President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology • May 2005

www.ostp.gov
About the President’s Council of 

Advisors on Science and Technology

President Bush established the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) by

Executive Order 13226 in September 2001. Under this Executive Order, PCAST “shall advise the President...

on matters involving science and technology policy,” and “shall assist the National Science and Technology

Council (NSTC) in securing private sector involvement in its activities.” The NSTC is a cabinet-level council

that coordinates interagency research and development activities and science and technology policy making

processes across Federal departments and agencies. 

PCAST enables the President to receive advice from the private sector, including the academic community, on

important issues relative to technology, scientific research, math and science education, and other topics of

national concern. The PCAST-NSTC link provides a mechanism to enable the public-private exchange of ideas

that inform the Federal science and technology policy making processes. 

PCAST follows a tradition of Presidential advisory panels on science and technology dating back to

Presidents Eisenhower and Truman. The Council’s 23 members, appointed by the President, are drawn from

industry, education, and research institutions, and other nongovernmental organizations. In addition, the

Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy serves as PCAST’s Co-Chair. 

About the National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel

The National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel (NNAP) was created by the United States Congress in the 21st

Century Nanotechnology 21st Research and Development Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-153), signed by President

Bush on December 3, 2003. The Act required the President to establish or designate a NNAP to review the

Federal nanotechnology research and development program. On July 23, 2004, President Bush formally designated the PCAST to act as the NNAP. 

About this Report

The Act that created the NNAP calls for this advisory body to conduct a review of the NNI and report its findings

to the President. The Act calls upon the NNAP to assess the trends and developments in nanotechnology, and

the strategic direction of the NNI, particularly as it relates to maintaining U.S. leadership in nanotechnology

research. The Act also requires comment on NNI program activities, management, coordination, implementation,

and whether the program is adequately addressing societal, ethical, legal, environmental, and workforce issues.

The Act provides that the NNAP is to report on its assessments and to make recommendations for ways to

improve the program at least every two years. The Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy is to

transmit a copy of the NNAP report to Congress. This is the first report of the NNAP under the Act. 

Front cover: Zinc oxide nanorods with approximately 100-nm tin beads at tips. The properties of zinc oxide

make these suitable for nanoscale, ultra-sensitive sensors. Courtesy of Prof. Zhong Lin Wang, Georgia

Institute of Technology. Cover design by Nicolle Rager of Sayo-Art.

Copyright information: This document is a work of the U.S. Government and is in the public domain. 

Subject to the following stipulation, it may be distributed and copied. Copyrights to graphics included in

this document are reserved by original copyright holders or their assignees, and are used here under the

Government’s license and by permission. 
★★★★★★★★★★★★

The National Nanotechnology

Initiative at Five Years:

Assessment and Recommendations of the

National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel

Submitted by the

President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

May 2005

★★★★★★★★★★★★
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

PRESIDENT’S COUNCIL OF ADVISORS ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20502

May 16, 2005 

President George W. Bush 

The White House 

Washington, D.C. 20502 

Dear Mr. President: 

We are pleased to transmit to you a copy of the report, The National Nanotechnology Initiative at 

Five Years: Assessment and Recommendations of the National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel, 

prepared by your Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). 

In response to direction in your Fiscal Year 2004 Budget, PCAST initiated a review of the multiagency National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). You subsequently signed Congressional 

legislation (P.L. 108-153) calling for an external National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel 

(NNAP), and in July 2004, by Executive Order, you formally designated PCAST as the NNAP. 

The enclosed report represents PCAST’s first assessment of the Federal Government’s 

nanotechnology research efforts. PCAST undertook the legislatively required assessments in a 

manner that examined what we believe would be your four primary concerns: 

1. Where Do We Stand?

2. Is This Money Well Spent and the Program Well Managed?

3. Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and Potential Risks? 

4. How Can We Do Better?

We answer, in brief, that the United States holds a leadership position in nanotechnology, but it 

is being aggressively challenged by many nations. We find the Federal investment to date has 

been money very well spent, and the NNI program to be well managed—with social concerns 

and risks to human health and the environment being wisely acknowledged and addressed. We

recommend several improvements to the program, including the need for the NNI to increase 

coordination with the States as avenues of economic development, and for the program 

management to remain flexible in this fast-developing field. 

The full PCAST discussed and approved this report at its public meeting on March 22, 2005. 

We appreciate the confidence you placed in us by designating PCAST as the National 

Nanotechnology Advisory Panel, and we look forward to continuing to monitor the Federal 

programs engaged in this exciting field on your behalf. Please let us know if you have any 

questions concerning the enclosed report. 

Sincerely, 

John H. Marburger, III 

E. Floyd Kvamme 

Co-Chair Co-Chair

Enclosure 
President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

CHAIRS

MEMBERS

Charles J. Arntzen, Ph.D.

Director, Arizona Biomedical Institute and 

The Florence Ely Nelson Presidential Chair,

Department of Plant Biology, 

Arizona State University

Norman R. Augustine

Former Chairman and CEO, 

Lockheed Martin Corporation

Carol Bartz

Chairman of the Board, 

President, and CEO, Autodesk, Inc.

M. Kathleen Behrens, Ph.D.

Managing Director, RS Investments

Erich Bloch

Corporate R&D Management Consultant, 

The Washington Advisory Group

Stephen B. Burke

President, Comcast Cable Communications

G. Wayne Clough, Ph.D.

President, Georgia Institute of Technology

Michael S. Dell

Chairman and CEO, Dell Computer Corporation

Raul J. Fernandez

CEO, Dimension Data of North America

Marye Anne Fox, Ph.D.

Chancellor, North Carolina State University

Martha Gilliland, Ph.D.

Chancellor, University of Missouri-Kansas City

Ralph Gomory, Ph.D.

President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation

Bernadine Healy, M.D.

Medical Senior Writer and Columnist for U.S. News

and World Report; Former President of the

American Red Cross; Former Director of NIH;

Cleveland Clinic Foundation

Robert J. Herbold, Ph.D.

Retired Chief Operating Officer, Microsoft Corp.

Bobbie Kilberg

President, Northern Virginia Technology Council

Walter E. Massey, Ph.D.

President, Morehouse College

Gordon E. Moore, Ph.D.

Chairman Emeritus, Intel Corporation

E. Kenneth Nwabueze

CEO/CTO Corporation, SageMetrics

Steven G. Papermaster

Chairman, Powershift Ventures

Luis M. Proenza, Ph.D.

President, University of Akron

George Scalise

President, Semiconductor Industry Association

Charles M. Vest, Ph.D.

President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

John H. Marburger, III, Ph.D.

Director, Office of Science Technology Policy

E. Floyd Kvamme

Partner, Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers

Stanley S. Sokul

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

OSTP STAFF LIAISON

Celia I. Merzbacher

Maureen O’Brien

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 1

Introduction and Background 5

CHAPTER 1: Where Do We Stand? 8

1. Nanotechnology R&D Investment 9

3. Research Output 14

3. Research Areas of Focus 17

4. Areas of Opportunity 19

5. Other Leadership Factors 22

6. Conclusions 23

CHAPTER 2: Is This Money Well Spent and the Program Well Managed? 24

1. NNI Strategic Plan and Management 24

2. NNI Accomplishments 33

3. Conclusions 34

CHAPTER 3: Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and Potential Risks? 35

1. Environmental, Health, and Safety 35

2. Education and Workforce Preparation 36

3. Ethical, Legal, and Other Societal Implications 38

4. Public Engagement 38

5. Conclusions 38

CHAPTER 4: How Can We Do Better? 39

1. Program Investment Areas and Funding Levels 39

2. Technology Transfer 39

3. Program Management 41

4. Societal Implications 42

5. Education/Workforce Preparation 43

6. NNAP Report Schedule 43

CHAPTER 5: Concluding Remarks and the NNAP’s Future Areas of Focus 44

APPENDIX - NNI Program Component Areas 45

GLOSSARY 47

REFERENCES 49
List of Figures

Figure 1. Government Nanotechnology R&D Investments in 1997-2004 9

Figure 2. Number of Articles in ISI Web of Science Database Found by Searching “nano*” 14

Figure 3. Total Percentage of Articles in Science, Nature, and Physical Review Letters 

Identified by a Keyword Search on “nano*” 15

Figure 4. Number of Nanotechnology-related Patents Identified by a Search of Titles 

and Claims of Patents in the USPTO Database 17

Figure 5. Target Industries for Companies Involved with Nanotechnology in 2004 21

Figure 6. Organizations with a Role in the NNI and Their Relationships 31

Figure 7. NNI User Facilities and Research Centers 33

List of Tables

Table 1. Estimated Government Nanotechnology R&D Investments in 1997-2004 8

Table 2. Nanotechnology R&D Infrastructure Investments at State Level 11

Table 3. Focus Areas of Government Investments in Nanotechnology 18

Table 4. German Federal Funding by Priority Sector 19

Table 5. Relationships Between Program Component Areas and the Overarching NNI Goals 25

Table 6. Relationships Between Program Component Areas and NNI Agency Missions, 

Interests, and Needs 27
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Executive Summary

The President’s Fiscal Year (FY) 2004 Budget, released in February 2003, tasked the President’s Council of

Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) with reviewing the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) and

making recommendations for strengthening the program. Congress ratified the need for an outside advisory

body with its passage of the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003 (the Act),

which called for the President to establish or designate a National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel (NNAP). 

By Executive Order, the President designated PCAST as the NNAP in July 2004. To augment its own expertise

in managing large research and development (R&D) programs, PCAST identified a Technical Advisory Group

(TAG) comprising about 45 nanotechnology experts representing diverse disciplines and sectors across

academia and industry. The TAG is a knowledgeable resource, providing input and feedback with a more

technical perspective. 

The Act calls upon the NNAP to assess the NNI and to report on its assessments and make recommendations

for ways to improve the program at least every two years. This is the first such periodic report provided by

PCAST in its role as the NNAP. 

The Administration has identified nanotechnology as one of its top R&D priorities. When FY 2005 concludes

later this year, over 4 billion taxpayer dollars will have been spent since FY 2001 on nanotechnology R&D.

In addition, the President’s FY 2006 Budget includes over $1 billion for nanotechnology research across 11

Federal agencies. Such a substantial and sustained investment has been largely based on the expectation

that advances in understanding and harnessing novel nanoscale properties will generate broad-ranging

economic benefits for our Nation. As such, the NNAP members believe the President, the Congress, 

and the American people are seeking answers to four basic questions relative to the Federal investment in

nanotechnology R&D:

1. Where Do We Stand? 

2. Is This Money Well Spent and the Program Well Managed?

3. Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and Potential Risks?

4. How Can We Do Better?

Answers to these questions provide the assessments and recommendations called for by the Act. Our

conclusions can be summarized as follows:

1. Where Do We Stand? Today, the United States is the acknowledged leader in nanotechnology R&D. 

The approximately $1 billion annual Federal Government funding for nanotechnology R&D is roughly 

one-quarter of the current global investment by all nations. Total annual U.S. R&D spending (Federal,

State, and private) now stands at approximately $3 billion, one-third of the approximately $9 billion in

total worldwide spending by the public and private sectors. In addition, the United States leads in the

number of start-up companies based on nanotechnology, and in research output as measured by patents

and publications. Our leadership position, however, is under increasing competitive pressure from other

nations as they ramp up their own programs. 
2. Is This Money Well Spent and the Program Well Managed? The NNAP members believe strongly that

the money the United States is investing in nanotechnology is money very well spent, and that continued

robust funding is important for the Nation’s long-term economic well-being and national security.

Nanotechnology holds tremendous potential for stimulating innovation and thereby enabling or

maintaining U.S. leadership in industries that span all sectors. The focus of the NNI on expanding

knowledge of nanoscale phenomena and on discovery of nanoscale and nanostructured materials, devices,

and systems, along with building an infrastructure to support such studies, has been both appropriate and

wise. The NNI has accomplished much already—advancing foundational knowledge, promoting technology

transfer for commercial and public benefit, developing an infrastructure of user facilities and

instrumentation, and taking steps to address societal concerns—and the economic payoffs over the long

term are likely to be substantial. 

The NNI appears well positioned to maintain United States leadership going forward, through both its

coordinated interagency approach to planning and implementing the Federal R&D program and its efforts

to interact with industry and the public. This approach is outlined clearly in the recently released NNI

Strategic Plan, which spells out the goals and priorities for the initiative for the next 5 to 10 years. The

NNAP members believe that this Plan provides an appropriate way to organize and manage the program.

3. Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and Potential Risks? The societal implications of

nanotechnology—including environmental and health effects—must be taken into account simultaneously

with the scientific advances being underwritten by the Federal Government. The NNI generally recognizes

this, and is moving deliberately to identify, prioritize, and address such concerns. 

Environmental, Health, and Safety. The NNAP convened a panel of experts from Government regulatory

agencies, academia, and the private sector to discuss the environmental and health effects of

nanotechnology. Based on these panel discussions, as well as on information received from the NSET

Subcommittee and the TAG, the NNAP members believe that potential risks do exist and that the

Government is directing appropriate attention and adequate resources to the research that will ensure 

the protection of the public and the environment. The NNAP members are particularly pleased that strong

communication exists among the agencies that fund nanotechnology research and those responsible for

regulatory decision-making.

Education. The future economic prosperity of the United States will depend on a workforce that both is

large enough and has the necessary skills to meet the challenges posed by global competition. This will be

especially important in enabling the United States to maintain its leadership role in nanotechnology and

in the industries that will use it. The NNI has launched a range of education-related programs appropriate

for classrooms at all levels and across the country, along with other programs that are aimed at the

broader public. While the NNI cannot be expected to solve the Nation’s science education problems singlehandedly, the NNAP members believe that these NNI activities can help improve science education and

attract more bright young minds into careers in science and engineering. 

Other Societal Dimensions. Understanding the impact of a new technology on society is vital to ensuring

that development takes place in a responsible manner. In addition to research into societal issues such as

the environmental, health, and safety effects of nanotechnology, the NNI’s diverse and growing R&D

program is exploring other issues such as economic, workforce, and ethical impacts. In addition,

communication among the various stakeholders and with the public on these topics is an important element

of the program, as indicated by the establishment of an interagency subgroup to address this topic.

✩2
✩3

4. How Can We Do Better? The NNAP will monitor progress on the program elements discussed above; in

the meantime, the NNAP offers the following recommendations aimed at further strengthening the NNI.

Technology Transfer. The level of interest and investment across many industrial sectors is growing and

will likely outpace Government investment in the United States soon, if it hasn’t already. The NNI needs to

take further steps to communicate and establish links to U.S. industry to further facilitate technology

transfer from the lab to the marketplace. The NNAP calls attention to two areas that would augment the

existing suite of activities and enhance commercialization of research results. 

• The NNI’s outreach to, and coordination with, the States should be increased. Such efforts would

complement those NNI activities already underway with various industrial sectors. The States perform

a vital role in fostering economic development through business assistance programs, tax incentives,

and other means. In addition, collectively the States are spending substantial amounts in support 

of nanotechnology R&D and commercialization. The NNAP members believe that practical application

of NNI-funded research results, workforce development, and other national benefits will increase with

improved Federal-State coordination. 

• The NNI should examine how to improve knowledge management of NNI assets. This would include

assets such as user facilities and instrumentation available to outside researchers, research results,

and derivative intellectual property. Through mechanisms such as publicly available and searchable

databases, the NNI can—and should—improve infrastructure utilization and the transfer of technology

to the private sector. 

The NNAP notes that, although ultimate commercialization of nanotechnology is desirable and to be

supported, the NNI must remain mindful that its primary focus is on developing an understanding of the

novel properties that occur at the nanoscale and the ability to control matter at the atomic and molecular

level. While we all want the United States to benefit economically from nanotechnology as quickly as

possible, it is critically important that the basic intellectual property surrounding nanotechnology be

generated and reside within this country. Those who hold this knowledge will “own” commercialization in

the future. 

Environmental and Health Implications. The NNI should continue its efforts to understand the possible

toxicological effects of nanotechnology and, where harmful human or environmental effects are proven,

appropriate regulatory mechanisms should be utilized by the pertinent Federal agencies. Nanotechnology

products should not be immune from regulation, but such regulation must be rational and based on

science, not perceived fears. Although it appears that the public and the environment are adequately

protected through existing regulatory authorities, the NNAP encourages the Government regulatory

agencies to work together to ensure that any regulatory policies that are developed are based on the best

available science and are consistent among the agencies.

The NNAP notes that research on the environmental and health implications of nanomaterials and

associated products should be coordinated not only within the Federal Government, but with other nations

and groups around the world to ensure that efforts are not duplicated unnecessarily and information 

is shared widely.
Education/Workforce Preparation. A key to realizing the economic benefits of nanotechnology will be the

establishment of an infrastructure capable of educating and training an adequate number of researchers,

teachers, and technical workers. To maximize the value of its investment in developing materials and

programs for education and worker training, the NNI should establish relationships with the Departments

of Education and Labor. While the science agencies such as the National Science Foundation (NSF) can

conduct education research and design excellent programs and materials, ultimately the mission agencies,

Education and Labor, must be engaged to disseminate these programs and materials as widely as possible

throughout the Nation’s education and training systems.

The NNI’s education focus should be on promoting science fundamentals at K-16 levels, while encouraging

the development and incorporation of nanotechnology-related material into science and engineering

education. To promote mid-career training for professionals, the NNI should partner with and support

professional societies and trade associations that have continuing education as a mission.

Societal Implications. The NNI must support research aimed at understanding the societal (including

ethical, economic, and legal) implications and must actively work to inform the public about

nanotechnology. Now more than ever, those who are developing new scientific knowledge and

technologies must be aware of the impact their efforts may have on society. 

In summary, the NNAP supports the NNI’s high-level vision and goals, and the investment strategy by

which those are to be achieved. Panel members feel that the program can be strengthened by extending

its interaction with industry, State and regional economic developers, the Departments of Education and

Labor, and internationally, where appropriate. The NNI should also continue to confront the various

societal issues in an open, straightforward, and science-based manner.

✩4
✩5

Introduction and Background 

“Nanotechnology” touches upon a broad array of disciplines, including chemistry, biology, physics,

computational science, and engineering. Like information technology, nanotechnology has the potential to

impact virtually every industry, from aerospace and energy to healthcare and agriculture. Based on the ability

to see, measure, and manipulate matter at the scale of atoms and molecules, nanotechnology was born, 

in many ways, with the advent of atomic force microscopy in the mid-1980s. Today many industries such as

semiconductors and chemicals already are creating products with enhanced performance based on

components and materials with nanosized features.

The breathtaking possibilities for useful and powerful nanotechnology applications led to the formal

establishment of a National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in Fiscal Year (FY) 2001. Due to its potential to

promote innovation and economic benefits, as well as to strengthen the position of the United States as a

leader in science and technology, the Administration has identified nanotechnology as a top research and

development (R&D) priority for the past several years. Since its inception in FY 2001, the NNI budget has

more than doubled and the number of participating agencies has grown from 6 to over 20. 

Such a broadly distributed program demands strong interagency coordination, which is provided by a

subgroup of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), the Cabinet-level body by which the

President coordinates science and technology policies across the Federal Government. Within the NSTC

Committee on Technology, the Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology (NSET) Subcommittee is

responsible for coordinating, planning, implementing, and reviewing the NNI. 

The history of the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) involvement with the

NNI extends back to 1999 when the analogous body under the previous Administration supported the

proposal for establishing such an initiative. In a letter to the President, that body included a

recommendation that “the progress toward NNI goals be monitored annually by an appropriate external 

body of experts, such as the National Research Council.” In part based on this recommendation, the 

National Research Council was commissioned to do a study of the NNI, which was released in 2002 (NRC

2002). The first of that study’s ten recommendations was that the Office of Science and Technology Policy

establish an independent standing nanoscience and nanotechnology advisory board to provide advice to 

the NSET Subcommittee on policy, strategy, goals, and management.

The President’s FY 2004 Budget, released in February 2003, acknowledged the National Research Council’s

recommendation for external review, and directed PCAST to conduct an assessment and provide advice

regarding the strategic direction of the NNI program. PCAST began this task shortly thereafter. 

The requirement for an ongoing outside advisory panel was ratified by Congress in the 21st Century

Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003, Public Law 108-153 (the Act), which called for the

President to establish or designate a National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel (NNAP). PCAST’s role was

reaffirmed when, in July 2004 by Executive Order, the President formally designated PCAST to fulfill the

duties of the NNAP (Bush 2004). The order amended the original Executive Order (Bush 2001) that

commissioned PCAST, thus establishing that nanotechnology should be included in the formal PCAST charter.
The Act calls upon the NNAP to assess the NNI in the following areas: 

• Trends and developments in nanotechnology

• Progress in implementing the program

• The need to revise the program

• Balance among the component areas of the program, including funding levels

• Whether program component areas, priorities, and technical goals developed 

by the NSET Subcommittee are helping to maintain U.S. leadership

• Management, coordination, implementation, and activities of the program

• Whether social, ethical, legal, environmental, and workforce concerns are 

adequately addressed by the program

The Act requires the NNAP to report on its assessments and to make recommendations for ways to improve

the program at least every two years. This is the first such report provided by PCAST in its role as the NNAP.

(Hereafter, “NNAP” is used to refer to PCAST in its capacity as the panel called for by the Act.)

To augment its own expertise in managing large R&D programs, the NNAP identified a Technical Advisory

Group (TAG) comprising approximately 45 nanotechnology experts who represent diverse disciplines and

sectors across academia and industry. The TAG is a knowledgeable resource, providing input and feedback

with a more nanotechnology-specific technical perspective. 

In the course of performing its assessment, the NNAP convened panels of experts to discuss advancements

and opportunities in science and technology as well as the potential environmental, health, and safety

implications of nanotechnology. The NNAP also met with members of the NSET Subcommittee throughout the

review process to discuss the NNI R&D programs and thereby understand how the initiative is organized and

managed. In addition to these sources, the NNAP called upon its TAG on several occasions for broader expert

opinions on various topics. Members of the NNAP attended a number of the workshops organized by the NNI

over the past two years, including the Research Directions II Workshop held in September 2004, to gain a

better understanding of the broad research and application opportunities. These activities, along with

numerous informal interactions by NNAP members with a range of nanotechnology stakeholders around the

country and worldwide, have provided the basis for this report.

Including the more than $1 billion that the Federal Government estimates it will spend in FY 2005, over 

4 billion taxpayer dollars have been spent since FY 2001 on nanotechnology R&D. In addition, the President’s

2006 Budget includes over $1 billion for research across 11 Federal agencies (including both NIH and the

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, or NIOSH, within the Department of Health and Human

Services). With such a large and sustained investment, the NNAP members believe the President, the

Congress and the American people are seeking answers to four basic questions relative to the Federal

investment in nanotechnology R&D: 

1. Where Do We Stand? 

2. Is This Money Well Spent and the Program Well Managed?

3. Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and Potential Risks?

4. How Can We Do Better?

✩6
✩7

These questions provide the underlying structure for this report, and the answers provide the assessments

and recommendations called for by the Act. 

As the first of what will be periodic assessments, this report focuses especially on the question of U.S.

competitiveness. The Nation cannot afford to cede leadership in this emerging area of science and

technology. Remaining at the forefront in nanotechnology requires not only sustained investment and publicprivate cooperation, but also an understanding of where the opportunities lie, and of the level and direction

of activity in other nations.

Definition of Nanotechnology

Since its inception, the NNI has defined “nanotechnology” as encompassing the science, engineering,

and technology related to the understanding and control of matter at the length scale of

approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. However, nanotechnology is not merely working with matter at

the nanoscale, but also research and development of materials, devices, and systems that have novel

properties and functions due to their nanoscale dimensions or components.

Wisely in our view, the NNI has distinguished nanotechnology R&D from other types of ongoing

scientific research that have achieved a certain level of miniaturization or that operate at a

nanometer-length scale. One area in which this distinction is especially challenging is at the

intersection of nanotechnology and biology. Many biological structures and processes are on the

nanoscale. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have the following corollary:

While much of biology is grounded in nanoscale phenomena, NIH has not re-classified most of 

its basic research portfolio as nanotechnology. Only those studies that use nanotechnology tools

and concepts to study biology; that propose to engineer biological molecules toward functions 

very different from those they have in nature; or that manipulate biological systems by methods

more precise than can be done by using molecular biological, synthetic chemical, or biochemical

approaches that have been used for years in the biology research community are classified as

nanotechnology projects.

The NNAP endorses this definitional focus upon the novel properties that occur at the nanoscale and

the distinction made between nanotechnology and biology, and the associated goal of understanding

and gaining control over them.
CHAPTER 1: Where Do We Stand?

Following the establishment of the NNI in FY 2001, worldwide interest and investment in nanotechnology

R&D have grown steadily. Today, virtually every country that supports scientific and technology R&D has a

nanotechnology initiative; by many estimates, the total investment by governments outside the United States

surpasses $3 billion annually, with comparable investment by the private sector.

While technical and business experts continue to debate the future advancements and economic impacts of

nanotechnology, public interest and media coverage have grown dramatically. Scientific advances and

technical progress continue, spurred on by vast investments by governments and the private sector, yet most

agree that nanotechnology is, by and large, still in a nascent stage and that its ultimate impact on the world

economy remains to be seen. What all agree upon is that significant potential clearly exists. 

The question, “Where Do We Stand?” refers to the basic competitive position of the United States relative to

other countries in the nanotechnology arena. Because nanotechnology is still at an early stage and is

dominated by both publicly and privately supported R&D activities, a determination of the Nation’s competitive

position depends on benchmarking research rather than on economic indicators such as market share. The

measurement of research outputs is notoriously challenging (Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public

Policy 2000); frequently used metrics include the numbers of and citations to scientific and technical

publications and patents. Because some of the knowledge created through research is not captured by these

measures of output, the amount going into the pipeline in the form of financial support often is used as an

indicator of research activity level, and presumably correlates to some degree with the generation of new

knowledge. The NNAP therefore has chosen to compare nanotechnology R&D investment, as well as publication

and patent output, as a means of assessing the position of the United States in this emerging area.

✩8

Table 1. 

Estimated Government Nanotechnology R&D Investments in 1997-2004 ($ Millions)

Source: M. Roco, National Science Foundation
✩9

1. Nanotechnology R&D Investment

Nanotechnology R&D spending is distributed among governments (including national, regional, State, and local),

universities, corporations, and venture capital investors. The availability and consistency of accurate figures varies

for the different categories. When comparing the data available for various countries, difficulties may arise due to

differences in the definition of nanotechnology, the inclusion of private contributions or other variations in the

calculation of government funding, difficulty in getting some private—especially venture capital—investment data,

mismatch in investment periods, and the various exchange rates employed. Rather than attempt to normalize

disparate data sets, the NNAP has chosen to review a sampling of available data and to identify common trends.

1A. International Government Spending

While sources vary regarding international levels of nanotechnology R&D investment, one thing that all the

data sets agree upon is that nanotechnology spending has been steadily increasing, reaching record levels 

in 2005. For the purpose of illustration, Table 1 and Figure 1 show one set of estimates indicating that

national investments in nanotechnology worldwide increased over eightfold during the period from 1997 

to 2005. Investment estimates shown in Table 1 are made using the nanotechnology definition of the NNI 

(this definition does not include microelectromechanical systems [MEMS], microelectronics, or general

research on materials).

Other estimates vary from the amounts shown in Table 1. A report by the European Commission (EC) (2004)

estimates that total worldwide government spending in 2003 was just over $3.5 billion, including funding by

U.S. States (in addition to Federal programs) and by original European Union (EU) members and associated

and acceding European countries.

In a more recent report, Lux Research (2004) estimated that worldwide government spending on

nanotechnology research reached $4.6 billion in 2004: approximately 35% ($1.6 billion) was by governments

in North America; another 35% ($1.6 billion) was by Asian governments; 28% ($1.3 billion) was by European

governments, including the EC; and 3% ($133 million) was by all other governments. The Lux Research data

include U.S. State funding in the total for North America and incorporate figures from associated and

acceding EU countries in the European estimate. 

Figure 1. 

Government Nanotechnology R&D Investments in 1997-2004

EU

Japan

U.S.

Others

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Source: M. Roco, National Science Foundation Investment ($ millions/year)

Year
As previously stated, available figures do not always allow for an “apples to apples” comparison, even among

Federal Government expenditures. For instance, some countries invest in research through a combination of

Government and corporate contributions. There is often inconsistency in the definition of nanotechnology for

purposes of counting R&D expenditures. For example, some countries may include MEMS or biotechnology

funding that is not counted under the strict U.S. definition of nanotechnology. Another variable between

countries is the treatment of salaries for researchers. Whereas, U.S. figures include a salary component 

(e.g., as a portion of research grants and for Federal laboratory employees), many other countries fund

salaries out of separate accounts from those reported as “nanotechnology R&D.” 

Although direct comparisons are difficult, the data collectively show that many countries are making

significant public investments in nanotechnology R&D, and that these investments have increased sharply

since 2000. The similar levels in the investments by the United States, Europe, and Japan, as shown in 

Figure 1, suggest an element of competition among these leaders. Because the NNAP members believe it is

important for the United States to understand how its Federal investments stack up against public

investment by other countries, the Panel has commissioned the Science and Technology Policy Institute

(STPI), a Federally Funded Research and Development Center (FFRDC) that provides technical research 

and analysis to the Federal Government, to do a more detailed study to assess U.S. funding as it compares 

to other governments, including developing a means for normalizing and comparing international

government investments. 

1B. Regional, State and Local Spending

One difficulty in comparing U.S. Government spending to foreign government spending is that the

contributions of U.S. State and local governments (and their foreign counterparts, where they exist) are

often overlooked. A fair assessment of the overall U.S. competitive position must therefore include the

significant contributions of U.S. State and local governments. 

Regional, State, and local initiatives provide a vehicle for additional R&D funding, and a vital avenue for

commercialization and economic development activity. In fact, State and local governments typically develop

initiatives and commit funding precisely for the expected local economic development benefits this

investment will yield. Lux Research reports that in 2004 U.S. State and local governments invested more than

$400 million into nanotechnology research, facilities, and business incubation programs (Lux Research, Inc.

2005). Funding provided by State governments is often augmented, or leveraged, by additional resources

provided through partnership with local private sector interests, universities, Federal Government agencies,

and/or other interested regional organizations. These partnerships typically seek to build on existing 

regional competencies (e.g., a local research institution, a Government laboratory, and/or a strong local 

high-technology business community). A partial list of State investments in R&D infrastructure, typically 

at universities, is shown in Table 2.

In addition to supporting university-based infrastructure, many regional, State, and local initiatives support

the development of a technically skilled workforce through the creation or promotion of education and

training opportunities. Some have done this by leveraging existing Federal programs (e.g., NSF’s

Nanotechnology Undergraduate Education and Research Experience for Undergraduates programs) or through

the establishment of new programs, such as providing nanotechnology-relevant curriculum assistance to

community colleges. Another function of many regional initiatives is to facilitate partner access to NNI user

facilities as well as to other nanotechnology resources and business expertise.

✩10
✩11

Table 2. 

Nanotechnology R&D Infrastructure Investments at State Level

Source: NSTC Report of the NNI Workshop on Regional, State and Local Initiatives in Nanotechnology, September 30-October

1, 2003 (2005). Note: The examples offered here provide a sampling of infrastructure investments by various U.S. States. 

This list is not comprehensive and does not include non-infrastructure investments.
While much activity is taking place to organize and secure support for regional nanotechnology initiatives

from State and local governments and the private sector, the ultimate economic development success of most

of these ventures remains to be seen. To the extent that nanotechnology parallels the biotechnology

industry, regional “cluster” development may prove an excellent model for equipping local communities with

competitive advantages. Technology-based cluster development builds upon a foundation of critical

components for economic success—research expertise and infrastructure, technical and management talent,

risk capital, commercial infrastructure, and an entrepreneurial culture. Certainly, this type of activity should

be encouraged and its progress monitored to determine which of the arrangements ultimately yield long-term

economic development and growth. 

A workshop held in the Fall of 2003 brought together representatives from regional, State, and local

nanotechnology initiatives across the country to share information and experiences. The resulting report

(NSTC 2005), to be released soon, will serve as a useful primer for those who are at the early stages of

launching similar activities. The NNAP strongly encourages the NNI to continue to interact with those

regional, State, and local initiatives to assist their progress and to seek additional channels by which

technology transfer may take place.

✩12

Defining the Nanotechnology “Industry”

Attempts to define the nanotechnology “industry” inevitably result in definitions that are either too

narrow or too broad.

If the definition were limited to that part of industry in which the nanotechnology aspect is dominant—

that is, to companies that deliver pure nanotechnology—then it would only capture highly specialized

activities such as the manufacture and sale of carbon nanotubes. Under this narrow definition the

industry appears extremely small, and is likely to remain so for some time. The definition could be

broadened somewhat by including the manufacture and sale of instruments that are necessary for

measuring and manipulating matter at the nanoscale, because these sales are nanotechnology

dependent. Even this expanded definition, however, continues to suggest a very small industry.

Taking a broader economic view, it is noteworthy that a wide variety of industries—including

electronics, cosmetics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals—already use nanotechnology to make existing

products better. Nanotechnology is used to produce stain-free khakis, transparent zinc-oxide-based

sunblock, scratch-resistant automobile paint, more powerful semiconductors, and many other

products. Under this further expanded ‘count-any-contribution’ definition, the nanotechnology

industry is already quite large, and likely to grow to an enormous scale. Because nanotechnology

does not dominate these products, however, this definition arguably over-counts the actual

contribution of nanotechnology to the economy. Nonetheless, nanotechnology does contribute to the

performance of these products and, in many cases, makes the performance possible in the first place.

Ultimately, nanotechnology is expected to be embedded throughout our economy, its contributions

ranging from barely detectable to wholly dominant. Any credible attempt to define a nanotechnology

“industry,” therefore, will have to establish a threshold contribution level and explain why that level

was chosen. This report does not attempt to choose or defend such a threshold.
✩13

1C. Private Investment

Measures of private investment include both corporate internal investment and venture capital activity.

Obtaining firm data in this area is difficult, because private corporations and investors often consider such

information to be proprietary. However, in 2003 the European Commission estimated worldwide private R&D

funding to be close to 2 billion Euros (Commission of the European Communities 2004).

Of the $8.6 billion that Lux Research estimates was spent on nanotechnology R&D worldwide in 2004, $3.8

billion was by corporations: 46% ($1.7 billion) was by North American companies, predominantly in the

United States; 36% (1.4 billion) was by Asian companies; 17% ($650 million) by European firms; and less

than 1% ($40 million) was by businesses in other regions. Additional private sector investments were made

by venture capital firms investing in nanotechnology start-up companies. These investments totaled 

roughly $400 million in 2004 (Lux Research Inc. 2004).

Nanomaterials for Clean Energy

Nanotechnology is helping to clean our air through better-performing and cheaper catalysts. By

controlling the size and composition of platinum-based catalytic materials, the number of active sites

can be dramatically increased, leading to improved catalytic converters that reduce auto emissions and

help control pollution from power plants or stationary industrial sources. In today’s converters, much

of the platinum, which makes up roughly two-thirds of the total cost of the converter, is buried inside

relatively coarse metal particles where it is unable to react with pollutants. 

Researchers at Stanford University (supported by NSF and DOE) and NASA Ames Research Center

developed new concepts for computationally modeling nanomaterials. In 2003, Nanostellar, Inc. was

formed to develop the concepts into technologies for designing and fabricating controlled

nanomaterials with optimized properties for catalytic reactions. Nanostellar has dramatically reduced

the amount of platinum required for automotive emission control by designing and producing

nanoparticles that combine the precious metal with other less costly metals. In addition to lowering

cost, converters based on nanocomposite catalysts outperform traditional products, particularly at

"cold start" where most gasoline and diesel engine pollution is generated. 

Nanotechnology's contributions to pollution control may just be beginning. In a separate study,

researchers at Brookhaven National Laboratory have shown that platinum mixed with iridium in single

atomic layers is more than 20 times more active on a per atom basis than commercial catalysts. 

In addition to finding use in

pollution control devices,

nanostructured catalysts can improve

the efficiency and reduce the cost 

of conventional and next-generation

technologies for energy production

and storage (e.g., in fuel cells, 

coal gasification, and improved

photovoltaic cells).
Because nanotechnology is a relatively new area, the “industry” is evolving rapidly. A study by EmTech Research

(2005) identified approximately 600 companies based in the United States or with significant U.S. operations that are

engaged in nanotechnology R&D, manufacture, sale, and use. Of these nearly three-quarters (72.9%) were founded in

the past 10 years. A significant percentage of those companies (57.6%) have products on the market, although

business plans based on development and licensing of intellectual property are widespread. Large companies typically

are focusing more on applications and many have early stage R&D subsidiaries and/or research collaborations

with small businesses or start-ups. Members of the NNAP observe a similarity between nanotechnology and the

biotechnology industry in the 1980s and 1990s, suggesting that future acquisitions and consolidations are likely. 

2. Research Output

In addition to judging United States competitiveness by comparing investments worldwide, the NNAP sought

to compare research output. However, it is important to keep in mind that patents and publications are based

on research that was performed one or more years prior to submission, with additional time elapsed between

the submission of the research and its publication. Just as research spending precedes discovery and

innovation, these measures lag behind.

2A. Publication Output

One metric often used to gauge scientific leadership is the number of peer-reviewed scientific articles. Figure 2

shows the results of a search of one of the principal databases of scientific literature, the Institute for Scientific

Information (ISI) Web of Science a searchable database of about 5400 professional journals, using the keyword

“nano*.” The chart shows an escalation in the total number of publications since 1989, and especially since

2000. Although the number of publications from the United States has grown throughout the period, the

percentage of publications originating from the United States has declined from approximately 40% in the early

1990s to less than 30% in 2004. In a similar study, Zucker and Darby (2005) show that the United States is

dominant in terms of the number of nanotechnology research articles published, accounting for more than twice

the number published by the country with the next-highest number, China. However, Zucker and Darby also note

that the U.S. share is decreasing. They summarize: “Taken as a whole these data confirm that the strength and

depth of the American science base points to the United States being the dominant player in nanotechnology

for some time to come, while the United States also faces significant and increasing international competition.” 

✩14

Figure 2. 

Number of Articles in ISI Web of Science Database Found by Searching “nano*”

Rest of World

United States

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0

1990

1991

19921993199419951996199719981999

2000

2001

200220032004

Number of Articles

Year

Source: J. Murday, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
✩15

Whereas the total number of publications is an indicator of the quantity of research output, a better indicator

of the quality of the output is represented by publication in the most highly regarded and widely read

scientific journals. A search of three high impact journals, Science, Nature, and Physical Review Letters, shows

a 100% increase in the percentage of articles related to nanotechnology in these journals. Among these

publications, the United States has produced an even larger fraction—over 50%—of the nanotechnologyrelated articles (Figure 3). These data show, however, as did those from the broader selection of publications,

that there is a steady increase in the percentage that originates from other countries. 

2B. Patent Output

Another metric commonly used to gauge leadership in technology innovation, and one that is perhaps more

indicative of movement toward a commercial application, is the number of patents and patent applications. 

A study by Huang et al. (2004) reveals the rapid growth of nanotechnology-related patents. Based on a

search of the full text of patents in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) database using a list of

nanotechnology-related keywords, over 8,600 nanotechnology-related patents were issued in 2003, an

increase of about 50% over the number issued in 2000. The analysis pointed to strong U.S. leadership in the

number of patents issued. U.S. entities accounted for over 60% of nanotechnology patents recorded in the

USPTO database during the years 1976 to 2003. In addition, among the patents identified by the study, 

U.S. patents received the most citations by subsequently filed patents, another indication of technology

leadership. Overall, the five countries receiving the highest number of nanotechnology-related patents in

2003 were the U.S. (5,228), Japan (926), Germany (684), Canada (244) and France (183). The number of

nanotechnology-related patents issued by the USPTO to assignees in other countries, especially the

Netherlands, Korea, Ireland, and China, is likewise increasing.

Because a full-text search finds patents that mention nanotechnology-related terms in the background

section of the patent, even though the patented invention itself does not necessarily meet the definition of

nanotechnology, Huang et al. also performed a search of just the patent title and claims. The results of this

search for the years between 1990 and 2003 (shown in Figure 4) show trends that are similar to those

indicated by the broader full-text search. 

Source: J. Murday, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory

Rest of World

United States

1991

19921993199419951996199719981999

2000

2001

200220032004

Year

Figure 3. 

Total Percentage of Articles in Science, Nature, and Physical Review Letters Identified

by a Keyword Search on “nano*” % “nano*” Articles

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
✩16

Nanocrystalline Synthetic Bone is Stronger and Heals Faster

Every year, orthopedic surgeons will implant medical devices into millions of Americans to mend

broken bones, repair ligaments and tendons, and relieve pain in backs, hips and knees. However, even

the best materials and devices used today for such procedures are a compromise. Metal screws and

pins can loosen or permanently weaken the surrounding bone while ordinary fillers or cements can be

very slow to—or may never—fully heal. 

About half the weight of natural bone is the mineral hydroxyapatite, which makes a synthetic version

of the mineral an obvious candidate for bone repair or replacement. Hydroxyapatite is in fact highly

biocompatible. Bone cells attach to it and grow, and thereby encourage the healing process. But when

manufactured using conventional methods, it forms a ceramic material with relatively large crystals

compared to those in bones. The larger crystal size makes the synthetic material structurally weaker

and less biocompatible than natural bone. Ceramic hydroxyapatite is made of many individual crystals

packed together, and one way to make the material stronger and more biocompatible is by reducing

the size of individual crystals.

Research performed at MIT, and supported in part by the Office of Naval Research, has led to a

technique for producing very pure, dense hydroxyapatite with crystals that are less than 100

nanometers across, similar to the size of hydroxyapatite crystals found in natural bone. This synthetic

bone nanomaterial more closely matches the strength of natural bone and, when used to fill voids

caused by injury or disease, allows bones to heal faster and more completely than when coarser

hydroxyapatite is used. 

In 2001, Angstrom Medica was founded to develop structural synthetic bone nanomaterials for medical

use. Since then, the company has received several SBIR grants from the National Science Foundation

and the National Institutes of Health and raised nearly $4 million in venture capital. In February 2005,

Angstrom Medica received FDA approval to market its material for use as a bone void filler, making it

the first engineered nanomaterial specifically cleared by FDA for medical use. 

Angstrom Medica plans to take advantage

of the mechanical strength of its dense,

nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite to make

orthopedic pins and screws (see photo) for

applications like anchoring repaired

ligaments, fusing spinal vertebrae, or

pinning broken bones. Unlike metal

screws, nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite

implants should integrate fully with the

natural bone, leaving it as good as new.

And, as a side benefit, they won’t set off

the metal detectors at the airport! 

Photo courtesy of Angstrom Medica
✩17

3. Research Areas of Focus

The preceding sections indicate that the United States has a leadership position in terms of total investment,

research publications, and patents related to nanotechnology. In addition to these overall measures, an

accurate assessment of U.S. competitiveness requires the identification of countries that have adopted a

strategy of making targeted investments, thereby positioning themselves to be leaders in a key industry or

platform technology. 

3A. Broad International Survey

In June 2004, NSF sponsored an international meeting on responsible nanotechnology research and

development at which 25 countries and the European Union were represented. Attendees were asked to

provide estimates of government funding and areas of particular research interest. Results of this survey

indicated that some nations have broad research programs, like the United States, whereas others have opted

to make targeted research investments. Table 3 shows the key areas in which various countries are focusing

their nanotechnology efforts according to the survey responses. These countries appear to be investing

especially in materials/manufacturing, biotechnology, and electronics. 

3B. Asia

According to reports from the Asian Technology Information Program (ATIP), which tracks activity among Asian

Pacific nations, China is especially strong in nanomaterials development. China’s nanomaterials research focus,

its low cost of doing business, its talented labor pool, and its potentially large domestic market, could provide

incentive for further investment by foreign corporations seeking to capitalize on nanomaterials development

(ATIP 2003; ATIP 2004). Other Asian countries are likewise focusing nanotechnology research efforts on

industries in which they already hold a comparative advantage. According to ATIP, Korea is focusing on

nanoelectronics with strong industry participation, Taiwan is targeting nanoelectronics, and Singapore has a

particular emphasis on nanobiotechnology. Taiwan’s National Science Council, which administers government

funding for Taiwan’s nanotechnology effort, plans to establish three technology research parks; 

Figure 4. 

Number of Nanotechnology-related Patents Identified by a Search of Titles and 

Claims of Patents in the USPTO Database

Others

W. Europe

Japan

USA

16000

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

1990

1991

19921993199419951996199719981999

2000

2001

20022003

Source: Huang, Z., H. Chen, Z.-K. Chen, and M. Roco. 2004. International Nanotechnology Development in 2003: Country,

Institution, and Technology Field Analysis based on USPTO Patent Database. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 6:325-354. 

Number of Patents

Year
two would focus on nanoelectronics research. Though Japan has the strongest government support for

nanotechnology research in the region, with broad scope, its recognized strength is in infrastructure and

instrumentation. Japan also is focused particularly on the commercialization of nanotechnology; recently a

number of new initiatives were launched to assist Japanese businesses and to develop strategies aimed at

creating new nanotechnology-related industries. As part of a larger S&T strategy, the Japanese government

has included the “development of new devices using nanotechnology” as one of five “leading projects” aimed

at revitalizing the Japanese economy. 

✩18

Table 3. 

Focus Areas of Government Investments in Nanotechnology

Source: June 2004 International Dialogue on Responsible Research and Development of Nanotechnology,

http://www.nanoandthepoor.org/international.php

Note *: While the EU as a whole is pursuing a broad program, individual EU countries (also shown here) have more targeted

areas of research.
✩19

3C. Europe

In Europe, efforts exist at both at the national level, with a number of individual countries pursuing targeted

research, and at the European Commission (EC) level, with a more broad-based program. For example the EC,

under its 6th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, committed about 

350 million euros for nanotechnology funding in 2003, which represents a third of the overall European

expenditure. In a recent communication (Commission of the European Communities 2004), the European

Commission endorsed a more coordinated approach to nanotechnology R&D across EU countries while

acknowledging the multiple individual country programs that already exist. Germany’s strategic investment

can be traced to the early 1990s, when nanotechnology was identified as a field with substantial promise. 

As a result of sector forecasting studies commissioned by the government, over the years Germany has

developed a strategy to prioritize the majority of its Federal funding toward nanoelectronics, nanoscale

materials, and optical science and engineering (OECD 2002; see also Table 4). In addition to funding for R&D,

German public funding is targeting infrastructure development, including research centers at various

geographic locations. While the EU as a whole appears to be competing for broad nanotechnology research

leadership, some of the targeted research being conducted in particular EU countries could also provide

competitive advantages in particular technologies or industry sectors. NNAP recommends the close

monitoring of the EU’s coordinated effort and the nanotechnology initiatives of individual EU countries.

4. Areas of Opportunity

The preceding sections provide an overview of the research activity taking place around the world. To gain

insight into the areas of opportunity, the NNAP members believe that it is also useful to assess the disciplines

and industry sectors in which that activity is occurring. 

4A. Publications

A review of the ISI database of research publications reveals that by far the largest number of articles related

to nanotechnology published from 1981 to 2001 was on the subject of semiconductors (Zucker and Darby

2005). More recently, however, the number of articles related to nanotechnology and biology, medicine,

chemistry, and multidisciplinary categories have grown substantially. According to Zucker and Darby, the

number of publications about nanotechnology in relation to information technology also has grown.

Table 4. 

German Federal Funding by Priority Sector (in Millions of Euros)

Source: Roos, U. 2004. Germany’s Nanotechnology Strategy. Berlin: British Embassy Berlin.
4B. Patents

Based on a search of the USPTO database (Huang et al. 2004), the total number of nanotechnology-related

patents increased by 217% from 1996 to 2003, contrasting with an overall increase in patents during the

same period of 57%. From 1976 to 2003, about 30% of nanotechnology patents were in the

chemical/catalysts/pharmaceuticals industries, 15% were in the electronics industry, and about 10% were 

in the materials industry. From 1997 to 2003, the chemical/catalysts/pharmaceutical sectors were observed

to have the most significant growth of nanotechnology patenting activity.

✩20

Nano-light Bulb up to Ten Times More Efficient

Electricity accounts for about one-third of all energy consumed in the United States, and about 

one-fifth of all electric energy is used for lighting. But today's lighting is remarkably inefficient.

Incandescent light bulbs only convert about 5% of the electricity they draw into visible light, wasting

the rest as heat. Fluorescent lights, while better, are still only about 25% efficient. By comparison, 

a new home furnace is typically 80% efficient, and electric motors can reach 95% efficiency. 

Enormous opportunities exist, therefore, for saving energy through more efficient lighting. 

Semiconductor-based light emitting diodes, or LEDs, can produce light much more efficiently. Early

LEDs converted about 50% of electricity into light—10 times better than incandescent bulbs—but the

light was a single color or wavelength and not suitable for general illumination. Developing costeffective LEDs that produce white light—that is, light with many different wavelengths—has been a

major challenge.

Researchers at the Department of Energy’s Sandia National Laboratories have demonstrated a white

light source with LED efficiency. The device uses a conventional LED emitting near-ultraviolet (410 nm)

light to illuminate a range of nanosized semiconductor particles, or “quantum dots.” The dots in turn

emit light of many different colors. By mixing different sized quantum dots it is possible to create a

device that produces light of any desired color, including white, as shown in the figure at the bottom

left. Today, researchers are working to increase the lifetimes of these high-efficiency white-light LEDs

to make them commercially viable. 

The quantum leap forward in energy

efficient lighting offered by whitelight LEDs can substantially impact

the nation’s energy consumption. 

If enough existing lights were

replaced by LEDs to cut in half the

amount of electricity used for

lighting, it would reduce energy use

by the amount of energy produced

by 50 nuclear power plants.

Courtesy of J. Simmons, Sandia National Laboratories
✩21

In 2003, four of the five top assignees for nanotechnology patents in 2003 were electronics companies,

although the field of chemistry (molecular biology and microbiology) had the greatest number of

nanotechnology patents both in 2003 and in previous years. Other technological fields that experienced rapid

growth in patenting activity in 2003 were those relating to transistors and other solid-state devices,

semiconductor device manufacturing, optical waveguides, and electric lamp and discharge (Huang et al. 2004).

More recently, according to an EmTech Research (2005) survey of approximately 600 companies involved in

R&D, manufacture, sale, or use of nanotechnology, the top three companies based on the number of

nanotechnology-related patents issued were IBM, Intel, and L’Oreal. Other companies that ranked highly 

were large, technology-based businesses.

4C. Private Sector Activity

It seems reasonable to expect that the private sector would invest in nanotechnology R&D in those areas in

which relatively near-term commercial applications are forthcoming. According to the EmTech Research survey

of nanotechnology suppliers (EmTech Research 2005), the two largest target industries are biomedical/life

sciences (including drug diagnosis, analysis, delivery, and discovery; medical tools and materials; and

genomics and proteomics research) and materials (including metals). If chemicals, plastics and films are also

counted as materials, this is the single largest area. Despite strong activity in biotechnology and materials,

the diversity of business activity—ranging from energy to consumer products—is just as notable. 

The companies included in Figure 5 range in size, with the largest number being either very small (<10

employees) or large (>1000 employees). Small companies depend on funding from both public and private

sources, including venture capital. A separate survey by Lux Research estimates that the distribution of

approximately $1.1 billion in venture capital funding for nanotechnology invested between 1998 and 2004 has

been predominantly in electronics and semiconductors (41%) and nanobiotechnology (40%). Other sectors

include specialty chemicals and nanomaterials (14%) and instrumentation (5%) (Lux Research Inc. 2004). 

Figure 5. 

Target Industries for Companies Involved in R&D, Manufacture, Sale, and Use of

Nanotechnology in 2004 (Total Number of Companies = 599)

Source: EmTech Research 2005

Biomedical/Life Sciences

Other

Consumer Products

Defense/Security

Energy/Environment

General (not industry specific) 

Transportation (incl. auto/aviation/aerospace)

Semiconductors/ICs

Computers

Communications/Optical Equip.

Materials (incl. metals)

Chemicals (incl. plastics)

Films
4D. TAG-Identified Areas of Opportunity

As part of its review, the NNAP surveyed its TAG members to gain insight into what areas of research 

those experts thought were likely to yield high impact advances. Below is a selection of the near-, mid-, 

and long-term areas in which TAG members felt nanotechnology would make a significant impact.

Near-term (1-5 years)

• Nanocomposites with greatly improved strength-to-weight ratio, toughness, and other characteristics

• Nanomembranes and filters for water purification, desalination, and other applications

• Improved catalysts with one or more orders of magnitude less precious metal 

• Sensitive, selective, reliable solid-state chemical and biological sensors

• Point-of-care medical diagnostic devices

• Long-lasting rechargeable batteries

Mid-term (5-10 years)

• Targeted drug therapies

• Enhanced medical imaging

• High efficiency, cost effective solar cells

• Improved fuel cells 

• Efficient technology for water-to-hydrogen conversion

• Carbon sequestration 

Long-term (20+ years)

• Drug delivery through cell walls

• Molecular electronics

• All-optical information processing

• Neural prosthetics for treating paralysis, blindness, and other conditions

• Conversion of energy from thermal and chemical sources in the environment 

The opportunities identified by the TAG suggest the group’s enthusiasm about the potential for technologies

that will improve the quality of life for all by providing clean water, affordable energy, and better healthcare.

5. Other Leadership Factors

An additional concern worth mentioning when considering U.S. leadership in nanotechnology, and one that

PCAST has studied extensively over the past year, is the relative decline in the number of U.S. undergraduate

and graduate degrees in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) fields. PCAST’s June 2004 Report,

Sustaining the Nation’s Innovation Ecosystem: Maintaining the Strength of Our Science and Engineering

Capabilities (PCAST 2004) outlines data that raise serious concerns about the pace at which other countries,

particularly industrialized Asian nations, are educating their citizens in STEM-related fields. 

✩22
✩23

For example, in China over 39% of undergraduate degrees in 2001 were in engineering, compared with 5% in

the United States. The numbers indicate that China is producing over three times as many trained engineers

as the United States. Similarly, at the post-graduate level, the number of Asian citizens awarded degrees in

natural science and engineering is significantly increasing, whereas the number of comparable U.S. degrees

has declined in recent years. The increase in STEM talent, especially in Asia, coupled with significantly lower

wage structures, threatens to lead to greater pressure, not only on U.S.-based high-tech manufacturing, but

even on leading-edge R&D. While it is unclear how this shift will impact nanotechnology specifically, it is

worth taking steps to ensure that the pool of U.S. nanotechnology researchers and technical workers remains

strong. In fact, nanotechnology experts from the TAG who are currently engaged in university-based

nanotechnology research particularly emphasized the need for high-quality U.S. students to carry out future

nanotechnology research.

6. Conclusions

By reviewing the history of nanotechnology R&D funding, it is clear that the United States has been the

leader in nanotechnology up to this point. Early recognition of the potential benefits of a coordinated

nanotechnology R&D initiative, along with strong financial commitment across the Federal agencies, has

enabled the United States to establish this leadership position. Measures of research output in the form of

patents and publications further demonstrate U.S. leadership.

Despite the optimistic numbers, the trends in all categories—investment, publications, and patents—show

steady erosion in the percentage lead of the United States over time. The Federal budget for nanotechnology

R&D has begun to level, whereas the cumulative investment worldwide continues to grow. The NNAP notes

that programmatic investments in a given area such as nanotechnology, whether by the United States or by

other nations, cannot indefinitely continue their rapid increase. The significant increases in nanotechnology

funding recently made by many other nations (and regions) may reflect efforts to catch-up to the United

States. Nevertheless, the NNI should monitor worldwide investment and activities and remain cognizant of

the U.S. competitive position; the NNAP certainly will continue to do so. And in any event, if the United

States is to maintain its leadership in nanoscale science, engineering, and technology within current tight

fiscal constraints, as well as to capitalize on the resulting innovations to achieve economic and other

benefits, the NNI must continue to ensure that every dollar is well spent.
CHAPTER 2: Is This Money Well Spent and the 

Program Well Managed?

Whereas the preceding chapter scanned the global activity for the purposes of assessing the U.S. strength in

nanotechnology R&D compared to other nations, this chapter looks inward to determine if the U.S. Federal

investment of over $4 billion from 2001 through 2005 has been worthwhile, and whether the management of

the NNI will lead to wise investments in the future.

1. NNI Strategic Plan and Management

1A. Vision, Goals & Funding

From the outset, the NNI has been a multidisciplinary program with the following key elements:

• Basic research aimed at fundamental knowledge creation

• Applied research targeted at applications in which nanotechnology is expected to have an impact

• Infrastructure in the form of facilities, equipment and instrumentation

• Education for students of all ages, teachers, and the public, including workforce training

• Societal implications, including environmental, health, economic, ethical, legal, and other issues

In December 2004, the NNI released an updated Strategic Plan (NSTC 2004) describing the vision and goals of

the Initiative, and the strategies by which those goals are to be achieved. The vision as stated in the NNI

Strategic Plan is “a future in which the ability to understand and control matter on the nanoscale leads to a

revolution in technology and industry.” The plan identifies four goals that must be accomplished in order to

make the vision a reality:

1) Maintain a world-class research and development program aimed at realizing the 

full potential of nanotechnology

2) Facilitate transfer of new technologies into products for economic growth, 

jobs and other public benefit

3) Develop educational resources, a skilled workforce and the supporting infrastructure 

and tools to advance nanotechnology

4) Support responsible development of nanotechnology

These high-level goals directly or indirectly incorporate all of the original program elements listed above. 

In addition, the Strategic Plan defines major subject areas of investment, or “Program Component Areas”

(PCAs). According to the Plan, the PCAs relate to areas of investment that are critical to accomplishing the

goals, cutting across the interests and needs of the participating agencies. The PCAs are:

1) Fundamental nanoscale phenomena and processes

2) Nanomaterials

3) Nanoscale devices and systems

4) Instrumentation research, metrology, and standards for nanotechnology

5) Nanomanufacturing

6) Major research facilities and instrumentation acquisition

7) Societal dimensions

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✩25

The PCAs (which are defined in the Appendix) appear to provide a rational means by which the NNI

investment can be categorized. Progress in each PCA is related to some degree to the achievement of the four

goals as shown in Table 5. The fact that each PCA includes activities that take place within multiple agencies

(as shown in Table 6) can and should result in discoveries by one agency that benefit others. Although the

NNAP members believe that these PCAs can serve to focus and manage the overall investment appropriately,

the Panel notes that this grouping is silent with respect to certain areas that are expected to play a

significant role, in particular research at the interface of nanotechnology and biology (e.g., adaptation of

biological processes for synthesis of nanostructured nonbiologic material) and research in advanced

computational science for theoretical modeling and simulation of nanoscale materials and processes.

Although these areas do not necessarily need to be considered as separate PCAs in their own right, the 

NNAP suggests that the NNI emphasize their importance within the existing PCA framework. 

Table 5. 

Relationships Between Program Component Areas and the Overarching NNI Goals

Source: Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee (NSET). 2004. The National Nanotechnology

Initiative: Strategic Plan. Washington, D.C. December 2004.

Program Component Areas:

Fundamental Nanoscale Phenomena and Processes 

Nanomaterials

Nanoscale Devices and Systems

Instrumentation Research, Metrology, and Standards for

Nanotechnology

Nanomanufacturing

Major Research Facilities and Instrumentation Acquisition

Societal Dimensions

critical to goal

primary relevance

secondary relevance

Goal 1:

Maintain a world-class

research and development

program aimed at realizing the full

potential of nanotechnology

Goal 2: Facilitate transfer of newtechnologies into products for

economic growth, jobs, and otherpublic benefitGoal 3: Develop educational

resources, a skilled workforce, and

the supporting infrastructure and

tools to advance nanotechnology

Goal 4: Support responsibledevelopment of nanotechnology
The NNI Strategic Plan states that “advancement may be expedited by grouping together work in a particular

PCA that is taking place within multiple agencies.” The NNAP agrees with this statement. To ensure that 

such advancement not only may but will be expedited, the NNAP recommends that the NSET Subcommittee

perform a government-wide review of the work being performed within each PCA. 

1B. Programmatic and Funding Balance

As previously noted, the NNI today involves over $1 billion annually in research funding that is distributed to

many agencies. One of the challenges, and indeed a central reason for having a coordinated Federal research

effort, is to ensure balance across the program. In the case of the NNI, balance does not refer simply to the

distribution of investments among the PCAs. It also means balance between short- and long-term research,

between research focused on fundamental discovery and on development of applications, and between R&D

aimed primarily at advancing the technology versus research that is focused on understanding the

environmental, health, and other societal implications of the new technology.

These distinctions illustrate the complexity and diversity of the NNI, qualities that offer many opportunities

for investment and management. In the NNAP’s view the NSET Subcommittee, in its coordination of the NNI,

has been aggressive in grappling with these issues of balance. In the course of developing the Strategic Plan,

the NSET Subcommittee has not only carried out internal planning activities, but also sought input from

various stakeholders outside the Government through a variety of means, including open workshops.

The NNAP members believe that the NNI Strategic Plan demonstrates an appropriate approach to balancing

the various aspects of the program. In particular, NNI agencies are moving responsibly to increase support for

research into the environmental and health effects of nanomaterials relative to the investments in support of

technological advancement. Likewise, the Strategic Plan also demonstrates an appreciation of the importance

of actively transitioning research results into commercial applications. 

Based on the NNI 2006 Supplement to the President’s Budget (NSTC 2005a), the NNAP members believe the

FY 2006 budget represents a reasonable distribution of funding among PCA categories and across

participating research agencies, with the following caveats.

First, the NNAP is aware of concern among nanotechnology experts, including TAG members, about the level

of participation by agencies that are expected to be substantially impacted by nanotechnology in the future,

including the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Transportation (DOT), and the

Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The NNAP members agree that nanotechnology research is relevant

and important to the mission of these agencies, and encourage the NNI to promote awareness within the

agencies of the initiative and of nanotechnology solutions to agency needs.

Second, the NNAP notes that the request for $11 million for USDA nanotechnology R&D in FY 2006 is a

significant increase from $3 million to be spent in FY 2005. The NNAP members are pleased to learn that in

addition to the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service of the USDA, the Forest Service

has plans to develop R&D programs in nanotechnology. 

Finally, whereas USDA appears to be growing its nanotechnology R&D program, DOT and DHS do not appear

to be doing so. The NNAP is concerned that DHS, in particular—with its need for advanced technology

solutions for sensors and materials—is investing only $1 million in FY 2005 and 2006. The NNAP encourages

the NNI to reach out to agencies like DHS and DOT to further the NNI’s goal of Government-wide coordination

of nanotechnology R&D. 

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✩27

Table 6. 

Relationships Between Program Component Areas and NNI Agency Missions, 

Interests, and Needs

Source: Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee (NSET). 2004. The National Nanotechnology

Initiative: Strategic Plan. Washington, D.C. December 2004.

CPSC ■ ■ ●● ●

DHS ● ●● ■

DOC (BIS) ■ ●●● ■

DOC (NIST) ■ ■ ■ ● ● ■ ■

DOC (TA) ■ ■ ■ ■ ● ■ ●

DOC (USPTO) ●●●●

DOD ■ ● ● ■ ● ■ ■

DOE ● ● ■ ■ ■ ● ■

DOJ ●

DOS ●

DOT ● ■ ● ●

DOTreas ● ●

EPA ■ ● ● ■ ● ●

HHS (FDA) ■ ● ●

HHS (NIH) ● ■ ● ■ ■ ■

HHS (NIOSH) ■ ■ ●

IC ■ ● ● ■ ■

ITC ●● ● ●

NASA ■ ● ● ■ ■

NRC ●

NSF ● ● ■ ■ ● ●●

USDA ■ ● ● ■ ●

Fundamental Nanoscale Phenomena and Processes NanomaterialsNanoscale Devices 

and Systems InstrumentationResearch,

Metrology,

and Standards forNanotechnology Nanomanufacturing Major ResearchFacilities and Instrumentation AcquisitionSocietal Dimensions

● - Primary ■ - Secondary 

Shading indicates agencies with budgets for nanotechnology R&D in FY 2005.
✩28

Quantum Dots Glow Brightly to Assist Surgeons and Aid Medical Research

In cancer surgery, after doctors remove a tumor, they also remove nearby lymph nodes and examine

them for signs of malignancy. The nodes connected most directly to the tumor-affected area are called

“sentinel nodes,” and if they are cancer-free it is a good indication that the disease has not spread.

But it can be tricky to find the sentinel node for a particular tumor.

The current method for identifying sentinel lymph nodes is to inject a radioactive tracer and a visible

dye near the tumor. A radiation detector locates the node and the dye provides confirmation during

surgery. But pinpointing the radiation is not always accurate and the procedure requires considerable

experience on the part of the doctor.

A new method has been developed by researchers at Harvard Medical School (funded by NIH) using

semiconductor nanoparticles—or “quantum dots” (QDs)—which may make it much easier to find and

remove sentinel lymph nodes. QDs are fluorescent, emitting light at a particular wavelength depending

on their size. By tailoring the size of the QDs to approximately 15-20 nanometers, they emit light in the

near infrared, a wavelength that passes harmlessly through the body, allowing the light to be detected

using an infrared camera from outside the lymph node and even outside the body. The QD size must

also be small enough to flow through the lymph system, but still be trapped by the nodes.

Not only do QDs eliminate the need for the use of radioactive materials, they are brighter and much

longer lasting and can be sized for more efficient concentration by the lymph nodes, compared to

currently available fluorescent dyes. In early studies on pigs, surgeons found the QDs make locating

the sentinel lymph node much easier. 

In other research at Emory University and the Georgia Institute of Technology, QDs have been attached

to antibodies that bind specifically to prostate tumors in mice. These types of experiments are first

steps in being able to image, identify, and ultimately treat cancers with a single agent. 

The brightness and staying power of QDs also make them useful in research for imaging at the single

molecule level and for tracking processes in animals or in cellular experiments over longer time periods.

QD imaging system, including visible and infrared light

sources and visible and infrared cameras.

The photographs above are published with permission from: An Operational Near-Infrared Flourescence Imaging System

Prototype for Large Animal Surgery, Technology in Cancer Research and Treatment, volume 2, page 558, 2003, Adenine Press,

http://www.tcrt.org.

Use of the QD imaging system during animal surgery.
✩29

1C. Cautionary Thoughts

While the general approach to managing and funding the NNI in terms of goals and priorities seems sound,

the NNAP would like to provide a few cautionary thoughts as the program moves forward:

• Flexibility. Because nanotechnology generally is in the early stages of development and deployment,

it is appropriate to pursue many avenues of opportunity. At the same time, it is important to remain

flexible and not to allow “institutions” to develop around specific research funding areas. Constraints

on the levels of Federal funding can be expected to continue, and for the NNI to succeed priorities

must be made and real opportunities pursued, even if that means scaling back or eliminating lesser

priorities as the program moves forward. The overarching goal of scientific and engineering

excellence is what must be remembered. 

• Technology Transfer. Recognizing the increasing levels of activity by industries and by the States, the

NNI should foster the greatest practical interaction among these stakeholders to stimulate innovation

while protecting worker and public health and safety. While the Federal Government supports

technology transfer, it must not at the same time lose sight of its primary responsibility: to advance

the basic research surrounding nanotechnology.

• Societal Implications. The NNI program is appropriately aggressive in its approach to understanding

and addressing the societal implications and the environmental and health effects of

nanotechnology. Because research into legal, ethical, economic, and other societal effects does not

require costly instrumentation, the funding required will be smaller in comparison to components

where such instrumentation is a necessity. Nevertheless, such societal research is critical. The NNAP

members believe that the budget that is currently directed to societal issues—approximately 8%—

appears appropriate.

• Leveraging. To maximize the value of NNI efforts aimed at each of the four goals, the NSET

Subcommittee should pursue interactions and partnerships with other Government and 

non-government organizations with related or overlapping goals and interests. Such organizations

include professional societies that have educational activities, interagency groups focused on

environment or manufacturing, and agencies that have not been previously engaged, such as 

the Departments of Education and Labor. 

1D. Grand Challenges

The concept of “grand challenges” as a means of guiding and focusing the Federal R&D program on a few

targeted opportunities has been widely discussed. Opinions vary among the members of the TAG. Some

members argue that nanotechnology is not yet mature enough for the program to be focused on just a few

applications. Others believe that such focus is precisely what is necessary to ensure the most rapid progress

toward opportunities that are within 5 to 10 years’ reach. In its current form, the NNI Strategic Plan does 

not include specific grand challenges, but rather highlights areas of application that are supported by R&D 

in multiple PCAs. 
After considering a number of grand challenge options, the NNAP members believe that nanotechnology 

is at too early a stage and too diverse to be pigeonholed into a few grand challenges. The role of the 

Federal Government today should be to invest broadly in the best ideas for advancing knowledge in support

of the NNI vision. That being said, the NNAP encourages the individual agencies, within their own

nanotechnology R&D programs, to identify performance-based targets. A good example of such an approach

is the Cancer Nanotechnology Plan developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) (http://nano.cancer.gov/

alliance_cancer_nanotechnology_plan.asp). This plan identifies key areas of opportunity in which

nanotechnology can address the NCI’s vision of eliminating suffering and death from cancer, as well as

establishes milestones for measuring progress in each area.

1E. Management

The NNI Strategic Plan outlines the management structure under which the NNI operates. The various

Government and non-government organizations with a role in the NNI, and their relationships, are shown in

Figure 6. As described briefly in the introduction of this report, the NSET Subcommittee of the NSTC Committee

on Technology is responsible for planning, coordinating, and implementing NNI programs and activities. 

Under the NSET Subcommittee, there are currently four interagency working groups focused on specific issues:

• Nanotechnology Environmental and Health Implications (NEHI) Working Group. This working

group brings together representatives from agencies that support nanotechnology R&D and those

with responsibility for regulating the manufacture, sale, or use of materials and other products based

on nanotechnology. The purposes of the working group are to facilitate the exchange of information

about the environmental and health implications of nanotechnology among research and regulatory

agencies, and to identify research needed to support regulatory decision-making.

• Industry Liaison Working Group. This group works with industry representatives to establish

channels through which the NNI provides the industry with information on its R&D activities, while

the industry in turn offers suggestions to the NNI on how it might best support pre-competitive R&D

that meets industry needs. Liaison activities already have been initiated with representatives from the

semiconductor, chemical, aerospace, biotechnology, and automotive industries. 

• Manufacturing Working Group. This group was established to coordinate activities related to reliable, 

scaled up manufacture of nanoscale materials, components, and products. Activities in this area

currently are taking place primarily within NSF, the Department of Defense, and the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST). 

• Nanotechnology Public Engagement Group. This group was recently established to develop

approaches by which the NNI can communicate more effectively with the public. The NNI recognizes

that most members of the general public know little about nanotechnology. As research results

proceed to the marketplace, it is important that the public becomes more informed about what

nanotechnology is—and what it is not. 

National Nanotechnology Coordination Office. Due to the scope of the NNI and the interagency coordination

activities, a National Nanotechnology Coordination Office (NNCO) was established in 2001 to provide technical

and administrative support. The NNCO was made statutory by the Act. A particularly important function of the

NNCO is as a conduit for information. It serves as the point of contact on Federal nanotechnology activities

for both non-government parties and Government agencies that are not participating in the NNI. It also has

responsibilities for public engagement and maintains the NNI website (www.nano.gov). 

✩30
✩31

Figure 6. 

Organizations with a Role in the NNI and Their Relationships

Source: NSTC 2004
2. NNI Accomplishments

The United States has invested heavily in nanotechnology R&D over the past several years. It is valid to ask

what we have obtained from our investment and what opportunities are ahead in the short and long term. 

Accomplishments of the NNI include:

• Advanced the foundational knowledge for control of matter at the nanoscale with over 2500 active

research projects in 2004 at more than 500 universities, Government labs, and other research

institutions in all 50 States.

• “Created an interdisciplinary nanotechnology community,” according to the NSF Committee of

Visitors, an outside review panel, in 2004.

• Built up an infrastructure of over 35 nanotechnology research centers, networks, and user facilities.

• Promoted understanding of societal implications and applications through the investment of

approximately 8% of the NNI budget for research related primarily to the environment, health, safety,

and other societal concerns. The amount is greater if the portion of research that is related to, but

not primarily directed at, such concerns is also included.

• Established nanotechnology education programs to reach students, not only in graduate schools but

also in undergraduate, high school, and middle school. These programs involved over 10,000 graduate

students and teachers in 2004 alone.

• Supported public outreach via a regularly updated website (www.nano.gov), which has become a

major resource for researchers, educators, the press, and the public.

Over the past several years, a substantial commitment has been made toward the development of an

infrastructure that includes both well-equipped user facilities designed to support widespread

nanotechnology R&D and research centers that promote multidisciplinary approaches to focused areas. 

The NNAP notes that the user facilities and research centers provide opportunities for researchers from

academia, industry, and Government laboratories to interact. This interaction will not only advance

nanotechnology, but will also promote understanding among these communities and will enhance the

transfer of technologies into commercial applications. Figure 7 shows the infrastructure that currently exists,

is planned, or is under construction. 

User Facilities. The NNI supports geographically distributed user facilities that provide researchers from

academia, Government, and industry with broad access to expertise and advanced instrumentation for the

fabrication, characterization, and modeling and simulation of nanoscale and nanostructured materials,

devices, and systems. The Federal Government’s investment in such expensive and advanced facilities and

equipment enables researchers to share access to state-of-the-art tools that are otherwise too costly for

individual researchers and many smaller institutions. 

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✩33

Figure 7. 

NNI User Facilities and Research Centers

Source: NSTC 2005a
NNI user facilities include the NSF-funded National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN) and the Network

for Computational Nanotechnology (NCN). The NNIN is a network of 13 partner universities that provides fabrication

and instrumentation, equipment, and expertise. The 7-member NCN supports computational research and education,

as well as Internet-accessible modeling and simulation applications and algorithms. Also nearing completion are five

user facilities that will be collocated with large-scale facilities at Department of Energy (DOE) laboratories. These

DOE Nanoscale Science Research Centers (NSRCs) will be available to all researchers on a merit-reviewed basis.

The NNAP views Federal investment in user facilities and computational capabilities that are made available

to the broader U.S. research community to be wise investments. The NNI should seek to make the availability

of such facilities and capabilities widely known and should ensure that such facilities are adequately

maintained and staffed.

Research Centers. In addition to user facilities that serve the broader research community, the NNI is investing

in a number of centers of excellence for multidisciplinary research in focused areas. To date, nearly two dozen

such centers have been established (see Figure 7) and several more are to be awarded in 2005. Typically, each

center, although led by a single university, involves researchers from multiple universities, with partners from

industry, and sometimes from Federal laboratories as well. These centers provide valuable opportunities for

researchers from various disciplines to work cooperatively on a focused research topic. In addition, by integrating

researchers from academia, industry, and Government, the centers create a “hothouse” environment for ideas and

innovation, as well as enhance the transition of basic research into commercial applications. 

Members of the TAG differ on the optimum number of centers, and even on whether the research results at

such centers are superior to the results that might otherwise be obtained by small research teams. Whereas

the traditional model of investment in individual investigators is perhaps ideal for the support of curiosity 

(or knowledge-driven) research, the multidisciplinary, multi-investigator research center approach can lead to

more rapid and systematic advancement. 

Over the past decade or more, NSF has gradually increased the fraction of its agency-wide funding that is

spent on centers vs. individual investigators or small research groups. Today, the agency invests roughly 20%

in centers across the agency and within its NNI portfolio. The NNAP members believe that nanotechnology

research is particularly multidisciplinary in nature and therefore may benefit more from investment in large

centers than would many other technologies. 

Although NSF, with its broad mission to advance knowledge, supports multidisciplinary centers, there may be

an even more compelling case for mission-oriented NNI agencies such as the Department of Defense and the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to consider a greater use of application-oriented

research centers. Nevertheless, the establishment of centers across NNI should be carefully managed to avoid

unnecessary duplication, and a balance should be maintained between research to be done in centers and

that to be done by smaller research teams.

3. Conclusions

The NNAP members believe that the money invested by the Federal Government in nanotechnology has been

wisely spent. Research advances are diverse and abundant, as disclosed in patents and publications and at

numerous conferences and workshops. Despite a growing number of products that incorporate

nanotechnology, in general, our fundamental understanding of nanoscale processes and behaviors is at a

very early stage, and many applications will not be developed until well into the future. It is critical,

therefore, that the Federal Government sustain its investment to ensure that the United States continues to

be a leader in this emerging technology and reaps the resulting benefits.

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✩35

CHAPTER 3: Are We Addressing Societal Concerns and

Potential Risks?

The development and application of any new technology has societal effects. For example, advances in

assistive technologies have enabled people with disabilities to participate in and contribute to their

communities and workplaces in ways not previously possible. New technologies, however, can displace older

ones, leading to a parallel shift in job opportunities; because new jobs potentially require different skills,

such changes pose challenges for workforce training and the educational system. Unintended hazardous

effects to the environment and public health also impact society. Finally, advances in technology often raise

ethical questions, such as effects on personal privacy, medical ethics, and access to benefits.

The NNI has recognized the need to address each of these areas. Its efforts in this area are focused and

coordinated under the Program Component Area on Societal Dimensions. In the FY 2006 budget, $82 million

(8% of the total NNI budget) is requested within this PCA. 

Details of the NNAP’s evaluation of NNI activities to assess and address societal implications and risks are

provided below.

1. Environmental, Health, and Safety

The possibility of unintended and undesirable consequences depends on two factors—hazard and exposure.

Although researchers must be cognizant of potential hazards when working with new materials having

unknown properties, these activities pose little risk to the public or the environment. As new technologies

begin to find application in manufacturing processes and in commercial products, however, the potential

risks beyond the lab environment must be understood. The NNAP notes that many technologies and products

have associated risks that are successfully managed in order to gain their benefits—for example, gasoline,

electricity, and medical X-rays. 

The state of knowledge with respect to the actual risks of nanotechnology is incomplete. The NNI is funding

research within several agencies to develop a broad understanding of the environmental and health effects 

of nanotechnology, in particular those nanomaterials that show the most promise for commercial use. The

NNAP draws special attention to the ongoing research by the National Toxicology Program (an interagency

program within the Department of Health and Human Services) to determine the toxicity of specific

nanomaterials, and by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to ensure worker safety. 

The NNAP members believe that the greatest likelihood of exposure to nanomaterials is during manufacture,

and therefore agree with the prioritization of research on potential hazards from workplace exposure.

Of the total amount to be spent on researching the societal dimensions and impact of nanotechnology, 

the NNI plans to invest about half of the NNI budget allocated to this PCA for FY 2006, or 4% of the total

budget, for R&D that is aimed primarily at understanding and addressing the potential risks posed by

nanotechnology to health and the environment. This amount does not include substantial research that has a

different primary focus but that nonetheless extends our knowledge of health and environmental effects of

nanomaterials. Many projects funded by the National Institutes of Health fall into this category. For example,

research on the use of nanoparticles for medical imaging would likely include a basic biocompatibility

evaluation. In order to estimate the level of this secondary contribution, the NNAP has engaged the Science

and Technology Policy Institute to conduct a survey of NIH-funded nanotechnology research projects.
The Federal Government has a role not only in funding research on environmental and health effects, but in

setting appropriate standards, guidelines, and regulations to protect the public and the environment. 

The NNAP members are pleased to note the formal establishment of the Nanotechnology Environmental and

Health Implications Working Group under the NSET Subcommittee. The working group has enabled exchange

of information among research and regulatory agencies and has brought together a group that can both 

identify the research needed in support of regulatory decision-making and implement those priorities into

the R&D program.

2. Education and Workforce Preparation

The widespread application of nanotechnology in coming decades means that the United States will need

trained workers in many fields, including future researchers in every technical discipline, skilled technicians

for jobs in various industries, and teachers at all levels. The pipeline that produces new researchers,

technicians, and science teachers is fed by a stream of primary and secondary students. The exciting

prospects offered by nanotechnology are attracting students of all ages to learn more. 

The need to provide and support a range of education and training activities is an integral part of the NNI.

The principal mechanism by which the NNI provides education is through research grants to university

researchers. These grants support graduate and postdoctoral training at the cutting edge of nanoscale

science, engineering, and technology R&D. 

The National Science Foundation is the lead NNI agency for education-related programs beyond graduate

training through research grants. The agency plans to invest about $28 million in FY 2006 for nanotechnology

educational programs, including curriculum development in universities, the integration of research and

education, distance learning, and courses and tutorials by professional societies. In addition, NSF-funded

university-based centers are required to provide educational and outreach services to a broad audience, for

example to teachers, the broader university community, or the public. 

NSF is funding two activities focused specifically on nanotechnology education. First, the agency is funding

the Nanotechnology Center for Learning and Teaching at Northwestern University to develop scientisteducators at the middle school, high school, and undergraduate levels. The center also will serve as a

clearinghouse for curricular materials, instructional methods, and activities in nanotechnology education.

More than 12,000 students and teachers are expected to be involved in NSF’s nanotechnology education

programs in FY 2006.

Second, in an effort to improve informal education—that is, learning outside of traditional classroom

settings—NSF plans to award a grant in 2005 for the establishment of a network that links science museums

and other informal science education organizations with nanoscale science and engineering research

organizations. The goal of this network is to foster public awareness and understanding of, and engagement

with, nanoscale science, engineering, and technology.

Taken together, these efforts are expected to help grow the workforce that will be needed to fill the

anticipated demand. However, the NNAP members strongly believe that more needs to be done to bolster 

the number of STEM graduates and teachers and encourage the NNI to continue to build upon the 

existing programs. 

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✩37

Nanoengineered Membranes Generate Clean Water, Save Energy, and Recycle Resources

Access to clean water is a public health issue of global proportions. In the developing world, 80% of

all disease is water-related, and providing access to clean water is perhaps the single most important

step to improving health. In some areas of developed countries like the Western United States,

agricultural practices and other activities contaminate scarce water supplies. In California alone 4,000

water wells have been shut down due to nitrate contamination from farms, feedlots, and septic tanks.

Reverse osmosis and other existing methods for producing clean water are too inefficient and costly

for widespread use.

With support from the Department of Energy (DOE) through Laboratory Directed Research and

Development funding, researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) are

nanoengineering membrane systems using sophisticated computer modeling and advanced

manufacturing technology. At the heart of the devices are electrically conductive membranes with

tightly controlled pore sizes of just a few nanometers (see figures below).

By requiring less energy and by removing only targeted pollutants while leaving behind benign or

beneficial compounds, nanoporous membrane systems reduce treatment costs by at least half

compared to conventional technologies. LLNL is focusing on systems that remove nitrate, perchlorate,

arsenic, and selenium, but the technology can be tailored to extract many other contaminants as well.

Application of these new membrane technologies can add millions of acre-feet of low-cost water to 

the Western United States, where water shortages are becoming acute. 

The same technology can be used to recycle resources and minimize waste in industrial processes. 

DOE estimates that replacing energy-inefficient processes used in industry today, including

evaporation and distillation, with selective nanomembrane technologies could save one “quad” or 

1015 BTUs, the equivalent of 1% of total U.S. energy use. 

Graphics courtesy of William Bourcier, LLNL

Schematic showing system with membranes of

engineered nanopores (left) in electrically

conductive materials. System selectively removes

target species, allowing low-cost treatment of water

containing toxic substances such as arsenic, or

pathogens such as viruses. 

Field emission scanning electron micrograph of a

“smart” membrane with pores drilled to 10

nanometers in diameter—the size needed for nitrate

ions to pass through. Nitrate is a major drinking

water contaminant in agricultural areas.
3. Ethical, Legal, and Other Societal Implications

Nanotechnology, like biotechnology, has the potential to require individuals, corporations, and governments

to make decisions that have ethical, legal, and other societal implications. To address such issues, the NNI

must actively engage scholars who represent disciplines that might not have been previously engaged in

nanotechnology-related research. Moreover, these efforts should be integrated with conventional scientific

and engineering research programs so that the people who develop nanotechnology are more fully aware of

the societal implications of their work.

4. Public Engagement

In the United States, the public is generally very supportive of the Federal Government’s investment in

scientific research. In 2001, 81% of NSF survey respondents agreed with the statement “Even if it brings no

immediate benefits, scientific research that advances the frontiers of knowledge is necessary and should be

supported by the Federal Government” (NSB 2002). To sustain this support, the scientific community and the

Federal agencies that fund scientific research must communicate more directly with the public, not through

surrogates such as the entertainment industry. 

Through the NNI website and through outreach activities at the NSF-funded centers and DOE user facilities,

the NNI has established channels to communicate with members of various stakeholder groups, including the

broader public. In addition, the NSET Subcommittee recently formed a subgroup focused on public

engagement activities. The NNAP will follow the group’s progress. For its own part the NNAP has held open

meetings focusing on nanotechnology issues, which have provided the public with several opportunities to

provide input.

5. Conclusions

The members of the NNAP compliment the NNI for recognizing, early on, that nanotechnology can have

potentially broad societal implications—both positive and negative—and for taking steps to understand and,

where necessary, to address these implications. The NNAP members believe that the level of funding for

research related to societal aspects of nanotechnology is adequate at this time but that the NNI must ensure

that the results are disseminated appropriately. In particular, information on environmental or health effects

should be shared, especially with those who have regulatory responsibilities.

In addition, the NNAP cannot emphasize too strongly the importance of building the education infrastructure

that will be needed to support the development and application of nanotechnology. Although not generally

included as a “societal concern” when policymakers and others discuss nanotechnology, education should be

an element of the discussion. The NNI has many excellent programs in this area, which should be held up as a

model for other parts of the Federal R&D enterprise. 

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CHAPTER 4: How Can We Do Better? 

Since its inception, the NNI has done a very good job of organizing the pertinent Federal Government

agencies around the nanotechnology topic, establishing a robust national research infrastructure, and—

through the NSET Subcommittee and the NNCO—coordinating and tracking programmatic activity. With 22

different participating agencies, each with its own distinct mission, these accomplishments deserve 

high praise. 

The NNI’s success has contributed to increased levels of public attention and to more acute international

competition, and thus to new challenges. The NNI initially provided the means to spur and organize agency

participation. Although it continues to serve this purpose by steadily engaging additional agencies, in the

future NNI will increasingly be called upon to show progress and demonstrate real added value as well.

The NNAP members are impressed with the NNI program in general, and offer the following recommendations

to further strengthen it in light of expected fiscal constraints. In addition to program management and

funding issues, a number of other issues have emerged that warrant special consideration; these are outlined

below along with the Panel’s recommendations.

1. Program Investment Areas and Funding Levels

Upon reviewing the NNI Strategic Plan issued in December 2004, NNAP members believe that, overall, the

Plan provides an appropriate framework under which to implement a broadly based Federal R&D program. 

The Program Component Areas are appropriate for the program at this time; however, the NNAP recommends

that PCAs be assessed periodically to ensure that they adequately cover and describe the entire scope of the 

NNI R&D portfolio. To accelerate progress in the various PCAs, the NNAP further recommends that the NNI: 

(1) review activities Government-wide, and (2) identify one or more research targets within each PCA.

The Administration has made nanotechnology an R&D priority. The NNAP members believe that it is critical

that the United States maintain a leadership position in nanotechnology and therefore recommend continued

robust funding for the NNI. 

Beyond this fundamental endorsement, the NNAP also recommends several additional items for NNI

consideration, as indicated in the following sections. 

2. Technology Transfer

The Federal Government is developing strategies to assist U.S. companies in accelerating the commercial

development of nanotechnology, particularly in areas where commercial development complements 

U.S. Government requirements. Today, most nanotechnology products on the market are produced by large

businesses and are evolutionary in nature—although with real performance improvements (e.g., powders 

for composites and coatings and nanostructured semiconductor devices). Although efforts are being made 

to accelerate the transition of nanotechnology into practical use, nanotechnology is still primarily

“nanoscience”—that is, the technological developments are at a very early stage. The time to

commercialization for many of the resulting technologies is estimated to be a decade or more. Startup

companies are forming, but in most cases, their products are still under development. 
Nanotechnology start-ups and other industry players commonly appeal for funding to transition research into

the prototyping and product development stages. There is disagreement about the point in the development

cycle at which the Government should hand off to the private sector. Although funding for nanotechnology

product development may be appropriate to meet specific agency mission requirements (for instance

biological sensors for the Departments of Homeland Security and Defense), there is an ongoing policy debate

regarding whether the U.S. Government should fund commercial product development that is not directly tied

to Government requirements. Many would argue that if a yet-to-be developed product had true commercial

appeal, commercial investors would step up to fund this transition. Others argue that, particularly for novel

technologies like nanotechnology, the Federal Government has an interest in helping to accelerate

commercial development in order to ensure U.S. economic leadership in this area. 

PCAST has studied the issue of technology transfer extensively over the past several years, and takes the position

that while the Federal Government can take steps to help promote technology transfer, the primary responsibility

for funding product manufacturing should be left to the private sector with appropriate assistance from State 

and local governments. Indeed, private networks to help manufacture new nanotechnology products are forming 

(see, for example, the MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange at: http://www.mems-exchange.org). Furthermore, 

States are investing heavily in nanotechnology as part of their respective economic development strategies. 

2A. Federal Government Role

It is the opinion of the NNAP that the first and most important responsibility of the Federal Government with

respect to nanotechnology is to fund the basic research that will form the intellectual foundation for eventual

commercial development and exploitation. In other words, the United States needs great science and great

engineering. The Federal Government has a rich history of funding basic research, which has resulted in discoveries

that underlie many entrepreneurial and economic success stories. It is critical that the United States continue this

tradition in the area of nanotechnology. While the intense international competitive pressure makes it tempting to

“rush to market,” the leadership position of the United States in nanotechnology depends heavily on the intellectual

property amassed through a commitment to building and supporting a base of fundamental knowledge. 

The NNAP members strongly believe that, at this stage in the development of nanotechnology research, the

best way to ensure U.S. economic leadership in nanotechnology is for the Federal Government to continue

focusing on and funding basic nanotechnology research, including support for advanced instrumentation and

infrastructure. This is not to say that the Federal Government should ignore opportunities for research that is

to be transitioned for commercial gain. Existing programs can provide assistance in this area. The Small

Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and the Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs are

available at U.S. Government research agencies to fund the critical early stages of technology development,

including nanotechnology. According to the NNI FY 2006 Supplement to the President’s Budget (NSTC 2005a),

several agencies within NNI specify nanotechnology as a focus area in their SBIR solicitations. These grants

are often highly leveraged by the recipients, serving to catalyze additional State and private funding.

Government agencies pursuing nanotechnology research should encourage promising nanotechnology

technology development projects through established programs, such as SBIR and STTR. 

In the past the Federal Government has played a vital role in the development of new technologies by being

an “early adopter” customer. That is, the Government’s willingness to pay a premium price up front for

leading-edge technology that offers improved performance, such as advanced semiconductor electronics in

the 1960s, eventually led to the development of affordable, reliable consumer products that formed the basis

of an important consumer industry. The Federal Government, through its mission agencies, should look for

opportunities to develop and use, in support of those missions, products that arise from Federal

nanotechnology research.

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2B. Federal—Industry Interaction

In addition to utilizing programs such as SBIR and STTR, the NNAP members believe the NNI can and should

interact with industry to ensure communication of private sector nanotechnology research needs, as well as

to provide industry insight into the latest Federal nanotechnology research breakthroughs. The NNAP

endorses the approach the NNI has taken in establishing liaison activities with various industry sectors and

encourages expanding such activities to other sectors where appropriate.

2C. Federal—State Interaction

Although the Federal Government’s efforts have been focused appropriately on nanotechnology research, it is

noteworthy that many States have recognized the economic benefits that might be reaped by investing in

coordinated regional initiatives (e.g., business incubators, research centers, or research consortia) to

capitalize on the results of the Federally funded nanotechnology research. 

The NNAP’s examinations of the nature of successful innovation have demonstrated that State governments

and local and regional organizations can and do play a vital role. State and local governments can play a

crucial role in helping to promote commercialization of Federal nanotechnology research, and the NNI should

aggressively extend its outreach and planning activities to the States. 

The NNAP members applaud the NSET Subcommittee and the Department of Commerce for sponsoring a

workshop on regional, State, and local initiatives in nanotechnology in the Fall of 2003. The NNAP

recommends continued interaction with States through additional conferences, workshops, and other

communication to assist their progress, to ensure they are fully aware of available NNI resources such as user

facilities, and to seek additional mechanisms by which technology transfer may take place. 

3. Program Management

The NNAP offers a number of program management observations and recommendations:

3A. NSET/NNCO Structure and Functions

The NNAP endorses the current NNI program management structure. The NNAP finds that the NSET

Subcommittee is engaged and is committed to fulfilling its obligations under the Act. The NNAP also finds

that the NNCO provides appropriate support to the NSET Subcommittee in the administrative functioning 

of the NNI program. Communication among those responsible for coordination of the NNI occurs via regular

meetings of the NSET Subcommittee. The active involvement of OSTP and OMB further helps to ensure 

that NNI addresses Government-wide priorities. Formation of subgroups to address specific topics 

(i.e., environmental and health issues, industry liaison, nanomanufacturing, and public engagement) 

has facilitated important activities in those areas. This type of focused interagency exchange is helpful in

addressing some of the more pertinent issues relating to nanotechnology R&D, and should be continued. 

As nanotechnology becomes integrated in more Federal agencies, it will be even more important for the 

NSET Subcommittee to retain the flexibility needed to add, delete, or alter the subjects or composition of

these interagency working groups to ensure that the NNI continues to focus on the most salient issues and

that the growth at the Subcommittee level does not impede the accomplishment of interagency coordination.

The NSET Subcommittee has been successful in addressing specific areas through the formation of topical

subgroups. Given the growing level of activities taking place outside the United States, the Subcommittee

should consider establishing a group to track international activities and to identify opportunities for

collaboration, for example in the area of environmental and health effects.
3B. Infrastructure and Knowledge Management

The NNI has made great strides in its effort to establish a geographically distributed infrastructure of

instrumentation, expertise, and facilities. In addition, the investment in a diverse portfolio of research has

resulted in greater knowledge of nanoscale processes and phenomena and of ways in which that knowledge

might be put to practical use. Much of that knowledge is represented in publications, patent applications,

and other documents. To maximize the likelihood that good ideas for nanotechnology R&D are acted upon,

the NNI should consider means by which it can collect and share information about instrumentation and

facilities that are available to the broad research community. More challenging, but also valuable, would be

for the NNI to develop a system for tracking and making available information about published results and

technologies that are available for commercialization.

3C. Streamlined NNI Grant Reporting

At the researcher level, the NNAP has detected an issue that the NSET Subcommittee should address. 

Many of the key principal investigators (PIs), whether part of a center or not, have grants from many

agencies in support of their work. Each agency requires, in many cases, individual reports. The NSET

Subcommittee should look for ways to streamline the reporting requirements on individual PIs so that

maximum reporting efficiency is achieved.

3D. Coordination with Other Interagency Groups

In addition to addressing specific issues through formation of subgroups, the NSET Subcommittee should

proactively engage other interagency groups that have overlapping interests and activities. An example of 

an interagency group that has overlap is the NSTC Interagency Working Group on Manufacturing Research 

and Development, which has identified nanomanufacturing as an area for focused manufacturing R&D.

Activities by such groups clearly need to be coordinated with the NNI. Similarly, the NSET Subcommittee’s

NEHI Working Group should be engaged at the appropriate level with the NSTC Subcommittee on Health 

and the Environment. 

3E. Involvement by Other Agencies

The NNAP recommends that the NNI take steps to involve other agencies in NNI coordination activities where

appropriate. In particular, as the NNI activities around education and workforce development continue to

grow, it will be critical to engage further the Departments of Education and Labor. The Department of

Education has programs specifically aimed at improving STEM education that could benefit from NNI-funded

research on education and development of educational materials. Similarly, the Department of Labor has

workforce preparedness programs that would benefit from better understanding of nanotechnology-enabled

industries and their needs. 

4. Societal Implications

An important aspect of exploring any new technology is to consider the impacts, both positive and negative,

on society. Since its inception, the NNI has been considering the societal implications associated with

nanotechnology, including implications for the environment, health, the workforce, the law, and ethics.

Support for the continued advancement of nanotechnology research, and eventual integration of

nanotechnology into consumer products and useful applications, will depend heavily on the public’s

acceptance of nanotechnology. Governments around the world must take a proactive stance to ensure that

environmental, health, and safety concerns are addressed as nanotechnology research and development

moves forward in order to assure the public that nanotechnology products will be safe. 

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The NNI’s role in addressing societal concerns is primarily one of coordination and communication. 

The program, through the NSET Subcommittee, should coordinate with the agencies that have the

responsibility and authority for protecting the environment and the public. The NNAP members believe that,

at this time, the emphasis should be placed especially on ensuring workplace safety where nanomaterials 

are manufactured or used, because such places are where the greatest likelihood of exposure exists.

Moreover, because such concerns reach beyond borders, the NNI should also coordinate with agencies 

and organizations that are responsible for representing the United States in international forums, including

the State Department, OSTP, and others.

In addition to its coordinating role, the NNI, through the NNCO, should vigorously communicate with various

stakeholders and the public about the Government’s efforts to address societal concerns. Without such

communication, public trust may dissipate and concerns based on information from other sources, including

the entertainment industry, may become dominant.

Finally, there is an expanding need for activities that are focused on ethical, legal, and other societal

implications beyond just the environmental and health effects. The NNI should participate in appropriate

dialogues with stakeholders beyond the research and technical communities.

5. Education/Workforce Preparation

For nanotechnology to continue developing into more than just a “research project,” the education and

workforce preparation infrastructure must be improved. Through grants to universities, undergraduate and

graduate students receive the education and training that will allow them to become the next generation of

researchers. However, to ensure that adequate numbers of skilled technicians and STEM educators are

available for jobs in both nanotechnology-related industry and education, the NNAP reiterates its suggestion

that the NNI interact more strongly with the Departments of Education and Labor. High-quality STEM education

at all levels, beginning with the primary grades, is critical to remaining competitive in nanotechnology

research and in related industries. Regarding continuing education and professional development, the NNI

should expand its interaction with professional societies that have continuing education as a mission in order

to promote the development of training opportunities for mid-career professionals.

6. NNAP Report Schedule

Based on the rapid pace of research and the high degree of uncertainty regarding commercial outcomes,

regulations, and societal impacts, the NNAP members believe the schedule for updating the NNI Strategic

Plan every three years is appropriate. The NNAP had the opportunity to participate in the NSET Subcommittee

planning process and looks forward to a continued close relationship. In order to provide timely input to the

NSET Subcommittee, the NNAP recommends that the schedule for its review be adjusted to not less frequently

than every three years to parallel the schedule for updating the NNI Strategic Plan, with an offset of one year

to allow the Plan to incorporate NNAP recommendations. That is, the next NNAP review should be in two

years (one year before the next scheduled update of the NNI Strategic Plan), and thereafter, reviews should

be made every three years.
CHAPTER 5: Concluding Remarks and the NNAP's 

Future Areas of Focus

In summary, the NNAP supports the NNI's high-level vision and goals, and the investment strategy by which

those are to be achieved. The Panel members feels that the program can be strengthened by extending its

interaction with industry, State and regional economic developers, and internationally, where appropriate.

This report of the NNAP has focused on the U.S. competitive position. To date, the NNI has helped to bring

the United States to a global leadership position in nanotechnology, but that status is being aggressively

challenged by other nations, and the United States cannot rest on its laurels. In support of continued

monitoring in this area, the NNAP has chartered a study by STPI to develop the means by which investments

by various nations may be normalized to allow for more accurate and thus informative “apples to apples”

comparisons. 

The NNAP will, as part of the Act's mandate, report periodically with a basic program assessment. Beyond

this, the NNAP also intends to explore other areas of concern in greater depth. As this report is being

finalized, and pending other developments that must be addressed, attention will next be focused among the

following issues:

• Commercialization and technology transfer;

• Education and training, including whether the U.S. will have an adequate workforce to take

advantage of the discoveries and innovations occurring in nanotechnology; 

• Environmental health and safety, including Federal programs in environmental, health, and 

safety assessment and interagency and international coordination;

• The linkage between the Federal expenditures on Nanotechnology R&D and the Nation's national

security and economic growth objectives; and 

• Continued monitoring and updating of the United States’ competitive posture. 

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APPENDIX - NNI Program Component Areas

The following text is excerpted from the NNI supplement to the President’s FY 2006 Budget.

Program Component Areas (PCAs) are defined by the Act as major subject areas under which related NNI

projects and activities are grouped. Whereas the NNI goals embody the vision of the initiative and provide

structure for its strategy and plans, the PCAs relate to areas of investment that are critical to accomplishing

those goals. These areas cut across the interests and needs of the participating agencies and indicate where

advancement may be expedited through coordination of work by multiple agencies. The PCAs are intended to

provide a means by which the NSET Subcommittee, as the interagency coordinating body; the Office of

Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB); Congress; and others

may be informed of and direct the relative investment in these key areas. The PCAs also provide a structure by

which the agencies funding R&D can better direct and coordinate their activities. Agency plans for each PCA

will be included in the annual NNI supplement to the President’s budget, commencing with this report for

2006. The seven PCAs are defined as follows:

1. Fundamental Nanoscale Phenomena and Processes

Discovery and development of fundamental knowledge pertaining to new phenomena in the physical,

biological, and engineering sciences that occur at the nanoscale. Elucidation of scientific and engineering

principles related to nanoscale structures, processes, and mechanisms.

2. Nanomaterials

Research aimed at discovery of novel nanoscale and nanostructured materials and at a comprehensive

understanding of the properties of nanomaterials (ranging across length scales, and including interface

interactions). R&D leading to the ability to design and synthesize, in a controlled manner, nanostructured

materials with targeted properties.

3. Nanoscale Devices and Systems

R&D that applies the principles of nanoscale science and engineering to create novel, or to improve existing,

devices and systems. Includes the incorporation of nanoscale or nanostructured materials to achieve

improved performance or new functionality. To meet this definition, the enabling science and technology

must be at the nanoscale, but the systems and devices themselves are not restricted to that size.

4. Instrumentation Research, Metrology, and Standards for Nanotechnology

R&D pertaining to the tools needed to advance nanotechnology research and commercialization, including

next-generation instrumentation for characterization, measurement, synthesis, and design of materials,

structures, devices, and systems. Also includes R&D and other activities related to development of standards,

including standards for nomenclature, materials, characterization and testing, and manufacture.
5. Nanomanufacturing

R&D aimed at enabling scaled-up, reliable, cost-effective manufacturing of nanoscale materials, structures,

devices, and systems. Includes R&D and integration of ultra-miniaturized top-down processes and

increasingly complex bottom-up or self-assembly processes.

6. Major Research Facilities and Instrumentation Acquisition

Establishment of user facilities, acquisition of major instrumentation, and other activities that develop,

support, or enhance the Nation's scientific infrastructure for the conduct of nanoscale science, engineering,

and technology research and development. Includes ongoing operation of user facilities and networks.

7. Societal Dimensions

Various research and other activities that address the broad implications of nanotechnology to society,

including benefits and risks, such as:

• Research directed at environmental, health, and safety implications of nanotechnology development

and risk assessment of such impacts**

• Education

• Research on the ethical, legal, and societal implications of nanotechnology.

**Environmental, health, and safety (EHS) research and development (R&D) on the EHS implications of

nanotechnology includes efforts whose primary purpose is to understand and address potential risks to

health and to the environment posed by this technology. Potential risks encompass those resulting from

human, animal, or environmental exposure to nanoproducts – here defined as engineered nanoscale

materials, nanostructured materials, or nanotechnology-based devices, and their byproducts. 

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GLOSSARY

ATIP Asian Technology Information Program

BIS Bureau of Industry and Security

CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOJ Department of Justice

DOS Department of State

DOT Department of Transportation

DOTreas Department of Treasury

EC European Commission

EHS Environmental health and safety

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EU European Union

FDA Food and Drug Administration

FFRDC Federally Funded Research and Development Center

FY Fiscal Year

ISI Institute for Scientific Information

ITC International Trade Commission

ITIC Intelligence Technology Innovation Center

MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCI National Cancer Institute 

NCN Network for Computational Nanotechnology 

NEHI Nanotechnology Environment and Health Implications (NSET working group)
NIH National Institutes of Health 

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NNAP National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel

NNCO National Nanotechnology Coordination Office

NNI National Nanotechnology Initiative

NNIN National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network

NRC National Research Council (National Academies)

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NSET Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee (NSTC) 

NSF National Science Foundation

NSRC Nanoscale Science Research Center

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

ONAMI Oregon Nanoscience and Microtechnologies Institute

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

PCA Program Component Area

PCAST President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

PI Principal Investigator

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research Program

STEM Science, technology, engineering, and math

STPI Science and Technology Policy Institute

STTR Small Business Technology Transfer Program

TA Technology Administration

TAG Technical Advisory Group

USPTO United States Patent and Trademark Office

USDA United States Department of Agriculture 

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REFERENCES

Asian Technology Information Program (ATIP). 2003. Nanotechnology in Asia 2003.

Asian Technology Information Program (ATIP). 2004. Japanese 2004 S&T Budget.

Bush, George W. 2001. Executive Order: President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology,

October 1, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011001-1.html.

Bush, George W. 2004. Executive Order: Amending the President's Council of Advisors on Science and

Technology to Serve as the National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel, July 23, 2004,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/07/print/20040723-12.html.

Commission of the European Communities. 2004. Communication from the Commission: Towards a European

strategy for nanotechnology. Brussels: the Commission. 

Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. 2000. Experiments in International Benchmarking 

of US Research Fields. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

EmTech Research. 2005. 2005 Nanotechnology Industry Category Overview. Ann Arbor, MI: EmTech Research

(a division of Small Times Media).

Huang, Z., H. Chen, Z.-K. Chen, and M. Roco. 2004. International Nanotechnology Development in 2003:

Country, Institution, and Technology Field Analysis based on USPTO Patent Database. Journal of Nanoparticle

Research, 6:325-354. 

Larson, D. R., Zipfel W. R., Williams, R. M., Clark, S. W., Bruchez, M. P., Wise, F. W., Webb, W. W. 2003 

Water-Soluble Quantum Dots for Multiphoton Fluorescence Imaging in Vivo. Science, 300:1434-1436.

Lux Research, Inc. 2004. The Nanotech Report 2004TM: Investment Overview and Market Research for

Nanotechnology (Third Edition). New York: Lux Research, Inc.

Lux Research, Inc. 2005. Statement of Findings: Benchmarking U.S. States in Nanotech. New York: Lux

Research, Inc.

National Research Council (NRC). 2002. Small Wonders, Endless Frontiers: A Review of the National

Nanotechnology Initiative. Washington, D.C., 2002: National Academy Press,

http://www.nap.edu/books/0309084547/html.

National Science Board. 2002. Science and Engineering Indicators – 2002 (NSB-02-1). Arlington, VA: 

National Science Foundation, 2002, http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/c7/c7h.htm.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology

Subcommittee (NSET). 2004. The National Nanotechnology Initiative: Strategic Plan. Washington, D.C.: the

Council, http://www.nano.gov/NNI_Strategic_Plan_2004.pdf.
National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology

Subcommittee (NSET). 2005a. The National Nanotechnology Initiative: Research and Development Leading to

a Revolution in Technology and Industry. Supplement to the President's FY 2006 Budget. Washington, D.C.:

the Council, http://www.nano.gov/NNI_06Budget.pdf.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). 2005b. Regional, State, and Local Initiatives in

Nanotechnology: Report of the National Nanotechnology Initiative Workshop, September 30 - October 1,

2003. Washington, D.C.: the Council, http://www.nano.gov/041805Initiatives.pdf

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Working Party on Innovation and

Technology Policy. 2002. Nanotechnology R&D Programmes in the United States, Japan and the European

Union: A Preliminary Review. Paris: the Organisation.

President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). 2004. Sustaining the Nation's Innovation

Ecosystem: Report on Maintaining the Strength of Our Science & Engineering Capabilities. Washington, D.C.:

The Council, http://www.ostp.gov/pcast/FINALPCASTSECAPABILITIESPACKAGE.pdf.

U.S. Congress. Public Law 108-153. 2003. 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act. 15

USC 7501. 108 Cong., 3 December 2003.

Roos, U. 2004. Germany’s Nanotechnology Strategy. Berlin: British Embassy Berlin.

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Zucker, L. G. and M. R. Darby. 2005. Socio-economic Impact of Nanoscale Science: Initial Results 

and Nanobank. National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper No. 11181. 

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About the President’s Council of 

Advisors on Science and Technology

President Bush established the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) by

Executive Order 13226 in September 2001. Under this Executive Order, PCAST “shall advise the President...

on matters involving science and technology policy,” and “shall assist the National Science and Technology

Council (NSTC) in securing private sector involvement in its activities.” The NSTC is a cabinet-level council

that coordinates interagency research and development activities and science and technology policy making

processes across Federal departments and agencies. 

PCAST enables the President to receive advice from the private sector, including the academic community, on

important issues relative to technology, scientific research, math and science education, and other topics of

national concern. The PCAST-NSTC link provides a mechanism to enable the public-private exchange of ideas

that inform the Federal science and technology policy making processes. 

PCAST follows a tradition of Presidential advisory panels on science and technology dating back to

Presidents Eisenhower and Truman. The Council’s 23 members, appointed by the President, are drawn from

industry, education, and research institutions, and other nongovernmental organizations. In addition, the

Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy serves as PCAST’s Co-Chair. 

About the National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel

The National Nanotechnology Advisory Panel (NNAP) was created by the United States Congress in the 21st

Century Nanotechnology 21st Research and Development Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-153), signed by President

Bush on December 3, 2003. The Act required the President to establish or designate a NNAP to review the

Federal nanotechnology research and development program. On July 23, 2004, President Bush formally designated the PCAST to act as the NNAP. 

About this Report

The Act that created the NNAP calls for this advisory body to conduct a review of the NNI and report its findings

to the President. The Act calls upon the NNAP to assess the trends and developments in nanotechnology, and

the strategic direction of the NNI, particularly as it relates to maintaining U.S. leadership in nanotechnology

research. The Act also requires comment on NNI program activities, management, coordination, implementation,

and whether the program is adequately addressing societal, ethical, legal, environmental, and workforce issues.

The Act provides that the NNAP is to report on its assessments and to make recommendations for ways to

improve the program at least every two years. The Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy is to

transmit a copy of the NNAP report to Congress. This is the first report of the NNAP under the Act. 

Front cover: Zinc oxide nanorods with approximately 100-nm tin beads at tips. The properties of zinc oxide

make these suitable for nanoscale, ultra-sensitive sensors. Courtesy of Prof. Zhong Lin Wang, Georgia

Institute of Technology. Cover design by Nicolle Rager of Sayo-Art.

Copyright information: This document is a work of the U.S. Government and is in the public domain. 

Subject to the following stipulation, it may be distributed and copied. Copyrights to graphics included in

this document are reserved by original copyright holders or their assignees, and are used here under the

Government’s license and by permission. 
President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology • May 2005

www.ostp.gov