EARTH SYSTEM PREDICTABILITY 

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK AND ROADMAP 

A Report by the 

FAST TRACK ACTION COMMITTEE ON EARTH SYSTEM 

PREDICTABILITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

of the 

NATIONAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL 

October 2020 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EARTH SYSTEM PREDICTABILITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 

AND ROADMAP 

About the National Science and Technology Council 

The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) is the principal means by which the Executive 

Branch coordinates science and technology policy across the diverse entities that make up the Federal 

research and development enterprise. A primary objective of the NSTC is to ensure science and 

technology policy decisions and programs are consistent with the President's stated goals. The NSTC 

prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal agencies aimed at 

accomplishing multiple national goals. The work of the NSTC is organized under committees that 

oversee subcommittees and working groups focused on different aspects of science and technology. 

More information is available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/nstc. 

About the Office of Science and Technology Policy 

The Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) was established by the National Science and 

Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976 to provide the President and others within 

the Executive Office of the President with advice on the scientific, engineering, and technological 

aspects of the economy, national security, homeland security, health, foreign relations, the 

environment, and the technological recovery and use of resources, among other topics. OSTP leads 

interagency science and technology policy coordination efforts, assists the Office of Management and 

Budget with an annual review and analysis of Federal research and development in budgets, and serves 

as a source of scientific and technological analysis and judgment for the President with respect to major 

policies, plans, and programs of the Federal Government. More information is available at 

http://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp. 

About the Fast Track Action Committee on Earth System Predictability 

Research and Development 

The NSTC Fast Track Action Committee (FTAC) on Earth System Predictability Research and 

Development (R&D) was established as a short-term effort to develop plans and identify actions for 

focused U.S. Government coordination in this R&D area. 

About this Document 

This document provides an overview of the Earth System Predictability R&D Strategic Framework and 

Roadmap developed by the FTAC. 

This document is a work of the United States Government and is in the public domain (see 17 U.S.C. 

§105). Subject to the stipulations below, it may be distributed and copied with acknowledgment to 

OSTP. Copyrights to graphics included in this document are reserved by the original copyright holders 

or their assignees and are used here under the Government’s license and by permission. Requests to

use any images must be made to the provider identified in the image credits or to OSTP if no provider 

is identified. Published in the United States of America, 2020. 

i 
EARTH SYSTEMPREDICTABILITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 

AND ROADMAP 

 

 

Members 

NATIONAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL 

Chair Staff 

Kelvin K. Droegemeier, Director, OSTP Tracie Lattimore, Executive Director 

Grace Diana, Deputy Executive Director 

FAST TRACK ACTION COMMITTEE ON EARTH SYSTEM 

PREDICTABILITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

Co-Chairs 

Anjuli Bamzai, Division Director, Division of 

Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences, NSF 

Jack Kaye, Associate Director for Research, 

Earth Science Division, NASA 

Ko Barrett, Deputy Assistant Director, Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Research, NOAA 

Annarita Mariotti, Senior Policy Advisor, OSTP 

Daniel Eleuterio, DOD John Dunne, NOAA 

Michael Farrar, DOD Grace Hu, OMB 

John McMillen, DOD Michael Clark, OMB 

Gerald Geernaert, DOE Liuyi Pei, OMB 

Sharlene Weatherwax, DOE Geoffrey Plumlee, USGS 

David Considine, NASA Gary Rowe, USGS 

Eric DeWeaver, NSF Peter Vadas, USDA 

Louis Uccellini, NOAA 

Brian Gross, NOAA 

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Table of Contents 

About the National Science and Technology Council ..............................................................................i 

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................2 

Abbreviations and Acronyms.....................................................................................................................3 

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................4 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................5 

National Strategic Framework..................................................................................................................6 

Goal 1: Advance foundational understanding and theory for an improved knowledge of Earth 

system predictability of practical utility. .............................................................................................7 

Goal 2: Reduce gaps in the observations-based characterization of conditions, processes, and 

phenomena crucial for understanding and using Earth system predictability. ................................8 

Goal 3: Accelerate the exploration and effective use of inherent Earth system predictability through 

advanced modeling. .............................................................................................................................8 

Cross-Cutting Goal 1: Leverage emerging new hardware and software technologies for Earth 

system predictability R&D. ...................................................................................................................9 

Cross-Cutting Goal 2: Optimize coordination of resources and collaboration among agencies and 

departments to accelerate progress. ...................................................................................................9 

Cross-Cutting Goal 3: Expand partnerships across disciplines and with entities external to the 

Federal Government to accelerate progress. ......................................................................................9 

Cross-Cutting Goal 4: Include, inspire, and train the next generation of interdisciplinary scientists 

who can advance knowledge and use of Earth system predictability. ............................................10 

National Roadmap to Advance High-Priority R&D................................................................................10 

Area 1. Expand Theoretical Foundations of Earth System Predictability.........................................11 

Area 2. Fill Knowledge Gaps for Processes that are Crucial for Predictability .................................11 

Area 3. Tap into Underutilized Observational Data to Examine Sources of Predictability Using 

Advanced Technologies......................................................................................................................12 

Area 4. Observational Networks and Advanced Technologies Deliberate for Predictability and 

Predictions ..........................................................................................................................................12 

Area 5. Advanced Modeling and Technology, and Enhanced Collaborations..................................14 

Appendix A: FTAC Engagement Activities to Inform Strategy and Roadmap..........................................18 

Appendix B: Principles ...............................................................................................................................19 

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Abbreviations and Acronyms 

AI Artificial Intelligence 

CPU Central Processing Unit 

DOD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

ESM Earth System Model 

ESP Earth System Predictability 

FTAC Fast Track Action Committee 

GPU Graphic Processing Units 

HPC High Performance Computing 

ML Machine Learning 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASEM National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSTC National Science and Technology Council 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

OSSE Observations System Simulation Experiment 

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy 

R&D Research and Development 

RFI Request for Information 

S2S Subseasonal-to-Seasonal 

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 

U.S. United States 

USDA United States Department of Agriculture 

USGS United States Geological Survey 

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Executive Summary 

From predictions of individual thunderstorms to long-term global change, enhanced Earth system 

predictions are crucial to inform societal resilience to extreme events such as droughts and floods, heat 

waves, wildfires and coastal inundation. However, in some cases, there is still a lack of clear 

understanding of whether, or under which conditions, extreme meteorological events and their 

cascading events are predictable and why. A better understanding of Earth system predictability (ESP) 

would help the Federal Government target investments to improve predictions and increase public 

benefit. To help address this gap, and facilitate Federal coordination, the National Science and 

Technology Council (NSTC) created a Fast Track Action Committee (FTAC) on ESP in February 2020. It 

was charged with identifying barriers to progress, as well as prioritizing opportunities for activities that 

could improve our understanding of ESP. Subsequently, the FTAC engaged with the public and the 

interagency prior to developing an R&D Strategic Framework and a Roadmap to guide the initial R&D 

activities that address urgent prediction needs within the framework. 

The R&D Strategic Framework aims to increase the understanding of ESP to improve predictions 

through three primary goals that connect theory with observations, process research, and modeling. 

An additional four cross-cutting goals address these thrusts as well as emphasize advanced 

technologies, enhanced collaborations, partnerships, and training the next generation of talent. The 

Roadmap identifies five areas of R&D opportunity focusing on the predictability of Earth’s water cycle 

and precipitation extremes and associated biosphere and human interactions as a springboard to 

strategically advance the ESP R&D priority. The goal of this R&D is to attain high-resolution predictions 

and projections of high impact water cycle events, their cascading impacts across the Earth system, 

and their coupling to human, ecological, and biogeochemical systems. 

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Introduction 

From predictions of individual thunderstorms to projections of long-term global change, knowing the 

degree to which Earth system1 phenomena across a range of spatial and temporal scales are practicably 

predictable2 is vitally important to society. Past research in Earth System Predictability (ESP) led to 

profound insights that have benefited society by facilitating improved predictions and projections3. 

However, as there is an increasing effort to accelerate progress (e.g., to improve prediction skill over a 

wider range of temporal and spatial scales and for a broader set of phenomena), it is increasingly 

important to understand and characterize predictability opportunities and limits. Improved 

predictions better inform societal resilience to extreme events (e.g., droughts and floods, heat waves, 

wildfires and coastal inundation) resulting in greater safety and socioeconomic benefits. Such 

prediction needs are currently only partially met and are likely to grow in the future. Yet, given the 

complexity of the Earth system,

4 in some cases we still do not have a clear understanding of whether or 

under which conditions underpinning processes and phenomena are predictable and why. A better 

understanding of ESP opportunities and limits is important to identify what Federal investments5 can 

be made and what policies are most effective to harness6 inherent Earth system predictability for 

improved predictions. 

The FY 2021 Administration R&D Budget Priorities Memorandum identified ESP R&D as a priority. It 

called for Federal departments and agencies to: 

• Prioritize R&D that helps quantify ESP across multiple phenomena, time, and space scales. 

• Emphasize how measures of and limits to predictability, both theoretical and actual, can inform 

a wide array of stakeholders. 

• Explore the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and adaptive observing systems to enhance 

predictive skill, along with strategies for obtaining substantial improvements in computational 

model performance and spatial resolution across all scales. 

1 “Earth system” here includes processes encompassing the atmosphere-biota-hydrosphere-cryospherephysical-biogeochemical spheres and human interactions across all Earth system components, across multiple 

spatial and temporal scales. 2 Practicable predictability here indicates predictability theory that can be put into practice successfully. 3 Different from predictability, predictions and projections terms generally refer to an estimate of the future 

derived in a variety of ways. Although predictions and projections differ in several respects, for brevity here 

these terms are used interchangeably at times. 4 ESP involves knowledge of complex processes that often encompass the physical-biogeochemical spheres and 

also human interactions across Earth system components (atmosphere, ocean, land, ice, etc.), across multiple 

spatial and temporal scales. 5 There are relevant Federal research activities across agencies and departments, involving national and 

international coordination and partnerships, spanning observations and process research, modeling, 

technology and infrastructure. 6 To harness predictability typifies using inherent predictability characteristics to improve predictions. For 

simplicity, the terms the “use” and “harness” of predictability are employed interchangeably in this document.

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The FY 2022 Administration Budget Priorities Memorandum reiterated the practical importance of ESP 

R&D in the context of advancing meteorological services. It specifically called for departments and 

agencies to: 

• Prioritize, coordinate, and collaborate to implement a national strategy to accelerate progress 

in improving the theoretical understanding and practical utilization of predictability, reducing 

gaps in the observation of crucial processes, and exploring advanced modeling capabilities 

using non-traditional approaches such as AI. 

• Prioritize the availability of adequate computing and data infrastructure and collaborate 

closely on the most effective use of research resources via coordination and partnerships. 

In response to the FY 2021 Memorandum, the FTAC on ESP was created in February 2020, under the 

NSTC. Member Federal agencies and departments were charged with considering how to address the 

ESP R&D priority, identify barriers that are holding back progress, and prioritize opportunities for key 

activities that could be most valuable to understanding ESP, including transformative “big ideas,”

towards the enhancement of Earth system predictions. The FTAC engaged the Federal and non-Federal 

communities via meetings and an RFI (see Appendix A) to discuss relevant issues and provide feedback 

on the direction that the Federal Government should take to address the ESP R&D priority. 

This report summarizes two key elements of the strategic approach that resulted from the FTAC work, 

both of which focus on identifying goals and initial key areas of opportunity to address the ESP R&D 

priority: 

1. An ESP R&D Strategic Framework that is broad and applicable over the long term to make 

progress across the suite of ESP R&D needs and opportunities (see Figure 1). 

2. An ESP R&D Roadmap that focuses initial predictability R&D in areas of opportunity to 

address urgent prediction needs identified by stakeholders. 

National Strategic Framework 

Utilizing information collected from community engagement (see Appendix A) and FTAC member 

agencies and departments, the FTAC developed a National Strategic Framework to make accelerated 

progress on ESP R&D needs and opportunities. The foundation of the Strategic Frameworks is the vision 

that 

• Advanced Earth system services7 are enabled by increased knowledge and more effective use of 

inherent Earth system predictability. 

• A national R&D strategy results in accelerated progress toward both theoretical as well as the 

practical foundations needed to effectively use inherent Earth system predictability. 

The Strategic Framework includes specific goals and objectives, guided by principles (see Appendix B), 

to advance the vision for ESP R&D. 

These encompass weather, climate, hydrological, ocean, and related environmental services. The term 

“services” broadly includes all relevant activities that provide value to society, whether over land, at sea, or in 

the air, including for the protection of life and property, personal and public health, quality of life, sustainability 

of the natural world, and economic and national security. 

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Figure 1: Key elements of the ESP R&D Strategic Framework. 

Overarching Goal: The overarching goal of the Strategic Framework is to increase the understanding 

of ESP via the implementation of a national strategy that connects stakeholder-driven predictability 

theory with observations, process research, modeling, and technology. More specifically, there are 

three primary goals underpinned by four cross-cutting goals. 

Primary Goals 

Goal 1: Advance foundational understanding and theory for an improved knowledge of Earth 

system predictability of practical utility. 

Objectives: 

1. Expand foundational knowledge and theory of ESP and synthesize understanding of 

relevant processes and phenomena.

8 

2. Pursue emerging technologies and approaches9 to identify processes whose understanding 

is crucial for predictability.

10 

3. Develop an understanding of Earth system precursor conditions conducive to varying 

predictability, potentially influencing forecast skill, including for compound phenomena. 

8 Including human-natural interactions. 9 For example, combining ML/AI with process understanding. 10 Based on observations and model data. 

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Goal 2: Reduce gaps in the observations-based characterization of conditions, processes, and 

phenomena crucial for understanding and using Earth system predictability. 

Objectives: 

1. Utilize new sensor technologies, including the deployment of non-traditional, costeffective11 adaptable observations that increasingly enable the characterization of 

conditions and key processes underpinning predictability. 

2. Optimize observations and system designs so as to fill gaps in the characterization of 

processes and sensitive regions that are crucial to predictability.12 

3. Address knowledge gaps in process understanding to improve the harnessing of 

predictability in models.13 

4. Enhance infrastructure for observational data archive, access and dissemination to 

maximize use of observations in R&D14 to improve the characterization of sources of 

predictability. 

Goal 3: Accelerate the exploration and effective use of inherent Earth system predictability 

through advanced modeling. 

Objectives: 

1. Integrate new observations, process understanding and emerging technologies to reduce 

model biases. 

2. Develop a modeling framework that leverages U.S. efforts to enable extensive exploration 

of ESP, including high-resolution, integrated, multiscale/seamless Earth system modeling 

tools. 

3. Develop and apply advanced methodologies of model-data assimilation15 to improve the 

use of inherent predictability. 

4. Use models in targeted experiments and diagnostics to improve model fidelity and probe 

predictability frontiers including large ensembles, high-resolution experiments and 

advanced model benchmarking, diagnostics, visualization, and data analytics 

methodologies. 

5. Expand, share, and broaden community access to computing infrastructure for modeldata integration, model comparisons, and model exploration of predictability. 

11 These include observations from emerging non-conventional platforms that typically have lower costs 

compared to more traditional ones. 12 This includes applying understanding of predictability as well as emerging observing and data analytics 

technologies. 13 This includes conducting targeted and interagency coordinated field campaigns and forming interdisciplinary 

teams. 14 E.g., process studies, model-data assimilation/fusion, and model evaluation. 15 E.g., from high-resolution observations and simulations and crowd-sourced information. 

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Cross-Cutting Goals 

Cross-Cutting Goal 1: Leverage emerging new hardware and software technologies for Earth 

system predictability R&D. 

Objectives: 

1. Develop a framework for hybrid predictive modeling that exploits ML/AI16 in order to 

accelerate the exploration and effective use of ESP. 

2. Develop a strategy for advanced scale-aware modeling, fit-for-purpose ML/AI, and the 

necessary computational and software infrastructure to achieve high-resolution multi-model 

ensembles. 

3. Increase computational efficiency of models and the effectiveness of model-data 

input/output, and fully leverage new computer architectures. 

Cross-Cutting Goal 2: Optimize coordination of resources and collaboration among agencies and 

departments to accelerate progress. 

17 

Objectives: 

1. Foster interagency collaboration and coordination around the Strategic Framework to 

maximize effectiveness and efficiencies for implementation in synergy with relevant standing 

coordination bodies. 

2. Increase incentives, reduce bureaucratic burdens or barriers, and identify mechanisms for 

enhanced collaboration and coordination of R&D across agencies and departments to meet 

common goals. 

Cross-Cutting Goal 3: Expand partnerships across disciplines and with entities external to the 

Federal Government to accelerate progress. 

18 

Objectives: 

1. Strengthen coordination and partnership with the private and non-profit sectors that seek to 

advance various capabilities involving components of the ESP enterprise.

19 

2. Increase incentives and reduce barriers for enhanced cross-disciplinary communication and 

collaborations. 

3. Develop and sustain partnerships to successfully implement an approach where prediction 

needs continuously inform predictability R&D and vice-versa. 

4. Seek targeted collaborations with non-U.S. research organizations, networks, and centers 

with relevant goals to maximize the leveraging of resources. 

16 E.g., involving observed and simulated data, edge computing, data assimilation, multi-model hierarchies, and 

model diagnostics. 17 E.g., collaboration and coordination on computing infrastructure, observational assets for field campaigns, 

process studies, model evaluation, etc. 18 E.g., partnerships among entities that are public-private and national-international. 19 E.g., the sectors involved in ML/AI, advanced computing, software, and hybrid predictive modeling. 

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Cross-Cutting Goal 4: Include, inspire, and train the next generation of interdisciplinary scientists 

who can advance knowledge and use of Earth system predictability. 

Objectives: 

1. Foster strengthened coordination and collaboration across academic departments.20 

2. Increase educational opportunities, professional pathways, and reward systems that 

incentivize careers in Earth system R&D areas. 

3. Create opportunities for interdisciplinary, cross-organizational, and diverse research 

collaborations that facilitate professional growth. 

4. Create opportunities that increase participation and nurture career development of 

underrepresented groups in ESP research. 

National Roadmap to Advance High-Priority R&D 

To accomplish the goals and objectives described in the Strategic Framework, the FTAC developed a 

National Roadmap that focuses initial R&D efforts.

21 The Roadmap describes a path forward to advance 

a specific ESP R&D high-priority topic that targets the improvement of a set of predictions identified by 

stakeholders as critical.

22 

The Roadmap Outline 

R&D topic: The predictability of Earth’s water cycle and precipitation extremes as well as associated 

biosphere and human interactions. 

Targeted outcomes: The improvement of high-resolution integrated predictions and projections of high 

impact water cycle events, their cascading impacts23 across the Earth system,

24 and their coupling to 

human, ecological, and biogeochemical systems. 

The Roadmap identifies a set of “Areas of Opportunity” that would ensure progress on the goals and 

objectives of the ESP R&D Strategic Framework. The Roadmap features ESP R&D opportunities for 

enhanced interagency coordination and collaboration as well as partnerships with the external 

community. Also, it highlights opportunities to further promote cross-disciplinary collaboration—

particularly between Earth system scientists, computer, and data scientists—and to more purposefully 

train the next generation of diverse talent that is the key to the success of this R&D endeavor. Finally, 

embedded in the Roadmap is a “value cycle approach” envisioning sustained feedback between R&D 

and prediction activities (i.e., prediction needs drive predictability research and research informs the 

development of improved predictions). 

20 E.g., by creating interdisciplinary alliances to address specific research challenges involving experts in Earth 

system science, computational sciences, engineering, and applied mathematics. 21 The roadmap approach provides a “proof of concept” and sets the stage for addressing other R&D topics to 

follow. 22 The FTAC considered phenomena among those of particular national societal need (e.g., those that produce the 

largest impact) as well as those that present the greatest opportunities for benefit because they are presently 

underexplored. It also considered stakeholders’ most crucial and broadly shared prediction needs that would 

directly benefit from predictability R&D. 23 Such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, extratropical cyclones, atmospheric rivers, and wildfires, etc. 24 Includes land, coasts, and oceans. 

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Areas of Opportunity 

Area 1. Expand Theoretical Foundations of Earth System Predictability25 

A comprehensive theory to describe predictability in the Earth system does not currently exist. While 

Lorenz Theory26 provides tremendous insights into a low-order chaotic system, it also has its limitations 

when applied to the issue of practical atmospheric predictability due to the complexity of the Earth 

system. Current understanding of ESP is still insufficient to inform how to rapidly advance accurate and 

reliable Earth system predictions across spatial and temporal scales. 

A focused cross-disciplinary interagency research effort could spearhead the development of 

theoretical frameworks to more accurately and comprehensively understand the limits of predictability 

of Earth system phenomena. This effort would fully exploit observational data, models, and advanced 

methodologies for the understanding of the behavior of the complex Earth system. Research efforts 

could include an enhanced understanding of precursor conditions, the role of external forcings, the 

characteristics of component and system-level error growth, the role of high frequency/small scale 

chaotic processes on large-scale dynamics, shifts in predictability regimes, and improving the 

understanding of processes relevant to subseasonal-to-seasonal (S2S) phenomena, among others. 

Approaches could leverage a hierarchy of idealized-to-comprehensive complex models, advanced 

mathematics and information theory, and ML/AI methods to analyze and detect the coexistence of 

chaotic and non-chaotic components from model and observational data. To realize practical utility, 

these efforts would include rapidly synthesizing and conveying new understanding of predictability for 

improved predictions. 

Area 2. Fill Knowledge Gaps for Processes that are Crucial for Predictability27 

Knowledge of processes and phenomena that play a crucial role in the predictability of extreme events 

is still significantly lacking, despite substantial progress in recent decades. For the predictability of 

water cycle, precipitation extremes and their cascading effects, important processes and phenomena 

include, for example, the role of convection and clouds across all scales; physical and biogeochemical 

interactions in the boundary layer between the atmosphere and the land surface; and the 

biogeochemistry of land, river, coasts, lakes, ocean and related ecosystems. At play are local 

mechanisms as well as lower frequency large-scale precursors of phenomena such as the phase of the 

Pacific Decadal Oscillation, El Niño Southern Oscillation, the Madden-Julian Oscillation, and other 

modes of variability. Improved understanding of the role of human activities and its subsequent 

representation in Earth System Models (ESMs) is essential to predict water cycle extremes and their 

cascading effects. In order to advance predictability of water cycle extremes across scales, the most 

critical challenge is advancing our understanding and modeling of precipitation and biogeochemical 

processes. While biogeochemical processes have been incorporated in ESMs for over a decade, 

predictability of marine and terrestrial ecosystems is a topic of current research that could lead to 

various practical applications. 

25 This area is of particular relevance to Goal 1 and cross-cutting Goals. 26 Lorenz, Edward N. "Deterministic nonperiodic flow." Journal of the atmospheric sciences 20, no. 2 (1963): 130-

141. 27 This area is of particular relevance to Goal 1 and cross-cutting Goals. 

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R&D efforts could include conducting targeted and interagency coordinated field campaigns, 

potentially involving public-private partnerships and international coordination; forming 

interdisciplinary teams to address those high-priority knowledge gaps in process understanding and 

modeling; innovative mathematical approaches to data analysis and model-data diagnostics; broadly 

sharing and utilizing the data for R&D; and conducting research to improve the simulation of those 

processes in models and harnessing of predictability in ESMs. 

Area 3. Tap into Underutilized Observational Data to Examine Sources of Predictability Using 

Advanced Technologies28 

There is a gap between available observations from all platforms and their full utilization to address the 

understanding of ESP and accelerate the advancement of predictions and projections. ML/AI 

approaches are ideally suited for discovering predictors and precursors of Earth system phenomena 

given a large suite of observational, model data and reanalysis, covering many variables across a wide 

range of spatial and temporal scales. These new techniques, used jointly with more traditional and wellunderstood data analysis approaches, can potentially provide new insights. Coupled data assimilation 

as well as traditional reanalysis products provide opportunities to examine predictability. 

Collaborations between Earth scientists, data assimilation, and ML/AI experts could lead to accelerated 

progress in utilizing observations, reanalyses, and models to tap unknown sources of predictability. 

For example, R&D efforts could provide more efficient analysis of observational data and reanalysis 

data, and diagnostic methodologies that combine the various types of data to potentially reveal new 

insights into sources of predictability. Novel approaches could help advance predictability theory, for 

example: ML/AI to identify combinations of precursors of Earth system phenomena, used in conjunction 

with other more traditional methodologies and mechanistic studies to better understand the 

interdependence of physical and biogeochemical processes contributing to their predictability. 

Examples of opportunities also include tapping into underutilized satellite data using advanced 

numerical and technical tools such as data assimilation and ML/AI to better estimate poorlyconstrained model parameters and improve process representation—as well as using data and 

reanalysis products to discover episodes and regions with enhanced predictability to provide 

information about sources of predictability that could be further exploited (e.g., for forecasts of 

opportunity). 

Area 4. Observational Networks and Advanced Technologies Deliberate for Predictability and 

Predictions29 

There is an opportunity to improve the way data are collected and used to significantly accelerate 

predictability and prediction R&D, with several factors currently at play. There is an explosion in new 

types of observing and communications technologies (e.g., Argo floats, unmanned aerial vehicles 

[UAVs]), new satellite data (e.g., small satellite constellations), non-traditional observations (e.g., 

mobile phone data), and a robust and growing ecosystem of commercial providers. Researchers can 

leverage these resources with emerging ML/AI methods and exascale computing—together with 

simulation experiments and process studies—to more deliberately design, deploy, and utilize an 

observing system that optimally integrates new observations with more traditional sustained 

observations to advance the understanding and harnessing of ESP. 

28 This area is of particular relevance to Goal 1 and cross-cutting Goals. 29 This area is of particular relevance to Goal 2 and cross-cutting Goals. 

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A Network of Innovative Sensors Integrating Advanced Technologies 

R&D efforts could design, deploy, and utilize large networks of low-cost, innovative sensors and 

integrate these with other more traditional observations crucial for practicable ESP, with an initial focus 

on the predictability of extreme events. R&D could determine how to optimally interweave modeling, 

data assimilation, and ML/AI tools to identify the variables, locations, and time scales where 

observations would most effectively reduce stakeholder-relevant uncertainties in the understanding of 

ESP. R&D could develop and tailor such networks that span from small satellites to UAVs, platforms 

such the Argo floats, and crowd-sourced observations (e.g., from mobile phones), specifically for ESP 

and prediction research. 

Utilizing Adaptable Networks Using Advanced Technologies 

R&D efforts could explore the opportunity for prediction models to increasingly benefit from data 

collected by adaptable observational networks, complementing the historical use of fixed, preplanned, and routine data collections. This could potentially result in reduced cost and power needs 

with more sensing platforms deployed ad-hoc, allowing the targeted deployment of sensors on 

schedules and along flight paths to drive down uncertainty. R&D could explore the opportunity for 

autonomous or other innovative platforms in combination with ML/AI and model simulations to 

redirect sensors or reposition in order to collect the best measurements for predictability; this could 

also be an innovative approach to conduct Observations System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs) that 

aim to optimize observations for predictability. R&D could explore how this capability may be applied 

both to collecting new observations in strategically optimized locations and timings to improve the 

accuracy of our understanding of the Earth system as well as to optimize the choice of initial conditions 

of ensemble forecasting models to improve both accuracy and precision of those predictions. The 

opportunity here is to optimize the efficient use of the limited observational and computational 

resources available to make predictions. The benefit could be to alleviate trade-offs among number 

and choice of initial conditions, frequency with which predictions are recalculated, the horizon into the 

future in which predictions are made, and the accuracy and precision of those predictions. 

Optimize Observations to More Deliberately Target Practicable Predictability 

R&D efforts could optimize observations and better understand those that efficiently address the 

predictability challenges. This could include developing metrics and experiments, including OSSEs, to 

understand the impact of existing observations as well as the scientific and societal value of new types 

of observations. These efforts also have the potential to identify data gaps that have been limiting 

practicable predictability. For example, for meteorological predictions at the S2S timescale, it may be 

necessary to increasingly incorporate specific land surface observations as well as subsurface and sea 

surface conditions. Current data gaps for practicable predictability also include data beyond those that 

are currently utilized to predict temperature, precipitation, or sea surface temperature, and also 

include forecasting decision-relevant quantities such as energy production and consumption, water 

availability, and agricultural yield. In order to improve tools and models for these kinds of derivative 

forecasts, R&D could explore how to expand the observation network beyond the physical 

measurement of the Earth system to also measure societal decision-making processes, along with the 

context of extenuating factors that influence decisions. R&D could explore whether approaches such as 

ML/AI combined with satellite and the integration of innovative observations might be useful to fill in 

some of the noted gaps. Across the various types of platforms, R&D could identify which observations 

are most important for informing the design of an optimally integrated observing system for practicable 

predictability. 

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Enhancing Coordination and Collaboration for an Observing System that More Deliberately Targets 

Predictability 

Agencies and departments could enhance benefits by having increasingly focused coordination and 

collaboration efforts to more deliberately target predictability through observational networks. This 

includes internally in the U.S. Government and also collaborating with external partners including nonprofit partners, industry, academia, and internationally. Harnessing improved coordination and 

collaboration mechanisms, the scientific community and the public could benefit from a more 

integrated approach to observational networks across all disciplines relevant to ESP. Agencies and 

departments could enhance collaboration across science disciplines and sustained engagements with 

stakeholder organizations. They could also explore suitable approaches for sharing of information on 

societal impact and decision making relevant to ESP often restricted by privacy laws. Agencies and 

departments could enhance their existing coordination and collaboration on investments for the 

infrastructure necessary to handle the large amounts of data generated by all observational platforms 

to ensure data are findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable. 

Area 5. Advanced Modeling and Technology, and Enhanced Collaborations30 

ESMs are key tools for the exploration of predictability, and they are unique platforms to harness it from 

observational data to make more robust and accurate Earth system predictions. In spite of major 

progress during the past decades to simulate and predict many important geophysical quantities, even 

the best state-of-the-art models and prediction systems world-wide are currently lacking in key desired 

characteristics foundational to accurate modeling of ESP, and making skillful predictions over multiple 

time scales. Examples of current shortcomings include model biases that have persisted over time, 

missing or overly-simplified Earth system process representations, insufficient spatial resolution, and 

lack of satisfactory prediction skill in the S2S range and beyond (e.g., for precipitation). 

Integrate ML/AI in Modeling 

Innovative ML/AI algorithms have shown initial promise in providing new strategies for exploring 

parameter space and for accelerating the model development cycle of tuning and retuning. These 

methods may also be employed to more systematically generate ensembles of initial conditions and 

evaluate structural model differences, so as to produce ensembles weighted using statistical methods 

across different model systems that more faithfully represent the full probability density function of 

possible future states of the Earth system. Investigations of this kind are only beginning, so there is an 

opportunity for R&D to further explore how to apply these methods. 

For example, R&D could explore the use of ML/AI for improving the fidelity and accuracy of process 

representations and reducing model systematic errors and biases; increasing computational efficiency 

of scale-aware parameterizations for high-resolution simulations; generating ensemble simulations 

and forecasts of unprecedented size with full-model emulators and hybrid models;

31 and analyzing 

simulations in ways that can help to highlight key geographic regions affecting predictability of the 

Earth system. 

Reduce Model Errors 

R&D activities could address improving the fidelity of ESMs by reducing model biases and tapping into 

the simulation of processes that are key for predictability. In spite of the many successes of the Earth 

30 This area is of particular relevance to Goal 3 and cross-cutting Goals. 31 Deterministic and stochastic models with ML/AI sub-models. 

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system modeling community in past years, there are still some model biases that are limiting the 

application of models for understanding of ESP and making reliable/accurate predictions. Several of 

these biases, such as the double Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, have been present in ESMs for 

decades, defying improvement despite efforts by the community. Improving understanding of how to 

resolve these biases has been a focus of some past efforts, but additional R&D with innovative and 

focused approaches could allow more substantial and rapid progress to reduce key biases. For 

example, R&D could explore the use of scale-aware parameterizations of sub-grid processes in the 

atmosphere, ocean, and land as well as their coupling with dynamics for the simulation of extreme 

events; the development of higher resolution models that explicitly resolve rather than parameterize 

key mesoscale processes; and improving the representation of model errors and error growth. 

Explore Signal-to-Noise Ratio with Large Ensembles 

Along with the reduction of model biases and tapping of broader sources of predictability, another key 

predictability R&D area is large ensemble modeling to allow exploration of the high-dimensional space 

of Earth system processes and the occurrence of extremes. Such large ensembles could go beyond 

those currently available from low-resolution models to more realistically simulate high impact 

extreme events such as hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires. R&D with large ensembles could explore 

signal-to-noise ratio and roles of internal variability versus external forcings, develop ML/AI-based 

model emulators to enable very large ensembles, and explore ML/AI as a means to generate more 

“intelligent" ensembles.

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Increasingly Integrate Biosphere and Human Systems in ESMs 

In order to represent predictability sources and key interactions that contribute to future states of the 

Earth system and practical outcomes of importance to humans, it may be necessary to increasingly 

expand the range of processes included in ESMs. There are key uncertainties to be propagated that have 

not traditionally been part of ESMs, but may be relevant to reducing model errors and harnessing 

predictability. Biogeochemical, biological, hydrogeological and human processes provide feedback to 

the global Earth system—for example, aerosols such as dust and black carbon are an integral part of 

many monsoon systems.

33 The seasonal greening and browning of vegetation and human activities 

such as urban processes, irrigation, and water management may also provide sources of ESP through 

land-atmosphere interactions. State-of-the-art ESMs now have varying degrees of information on 

biosphere and human systems built-in their codes, with coupling and complexity of representation 

depending on the specific models. There is the opportunity to potentially advance the representation 

of such processes and their bidirectional coupling with physical processes to better represent the wide 

range of possible environmental conditions. 

Explore the Impact of Resolving Clouds and Ocean Eddies in ESMs 

Recent results obtained with global ESMs have shown that they are able to resolve mesoscale 

circulations in the atmosphere and the ocean. Despite progress in the ability of models to capture nonlinear interactions, the mesoscale motions and the phenomena associated with them—such as deep 

convection—are often parameterized in most ESMs. The parameterizations are typically based on 

conceptual models that encapsulate how the complex circulations affect the resolved scales, with 

parameters tuned to match observational constraints. By resolving processes such as clouds and ocean 

eddies in ESMs, these parameterizations may become less crucial, thus making the models potentially 

32 For example, ensembles with members perturbed or restarted during the model runs to maximize their impact. 33 Monsoons affect the aerosol distributions, which in turn affect monsoon circulation and precipitation. 

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less dependent on tuning. Increasing model resolution to sufficiently high, so as to resolve clouds and 

ocean eddies, could be transformative in reducing persistent model biases and improving the 

harnessing of predictability. Fully representing sub-grid moist convection processes could help more 

faithfully typify chaotic behavior in the models and hence help improve the simulation of the signal-tonoise ratio used to estimate predictability. Similarly, fully simulating mesoscale ocean eddies could 

improve modeling of air-sea interactions that contribute to predictability. While there are tantalizing 

benefits to high resolution, there are also important trade-offs between model resolution, complexity, 

and ensemble size yet to be explored and assessed. R&D could examine and assess potential benefits 

and tradeoffs associated with cloud and ocean eddy resolving simulations in terms of representing 

processes crucial for predictability. This type of experimentation would likely require broad 

coordination of resources and collaborations (nationally and internationally) on topics such as 

experimental design, model availability, computational platform, and diagnostics. 

Enhance Computational Infrastructure and Efficiency for Extensive Modeling Explorations 

Enhanced computational capacity and increased efficiency underpin the acceleration of predictability 

and prediction R&D, particularly when ML/AI are utilized. This is a major limiting factor in aggressively 

making progress in improving ESMs capabilities and in most effectively using observational data for 

R&D. Computational platforms may now have accelerators, may combine graphic processing units 

(GPUs) and central processing units (CPUs), and are increasingly hosted in cloud computing 

environments. Current ESMs are challenged in exploiting some of these features, including the 

increasing parallelism in the latest computing systems. Managing, transporting, and using large 

amounts of data for ESMs is also a challenge. 

R&D could involve Earth system model developers, computer and data scientists, software engineers 

and computer manufacturers to address issues such as “big data” input and output for R&D and modeldata assimilation; exploring algorithmic advances necessary to make performance gains; discovering 

how to take advantage of emerging programming languages and evolve models so that they can exploit 

features of emerging computational architectures; potentially reimagining the future architectures for 

ESMs in order to better leverage new platforms; and also better tailoring models to specific decision 

contexts. Enhanced coordination, communication, and partnerships could provide the opportunity to 

more effectively convey computational and communication ESMs requirements to manufacturers and 

increasingly co-design future computing; pursue a more scalable cyberinfrastructure to streamline 

efforts and improve accessibility of models to a larger fraction of the community; and augment 

cyberinfrastructure capacity for Earth system R&D. 

Coupled ESM Data Assimilation to Harness Predictability 

Recent advances in ensemble data assimilation have made it possible to make use of the parallel 

supercomputing power to perform advanced data assimilation on complex coupled Earth system 

models directly, rather than component by component. Data assimilation is useful for both optimizing 

the model parameters to best represent processes important for predictability and also for improving 

predictions. 

R&D could advance from weakly coupled toward fully coupled nonlinear ESM data assimilation for all 

Earth system components. The nonlinearity allows increasing the information extracted from the 

observations (at the moment, part of that information is not used due to linearity assumptions). Efforts 

could aim at increasing the data-assimilation performance, and could include ML/AI techniques 

wherever useful together with other methods. R&D could also explore the use of nonlinear dataassimilation and ML/AI capabilities in order to infer missing model physics (or improve model 

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parameterizations) at the space and time scale of the discretized model equations. Part of this effort 

could include producing coupled reanalysis products for advanced predictability R&D. 

Enhancing Coordination and Collaboration for Earth System Modeling to Understand and Harness 

Predictability 

Given the increasing resource demands underpinning the acceleration of ESM improvements, an 

enhanced approach for coordination and coordination across agencies, departments and modeling 

centers could build on current activities to more efficiently use available resources for rapid and 

targeted experimentation and diagnostics. This would help provide the computational and modeling 

infrastructure that enables broad collaborations to experiment with new ideas; to systematically 

evaluate the models and impacts of parameterizations and resolution; analyze simulations (e.g., within 

a multi-model context); and to facilitate interactions of researchers working on each of these specific 

areas. A hierarchy of modeling approaches could enable the understanding of the behaviors of simple 

to complex models, and strengthen the theoretical foundation of ESP. Enhanced collaborations across 

modeling centers could generate the very large ensembles necessary to characterize model 

uncertainties, internal variability, and for long-term projections and scenario uncertainties. Enhanced 

coordination, collaborations, and partnerships could enable the development and analysis of clouds 

and ocean eddy-resolving ESM simulations and also more effectively tapping into available Earth 

system data for validation and model-data assimilation. This approach could also facilitate multiagency multi-model comparisons aimed at process understanding and bias correction, and sharing of 

methodologies and portability of methods allowing for ESM testing and improvement. Targeted 

management strategies could increasingly prioritize, support, and reward collaborative modeling 

advances and community breakthroughs (including high risk/high payoff research). A more deliberate 

framework for collaboration across the Federal agencies and departments, and with the external 

community could break down the complexity of Earth system modeling and predictability into an 

increasingly coordinated and collaborative outcome-driven effort. This framework could advance ESM 

experimentation and utilization, focusing on enhancing synergies and collaboration, while preserving 

model diversity. 

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Appendix A: FTAC Engagement Activities to Inform Strategy and Roadmap 

To inform its activities, the FTAC actively engaged stakeholders from both Federal agencies and 

departments and the broader community for feedback and discussion on topics related to the 

predictability of the Earth system in several formats. 

In March 2020, the FTAC surveyed agencies and departments participating in the ESP effort to 

understand the current ESP R&D landscape within the Federal Government and identify agency 

research needs and opportunities as well as gaps and barriers. Key R&D themes across responses 

concerned observational data, theoretical processes understanding, Earth system modeling, 

infrastructure, technology, and coordination. 

On April 13, 2020, on behalf of the FTAC, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

issued an RFI on future ESP R&D activities of Federal agencies and departments as well as their 

partnerships with the external community. Via the RFI, the FTAC made an open call to the public to 

provide input on a number of relevant questions, including needs for enhanced Earth system 

predictions and benefits to meeting those needs; top R&D gaps or barriers impeding progress in 

understanding ESP; and top R&D opportunities and related activities for making substantial progress 

in the understanding of ESP. The RFI received 58 responses from across the community, including from 

academia (both individuals and institutions), individuals or groups employed by the Federal 

Government (typically Government laboratories and Federally Funded Research and Development 

Centers), non-profits and think tanks, industry, and professional societies. 

On April 16, 2020, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) and OSTP 

co-sponsored a virtual roundtable on ESP R&D to promote a discussion and solicit feedback on the 

direction that the Federal Government should take in this area. The Roundtable participants included 

over 60 representatives from academia, research laboratories, non-profit and for-profit organizations, 

Federal and State government agencies, philanthropies, and the international community. The 

roundtable included panel discussions in plenary as well as discussions in breakout groups. It was 

framed around the following themes: the impacts of practical ESP, key R&D opportunities in this area, 

needs and opportunities for enhanced coordination and partnerships, and consideration of relevant 

education and training of a diverse workforce. 

The Roundtable inspired follow-up community-organized engagement activities during JuneSeptember 2020 that the FTAC was invited to participate in. 

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Appendix B: Principles 

1. Outcomes address issues of high societal relevance to the Nation. 

2. Scientific objectives are tractable. 

3. Goals are beyond incremental improvement. 

4. Goals address missions of agencies and departments. 

5. Interagency coordination and collaboration result in outcomes that are beyond the sum of the 

parts. 

6. The approach is grounded in foundational understanding and integrates across disciplines, spatial 

scales, and timescales. 

7. The approach is scalable and phased, addressing a more comprehensive set of issues over a period 

of several years. 

8. The development of a diverse cadre of scientists and the enhancement of computational 

infrastructure are key to the approach. 

9. Enhanced partnerships are critical to the effort (interagency, across Federal and State 

Governments, across public and private entities, and internationally). 

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