prepared by the 

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources
The National Science and Technology Council

The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), a cabinet level council, is the principal means for the President to 

coordinate science, and technology policies across the Federal Government. NSTC acts to coordinate the diverse parts of the 

Federal research and development enterprise.

An important objective of the NSTC is the establishment of clear national goals for Federal science and technology investments 

in areas ranging from information technologies and health research to improving transportation systems and strengthening 

fundamental research. This council prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal 

agencies to form an investment package that is aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals.

To obtain additional information regarding the NSTC, contact the NSTC Executive Secretariat at (202) 456-6101

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) is one of four committees under the NSTC. It is charged with 

improving coordination among federal agencies involved in environmental and natural resources research and development, 

establishing a strong link between science and policy, and developing a federal environment and natural resources research 

and development strategy that responds to national and international issues.

To obtain additional information regarding the CENR, contact the CENR Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations was chartered by the CENR for the purpose of developing the Strategic 

Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and to provide U.S. contributions to the Global Earth Observation 

System of Systems (GEOSS). The Interagency Working Group’s charter expired in December, 2004, and the working group has 

been replaced with a standing subcommittee under CENR, the United States Group on Earth Observations (US GEO).

To obtain additional information regarding the US GEO, contact the US GEO Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.
STRATEGIC PLAN 

FOR THE U.S. 

INTEGRATED EARTH 

OBSERVATION 

SYSTEM

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations 

NSTC Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

April 6, 2005

Dear Colleague: 

On February 16, 2005, 55 countries endorsed a 10-year plan to develop and implement the Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) for the purpose of achieving comprehensive, coordinated, and 

sustained observations of the Earth system. GEOSS will allow scientists and policy makers in many different 

countries to design, implement and operate integrated Earth observing systems in a compatible, value-enhanced 

way. It will link existing satellites, buoys, weather stations, and other observing instruments that are already 

demonstrating value around the globe and support the development of new observational capabilities where 

required.

The U.S. contribution to GEOSS is the Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). IEOS will meet our 

country’s need for high-quality, global, sustained information on the state of the Earth as a basis for policy and 

decision making in every sector of our society. In many areas, observations are already being collected. In 

others, observational gaps will be identified and assessed to determine if their value outweighs the investment 

required to fill them.

This strategic plan for IEOS is organized around nine initial societal benefit areas and six near-term opportunity 

areas. These provide a working framework for prioritizing actions and addressing critical gaps that maximize 

return on investments. The plan represents eighteen months of work by the seventeen federal agencies 

represented on the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations (IWGEO), which has now been formally 

established as the Group on Earth Observation (US GEO), a standing Subcommittee reporting to the National 

Science and Technology Council’s (NSTC) Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR). 

The breadth and scope of the plan is unprecedented, and much work remains to realize the full potential of our 

Nation’s investment in Earth observations. The exemplary leadership of the US GEO will ensure continued 

excellence in the IEOS and maximize U.S. contributions to the GEOSS.

Sincerely,

John H. Marburger, III

Director

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20502
Grant Aufderhaar

Department of Defense

Ron Birk

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Wanda Ferrell

Department of Energy

John Filson

United States Geological Survey

Gary Foley

Environmental Protection Agency

Mary Gant

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

David Halpern

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Len Hirsch

Smithsonian Institution

John Jones

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Camille Mittelholtz

Department of Transportation

Raymond Motha

Department of Agriculture

Kenneth Peel

Council on Environmental Quality

Dan Reifsnyder

Department of State

Jason Rothenberg / Erin Wuchte

Office of Management and Budget

Tom Spence

National Science Foundation

Frances Weatherford

Tennessee Valley Authority

Ko Barrett

United States Agency for International Development

Carla Sullivan (NOAA)

Executive Secretary, IWGEO

INTERAGENCY WORKING GROUP ON EARTH OBSERVATIONS

OF THE

NSTC COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Ghassem Asrar, Co-Chair

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Cliff Gabriel, Co-Chair*

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Greg Withee, Co-Chair

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

*This position currently held by Teresa Fryberger, Office of Science and Technology Policy
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iii

Introduction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1

Purpose, Vision and Goals .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5

Links to International Activities . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9

A Practical Focus for Earth Observations.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 13

Linking Observations to Societal Benefits . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 27

Establishment of a U.S. Governance Structure.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31

Policy, Technical and Fiscal Aspects of Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..35

Architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..45

Integration of Earth Observation Systems .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 47

Next Steps in Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..53

Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57

Appendices

1. Near-term Opportunities.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..59

2. Technical Report Summaries . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..69

3. List of Acronyms.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 142

4. Endnotes . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 145

5. Photo credits . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 148

6. National Science and Technology Council Committee on . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 149

Environment & Natural Resources

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

iii

A global system of Earth observations would provide us with tools 

to make national and global air quality forecasts, would help us to know in 

advance when droughts would occur and how long they would last, and would 

give us the capability to predict the outbreak of deadly diseases by tracking the 

environmental factors that contribute to their spread. The availability of these 

types of observational data would transform the way we relate and react to our 

environment, providing significant societal benefits through improved human 

health and well-being, environmental management, and economic growth.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Vision Statement

Enable a healthy public, economy, and planet through an integrated, 

comprehensive, and sustained Earth observation system.

These and other societal benefits depend on a sustained and integrated Earth 

observation system underpinned by science and technology. Investments by 

the United States and our foreign partners over the last decade have provided 

unprecedented global views of the Earth as a set of complex, interacting 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

iv

processes. Despite these advances, our current system of observations is 

fragmented and incomplete. Now, using a new integrated approach, we must 

improve our Earth observation system so that we realize benefits for our people, 

our economy and our planet.

The National Science and Technology Council’s Interagency Working Group 

on Earth Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step in 

the planning process towards the development and implementation of the 

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). In the context of broad, 

crosscutting societal, scientific, and economic imperatives, and the missions 

and priorities of the agencies participating in the Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations, the approach for the development of the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System is to focus on specific and achievable societal 

benefits. The task is to integrate the nation’s Earth observation capabilities to 

address those imperatives and realize societal benefits. The planning process 

will identify and integrate new capabilities on the 

horizon. In addition, technology and capability gaps 

must be identified and addressed before societal 

benefits can be fully realized. By developing the 

infrastructure to facilitate the integration and synthesis 

of data and information products and services across 

multiple domains, new value-added information/

knowledge solutions can be realized. New 

information products, new tools, and new web-based 

services will be developed to address current and 

future applications.

1. Improve Weather Forecasting

2. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters

3. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource

4. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt 

to Climate Variability and Change

5. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, 

and Combat Land Degradation

6. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors 

on Human Health and Well-Being

7. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological

Forecasts

8. Protect and Monitor Water Resources

9. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

v

Nine societal benefit areas (see green box) provide a starting place for 

discussion about what can be accomplished in several key areas where work is 

underway, and where progress can be realized most quickly. In this Strategic 

Plan, specific examples illustrate the link between observations and identified 

benefits.

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with industry, academia, 

local, state, national, regional and international partners to strengthen 

cooperation in Earth observations. U.S. Federal agencies have developed and 

funded a broad range of training and outreach activities to provide the expertise 

in science, mathematics, and engineering needed to develop an integrated 

Earth observation system. These information and K-12 programs that provide 

useful information to our students and promote awareness and understanding 

of the benefits of an integrated system are important components of these 

efforts. The United States will continue to work with the nations of the world to 

develop and link observation technologies for tracking environmental changes 

in every part of the globe, thus enabling citizens and leaders to make more 

informed decisions affecting their lives, environment, and economies.

The Earth is an integrated system. All the processes that influence conditions 

on the Earth, whether ecological, biological, climatological, or geological, are 

linked, and impact one another. Therefore, Earth observation systems are 

strengthened when data collection and analysis are achieved in an integrated 

manner. This Strategic Plan discusses the process for determining which 

observations should be integrated and outlines four areas of integration: Policy 

and Planning Integration, Specific and Issue Focused Integration, Scientific 

Integration and Technical Integration.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

vi

This plan recommends the establishment of a standing Earth observation 

subcommittee under the auspices of the National Science and Technology 

Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources. This 

Subcommittee will oversee the implementation of the principles and guidelines 

described here. The Subcommittee will be charged with coordinating vastly 

expansive science and technical activities to satisfy the identified societal 

benefits.

This Strategic Plan addresses the policy, technical, fiscal, and societal benefit 

components of an integrated Earth observation system.

The policy component identifies the aspects of Earth observations that will 

be defined as mandates or guidelines at the Federal level. Additionally, this 

policy component addresses data sharing and the identification of critical 

observations, and recognizes the requirement for decisions based on sound 

science and defined need.

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting that 

this system will build upon existing systems. This component of the plan 

will also identify and document observation gaps and needs in the societal 

benefits areas, and, where possible, note promising new capabilities and 

technology developments that could address them.

The fiscal component points out the need for a process for identification 

of agency budgetary priorities within the framework of the Office of 

Management and Budget’s research and development investment criteria, 

leading to overall prioritization of Earth observation activities.

The societal benefit approach provides a framework for discussing 

improvements in multiple key areas. This component identifies broad 

societal, scientific, and economic imperatives that transcend the specific 

needs and mandates of individual participating agencies.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

vii

Observation for scientific purposes overlaps with and is deeply involved 

in Earth observation for scientific benefit. Scientific priorities for Earth 

Observation are developed by agencies with the help of the scientific 

community through such means as National Research Council reports.

The functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System include data 

collection, data management, data discovery, data access, data transport, 

data archiving, processing, modeling, and quality control. Because no 

comprehensive and integrated strategy for communicating all the current data 

exists, enhanced data management is highlighted as both an overarching need 

and a critical first near-term action. In addition, using tangible, achievable 

examples, the Strategic Plan points out some near-term opportunities of the 

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and illustrates the observational 

needs and societal benefits associated with improved observations for disaster 

warning, global land cover, sea level, drought, and air quality.

Finally, the plan identifies next steps, recognizing the need for establishing an 

organizational structure and describing the near-, mid- and long-term actions 

that are needed to develop the common system architecture required for the 

success of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide the nation and 

the world a unique and innovative perspective on the complex, interacting 

processes that make up our planet. This observation system should continue to 

evolve to meet the changing needs of society and to take into account emerging 

technologies and scientific advances. Implementing the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System represents an exciting opportunity to make lasting 

improvements in U.S. capacity to deliver specific benefits to our people, our 

economy and our planet.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

1

INTRODUCTION

A global system of Earth observations would provide us with tools 

to make national and global air quality forecasts in the same way we currently 

make weather forecasts. Think of the benefits to the millions of Americans 

suffering from asthma.

A global system of Earth observations would help us know in 

advance when droughts would occur and how long they would last. Think of the 

benefits to the millions of farmers who could plan their planting and harvesting 

with increased confidence.

A global system of Earth observations would give us the capability 

to predict the outbreak of deadly diseases by tracking the environmental 

factors that contribute to their spread. Think of the benefits to world health and 

economies.

Realization of these and other benefits is dependent upon a sustained, 

integrated, and constantly evolving Earth observation system underpinned by 

science and technology. Today we have sophisticated tools to increase the 

efficiency and effectiveness of Earth observations, unparalleled opportunities 

for collecting and synthesizing the vast amount of data they provide, and the 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

2

expanded capability to deliver this data to end users 

for practical applications.

Over the past decade, the investments made by the 

United States and our international partners have 

provided unprecedented global views of the Earth 

as a set of complex, interacting systems. Despite 

significant advances in our ability to measure and 

understand the Earth, building a comprehensive, 

integrated, and sustained Earth observation system 

remains a major challenge. Future investments must 

not only improve tools and capabilities, but must 

focus on an integrated approach, serving a diverse 

set of users and ultimately realizing a wide range of 

benefits for our people, our economy, and our planet.

Recent progress in coordinated international planning 

(box 1), building upon decades of scientific and technical successes, provides 

a unique opportunity to plan and implement an integrated, comprehensive and 

sustained Earth observation system.

Building on this progress, the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step towards the 

development and implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System. This Strategic Plan provides a pathway towards the development of 

the integrated system. The scientific and technical foundations for the vision 

and implementation approach have been developed over the past year by 

World Summit on Sustainable Development

August 2002

G-8 Action Plan on Science and Technology for 

Sustainable Development

June 2003

Earth Observation Summit I

July 2003

Group on Earth Observations

Established August 2003

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

Established August 2003

Earth Observation Summit II

April 2004

G-8 Science Ministers Meeting

April 2004

G-8 Science & Technology Action Plan/Progress Report

June 2004

Earth Observation Summit III

February 2005

Box 1: Recent international emphasis on Earth observations 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

3

Box 2: Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

Department of Commerce

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

• National Institute for Standards and 

Technology

Department of Defense

• Air Force

• National Geospatial-Intelligence 

Agency

• Navy

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Department of Energy

Department of Health & Human 

Services

• National Institute of Environmental 

Health Sciences

Department of Homeland Security

• Federal Emergency Management

Agency

Department of the Interior

• US Geological Survey

Department of State

Department of Transportation

Environmental Protection Agency

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration

National Science Foundation

Smithsonian Institution

Tennessee Valley Authority

U.S. Agency for International 

Development

U.S. Department of Agriculture

• Agriculture Research Service

• U.S. Forest Service

White House Council on

Environmental Quality

White House Office of

Management and Budget

White House Office of Science 

and Technology Policy

Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations Membership

the agencies of the Interagency Working 

Group on Earth Observations (box 2) 

(terms of reference in Appendix 1).

This document responds to the 

guidance in the 2003 White House 

Office of Science and Technology 

Policy/Office of Management 

and Budget FY2005 Interagency 

Research and Development Priorities 

memorandum, which charged the 

National Science and Technology 

Council to enhance capabilities to 

assess and predict changes in key 

environmental systems.

The National Science and Technology 

Council, through its Committee on 

Environment and Natural Resources, established the Interagency Working 

Group on Earth Observations to develop and implement a coordinated, 

multi-year plan for Earth observations. This Strategic Plan builds on existing 

and evolving scientific and technical plans and is intended to improve our 

understanding, monitoring and prediction of changes to the Earth system 

(including atmosphere, land, fresh water, ocean, and ecosystems). We will 

continue to refine the Plan as technology develops and as we achieve its goals.

To continue and sustain the efforts of the Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations, this plan calls for the establishment of a standing Earth 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

4

observation subcommittee (in the National Science and Technology Council 

and under the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources) with 

responsibility to implement the principles and guidelines developed here. The 

Subcommittee will continue to pull together vastly expansive science and 

technical activities to satisfy the diverse societal benefits, leading towards an 

integrated, comprehensive and sustained Earth observation system—the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

5

PURPOSE, VISION AND 

GOALS

A. Purpose

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with local, state, 

national, regional and international partners to strengthen cooperation in Earth 

observations. Building on this work, the U.S. Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations prepared this Strategic Plan to provide a management, 

planning, and resource allocation strategy for a U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System. This strategy will provide the United States a framework 

for participating in the international effort to develop a 10-year plan for a Global 

Earth Observation System of Systems. This U.S. integrated system will be 

based on new and existing Earth observation systems and capabilities, and 

will be developed to meet national and international societal, scientific, and 

economic imperatives.

Vision Statement

Enable a healthy public, economy, and planet through an integrated, 

comprehensive, and sustained Earth observation system.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

6

B. Vision

A comprehensive Earth observation system will benefit people around the 

world by improving our ability to monitor, understand, and predict changes 

to the Earth. The United States will work with other nations to develop and 

link observation technologies for tracking environmental changes in every 

part of the globe, thus enabling citizens and leaders to make more informed 

decisions affecting their lives, environment, and economies. This international 

cooperation, along with new developments in monitoring, assessing, and 

predicting environmental changes, will enable development of capabilities to 

predict droughts, prepare for weather emergencies and other natural hazards, 

plan and protect crops, manage coastal areas and fisheries, and monitor air 

quality, to name but a few direct benefits that affect our economic prosperity 

and quality of life.

C. Goals for U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

To accomplish the purpose and vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System, the agencies will:

Identify current and evolving requirements in the full range of societal 

benefits.

Prioritize investments, including for new requirements, as necessary.

Utilize available and/or develop new technologies, instruments, systems, 

and capabilities to meet the identified requirements and priorities.

Streamline and sustain existing Earth observation systems that are 

necessary to achieve societal benefits.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

7

Establish U.S. policies for Earth observations and data management, and 

continue U.S. policies of open access to observations, encouraging other 

countries to do likewise.

Expand existing governmental partnerships at local, state, regional, 

tribal and Federal levels, and develop new long-term partnerships with 

industry, academia, the K-12 education community, non-governmental, and 

international organizations that further the realization of these strategic 

goals.

Develop human and institutional capacity to enable the translation of 

observations into societal benefits.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

9

LINKS TO INTERNATIONAL 

ACTIVITIES

International cooperation in Earth observations has already 

resulted in benefits greater than could be achieved by individual nations 

acting alone. The international scientific community, working together 

within key international organizations (such as the World Meteorological 

Organization and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission), has 

improved understanding of environmental phenomena. Environmental 

observations and science are international in scope and in the very 

nature of their activity. International cooperation is a prerequisite for their 

success. Recognizing this, ministers from 34 nations and representatives from 

25 international organizations met at the first Earth Observation Summit in July 

2003. This meeting resulted in an international effort to develop a Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems.

This international effort emphasizes the importance of capacity building, 

as information from Earth observations is critical for developing as well as 

developed nations. Building capacity is integral to a global implementation 

strategy, which includes ensuring full utilization of the data. Growing 

world populations with expanding economies will require access to Earth 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

10

observations for a wide range of societal, scientific, and economic needs. The 

development of new systems will contribute to the gross domestic product of 

countries. International contributions are also essential for completing the data 

sets needed to address important U.S. national issues.

The development of this Strategic Plan addresses the first goal of the 

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations and serves as the initial 

step towards the development and implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System. A parallel ongoing goal of the interagency group is to 

formulate the U.S. position and input to the intergovernmental Group on Earth 

Observations (GEO) and the development of the Global Earth Observation 

System of Systems (GEOSS).

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will also promote international 

capacity building, and the development of the U.S. Plan is a key element in 

formulating the U.S. contributions to the GEOSS.

An example of international cooperation on observations can be found in the 

ongoing development of a global system to monitor our oceans. For over a 

decade, concerted national and international efforts have taken place during 

the development of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), which is 

being conducted under the auspices of UNESCO’s International Oceanographic 

Commission, the World Meteorological Organization, the United Nations 

Environment Programme, and the International Council for Science. The 

Integrated Ocean/Coastal Observing System (IOOS) is the primary U.S. 

component of GOOS.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

11

The International Polar Year (IPY) 2007-2008 is an additional example of 

an ongoing initiative being planned that will complement the global Earth 

observation effort. This international multidisciplinary campaign of polar 

observations, research, and analysis follows in the tradition of three international 

science endeavors during the last 125 years (IPY 1882-1883; IPY 1932-1933; 

IGY 1957-1958), when nations around the world united to advance scientific 

discovery in ways that single countries or scientists could not do alone.

IPY is a rapidly growing suite of collaborative activities focused on evaluating 

the status and current rate of change of both natural and human systems of the 

polar regions, and understanding the causes of those changes.

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

13

A PRACTICAL FOCUS FOR 

EARTH OBSERVATIONS

Our approach for developing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System is to focus on specific and achievable societal benefits and to link U.S. 

efforts to international activities.

Based on discussions about the needs and priorities 

of the agencies participating in the Interagency 

Working Group on Earth Observations, nine societal 

benefit areas (box 3) were chosen as the preliminary 

focus. This list was then vetted and approved by the 

National Science and Technology Council Committee 

on Environment and Natural Resources. This list is 

not in order of priority, nor is it meant to be exhaustive 

or static. It is intended to provide a framework for 

discussion about improvements in several key areas 

where work is underway. These benefit areas are 

described further in the next section of this document 

(and detailed in Appendix 2). Box 3: Preliminary set of societal benefit areas

1. Improve Weather Forecasting

2. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters

3. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource

4. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt 

to Climate Variability and Change

5. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, 

and Combat Land Degradation

6. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors 

on Human Health and Well-Being

7. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological

Forecasts

8. Protect and Monitor Water Resources

9. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

14

In the past, individual government agencies sought to implement and optimize 

their observation systems to meet their specific needs and mandates. The U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System transcends individual agency perspectives 

and focuses the activity on broad societal, scientific, and economic imperatives.

A. A Healthy Public—Societal Imperatives

A growing world population, projected to increase by roughly 50% in the next 

50 years before leveling off,1 will place increasing demands on crucial resources 

like food and clean water and air. Populations and economic activities are 

shifting from rural areas to urban centers, many in low-lying coastal regions or 

seismically active zones. In the United States, more than half of the population 

lives within 50 miles of our coasts,2 areas that are particularly vulnerable to 

storm surges and flooding. We rely upon coastal regions for healthy fisheries, 

and reliable transport and navigation. Increased dependence on infrastructure 

networks (roads, power grids, oil and gas pipelines) intensifies the potential 

vulnerability of more developed societies to impacts from natural disasters.

Another potential health-related benefit from improved observations concerns 

the quality of our air. Despite dramatic improvements in air quality in the 

United States over the last 30 years, over 100 million people in the U.S. 

still live in counties with pollution levels that exceed National Ambient Air 

Quality Standards (NAAQS), posing potential health problems.3 Improved 

understanding of the complex workings of Earth systems will help us protect 

society and manage our resources and infrastructure in a more efficient and 

effective way.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

15

B. A Healthy Economy—Economic Imperatives

In pure economic terms, studies show that national institutions that provide 

weather, climate, public health, and water services to their citizens contribute an 

estimated $20-$40 billion dollars each year to their national economies.4 In 

the United States, weather- and climate-sensitive industries, both directly and 

indirectly, account for as much as 1/3 of our nation’s GDP—$2.7 trillion5—

ranging from agriculture, energy, finance, insurance, transportation, and real 

estate, to retail and wholesale trade, and manufacturing. Economists have 

quantified the benefits of improved El Niño forecasts to be an estimated $265-

300 million annually, throughout El Niño, normal and La Niña years. Likewise, 

annual benefits in a small Northwest Coho salmon fishery are estimated at 

$250,000 to $1 million.6 The return on our investments for Earth observations 

has brought great benefits to the general public. However, we can do much more.

C. A Healthy Planet—Scientific Imperatives

Improved management of resources and forecasting of Earth system changes 

cannot be achieved without a much more comprehensive and detailed 

understanding of the Earth. We are faced with a number of pressing science 

questions, such as:

How are all of Earth’s “life support systems” interrelated? 

How do geophysical phenomena and biogeochemical phenomena relate? 

How do social and economic factors interrelate with Earth system changes?

These questions call for an interdisciplinary Earth science approach to provide 

useful answers. We need to know how the parts fit together and function as a 

whole.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

16

The multiple components and processes of the Earth’s atmosphere, ocean 

and land surfaces operate interactively, as a complex, dynamic system. More 

importantly, the multiple “feedback loops” operating among component 

processes of the hydrosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere 

determine the state of the Earth system at any given time. In order to take the 

“pulse of the planet,” we must establish a valid end-to-end process that will 

take us from observations to user-related products. Scientific needs for this 

end-to-end process require that we:

integrate observation, data management, and information delivery systems,

quantify environmental processes by direct or indirect observations,

improve coupled Earth system models that integrate the best state of 

knowledge,

assimilate the Earth observation data streams into models (eventually in 

real time),

test our Earth system models over varying time and spatial scales against 

observations and the geologic/environmental record,

understand the drivers of climate variability and change, the rates of 

change and the possible precursors to climate variability and change, 

understand and explain the forces, processes, mechanisms, and feedbacks 

underlying observed patterns, and

communicate that scientific understanding to all stakeholders.

Scientific research and observation lead to the Earth System Models, which are 

the starting point of the observations-to-societal benefits paradigm developed in 

the next section.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

17

LINKING OBSERVATIONS 

TO SOCIETAL BENEFITS

Connections between societal benefits and Earth observations 

must be clear to both decisions makers and the general public. In the following 

sections, we illustrate the expected linkage between observations and societal 

benefits in nine specific areas.7 In selected cases, we illustrate how this linkage 

is achieved today.

Figure 1 depicts the linkage and flow of information from observations to 

societal benefits. Although the focus is on achievable specifics, the approach 

Figure 1: Linking Earth Observations to Societal Benefits

Predictions

Observations

DATA

Decision Support

Societal

Benefits

Policy Decisions

Management

Decisions

Personal

Decisions

Earth System Models

Weather

Climate

Atmosphere

Other...

Earth Observation 

Systems

Remotely-sensed

In situ

On-going feedback to optimize

value and reduce gaps
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

18

includes using a common system architecture, and ensuring current and 

evolving systems are interoperable and the solutions can be easily expanded, 

extended, and/or replicated to address future challenges.

A. Improve Weather Forecasting8

Weather is an important area and vital to the other societal benefits. Weather 

observation, along with the associated national and international data 

management mechanisms, is probably the most mature observation system 

example in wide use today. The current weather system provides billions of 

dollars in value to the nation in areas such as transportation safety, agricultural 

productivity, and energy management. Enhanced observations would greatly 

facilitate the weather mission in the U.S., as well as supply crosscutting 

information for the user requirements in the other societal benefit areas. For 

example, high-resolution lower-atmosphere global wind measurements from a 

spaceborne optical sensor would dramatically improve a critical input for global 

prediction models, improving long-term weather forecasting.

B. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters9

Natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, wildfires, 

extreme weather, coastal hazards, sea ice and space weather, plus major 

pollution events, impose a large burden on society. In the US, the economic 

cost of disasters averages $20 billion dollars per year.10 Disasters are a major 

cause of loss of life and property. The recent California wildfires and the 

Denali Alaska earthquake underline the importance of preparedness, planning, 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

19

and response. Our ability to predict, monitor, and respond to natural and 

technological hazards is a key consideration in reducing the impact of disasters.

Sensors onboard geostationary satellites known as GOES supply observations 

used to detect and monitor forest fires every half-hour for the entire Western 

Hemisphere, including remote areas. This allows early detection of fires and 

indicates whether or not they are intensifying. During the 2001 Viejas fire in San 

Diego, the GOES observation product recognized the fire 15 minutes after the 

estimated ignition time. This product is available within minutes (http://cimss.

ssec.wisc.edu/goes/burn/wfabba.html). To extend the fire monitoring coverage 

beyond the Western Hemisphere, data from the Terra and Aqua research 

satellites and other international polar orbiting satellites, are combined with 

GOES data to create a global fire map. Polar orbiting satellite data are currently 

used to create active fire maps for the U.S. (http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us/). 

Fire incident maps, generated daily for use by firefighters on the ground, 

require higher-resolution (usually airborne) infrared imagery, superimposed on 

topography of the area.

C. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource11

Ocean resources account for a significant portion of the U.S. economy, and 

recent estimates indicate that coastal areas provide 28 million jobs, millions 

of dollars in goods and services, and tourist destinations for over 180 million 

Americans per year. Our ability to observe and manage coastal and marine 

resources will continue to provide these key benefits to society. Managing 

ocean resources requires accurate information from an integrated observation 

system to allow for detection and prediction of the causes and consequences 

of changes in marine and coastal ecosystems, watersheds and non-living 

resources.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

20

The recommendations of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (2004) (see 

http://www.oceancommission.gov/documents/prepub_report/welcome.html), 

the U.S. Ocean Action Plan (see http://ocean.ceq.gov/), White Water to Blue 

Water (see http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2002/15624.htm) and other 

reports and studies endorse an ecosystem approach and/or a watershed 

approach for observation systems. These systems should be able to assess and 

predict phenomena such as impacts of events like coastal storms, oil spills, 

pollution, and other activities such as fishing, recreational activities, marine 

transportation, coastal activities and ocean drilling/exploration. Observations 

are needed for a wide range of physical, biological, chemical, geological and 

atmospheric variables within U.S. coastal regions, islands and territories, and 

open ocean regions. Coordination of this information obtained at various time 

and space scales, and from existing and planned networks, along with indicators, 

models and decision support systems can provide great benefits to society.

D. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt to Climate 

Variability and Change12

The Earth’s climate is a dynamic system undergoing continuous change on 

seasonal, annual, decadal and longer timescales. Scientific evidence suggests 

that a complex interplay of natural and human-related forces may explain 

such climate variability and change. Better preparation for any impacts due 

to climate variability and change requires better understanding of its causes 

and effects. According to the National Academy of Sciences, improved 

global observation is a fundamental need for filling knowledge gaps in climate 

science. Noting that climate models are based on observations and that 

“the observation system available today is a composite of observations that 

neither provides the information nor the continuity in data needed to support 

measurements of climate variables,” the Academy called for creation of a longterm observation system able to fill such existing data gaps.13 In addition, a 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

21

better understanding of greenhouse gas accounting and carbon management 

would greatly facilitate decision-making related to sustainable development of 

terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric resources.

The climate observation system, including the associated data management 

system, and the community of users constitute a climate information

system. Climate data users include government agencies (Federal, state, 

local), private industries (electric utilities and gas industries, tourism, shipping, 

agriculture, fishing, insurance/reinsurance, etc.), universities, recreational 

organizations, and non-governmental organizations. Usage is diverse, including 

research and operational applications, policy making and coordinated planning 

for climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as decision-making by 

businesses, organizations, and individuals. Coordination of acquisition of 

information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing activity of 

Federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science Program and 

the Climate Change Technology Program, under the Committee on Environment 

and Natural Resources of the National Science and Technology Council.

E. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combat Land 

Degradation14

Food production is a national priority and it is characterized by fluctuations 

related to climate conditions, land management practices, agricultural 

technologies, market forces and investment. Seasonal and longer-term trends 

of temperature and rainfall patterns are a great influence on agricultural, desert 

and range, and forestry sectors. Success depends on farmers, ranchers, and 

foresters adapting to seasonal or longer-term changes, based on receiving 

timely and accurate information for decisions. Drought and extreme weather 

decrease food production, foster desertification, and harm forests. Improved 

observations, models, and predictions of critical parameters (such as weather, 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

22

salinity, erosion and soil loss, fires, pests and invasive species) can help mitigate 

these effects on farms, ranges, and forests. The industry that provides food to 

America is global in nature, so having global knowledge of the environmental 

conditions that affect worldwide food supply is important to all Americans.

F. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors on Human Health 

and Well-Being15

All the components of this integrated Earth observation system contribute 

to improving human health and well-being. Researchers, service providers, 

policy makers, and the public currently use Earth observations to understand 

environmental factors in order to make decisions and take actions. These 

decisions and actions help reduce the impact of disasters, protect and manage 

natural resources, adapt to and mitigate climate variation, support sustainable 

agriculture, forecast weather, protect areas valued for recreational, religious, 

or aesthetic purposes, and help prevent disease/dysfunction influenced by 

environmental exposures. In the near future, the Earth observations will feed 

into real-time measurements of environmental factors and will further enhance 

the ability to predict changes in these important indicators.

The ability to predict disease emergence and intensity has long been a dream 

of public health workers, economic planners and ordinary citizens. For those 

diseases that are influenced by environmental factors, the development of 

predictive models will open the door to the possibility that if one could link risk 

of disease with certain variables, one could eventually apply these models to 

predict occurrence and possibly control or prevent these diseases in human 

populations.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

23

Enhanced Earth observations that lead to better air quality data and the 

ability to predict air pollution episodes would contribute to improvements in 

human health via: reduced incidence of acute attacks and deaths from chronic 

respiratory diseases such as asthma; fewer air pollution-related emergency 

room visits; and fewer days absent from school or work. Air pollution affects 

the environment in many ways that ultimately impact on our health and wellbeing: by reducing visibility; damaging crops, forests, and buildings; acidifying 

lakes and streams; and stimulating the growth of algae in estuaries. Rapid 

development and urbanization around the globe has created air pollution that 

threatens people everywhere, as air pollution can travel great distances across 

oceans and national boundaries.

G. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological Forecasts16

The primary goal of ecological forecasting is to predict the effects of biological, 

chemical, physical, and human induced pressures on ecosystems and 

their components at a range of scales and over time, given a certain set of 

assumptions. Examples of such pressures include extreme natural events, 

climate variability and change, land and resource use, pollution, invasive 

species, and human/wildlife diseases. Earth observations and relevant 

modeling tools help identify key cause-effect relationships. Once certain causeeffect relationships are established, the goal then is to use Earth observation 

information to develop management strategies and options to reverse declining 

trends, reduce risks, and protect important ecological resources and associated 

processes. Such an approach provides critical support to long-term economic 

growth and sustainable development. The use of ecological indicators and 

forecasting will move us toward sustainable management of goods and services.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

24

Ecological forecasting requires the acquisition of a wide range of environmental 

data, as well as development of models. As an example, Lifemapper (www.

lifemapper.org) is an Internet and leading-edge information technology model 

that retrieves plant and animal records from the world’s natural history 

museums. Lifemapper analyzes the data, computes the ecological profile of 

each species, maps where the species has been found and predicts where each 

species could potentially live. Lifemapper has been used to model and simulate 

the spread of emerging diseases, plant and animal pests, or invasive species 

of plants and animals and their effects on natural resources, agricultural crops 

and human populations. Environmental scientists have modeled and predicted 

the effects of local, regional and global climate change on Earth’s species of 

plants and animals. Land planners and policy-makers have used Lifemapper to 

identify the highest priority areas for biodiversity conservation.

H. Protect and Monitor Water Resources17

The availability and quality of freshwater for humans are critical factors 

influencing the health and livelihood of people across the nation. Over one 

billion people in the world are currently without safe drinking water. Continued 

growth in human populations and water use, continued degradation of water 

supplies by contamination, and greater recognition of the needs for freshwater 

in order to support critical ecosystem functions could contribute to increasing 

scarcity and conflict over water supplies. By providing more complete and 

detailed water information and forecasts, decision-makers and the public could 

make better decisions on water supplies and activities that affect humans, 

plants, animals, and ecosystems.

The Great Lakes hold one-fifth of the Earth’s freshwater and are one of the 

Nation’s most important aquatic resources from an economic, geographic, 

international, ecological, and societal perspective. The Great Lakes continually 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

25

face extremes in natural phenomena such as storms, erosion, high waves, 

high and low water levels, and climate variability, all of which influence water 

quality and efforts to restore habitat. Population growth in the region will 

continue to increase stressors on the Great Lakes, adding to the complexity 

of management issues. Enhanced and increased observations and systems 

coupled with indicators, models and decision support tools such as the Great 

Lakes Observation System (http://www.glc.org/glos/pdf/glosbrochure-web.

pdf) will foster restoration activities including wetlands banking, rehabilitation 

of Brownfields sites, restoration of coastal wetlands and other habitats, 

establishment of protected areas, use of dredged material to enhance fish 

and wildlife habitat, improvement of water quality, fisheries management, and 

prevention and control of invasive species.

I. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources18

Energy management and monitoring are compelling needs throughout the 

world. Energy availability, use, and cost vary regionally. Focused efforts with 

improved Earth observations can help to optimize decision-making, and help 

provide needed energy supply, while protecting the environment and human 

health. For example, it has been estimated that improving weather forecast 

accuracy is critical for timely, safe, and cost effective transport of energy 

resources, as described in the newspaper excerpt below.19

“The annual cost of electricity could decrease by at least $1 billion if the accuracy 

of weather forecasts improved 1 degree Fahrenheit... [The Tennessee Valley 

Authority] generates 4.8% of the USA’s electricity. Forecasts over its 80,000 

square miles have been wrong by an average of 2.35 degrees the last 2 years, 

fairly typical of forecasts nationwide. Improving that to within 1.35 degrees would 

save TVA as much as $100,000 a day, perhaps more. Why? On Monday at 5:30 

a.m., TVA’s forecast for today called for an average four-city high of 93 degrees 

in Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville and Chattanooga, rising from 71 degrees at 6 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

26

a.m. TVA has scheduled today’s power generation based on this forecast and 

will bring on line a combination of hydro, nuclear, coal, wind, natural gas and oil 

plants as temperatures rise. It will buy wholesale electricity if that costs less 

than generating its own power. Gas plants are more expensive to operate than 

nuclear or coal, so TVA will fire up its ‘peakers’ only when it expects demand to 

be very high. If the average temperature comes in 1 degree hotter, rising to 94, 

TVA’s customers will demand 450 more megawatts. There would be no time 

to fire up an idle gas plant, and the cost of last-minute wholesale electricity 

could skyrocket. ‘There are times when electricity is $80 (per megawatt hour) 

a day ahead and $800 to $8,000 24 hours later,’ says Robert Abboud of RGA 

Labs, which helps utilities with complex decisions. On the other hand, if the 

four-city temperature comes in a degree cooler than forecast, TVA may have 

fired up a plant unnecessarily, or bought electricity a day in advance that will 

go wasted. Temperature is most important, but utilities can also benefit from 

accurate forecasts of cloud cover and humidity...”
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

27

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 

U.S. INTEGRATED EARTH 

OBSERVATION SYSTEM

The development of an integrated, comprehensive and sustained 

Earth observation system is a challenge that requires a structured plan for 

development. Figure 2 illustrates the U.S. approach to implementation, which 

begins with the clear definition of the vision (see page 5). After considering the 

missions and priorities of the participating agencies, the Interagency Working 

Group on Earth Observations identified nine societal benefit areas. Given the 

vision and the societal benefits that the system will address, the next steps 

include definition of the functional and performance requirements (box 4) 

necessary to guide the development of the integrated system architecture. The 

final step identifies the existing and planned systems to be implemented in the 

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System architecture.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

28

Interface with the user community and the decision support 

systems they use (requirements specification)

Collect Earth observations (remote and in situ)

Manage data (includes data archiving, access, processing, 

modeling, communications and delivery)

Sustain and enhance capacity (includes research, training, and 

development)

Deliver information (tailored to the needs of the user 

community)

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Box 4: Functional requirements.

In following this approach for implementation it is important to have a clear 

understanding of the scope of the U.S. effort for developing an Integrated Earth 

Observation System. The following bullets describe the partnerships that will be 

critical for the success of the U.S. effort.

Figure 2: Approach to Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

Systems

Architecture

Requirements

Societal Benefits

Vision Implementation
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

29

The U.S. effort will be multi-disciplinary. It will take into consideration the 

interaction among multiple science disciplines, including physical, life and 

social sciences.

The U.S. effort will be interagency. It will build upon existing systems and 

strategies to develop a framework for identifying gaps and priorities.

The U.S. effort will link across all levels of government. The stakeholder 

capacity to use assessment and decision support tools for decisionmaking will be supported through education, training, research, and 

outreach. Building domestic user capacity is a key consideration.

The U.S. effort will be fully integrated into a coordinated international 

effort. Environmental observations and science are international in scope 

and international cooperation is imperative both to the U.S. and global 

plans.

The U.S. effort will encourage broad participation. Many entities (public, 

private, and international) acquire and use Earth observations. The scope 

of the integrated Earth observation system will encompass the needs of 

these entities including the commercial Earth observation data providers, 

value-added intermediaries, and commercial users.

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Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

31

ESTABLISHMENT OF 

A U.S. GOVERNANCE 

STRUCTURE

The joint OSTP/OMB guidance memorandum dated June 

6, 2003, gave the National Science and Technology Council, through its 

respective agencies, the charge to “develop and implement a coordinated, 

multi-year plan to enhance data time series, minimize data gaps, and 

maximize the quality, integrity, and utility of the data for short-term and longterm applications.” To this end, a standing Earth observation subcommittee 

of the Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources will 

be established. This Subcommittee, the United States Group on Earth 

Observations (US GEO), will develop strategies for efficient and streamlined 

operations for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System and will further the 

work accomplished by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations 

in leading and coordinating the implementation of this multi-year U.S. 

plan on Earth observations. This subcommittee will have responsibility for 

periodic assessment of the multi-year U.S. plan, as well as annual reports 

to the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources on progress and 

recommendations.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

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Consistent with the President’s Management Agenda, Federal research and 

development investments for an integrated and sustained system of Earth 

observations will be managed as a portfolio of interconnected interagency 

activities, taking into account the quality, relevance and performance of each 

project. Working with the external stakeholder community, including industry, 

academia, and state, local, regional and tribal governments (consistent with the 

Federal Advisory Committee Act), this strategy will address not only planning, 

management and prospective assessment, but will also seek retrospective 

assessment of whether investments have been well directed, efficient and 

productive.

The agencies, through the Subcommittee (US GEO), will recommend priorities 

for investment for near-term, mid-term and long-term activities, recognizing 

that we may develop new requirements in addition to those already identified 

as critical for the societal benefit areas, and allowing for maximum flexibility 

as the system develops and coordination needs change. In addition, the 

Subcommittee will, over time, assemble its own benchmarks and metrics to 

assess the plan’s relevance, quality and performance across societal benefits 

areas. The broad overlap of the societal benefits and the various agencies’ 

missions is illustrated in Table 1, depicting agencies as users, providers, or both 

user and provider of relevant Earth observations.

The Subcommittee will continue to formulate U.S. positions and inputs into 

the Global Earth Observation System of Systems, taking into account the full 

range of U.S. policies and interests, and the requirements of the widest range 

of decision-makers, researchers, service-providers, the public, and other 

stakeholders worldwide.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

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It is clear from the data presented in Table 1 that a coordinated interagency 

approach to the Integrated Earth Observation System is imperative. The 

participating agencies have distributed responsibilities and requirements across 

the nine societal benefit areas. A sustained interagency effort will ensure that 

effectiveness and efficiency in achieving these benefits is maximized.

U.S. Agencies Related To Societal Benefit Areas

U.S. AGENCIES

TABLE KEY

DOC/NISTDOC/NOAADODDOEDHHS/NIEHSDHS/FEMADOI/USGSDOSDOTEPANASANSFTennessee Valley A. SmithsonianUSAIDUSDA

P = primarily provides data

U = primarily uses data

B = uses/provides data

Societal Benefit 

Areas

Weather B B U U U U B U B U U U B B

Disasters U P B U U U B U U U B B U U U U

Oceans B B B U U B U U B B B U U

Climate B U B U U B U U B B B U B B

Agriculture U P U U U P U B P B U B B

Human Health U P P B U U B P B U B

Ecology U B B B U B B B B B B B B

Water U B B B U U B B U B B B U B U

Energy U P B U U B P U B P U B U U

Table 1: U.S. Agencies as primarily provider, primarily user, or both provider and user of Earth 

observation data associated with the identified societal benefit areas.

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

35

POLICY, TECHNICAL AND 

FISCAL ASPECTS OF 

IMPLEMENTATION

Policy Aspects of Implementation

The strategy for implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System 

has three components: policy, technical and fiscal. The policy component 

identifies the aspects of Earth observations that will be defined as mandates or 

guidelines at the Federal level. Additionally, this policy component addresses 

data sharing and the identification of critical observations, and recognizes 

the requirement for decisions based on sound science, defined needs, and 

available options. The best way to generate knowledge is through science. The 

critical observations are the observations essential for sound science and 

decision-making, and are best determined through stakeholder involvement.

A. Data Sharing

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide full and open 

access to all data in accordance with OMB Circular A-130. All data (subject to 

applicable national security controls and proprietary rights), shall be available 

for the operational, research, commercial, and academic communities with 

minimum time delay and at minimal cost. Commercial observation systems 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

36

and observation data represent valuable national assets for the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System. We encourage continued development of enhanced 

capabilities to meet evolving requirements in support of achieving societal 

benefits and to fulfill the intent of the U.S. Commercial Remote-sensing Space 

Policy (25 April 2003) and other applicable policies.

B. Critical Observations

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will focus on collecting 

critical observations—elements considered of sufficient importance to 

mandate their collection based on their societal, economic, and scientific 

imperatives. Obtaining the appropriate metadata (data about the data, such 

as its quality and how it was acquired) will be an additional focus, enabling 

the effective use of all data collected. To illustrate this point, Table 2 shows 

a limited cross section of various observations and their relative level of 

importance to each societal benefit area. This table is not comprehensive 

and is intended only to provide a snapshot of overlapping benefits of selected 

observations.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

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Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations

Societal Benefit Areas

TABLE KEY

WeatherDisastersOceansClimateAgricultureHuman HealthEcologyWaterEnergy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth Observations

Note: This list of observations is not meant to be 

comprehensive

Land Elevation and Surface 

Deformation M H L L M M M H L

Land Use/Land Cover 

(Crops, Forests, Urban, etc.) M M L M H H H M M

Ecosystem Parameters 

(Health, Diversity, etc.) L L H H H M H M L

Fire 

(Detection, Extent, Severity) L H L L H H H L L

Soil Moisture M M L H H H M H L

Ice and Snow 

(Cover and Volume) M M M H M M M H M

Land and Sea Surface Temperature H H H H H H H M H

River Runoff 

(Volume, Sediment, etc.) L H H H H H H H H

Water Quality 

(Contamination, Spills, etc.) L H H L H H H M L

Sea Surface Height/Topography H H H H L M H M L

Ocean Current and Circulation M L H H L L H L L

Ocean Salinity L L H H L L H L L

Ocean Color 

(Chlorophyll, etc.) L L H L L H H L L

Atmospheric Constituents 

(Ozone, Greenhouse Gases, Black Carbon, 

Volcanic Ash and other Aerosols, etc.)

L H M H L H L H H

Atmospheric Profiles 

(Temperature, Pressure, Water Vapor) H H L H L M L L L

Wind Speed & Direction 

(Surface, Tropospheric, Stratospheric) H H H H M H M L L

Cloud Cover 

(Properties, Type, Height) H M M H M L L L L
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

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Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations

Societal Benefit Areas

TABLE KEY

WeatherDisastersOceansClimateAgricultureHuman HealthEcologyWaterEnergy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth Observations

Note: This list of observations is not meant to be 

comprehensive

Total and Clear Sky Radiative Flux H L M H H M M M H

Solar Irradiance L L L H L M M L L

Space Weather L H L L L M L L H

Precipitation H H M H H H H H H

Gravity, Magnetic Field, and Field 

Variations H H H H L L L H L

Space Geodesy: Terrestial Reference 

Frame and Earth Orientation H H H H H L M H L

Earthquake and volcanic activity L H L M L L L L L

Geology (bedrock and surficial) and soils L H L L M L M M M

Species 

(Occurrences, density, etc.) L M H H H H H M L

Table 2: Relative importance of an illustrative list of Earth observations to the identified societal 

benefit areas.

Technical Aspects of Implementation

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting 

that this system will be built upon existing and planned systems and will 

identify and document observation gaps and needs in the societal benefits 

areas. Currently, most of the data and information related to Earth observations 

are encompassed within the U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure, and 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

39

integration of Earth observations will be implemented within that legal, policy, 

and institutional framework. The technical implementation component will 

establish the standards, protocols, and metadata for observation systems. The 

strategy will also recommend the optimum operating environment and support 

developing the associated human and institutional capacity.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System builds upon current cooperation 

efforts among existing observation systems (including but not limited to the 

physical integration of observation systems on the same platform or at the 

same ground site, and by sharing space platforms and observation towers on 

the ground for various observations), processing systems, and networks, while 

encouraging and accommodating new components. Across the processing 

cycle from data collection to information production, participating systems 

maintain their mandates, their national, regional and/or intergovernmental 

responsibilities, including scientific activities, technical operations and 

ownership.

For required new components, the Subcommittee (US GEO) will recommend 

appropriate stewardship roles. The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System participants will coordinate with commercial, academic, and other 

non-government organizations consistent with the Federal Advisory Committee 

Act.

A. Interoperability/Protocols/Standards

Standards (including metadata standards) and protocols will be followed 

for the successful implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

40

System. These standards and protocols will address data and metadata access, 

interoperability, processing, dissemination, and archiving.

Interoperability will focus primarily on interfaces, defining how system 

components interface with each other and thereby minimizing any impact 

on affected systems other than interfaces to the shared architecture. Since 

interoperability agreements must be broad and sustainable, fewer agreements 

accommodating many systems are preferred over many agreements 

accommodating fewer systems.

To the maximum extent possible, interoperability agreements will be based on 

non-proprietary standards. Tailoring of standards (profiles) will be specified 

when standards are not sufficiently specific. Rather than defining new 

specifications, system implementers will adopt standard specifications agreed 

upon voluntarily and by consensus, with preference to formal international 

standards such as those of the International Organization for Standardizations 

(ISO).

B. Data and Information Assurance and Security

Services providing access to Earth observations data and products often 

include significant requirements for assuring various aspects of security 

and authentication. These range from authentication of user identity for 

data with restricted access, to notification of copyright restrictions for data 

not in the public domain, and to mechanisms for assurance that data are 

uncorrupted. The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will promote 

convergence on common standards for these various aspects.
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C. Data and Information System Hardware/Software

New hardware capabilities will only be required to the extent that they fill a need 

for a dedicated function that is not currently provided or anticipated. From 

the overall system perspective, it is anticipated that several types of new or 

refocused data and information “centers” are possible, as follows:

Archive centers to acquire, preserve, and provide long-term access to Earth 

observation data.

Regional data centers to acquire and provide access to Earth observation 

data collected in specific geographic regions. These centers often collect 

a variety of physical, biological, and chemical ocean data that are used to 

support scientific, public, and commercial interests in the region.

Data assembly centers to obtain Earth observation data and provide access 

to it. They typically specialize in certain types of data, and often provide 

quality control and data products in their area of expertise.

Modeling centers to procure and synthesize observational data to produce 

products such as analyses, predictions, or hindcasts that may span a wide 

range of spatial and temporal scales.

High-performance computing centers to process anticipated high-volumes 

of data from next generation Earth observation systems.

Software capabilities are required to support the functions described elsewhere 

in this document including data and metadata management, data access, 

data transport, archive management, processing/modeling, quality control, 

and geospatial information systems, among others. These crosscutting data 

handling functions are in addition to software functions required to process 

observations.

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D. Infrastructure/Bandwidth

The successful operation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will 

rely directly on the provision of a communications infrastructure sufficient to 

carry observations at sizes and rates ranging from point observations of a few 

hundred bytes to thousands of gigabytes. As a part of the inventory process 

that was begun by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations, a 

comprehensive sizing/timing study will be conducted to develop a multi-year 

communications plan. The communications plan will include milestones for 

rollouts of capability, including the infusion of next generation technology.

E. Human and Institutional Capacity

Support for developing human and institutional capacity is critical. The 

identification of user requirements and capacity gaps for the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System should occur early in the implementation of the 

plan. Capacity building efforts should build on existing local, regional, national 

and international initiatives. Priorities include education, training, research and 

outreach.

Education creates the pipeline yielding the next generation of scientists, 

engineers, and technologists who will become the data providers, data users 

and innovators of the future. Education and outreach are also important to:

ensure that decision makers at all levels understand the role of Earth 

observations in achieving societal benefits, and

create a knowledgeable public that can engage policy makers in the 

complex, difficult and critical decisions encountered that will be made

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The GLOBE program partnership20 offers an excellent example of an 

international program with partners across technical, development, and 

aid agencies around the world. This partnership is a worldwide hands-on, 

primary and secondary school-based education and science program. The 

program has delivered results globally by training teachers and engaging 

primary and secondary level students in collection, observations, and analysis 

of environmental data. Unique to this program is the involvement of students 

around the world from both developed and developing nations where schools 

had been difficult to access.

Fiscal Aspects of Implementation 

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System requires 

specific prioritization of resources to ensure critical observation systems are 

developed or sustained. Prioritization of near-term Earth observation activities 

will be included in annual submissions to the Office of Management and Budget 

and the Office of Science and Technology Policy. To implement this Strategic 

Plan, the Subcommittee (US GEO) will be expected to identify budgetary 

priorities within the framework of Office of Management and Budget’s research 

and development investment criteria (quality, relevance, and performance).

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ARCHITECTURE FOR THE 

U.S. INTEGRATED EARTH 

OBSERVATION SYSTEM

The necessary functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System include data collection, data management, data discovery, data access, 

data transport, data archiving, processing, modeling, quality control, and 

others. The development of the integrated system will be based on the following 

key architectural principles: 

Supports a broad range of implementation options (driven by user needs), 

and incorporates new technology and methods;

Addresses planned, research, and operational observation systems required 

for participants to make products, forecasts and related decisions;

Includes observation, processing, and disseminating capabilities interfaced 

through interoperability specifications agreed and adhered to among all 

participants;

Records and stores observations and products in clearly defined formats, 

with metadata and quality indications to enable search and retrieval, and 

archived as accessible data sets; and 

Provides a framework for securing and sustaining the future continuity of 

observations and the instigation of new observations.

Builds on existing systems and historical data, as well as existing 

assessments of observational needs in the specified societal benefit areas.

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The Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework21 is a conceptual model that 

defines a documented and coordinated structure for crosscutting businesses 

and design developments in the government. The Subcommittee (US GEO) will 

develop the architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System in 

accordance with the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework.

The integrated system architecture description will be a “living” document, 

continuously revised under the direction of the governance process established, 

to account for new and evolving requirements and capabilities to meet those 

requirements.
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INTEGRATION OF EARTH 

OBSERVATION SYSTEMS

The Earth is an integrated system. Therefore, all the 

processes that influence conditions on the Earth are linked, 

and impact one another. A subtle change in one process can 

produce an important effect in another. A full understanding 

of these processes and the linkages between them requires an 

integrated approach, including observation systems and their data 

streams. Figure 3 provides a visual overview of the integration 

process.

Integration is necessary and appropriate for those systems where 

the parts are well understood and the benefits outweigh the added 

scientific and/or financial costs.

The process of integration begins with these key questions:

Which observation systems functions are related to the identified 

societal benefits (a question that requires understanding user 

needs)? 

What level of integration is desired and cost-effective?

Which observation systems functions will be integrated? 

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Societal Benefits

Implementation

Desirability of

Integration

Required Investment

& Development

Integration Categories

Issue Specific

Scientific

Policy/Planning

Technical

Figure 3: Overview of the 

Integration Process
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Which observations need to be integrated?

What tools and methods will be used to accomplish the integration of the 

observation systems functions?

What plans need to be developed and implemented?

This plan starts to answer these questions by viewing integration from four 

perspectives:

policy and planning integration,

issue and problem focused integration, 

scientific integration, and

technical systems integration.

A. Policy and Planning Integration 

Policy and planning integration addresses the identification of and focus on 

specific societal benefit areas. In the past, Earth observation systems (research 

and operational) typically have been deployed for one purpose, and then 

adapted for other applications. In some cases, this approach has worked well, 

where observation systems were flexible to accommodate new users. In others, 

the original system design and life cycle planning did not anticipate or were 

unable to address secondary or unforeseen user applications, either in terms 

of the technical and scientific specifications or the availability of operational 

capabilities and capacities. The framework developed in this plan helps to 

lay the foundation for an integrated approach to policy development for Earth 

observations systems that will maximize these synergies.

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B. Issue and Problem-focused Integration 

Issue and problem-focused integration addresses how the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System addresses a particular issue. In order to get 

from observations to societal benefits, several links in a chain need to be 

forged. These links include data analysis, research, process modeling, 

and finally development of decision support tools. The development of a 

decision support tool for application requires the integration of several chains 

of investigation of various topics. Effective education, communication, and 

outreach are crucial links among operations, science, and society. The results 

of Earth observations need to be described in common, consistent, and 

understandable terms that are useful for decisions at all levels.

Drought, for instance, impacts all of the nine societal benefit areas. The 

assessment and analysis of drought depends on measurements across many 

time and space scales, as shown in Table 3. The weekly drought monitoring 

reports distributed to the public, with contributions from various agencies, show 

how this Earth observation information is integrated across all societal benefit 

areas. On monthly time-scales a subset of the Table 3 data and information 

from three countries (Canada, Mexico, and the United States) are integrated. 

International integration is still in an experimental stage and considerable 

data and information have yet to be incorporated into comprehensive drought 

assessments.

The urban environment is an example where multiple observations and tools are 

required. Physical processes and environmental conditions in our urban and 

suburban regions directly impact over 70% of the U.S. population.22 Mapping, 

modeling, and monitoring our urban settings allows for better future design 
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decisions that minimize the physical influences of the urban environment on the 

natural surroundings.

Societal Benefit Areas Important Observations Time-scales of Interest

Agriculture Soil moisture Weekly

Energy Reservoir and lake water levels Monthly

Water resources Ground water and lake levels/water quality Seasonal to decadal

Weather Circulation, water vapor Daily to weekly

Climate Boundary conditions Weekly to decadal

Ocean resources River flow Monthly

Human health Water availability/quality Daily to seasonal

Ecology Water availability/quality Weekly to decadal

Disasters Vegetation and wildfires Daily to decadal

Table 3: Examples of How Drought Integrates Across Societal Benefit Areas

C. Scientific Integration

Scientific integration addresses those parts of an unresolved problem that 

require information across the societal benefit areas or across scientific 

sub-disciplines within each of the areas. An important element of scientific 

integration includes modeling of Earth processes.

Our understanding of Earth processes begins with scientific research. It 

is important that research continue to refine existing models and develop 

new paradigms. These models can be useful tools in defining scientific 

integration priorities. In some cases, research evolves in a straightforward 

manner to operational applications used in regularly scheduled forecasts and 
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projections. However, when different models for the same process give differing 

answers, we know we have more work to do. A broader set of observations, 

targeted experiments, or better knowledge of underlying mechanisms may be 

required to aid our understanding.

Scientific integration can be illustrated by using the example of sea level 

change. While measuring sea level change only requires observations, 

understanding why sea level is changing requires scientific integration of data 

from various sources. Measurements of global sea level data are needed from 

tide gauges and satellite altimetry. Additional data concerning the causes of sea 

level change include information related to the thermal expansion or contraction 

of the sea, which can be acquired through a variety of platforms and 

instruments (such as ships, satellites, buoys, expendable bathythermographs, 

acoustic tomography, etc.) and information related to land-ice accretion or 

ablation (acquired through satellites and in situ measurements). Data on 

rates of change of stored water on land and on coastal topography are also 

important. To aid our understanding, all of these data and information can 

be integrated into land-ice models, ocean models, land-runoff models and 

ultimately into even broader integrated sea level models. Ongoing comparisons 

of model predictions with observations help improve and validate these models.

D. Technical Systems Integration

Technical systems integration addresses the coordination of observation system 

technology and data management systems that enable research and operational 

applications. Across many of the societal areas, there are common challenges 
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that would benefit from an investment in integrated solutions. Salient among 

these are the following (with associated examples): 

Information technology integration: control of the data flow 

(communications), processing (analysis), standards and protocols. This 

includes the data protocol integration necessary for distribution of data to a 

variety of user applications, such as open data formats for processing data.

Observation platform and observation site integration: the infrastructure 

and the underpinning of observation systems. This platform and site 

integration could include: the physical integration of observation systems 

on the same platform or at the same ground site, such as sharing space 

and suborbital platforms and observation towers on the ground for various 

observations; and maintaining and upgrading major in situ networks in an 

orderly way.

Multifunctional integration: using observation platforms not only for 

Earth observations but also for communication. For example, the Climate 

Reference Network in the U.S. uses the GOES satellite to transmit real-time 

benchmark climate observations for a variety of applications including 

weather and climate.

Scientific and operational integration: the assurance of the continuity of the 

observations. Mechanisms need to be developed to assure the effective 

transition of observation systems from research to operational status, where 

appropriate.

Integration considerations must also address observation system 

evolution. Observation system upgrades, new systems, system 

replacements, etc. all need to be considered in the context of a structured 

system integration approach. The significance and role assigned to 

models and other decision support tools in the integration process must 

also be considered. In some cases observation system experiments can 

be conducted to provide an objective, quantitative assessment of “how 

much something helps and contributes.” However, objective analysis is not 

possible in every case, and a well-disciplined subjective evaluation may be 

necessary.

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NEXT STEPS IN 

IMPLEMENTATION

Both the establishment of an appropriate organizational structure 

and the development of a common system architecture are critical to the 

successful implementation of this Strategic Plan. The steps required to 

accomplish both are described below.

A. Establishing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System 

Organizational Structure

Three organizational steps must be accomplished: 

Establish formally the U.S. Group on Earth Observations (a subcommittee of 

the NSTC Committee on Environment and Natural Resources and successor 

organization to the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations).

Commit necessary agency resources to accomplish the governance 

functions.

Implement the approved governance functions of the Subcommittee (US 

GEO). The following is an initial list of governance functions that will be 

finalized in the Terms of Reference for the Subcommittee.

Establish a process for interaction with external stakeholders, 

consistent with the Federal Advisory Committee Act.

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Identify and vet requirements, both within the government and with 

external stakeholders, including continued review and assessment 

of existing and emerging societal benefit areas, architecture/ data 

utilization, and capacity building/ international cooperation.

Establish a process for prioritization of observation system 

investments.

Submit an annual report to the National Science and Technology Council 

that includes near-term priorities for the upcoming budget year at 

the end of each calendar year. Current near-term opportunities are 

described in Appendix 2.

Submit to the National Science and Technology Council the mid- and 

long-term activities before April of each year.

Establish assessment mechanisms and metrics to validate quality, 

relevance, and performance.

Assess current and potential new societal benefit areas.

Refine and clarify the roles and opportunities for commercial 

observation networks and for international systems in achieving the 

vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

Establish processes for standards, interoperability, and an open, 

scalable architecture.

B. Developing a Common System Architecture

A common system architecture is a necessary key enabler for the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System. The following are near-, mid-, and longterm architectural steps towards the vision for the system.

The near-term architectural steps are:

Establish multi-year process to develop and sustain the Federal Enterprise 

Architecture Framework for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System.

Complete an inventory of the systems included in the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System.

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Prioritize the list of functional and performance requirements reflected in 

box 4, page 28.

Further refine the initial mid- and long-term architectural steps.

The initial list of mid- and long-term architectural steps includes:

Identify candidate system solutions, consistent with the architecture 

framework, to deliver Earth observation information in support of the 

selected societal benefit areas

Update and maintain inventory of systems

Continue cooperation with the international Earth observation community 

and the Global Earth Observation System of Systems

The Subcommittee (US GEO) will regularly review and assess the implications of 

scientific and technological advances, particularly innovations that change the 

structure and approach to the architecture.

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CONCLUSION

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide the 

nation with a unique and innovative perspective on the complex, interacting 

systems that make up our planet. This Strategic Plan defines the purpose 

and vision. It outlines a practical approach with a societal benefits focus, 

identifying key issues in integration and governance. This plan highlights 

specific opportunities ripe for near-term action by the participating agencies, 

and identifies the next steps in implementing the governance and system 

architecture.

Like the Earth, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will continue 

to evolve. An evolving system, taking into account emerging technologies 

and scientific advances, is necessary to meet the changing needs of 

society. Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System represents 

an exciting opportunity to make lasting improvements in U.S. capacity to deliver 

specific benefits to our people, our economy and our planet.

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APPENDIX 1: 

Near-term Opportunities

Because there is currently no comprehensive and integrated 

strategy for communicating existing data, data management is highlighted as 

both an overarching need, and the necessary first near-term action for this 

integrated system. Several other near-term opportunities are identified in this 

section, and programs implemented to address these opportunities will do so 

within the framework of the Office of Management and Budget’s Research and 

Development Investment Criteria (Quality, Performance, and Relevance).

Clear plans have been developed for these opportunities, which are relevant 

to national priorities, agency missions, and customer needs. The identified 

observations needs are high-priority and multi-year in their goals, with tangible 

results easily identified. These potential outcomes cut across all societal benefit 

areas identified in this strategy.

A. Data Management

Requirement/Need: The U.S. needs a comprehensive and integrated data 

management and communications strategy to effectively integrate the wide 
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variety of Earth observations across disciplines, institutions, and temporal and 

spatial scales.

Why now? There are three urgent needs for data management:

New observation systems will lead to a 100-fold increase in Earth 

observation data.

Individual agencies’ current data management systems are challenged to 

adequately process current data streams.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, linking the observations and 

users of multiple agencies, compounds these challenges.

Data management is a necessary first step in achieving the synergistic benefits 

from the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System described in this document.

Outcome: The expected outcome includes data management systems that are 

well-linked and support the full information cycle from observation acquisition 

to information delivery. At a minimum, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System must address these urgent needs by focusing on specific data 

management solutions: 

Data and products will be made readily available and easily accessible 

by applying data management systems.23 This activity will include 

standardizing vocabularies across agencies and developing browsing and 

visualization systems. Interoperability is achieved through protocols and 

standards agreed upon by the member agencies. These tools will enable 

users to effectively locate data and information relevant to their needs.

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The quality of Earth and space-based data will be improved by building on 

the approaches used by previous scientific data stewardship projects (such 

as the satellite pathfinder data reprocessing projects) and model reanalysis 

projects (such as North American Reanalysis, Global Reanalysis, and Global 

Ocean Data Assimilation Experiments). The output of these projects can 

help achieve important objectives of many users: improved data integration, 

quality, and granularity.

Metadata will be critical to the success of any integrated data management 

system. Technological solutions are currently available to maximize 

metadata usage.24 Current efforts are limited to pilot projects. Emphasis 

must be focused on a dedicated commitment to implement these software 

solutions for all science and technology needs.

B. Improved Observations for Disaster Warnings

Requirement/Need: Disasters afflict all regions of the world, and improved 

global disaster reduction and warning is a shared, global need. Geo-hazards 

such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and subsidence are examples of 

hazards where improved monitoring can provide improved forecasting. We 

need a complete monitoring system that supports risk assessment surveys, 

providing information critical to improved mitigation strategies and providing 

systematic and sustained monitoring of regions at risk. The greatest set of 

unmet observational requirements is for systematic, widespread coverage. This 

can best be delivered by maintaining and modernizing existing in situ

atmospheric, ground-based, and ocean observation systems and by enhancing 

our capabilities in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and interferometric synthetic 

aperture radar (InSAR) systems.25 Applications of InSAR include robust 

observations of surface deformation, which complements time-continuous 

observations of deformation derived from GPS networks. Other major SAR 

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hazards applications include monitoring sea ice, oil slicks, and inundation from 

flooding.

Why now? In many cases, in situ airborne and ground-based systems are 

not being maintained to meet research and operational objectives and are 

not being modernized to meet their research and operational potentials, even 

though plans exist for development of these systems. In the next few years, 

the governments of Canada and Japan will launch advanced synthetic aperture 

radar satellites, and there is a pressing need to work in advance on data 

access. Although we have demonstrated the capability through limited sporadic 

synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, we currently have no operational radar 

satellite system that could truly, in a real-time manner, reduce hazards, help 

mitigate disasters, and realize goals of saving lives and reducing damage.

Outcome: Improved ground-based disaster research and warning networks, 

incorporating more systematic use of InSAR and exploitation of SAR’s allweather capability, will: 

access data from existing and planned synthetic aperture radar systems by 

the U.S., Canada, Europe and Japan; 

improve rapid observation of damage and landscape change caused by the 

geohazards;

provide better monitoring of land and sea ice, oil slicks, and flooding;

enable better forecasts, preparations, and more rapid responses to 

disasters; and

broaden access and distribution of key data sets to the relevant 

communities of scientists, operational agencies and decision-makers.

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C. Global Land Observation System

Requirement/Need: We need a comprehensive and sustained land observation 

system to support land management decisions. These data are currently 

broadly used in a wide variety of research and management areas such as:

the influence of land cover on water quality, 

the extent of urban sprawl, and

how best characterize biodiversity, agricultural production, forest and 

vegetation health, fire management, etc.

Why now? The main source of our current land observation data, Landsat, 

is facing technological obsolescence, mission life limitations, and funding 

challenges. The Landsat Data Continuity Mission has faced delays throughout 

its programmatic history.

Potential Outcome: A global land observation system that provides sustained 

national and global observations of land cover and high-resolution topography 

from satellite, airborne and surface systems to complement the historical 

archive. Examples of capabilities this system should provide included:

High resolution digital topographic data including digital elevation maps

Continued collection and/or acquisition of remotely-sensed land cover data 

Access to commercial land remote-sensing imagery

D. Sea Level Observation System

Requirement/Need: We need an operational sea level observation system 

to provide comprehensive and sustained sea level data and prediction of 

future changes in sea levels. With millions of people living near the coast, 

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changes in sea level will be a concern to life and property, especially for barrier 

islands, coastal cities, river deltas, and islands. The storm surge generated by 

hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones would exacerbate the effects of potential 

sea level rise. Improved data on global sea level rise is a high priority issue 

requiring strengthened international cooperation in the sustained collection of 

high-quality observations as the basis for sound decision-making. Currently 

there is no integrated operational ocean altimetry system.

Why now? We have the opportunity to transition satellite altimetry research 

capabilities to operational use (Jason-1). Future uninhabited aerial vehicles 

(UAVs) and other suborbital systems will provide unique opportunities to 

monitor processes and change in coastal regions and wetlands. Lack of timely 

action may prevent the effective transition of this capability to operational 

status. Globally averaged sea level could rise 9 to 88 centimeters over the 

coming century, impacting coastal infrastructure investments that are being 

made today.26 Alaska is already facing relocation of over 100 villages due to 

coastal erosion and reduced sea ice cover.27 Critical measurements are needed 

immediately to validate models to properly project sea level.

Outcome: The outcome is an operational sea level observation system that 

allows us to:

Determine the rate of change in global sea level 

Understand the interaction of factors that cause sea level rise

Predict future state of sea level and its impacts on coastal areas

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E. National Integrated Drought Information System

Requirement/Need: Drought is a threat to the economic stability and prosperity 

of the Nation, and is having a $6-$8 billion annual impact.

Why now? We are facing the worst severe drought consequences in the 

western United States in 70 years.28 There is an urgent national interest in 

better information on drought. Recently, the Western Governors’ Association 

developed a set of requirements, through a broad-based team of Federal 

and nonFederal partners, for a National Integrated Drought Information 

System. These requirements were developed in conjunction with the National 

Drought Policy Commission’s report to Congress and the pending Drought 

Preparedness Act before Congress. In addition, in 2004, the Committee on 

Environment and Natural Resources Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction 

acknowledged its seriousness by including it as one of its eight “Grand 

Challenges.” 

Outcome: The National Integrated Drought Information System represents 

a comprehensive, user-friendly, web accessible system to serve the needs 

of policy and decision-makers at all levels—local, state, regional, and 

national—concerned with U.S. drought preparedness, mitigation, and relief/

recovery. Research efforts seek to improve drought-related observations 

such as soil moisture as envisioned in National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s Hydros mission. Improved drought prediction is a main 

emphases and outcome in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Program Plans for Climate-Weather Connections Research and Climate 

Prediction, and are consistent with coordinated interagency efforts, with 
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Academic partners, to develop an integrated Earth System Modeling 

Framework.29

F. Air Quality Assessment and Forecast System

Requirement/Need: Understanding air quality and its influence on people 

and the environment requires enhanced surface-based observations. Existing 

surface monitoring networks must be integrated with air quality observations 

from other platforms, including satellites, ships and aircraft, and used to develop 

and evaluate improved predictive models and decision support tools.

Why now? Despite dramatic improvements in air quality in the United States 

over the last 30 years—a period in which our population grew 39 percent, our 

energy consumption grew 42 percent, and our economy grew 164 percent—

air quality problems have grown in many areas of the world, particularly in 

some fast-growing developing countries. Even with continuing air quality 

improvements in the United States, over 100 million people live in U.S. counties 

that exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards.30 It is well known that poor 

air quality is harmful to the health of both adults and children.

Potential Outcome: An enhanced observational system integrated with modeling 

and decision support tools will:

Improve the ability to forecast air quality across large parts of the country 

(and in other parts of the world) for which forecasts are not currently 

available

Provide better information about emissions and transport mechanisms on 

regional to the international scales

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Provide important information to help the public avoid harmful exposures 

and to help air quality management better manage air pollution episodes 

over the short and long terms.

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APPENDIX 2:

Societal Benefit Area Technical Reference 

Report Summaries

Preamble

This Appendix provides summaries of detailed technical reference reports for 

each societal benefit area. These technical reports were written by interagency 

working teams as part of the development of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System. The purpose of the technical reports 

was to: 1) provide the state of Earth observations in each of the societal 

benefit areas; 2) identify what observations are currently underway 3) identify 

observational gaps and research needs, and 4) describe how these gaps are 

being addressed. The interagency working teams are continually updating the 

reports and incorporating comments from the public and scientific community, 

both inside and outside the Federal government. As such, these documents 

are not statements of U.S. Government policy, but are “living” documents, 

for reference throughout the process of coordinating our Earth observations 

into a truly integrated system. The associated technical reference documents 

may be accessed in their entirety on the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.
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This appendix provides an Executive Summary of those technical reports, and 

is not intended to be an exhaustive reference. It is divided into nine sections, 

each summarizing the observations for a benefit area, starting with the most 

mature system, Weather Forecasting. The benefit areas not only vary greatly 

in maturity of observation systems, but also by their very nature—for example 

weather forecasting is vital to every societal benefit area. On the other hand, 

Human Health and Well-Being relies on observations and the resulting data 

products from across the set of benefit areas. There are, however, some 

common threads across all benefit areas as discussed below.

Users of Observations

The beneficiaries of improved Earth observation will be society as a 

whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of existing systems and identify 

gaps and future needs, we first must understand who the critical users are, and 

identify their needs. In the context of the nine societal benefits areas, these 

groups are: 

End users include the general public, the commercial sector and authorities with 

responsibility, for example, for managing the distribution and quality assurance 

of resources.

Scientists, managers, and policy makers in advisory, service and 

regulatory agencies who need to make informed decisions on predictions of 

future conditions, respond to environmental changes and disasters in real time, 

develop accurate assessments and simulation tools to support decision-making, 

and run operational forecast and modeling centers.
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Research scientists whose research is directed toward improving our 

understanding of the physical, chemical, biological, and ecological relationships 

that define our Earth system.

Integrated Data Transformation

An integrated Earth information system must provide for a seamless link 

between the providers and users of information systems. The following figure 

summarizes the issues in terms of transformations of raw observational data 

from many sources, from the long term record of observations, from data 

collected as part of research investigations, to highly precise continuous 

observations, to new types of data from improved observation systems. Such 

data require a comprehensive and reliable data management archive, coupled 

with tools to derive information products, a system for distribution, support 

for user interactions with the information products, and decision support 

tools that provide for user feedback to maintain and improve the end-to-end 

system. Observation systems must provide for integration of the data in the 

full end-to-end system that meets the requirements for: 1) stringent standards 

of calibration, sampling and accuracy necessary for useful data; 2) stability 

to maintain ongoing data archive; and 3) continued improvement through 

technical advances and user feedback.
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Maintenance of Existing Systems and Data Collections

A critical challenge across all benefit areas is to maintain and operate observing 

capabilities and existing data archives. Progress in Earth observations will 

come in part from new capabilities and information. However, without the 

simple maintenance or enhancement of existing systems, for example, stream 

flow gauges for water monitoring and continuity of Landsat capabilities , 

progress will be spotty at best. Stability of observing systems is another 

important issue—we need to ensure that there will not be gaps in, for example, 

continuous satellite measurements. A third critical issue is the maintenance 

of observational records at all levels to allow scientists to evaluate the effects 
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of change in, for example, air quality and or drinking water quality. Other key 

variables requiring maintenance include, for example, monitoring of disease, 

population characteristics, food production and distribution. Since the value 

of existing datasets greatly increases as the record is extended over time (for 

example, weather and climate data), it is imperative that existing capabilities 

be maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are 

incorporated.

Section 1: Improve Weather Forecasting

1. The State of Earth Observations for Weather Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for weather forecasting is the most mature 

observing system in the United States. As described in a recent National 

Research Council report, provision of weather services within the U.S. has 

evolved, over the past 40 years, from an almost exclusively governmental 

function to one carried out by the public sector (a combination of Federal, state, 

and local government agencies), the private sector, and academia. Partnerships 

exist at all levels to support meeting the weather needs of an increasingly 

diverse user community.

On the Federal level, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological 

Services and Supporting Research (also known as the Office of the Federal 

Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM)) ensures the effective use of Federal 

meteorological resources by leading the systematic coordination of operational 

weather requirements and services, and supporting research, among 

the Federal agencies. Fifteen Federal agencies are currently engaged in 

meteorological activities and participate in the OFCM’s coordination and 
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cooperation infrastructure. Each year, OFCM prepares The Federal Plan for 

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research for the next fiscal year. This 

Congressionally mandated plan is a one-of-a-kind document, which articulates 

the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted by 

Federal agencies. The Fiscal Year 2004 plan can be found at http://www.ofcm.

gov/fp-fy04/fedplan.htm. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

The U.S. uses both remote-sensing and in-situ observation systems to collect 

required weather observations. Earth observation satellites provide an inherent 

wide area observation capability, non-intrusive observations, uniformity, 

rapid measurements, and continuity. In-situ observation systems provide 

measurements unobtainable from space, measurements complementary 

to those from space, and validation of satellite measurements. Weather 

information providers need observations from both types of systems to provide 

required weather forecasts. Major observational infrastructure investments 

by NOAA, NASA, FAA, and DOD provide the bulk of the currently deployed 

U.S. weather observing capabilities. The U.S. has an impressive space-, 

surface- and air-based weather observation infrastructure. For example, 

NOAA’s catalog of observing systems is contained in the Strategic Direction for 

NOAA’s Integrated Global Environmental Observation and Data Management 

System. Also, NASA describes its Earth observing systems within its 

Destination Earth website (http://www.earth.nasa.gov).
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3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

The box to the right illustrates the capabilities 

necessary for improving weather observing. Major 

gaps affecting weather forecasting improvements 

exist in two broad areas: exploiting weather 

information that currently exists, and improving that 

existing information. Within these two broad areas, 

there are five sub-categories of gaps in weather 

information that can be addressed by the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System:

Observational Lack of complete global observational coverage of the 

atmosphere, land, and oceans (for example, poor resolution, inadequate quality) 

inhibits development and exploitation of extended-range products. The following 

critical atmospheric parameters are not adequately measured by current 

or planned observing systems: wind profiles; vertical profiles of moisture; 

precipitation; thermal profiling of the ocean mixed layer; soil moisture; surface 

pressure; and snow equivalent-water content.

Modeling Inadequate aspects of scientific modeling (data assimilation, 

numerical weather prediction, and statistical post processing) limit the 

accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts and warnings. Numerical weather 

prediction (NWP) models have gaps in the following categories of data that 

increase uncertainty and reduce model accuracy: vertical profiles of moisture 

flux; coverage of tropical land areas and ocean areas; measurements of clouds, 

precipitation, and ozone; rigorous calibration of remotely-sensed radiances.

Decision Support Tools Decision analysis in disparate areas needs more than 

an accurate weather forecast. Techniques are needed to tailor those forecasts 

to specific applications to achieve full value.

Weather Forecasting Functional Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of observations

Observations of environmental elements not 

presently observed

Improved timeliness, data quality, and long-term 

continuity of observations

Integrated multi-purpose observing systems 

and networks that allow rapid dissemination of 

weather information

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Information Technologies Telecommunication and computer-processing 

gaps limit observations exchange, scientific collaboration, and dissemination 

of critical information to decision-makers and the general populace. Also, 

full implementation of new observing systems technologies is challenging due 

in part to a lack of structure to facilitate transition of research technologies 

to operational use in all components of the end-to-end weather-information 

services system. 

Education and Training With improvements in all facets of producing and 

delivering weather information, parallel improvements in education and training 

processes are necessary to ensure full user exploitation of that information.

A recent article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 

listed warm-season quantitative precipitation forecasts as the poorest 

performance area of forecast systems worldwide. This report illustrates the 

gaps and challenges facing the national and international weather forecasting 

communities. Key gaps were found in understanding scientific processes, 

observations, and data assimilation. Specifically:

Scientific processes Knowledge of environmental aerosols may prove 

necessary for properly representing cloud microphysical processes, but there 

are no efforts underway to provide routine observations of aerosols or even to 

provide a systematic research assessment of the forecast sensitivity.

Observations Observations on the scale of the events being forecast (for 

example, summer thunderstorms) are limited to those available from surface 

mesonets, profilers, radars, and geostationary and GPS satellites. While useful, 

these observing systems do not provide certain key pieces of information required 

by models. For example, the quality and vertical resolution of geosynchronous 

satellite data over heterogeneous continental backgrounds remains unacceptably 

low. Distant radars overshoot the boundary layer while nearby radars leave a 

“cone of silence”, and surface mesonets provide no information about the free 

troposphere unless augmented with profiling devices.
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Data assimilation Data assimilation may be the most critical path through 

which advances in forecasting convective precipitation will be modulated. Two 

glaring gaps exist here: (1) a serious deficiency in human resources working on 

data assimilation, and (2) a large fraction of current observations are not being 

assimilated into today’s models.

Addressing these challenges, the USWRP recommends a tightly knit 

implementation plan addressing basic research, advanced development 

(observations, assimilation technologies, and forecast systems), and 

experimental forecast demonstrations (with emphasis on verification metrics 

that are relevant to and understood by the general populace).

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

The U.S. is addressing gaps in weather forecasting in three broad areas: plans, 

programs, and research.

Plans NWS has published two plans that form the basis of improving weather 

information within the U.S.—the NWS Science and Technology Infusion 

Plan (STIP) and the NWS Service Improvement Plan (NSIP). The NWS 

STIP: looks into the future and explains how science and technology 

may evolve NWS products and services; defines long-term strategies, 

objectives, and programs; and illustrates how the NWS plans to take 

advantage of scientific opportunities beyond the next ten years. The 

NSIP translates the grand vision of the NWS STIP into specific customer 

service improvements in the areas of aviation, climate, fire weather, 

hydrology, marine weather, health (for example, air quality), and 

homeland security.
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Internationally, the WMO Expert Team on Observational Data Requirements and 

Redesign of the Global Observing System (GOS) has developed a vision for the 

GOS of 2015, which includes an observation component (with both remotesensing and in-situ systems), and a data management component. This vision 

document provides a prioritized list of critical atmospheric parameters that are 

not adequately measured by current or planned observing systems. Those 

parameters in order of priority are:

Wind profiles at all levels

Temperature profiles of adequate vertical resolution in cloudy areas

Precipitation

Soil moisture

Surface pressure

Snow equivalent water content

Programs Two new operational weather satellite systems—the National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) and 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R (GOES-R)—

will replace NOAA’s current polar and geostationary satellites in 2009 

and 2012, respectively. Both will provide improved technologies to 

support the detection and monitoring of severe weather, tropical 

cyclones, volcanic eruptions, and volcanic-ash clouds. These 

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and 

will include a wider range of spectral bands than current U.S. polarorbiting systems, although some bands currently available and used 

for fire detection will either be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS 

equivalent for fire detection during daytime.

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Other weather-related future solutions include expansion of the commercial 

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally, 

and more use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based radar 

wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development and 

deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the 

quantity, quality, and timeliness of weather information during extreme weather 

events. In addition, operational deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles 

will enable routine in situ monitoring of the vertical distribution of several 

atmospheric parameters over wide regions, including remote areas of the 

globe not currently accessible. The DOT Intelligent Transportation Systems 

Program and NOAA are working to expand the collection and integration of 

surface-based observing systems, particularly as it pertains to commerce and 

surface transportation. Two initiatives in particular, the Nationwide Surface 

Transportation Observing and Forecasting System (also known as Clarus) and 

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration, are exploring the exploitation of land- and 

vehicle-based technology to collect additional weather data.

Research There are several collaborative research and development activities 

focused on improving operational weather forecasting capabilities. 

While this is not an exhaustive list of research programs, it illustrates 

the national focus on improving weather forecasting to benefit 

society.

First, through the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation, NOAA, NASA, and 

DoD are developing common NWP model and data-assimilation infrastructure 

for:
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Accelerated development of assimilation algorithms for current operational 

satellite soundings from GOES, POES, and DMSP

Rapid assimilation of programmed operational (CrIS, ATMS, and VIRS on 

NPOESS) and research satellite data (from QuickSCAT, TRMM, and MODIS) 

into operational models

Second, NOAA is working with NASA’s Short-term Prediction Research and 

Transition Center to accelerate the infusion of NASA science and technology to 

help meet Weather Forecast Office requirements for improved:

Aviation forecasts

Specification of convective initiation and evolution

Specification of precipitation type

Prediction of precipitation amounts and area extent

Third, NASA has a Weather Research Roadmap, which is a combined vision 

of NASA, NOAA, and the research community. This Roadmap outlines 

recommended steps to help the nation achieve improvement in near-, mid-, 

and far-term forecasts using NASA’s latest data and modeling research. The 

Roadmap sets weather forecast improvement goals, identifies key steps 

to achieve those goals, identifies enabling research for improved weather 

forecasts, and links this weather-program implementation plan to the NASA 

Science Directorate research strategy. 

Fourth, DOT activities, including the FAA Aviation Weather Research Program 

(AWRP) are striving to increase scientific understanding of atmospheric 

conditions that cause dangerous weather impacting aviation. The research 

is aimed at producing weather observations, warnings, and forecasts that 

are more accurate and more accessible. Within the AWRP, FAA partners 

with NOAA, DoD, the National Center for Atmospheric Research, and the 

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Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratory to develop product 

development teams (PDTs). These PDTs are teams of scientists from the 

partner organizations who work together to solve aviation problems caused by 

weather. Teams are currently organized to address the following topics: in-flight 

icing, aviation forecasts, forecast quality, turbulence, winter weather, convective 

weather, terminal and national ceiling and visibility, model development and 

enhancement, advanced weather radar techniques, and oceanic weather. In 

addition, FHWA, NOAA, NASA and NCAR are working to improve surface data 

collection that improve weather information for surface transportation users and 

operators.

Fifth, through USWRP, Federal agencies are partnering with universities and 

other research institutions to mitigate the effects of weather disasters (such 

as hurricanes) and to improve predictions of precipitation and flooding. Four 

current USWRP initiatives promise immediate benefits to national security, 

energy, and the economy:

The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) will be used by both 

researchers and forecasters, putting research improvements into immediate 

operational use. With USWRP and other funding, a prototype has been 

developed and is currently being tested. WRF is a collaborative effort among 

a number of government agencies and universities.

The Hemispheric Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment 

(THORPEX), a major international field experiment over the Pacific 

Ocean, will improve two- to ten-day forecasts for U.S. regions and urban 

areas. THORPEX is planned for 2003-2010, and involves dozens of 

institutions, and researchers and operational meteorologists from 14 

nations from the Northern Hemisphere.

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Operational testbeds will evaluate new weather-prediction models and new 

forecasting techniques without interfering with the day-to-day operation 

of forecast centers. Two test beds are currently being developed—one for 

hurricane predictions and another for modeling improvements.

Short-term forecasting improvements will focus on a few hours out to 

two days and will improve predictions of severe storms, distribution of 

precipitation, temperature, and air quality.

From an international to a local perspective, improving the accuracy, timeliness, 

and reliability of weather information is critically important. Gradually, more 

nations are recognizing the societal benefits to be gained through Earth 

observations and the efficiencies to be realized by working together. Within 

the U.S., an Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS) will help realize those 

efficiencies, and create a synergy between improved weather forecasting 

and the development of an IEOS. Weather forecasters have made significant 

progress in establishing common requirements across the spectrum of 

users. Continued weather-forecasting improvements and a sustained weatherinformation infrastructure will depend on effective partnerships, implementing 

appropriate components of existing plans, and developing and implementing the 

IEOS. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Weather 

Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Weather 

Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.

gov.

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Section 2: Reduce Loss Of Life And Property From Disasters

1. The State of Earth Observations for Disaster Mitigation

Natural and technological disasters, such as 

hurricanes and other extreme weather events, 

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and 

debris flows, wildland and urban-interface fires, 

floods, oil spills, and space-weather storms 

impose a significant burden on society. Within the 

U.S., disasters inflict many injuries and deaths, 

and cost the Nation $20 billion each year. The 

Earth observation systems needed to forecast 

and mitigate disasters are diverse in type and 

maturity. The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) 

Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction report “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability 

through Science and Technology” identifies the many existing interagency and 

international partnerships that are involved in an array of valuable cooperative 

programs for improving the resiliency of American communities to all hazards. 

The Subcommittee for Disaster Recovery has identified many existing 

interagency partnerships that deal with particular hazards. An example is flood 

monitoring and response, which involves coordination among the NWS, USGS, 

FEMA and USACE. Another example is dealing with the hazards posed by 

volcanic ash clouds. Safe air traffic control involves coordination between NOAA 

(both the NWS and NESDIS), the USGS, the USAF, and the FAA. 

Disaster Mitigation Functional Requirements:

Continuity of operations

Continuous, real-time data streams

Rapid tasking of other data sources

Global coordination of resources

Rapid generation of accurate information and 

forecasts, and 

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs.

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Disasters can also span beyond our borders, where international cooperation 

is paramount to ensure public safety. Some key international partnerships 

and coordinating bodies for disaster observations include the WMO and the 

associated Meteorological Watch Offices, the nine Volcanic Ash Advisory 

Centers, the International Charter for Space and Major Disasters, the 

Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Organization, 

which has a number of monitoring systems, and the International Space 

Environment Service. We are beginning to see the success of linking global 

observations to help mitigate disasters, examples are the National Ice Center 

which collaborates internationally through the WMO/IOC; the International 

Ice Chart Working Group, formed in 1999, provides operational cooperation 

amongst national ice services, with regional (North American) collaboration 

handled by the US-Canadian Joint Ice Working Group. Another category 

of international partnerships includes programs such as the USGS Volcano 

Disaster Assistance Program (cosponsored by the USGS and USAID/OFDA) 

and the Civil Military Emergency Preparedness program of the USACE. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems currently exist for use in observing wildland fires, 

earthquakes, volcanic activity landslides, floods, extreme weather, tropical 

cyclones, sea and lake ice, coastal hazards, pollution events and space weather.

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one hazard. For 

instance, there is extensive overlap among the weather or weather-driven 

hazards. Some overlap also exists among the solid-Earth hazards and, in 

certain areas, among floods, sea ice, and coastal hazards. However, there are 
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other significant commonalities that may be less widely appreciated: wildland 

fires, volcano eruptions, and some pollution events have overlaps for thermal 

signals, gas emissions, smoke and aerosols, and sediment and other discharges 

into water. Seven of the individual hazards listed require information on soil 

moisture. 

Significant overlap exists between the observational needs for pollution events, 

such as oil or chemical spills, and those for the natural events. In addition, 

most large natural disasters (especially wildland fires, earthquakes, and floods) 

result in significant pollution as part of the event. 

Below is a brief summary of the observation capabilities that currently exist for 

each type of disaster: 

Extreme Weather, Tropical Cyclones See the section on Weather forecasting 

in this Appendix. These capabilities are augmented by 1) low-resolution 

topographic observations, and 2) location of infrastructure and transportation 

routes.

Flood hazards The monitoring, evaluation, and forecasting of floods (such as 

those produced near large rivers, whether by large storms or spring snow melt) are 

relatively mature, and depend on a combination of ground-based and remotelysensed data streams. Data categories include topographic observations, stream 

flow, groundwater levels, snow cover characterization, tides and coastal water 

levels, spatial distribution and density of manmade impervious surface area 

(ISA), and vegetation cover. 

Earthquakes Archiving of seismic records (by the USGS and IRIS) is systematic 

and more mature than for most other kinds of solid Earth hazard data. For 

example, the U.S. operates and maintains the Global Seismographic Network 

(GSN) of 137 stations spanning the globe for continuous monitoring of 

earthquakes and tsunami. Current observational capabilities other than seismic 
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monitoring include low-resolution topographic observations, high resolution 

gravity and electric field measurements, thermal and gas emissions, water 

chemistry, and ground water levels.

Volcanic eruptions Monitoring volcanic activity, including volcanic ash and 

aerosols, requires a wide range of ground-based, airborne and satellite support. 

Current observing capabilities include low-resolution topography, seismic 

monitoring, strain monitoring, monitoring of gas emissions, high resolution 

measurements of gravity and electric fields, physical properties of Earth 

materials, thermal emissions, water chemistry, and discharges into water.

Landslides Current capabilities include low-resolution topography, bedrock 

characterization, seismic monitoring, ground movement (including liquefaction), 

deformation monitoring, water levels, stream flow, and inundation areas.

Wildland and urban-interface fires These extremely complex events require 

rapid weather observations, at various time scales and spatial resolutions. 

Current observing capabilities besides needed weather observations and fire 

maps generated in response to an event, include vegetation condition and fuel 

loading, sediment discharges, stream flow, and low-resolution topography.

Coastal hazards, tsunami, and sea ice hazards These hazards require 

coordination of information across a range of observing systems. For example, 

accurate forecasting of storm surge and coastal flooding depends on combining 

hurricane landfall forecasts with stream flow information and tidal and 

wave height data. Available observations include low-resolution topography, 

characterization of surficial deposits, ground movement, seismic monitoring, 

physical properties of Earth materials, water chemistry, discharges into water, 

and stream flow.

Pollution hazards These hazards may be triggered by other hazard events 

(such as an earthquake or flood), or be induced by human activity. An example 

is the release of chemicals or petroleum on land, into fresh-water systems, 

coastal zones, the sea, or into the atmosphere. Oil spills can be tracked with 

satellite imagery, in particular with Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery. 
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Other current capabilities include topography, smoke and ash cloud detection, 

water chemistry, stream flow, and inundation area.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Observation systems for disaster prediction and monitoring, though some are 

relatively mature, must be continually maintained and improved. There are still 

many significant gaps, including instrumental, temporal and spatial coverage, 

baseline data and models, communications networks, and decision-support 

tools. In addition, some existing capabilities are deteriorating or will be lost. 

Some major gaps include, but are not limited to: 

Easier access to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. Currently this means 

seeking better access to Canadian and European C-band SAR satellite 

imagery. In addition, Japan plans to launch a new L-band SAR (the PALSAR 

sensor on the ALOS satellite) in 2006. That will be a welcome development, 

but PALSAR and other current SAR sensors are designed as research 

instruments, and share power and downlink capabilities with other sensors 

on the same satellites. Consequently, the amount of SAR data available 

is severely limited now, and will be for the next 6-8 years. Specifically, 

it is inadequate for both routine ice monitoring (the principal use of the 

Canadian Radarsat) and for routine use of interferometric SAR (InSAR) 

to monitor deformation caused by volcanic activity, or by local surface 

instability (such as landslides or subsidence) or by motions on faults or 

plate boundaries on a continental or global scale. Additional C-band (or Xband) and L-band SAR capability, to generate all-weather imagery suitable 

for InSAR, for a wide range of hazards, could address this gap.

Improved access to moderate-to-high-resolution near- infrared (IR) and 

short-wave IR imagery is needed, especially for fire response, and for 

volcano monitoring. High-resolution imagery needs for volcanoes, plus 

rapid, tactical IR imagery support for wildfire response, would be better met 

by airborne IR cameras, as there will be less interference from clouds. 

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High-resolution satellite and airborne imagery support are needed for 

nearly all types of disasters. For example, detailed images are needed for 

wildfire response not only during severe fire season, but also for pre-fire 

studies to characterize the health and types of vegetation, and fuel loading. 

Such information is essential to assess areas at highest risk of fire in the 

immediate future. Detailed mapping of geologic and topological features 

are essential for improved response to wildfires, solid Earth hazards, floods, 

ice hazards, and coastal hazards. 

Examples of gaps in land-based observation capabilities include deformation 

monitoring for earthquakes, volcanoes, and coastal hazards; more extensive 

stream flow monitoring for extreme weather and flooding; improved seismic 

monitoring for earthquakes and volcanoes; detailed mapping of surficial 

deposits (including fill, dumps) for land-based hazards, ice hazards and 

pollution events; and strain and creep monitoring for earthquakes and 

landslides. Other problem areas include inundation forecasting, especially in 

heavily developed areas, sufficiently rapid modeling and warnings for flash 

flooding, and effective snow melt forecasting. 

Other needs include the expansion of emergency airborne capabilities 

including UAVs (for severe weather, fire/fuels mapping, volcano observation, 

characterization of airborne contaminant plumes), and expansion of capabilities 

for airborne LIDAR and SAR (to support detailed observation of topography 

and topographic changes). Research into new instrumentation (cost-effective, 

portable, sensitive, accurate, and quickly deployable) to identify/monitor a 

wide range of trace gases, toxic chemicals, or explosives in soil, water, and 

the atmosphere would provide critically important data for many disaster 

and hazard situations. Remotely controllable sensors that can function in 

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extreme or unusual environments (near erupting volcanoes, in wildfires, or in 

malfunctioning nuclear reactors) will be needed. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Plans to address gaps include two new satellite systems—the NPOESS 

and GOES-R. These systems will replace current polar and geostationary 

satellites in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Both satellites will provide improved 

technologies to support the detection and monitoring of severe weather, 

tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions and ash clouds, and will provide data 

essential to the fundamental research on these processes and events. Onboard 

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and will include 

a wider range of spectral bands than instruments on current POES systems, 

although some bands currently available and used for fire detection will either 

be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS equivalent for fire detection in 

daytime. In addition, the GEO Lightning Mapper will monitor lightning in support 

of better extreme-weather assessment. 

Future weather-related solutions also include expansion of the commercial 

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally, 

and increased use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based 

radar wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development 

and deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the 

quantity, quality and timeliness of weather information in extreme weather. 

In addition, operational deployment of long range, long endurance aerial 

vehicles will enable the persistent tracking and high resolution observation of 

atmospheric phenomena over their life cycle. 
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Most of the gaps in disaster-related Earth observations systems require 

further analysis and planning. Many land-based systems, such as stream 

flow monitoring and seismic monitoring, exist but need to be expanded and 

upgraded. Satellite observations of thermal emissions via infrared imagery, 

which could make a significant contribution to our ability to forecast and 

manage fires and volcanoes, must be expanded and improved. 

For disaster-related Earth observations, the two overarching considerations for 

future Earth observation systems are:

(1) The development of a process whereby the unmet needs for expansion and 

modernization of the vast array of surface-based monitoring systems can 

be dealt with in the 10-year time span of the plan. This work is essential to 

maintain the benefits of the status quo, to define the needed communications 

infrastructure, and to prepare for the future expansion of population and 

infrastructure into areas of high risk. This deployment can be incremental, 

but it should be systematic, for all critical systems. This array of surfacebased monitoring systems will provide the landscape-scale observations 

needed for basic research to understand natural hazards and their root 

processes, and to improve modeling and forecasting of hazard events.

(2) The clarification of responsibility for designing, building, launching and 

operating satellites that are intended to observe the solid surface of 

the Earth at moderate spatial resolution, with temporal resolution and 

spectral capabilities adequate for the range of natural hazards discussed 

here. NOAA/NESDIS covers weather and other atmospheric observational 

requirements, and many ocean requirements, but operational satellites for 

solid-Earth surface observations currently have no home. Earth surface 

observations are essential for both operational purposes and basic research 

on geographically distributed natural processes. For a more in-depth look 

at the state of Earth observations in the Reducing Loss of Life and Property 

from Disasters arena, as well as for a list of references, please see the 
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Reducing Loss of Life and Property From Disasters Reference Document on 

the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 3: Protect And Monitor Our Ocean Resource

1. The State of Earth Observations for Ocean Resources

Observing systems for ocean resources are in various stages of development 

and maturity. Some systems have been in place for over 100 years such as 

water level networks; others such as Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) 

and ocean carbon monitors are relatively new. Observing system assets are 

available in various levels of operation and reliability. Research and pilot efforts 

are also in progress, either planned or transitioning from development efforts 

into the operational systems. New scientific knowledge has established the 

importance of monitoring the global blue water, in addition to our Exclusive 

Economic Zone (EEZ), inland seas, rivers and watersheds. Also critical is the 

concept of ecosystem management. 

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy Report and the U.S. Ocean Action 

Plan call for the integrated ocean/coastal 

observing system (IOOS) to be coordinated 

among Federal agencies, academics and 

regional ocean information groups. The 

National Oceanographic Partnership Program’s 

(NOPP) National Research Leadership Council 

(NORLC) formed the Ocean.US Executive 

Committee (EXCOM) that oversees the 

activities of the Ocean.US office, which is now 

Monitoring Ocean Resource Functional Requirements:

Open access to continuous, real-time, near real-time, and 

delayed data streams, and rapid access to archives

Robust calibration and validation for all systems

An efficient process to transition research into operations

Global coordination of resources

Rapid generation of accurate information and forecasts

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats that 

are adapted to users’ needs

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coordinating the development and implementation of the U.S. IOOS. Reducing 

the impacts to ocean resources will require better global datasets and 

improvements in now-casting, in addition to forecasting effects of weather, 

climate, and human activities on the coastal ocean, its ecosystems, and living 

resources. These drivers will require additional ocean observing capabilities, 

and extensive data management efforts, along with links to other ocean 

observing systems. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Ocean observing systems can monitor many physical, biological, geological 

parameters using a variety of methods. As illustrative examples, remote-sensing 

methods can provide sea surface temperature, sea surface height, surface 

winds, ocean color, type and condition of coastal habitats; ship-based systems 

provide temperature and salinity profiles, fish abundance, age and condition, 

bottom topography; in situ systems provide river flows, water levels, sediment 

load, nutrient concentrations, biological community sampling. 

Concerted national and international efforts have taken place for over a decade 

during the development of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS); 

where initial efforts focused on climate, and coastal systems implemented in 

several European countries. IOOS is the U.S. component of the larger Global 

Ocean Observing System (GOOS) that is being developed under the auspices 

of IOC/UNESCO, both of which will be vital components of the Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems (GEOSS).

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one ocean 

resource issues. For instance, water levels are needed for navigation safety, 
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flood forecasting, habitat restoration and coastal zone management. On the 

other hand, fish abundance has more limited application. Specific sensor types 

and networks used include:

Remote-sensing instruments on aircraft, satellite and land-based 

platforms, such as: passive electro-optical imaging sensors (multispectral 

and hyperspectral) and active electro-optical (LIDAR); passive 

microwave (radiometers and sounders) and active microwave (altimeters, 

scatterometers, and Synthetic Aperture Radar), and high frequency radar.

Ship-based measurements, such as net sampling, manual and pumped 

measurements of physical, chemical, optical and biological properties, and 

acoustic measurements of bathymetry and currents.

Coastal, open ocean, or land-based in-situ systems that allow for 

unattended (autonomous or semi-autonomous) operation, such as: wind, 

wave and temperature sensors on moored buoys; drifters; shore based 

platforms such as tide gauges; water quality sensors; and autonomous 

underwater vehicles (AUVs). 

In-water measurements that require attended operation, such as: manual 

sampling of underwater species; remotely operated vehicles (ROVs); 

underwater video/photography; and underwater laboratories. 

Sentinel and research sites located at the shoreline; in bays, estuaries, 

rivers, offshore, and the deep ocean; and on the ocean floor.

Systematic regional fisheries and protected species surveys conducted by 

observers on ships and aircraft to establish seasonal indices of abundance 

and distribution, and, from these, key indicator species over time.

Long-term sampling programs that measure contaminants in the water 

column, sediments and marine organisms, such as NOAA’s National Status 

and Trends Program; EPA’s National Estuary Program; and EPA’s National 

Coastal Assessment Program.

Orbital sensors are available on satellite missions, such as NOAA’s Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellites and Geostationary Operational 

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Environmental Satellites; DOD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 

NASA’s Landsat, SeaWiFS, Terra, Aqua, TRMM, TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 

satellites; and various commercial ventures. Examples of global in-situ systems 

include the Argo buoys, and the U.S. contribution of drifting buoys. Global 

systems that combine in-situ and satellite assets include NOAA’s contribution to 

Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) and the U.S. Climate Observation 

Program. National in-situ systems include NOAA’s National Data Buoy Center 

(NDBC) networks of weather buoys and land-based measurement stations, 

National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON), Physical Operational RealTime System (PORTS), and NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System (NEOS); 

EPA’s National Coastal Assessment Program and National Estuary Program; 

and the USGS stream gauge network. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Observation systems for ocean resources must be continually maintained and 

improved. There are still many significant gaps, whether in instrumentation, 

temporal and spatial coverage, baseline data and models, communications 

networks, and decision-support tools. These have been identified in IOOS and 

Global Ocean Observing System reports and are provided in detail in the GEO 

Technical Report. Key areas for observational capacity building are deploying 

enhanced sensor packages that are more precise and accurate, are automated, 

and require less maintenance. Target areas for improvement are biogeochemical 

measurements, remotely-sensed technologies including remotely-operated 

vehicles, small automated free flyers, and/or modeling to increase the 

observational network capacity. Other major gaps include: 
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Remote-sensing measurements:

Better procedures for calibrating and representing data in coastal waters

Precise sea surface height and surface vector wind measurements

Finer scale resolution sensors for sea surface temperature, salinity, winds, 

ocean color 

Continuity in ocean color, winds and sea surface height measurements

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats (intertidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Need to acquire ocean color imagery (multi- and hyperspectral) of coastal 

areas at sufficient frequency and optical resolution to identify and analyze 

changes in the spatial distribution and extent of coastal and near-shore 

habitats

Integration of in-situ measurements with remotely-sensed observations

Ship-based measurements: 

More ship-based measurements of temperature and salinity profiles (need 

to equip more ships of opportunity)

Better determination of global fluxes of heat, fresh water and carbon (need 

to repeat measurements similar to those from the World Ocean Circulation 

Experiment)

Comprehensive and standardized fisheries and protected species surveys, 

measuring relative abundance from fishery-independent data to improve 

the quality of LMR stock assessments and the understanding of population 

dynamics

Better instrumentation for physical, chemical, geological and biological 

information

Multi-beam sonar measurements to collect detailed bathymetry and habitat 

information, particularly in near-shore and shelf environments, but also in 

watersheds and out to the EEZ

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In-situ measurements:

Long-term, continuous measurements of river flow volume at more sites

More sites for water level measurements 

More frequent sampling of key properties, such as sediment load, nutrient 

concentration and selected chemical contaminants, at more sites

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats (intertidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Expanded coastal network of moored and fixed-platform instruments 

at more locations that measure meteorological variables (including 

atmospheric deposition) and oceanographic properties (physical, chemical, 

biological)

Additional deep ocean observatories and sentinel sites

New remote-sensing/AUV technologies/techniques to obtain fisherydependent and fishery-independent data

Innovative and cost effective techniques to eliminate the need for manual 

sampling, photography, etc.

Standardization of methodologies for biological community sampling

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Currently, evolutionary changes of in-situ measurements of key ocean variables 

are expected, with corresponding changes in data communication and local 

initial data processing (QA/QC checks for example). More accurate and 

comprehensive remote-sensing of key variables in coastal regions is expected 

in the next generation of U.S. satellites (GOES-R, NPOESS), aircraft, ships and 

AUVs.

National and international partnerships involving ocean resource data will be 

key to addressing ocean observation gaps. U.S. Federal agencies and the 

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U.S. ocean research community have played lead roles in development of the 

IOOS and GOOS, global and basin scale satellite systems and the development 

and implementation of international research programs of global scope, 

including WOCE, JGOFS, TOGA, CLIVAR, SOLAS, CEOS, and IMBER. These 

efforts do much to lay the foundations for the partnering required to achieve 

the necessary coverage of the global ocean and of coastal waters regions. 

These ties will need to be continued and strengthened. Strengthening and 

formalization of critical international partnerships is also needed, so that global 

coverage and open access to all nations’ ocean data are assured.

Because there are many gaps and limited resources, comprehensive analysis 

and planning is needed to determine the location and attributes of existing and 

planned observing systems, and where to fill gaps for the greatest benefit. In 

the interim, maintaining existing systems and integrating data that are currently 

available into standardized formats, will provide users rapid and easy data 

access. Developing new products that combine available data sets are also 

high priority actions to consider. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth 

observations in the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean Resources area, as well 

as for a list of references, please see the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean 

Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.

gov.
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Section 4: Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, And Adapt To 

Climate Variability And Change

1. The State of Earth Observations for Climate

Several new Earth observing satellites, suborbital systems, surface networks, 

reference sites, and process studies are now producing unprecedented highquality data that have led to major new insights about the Earth-climate system. 

The United States is now contributing to the development and operation 

of several global observing systems which collectively attempt to combine 

the data streams from both research and operational observing platforms 

to provide for a comprehensive measure of climate system variability and 

climate change processes. These systems provide a baseline Earth observing 

system and include: Earth observing satellites; the global component of the 

Integrated Ocean Observing System; the Global Climate Observing System 

(GCOS) sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization; the Global 

Ocean Observing System sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic 

Commission; and the Global Terrestrial Observing System sponsored by the 

Food and Agriculture Organization. Coordination of Federal acquisition of 

climate information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing 

activity of Federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science 

Program (CCSP) and the Climate Change Technology Program (CCTP), under 

the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) of the National 

Science and Technology Council (NSTC).

Earth observations are urgently needed by Earth system models. Earth 

observation models are scientists’ primary tools for: (1) integration of 

observations into a comprehensive analysis of the climate system; (2) 
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forecasting of the climate system on multiple 

time/space scales; and (3) simulation of the 

impact of a particular gap or enhancement 

of GEOSS. Existing Earth system models (for 

example, from GFDL, NSIPP, GMAO, NCAR, 

NCEP, and those of our international partners) 

are now transitioning to an improved architecture, 

the Earth System Modeling Framework (see 

http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/), that will enable improved 

incorporation of new observations, comparison 

of multiple models, and testing and validation of 

new approaches to climate modeling. 

Required observed variables include benchmark large-scale climate 

observations such as the total radiative energy output from the Sun that drives 

the Earth’s climate system, the Earth’s global average surface temperature, 

the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and other atmospheric constituents, as 

well as climate variables such as precipitation, land use, and land cover, that 

undergo regional and local changes that have significant environmental and 

human impacts. In order to meet climate requirements, monitoring systems 

for climate must adhere to the 10 GCOS climate monitoring principles listed in 

the CCSP Strategic Plan. For satellite systems, CCSP specifies an additional 10 

principles to ensure that observations meet the required stringent standards of 

calibration and sampling necessary for useful climate applications. 

Another critical challenge is to maintain current observing capabilities that 

already exist in each of these areas. For example, maintenance of the 

Climatic Functional Requirements:

Improved knowledge of Earth’s past and present 

climate, including natural variability, and 

understanding of causes of observed variability and 

change

Climate system variables that specify the state, 

forcings, and feedbacks

Reduced uncertainty in Earth’s climate change 

forecasts

Integrated observations from operational and 

research observing systems

Better understanding of the sensitivity and 

adaptability of natural and managed ecosystems 

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observational record of stratospheric ozone is essential so that the effects of 

climate change on the nature and timing of expected ozone recovery can be 

discerned. Other key variables requiring maintenance include radiative energy 

fluxes of the Sun and Earth, atmospheric carbon dioxide, and global surface 

temperature. Since the value of existing climate datasets greatly increases as the 

record is extended in time, it is imperative that existing observing capabilities 

be maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are 

incorporated.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

A system that integrates atmospheric, oceanographic, terrestrial, cryospheric 

and cross-cutting observations does not currently exist, per se. However, many 

components are available. For example, GCOS is a fairly well documented 

but not completely implemented international approach that has a process 

to identify climate requirements. GCOS is intended to provide a focused set 

of observations from a subset of established measurement sites that are 

considered to have sufficient climate history and spatial distribution. The system 

discussed here, however, goes beyond GCOS. The CCSP has expanded the 

initial inventory of important climate observations to encompass the needs of 

research and applications related to the global cycles of carbon, water, energy, 

and biogeochemical constituents; atmospheric composition; and changes in 

land use. 

A current inventory of U.S. systems contributing to global climate observing, 

and related to the atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial climate subsystems, can 
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be found in the U.S. Detailed National Report on Systematic Observations for 

Climate.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

The GCOS list of essential climate variables can be found in the GCOS Second 

Adequacy Report, April 2003. This set of required observables provides 

an excellent baseline, but will clearly need to be augmented. For example, 

incoming solar irradiance is listed, but also needed are in-situ measurements of 

profiles of radiative fluxes in the atmosphere. Additional extensions are needed 

for atmosphere, ocean and terrestrial variables. A process for updating these 

variables needs to be established as we learn more about the Earth’s climatic 

system. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

GCOS, in consultation with its partners, is developing an implementation plan, 

if fully implemented, will provide most of the observations of essential climate 

variables detailed in the GCOS Second Adequacy Report. As the U.S. plan 

for climate observations moves forward, it should strive to build on the GCOS 

Implementation plan (Implementation Plan for the Global Observing System 

for Climate in Support of the UNFCCC, GCOS-92, WMO/TD 1219, 136pp.) by 

addressing the following elements over the near-term (2-4 years), mid-term (4-7 

years), and long-term (7-10 years). 

Maintenance and Standards A high priority is to maintain and extend the records 

of key climate variables such as global carbon dioxide, ozone, temperature, and 

other essential climate variables now being monitored by current systems. The 
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climate quality of these records must be assured by adherence to the GCOS 

climate monitoring principles, as extended by the CCSP Strategic Plan to cover 

satellite systems. 

Modeling and Integration Continued development and improvement in 

climate analyses and periodic reanalysis is required for integration of climate 

observations. Continued development of ensemble forecasting for climate is 

needed for applying and evaluating observations, and for better definition of 

requirements for future observations.

A detailed phase-in plan will be needed to provide efficient integrated 

implementation, to address all climate change challenge themes within realistic 

budget constraints, and to take advantage where possible of governmental and 

non-governmental partnerships. 

Near-term (2-4 years): 

Land/Ecosystems/Human Dimensions Improve monitoring, measuring, 

and mapping of land use and land cover, and the management of these data; 

determine cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and how these nutrients interact 

with the carbon cycle; move forward on plans to transition Landsat-type data 

collection to an operational platform.

Polar/Feedback Enhance capacity to observe land and sea ice parameters 

including ice thickness; develop continuous high-resolution altimetry over the 

ice sheets, and SAR capability to monitor glacial advance/decline; improve 

resolution of global gravity measurements; integrate modeling of global climate 

and glaciers/ice sheets.

Aerosol Reduce uncertainties in the changing aerosol radiative forcing of 

climate. This requires reduced uncertainty in the sources and sinks of aerosols 

and their precursors, in aerosol solar absorption, and in aerosol effects on cloud 

radiative fluxes and precipitation. Direct observations of aerosol physical and 

chemical properties and their interaction with clouds and precipitation are 
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urgently needed to estimate the aerosol forcing directly from observations and 

to improve model treatments of aerosol forcing. 

Water Planned satellite measurements and focused field studies to better 

characterize water vapor in the climate-critical area of the tropical tropopause 

(the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere)

Carbon Determine North American and oceanic carbon sources and sinks; 

the impact of land-use change and resource management practices on carbon 

sources and sinks; secure the measurements needed for the North American 

Carbon Program; enhance the ocean carbon observing network.

Mid-Term (4-7 years): 

Water Improve accuracy and global diurnal sampling of precipitation and water 

vapor to identify trends in the frequency, intensity, and duration of the water 

cycle; improved global/regional ocean and terrestrial observing systems and 

data exchange; improved technology (satellites and in situ, including suborbital, 

surface, and sub-surface) to measure soil moisture and evapotranspiration; 

improved observations and modeling of water vapor-cloud-climate-radiation 

feedback processes; closure of terrestrial hydrological budgets; impacts 

of climate change on the global/regional water cycle; and studies related to 

physical, biological, and socioeconomic processes to facilitate efficient water 

resources management.

Radiation Budget Provide for continuity of solar and Earth-emitted radiation 

budget observations at the top-of-atmosphere and surface, to continue the 

satellite record that began with Nimbus-7 in 1978, continues with current 

Earth Observing System platforms, and is planned to be extended by NPOESS 

satellite missions beginning after 2010. Equally important is to maintain the 

related network of surface stations such as the Baseline Surface Radiation and 

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement sites, and the USDA UVB Monitoring and 

Research Network. In addition, improve the accuracy and stability of current 

radiometers and better characterize the existing historical record of radiation 

budget measurements. 
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Long-term (7-10 years):

Temperature Reducing uncertainties in the evaluation of temperature trends 

will require: (1) implementing an improved climate monitoring system designed 

to ensure the continuity and quality of critically needed measurements of 

temperature, and concentrations of aerosols and trace gases: and (2) making 

raw and processed atmospheric measurements accessible in a form that enables 

a number of different groups to replicate and experiment with the processing 

of the more widely disseminated data sets such as the Microwave Sounder Unit 

(MSU) tropospheric temperature record. Multiple independent atmospheric 

sounding systems (for example,, microwave, infrared, and GPS occultation) will 

produce atmospheric temperature and water vapor fields that are more accurate 

and reliable than any one sounding system by itself.

Paleoclimate Enhance and where possible regularly update paleoclimate 

observations and data management systems to generate a comprehensive set 

of variables needed for climate change research; enhance tree ring, coral and 

ocean core records. Gaps in paleoclimate observations can be better addressed 

by enhancements in: (1) 500-2000 year long coral records to reproduce 

temperature and salinity in the tropical oceans; (2) high sedimentation rate deep 

sea cores; and (3) marine geochemical proxy records of temperature trends for 

the past 2,000 years using corals, mollusks, and marine sediments from around 

the globe.

An area requiring future development is the ability to not only track climate 

anomalies but also to attribute them on multiple time scales to: (1) external 

forcings (solar, volcanoes, atmospheric composition); (2) internal forcings (for 

example, El Niño Southern Oscillation, Sea Surface Temperatures and ocean 

heat content, soil moisture anomalies, state of vegetation, and sea ice); and (3) 

natural variability (essentially unpredictable).

Analysis and planning is envisioned as a major part of these activities, 

so as to maintain and advance existing systems and address gaps in 
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observations. Creation of new systems will involve the requirements of 

users, and the need for access to data and results in a timely fashion. The 

development of decision support tools will help the diverse user community 

understand results. A feedback loop between users and system developers will 

further optimize observations and the utility of support tools.

Climate observations need to be taken in ways that satisfy the climate 

monitoring principles and ensure long-term continuity and ability to discern 

small but persistent signals. The health of the monitoring system must be 

tracked and resources identified to fix problems. Satellite observations must 

be calibrated and validated, with orbital decay and drift effects fully dealt with, 

and adequate overlap to ensure continuity. Reanalysis of the records must be 

institutionalized along with continual assessment of impacts of new observing 

and analysis systems. Such an end-to-end Earth information system will be 

key to the success of the U.S. effort in supporting the GEOSS over the next 10 

years. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Climatic 

Variability area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Climatic 

Variability Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 5: Support Sustainable Agriculture And Forestry, And 

Combat Land Degradation

1. The State of Earth Observations for Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and 

Combating Land Degradation

The state of agriculture and forestry observations continues to mature, as 

technology provides us with more tools to monitor ground cover. Partnerships 

exist between private land managers, Federal agencies, Conservation 
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Districts, Resource Conservation and Development 

Councils, state and local conservations agencies and 

organizations, non-governmental organizations, state, 

local and tribal governments, rural communities, 

businesses, universities and others. Cooperation 

among these organizations is increasing agricultural 

productivity and efficiency, conserving natural 

resources, improving the environment, and enhancing 

quality of life for rural areas.

However, we are realizing the weaknesses of Earth observations from nonintegrated, stand-alone observations. Creating useful information out of 

disparate databases is extremely time consuming, and is therefore often 

ignored. Inferences based upon one source of data can prove misleading to 

decision makers. Integrating various key measurements of the ecosystem will 

provide a truer perception of the actual environment, leading to better decisions 

on how to manage our scare resources.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems for monitoring agriculture, forestry and land cover exist on 

a variety of scales. Some of the observations currently being used include:

Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and 

Combating Land Degradation Functional 

Requirements:

Land Cover Assessment 

Change Detection 

Soil Moisture Content 

Species Composition Surveys

Linking Observations Across Different Scales

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Land cover and land use within, and surrounding, a particular landscape 

or ecosystem: the required detail for meeting program objectives ranges 

from highly specific (crop type, species, plant community, etc.) to 

general (agricultural, forested, urban, etc.). Definitions of land cover 

vary by application and by spatial resolution, as do requirements for 

accuracy. Imagery ranging from panchromatic aerial photography to coarse 

resolution multispectral satellite data are used for land cover and land use 

analysis. 

Change in land cover, and plant, and animal species composition: it is 

important to assess short term changes, such as within a growing season, 

and long term ranging, from years to decades or more.

Field data in the form of animal specimen locality records and vegetation 

plots are used for modeling habitat distribution, and calibrating 

remotely-sensed spatial data, as well as for validation and accuracy 

assessment. Field data for operational purposes are frequently the most 

expensive to acquire. 

Topography in the form of a digital elevation map (DEM): This is commonly 

used as an element of base maps. Accuracy requirements range from 

sub-meter to tens of meters. Photogrammetric methods still dominate 

acquisition. RADAR, LIDAR and kinematic GPS are increasingly used 

and may replace photogrammetric methods. Watershed boundaries are 

especially important to producers, land managers, and governmental 

programs focused on soil and water quality issues. 

Soil series maps and USGS 1:24,000 scale maps depicting waterways, 

and cultural features, etc. are common sources of base maps for many 

applications. Use extends beyond suitability for planting to susceptibility to 

erosion, construction of infrastructure including access routes, etc.

Long-term data for change detection, calibration of algorithms, and species 

inventory: There is a need to continue converting historical imagery, maps, 

field notes, and data sheets to digital form. 

Development of infrastructure for land use planning: Highways, pipelines, 

and train routes require detailed surveys for optimal placement to minimize 

land degradation while maximizing efficient transportation.

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A tool commonly used is the Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS 

is employed as a tool during data collection, as a common platform 

for assimilating data from multiple sources, conducting analysis, and 

communicating information. Data and information are communicated via tables 

( statistics) and maps. Digital maps from a GIS can be used to drive variablerate within-field planting, irrigation, and agrochemical applications. 

Land observation needs range from sub-landscape to global. The time scales 

range from hourly to decades. Applications now demand more accurate and 

finer scale information as the intensity of land use increases and expands into 

less resilient soils, and less favorable climatic conditions. Industry needs are 

primarily for higher spatial and temporal resolution. Higher spatial resolution 

is also particularly important for many international users. Small cultivation 

areas and different cultivation practices of many regions of the world often 

make it difficult to ascertain what parts of a landscape are under cultivation by 

developing countries.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

A few of the omissions in the realm of land observations are either because a 

sensor has not been developed, or because deployment of a particular sensor 

is limited. This limitation could be due to cost, data archiving problems, or 

socio/political reasons. Here is a list of a few omissions we currently have in the 

land observation realm:
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A general lack of appropriate spectral resolution measurements by both in 

situ and remote-sensing devices. For example, hyperspectral measurements 

increase the observed parameters of a given subject from less than 20 

bands to over 100 bands. Each band can then be a useful criterion to help 

discriminate individual objects, be it vegetation, soil types or man-made 

surfaces.

Lack of sufficient in-situ sensors spatially and temporally. Currently there 

are large gaps in both physical area and in frequency of measurement for 

many essential parameters. Examples are soil moisture, precipitation, and 

air quality. Our current systems attempt to mitigate these losses using 

techniques such as kriging (a geostatistical approach to modeling), but 

extrapolations of conditions based on a few readings is not as accurate as 

many in situ measurements 

There is a need to move some of the current sensor systems in use today 

from a research status to an operational status. This is necessary to 

ensure continuity of experimental observations that have been proven to 

provide critically important information. Some of the sensors used today 

are actually research sensors, with no identified follow-on system or even 

maintenance of the existing system. 

Weather and climate-related observations, such as incoming solar radiation 

and CO2 flux, used in models ranging from local to global in scope, are 

spatially sparse. The measurements are becoming increasingly important 

globally, and the demand for better modeling means more observations.

Computer modeling of various Earth processes continues to be refined. 

Validation of these complex models will need sensors with increasing 

resolution and density to substantiate or refute current theories.

Site-specific observations are often required due to the complexities of 

certain ecosystems. Optimization and validation of models for these specific 

locations is critical. Interdisciplinary teams will be required to develop the 

technologies for efficient and reliable assessments of these areas.

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Data distribution will be one of the most challenging tasks to overcome. As 

the increased sensor capacities increase the volume of data collected, it will 

be even harder to obtain data in a quick and reliable way. How to protect 

and insure the integrity of the data over time is also a huge challenge.

Development of convenient and accurate decision support systems that 

autonomously collate this raw data and process it into useful information 

is another gap that needs to be closed. Only then can we truly understand 

what the data are telling us. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Currently our existing baseline observations systems are being enhanced in 

resolution and in spectral discrimination, mainly due to technology advances. 

This is true for our operational systems, such as the GOES weather satellites. 

There have been other satellite missions recently launched, such as NASA’s 

Terra Program which are able to perform such functions as surface temperature 

readings day and night, vegetation indices corrected for atmosphere, soil, 

and directional effects, and aerosol properties defined as optical thickness, 

particle size, and mass loading. There is increased recognition of the value 

of automated in situ systems for observing the processes and state of land, 

water, and air resources. As the sophistication and reliability of systems such 

as micrometeorological stations, soil moisture and temperature sensors, and 

sunphotometers increase, the costs have come down. This provides greater 

opportunities to increase spatial and temporal coverage.

Mechanisms for data delivery of observations from systems to users will be 

the extremely challenging. Questions as to the long-term storage of data, who 

has responsibility for data recovery, and how reliable feedback loops for data 

quality all must be answered. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth 

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observations in the Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land 

Degradation area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Sustainable 

Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land Degradation Reference 

Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 6: Understand The Effect Of Environmental Factors On 

Human Health And Well-being

1. The State of Earth Observations for Human Health and Well-Being

Observations providing information for human health and well-being are 

essential for human life, economic growth to support life, and to foster methods 

to assure the vitality of ecosystems that support life. From a social and 

economic perspective, observations to generate information for human uses, 

such as sustainable development, industry, agriculture, water quality and waste 

disposal, air quality, and the protection of human and ecosystem health, are 

critical. With continued growth in human population and associated resource 

use, the need for enhanced observations, information, tools and models, 

and decision support systems to inform decision-makers and the public is 

paramount.

The Human Health and Well-Being discipline is on the cusp of having a 

number of opportunities coming into place to advance this societal benefit. The 

future is bright and a number of opportunities are suggested below and in the 

associated technical reference document. Examples of these opportunities 

include the air quality field, where AirNow/AQI predictions are carried in daily 

papers. In addition, opportunities are emerging to deal with such air and water 
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quality issues as asthma, water quality for 

recreational swimming and harmful algal blooms.

Monitoring of the global availability, use, and 

cost of resources, as well as their influences 

on human health and the environment, is an 

important requirement for developing sound 

decisions. Observation and analysis of consumption 

and supply through the integration of technologies 

and sustainable design techniques is increasingly important for managing 

resources and decision-making that influences human health and well-being.

These parameters of interest vary geographically, making local and regional 

monitoring critical. Future growth of the world’s economies will depend on 

sustained, secure, and reasonably priced resources, as well as accurate 

forecasts of needs. Improved forecasting can help reduce costs of many 

activities. For example, it is known that the use of improved weather forecasting 

accuracy is critical for food production and its timely, safe and cost effective 

transport to people.

The beneficiaries of improved monitoring, information, and decision support 

systems will be society as a whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of 

existing systems, and identify gaps and future needs, we first must understand 

who the critical users are, and identify their needs. 

The observing systems, data systems, associated tools, and the community of 

users of the information will constitute the components of an Earth information 

system, which is the end goal of the GEOSS. The observing systems must be 

Human Health and Well-Being Functional 

Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of 

observations

Observations of environmental elements not 

presently observed

Issue-specific observations, especially those 

related to air and water quality

Long-term, sustained observations of ground 

cover, and air and water quality

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linked to an integrated data system that provides full and open access, which in 

turn links to tools that support the generation and access to information needed 

by the health community including researchers, service providers, and policy 

makers.

Users of data and information include government agencies, industry, 

universities, public institutions, non-governmental organizations, and the 

public. Applications include research and operations, policy for adaptation 

and mitigation, as well as decision making by businesses, organizations, 

and individuals, applied in local, regional, national, and international 

contexts. Coordination of Federal acquisition of information and support for 

applications is an ongoing activity.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Several new Earth observing satellites, airborne or suborbital systems, in-situ

or surface networks, reference sites, and process studies are now producing 

unprecedented high quality data that have or will lead to new insights about 

human health and well-being.

A number of groups collectively attempt to combine the data streams from 

both research and operational observing levels or platforms to provide for a 

comprehensive measure of variability and change processes. These systems 

provide baseline Earth observations and they include NIH, EPA, CDC, NASA, 

NOAA, USGS, USDA, and others employing ground level, airborne or mobile 

level, and Earth observing satellites in a variety of system-integrated programs 

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A critical challenge is to maintain and operate current observing capabilities that 

already exist. For example, maintenance of observational records at all levels 

is essential so that the effects of change in, say, air quality and drinking water 

quality can be discerned. Other key variables requiring maintenance include, 

for example, measures of disease, population characteristics, food production 

and distribution. Since the value of existing datasets greatly increases as 

the record is extended in time, it is imperative that existing capabilities be 

maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are 

incorporated.

Due to the multiple factors involved, scientists from different disciplines 

have been or may be called upon to work together. To create an integrated 

observation system for both environmental and health research, management, 

and decision-making communities, partnerships are essential. Strong 

partnerships help ensure that the appropriate data sets are collected, integrated, 

interpreted, and used properly. It will be critical to develop a system of 

collaborative partnerships among agencies, state and regional governments, 

tribal nations, and the public to create a useable system. Additionally, Federal 

agencies and partners must encourage consistent practices, interoperability, 

and information sharing among state and local agencies that gather data. 

Examples of existing partnerships include: NOAA/NWS provides weather 

forecasts to CDC staff who are involved in research on the effects of heat waves 

and in working with State and Local officials to prevent heat-related morbidity 

and mortality. Similarly, HHS and FEMA for their disaster preparedness and 

response roles rely on NOAA/NWS to predict the location and severity of 

extreme weather events. NIAID and NASA have an interagency agreement to 

support training for African scientists in the use of new technologies for the 
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control of malaria, to determine if remotely-sensed information could be used to 

develop predictive models for risk of malaria transmission. 

Bacterial contamination is monitored by local public health agencies. 

NOAA, EPA and other Federal agencies assist by providing updated 

methodologies. National databases on bacterial contamination are updated 

by collecting data from state agencies that, in turn, collect it from the local 

agencies that made the measurements. The USGS National Biological 

Information Infrastructure (NBII), which is composed of multiple sector 

partnerships (Federal, state, and local agencies; universities; private industries, 

and non-governmental organizations), provides increased access to biological 

data and information on our nation’s plants, animals, and ecosystems to 

a variety of audiences including researchers, natural resource and health 

managers, decision-makers, and the public.

Environmental monitoring that crosses national borders is often best 

coordinated by the appropriate organizations. For example, the international 

aspects of bacterial water quality monitoring are best handled through the 

World Health Organization or, in the Americas, through the Pan American 

Health Organization. New partners from the remote-sensing and environmental 

community could provide useful contributions to those monitoring activities.

Application of enhanced in-situ and remote-sensing data and techniques 

to air quality evaluations is very promising, and a potential area for early, 

demonstrable results. Efforts like the State of New York GRID air quality 

forecasting system, a joint effort between the State, EPA and NOAA, should be 

encouraged to demonstrate the promise of forecasting conditions for the public 

and decision-makers, but also track the results to see if forecasting produces 
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improved air quality by people and governments making decisions that reduce 

pollution.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

It is necessary to enable the easy transfer of environmental information to 

researchers, response communities, and decision makers. Thus, it is important 

to develop user-friendly systems for quick access to Earth science data for 

applications in human health and well-being. However, many factors have 

hindered the use of space- and ground-based data for health applications. 

Some of the most important are:

Lack of appropriate spatial, temporal and spectral resolution measurements 

by the current ground or in-situ and satellite sensors. 

Lack of good communication and understanding between the data producer 

community and users in the health and environment fields of research.

Absence of continuous temporal and spatial data sets required for the study 

of specific diseases or disorders, including human activity patterns.

Access difficulties to data and value-added products due to differences in 

format, resolution, projection, computer systems and lack of an integrated 

system with generally accepted standards for unified studies.

Insufficient technology transfer methods to move from research to 

operational environments, and need for an information system, enterprise 

architecture, and/or systems of web portals.

Inadequate development of remote-sensing and ground-based methods to 

continuously monitor speciated environmental pollutants or their indicators 

affecting human health.

Lack of ongoing observation systems available for collecting human activity 

or human exposure data. 

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Lack of very high spatial resolution sensors for monitoring mosquitobreeding sites. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Focused efforts are needed to improve technology transfer and development 

of user-friendly tools, indicators, models and decision support systems for 

mass distribution. Effective implementation requires promotion of both public 

and private sector use and dissemination of observation data/products; as 

well as effective technology transfer to extend the combined use of ground or 

surface measures, remote-sensing, and models and decision support systems 

for the needs of decision-makers and the public. This, in turn, requires the 

development of information systems and/or enterprise architectures and 

systems of web portals, all to communicate more efficiently observations, 

information, indicators, models and decision support systems. 

In particular, the combination of in-situ measures and remote-sensing 

data along with GIS, GPS, models, indicators and others are fundamental 

tools. These tools can facilitate the planning, analysis, surveillance and 

intervention in the control and management of infectious diseases outbreaks, 

air and water quality decisions, food security and transportation, and the like. To 

take full advantage of these technologies, it is necessary to be fully integrated to 

benefit the decision-maker and public in timely and cost-effective ways. 

Many infectious diseases are greatly impacted by the weather and by 

patterns of agriculture. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agriculture 

and vegetation cover remains a key need. Improved resolution will assist to 

identify, understand, and predict crop yields and evaluate the scale of potential 

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problems in the food supply and its transportation, such as crop failure and 

famine or unexpectedly high yields that may presage a booming rodent or 

insect population and associated disease risks. 

It is important to note that most research linking environmental exposure to 

the increased prevalence or exacerbation of asthma and allergy is based on 

in-situ measurements in the local environment. The further integration of 

remote observations, models and decision support systems will lead to a better 

understanding of causative conditions and related decision-making. Other 

needs which are being addressed include:

Adequate data archival capabilities to allow for a better understanding of 

the development of chronic diseases and diseases resulting from long-term 

environmental exposures. 

More extensive databases on human activities to integrate with pollutant 

concentrations to estimate exposures, and particularly so for air and water 

quality.

Integration and display of data from multiple scientific disciplines in a 

meaningful way in order to create a successful integrated observation 

system that is useable by members of the environment; human, animal, and 

plant health communities; and by decision makers.

Appropriate spatial and temporal resolution data to relate directly to 

exposure or human health. 

Archive model outputs for use in future health and epidemiological studies 

to determine relationships between environmental exposures and disease.

Continued research on use of genomics in monitoring for environmental 

factors that influence human health and well-being

Current in-situ and remote-sensing technologies offer great potential for 

human health studies. It is important to maintain and enhance existing 

systems. The advent of geostationary sensor systems with improved spatial 

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and spectral resolution would allow study of air, weather, wetland, water and 

related phenomena. Maintenance and enhanced day/night sensing capability 

is important in the UV, visible, near, middle and far infrared, as well as the 

microwave regions. A denser network of air and water quality observations 

would also improve analysis of human health issues. 

The U.S. should also increase capacity for developing country scientists through 

training programs and collaborative research programs. Examples of existing 

programs include the Fogarty International Center at NIH/HHS International 

Research Training in Environmental and Occupational Health Program and its 

Health, Environment and Economic Development Program now operating in 11 

countries. NASA, NOAA, EPA (STAR grants and fellowships), and other Federal 

agencies also have programs for capacity building in related areas. 

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Human 

Health and Well-Being area, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Human Health and Well-Being Reference Document on the IWGEO website at 

http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 7: Develop The Capacity To Make Ecological Forecasts

1. The State of Earth Observations for Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for application to ecosystems and ecological 

forecasting are less mature than for many of the other societal benefits. While a 

number of activities exist, which are based on years of international and national 

collaboration, many more needs are awaiting to be addressed. It is now widely 

recognized that ecosystem forecasting is critical to reducing environmental 
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threats, maintaining a healthy economy, and to 

sustaining a wide range of ecological services 

upon which society depends.

Forecasting species and environmental 

changes represent a formidable challenge, 

in that the basic mathematics and modeling 

approaches for such forecasting are still in 

their infancy. Ecosystem complexity and 

scaling issues increase error and uncertainty in 

forecasting. Ecological forecasting requires the 

acquisition of a wide range of environmental data, depending upon the scale 

(from micro to macro) of the initiative. Most systems will also require extensive 

tools to be developed, or at the very least, enhancements to existing models. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Ecological forecasting is an integral part of many of the goals of the other 

societal themes, and to the associated user communities. These efforts 

are especially related to: (1) terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems, (2) 

understanding, assessing, and mitigating the impacts of climate variability 

and change, (3) identifying options for sustainable agriculture and reversing 

and combating land degradation and desertification, (4) promoting human 

health and well-being, (5) protecting water resources, and (6) understanding, 

monitoring, and preserving biological diversity. 

Many organizations and government agencies need Earth observation data 

and models to forecast changes in important ecological resources and 

Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Functional 

Requirements:

Understand ecosystem composition, structure, and 

function

Monitor status and trends in ecosystem conditions 

and important ecological processes

Develop and improve ecological prediction and 

interpretation tools

Develop and test a comprehensive forecasting 

framework through pilot and case studies

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats 

that are adapted to users’ needs

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processes. These include city, county, and watershed organizations that 

are trying to evaluate smart growth options balanced by the vulnerability of 

ecological resources. There is also a need to evaluate near-term environmental 

conditions, as well as longer-term impacts and degradation. Other users 

will be managers of Federal, state, and tribal lands and waters charged with 

maintaining the viability of these areas and complying with the mandates of 

relevant environmental legislation, such as the Clean Water Act, Endangered 

Species Act, and National Environmental Policy Act.

Currently, there are a number of monitoring programs that collect information on 

biological, physical, and chemical attributes of ecosystems, some of which are 

regional and national in scale. Data from these programs have been used to 

develop, calibrate, apply, and refine ecological models.

One example of a successful and extremely relevant partnership can be found 

in the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) consortium that was 

formed in 1992 between several U.S. Federal agencies in order to share the 

cost of acquiring satellite-based remotely-sensed data for their environmental 

monitoring programs. The MRLC resulted in the National Land Cover Data set 

and other successful programs, including the Coastal Change Analysis Project, 

the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Program and the Gap Analysis 

Project.

Many observation systems are valuable. Radar system measurements are 

used to assess surface roughness, subsidence, three-dimensional aspects of 

vegetation canopies, biomass, and wetland extent. LIDARs represent another 

active sensing technology that holds much promise for the remote detection 

of vegetation structure and complexity, as well as biomass. LIDAR data can 
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provide fine-scale estimates of vegetation canopy structure and elevation 

profiles, which are important input variables in ecological and hydrological 

process models as applied to relatively small areas

Hyperspectral measures are used to detect relatively fine-scale patterns of 

vegetation species distributions and structure, as well as the biochemical 

makeup of vegetation, soil, and surface waters. Some see the possibility of 

developing systems capable of remotely fingerprinting biological phenomena, in 

terms of both taxonomy and condition or health, arising from this technology. 

Airborne digital multi-spectral photography provides vital information on 

vegetation characteristics, stream morphology, coral reef extent, coastline 

characteristics, and many other Earth and marine features and biophysical 

variables at relatively high spectral and spatial resolutions. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Forecasting is fundamental to understanding what needs to be done to 

avoid human and environmental disasters and to promote sustainable 

development. In this regard, forecasting plays an important role in early warning 

and risk assessment. Generally, managers, stakeholders, and decision-makers 

require two types of ecological forecasts: (1) short-term forecasts from 3-24 

months and (2) longer-term forecasts from 5-50 years. Short-term forecasts 

give early warning of events and conditions that might affect key economic 

activities and human safety. These “near-real time” data are also used to 

target areas that need more detailed data collections. Long term forecasts 

are necessary to identify areas of high concern. The data required for these 
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forecasts will come from observations which can typically fall into two general 

classes:

spatially continuous biophysical data derived from remote-sensing and 

other sources

field or site data on specific ecological and hydrologic processes and/or 

state variables

Site-specific data are needed to measure and estimate important ecological 

and hydrologic variables across space and time. These data can then be 

related empirically, via process or mechanistic models, to spatially continuous 

biophysical data. Gaps in data of these sorts can be categorized into six general 

classes: (1) field and site data (in-situ), (2) remotely-sensed and other spatial 

data, (3) modeling, (4) data and system interoperability/data standardization 

and management, (5) technology transfer, and (6) education and capacity 

building gaps. Each of these issues needs to be resolved in order to improve 

and extend our ability to conduct ecological forecasting.

There are also gaps in measurement variables, at a variety of scales that need 

to be addressed to improve ecosystem forecasting across the globe:

vegetation indices, leaf area index, photosynthetically active radiation

evapotranspiration, net photosynthesis and primary productivity

land surface temperature and emissivity, fires and burning biomass

land cover change and vegetation cover conversion, invasive species

snow cover, sea ice cover

ocean chlorophyll concentration, ocean chlorophyll fluorescence, and ocean 

primary productivity, and sea surface temperature

marine and lake organic matter concentrations

cloud characteristics from satellites

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Other specific gaps and recommendations have been identified, here, and in 

other societal benefits areas. They include:

Complete national digital databases on soils and geology at a scale of 

1:100,000.

Acquire in-situ and remotely-sensed data needed to measure status and 

changes in: (1) land cover and land use, (2) net primary land and oceanic 

productivity, (3) carbon balance, and (4) water balance.

Deploy sensors that will measure the canopy structure of vegetation.

Deploy sensors that will measure water quality and temperature for the wide 

range of water bodies across the U.S.

Continued deployment of a SAR satellite platform.

Continued deployment a comparable ocean color sensor.

Digitize existing biological data using NBII taxonomic and other formal data 

standards.

Standardize, convert and integrate existing biological and ecological data to 

easily accessible digital accessible formats.

Extensive research is being conducted at universities and institutes to integrate 

field and remotely-sensed data through development of dynamic, multi-scale 

process models. For example, there is a need for shorter-term forecasting 

(daily to monthly) in a direct sense at the local level where many decisions 

or scenarios are made. These forecasts should account for perturbations 

from large-scale atmospheric and other forcing variables. Current weather 

generators, which are commonly used to provide input to management and 

ecological models, could be improved by including perturbations and resulting 

influences.

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4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Satellite remote-sensing of the Earth’s surface has only been in existence for 

just over 30 years, Archives of photographic imagery (while not contiguous at 

the national level) extend much further back in time to the early 1930s and 

1940s. As such, they provide an invaluable time series for understanding 

landscape changes and associated phenomena. Preservation and digitization 

of these archives and the unique information they hold is of the utmost 

importance.

Although there are a number of deployed Earth observations systems across 

the U.S, including individual site monitoring stations and airborne and satellite 

imagery, lack of interoperability, coordination, and enforcement of Federal 

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) data standards within and among these 

programs prevent optimal use of resulting data and information for ecological 

forecasting. New approaches in data mining and networking should improve 

data integration and modeling to a certain extent, but there are a number of 

issues related to data collection and availability that will limit the success of 

such programs. Certain types and scales of ecological forecasting are possible 

given current data and capabilities, and these are being pursued to fill gaps. 

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Ecosystems 

and Ecological Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see 

the Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO 

website at: http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.
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Section 8: Protect And Monitor Water Resources

1. The State of Earth Observations for Protecting and Monitoring Water Resources

Earth observations for water availability and quality should include 

measurements of the fluxes and storage of water in a watershed and its 

underlying aquifer system; precipitation, streamflow, lake and reservoir 

storage, water quality, evaporation and transpiration, soil moisture, groundwater storage, ground-water recharge and discharge, and withdrawals for 

various uses should all be measured. Snowfall is of particular interest to 

water-resources managers because of the seasonal storage of water in the 

snowpack. Water quality concentrations and loads of various significant natural 

and anthropogenic contaminants must also be measured to determine their 

impact on water availability and on aquatic habitats in freshwater, estuarine, and 

marine environments. Most of these measurements must be made using in 

situ sensors, sampling, and manual measurement techniques, with only some 

available from remote-sensing. Temporal variability and long-term trends in 

these measures of availability must be recorded and 

documented. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observations for monitoring and protecting water 

resources are made by several Federal agencies. The 

observations include monitoring of fluxes and storage 

in the various components of the hydrologic cycle, and 

monitoring of chemical and biological characteristics 

Water Availability and Quality Functional 

Requirements:

Continuity of operations

Continuous, real-time data streams 

Rapid tasking of other data sources

Global coordination of resources

Rapid generation of accurate information and 

forecasts, and

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs

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of water resources. There are some examples of strong coordination and 

collaboration among agencies, but it is currently not possible to go to one single 

source for comprehensive water-resources monitoring information. Notable 

examples of water-resources monitoring programs are described below:

Precipitation Precipitation quantity monitoring is done by NOAA using a 

combination of ground-based observation stations and remote-sensing. The 

stations provide national coverage at a resolution of about 1⁄4 degree of latitude 

and longitude.

Snow NOAA’s National Operational Hydrologic Remote-sensing Center 

(NOHRSC) provides remotely-sensed and modeled hydrology products for the 

conterminous U.S. and Alaska. The national and regional snow analyses provide 

a daily synoptic overview of snow conditions for the conterminous U.S. as well 

as for the 18 U.S. snow regions at a higher resolution. The snow analyses are 

text descriptions of daily snow accumulation based on snow observations and 

modeled snowpack characteristics. NOHRSC provides both the meteorological 

observations of snowfall and snow on the ground as well as the snowfall and 

snow accumulation simulated by the NOHRSC snow model. Additionally, the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture installs, operates, and maintains an extensive, 

automated system called SNOTEL (SNOwpack TELemetry) to collect snowpack 

and related climatic data. The system measures snowpack in the mountains 

of the West and forecasts the water supply. The programs began with manual 

measurements of snow courses; but since 1980, SNOTEL has used telemetered 

data from 600 automated sensors in 11 western states including Alaska.

Precipitation Quality The National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

coordinates an interagency network of 250 precipitation quality monitoring 

stations to monitor the acidity of precipitation as well as other constituents 

such as nitrates, sulfates, and ammonia. Annually the data are disseminated in 

several forms, including national maps.

Streamflow The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates a national network 

of about 7,000 telemetered stream gauges. This network is supported jointly 
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with other Federal, state, and local governments. The number of gauges in the 

network has been declining slightly in recent years as Federal and state budgets 

have become tighter. The database is updated about 8 times per year at each 

station. 

Surface Water Quality There are numerous Federal, regional, state, tribal, 

and local monitoring programs for ambient surface water quality conditions 

and compliance monitoring. Most of these data are input to EPA’s Storage 

and Retrieval (STORET) database. EPA summarizes state and Federal waterquality data biennally in the National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress 

(305(b) report) to inform Congress and the public about general water quality 

conditions in the United States. This document characterizes water quality, 

identifies widespread water quality problems of national significance, and 

describes various programs implemented to restore and protect waters. It 

characterizes water body types (rivers, streams, creeks, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, 

bay, estuaries, coastal waters, oceans, and wetlands) as “good”, “threatened”, 

or “impaired”, based on sampling results submitted by the states. The USGS 

also supports water quality monitoring programs: The National Water Quality 

Assessment (NAWQA) program is a nationwide monitoring and assessment tool 

that includes a network of 6,100 stream-quality monitoring sites. USGS also 

supports a program for modeling surface-water quality, titled SPARROW. This 

program relates in-stream water-quality measurements to spatially referenced 

characteristics of watersheds, including contaminant sources and factors 

influencing terrestrial and stream transport.

Suspended sediment is an important water-quality parameter that is a 

controlling factor for many total maximum daily load allocations, as well as for 

determining the useful lifespan of many dams and reservoirs. The USGS and 

several cooperating agencies have developed a suspended sediment database 

that provides daily concentrations and loads of sediment at many locations 

around the nation, plus ancillary data.

Lake and Reservoir Storage Data on lake and reservoir storage are included 

in the USGS National Water Information System as water-level data. Storage 

data are collected for individual projects by reservoir management agencies, 
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typically using automated SCADA systems, but are not collected and reported 

on a national basis.

Evaporation and Transpiration NOAA collects and disseminates nationwide 

evaporation data based on observations at weather stations equipped with 

evaporation pans. Some excellent academic and government studies of 

evaporation and transpiration are underway. 

Soil Moisture The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service also monitors 

soil moisture as part of their Soil Moisture/Soil Temperature Pilot project (SM/

STPP), and disseminates a limited set of soil moisture data for the U.S. via the 

Soil Climate Analysis Network. NOAA provides soil moisture that is estimated 

by a one-layer hydrological model using observed precipitation and temperature. 

These data are used for nationwide assessment and prediction purposes. A 

more sophisticated soil moisture product is the four-layer soil moisture estimate 

calculated in the Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS), based upon the NOAA 

four-layer land surface model. The North American LDAS is produced in real 

time at NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Prediction, in collaboration 

with NASA and university partners. LDAS will lead to more accurate reanalysis 

and forecast simulations by numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, which 

typically have large errors in stores of soil moisture and energy and in turn, 

degrade the accuracy of forecasts. 

Ground Water Storage The USGS maintains a network of wells to monitor the 

effects of droughts and other climate variability on ground-water levels. The 

network consists of a national network of about 150 wells. Some of these have 

real-time telemetry, some have continuous records obtained periodically during 

field visits, and some have periodic manual measurements.

Drought Monitoring The National Drought Mitigation Center at the University 

of Nebraska, in cooperation with NOAA, USDA, and other agencies, assembles 

drought-related data from many sources and provides them on a single web site. 

There are good efforts underway to extend this drought monitoring to cover all 

of North America. Several data products are provided, along with a combined 

drought monitor map for the U.S.
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Ground Water Quality Monitoring of ground-water quality is spotty. Most 

states have programs for ambient ground-water quality monitoring, but they 

are not coordinated as a national network. The USGS National Water Quality 

Assessment (NAWQA), which includes ground water, has water-quality data 

from 7,000 wells in its data warehouse.

Ground-Water Recharge and Discharge These important components of the 

hydrologic cycle are usually estimated rather than measured directly. Availability 

and reliability of estimates varies greatly among U.S. aquifers. 

Drinking Water The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maintains several 

databases with nationwide information about drinking-water systems. The 

Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS/FED) contains data about 

locations and characteristics of the Nation’s public drinking water systems, and 

about violations of drinking-water standards or protocols. SDWIS/FED stores 

the information EPA monitors for approximately 175,000 public water systems. 

For data on concentrations of contaminants in drinking water, EPA maintains a 

National Contaminant Occurrence Database (NCOD). NCOD provides a library of 

water sample analytical data (or “samples data”) that EPA is currently using and 

has used in the past for analysis, rulemaking, and rule evaluation. The drinking 

water sample data, collected at Public Water Systems, are for both regulated 

and unregulated contaminants. The data have been extensively checked for data 

quality and analyzed for national representative-ness. Within its National Water 

Quality Assessment Program, the USGS maintains a database of water quality 

data from domestic wells. Domestic wells are not regulated by EPA and do not 

contribute data to the EPA databases.

Land Use and Impervious Area Remote-sensing systems such as Landsat and 

MODIS provide spatial information covering certain aspects of land use that are 

of great importance in understanding, protecting, and predicting the quantity 

and quality of our water resources. The measurements include amounts and 

types of crops grown, the extent of irrigated land, the types of best-management 

practices employed to protect watersheds, various practices related to forestry, 

mining, grazing, and urbanization all affect water resources. Of particular 

interest is the extent of impervious or paved area in any given watershed, since 
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

131

impervious area retards infiltration and contributes to quicker runoff and higher 

storm peak flows in streams. 

Wetlands The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monitors wetlands, which are 

an important component of the hydrologic system, both biologically and 

hydrologically. Wetland maps, developed through a combination of remotesensing and ground-truth data, are available in a number of formats. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

An important commonality of all of the surface-water related data mentioned 

above is the association of specific data with a specific section of a stream in a 

network where flow relationships (upstream and downstream) are known. This 

spatial information is the core of the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD), 

a collaboration of EPA and USGS. NHD is a digital depiction of the stream 

reach network of the entire country, with each reach connected to the network 

in such a way that flow relationships are known. In many cases, point data 

mentioned above are associated with individual stream reaches in the NHD. In 

other cases, this association has yet to be made. The NHD is the key to linking 

surface water data with other geospatial coverages important to hydrology, such 

as digital elevation models (which help to describe drainage area boundaries 

and stream slopes), watershed boundaries, land cover and land use, and 

impervious area.

One of the important gaps is the monitoring of lake and reservoir water quality, 

which was formerly coordinated and funded under the Clean Lakes Program. 

Some lake monitoring is encouraged under the implementation of section 

319 of the Clean Water Act by EPA and state and local governments. Other 

areas are monitored by reservoir management agencies such as the Corps of 
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132

Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, the USGS, academic institutions, and 

other entities.

Ground water assessments need enhanced measurements, both in total ground 

water storage levels, and ground water quality. There are many thousands of 

monitoring wells that are measured by a variety of Federal, state, local, and 

tribal agencies, but there is little coordination of the monitoring programs. Most 

states have programs for ambient ground-water quality monitoring, but they are 

not coordinated as a national network. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

The report issued by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy and the U.S. 

Ocean Action Plan recommended the development of a national water quality 

monitoring network. Though a network of this type will require substantial 

coordination and resources, there is strong interest among participating 

agencies such as the USGS, EPA, and NOAA. A framework is being developed 

by the Advisory Committee on Water Information, through its National Water 

Quality Monitoring Council, that will provide a starting point towards the goal 

of a national network for water quality. This network would consist of in-situ

measurements of specific constituents, complemented and supplemented by 

remotely-sensed data, to define the distribution and intensity of hypoxia, seagrass loss, sedimentation, harmful algal blooms and other adverse conditions. 

Soil moisture experiments are underway by the USDA and NASA to monitor 

soil moisture using remote-sensing satellites. Additionally, there is an effort 

underway using NASA’s Aqua satellite and the Japanese ADEOS-II Advanced 

Microwave Scanning Radiometer to develop daily soil moisture products.
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In the field of drought monitoring, NOAA has developed a plan, endorsed by the 

Western Governors Association, for a National Integrated Drought Information 

System that would provide enhanced monitoring capabilities, greater integration 

of data related to droughts, and enhanced forecasting capabilities. For a more 

in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Protecting and Monitoring 

Water Resources arena, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Protecting and Monitoring Water Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO 

website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 9: Monitor And Manage Energy Resources

1. The State of Earth Observations for Monitoring and Managing Energy Resources

Observation systems for energy fall into three broad categories. The first set of 

observations relate to the Nation’s consumption of energy. Energy consumption 

is tied significantly to weather and climate. Extremes of hot and cold weather 

seriously increase our energy consumption. Therefore, weather observations 

and prediction provide a tool for energy management. The second broad 

category is energy exploration. Earth observations are used extensively in 

the search for fossil fuels and are increasingly being 

used in the siting and development of renewable 

energy sources. The third broad category is 

observing the impacts of energy consumption, and 

these observations fall mainly within the realm of 

atmospheric characterization and climate change 

detection. The National Energy Policy outlines policies 

to enhance energy security while reducing greenhouse 

Energy Resources Functional Requirements:

Continuity of operations

Continuous, real-time data streams 

Time scales of hours, days, seasons, years and 

decades

Geographic scales including point source, 

regional, and global scale

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs

›

›

›

›

›
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gas emissions and recommends aggressively developing alternative fuels and 

hydrogen, advancing carbon sequestration technologies, and promoting energy 

efficiency and renewable energy. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems are currently useful for detecting the consequences 

of energy consumption, for determining the availability of traditional energy 

resources, and for applicability of alternative energy sources and technologies. 

Responsibility for the operation of the currently deployed observing systems is 

summarized below, beginning with the most mature efforts:

Energy Supply, Consumption and End-Use Technologies Measurement and 

monitoring systems provide the capability to evaluate the efficacy of efforts 

to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the use of: (1) low-emission 

fossil-based power systems; (2) energy supply technologies that are reportedly 

greenhouse gas-neutral, such as biomass energy systems, geothermal, and 

other renewable energy technologies; and (3) end-use technologies for greater 

efficiencies. Observations needed to successfully fulfill these needs are: 

climate measurements, physical properties of Earth materials, meteorological 

measurements, hydrologic measurements, high-temperature sensors for 

emissions, fast-response mass spectrometry, continuous emissions monitors, 

and remote-sensing of emissions.

Energy Exploration and Development Both satellite and in situ observations 

are used to identify patterns in geology, hydrology, and biology to aid in the 

location of favorable Earth habitats for fossil fuel occurrences or potential sites 

for renewable energy installations. Observations needs are geologic materials and 

structures, spectral reflectance thematic mapping of Earth surface materials, 

vegetation composition and patterns, and hydrologic flows and patterns.
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Measurement and Monitoring of Greenhouse Gases This includes 

observations that: (1) provide inventories, concentrations and cross-boundary 

fluxes of CO2 and other greenhouse compounds, including the size and variability 

of the fluxes; (2) provide data for determining the efficacy and durability of 

particular mitigation technologies or other actions, and for verifying and 

validating results; (3) provide data to evaluate the role of various technologies 

and strategies for mitigation by quantifying anthropogenic changes in sources 

and sinks of greenhouse gases; (4) provide data to identify opportunities 

and guide research investments in carbon markets; and (5) provide data to 

assess relationships among changes in greenhouse gas emissions, fluxes and 

inventories due to changes in surrounding environments. Observations required 

are atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and co-emitted species, atmospheric CO2

isotopic composition, eddy covariance measurements of CO2 fluxes between land 

surface and atmosphere, forest biomass inventories, fossil fuels consumption 

records, remote-sensing, static and dynamic chambers. Observations besides 

CO2 are atmospheric isotopic composition, eddy covariance measurements of 

fluxes between surface and atmosphere, forest biomass inventories, fossil fuels 

consumption records, and activity data (for example, cattle number and type, 

fertilizer mass use, landfill inputs, population for waste disposal).

Measurement and Monitoring of Carbon Storage and Sequestration Methods 

used to measure and monitor terrestrial sequestration of carbon address 

both the capture and retention of carbon in components of ecosystems. The 

measurements are used to evaluate net sequestration, greenhouse gas 

emissions that might occur from management practices and other environmental 

factors. Observations required are the soil carbon and nitrogen content, soil 

moisture content, standing biomass, atmospheric exchange of greenhouse 

gases, soil erosion, vegetation characterization, and soil survey.

Active Geothermal Energy Systems Measurements are used to identify 

solid Earth formation and rock constituents likely associated with geothermal 

power sources. Observations needed are the land surface/land cover, soil 

characterization, soil moisture, topography, strain monitoring, high resolution 

measurements of gravity and electric fields, physical properties of Earth 

materials, thermal emissions, water chemistry, and water discharges.
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Renewable Energy Optimization Systems Renewable energy technologies 

include solar, wind and hydrological power. Estimating resources requires 

climatological information such as the duration of sunshine and solar elevation 

of an area, the cloudiness, the wind fields and the precipitation. Hydrological 

power also requires information about the water shed basin that drains into the 

river which is subsequently dammed for power production. Observations required 

in this area are meteorological measurements, cloud cover, solar radiation, 

precipitation, and hydrologic measurements.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Several areas identified for consideration in future portfolio planning for energy 

supply and consumption that deserve new or increased emphasis. These 

include: Improvements in performance, longevity, autonomy, spatial resolution 

of measurements, and data transmission of CEMs, along with the ability to 

measure multiple gases over broad geographic areas. More thorough process 

knowledge and life-cycle analysis are needed. Tower-mounted sensors, aircraft 

and satellite-based sensors for direct measurement of CO2 and other gases 

or indicators, tracers, and isotopic ratios would be beneficial. There is a need 

for low cost, multiple wireless micro-sensor networks to monitor migration, 

uptake, and distribution patterns of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in soil, 

forests, vehicles, and facilities. Data protocols and analytical methods for 

producing and archiving specific types of data to enable interoperability and 

long-term maintenance of data records, data production models, and emission 

coefficients that are used in estimating emissions require further development. 

Direct measurements are needed to replace proxies and estimates when direct 

measurements are more cost-effective in optimizing emissions and in better 

understanding the processes behind the formation of greenhouse gases.
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Improvements are needed in the measurement and monitoring of Greenhouse 

Gases to include: techniques for measuring soil respiration and nocturnal fluxes, 

observations of land management, land cover and change, biomass burning, 

and deforestation. Measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes, observations of 

in-situ CH4 oxidation, and process level models of N2O production and indirect 

N2O emissions are required on a global basis to fully understand impacts 

of land use/land cover and change. Additional research is also needed to 

effectively interpret observations. Development and testing of process-level 

models, linking between measurement and remotely-sensed observations, will 

all need to have global observations for validity.

Research topics identified for consideration in future research and development 

portfolio planning are categorized as follows: national implementation of a 

hierarchical system to quantify stocks, emissions, and sinks of CO2 from the plot 

scale to the national scale; development of imaging and volume measurement 

sensors for land use/cover and biomass estimates; development of low-cost, 

practical methods to measure net carbon gain by ecosystems, and to conduct 

life cycle analysis of wood products; isotope markers to determine the source 

and movement of greenhouse gases in geological, terrestrial, and oceanic 

systems; and new measurement technologies that support novel sequestration 

concepts, such as enhanced mechanisms for CO2 capture from free air, 

new sequestration products resulting from genome sequencing studies, and 

modification of natural biogeochemical processes.

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Partnership for Solar Energy Resource Assessment DOE and NASA have an 

established partnership to assess and improve solar resource mapping. Plans 
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138

are being made for a task to be performed under the International Energy 

Agency involving DOE, NASA and 7 foreign nations (Germany, France, Spain, 

Italy, Portugal, Canada, and Japan). The task is planned to assess existing 

solar resource maps and to establish a criterion for the assessment of future 

predictions of solar resource on several different time scales. For predictions, 

NASA and NOAA will collaborate.

Partnership with Utility Companies Utility companies need to be able to 

predict demand loads with better accuracy. These demand load predictions are 

crucially dependent upon forecasts of weather and other parameters. Improved 

weather parameters will help to improve load forecasts and better anticipate 

peak demands. A partnership between NASA, NOAA and Electric Power 

Research Institute (EPRI) was initiated to accomplish such a task. NASA/NOAA 

will collaborate to provide recent past and forecast data in formats and with 

parameters important to the load forecasting problems. 

Global R&D Satellites such as NASA’s Earth Observation System research 

satellites and NOAA’s operational weather and climate satellites, as well as 

NOAA’s distributed ground network, which includes the Mauna Loa Observatory, 

are currently operational and support data gathering relevant to CCSP and 

CCTP. At present, Landsat 7 and Landsat 5 continue to collect spectral 

reflectance data for land cover and land change observations.

Continental R&D Ongoing research involves estimating net CO2 emissions for the 

North American continent using different approaches: inversion analysis based 

on CO2 monitoring equipment as currently arrayed, remote-sensing coupled with 

ecosystem modeling, and compilation of land inventory information. European 

researchers have embarked on a similar track by combining meteorological 

transport models with time-dependent emission inventories provided by member 

states of the European Union.

Regional R&D Advanced technologies, such as satellites, are monitoring and/

or verifying countries’ anthropogenic and natural emissions. NOAA is building 

an atmospheric carbon monitoring system under the CCSP using small aircraft 
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139

and tall communications towers that will be capable of determining emissions 

and uptake on a 1000 km scale. 

Local (micro or individual) R&D A number of techniques are currently 

used to directly or indirectly estimate emissions from individual sites and/or 

source sectors, such as mass balance techniques, eddy covariance methods 

(for example, at the AmeriFlux sites, where source identification is being 

done using isotope signatures), application of emissions factors derived from 

experimentation, forestry survey methods, and continuous emissions monitors 

in the utility sector. 

In the long term, the envisioned approach is to evaluate data needs and 

pursue the development of an integrated overarching system architecture that 

focuses on the most critical data needs. Common databases would provide 

measurements for models that could determine sources and estimate additions 

to and removals from various greenhouse gas inventories, forecast the longterm fates of various greenhouse gases, and integrate results into relevant 

decision support tools and global-scale monitoring systems. This approach 

would include protocols for calibrated and interoperable (easily exchanged) data 

products, emissions accounting methods development, and coordination with 

basic science research in collaboration with CCSP. Tools would be validated 

by experimentation to benchmark protocols (to quantify the improvements 

that the tools provide), so that they would be recognized and accepted by the 

community-of-practice for emissions-related processes. For a more in-depth 

look at the state of Earth observations in the Monitoring and Managing Energy 

Resources area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Monitoring 

and Managing Energy Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website 

at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.
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140

Summary

The goal of this appendix was to provide an Executive Summary of the 

associated technical reference documents for the nine societal benefit areas. It 

is not intended to be an exhaustive reference, but a link between the vision of 

the Strategic Plan and the state of observations in those areas. The technical 

reference documents are living documents, which will be updated on a regular 

basis with inputs from the Federal scientific community, as well as through 

public workshops and comment. It is hoped that the interested reader will go 

to the website and provide comments on these longer documents in addition to 

commenting on the Strategic Plan. 

Additional technical documents on Architecture, Integration and Data 

Management are being developed by the Federal agencies and will be available 

for review in the near future.

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

142

List Of Acronyms

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observation Satellite

ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

AWRP Aviation Weather Research Program

CCSP Climate Change Science Program

CCTP Climate Change Technology Program

CEMs Continuous Emissions Monitors

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural 

Resources

CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability 

Programme

CrIS Current Research Information System

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DOD Department of Defense

DSS Decision Support System

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

GCOS Global Climate Observing System

GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of 

Systems

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamic Laboratory

GMAO Global Modeling and Assimilation Office

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System

HHS Health and Human Services

IMBER Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and 

Ecosystem Research Project

IOOS Integrated Ocean Observing System

IRIS Incorporated Research Institutions for 

Seismology

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System

IWGEO Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

LDAS Land Data Assimilation Systems

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging

LMR Living Marine Resources

MDCRS Meteorological Data Collection and 

Reporting System

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer

MRLC Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics 

Consortium

MSU Microwave Sounder Unit

NAWQA National Water Quality Assessment 

Program

NASA National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration

NBII National Biological Information 

Infrastructure

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric 

Research
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

143

NCEP National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction

NCOD National Contaminant Occurrence 

Database

NDBC National Data Buoy Center

NEOS NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System

NESDIS NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, 

Data & Information Service

NHD National Hydrography Dataset

NIAID National Institute of Allergy and 

Infectious Diseases

NIEHS National Institute of Environmental 

Health Sciences

NIH National Institutes of Health

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remotesensing Center

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational 

Environmental Satellite System

NSIP NWS Service Improvement Program

NSIPP NASA Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction 

Project

NWLON National Water Level Observation 

Network

NWP Numerical Weather Prediction

NWS NOAA/National Weather Service

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for 

Meteorology

PALSAR Phased Array type L-band Synthetic 

Aperture Radar

PDTs Product Development Teams

POES Polar Operational Environmental Satellite

QuickSCAT NASA’s Quick Scatterometer

SDWIS Safe Drinking Water Information System

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field of view Sensor

SM/STPP Soil Moisture/Soil Temperature Pilot 

Project

SNOTEL Snowpack Telemetry

SOLAS Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study

STIP NWS Science and Technology Infusion 

Plan

STORET EPA’s Storage and Retrieval Database

THORPEX The Hemispheric Observing System 

Research and Predictability Experiment

TOPEX Ocean Topography Experiment

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

UAVs Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAF United States Air Force

USAID/OFDA United States Agency for International 

Development/Office of U.S. Foreign 

Disaster Assistance

USGS United States Geological Survey

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting Model

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

145

APPENDIX 3:

END NOTES

1

 United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Prospects 1950-2050 (The 1996 

Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996).

2

 Bookman, Charles A., Culliton, Thomas J., and Warren, Maureen A., Trends in U.S. Coastal 

Regions, 1970-1998: addendum to the proceedings, Trends and Future Challenges for 

U.S. National ocean and Coastal Policy, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Oceans and Coasts, Special Projects Office, 

Silver Spring, MD, 1999. Also available online at http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/

websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/trends_addendum.pdf.

3

 “The Ozone Report—Measuring Progress Through 2003,” EPA454/K-04-001, April, 2004.

4

 WMO Looks Forward: Fifth WMO Long-term Plan 2000-2009. Summary for decision makers, 

World Meteorological Organization, WMO–No. 909, ISBN 92-63-10909-5, 2000.

5

 Dutton, John A., Opportunities and Priorities in a New Era for Weather and Climate Services,

Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, September 2002, Volume 83, No. 9, pp 

1303-1311.

6

 Weiher, Rodney, ed. Improving El Nino Forecasting: The Potential Economic Benefits, NOAA, 

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997, p. 29, p. 43, for U.S. agriculture and fisheries, 

respectively.

7

 See Appendix 2, for summaries of technical reports on societal benefits areas.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

146

10 van der Vink, G., et al., “Why the United States is Becoming More Vulnerable to Natural 

Disasters,” Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 79, No. 44, November 

3, 1998, pp. 533, 537.

11 See Appendix 2.

12 Ibid.

13 Cicerone, Ralph J., et al., Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions,

National Research Council, 2001, National Academy Press, pp 23, 24.

14 See Appendix 2.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid.

19 Jones, Del, USA Today, “Forecast: 1 degree is worth $1B in power savings,” June 19, 2001.

20 See the GLOBE website at http://www.globe.gov/fsl/welcome.html.

21 The Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996 assigned Agency Chief Information Officers (CIO) with the 

responsibility to develop information technology architectures (ITAs). The Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) M-97-02, Funding Information Systems Investments, 

October 1996, requires that Agency investments in major information systems be 

consistent with Federal, Agency, and Bureau ITAs. The CIO Council began developing 

the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework in April 1998 to promote shared 

development for common Federal processes, interoperability, and sharing of information 

among the Agencies of the Federal Government and other Governmental entities.

22 Statistical Abstract of the United States 2000, p. 38, U.S. Census Bureau

23 See for instance, the Data Management and Communications System in the Integrated 

Ocean Observing System at http://dmac.ocean.us/dacsc/imp_plan.jsp and the National 

Model Access Data System.

24 Tools like Metis and Open Geospatial Data System standards are used to tie together 

existing observation system architecture and related metadata.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

147

25 “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Science and Technology,” NSTC/CENR/SDR, An 

Interim Report of the Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction, July 2003.

26 3rd Assessment Report (2001) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

27 Robinson, Robert A., Alaska Native Villages: Villages Affected by Flooding and Erosion have 

Difficulty Qualifying for Federal Assistance, GAO Testimony before the U.S. Senate 

Committee on Appropriations, GAO-04-895T, June 29, 2004.

28 See: Climate of 2002—May Southwest Region Drought, National Climatic Data Center, June 

17, 2002, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/2002/may/sw0205.html

29 Earth System Modeling Framework, found at http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/

30 “The Ozone Report—Measuring Progress Through 2003,” EPA454/K-04-001, April, 2004.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

148

Photo Credits

ii Snowmelt runoff fills a reservoir in the Rocky Mountains near Dillon, Colorado. Photo by Scott Bauer, 

USDA.

viii A healthy wheat field outside Clay Center, Nebraska. Photo by Stephen Ausmus, USDA.

8 Secretary of State Colin Powell addresses participants at Earth Observation Summit I. Also seated 

at the dais from L-R are NOAA Administrator Conrad Lautenbacher, Energy Secretary Spencer 

Abraham, Commerce Secretary Don Evans, White House Science Advisor John Marburger, Council on 

Environmental Quality Chairman James Connaughton, Republic of the Congo Minister Henri Djombo, 

and Under Secretary of State Paula Dobriansky. Photo provided by NASA.

12 NOAA-12 multi-channel image of Hurricane Bonnie, August 1998. Satellite designed and built by 

NASA and is NOAA operated.

30 Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) buoy servicing aboard NOAA ship, 

HI`IALAKAI. Photo by Stephen Barry, NOAA.

34 SERVIR training workshop at Marshall Space Flight Center. SERVIR is a Regional Monitoring and 

Visualization System for Mesoamerica that intensively utilizes satellite imagery and other data 

sources for environmental management and disaster support. NASA Photo by Emmett Given.

44 NOAA’s National Severe Storm Lab’s first research Doppler Weather Radar. Photo provided by NOAA 

Photo Library, NOAA Central Library; OAR/ERL/National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL).

56 Technician Jeff Nichols collects a water sample from the Walnut Creek watershed in Ames, Iowa. 

Photo by Keith Weller, USDA.

58 Atmospheric Radiation Measurement’s facility at Barrow, AK, is providing data about cloud 

and radiative processes at high latitudes. These data are being used to refine models and 

parameterizations as they relate to the Arctic. Photo provided by DOE’s Photo provided by DOE’s 

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program..

68 Aerographer’s mate launching weather balloon. Official U.S. Navy photo provided by DOD.

141 Analysis Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Mobile Facility site to be deployed at Niamey, 

Niger in 2006 (http://www.arm.gov/acrf). Photo provided by DOE’s Atmospheric Radiation 

Measurement Program.

144 Waves coming in at Port Elliot, Encounter Bay, South Australia. Photo provided by Chris Potter.
Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

149

Co-Chairs

Executive Secretary

National Science and Technology Council Committee on Environment 

& Natural Resources

Members

Kathie L. Olsen

Associate Director for Science

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Executive Office of the President

Paul Gilman*

Assistant Administrator, Office of Research and Development

Environmental Protection Agency

Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr.

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans & Atmosphere

Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Department of Commerce

Donald Prosnitz

Senior Advisor to the Attorney General

Department of Justice

Kathryn Jackson

Executive Vice President

Tennessee Valley Authority

Margaret Leinen

Assistant Director, Geosciences

National Science Foundation

Ken Olden

Director, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Department of Health and Human Services

John Turner

Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International Environmental 

and Scientific Affairs

Department of State

Marcus Peacock

Director for Natural Resource Programs

Office of Management and Budget

Samuel Williamson

Federal Coordinator for Meteorology

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

James Connaughton

Chairman, Council on Environmental Quality

Executive Office of the President

Joseph Jen

Under Secretary for Research, Education & Economics

US Department of Agriculture

Ghassem Asrar

Science Deputy Associate Administrator

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

James Decker

Principal Deputy Director

Office of Science

Department of Energy

Linda Lawson

Transportation Policy Development

Office of the Assistant Secretary for Transportation Policy 

Department of Transportation

Robert Foster

Director, Bio Systems

Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Science & Technology

Department of Defense

Charles “Chip” Groat

Director, US Geological Survey

Department of Interior 

Len Hirsch

Senior Policy Advisor 

Smithsonian Institution

Carla Sullivan

Senior Policy Advisor

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

*retired from EPA in November, 2004

The National Science and Technology Council

The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), a cabinet level council, is the principal means for the President to 

coordinate science, and technology policies across the Federal Government. NSTC acts to coordinate the diverse parts of the 

Federal research and development enterprise.

An important objective of the NSTC is the establishment of clear national goals for Federal science and technology investments 

in areas ranging from information technologies and health research to improving transportation systems and strengthening 

fundamental research. This council prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal 

agencies to form an investment package that is aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals.

To obtain additional information regarding the NSTC, contact the NSTC Executive Secretariat at (202) 456-6101

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) is one of four committees under the NSTC. It is charged with 

improving coordination among federal agencies involved in environmental and natural resources research and development, 

establishing a strong link between science and policy, and developing a federal environment and natural resources research 

and development strategy that responds to national and international issues.

To obtain additional information regarding the CENR, contact the CENR Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations was chartered by the CENR for the purpose of developing the Strategic 

Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and to provide U.S. contributions to the Global Earth Observation 

System of Systems (GEOSS). The Interagency Working Group’s charter expired in December, 2004, and the working group has 

been replaced with a standing subcommittee under CENR, the United States Group on Earth Observations (US GEO).

To obtain additional information regarding the US GEO, contact the US GEO Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.
prepared by the 

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources