Environmental

Protection Agency.

8. "Emergency Planning for Nuclear Power Plants," Regulatory Guide 1.101,

Rev. 1, March 1977.

9. "Standard Format and Content of Safety Analysis Reports for Nuclear

Power Plants, LWR Edition," Regulatory Guide 1.70, Rev. 2, September

1975, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

10. Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of Accident Risks in U. S.

Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, (NUREG-75/014), (WASH-1400),

October 1975, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

II-15
APPENDIX III

RELATED ISSUES CONSIDERED BY THE TASK FORCE

Certain issues related to providing a more definitive planning basis

were considered by the Task Force. These issues were examined in

the light of existing Federal guidance and particularly in light of

guidance promulgated by the former AEC regulatory arm (Now the NRC).

There are four principal issues:

A. Issue: Whether and to what extent, so-called "Class 9"

events having consequences beyond the most serious design

basis accidents analyzed for siting purposes, should be

considered in developing emergency plans.

Commenta:

The Task Force believes that States should be encouraged

to develop a breadth, versatility and flexibility in

emergency response preparations and capabilities - and

that some consideration of Class 9 events in emergency

planning is consistent with this view. Further, the

potential consequences of improbable but nevertheless

severe power reactor accidents, while comparable in some

sense to severe natural or man-made disasters which

would trigger an ultimate protective measure such as

III-1
evacuation, do require some specialized planning considerations.

We do not suggest that these specialized planning considerations

are or ought to be excessively burdensome. Rather, we recommend

that they be considered and developed as a matter of prudence.

The Task Force recognized from the start that there is no

specific design basis accident or Class 9 accident scenario

which can be isolated as the one for which to plan because

each such accident would have different consequences, both

in nature and degree. It is for this reason that NRC and EPA

have encouraged State and local agencies to concentrate

their efforts on devising response preparations and capabilities that are versatile and that also take into account

the unique aspects of radiological accidents.

The Reactor Safety Study (RSS)(2) provides a detailed

assessment of the probability and consequences of Class 9

accidents. Various aspects of that study have been debated

by reviewers. Additional programs are underway to extend

or refine the study. It should be noted that the RSS is

based on an analysis of two specific reactors, and the

consequences presented are based on a spectrum of data

compiled from many sites. The report therefore is of

limited use in dealing with plant/site specific factors.

I11-2
Nonetheless, the RSS provides the best currently available

source of information on this subject.

The Task Force had to decide whether to'place reliance on

general emergency plans for coping with the.events of

Class 9 accidents for emergency planning purposes, or

whether to recommend developing specific plans and organizational capabilities to contend with such accidents.

The Task Force believes that it is not appropriate to

develop specific plans for the most severe and most

improbable Class 9 events. The Task Force, however,

does believe that consideration should be given to

the characteristics of Class 9 events in judging whether

emergency plans based primarily on smaller accidents

can be expanded to cope with larger events. This is

a means of providing flexibility of response capability

and at the same time giving reasonable assurance that

some capability exists to minimize the impacts of even

the most severe accidents.

For example, if we are dealing with a very large release

of radioactive material, the principal goal is to prevent

serious adverse health effects to individuals. The measures

required to minimize health effects and to cope with

secondary effects of a large accidental release (such as

III-3
land or water contamination, and the housing and feeding

of any people required to be relocated for substantial

time periods) would, in all likelihood, require the

involvement of Federal agencies in addition to State

and local governments.

The planning basis recommended by the Task Force therefore

includes some of the key characteristics of very large

releases to assure that site specific capabilities could

be effectively augmented with general emergency preparedness

(response) resources of the Federal government should the

need arise.

NRC and other Federal agency emergency planning guidance

has perhaps been misinterpreted as reflecting a position

that no consideration should be given to so-called Class 9

accidents for emergency planning purposes. The Task Force,

after considering the published guidance and available

documentation,(l1 4) concludes that Class 9 accidents

have been given some consideration in emergency planning.

It has been, and continues to be the Federal position that

it is possible (but exceedingly improbable) that accidents

could occur calling for additional resources beyond those

that are identified in specific emergency plans developed

111-4
to support specific individual nuclear facilities. Further,

the NRC and Federal position has been and continues to be,

that as in other disaster situations, additional resources

would be mobilized by State and Federal agencies.

B. Issue: Is there a need to plan beyond the Low Population Zone?

Commentary

The Low Population Zone (LPZ) is determined in accordance with

the requirements of NRC Reactor Siting Criteria, 10 CFR Part

100(5). While the consequences of postulated design basis

accidents would be expected to be substantially lower than

the guideline values of 10 CFR Part 100, there are three

reasons why some planning beyond the LPZ is useful:

First, if an accidental release were as severe as the design

basis releases analyzed for purposes of 10 CFR Part 100,

doses could be above the Protective Action Guide (.PAG)(6)

levels beyond the LPZ. In this instance, the responsible

officials should take reasonable and practical measures

to reduce exposures to individuals beyond the LPZ.

"II-S
Second, the deposition of radioactivity, and its subsequent

uptake in foodstuffs such as milk products could be significant

beyond the LPZ even if the plume exposure pathway doses did not

exceed the PAG level at the LPZ outer boundary, because of

the reconcentration of certain radionuclides in the food

chain. Emergency protective measures in that situation

should be taken to minimize exposures from the food chain

via the ingestion pathway.

Third, there is a very small probability that releases larger

than those from design basis accidents used in evaluating the

acceptability of the reactor site could occur which could

have consequences substantially in excess of the PAG levels

outside the LPZ outer boundary. As discussed in Issue "A"

the Task Force concluded that such larger accidents should

be considered in developing the basis on which emergency

plans are developed.

The Task Force considered these factors in establishing the

size of the emergency planning zone. Two basic options were

considered. One option was to develop site specific guidance

based on the low population zone (LPZ) with some modifications

to better assure that actions could be extended beyond the LPZ

if needed. The second option was the concept of a planning

111-6
area completely independent of the LPZ. The Task Force

recognized that the LPZ is included in NRC regulations for

siting of nuclear facilities, and is closely connected

to design basis accident consequences. We also recognized

that actual emergency response actions would be based on

proposed Protective Action Guides. Given these factors,

the Task Force concluded that the concept of Emergency

Planning Zones (EPZs) around each nuclear power facility

would best serve to scope the desired spectrum of situations

for which emergency planning should be accomplished. EPZs

for both the "plume exposure pathway" and the "ingestion

exposure pathway" are proposed. The separation of this

concept from NRC siting considerations is discussed in

Issue D.

While the Task Force recognizes that there are site-to-site

variations in LPZs, due in part to varying features of the

plant, the Task Force concluded that the size of the EPZs

need not be site specific. The principal reason for this

is that the size of the LPZ is determined primarily by the

type and extent of engineered safety features installed in

the reactor plant and their response to design basis accidents.

The loss of either some or all engineered safety features are

II1-7
postulated in Class 9 accidents. If the engineered safety

features are lost during an accident, then the LPZ has no

meaning with regard to the size of the areas around the

plant in which emergency response would be appropriate.

A principal aim in establishing EPZs is to foster a breadth,

versatility and flexibility in response preparation and

capabilities in a systematic manner. From the standpoint

of general emergency planning guidance, emergency planning

needs seem to be best served by adopting uniform Emergency

Planning Zones for initial planning studies for all light

water reactors.

C. Issue: Whether there is a conflict between Protective Action

Guides for plume exposures and dose criteria for siting and

design of nuclear power facilities.

Commentary

The Reactor Site Criteria (10 CFR Part 100) require that an

applicant identify an area surrounding a nuclear power reactor,

defined as a Low Population Zone (LPZ). The consequences of

the most severe "design basis accidents" analyzed for siting

purposes should not result in exposures in excess of 300 rem

to the thyroid from radioiodine exposure or 25 rem to the whole

body for an individual located at any point on the outer

boundary of the Low Population Zone (LPZ).

III-8
Protective action guides (PAGs) for plume exposure have been

provided to State and local government agencies for use as

EPA agency guidance in developing State and local government

radiological emergency response plans for areas around

nuclear facilities. One might reasonably ask whether it

is inconsistent for the Federal government to recommend

the development of plans to implement protective actions

at projected dose levels lower than the projected doses

associated with siting criteria. The discussion that

follows reviews this issue.

The dose guideline values in 10 CFR Part 100 do not constitute

acceptable limits for emergency doses to the public under

accident conditions. The numerical values of 25 rem whole

body and 300 rem thyroid can be considered values above

which prevention of serious health effects would be the

paramount concern. Good health physics practice would

indicate that radiological exposures of these magnitudes

should not be allowed to take place if reasonable and

practical measures can prevent such exposures.

The assumptions used for siting purposes in calculating

the doses that could result from design basis accidents

are conservative. The actual doses that would result

III-9
from releases postulated to occur from a design basis

accident therefore would be expected to be much lower

than the dose guidelines of 10 CFR Part 100 under most

meteorological conditions. The inhalation and direct

exposure doses from the releases postulated for design

basis accidents are not likely to exceed the PAG levels

beyond the LPZ under average meteorological conditions.

It has been, however, the NRC's position that a spectrum

of postulated conditions be considered in emergency planning

including adverse meteorological conditions.

Protective Action Guides were devised for purposes of dose

savings and are defined as the projected absorbed dose to

individuals in the general population that warrants protective

action following a contaminating event. Emergency response

plans should include them as trigger values to aid in decisions

to implement protective actions, and responsible officials

should plan to implement protective actions if projected

doses exceed the PAGs. The PAGs, which have numerical values

smaller than the 10 CFR Part 100 guidelines*, are decision

*The PAGs for the plume exposure pathway are expressed as a

range of 1 to 5 rem whole body dose and 5 to 25 rem thyroid

dose to individuals in the population. PAGs for the ingestion

exposure pathway have no parallel in the 10 CFR Part 100

guidelines.

III-10
aids in devising best efforts, considering existing

constraints. They have been set at levels below those

that would produce detectable short term biological effects

and at levels that would minimize long term biological

effects. In the event of an accident they should be

considered as criteria against which available options

for various types of emergency -actions can be weighed.

Officials responsible for implementing the protective

actions must take into account constraints that exist

at the time and use professional judgment in determining

the actions appropriate to protect the public.

The nature of PAGs is such that they cannot be used to

assure that a given exposure to individuals in the

population is prevented. In any particular response

situation, a range of doses will be projected, principally

depending on the distance from the point of the radioactive

release. Some of these projected doses may be well in

excess of PAG levels and clearly warrant the initiation

of any feasible protective actions. This does not mean,

however, that doses above PAG levels can be prevented,

or that emergency response plans should have as their

objective preventing exposures above PAG levels. Furthermore,

PAGs represent only trigger levels and are not intended to

III-11
represent acceptable dose levels. PAGs are tools to be used

as a decision aid in the actual response situation.

As discussed above, PAGs and Part 100 dose guidelines

serve distinctly separate functions. The concept of

Emergency Planning Zones (EPZs) introduced in this report

is an attempt to provide guidance on the areas for which

offsite officials should be prepared to make judgments using

the PAGs, to initiate predetermined actions.

D. Issue: Whether the guidance in this document for offsite

emergency planning can be separated from siting considerations

in the NRC licensing process.

Commentary

The NRC siting criteria as related to accidental releases

of radioactivity are given in 10 CFR Part 100 of the

Federal regulations, and are supplemented by the Statement

of Considerations published with this regulation in 1962

and in various regulatory guides and standard review plans

used by the NRC staff. These criteria are used in the

review of applications for nuclear power plant construction

permits, operating licenses and operating license amendments.

The evaluation performed under 10 CFR 100 primarily involves;

(1) assuring that possible effects of all relevant natural

and man-made phenomena on the nuclear facility have been

III-12
identified and expressed as design conditions for the

facility, (2) determining that adequate engineered safety

features have been provided to assure that postulated

releases of radioactivity resulting from design basis

accidents will not lead to radiological exposures that are

in excess of the numerical guidelines of 10 CFR Part 100

at specified offsite locations even under adverse

meteorological conditions. (3) evaluating the distance

to the nearest densely populated area to allow calculation

of the offsite location at which certain of the Part 100

exposure guidelines must be met, and (4) evaluating the

general current and projected population density around

the proposed facility out to about 30 miles. The first

three evaluation areas are reexamined at the operating

license review stage and occasionally over the plant

lifetime as facility or site conditions change. The

fourth area (population density) is only evaluated in a

prospective manner to assure the use of low population

density sites when such are available and is generally

not reexamined. The objective of the evaluations performed

during the Part lOn siting review is to assure that the

risk from any accident (including a Class 9 accident) is

low.

111-13
The definition of the Low Population Zone (LPZ) in 10 CFR

Part 100 states that i; is an area which contains residents,

the total number and density of which are such that there

is a reasonable probability that protective measures could

be taken, in their behalf in the event of serious accident.

The outer boundary of the LPZ is one of the locations at

which Part 100 exposure guidelines must be met. The outer

boundary of the LPZ must also be less than a fixed fraction

of the distance to the nearest boundary of a densely populated

center containing more than about 25,000 residents. These

are not in practice siting constraints because restrictions

on the 2 hour exposure from design basis accidents at the

site (exclusion area) boundary generally provide ample time

to take action within a few miles to cope with postulated

design basis releases and because additional engineered

safety features could be added to the facility design, at

some additional cost, to allow the outer boundary of the

LPZ to be as small as the site boundary.

The current NRC staff evaluation of emergency plans for a

particular facility is substantially independent of the

siting criteria. The staff review includes facility

emergency plans and plans for at least the offsite area

referred to in 10 CFR Part 100 as the Low Population

III-14
Zone (LPZ) and in current licensing reviews often extends

to substantially longer distances, particularly for the

ingestion pathway. Emergency plans are reviewed by the

NRC staff during the construction permit and operating

license review stages and audited during the plant lifetime.

Emergency offsite response to large accidents may be less

effective for sites located in an area of general high

population density. Such sites, which may have adequate

engineered safety features to meet the explicit criteria

of 10 CFR Part 100, tend to be eliminated by the NRC staff

guidelines on the general population density around

prospective sites.

We recognize that there would be a reduction in exposures

through the emergency response of the facility staff and

local authorities even without planning. This is based on

experience in coping with more common emergencies such

as those associated with large chemical releases or dam

failures. It seems reasonable that some additional

reduction in exposures may be obtained by certain planning

activities related to emergency preparedness at any

site. However, the reduction in exposures from planned

actions would be difficult to take into account in a

quantitative or qualitative way in siting reviews.

111-15
In view of the above we conclude that although there is

an indirect relationship between siting and emergency

planning, the two can and should be considered separately

in the NRC licensing process. Some clarification of the

NRC regulations may be desirable to make clear the separation

of these issues in the licensing process.

III-16
Appendix III

REFERENCES

1. Radiological Incident Emergency Response Planning, Fixed Facilities

and Transportation: Interagency Responsibilities Federal Preparedness

Agency General Services Administration, Federal Register Notice,

Vol. 40, No. 248, December 24, 1975.

2. Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of Accident Risks In U. S.

Co-mmercial Nuclear Power Plants, (NUREG-75/014), October 1975

WASH-1400, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

3. Disaster Operations, A Handbook for Local Governments (CPG 1-6)

July 1972, &Change No. 1, June 1974, Defense Civil Preparedness

Agency.

4. Federal Response Plan for Peacetime Nuclear Emergencies (Interim

Guidance) April 1977, Federal Preparedness Agency, General Services

Administration.

5. Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 100, Reactor Site

Criteria.

6. Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for

Nuclear Incidents, EPA-52b/1-75-01, September, 197 U. S.

Environmental Protection Agency.

II1-17
NRC FoRM 335 U.S.NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION 1. REPORTNUMBER (Asseippedl.y DDCi

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET UREG-0396 EPA 520/1-78-016

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE {Add Volume No.. iapprvopriate) 2. (Leave blank)

PLANNING BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF STATE AND LOCAL

GOVERNMENT RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANS IN 3. RECIPIENTS ACCESSION NO.

SUPPORT OF LIGHT WATER NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

7.AUTHOR(s) F. L. Galpin, EPA - Office of Radiation Programing 5. DATE REPORT COMPLETED

H. E. Collins, NRC - Office of State Programs * MONTH |YEAR

B. K. (Grimpq, NRA. - nffiri nf Ncrlear Reartnr p7tilttinn_ November 1978

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS (Inclu*e Zip Code) DATE REPORT ISSUED

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission MONTH IYEAR

Office of State Programs D e

Washington, D. C. 20555 6. (Leave blank)

1. (Leave blank)

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS llnclude Zip CodeU

10. PROJECT/TASK/WORK UNIT NO.

11. CONTRACT NO.

13. TYPE OF REPORT PERIOD COVERED (Inclusive datesi

NRC/EPA Task Force Report November 1976 - November 1978

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 14. ILeave blank)

16. ABSTRACT 1700 words or ks)

This report suggests a planning basis for State and local government emergency organizations to determine the scope of planning efforts for nuclear power plants. The Task

Force determined that a specific single accident could not be identified as the

planning basis. Instead, the Task Force recommended establishing two generic Emergency

Planning Zones (EPZs) around light water nuclear power plants. The inner zone of about

10 miles would be established for the plume exposure pathways and an outer zone of about

50 miles would be established for the ingestion exposure pathways. The precise size

and shape of the EPZs would be based on the judgement of the emergency planner after

considering local conditions. The Task Force concluded that planning for predetermined

protective actions, such as sheltering in the plume exposure zone, is warranted within

these zones in the event of a serious accident at a power plant. The Task Force also

recommended time frames and radiological characteristics of the accidents for use in

determining the appropriate emergency actions which could be taken to reduce the

accident consequences. The Task Force concluded that if the basic planning elements

in existing emergency planning guidance documents are already being considered, the

establishment of EPZs should not result in large increases in State and local government emergency planning and preparedness costs.

17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 17a. DESCRIPTORS

17b. IDENTIFIERSIOPEN-ENDED TERMS

18. AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS (This leporn 21 NO. Of PA;I.:;

Unlimited 20. SECURITY CLASS (This iape) 22. PRICE

S

NRC FORM ~35 17 771

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