UNITED STATES ARMY 

ENGINEER CENTER 

AND FORT BELVOIR, VA 

COMMANDER/COMMANDANT 

Maj. Gen. James N. Ellis 

DEPUTY COMMANDANT 

Col. Alvin G. Rowe 

CHTEF OF STAFFDEPUTY 

INSTALJATXON COMMANDER 

Col. David 0.Cooksey 

COMMAND SERGEANT MAJOR 

CSM Marvin L. Knowles 

DIRECTORATES 

DIRECTORATE OF ENGINEER 

FORCE MANAGEMENT 

Lt. Col. Charles S. Nichols 

DIRECTORATE OF COMBAT 

DEVELOPMENTS 

Col. Phillip R. Hoge 

DIRECTORATE OF TRAINING 

DEVELOPMENTS 

Col. John W. Devens 

DIRECTORATE OF TRAINING 

AND DOCTRINE 

Col. Stanley R. Johnson 

UNITS 

ENGINEER CENTER BRIGADE 

Col. Robert A. Dey 

ENGINEER TRAINING BRIGADE 

Col. Peter J. Groh 

PUBLIC AFFAIRS OFFICER 


Maj. James E. Kiley Jr. 


EDITOR 

John Florence 

ASSOCIATE EDITOR 

Sp5 N. P. Lang 

Our cover art was designed by Janet Jurin 

to illustrate ARTEP 

tasks in the Engineer 

Trainer's Workbook. 
-

VOLUME 12 SUMMER 1982 NUMBER 2 

FEATURES 

The Command Sergeant Major 

by Gen. Bruce C. Clarke, USA (Ret.1 

Afghanistan, The Soviet Experience 

by James H. Hansen 

Recovery of Flight 90, An Engineer Battalion's Contribution 

by Capt. David R. Gallay 

Computer Graphics for Automated Drafting 

by M. R. Steuens 

Geofabrics in Military Construction 

by Capt. Philip M. Jones and Capt. Stephen L. Gerecke 

Panama, Keeping the Canal on Track 

by Capt. Frederick R. Ferrin 

NCO Training for German Engineers 

by SGM Dieter Helmig 

The Engineer Workbook-Bridging the Training Gap 

by John Florence 

Platoon Inventory 

by Maj. Curtis R. Rogers 

Apple to the Rescue 

by John Florence 

DEPARTMENTS 

2 CLEAR THE WAY 25 ENGINEER PROBLEM 

4 NEWS & NOTES 36 ENGINEER SOLUTION 

ENGINEER is an authorized ~ublicationof the US. Army Enaineer Center and Fort Belvoir. Va. Unless s~eeificallvstated. material aopearing herein does not necessdri~yreflect official policy, thinking or endorsement by any agency ofthe U.S. ~imy.All photographs containid 

herein are official U.S. Army photographs unless otherwise credited. Use of funds for printing this publication was approved by Headquarters. 

Department of the Army, July 22, 1981. Material herein may be reprinted ifcredit is given to ENGINEER and the author. ENGINEER OBJECTIVES are to provide a forum for the exchange of ideas, to inform and motivate and to promote the professional development of all members of the Army engineer family.. DIRECT CORRESPONDENCE with ENGINEER is authorized and encouraged. Inquiries. letters to the 

editor, manuscripts, photographs and general correspondence should be sent to: Editor, ENGINEER. U.S. Army Engineer Center, Fort Belvoir, 

Va., 22060. Telephone Autovon 354-3082. If a return of manuscripts or material is desired, a self-addressed envelope is required. .SUBSCRIPTIONS to ENGINEER are available throuch the Suoerintendent ~ of ~ Documents. U.S. Government Printine Office. Warhineton. .. D.C. ~ . 2 ,41 .\ check or ~UI~CY ortler p.t):sble ro Super!nl,,ndenl of 1)oruments must icc irnp:tnv ull ruhser#pt!onrrquerl. H..lr. are $b 00 dome-lir 

~r~ludlnpAPO ?rt1I t'P0 .~ddrr~sea, and 510 vJ ior torrlrtl nddn.sser. Inrllvlclunl .~~pl+.. .Ire :*vn~lahleat $2 7: p..! rdp) r, tlomelllu s<lclr,..rw-. 

and $:1.46 for forclan tddrexrer.. SECOND CI.ISS POILI~YP at Fort nelvoar. \'.I . und R~verdalc.Md ISSN Ol)46- 19R9. 
Three Key Activities 


As the new Engineer School 

commandant, I welcome this opportunity to continue "Clear the 

Way." I think it is critically important that I continue the tradition of my predecessor, Maj. 

Gen. Max W. Noah, in providing 

you the School perspective on 

the many issues affecting the 

Engineer community. 

I welcome your comments and 

will endeavor to highlight those 

issues most important to the 

military engineer. In future issues of ENGINEER, I will address matters with which we 

should share perspectives. These 

initial comments, however, reflect my personal support of 

three critical areas here at the 

School. 

First, and I believe, one of the 

most significant activities at the 

Engineer School, is our Mission 

Area Analysis (MAA). This process began with a mobilitycountermobility-snwivability 

Systems Program Review (SPR) 

conducted at Fort Belvoir in 

April 1981. Maj. Gen. Noah reported to you on the SPR a year 

ago. During that review, Engineers assessed our concepts, organizations, training, and material needed to do our job. That 

was followed by an action plan 

which analyzed the shortcomings in our system and identified 

the means to correct them and to 

accomplish our job more effectively. Many of the items 

identified last fall in that action 

plan are now under way. 

In November, we moved to the 

preparation of the formal MAA. 

The Engineer portion (one of 

eight analyzing the entire Army 

mission) is called Combat Support, Engineering and Mine 

Warfare. In this analysis, we 

shall break down every task and 

subordinate mission within the 

Corps of Engineers' responsibility and, again, in even more detail, assess our capability to accomplish those jobs. This is a 

very important effort from the 

standpoint of the time and number of people required to accomplish it. But more important is 

its significance to the character 

of the Engineer mission of the 

future. One can say, from a mission standpoint, in terms of our 

total relationship to the Army, 

this MAA may well be the most 

important project we will undertake in this decade. 

A second very important activity here concerns the doctrinal 

literature program. The Army, 

as a whole, has reassessed how it 

is to fight in the future, based 

upon a modern concept called 

the Airland Battle. Stemming 

from that concept, a new keystone manual, FM 10&5, Operations, containing the basic doctrine for the future has evolved. 

We and the other TRADOC 

schools have reviewed that doctrine and are preparing first, 

our respective keystone and 

then, the supporting field manuals. The first field manual for 

combat engineers is FM 5-100, 

Engineer Combat Operations, 

which has been published in a 

coordinating draft for review by 

Engineers and other members 

of the combat arms team worldwide. It contains many changes 

from what we are familiar with 

in current manuals. We will 

next consolidate many of the 

other doctrinal manuals into 

seven or eight supporting manuals based on FM 5- 100. I will 

keep you advised on the status 

of this important effort as it 

progresses, and I encourage you 

to consider this doctrine effective upon receipt of these new 

manuals. 

The third critical activity demanding our attention is the responsibility for proponency. I 

am excited about this particular 

mission of the Engineer School 

because it is people oriented, 

and our involvement is essential to the total career development of Engineer soldiers. Accordingly, I believe a discussion 

of proponency in my first col- 
umn would be appropriate and 

timely. This insight should 

serve to explain our present 

posture and future direction. 

On October 1, 1981, the Engineer School became the specialty proponent for the Corps of 

Engineers. As commandant, I 

advise and assist the deputy 

chief of staff for personnel 

(DCSPER) and MILPERCEN on 

personnel management policies 

and programs affecting Engineer officers (SC 21 and 22). 

warrant officers (MOS 310A, 

621A, 811A, 821A, 833A, and 

841Aj, and enlisted personnel 

(CMF ,- 12. . 51. , and 81).

The Engineer Proponency 

Steering Committee (EPSC) has 

been organized to assist me on 

policy recommendations. The 

EPSC reviews issues and provides recommended actions or 

policy changes. My recommendations are then forwarded to 

the appropriate office or agency; 

such as DA, DCSPER or 

MILPERCEN. 

The Directorate of Evaluation 

and Standardization, currently 

the Directorate of Engineer 

Force Management (Provisional) (DEFM(P)), is the principal 

action agency for Engineer specialty proponency. The 

DEFM(P) prioritizes and evaluates proponency issues for the 

commandant and EPSC. They 

coordinate directly with 

TRADOC. MILPERCEN. . OCE. ~ ~oldie~~;pport center, and 

ODCSPER. The DEFM(P) has 

its own evaluation teams and 

receives much of its information 

from the field. 

Although the proponency mission is relatively new to the 

School, many issues are already 

being reviewed. Some of these 

include: professional development, force alignment, AERB 

requirements, educational requirements, accessioniretention, combat exclusion policy for 

women, engineer and scientific 

continuation pay, and additional specialties for commissioned 

officers. Other issues are constantly surfacing for evaluation 

and appropriate action. The following highlights some of the 

issues: 

The Engineer officer specialty 

code was restructured on March 

1, 1982. All topographic Engineer officer positions were designated as SC 22-a new specialty code. New Special Skill 

Identifiers (SSI) were designated for the remaining SC 21 

positions. The EPSC has expressed concern that the 

restructured SC 21 may require 

additional fine tuning to insure 

Engineer officers receive adequate professional development. 

Accordingly, development evaluations are currently underway 

to address this problem. 

Another area of interest to officers is the engineering and 

scientific career continuation 

pay (ESCCP) which the Air 

Force requested from Congress. 

While DA endorsed the concept, 

the Army Officer Personnel 

Management System is not 

comparable to the Air Force's 

system. Since specific degrees 

are mandatory for most Air 

Force officer specialties, it is 

relatively easy to determine academic shortages. Due to the 

wide variety of degrees in any 

one Army specialty, implementation of a bonus program for 

the ~ Army is not feasible at this . time. 

Force alignment has been in 

the news recently. Promotion 

policies are changing to facilitate aligning the force. The 

FY 82 E-7 selection board selected E-6 soldiers for promotion by MOS for the first time. 

The Army, with input from the 

Engineer School on Engineer 

MOSs, selected the number of 

soldiers necessary to fill known 

or anticipated Engineer job vacancies. Clearly, promotion 

opportunities for those in a critically needed skill, or MOS, 

were much higher than for soldiers in overage skills. By 

placing a direct correlation between the numbers of promotions given to the various 

MOSs, and the strength status 

of those MOSs, the Army has 

taken a giant step forward in 

aligning the total enlisted force. 

The after-action report from the 

board has been received by the 

School, and evaluation of the report and board results will determine which policy changes 

will enhance professional development and career potential for 

our enlisted soldiers. 

The DA Women in the Army 

study group is conducting a total review of units and positions 

to determine where women can 

be effectively utilized. The 

physical demands of MOSs and 

the combat probability of a unit 

will be the basis of this determination. The Engineer School is 

developing the raw data for the 

study. 

Most proponency issues are 

multifaceted. Education, specialty structure and professional development are all intertwined. Whenever a new 

material system is introduced, 

personnel requirements change. 

This, in turn, affects the structure of the specialty and makes 

demands upon the training system. In the past, the full personnel impact of new material introduction was often not 

apparent until years later. Specialty proponency provides discipline to the personnel process 

by insuring the system can support these changes. 

Proponency is both a responsibility and an opportunity. As 

the new commandant, I accept 

the challenge of the responsibility and look forward to the opportunity for the positive 

change we can affect. Let us 

have your ideas, "Clear the 

Way." 

JNE 
RNews & Notes 


A 9th lrr/i~rrlr~.v Dirisio~isoliii~~r. ((se,$ a UNIMOG to

dig an in(1iuirlual drfereilslceposition during a Fort 

Lewis FTX. 

OCAR REMINDS RESERVISTS: 


DRESS RIGHT! 


The new decoration and service ribbons authorized by DA should be worn by qualified reservists, too, Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, 

reports. 

The Army Service Ribbon is worn by all officers 

and enlisted personnel following successful completion of the resident basiciorientation course or 

initial MOS producing course. 

The Army Achievement Medal may be awarded 

to all but general officers, for meritorious service 

or achievement. The NCO Professional Development Ribbon is awarded for successful completion 

of designated NCO professional development 

courses. 

The Overseas Service Ribbon is awarded for 

successful completion of overseas tours with numerals used to denote second and subsequent 

awards. The OSR will not be awarded for overseas service already recognized with another 

service medal. such as the Vietnam Service 

Medal. 

No orders will be published for these awards, so 

check AR 6725- 1with changes or consult your 

unit personnel officer to make sure you're dressed 

right. You may also want to update your official 

photo. 

UNIMOG IS TESTED 


AT FORT LEWIS 


The UNIMOG is one candidate being tested as 

a small emplacement excavator (SEE). The 

UNIMOG has a German chasis with attachments 

added by Case Equipment, Inc. As part of the 9th 

Infantry Division's High Technology Test Bed, 

the UNIMOG is being rated on its ability to meet 

operational requirements. Its performance is being evaluated by the Army's Mobility Equipment 

Research and Development Command 

(MERADCOM), Fort Belvoir. According to 

MERADCOM, initial test reports have validated 

the concept of using a UNIMOG-type piece of 

equipment to dig small forward area 

emplacements. 

92d TRAINS FOR JUNGLE 

A detachment from the 92d Engi- 


neer Battalion (Combat) (Heavy), 


Fort Stewart, Ga., recently accom-


panied the 1st Battalion (Ranger), 


75th Infantry, on a 21-day jungle 


training course in Panama. 


The 92d, which supports the 1-


75th in the event of the Rangers de- 


ployment, learned jungle tactics in- 


cluding training in water operations, 


jungle survival, placing booby traps 


and land navigation. 


In addition to weapons mainte- 


nance classes and physical training, 


the soldiers received instruction in 


poncho flotation rafts; using rope 


bridges and in vertical extraction, an 


airborne operation that lifts up to 


four men, suspended by ropes, out of 


an area of helicopter. 

News & Notes 


FORCE ALIGNMENT 


EFFECTS REENLISTMENT 


The Army's new Force Alignment Program 

may make it harder for some soldiers to reenlist. 

Recent success in meeting reenlistment goals has 

enabled the Army to look more closely at soldiers 

who reenlist and the skills for which they 

reenlist. Force alignment is designed to improve 

MOS balance, eliminate poor performers and to 

support modernization of the force. 

Particularly effected are prior service enlistees 

who will be allowed to reenter only into critical 

skills. Additionally, soldiers must now be in 

grade %4 or above to reenlist at all. Soldiers in 

grade E-5 and below at the time of reenlistment 

will be allowed to sign up for their present MOS 

or an understrength MOS only. 

Commanders are advised by MILPERCEN to 

reenlist only those soldiers who will be productive in a changing Army, who are potential NCOs 

or senior technicians and those who are willing to 

serve where the Army needs them. 

Six combat planning tasks 

are being programmed into a 

new hand-held calculator for 

engineers. Classroom and field 

testing will be done during 

FY 83. The six programs are: 

minefield and wire obstacle logistics, demolitions and cratering calculations, bridge 

classifications, and the critical 

path method. To write 

software, first obtain documentation standards by writing to: 

U.S. Army Engineer School, 

ATTN: ATZA-TDC-A (Calculator), Fort Beluoir, Va., 

22060. 

1 ElGlNEERS NEEDED 

AS GERMAN 1.INGIJISTS 

Staff Sergeants in MOS 

51H30 (Construction Supervisor) or SFCS in MOS 51T30 

(Technical Engineering Supervisor) are needed for assignments as German linguists. Interested NCOs who are not 

qualified linguists may apply if 

they score 89 or better on the 

Defense Language Aptitude 

Battery (DLAB) Test available 

at local education centers. 

Applicants should submit 

their name, MOS and test 

results (if needed) to MILPERCENs Engineer Branch 

(DAPC-EPL-E), 2461 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 

Selected NCOs will attend a 

nine-month German course at 

the Defense Language Institute 

Foreign Language Center, Monterey, Cal. Call Mrs. Scott at 

Engineer Branch for more information, AV 221-7710. 

I W. VA. GUARD 

GETS ENGINEERS I

A new Army National Guard 

engineer detachment was recently formed at West Virginia's only military reservation. Camp Dawson, near 

Kingwood, W. Va., is now home 

for the 229th Engineer Detachment (Utility) commanded by 

Capt. David M. Davison. Senior 

detachment NCO is SFC 

Edward M. Gatens. 

The 35-soldier detachment 

will provide maintenance, minor construction and rehabilitation of Camp Dawson facilities. 
- - - 

'J-News & Notes 


CERAMIC ANODE 

IS BREAKTHROUGH FOR CERL 

A breakthrough in corrosion-prevention technology has been made by the U.S. Construction 

Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) at 

Champaign, Ill., with development of the ceramic 

anode. 

The invention makes corrosion prevention 

available at one-fourth the cost and in a size reduction-500 times by weight-that permits installation in areas previously too small. Yet the 

ceramic anode has the same life as the relatively 

heavy and bulky silicon-iron or graphite anodes 

used in cathodic protection for the past 30 years. 

The ceramic anode is about the size of a dime. 

The consumption rate of conducting ceramic 

materials such as ferrites is 500 times less than 

the currently used silicon-iron and graphite anodes. However, ceramics are extremely brittle 

and cannot be fabricated. To overcome these 

Chapic~in(Copt,) Nicholas J. problems, CERL plasma-sprayed ferrite on valve 

Kuseuich, 17th Engineer Battalion, metal (titanium or niobium) which can be fabri2d Armored Diuision, conducts a cated to any shape. The niobium anode was de- field mass wearing olive drab uest- signed specifically for salt-water use due to its rements made from an Army para- sistance to pitting. chute. Kuseuitch is one of only 10 An application in civil works for the CERL ce- Eastern Orthodox priests in the ramic anode will be on lock gates. At Army inArmy. Developed in Eastern Europe, stallations, the anode will be used on elevated the religion includes Greeks, Ukrain- water-storage tanks and underground pipes. Exians, Romanians, and Russians. amples of potential use are with submarines and There are over six million of the East- ships, and on off-shore structures such as oilern Orthodox faith in the United drilling platforms. 
 States. (Photo by Mark Vitullol 


DA AWARD FOR ENGINEER TOP0 LAB 1 PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER1 

The Engineer Topographic Laboratories (ETL), ENGINEER-IN-TRAINING ASSISTANCE 1

Fort Belvoir, Va., has received the 1981 Depart- The U.S. Army Engineer School provides informent of the Army Most Improved Laboratory of mation regarding registration of military officers the Year Award. and DoD civilians as "Professional Engineers" Commended foi the firs; successful interiace and as "Engineers-in-Training." The School also between a photo interpreter analyzing high- provides study materials for PE and EIT exams. resolution aerial photography and a digital com- For more information on the PE and EIS pro- puter supporting a geographic information sys- grams, call Capt. Phil Jones or Mr. Bob Baldwin, tem, ETL was selected for the award above 35 (703) 664-288912527, FTS 554, AVN 354. Send other Army labs. written queries to: Commandant, U.S. Army En- ETL, the largest topographic research and de- gineer School, ATTN: ATZA-DTE-RA (PEIEIT velopment organization of its kind, specializes in Coordinator). Fort Belvoir. VA 22060. If vou are mapping, geodesy, point positioning and military writing for itudy materials only, substitute at- geographic information. The laboratory com- tention line: ETM Division (Bldg. 215). manderldirector is Col. Edward K. Wintz. 
The Command 


Sergeant Major 


by Gen. Bruce C. Clarke, USA (Ret.) 

In the fall of 1940, the chief of the 

armed force sent a group of four officers to England to learn all they could 

about the actions in France by the 

British units that had recently escaped from Dunkerque. I was one of 

those officers and was assigned to the 

British 1st. Armored Division which 

was re-equipping and retraining south 

of London. 

In a couple of months, I learned to 

know the British concept of organization, training, command and leadership. I was impressed by the British 

regimental system, which seemed to 

rely little on the centralized control of 

personnel in the War Office. The key 

enlisted man of the regiment (our battalion) was the sergeant major. 

He was a very imposing man and 

was the walking authority on the history, ethics, soldierly standards and 

information of the regiment. When a 

new recruit was ready to be taken before the sergeant major, he was well 

turned out and formally presented. 

The sergeant major sat very militarily 

behind his desk and the recruit stood 

at rigid attention. The sergeant major 

covered hriefly the long, glorious history of the regiment. He then covered 

several things that all men in that regiment did, and several things that 

they didn't do. He informed the new 

soldier, still at rigid attention, that if 

he violated these rules a noncommissioned officer would speak to him; if 

he did it repeatedly, he would speak 

to him again himself. With that, the 

young soldier was dismissed. 

This established the basic of peer 

discipline in the unit. No formal command instructions would take its place 

in its effect upon a new soldier. When 

Lt. Col. Creighton W. Abrams was 

commanding the 37th Tank Battalion 

in World War 11, I heard one of his 

sergeants one day shout to a soldier 

who had violated some ~le or order, 

"Soldier, you don't do that in Abe's 

battalion," This was prompt and adequate corrective action. 

In 1949, Maj. Gen. 1.D. White, the 

commanding general of the U.S. Constabulary in Germany, directed me, 

one of his brigade commanders, to 

create an NCO academy for the constabulary. With that, the present 7th 

Amy NCO Academy was born. 

It has had a profound effect on the 

Army's noncommissioned officer 

corps. Its duplicates have covered our 

Army and the Korean Army over the 

past 30 years. From this, has evolved 

the E-8 and E-9 ranks in our Army. 

The latter is the rank of command sergeant major; the top enlisted man in a 

unit in our Army. 

Before the first class at the Constabulary NCO Academy, I made this 

statement, "There never has been a 

good Army without a good noncommissioned officer corps." I repeated it 

before a graduating class in November 

1981, some 32 years later. If anything 

it is more important today in our 

Army. 

When, soon after World War 11, the 

Army deputy chief of staff for personnel presented the proposed post-war 

titles of the then seven grades of enlisted men to General of the Army/ 

Chief of Staff Omar N. Bradley, he 

started with E-7 master sergeant; 

E-6 sergeant first class. When the 

chief of staff approved these, he then 

recommended that the E-5 be a sergeant second class. Gen. Bradley 

strongly disapproved, and directed 

that a new title he found. The title of 

staff sergeant was the result. Gen. 

Bradley then went on to say that he 

wanted no 'second class' sergeants in 

his Army. A command sergeant major 

has a lot to do to prevent this. 

Over 30 years later we find our 

country with soldiers in Korea, in 

Europe and elsewhere supporting our 

national foreign relations programs by 

providing the basis from which our 

military and diplomatic efforts are 

carried on. Frederick the Great once 

said, "Diplomacy without the military 

is like an orchestra without instruments." This realistic concept makes 

every military man overseas an important person and an important member 

of our diplomatic-military team. The 

same goes for those who are prepared 

to augment and to support our forces 

overseas in an emergency. 

The morale of a soldier comes from 

three things: A feeling that he has an 

important job to do, a feeling that he 

is trained to do it well, and a feeling 

that his good work is recognized and 

appreciated. 

The command sergeant major is the 

principal enlisted staff assistant to his 

commander. As such, he makes suggestions and recommendations to his 

commander as called for and as is appropriate. But he is more; he sets the 

standards in leadership, performance 

of duty, conduct, discipline, morale 

and community relations for the noncommissioned officers of his unit. 

His importance to his unit and to 

his commander is only limited by his 

ability, energy and imagination. His 

field of influence for good among the 

enlisted men in his unit knows no 

bounds. 

Summer I 
AFGHANISTAN 


The Soviet Experience 


by James H. Hansen 

After nearly two years of conflict in Afghanistan, 

there has been remarkably little public discussion of 

the Soviet methods for dealing with the Moslem insurgency there. This is indeed'unfortunate, because 

the analysis of Soviet tactics in Afghanistan is a useful method of assessing the qualitative effectiveness 

of Soviet military forces. A study of Soviet tactics in 

Afghanistan indicates certain weaknesses in the Soviet military style, some of which Moscow's planners 

have tried to correct. It is now apparent that the Soviet military has adopted counterinsurgency as one 

of its permanent missions. Moreover, the U.S.S.R. 

is using Afghanistan as a test ground for new weapons, and much can be learned from a look at the 

arms which are in operational service now against 

the Moslem guerrilla forces. 

The Application of Lessons Learned 

Several months after the initial Soviet invasion 

of Afghanistan, Moscow's military planners recognized that their forces would have to adapt to the 

type of war being fought in that unforgiving theater. As early as March 1980, it was apparent that 

armored forces were generally useless against an 

enemy whose presence on the battlefield was sudden and fleeting. In general, Soviet ground forces 

were slow to react to rapidly changing tactical situations, and Soviet air power was used with little 

effect. 

During mid-1980, however, a changeover in Soviet tactics was underway. The Soviet contingent in 

Afghanistan introduced armored fighting vehicles 

to replace many of the tanks. The Soviet forces 

now rely primarily on armored vehicles such as the 

AMP armored fighting vehicle, its airborne BMD 

cousin, the BRDM armored reconnaissance vehicle, and the ubiquitous BTR-60 armored personnel carriers. In addition, motorized rifle divisions 

were deployed in smaller maneuver units to pursue guerrillas with greater effect. Soviet divisions 

now frequently operate in brigade and battalionsized units. The Soviet contingent in Afghanistan, 

moreover, has placed ever-increasing reliance on 

air power. The U.S.S.R. has now deployed a steadily increasing number of combat helicopters of all 

types.' The Soviet reliance on the helicopter is 

probably as great as the American reliance on the 

helicopter during the Vietnam war. 

These tactical changes took place against a backdrop of a high-level military conference in Moscow in June 1980, when the progress in Afghanistan was doubtlessly scrutinized. Military leaders 

also decided to place greater emphasis on political 

education within the Soviet armed forces, presumably to ensure that enlisted troops were aware of 

the justness of the communist cause in Afghani~tan.~ 

The changeover in tactics did not produce immediate results. In some respects, the Soviet position appeared to erode even further during the remainder of 1980. In August of that year, Herat 

and Jalalabad reportedly came under partial control of the rebel forces. In September, it was estimated that the Afghan Army strength had dwindled to some 30,000 loyal troops, from an original 

figure of about 100,000 men before the Soviet invasion. Also during that month, the Soviets withdrew from the Panjsher Valley after suffering considerable losses to the rebel forces. In October, 

some Islamic states supporting the Afghan rebels 

increased the level of the military aid they were 

sending. By year's end, alarming reports of discipline problems among Soviet troops in Kabul began to reach the West.3 

During early 1981, the Soviet Union tried in 

many ways to enhance its position in Afghanistan. 

In February, East Germans were reported to be 

running police advisory programs for the Afghan 

government. (It had earlier been reported, inconclusively, that Cuban and Vietnamese counterinsurgency experts were serving in Afghanistan.) In 

March, Soviet units took over the mission of providing security for the Kabul area from four Afghan divisions. In April, there were reports of 

"crash improvement programs" in Soviet tactic^.^ 

Soviet military doctrine has tried to keep pace 

with the combat developments. The October 1980 

issue of Znamenosets (Flag-Carrier), the military periodical designed for reading by the NCO corps, 

was devoted almost entirely to mountain opera- 
tions of all kinds: airborne operations, use of helicopters, motorized rifle company tactics, river 

crossings, cliff scaling techniques, etc. The Soviet 

aviation journal Aviatsiya i Kosmonautika (Aviation 

and Cosmonautics) has featured summaries of operations in Afghanistan as welL5 

Tactical Trump Cards 

Some of the more sensitive, and presumably effective, Soviet tactics do not appear in Russianlanguage military journals. Reference is made to 

the employment of chemical munitions as well as 

the use of special operations forces. 

Reports of Soviet use of chemical weapons in 

Afghanistan predate the introduction of Soviet 

combat forces in December 1979. A U.S. State Department publication released in August 1980 noted that the Soviets have employed chemical weapons in half of Afghanistan's 28 provinces, largely 

those in the east where the most intense fighting 

has occ~rred.~ So far three general types of chemical munitions are being used: a type of lethal 

chemical, which apparently is a nerve agent; a socalled "knockout" gas which leaves the victims 

unconscious for several hours, during which time 

Soviet troops land and conduct unopposed operations; and a concentrated CS tear gas, which apSoviet Air Base 

x x Soviet Airborne 

pears to be the most widely used of all the Soviet 

chemical agents. Chemical munitions could he 

very effective against guerrillas who are dug into 

mountainous areas and are difficult to dislodge 

with conventional firep~wer.~ 

The Soviets have also introduced significant 

numbers of elite special operations units into the 

campaign. These are called spetsnar (for "special 

designation") units, forces which are roughly comparable to U.S. Army Ranger units. The U.S.S.R. 

appears to put a great deal of stock in such 

troops-to a greater degree than is commonly appreciated in the West.These helicopter-borne 

commandos spearhead various types of counterguerilla thrusts, and are backed up by columns of 

motorized rifle troops. Analysis of the Afghan 

campaign thus far suggests that motorized rifle 

units provide most of the "cordoning" forces in 

cordon-and-search operations, while the elite 

forces provide many of the effective hunter-killer 

units. 

Soviet elite forces include the airborne units, 

which are heavily involved in the combat. The only 

major airborne force now believed to be in the 

country is the 105th Guards Airborne Division, 

which was one of the spearhead elements in December 1979. Analysis of the campaign suggests a 

pronounced qualitative difference between the 
. - ~ . . . 

. "d ~ 

- . - ~ .~., . . .. -. .., 

combat performance of Soviet airborne units and 

the more pedestrian performance of motorized rifle divisions, of which seven remain in the country. 

The Cost to Both Sides 

The Soviet troops have paid a moderately heavy 

price since December 1979, as suggested by the 

preliminary analysis of available casualty figures. 

Based on American estimates of casualty figures, 

the monthly Soviet casualty rate (both dead and 

wounded) is running at several hundred men per 

month, with no more than 100 men killed each 

month on the average. This figure is scaled down 

from earlier estimates, and the rate will prove to 

be acceptable to Soviet planners, so long as Soviet 

forces continue to inflict several times as many 

casualties as they take. 

The Afghan civilian population has paid a very 

heavy price, because Soviet tactical operations 

have been aimed increasingly at the population. 

This is suggested by reports of Soviet units leveling villages which are believed to harbor guerrilla 

fighters. In one two-week period in mid-1980, Soviet ground and air forces "reduced to rubble" 

some 50-60 Afghan villages.1° As of mid-1981, 

about half a million Afghan citizens had been 

killed or wounded by Soviet military action, and 

over two million people have fled the country, according to a former Afghan government official. 

In this context, the Afghanistan campaign has 

produced numerous atrocity stories, told by both 

sides. In this type of war, it is clear that Soviet 

commanders do not view atrocities as war crimes, 

but as calculated tactics in an ongoing effort to intimidate or coerce the population. In this category 

of "tactics," one must also include mass reprisals as 

well as institutionalized terror. 

The Soviet counterinsurgency campaign should 

not be viewed in the military context alone. Instead one should examine all the other measures 

which the Soviets are employing in their effort to 

subdue the armed opposition. Soviet strategic doctrine recognizes that the military civilian effort 

should be interconnected, and population control 

is a critical element in the U.S.S.R.'s overall strategy in Afghanistan. 

By now, the KGB apparently has penetrated the 

The Soukt BMP armored fighting vehicle, shown here 

in a Red Square parade, has been even more useful than 

the tank in Afghanistan operations. 

Mujahideen after stepping up its operations in 

Afghanistan." Many KGB personnel there probably are associated with the Third Directorate, 

which is responsible for counterintelligence within 

the Soviet armed forces. 

At the same time, the Soviet occupiers are also 

recasting the Afghan legal system after that of [he 

U.S.S.R. The Afghan educational system is being 

transformed along Soviet lines as well. Many thousands of Soviet officials have entered Afghanistan 

to assist in the day-to-day functioning of Afghan 

government ministries." The exact distribution of 

Soviet officials within the ministries remains unknown for now. 

On the military side, many thousands of Afghan 

government troops are receiving training in the 

U.S.S.R.-now about 10,000 NCO's in the country 

for a six-month training period. The effort to 

reconstitute the pre-1978 Afghan armed forces is 

a major component of the Soviets' overall strategy, 

although Moscow probably is not banking on this 

program alone for the long-term stability of the 

country. 

An Afghan People's Militia has been operating 

against the guerrillas since at least early 1980. This 

force appears to be the same type of paramilitary 

adjunct which has been established in other states 

after a communist takeover: in Ethiopia, to name 

one recent example. People's Militia battalions 

made up of young recruits are entrusted with 

maintaining law and order in the cities, and also 

with countering the rebels who are active on the 

highways. As such, the People's Militia battalions 

are tasked with escorting convoys between the 

cities.13 

The U.S.S.R. is in the midst of a wide-ranging 

program to expand the lines of communication between Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan, an effort which could greatly assist the overall Soviet logistics and resupply plan. One permanent bridge 

has been built over the Amu Darya (Oxus) River at 

Termez. A second permanent bridge is reportedly 

under construction across the same river. The Soviets are considering the construction of a rail line 

into Kabul which would link up with the Soviet 

railway system (there are currently no rail lines in 

Afghanistan). The U.S.S.R. also has ambitious 

plans to build air cushion vehicle cargo platforms 
to link the Soviet river port of Termez with the Afghan cities of Shir-Kahn and Khayratan. The flotilla of air cushion vehicles, some with carrying 

capacities of up to 40 tons, will be built at a shipyard in Chardzou in the Soviet Turkmen SSR. In 

addition, the U.S.S.R. is upgrading some of 

Afghanistan's 36 existing airfields, and is constructing some new ones as well. One new military 

airfield has been built at Dasht-e-Atishan, some 40 

kilometers east of the lranian border in Herat 

Province.14 

The Air War 

Except for the assault helicopter's standout role, 

Soviet aviation fire support to ground forces has 

not been an important factor in the campaign 

against the rebels. One source notes that this aviation fire support (called a~~iatswnnayapodderzhka in 

Russian) has a "long way to go" before it can be 

considered effective.I5 This is largely due to three 

reasons. First, the Moslem rebels do not appear to 

be vulnerable to air operations. They are an elusive enemy for the Soviets, and any early warning 

of an impending air strike negates the effects of 

that strike. The second reason is that the mountainous terrain has inhibited the effectiveness of 

air-to-ground fire from jet aircraft. Air strikes in 

the desert regions of western Afghanistan would 

have more effect against the rebel forces, but most 

of the fighting has occurred in the eastern provinces adjacent to Pakistan. The third reason is that 

the Soviets have deployed few jet ground attack 

aircraft in Afghanistan. The overwhelming percentage of the Soviet tactical combat aircraft in the 

country are relatively old MIG-21's. which are best 

suited for air-to-air combat.'" Soviet planners have 

thus far not perceived the need to deploy relatively advanced ground attack aircraft, such as the 

SU-24 Fencer or the M1C-27 Flogger D and J 

models. 

On the other hand, the MI-24 Hind D helicopter gunship has proven to be a highly effective 

weapons platform. Its capabilities have been tested 

to the utmost: from transporting squad-sized units 

to dropping chemical bombs. By many accounts, 

the Hind D is the weapon most feared by the Moslem guerrillas, and its performance in combat has 

been described as "devastating." 

The Soviets maintain a force of well over 200 assault helicopters in Afghanistan, reportedly split 

into small squadron^.'^ They often use two-ship or 

four-ship formations in combat, but elements of 

eight or more have been reported. 

The assault helicopters, both the Ml-24 Hind 

DIE series and the Ml-8 Hip CIE series, represent 

the vital component of a new concept that is being 

tested in Afghanistan, the tactical airborne landing. In this maneuver, a motorized rifle unit, quite 

often a battalion of 400-500 men, is airlifted by 

helicopter to the enemy rear area where it operates in cooperation with the troops advancing 

from the front. A helicopter-borne assault may occur as far as 50 kilometers ahead of the front lines, 

although the linkup with the main body of troops 

should occur within two or three hours.'' 

Colonel M. Belov, perhaps the most tireless advocate of Soviet assault helicopter capabilities, has 

characterized this type of operation by its "strict 

coordination, surprise and dynamism of troop actions." Such operations are also known for their 

"fast overcoming of large distances, irrespective of 

natural obstacles and obstructions.. . ." Soviet military doctrine recognizes that the airborne force 

must be highly active and maneuverable in action, 

take the enemy by surprise, and show "resolve and 

daring.""j It would first appear that only special 

operations (spetsnaz) forces and airborne troops 

are ideally suited to carry out such operations, but 

some regular motorized rifle battalions have also 

been trained for this type of mission. 

If anything, Soviet units in Afghanistan have become overly dependent on helicopters. Whenever 

a Soviet troop column or supply convoy moves 

into guerrilla territory, it is accompanied by 

Hinds. While half of [hem remain overhead, 

watching for rebel activity, the others land troops 

in crests ahead of the advancing column. These 

troops provide security until the column has 

passed, after which time the process is repeated 

further along the route. This type of leapfrogging 

tactic generally would make it difficult for the Afghan rebels to halt Soviet offensives by striking at 

supply lines. 

Ground Forces Structure 

The Soviet ground troops have been split up 

into seven distinct commands. These areas are under the de facto control of Soviet generals, despite 

the presence of local Afghan political leaders. The 

exact boundaries between the seven commands 

have not yet been reported, but the number would 

correspnnd to the number of motorized rifle (MR) 

divisions believed to be in country, with each MR 

division having responsibility for certain territory. 

If there are indeed seven fully manned MR divisions in Afghanistan, each with an average 

strength of 12,500 men, then total Soviet manpower there would be higher than the often-repeated 

figure of 85,000. The seven MR divisions alone 

would account for some 87,500 troops. The addition of a fully-manned airborne division, the 

7,500-man 105th Guards Airborne Division, would 

bring total ground forces manpower to some 

95,000. Headquarters and support units in the 

Kabul area could account for another 5,000 men. 

Moreover, at least 5,000 aviation personnel would 

be required to man and maintain the jet combat 

aircraft and helicopters in the country. This all 

suggests that total troop strength in Afghanistan 

would be over 100,000, provided that ground divisions there were manned to their authorized 

strength. Instead, it is likely that the Soviets have 

sent some nonessential divisional component units 

back to their garrisons in the U.S.S.R. 

An examination of this troop strength reveals 

some surprising similarities between the Central 
Group of Forces (CGF) in Czechoslovakia and the 

Soviet contingent in Afghanistan. The CGF was 

formed from the remaining units which invaded 

Czechoslovakia in 1968, and is comparable in size 

with the Soviet force in Afghanistan. There are 

The Soviets were shuttling 

in elite units to give 

them maximum combat 

experience. 

some 73.000 eround trooDs in Czechoslovakia. u 

along wih about 150 comb& aircraft, according to 

most accounts published in the West.'" In the 

event of general war in Europe, the CGF probably 

would merge into a larger front (the largest type of 

Soviet military organization). Likewise, in the 

event of general hostilities in South Asia or the 

Persian Gulf area, the Soviet contingent in 

Afghanistan could also merge into a wartime front, 

in a force available for operations in the immediate area. 

The Enduring Counterinsurgency Mission 

A discussion of Soviet operations in Afghanistan 

strongly suggests that counterinsurgency has become a permanent mission of the Soviet armed 

forces. This is all the more apparent when one 

considers the continuing Soviet support to the 

pro-Communist pacification efforts in Angola and 

in Ethiopia. So long as Soviet and pro-Soviet 

forces continue to participate in local conflicts, it is 

likely that the U.S.S.R. will attain additional expertise in counterinsurgency. 

There is further supporting evidence that the 

Soviets have adopted the counterinsurgency mission. In December 1980, reports reaching the 

West indicated that the Soviets were shuttling in 

elite units in order to give them maximum combat 

experience in Afghanistan. In January 1981, Soviet military spokesmen noted that the scale of tasks 

being undertaken by the Soviet General Staff has 

"expanded," thus suggesting that counterinsurgent\ is becoming an incrca$~l~lvlashional)lr ca. 

rt.c.r field !tithin the So\,ier ~nilitarv strucrurc." 

Soviet military doctrine has also evolved over 

the past few years. One major change is a greater 

emphasis on civil wars and on national liberation 

struggles, as well as a stated willingness to assist in 

"defensive" campaigns in order to counter proWestern efforts to restore capitalism in newlyestablished socialist nations. Colonel K. Vorobiev, 

for example, has stated that wars in defense of nations which are building a socialist system are considered just by Soviet military spokesman, and 

may be fought by Soviet troops. Vorobiev has stated that this force can be employed because "it is 

derived from the ruling class, and based on the 

higher principles of socialism." Such force can be 

justified if it "overcomes the resistance of reactionary forces and promotes the progressive development of s~ciety."~' Colonel Vorobiev subsequently 

noted in January 1980 that "only" by using armed 

forces can one defend the revolutionary conquests 

from the imperialist interventionists, suppress the 

attacks of the enemies of social progress, and "assure the development of a country proceeding on 

the socialist path."23 This concept is broader in 

scope than the orthodox Marxist-Leninist interpretation of civil wars, and fits the Soviet concept 

of events in Afghanistan over the past few years. 

Test Range for Weapons 

After the casualty figures on both sides have 

been tabulated and the doctrinal justifications repeated for a seemingly infinite number of times, 

Afghanistan remains as a superb test-bed for an 

entirely new array of Soviet weapons. Soviet weapons being combat-tested in the fighting there include the T-72 main battle tank, the BMP armored 

fighting vehicle and its variants, the BMD airborne 

fighting vehicle, and small-unit weapons such as 

the AGS-17 "Plamya" (flame) automatic grenade 

launcher and the AKIAKS-74 5.45mm assault rifle. Lesser-known weapons include the PFM-1 antipersonnel minelet, an air-dropped drum-contained incendiary weapon with a large number of 

so-called "fire sticks," cluster bomb units, and the 

various types of chemical weapons discussed 

earlier.24 

Soviet troops have introduced a number of new 

ordnance innovations, and have modified equipment to snit local conditions. They have, for example, mounted the AGS-17 grenade launcher on the 

BMP armored fighting vehicle: the marriage of 

two highly successful weapon systems. The employment of assault helicopters to drop antipersonnel mines and chemical bombs is also an innovation peculiar to Afghanistan. 

Perhaps the underlying reason for the use of 

Afghanistan as a test-bed is the need for Soviet 

planners to conduct a prouerka (checkout) of these 

weapons under realistic combat conditions. The 

Soviets recognize that their weaponry will receive a 

more thorough and conclusive prouerka under the 

unforgiving conditions of actual combat than in 

field training exercises in the U.S.S.R. Indeed, 

some Soviet doctrinal writers have lamented the 

fact that their field training exercises often lack 

the requisite degree of realism. 

A compelling need exists for a thorough evaluation of this new Soviet weaponry, because some of 

, 
this equipment, as well as the associated tactics, 

could eventually be used against U.S. or NATO 

forces in the future. The U.S.S.K. closelv mnnitored U.S. military operations during the ~ietnam 

conflict, and drew its own conclusions with the 

goal of enhancing the potential effectiveness of 

Soviet forces should they ever directly face American combat units. There is a paramount need for 

the U.S, to do the same vis-a-vis the Soviet camuaien in Afchanistan. Indeed. the Soviet brouerka 

in ~fghaniGan should not bk viewed th;ough a 

narrow and cloudy window. American fighting 

men have too much to lose if the Soviets apply 

their new weapons and "lessons learned" against 

them at some time in the future, without some 

forekno~vledgeon our part. 

As a final observation, the analysis of the Soviet 

approach to the counterinsurgency campaign in 

Afghanistan occasionally reminds one of earlier 

campaigns against outgunned tribesmen, at a time 

when the issues all seemed much simoler. In the 

mid-193Ozs, Vittorio hlussolini was caidid enough 

to give his eyewitness account of the Italian effort 

against the Ethiopians: 

I still remember the effpct I produced on a small group 

of Galla tribesmen massed around a man in black 

clothes, I dropped an aerial torp~do right in the center, 

and the group opened up like ajlowering rose. It was 

most entertain in^.'^ 

Footnotes 

1. Zalmay 	 Khalilzad, "Soviet-Occupied Afghanistan," 

Problems of Communism, November-December 1980, 

p. 32. See also Auiolion Week W Space Technology, September 7, 1981, p. 29. The number of helicopters 

varies over time. 

2. Alfred L. Monks, 	The Soviet Intrruenlion in Afghani- 


slan (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Insti- 


tute for Public Policy Research. 1981). p. 41. 


3. Stuart Anerbach, "Soviets in Kabul Said ro Sell Arms 

On Black Market," Washington Post, February 6. 

1981, pp. Al, A26. Soviet troops are also using hashish in place of vodka, which is relatively scarce. 

4. David C. Isbv. "Afehanistan's Winter War." Soldier of 

Forltmc, ~$1 198i', p. 43. 

5. Colonel A. Khorobykh, "V Nebe nad Gindubushem" 

(In the Skv over the Hindu Kushl. Auiatsiva i Kosmonavkka, No. 8: 1980. 

6. US. Department of State, Reports ofthe Use of Chemical Weapons in Afghanisfan, Lao5 and Kampuchea, August 

1980, p. 5. 

7. ibld., passim. See also isby, op. cil., p. 44. 

8. Very early during the post-invasion campaigns in 

1980, it appeared that the Soviets were going to employ chemical weapons on a fairly wide scale, See 

James Hansen, "USSR-Afghanistan: Perspectives on 

the Conflict," Milira7 Intelligence, April-June 1980. 

p. 43. 

9. See Frederick Wiener, 	The Armies of the Warsaw Pacl 

Nations. Second Edition. (Vienna, Austria: Carl 

Ueberreuter Publishers, 1978). 

10. Stuart Auerbacll. "Soviet 	 Strikes Reportedly Level 

Afghan Villages," Washington Post, July 15, 1980, p. 

An. 

11. Isby, np. ot., p. 43. 

12. Donald 	E.Fink, "Afghan Invasion Linked to 1968 

Action," Avialion Week U Space Technology, July 14, 

1980, p. 23. The popularion of the Soviet civilian 

enclave in Kabul is said to have jumped from 1,800 

before the invasion to between 6,000 and 7,000. 

13. "Pravada Reoorts Afehan Militia Ooerations." 	FBIS 

Daily Report tor u.s.$R., ~oly 10, 1681, p. Dl. 

14. See Khalilzad, op. cit., p. 33, concerning chc bridges. 

See also "Air Cushion Freighters to Ser\'ice Afghan 

Route," FBIS Daily Rpport tor U.S.S.R., July 24, 

1981, p. D6. See also "USSR Troop Increasc on 

Afghan-Iranian Border Noted," FBIS Daily R~port 

for China, Julv 25, 1981, p. F3, concerning the new 

airfield. 

15. Galen L. Geer, "Prayers Replace Pushups," Soldier of 


Fortune, Navemher 1980, p. 42. 


16. Khalilzad, op, rit., p. 32. 

17. "Armed Forces," U.S.S.R. Facts W Figures Annual 

(Gulf Breeze, Florida: Acadrmic ln'lernationvl 

Press, 1981), p. 74. 

18. U.S. Army 	Intelligence and Threat Analysis Center 

(ITAC), Souzel Any Operalionr. IAG-13-U-78, AIIgust 11, 1978, pp. 7-6 to 7-8. 

19. Colonel Yu. Chernvshov, 	'A Tactical Airborne 


Landing," Soviet ~ilita? Review, No. 5, 1980. 


20. Lothar Roehl, "Thr Slippery Road to MBFR," 	Stra-


levic - Reorew. Winter 1979-1980. n. 28 See also 


Weiner, op. cil., passim. 

21. 	Colonel P. Mochalov and Engineer-Colonel 5. 

Lyapkalo, "Improving Command and Control." 

K~asnaya Znezda, January 7, 1981 

22. Monks. ob. ril.. o. 42. 

23. ihid., &. 

24. See Soldter of Fortune for September 1980, October 

1980, November 1980, April 1981, and May 1981 

for reports of various types of weapons being used . . 	 . 

in Afghanistan. 

25. 	Henry Davidoff, The Pocket Book of Qwlations (New 

Y0t.k: Simon & Schuster, 1942). p. 424. 

26. The map is taken from Khalilzad, op. rit., p. 25. Sincere thanks to Problems of Communism for permission 

to use the map in this publication. 

James H. Hansen is an employee of the BDM Corporation of McLean. \'a,. u~hrre he leads and barticibates 

in reseiich projects relating to ~ovietl~arsa; ~act'military capabilities. He served in the CIA until 1978. He is 

afrequent contributor to National Defense and to other 

dgense and foreign policy publications. The CIA has reviewed this article to eliminate clnssfied information, 

but that review neither constitutes CIA authentication of 

factual material no7 implies its endorsement of the zrieus 

exp"ed. 

Reprinted courtesy ofNationalDefcnse magazine 
Recovery of Flight 90 

An Engineer Battalion's Contribution 


by Capt. David R. Gallay 

Less than a minute after becoming airborne during a Washinpton. D.C.. snowstorm. January 13; 1982; Air ~loridi Flight 

90 lost altitude, struck five cars 

and a truck on the 14th Street 

Bridge and crashed into the icv 

Potbac River. Aboard thk 

Boeing 737 were 74 passengers 

and a crew of five, bound from 

Washington's National Airport 

to Tampa, Fla. Five persons survived the crash. 

Within minutes of the accident, the Federal Aviation Administration implemented its 

airport disaster plan. At Fort 

Belvoir, Va., one of the first activities alerted was the 30th 

Engineer Battalion (Topographic) (Army), Engineer Center 

Brigade. Its two attached diving 

detachments, the 86th and 

511th, were placed on standby, 

and a two-week operation that 

affected nearly every man and 

woman of the 30th began. 

Early January 14th, Engineer 

Center Brigade units were set 

to support recovery and salvage 

operations. Their mission focused on recovery of the flight 

and voice recorders, recovery of 

bodies and salvage of the aircraft. Battalion divers entered 

the water for the first time late 

the morning of the 14th. 

As the diving situation developed, the battalion sought additional ways to contribute to the 

operation. The 30th'~ 584th Engineer Company (Cartographic), 

for example, took an old copy of 

a U.S. Department of Transportation pictomap and produced a 

line map that was subsequently 

used for site planning. The cartographers also enlarged and 

printed an existing map of the 

area on a clear film base. This 

map was particularly useful to 

the District of Columbia's Metro~olitanPolice in ~lannine - and

"Underwater visibility 

was frequently less than 

30 centimeters." 

controlling rerouted automobile 

traffic near the cash site. 

Additionally, surveyors of the 

battalion's 82d Engineer Company (Survey) were needed to 

fix the locations of buoys set out 

by divers marking pieces of 

wreckage. The surveyors also 

sited the navigational aids used 

by remote sensing technicians 

of the Corps of Engineers' Cold 

Regions Research Engineering 

Laboratory (CRREL). These 

technicians scanned the river 

bottom by radar and developed 

profiles indicating wreckage locations (Figure 1).To assist in 

plotting debris locations, the 

584th placed a grid and scaled 

drawing of the downed aircraft 

onto the original line map. 

At the end of each day, divers, 

surveyors, CRREL technicians 

and cartographers, gathered in 

the 30th'~ on-site reproduction 

van to compare notes. There, an 

updated situation map was prepared and reproduced for use in 

planning and controlling subsequent dives. 

The divers were central to the 

operation. The battalion's 18 

divers, working alongside Coast 

Guard, Navy and D.C. police 

divers, recovered all victims 

and essential wreckage despite 

extremely adverse weather conditions. Air temperatures were 

nearly always below freezing 

and ice in the Potomac had to be 

cleared daily. Underwater visibility was fEequently less than 

30 centimeters. Incredibly, over 

the course of the 10-day operation. the average dive lasted 65 

minutes and ;he longest was 

141 minutes. 

The 30th performed many 

missions it would typically perform in their battlefield support 

role. The headquarters provided 

staff coordination, maintenance 

and logistics support; the cartographic company prepared, reproduced and distributed quickresponse graphics and maps; the 

survey company established and 

extended survey control; and 

the two diving detachments performed underwater salvage. 

Though the recovered wreckage will never provide the complete story, it has already 

yielded information which may 

deter similar accidents. Working under tragically difficult 

circumstances, the men and 

women of the 30th Engineer 

Battalion provided key assistance and expertise to the recovery of Air Florida Flight 90. 

Capt. David R. Gallay is operations officer of the 30th Engineer Battalion, Engineer Center 

Brigade, Fort Belvoir. He is a 

graduate of the U.S. Military 

Academy, the Command and 

General Staff College and has a 

master's degree in engineering 

from Purdue University and a 

master's in management from 

the University of Southern California. Capt. Gallay has commanded companies in Korea 

and Europe and is a registered 

professional engineer in 

Virginia. 
Figure I. A reproduction of the actual recovery map prepared by the 854th Engineer Company (Cartographic) 

ENGINEER/Summer 1982 IS 

Computer Graphics 


For Automated Drafting 


Huntsville revolutionizes designing, planning and mapping 

by M. R.Stevens 

In the old days, it might take an architectengineer or draftsman 20 hours to draw or design 

a project on a drawing board, depending upon the 

difficulty of the design. However, with today's 

modern technology of computer graphics, the 

same job can be done in just five hours. 

The Office of the Chief of Engineers (OCE) has 

been using computer graphics for several years, 

but the Huntsville Division and the St. Louis District pioneered development of automated drafting for the Corps. While all three organizations 

have implemented large, turnkey computer 

graphics systems for automated drafting and 

computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), this 

article features the Huntsville operation. 

During a nine-month survey by the Huntsville 

Division, automated drafting outperformed the 

manual method four-to-one. During the study, 

engineers using automated drafting produced 

1,521 drawings in only 2,863 manhours. The 

same drawings produced manually would have 

required 12,697 manhours. 

While automated drafting covers a broad spectrum of applications, at the Huntsville Division, 

primary interest is in civil design; management, 

project planning and scheduling; and in mapping. 

Huntsville has been using automated drafting 

units since 1978. 

Civil design using computer graphics was used 

recently by Huntsville personnel at the North 

and South Sinai Peacekeeping Camps. Engineers 

were provided "as built" drawings of existing facilities, such as utilities, roads, buildings, structures and topographic features drawn on a 

skewed (not accurate) metric scale. To manually 

convert the drawings to the English units used by 

American contractors would have taken approximately four weeks, however, using CADD 

through automatic-electronic tracing at a computer graphic work-station, the job was completed by a single technician in just 24 manhours. 

Within the Huntsville Division, one of the most 

important uses of computer graphics is in management, project planning and scheduling. Using 

the critical path method (CPM) and the data 

management retrieval system (DMRS), project 

managers are able to set up the system to produce 

complete packages in a fraction of the time it 

takes to do the same job manually. 

Using the manual method, an engineer makes 

original drawings, encoding the activities for key 

punching so a "batch process analysis" can be 

performed by conventional computer. Any 

changes in tasks or times would mean more 

drawings to reflect the changes. With computer 

graphics, however, the engineer can time-scale 

his network drawing. He can draw a chart that 

shows months of the year and the period during 

which each task should be performed. He can 

even color-code the schedules to make it more 

comprehensive for the project manager. If there 

is a change in task or schedule, he does not have 

to start over as the draftsman does; he can make 

corrections or edit the plot on the computer 

graphics screen. Should there be a change in design, he can retrieve the plot from the data retrieval system and draw the change into the original plot in a matter of minutes. He can edit, 

change schedules, make additions or correct mistakes as they occur. 

0nce the package is completed, it remains in 

the computer disk file for retrieval or update, or 

it can be put on a small reel of tape and stored for 

future use. This is a real advantage, considering 

the large amount of space it takes to store manually produced drawings. It is also possible to telephonically transfer entire packages to other divisions or districts with comparable computer 

systems. 

In mapping, computer graphics is used to 

update maps in the central file, thus eliminating 

many errors that occur when updates are made 

on one document but not on others. 

With manual systems, the length of time it 
Ciuil engineer Dale C. King uses a computer 

graphics terminal and the critical path method to 

prepare time scheduling charts. (Photo by M.R. 

Steuens.) 

takes to get up-to-date copies of maps or specific 

areas is a frequent problem. Now, however, one 

can pick areas and boundaries to be mapped as 

well as the level of detail required. Once the information is specified, the system selects appropriate data from the file to produce an up-to-date, 

hardcopy map. Manually changing the scale of 

maps has always presented problems, too, because the maps usually have to be redrawn. But 

with computer graphics, scales can be changed almost instantaneously. The entire base map is displayed on the graphics 'screen, an area is magni- 

?sponse to queries from prospecti VP anthors, we pass along the followinc ENG 

writer'!3 guidelit 

TOPIC-Altt r focus IIS upon Icombat -2 --.'.--:...-I :.L ..... L

e~~gi~~eering, any suv~ecc 01 plulesslonal IIlLeresL 

to the Corps is welcome. It is always best t(,query 

first since an article similar to yours ma y have 

appeared already or may be scheduled fo r a future isr me. Please title your article. 

LENGTH-Length is not as important as content. L, et your subject matter dictate length. Most 

lEER articles ranee - from 1.000 to 3.000

words. One cau tion, hov uever: if it 'appeal -s your 

article will be I?xceptionally leng 'thy, plea lse call 

or writ e so we ci In let yo1 1 know if sufficient space ..rill 

VVLL. ha .Jw ev o.ro;lohl a.A'xwl.3. - PHOTOGRAPHS AND ARTWORK-Photos 

and drawings strengthen your article, and in 

some cases are vital graphic aids to conveying 

fied and the operator selects the desired detail. 

Once detail and scale are established, a hardcopy 

of the map can be automatically reproduced. 

Using computer graphics, information and related data from maps is readily available and the 

job of manually reviewing maps is eliminated. 

Engineers list the information needed and the 

system scans the map file, printing requested information to the engineer's standards. In addition 

to providing quick and accurate reports, the system automatically revises the map file when 

maps are updated. 

Map revision is a time consuming task for 

draftsmen or engineers because it involves overlays, notes, insertions and deletions that tend to 

clutter the original, and, if the revision has errors, it must be corrected again. With computer 

graphics, the map is displayed on the screen so 

engineers or draftsmen can make direct changes. 

Specific areas or whole sections can be changed, 

rearranged or corrected on the screen which eliminates redrawing. Map revision can be completed 

in a fraction of the tirne it takes to make changes 

manually. Computer graphics can also be used to 

standardize the shape, size and symbols used on 

maps. 

While the Huntsville Division currently uses 

computer graphics in only three major areas (civil design; management, project planning and 

scheduling; and mapping) the system can be expanded as the Corps becomes involved in new and 

different projects. As more personnel are trained 

in the use of computer graphics, potential for 

standardization between divisions and districts 

becomes more attainable. And, while Corps-wide 

standardization is still in the future, for the organizations using computer graphics now, the future is today. 

ines . lessage. Photos should be black and white, 

glossy, and, preferably, at least 5 x 7".Drawings 

must be legible but need not be "camera ready." 

COVER LETTER-Please include a cover letter with your name, address, a phone number at 

which you can be conta cted, a brief (one or two 

paragraph) description of your article, a nd biographical data on yourst :If. 

NEWS & NOTES-We're always looking for 

contributions here, especially those with photographs. Your TASC or public affairs officer will 

be able to provide you photographic su~onrt. 

Finally, we'll work with you 01 n poli8i-i ~g your 

writing skills. The most import.ant critc !ria for 

an ENGINEER article is the stor, y it tells and the 

professional growth it stimulatea - .- JUUL fellow 

Engineers. 

We look forward to se r article 

ture issue of ENGINEEl 
Without Fabric With Fabric 

by Capt. Stephen L. Gerecke 

and Capt. Philip M. Jones 

Geotextiles and geomembranes (both called geofabrics) have gained wide acceptance in civilian construction practice. They are employed in a number of 

methods to take advantage of their structural properties. Those methods most applicable to the military engineer are: 

Reinforcement-spreads a vehicle load over a larger 

area, "bridges over" soft spots, and slows development 

of ruts. 

Sepamtion--prevents intrusion and mixing at the 

interface of the base aggregate and subgrade, and the 

resultant loss of strength. 

Drainage-allows removal (passage) of water without the build up of high pore pressure and the resultant loss of soil strength. 

Reinforcement may be further defined as: 

Subgrade restraint-the prevention or reduction of 

soil movement and strain by fabric confinement. 

Earth reinforcement-the use of a fabric to increase 

the strength of a soil-fabric system. 

This paper will address subgrade restraint and soil 

reinforcement of roads leading to tactical bridges, 

stream crossings, fording sites and other areas where 

poor trafficability exists. Consideration is given to the 
.a 

Secz Curve 

Figu on-elonga, of geotex ..--.:-- - tile 10, - CLU~L~UC<U~ ut failure: D, - r~vrr+prrur~ut 

point x: t ,= tensior~ nt point x: and K, = secant moduUS (Lt j~~illt XI. 

construction fabrics normally available to theater of 

operations engineers and to conservation of time and 

materiel 

Military Use of Construction Fabrics 

The trafficability of soils near tactical bridges and 

stream crossings is often a problem, particularly after 

repeated passages of military vehicles. The in-place 

California bearing ratio (CBR) value may be as low as 

five to 15 percent prior to any traffic, providing the 

soil and root mat are undisturbed. However, once vehicle traffic begins to churn and blend the cover material, the CBR value may drop below one percent. 

The standard solution is to remove the mud and replace it with drv. trafficable materials (usuallv 

crushed stone). ~oaever, the next rain will probab& 

reduce the 'area to its original condition if traffic continues. This is true regardless of the type of cover material used, unless excessive quantities are placed. 

Adequate drainage is needed, plus something to 

keep the poor quality subgrade from mixing with the 

better aualitv cover material. This is where the 

geofabric is most valuable. The quantity of aggregate 

needed to sumort traffic over low strength suberades 

can be reduced by up to 50 percent throuih the use of a 

fabric interface. 

Geofahrics are composed of two types of materials, 

aeotextiles and peomembranes. The most basic difference between them is that geotextiles are permeable, 

while geomembranes are impermeable. Both may be 

either woven or non-woven. however. the " eeomembrane will have a second layer of impervious material 

bonded to the fabric base to prevent Dassaee of fluids. 

There are presently hundpeds of fibricson the commercial market. The profusion of these products and 

the manufacturers' claims about them make it difficult 

to judge their usefulness. However the "secant modulus" seems the best method for comparison of different 

fabrics. 

The secant modulus is a key property of geofabrics 

designed for soil reinforcement. The modulus is the ratio of the tension on the fabric to the eloneation of the 

fabric caused by a standard test load. A high modulus 

means a low stretch while a low modulus would indicate more stretch, thus less ultimate strength. 

The modulus of a fabric is determined by plotting 

the amounts of eloneation and the tensile force used to 

effect that elongation (strain). A sample curve showing 

the secant modulus. K. is eiven. The value of K is eenerally taken at elongations of ten percent. whilethe 

ten percent value is not bv itself sienificant, its use 

does'allow for ready compahson withother fabrics. 

Results of tests have shown that eeofabrics under a 

loaded surface will significantly rezuce elongation at 

the interface of the aggregate and the subgrade. This 

reduction results from the geofabrics confinement of 

both the soil and aggregate. The reduction is greater 

with higher values of secant moduli. A high modulus 

fabric is easier to roll out, walk on, and will carry a 

hieher traffic load than a fabric of lower secant modulu;. (Reference 1). 

It has also~been found that the tensilelelastic modulus of the geofabric has a pronounced effect on the 

strains within the aggregate layer above the fabric. 

The greater the fabric's resistance to deformation, the 

lower the strains will be in the aggregate layer above 

the fabric. The greater the fabric's resistance to deformation, the lower the strains will be in the aggregate 

layer above the fabric. This results in lower stress being passed to the subgrade and less rutting of the road. 

(Reference 2). 

Using the secant modulus, K, for comparing fabrics 

is difficult since there is currently no industry 

standard for reporting the modulus of the fabric. Table 

1 gives K values for the more common fabrics. Depending upon fabric construction, i.e., woven or nonwoven, spun bonded, needle punched, etc., it may have 

different elongation ~rooerties in different directions. 

A manufacturer ma; choose to report the stronger of 

the two moduli for directional fabrics, the weaker, or 

the average. Published literature is generally nonspecific about the direction of the test, or the tvpe of test 

done on each fabric. (Reference 3).~here a;; two test 

methods for use with directional and non-directional 

fabrics: the uniaxial for woven fabrics, and the biaxial 

for nonwoven fabrics. The results obtained from a uniaxial test for a woven fabric are not much different 

from those using a biaxial test. However, with 

nonwoven fabrics the difference is important, and the 

biaxial test is strongly recommended. A review of Table 1shows the increased value for K using - the biaxial 

test for nonwoven fabrics. (Reference 4). 

Data published by manufacturers often has information on -

erab tensile strength - and eloneation. " However. ~ ~.

to permit accurate comparisons the results listed must 

state the test method used and the nercent eloneation - at which the measurements were taken. The preferred 

elongation for secant moduli data is ten percent. 

Design Using Geofabrics 

Extensive work by the Woodward-Clyde consultant 

firm and the Corps of Engineers' Waterways Experiment Station (WES) at Vicksburg, Miss., has resulted 

in the development of a very useful graph. Gii~eu the 

anticipated vehicle requirements and the available 

materials, e.g., number of passages of vehicles, inplace CBR of the soil and type(s) of fabric(s), the reduction of the cover aggregate can be determined for that 

section of road. The reduction is relative to the same 
Fabric Trade Name and Secant Modulus Values 


Woven (W) or Uniaxial Biaxial 

Fabric Trade Name Nonwoven (N) Text Text 

kNIm kN/m 

Bay Mills 196-380 W 700 

Nicolon 66475 W 633 

Polyfilter-X W 180 

Advance Type I W 188 

Nicolon 66186 W 190 

Permealiner M-1195 W 124 


Bidim C-42 N 39 198 


Advance Type I1 W 126 


Terrafix NA 330 NIW 85 


Polyfilter-GB W 72 


Bidim C-38 N 24 122 


Filter-X W 60 


Bidim C-34 N 18 97 


Lotrak 16/15 W 64 


Nicolon 66530 W 60 


Typar 3601 N 68 64 


Bidim C-28 N 12 76 


Stablienka N 48 


Supac N 13 


Monofelt N-5500-01 N 13 


Bidim C-22 N 16 54 


Typar 3401 N 39 44 


Mirafi 140 N 26 


Stabilenka N 30 


International Paper 503 N 12 


Stabilenka T-80 N 12 


Enkamat 7020 N 5 


Enkamat 7010 N 1 


All of the above were tested at 10% elongation. The two listed below were tested at 


the percent elongation shown (%). 


Reeves T-16 W 200 (10%) 


Reeves T-17 W 426 (15%) 


All uniaxial tests are in the warp (long direction) plane, and all values are given in 


kilo-Newtons per meter. 


(1lbflin = 0.175 kN/m) 


Table 1 
Ah h'o 


0 1 2 3 
 , t CBR 

Fmure 2. Aggmgate thidrness h6 lc~sewithout geotexb'Ie when hffk is 

taken into accountl and possible reduction of aggmpte 

thickness Ah resulting from the use of a geotextile vs 

subgrade soil cohesion. 
road without fabric. The key to determining that reduction is the K value of the fabric placed between the 

in-place soil and the cover aggregate. The graph, 

shown on page 22, was developed through numerical 

analysis which correlated the following factors: soil 

strength, wheel loads, fabric strength and the soilfabric system. Two facts were used to minimize the 

number of variables and charts. The first was that the 

thickness of the aggregate using CBR and number of 

passages does not depend upon the fabric to be used. 

On the graph, this value is represented as h,. The second fact was that the reduction of cover aggregate does 

not depend upon the traffic. This value is represented 

by Ah. These two facts permitted both hi vs CBR and 

Ah vs CBR to be plotted on the one graph. Both curves 

are actually families relating various vehicle passages 

and geofabric moduli, respectively. (Reference 4) 

The graph was set up for a standard 18 kip singleaxle, dual wheel load and the formation of all 11inch 

deep rut. It appears to he in general conformity with 

test results generated by WES and will assist military 

engineers in the trial design and aggregate reduction 

determination of theater of operation roads. 

The following is a sequence of steps to determine the 

aggregate reduction using a geofabric. 

1) Evaluate the CBR value of the subgrade at the 

anticipated time of construction. This should include 

any degradation caused by prior traffic and construction equipment. The cone penetrometer and airfield index may be used to find this value. 

2) Estimate the number of passages, in equivalent 

18 kip single-axle vehicle units (see Figure 3). 

3) Using Table 1,find the value for secant modulus 

for the fabric on hand, or select best if several are 

available. If the fabric is not listed on the table, its 

value of K may be calculated from the manufacturer's 

data. 

4) Enter the graph (Figure 2) at the in-place CBR 

value and read up to the number of passages. Read to 

Figure 3. Flexible pavement design curves for r&, equivalent 0perdon.v facior far 

tendemde and singlegxle laeds. Taken from TM5330lAFM 86-3,Vd 11. 
the left, the thickness of aggregate required, Hi, without fabric. Record and save for step 6. 

5) Enter the graph (Figure 2) at the in-place CBR 

value and read up to the approximate K value of the 

fabric, in kNIm. Read to the left the Ah value for reduction of aggregate. 

6) Subtract the value found in step 5 from that found 

in step 4. This is the required aggregate depth when 

the fabric is first placed on the subgrade. As traff~c 

passages accumulate, it may be necessary to add aggregate to weaker portions of the road as spot fill. 

Equivalent 18 kip single-axle vehicle passages can 

he determined through the use of Figure 3, Equivalent 

Operations Factor. This procedure equates all vehicles 

to an equivalent vehicle for use on the aggregate reduction graph, Figure 2. The anticipated traffic is estimated by type and load, and an equivalent operations 

factor is selected from Figure 2. The sum of the daily 

traffic equivalent operations is multiplied by the 

planned life of the road in days. This will give the total 

vehicle passages for the planned road. 

Example 

a. Equivalent vehicle passages 

Given: vehicle load, operations per day and planned 

life of the road; the operation factor, equivalent operations per day and the total passages may be calculated. 

Axle or gross Type vehicle Operations 

load in pounds by axle per day 

1,000 single 200 

5,000 tandem 175 

10,000 single 100 

10,000 tandem 200 

20,000 tandem 90 

Planned life of road is 26 weeks. 

Axle or Operation Equivalenl 

grow load factor (fron~ Opmlionr oplral ions 

(pounrls) Figure 3) per day per day 

Single-axle 

1,000 0.00016 200 0.032 


10,000 0.007 100 0.70 


Tandem-axle 

5,000 0.003 175 0.5295 


10,000 0.024 200 4.80 


20,000 0.360 90 32.40 


Total equivalent operations per day (EOID) 38.4615. 

Planned life of road, 26 weeks with 7 days per week. 

Total passages = (weeks) x (dayslweek) x (EOID) i.e., 

(26) x (7) x (38.4615) = 6,999.99 $ 7,000. 


b) Aggregate Reduction 


Given: vehicle Dassazes = 7.000.
 . . 1n-plac; CBR-= I%, 


Fabric: Reeves T-17 w/k = 426 kNlm.* 


*Reeves T-17 is currently available in the military supply 

system. 

Enter Figure 2 at the bottom with the CBR value of 

1percent. Read up to the point of passages, then read 

to the left the value for hi of 0.57 m. For the fahric enter the figure at CBR of 1and read up to the K value of 

426 kNlm, read to the left the Ah value of 0.25 m. The 

required thickness is 0.57-0.25 m giving 0.32 m or 

approximately 12% inches. The savings is approximately 10 inches , or 44%. 

c) To calculate the secant modulus of a fabric 

Given: grab tensile strength of 102.8 lbflin at 10% 

elongation. Secant Modulus = (gbs) + (el), thus K = 

(102.8) t (0.10) = 1028 lhflin. 

To convert to SI units, 1 lhflin = 0.175 kN/m, so 

(1,028 lhflin) x (0.175) = 179.9 kNim. This value may 

be used to enter Figure 3 to determine aggregate 

reduction. 

The aggregate reduction example showed a savings 

of about 10 inches. If this were a TI0 road 23 feet in 

width and one mile in length, the aggregate saved 

would be approximately 3,750 cubic yards. Additional 

savings would be realized through reduced maintenance of that section of road. 

It has been suggested by both Mr. Giroud, (Reference 

4) and Mr. Webster, (Reference 11, that a fabric with a 

very high secant modulus would make possible a limited passage road with no cover aggregate. This could be 

applicable for a hasty road with planned low traffic 

volume and a very short term requirement. 

Table 1lists some of the geofabrics that are, or have 

been available commercially, as well as two (Reeves 

T-16 and T-17) which are available in the military 

supply system. The values shown were derived from a 

variety of sources, and may not reflect the current 

products on the market today. The K value will assist 

in selecting either the best fahric from those on hand, 

or in ordering one which will suit the requirements for 

the project. The table will also permit the determination of the aggregate reduction for that fahric. 

Instanation 

Installation of geofabrics is not a difficult task but 

should be done with care to avoid tearing the material. 

There is also a requirement to overlap the ends andlor 

sides at joints. The five steps below will assist in the 

proper placement of fabrics for road and airfield use: 

1) The area to be covered should be cleared of all 

sharp objects which might tear the material. Any large 

objects which might cause deformations in the material as fill is placed should be removed. 

2) If possible, the site should be rough graded and 

compacted. A significant increase in strength will result when the subgrade is compacted even marginally. 

3) The fabric is almost always supplied on rolls. This 

permits the fahric to be unrolled over the area to be 

covered. This may he done either by hand or machine, 

depending upon the subgrade. In cases where the subgrade is covered by a mud blanket, the fabric should be 

only partially unrolled. As fill is placed on the fabric it 

will cause the mud to push out ahead of the fabric. The 
object is to avoid trapping pockets of mud under the 

fabric. When using equipment to spread the roll, it is 

best to operate the machinery directly on the subgrade 

and not on the fabric. This will help in preventing 

tears in the fabric. 

4) At the end of each roll, and if two sections are 

placed side by side, an overlap must be made. The 

amount of overlap is dependent upon the subgrade, the 

expected traffic, the depth of fill and the fabric being 

used. As a general rule, the following overlaps are recommended, based on the CBR of the in-place soil: 

CBR, 

percent 

Overlap, 

percent of 

roll width 

(Reference 5) 

The use of fabrics will not cure a poor design, nor 

will their employment turn soup into concrete. The 

minimum CBR value which will support an aggregatefabric system has not yet been determined and is beyond the scope of this article. However, fabric without 

aggregate covering has been used successfully in some 

cases. It is noteworthy that the value of fabrics drop 

considerably with CBR values above five percent. The 

higher strength soils will be aided by the separation 

action of the fabrics, and their use for that function 

may be cost justified. 

There are other areas of fabric properties that may 

affect field performance which have not been discussed 

in this article. The use of the secant modulus and the 

graph developed by Mr. Giroud (Reference 7) will establish a base for fabric performance through K 

values. 

The military engineer can now design a theater of 

operations road over a low strength soil with reasonable confidence in the performance of the end product 

and can now work towards the full utilization of his 

limited construction materials. 

References 

1.U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Investigation of Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge 

Approach Roads Across Soft Ground. Technical Report 

S77-1, (Vicksburg, Miss., 19771. 

2. Carroll, R.G.; The Role of Geotextile Modulus in the Behauior and Design of Soil-Geotextile-Aggregole Systems. 

ASCE Geotechnical Conference, Session A-4. 

3. Law Engineering Testing Company, Guidelines for Design of FleziblePavernents Using Mirafi Wouen Stabilization 

Fabrics. (Houston, Texas.) 

4. Giroud, J.P. and Noiray, L. "Geotextile-Reinforced 

Unpaved Road Design," Journal of The Geotechnicul Engineering Division, ASCE, (Vol. 107, No. GT9, September 

1981). 

5. Koerner, R.M, and Walsh. J.P.: Construction and 

Geoteehnreal Engineering Using Synthetic Fabrics, (New 

York, 1980). 

6. University of Illinois, Department of Civil Engineering; 

Design Procedures for Soil Fabric-Aggregate Systems with 

Mirafi 500X Fabric. (Urbana, Ill., 1980.1 

7. Williamson, J.S. and Mohney, J.; Guidelines for Use of 

Fabrics in Construction nnd Maintenance of Low-Volume 

Roads. Report No. FHWA-TS78-205, (Washington, D.C., 

19781. 

8. Department of the Army Technical Manual 5-330, 

Planning and Design of Roads, Airbases and Heliports in 

the Theater of Operations, September 1968. 

Capt. Stephen L. Gerecke is assigned to the Directorate of Engineering and Housing, Stuttgart, Germany. 

As a civilian engineer, he worked on geotechnical projects in Louisiana and California. He has served as the 

565th Engineer Battalion S-4 and commander, 93rd 

Float Bridge Company IMAB). He has a bachelor of science degree in civil engineering from the University of 

Texas at Austin. 

Capt. Philip Jones is a senior instructor of soils and 

equipment utilization for the Roads and Airfields 

Branch, U.S.Army Engineer School, Fort Beluoir, Va. 

He is a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy and has 

served as S-3, 565th Engineer Battalion and as commander of A Company, 78th Engineer Battalion. He 

has a master of science degree in civil engineering from 

the University of California at Berkeley. 

The ENGINEER Problem 

A retaining wall is to be constructed aa shown. 

What resisting moment must be developed per 

foot of the wall to keep it from overturning about 

point A? The density of the soil (y s) is 130 lbs/ft3 

with an internal angle of friction (0)of 33.5. 

There will be no traffic on top of the wall or the 

soil. 
PANAMA 

Keeping the Canal on Track 


by Capt. Frederick R. Ferrin 
One of the Army's smallest and most unique 

units is the U.S. Army Element, Panama Canal 

Commission. A company grade officer's assignment to the Commission is normally an advanced 

civil school utilization tour, and from the moment 

your sponsor tells you to leave your uniforms in 

storage and to stock up on light clothing, you 

know this will be no ordinary assignment. 

History 

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' long and illustrious history in Panama began before the 

year 1900, when various Engineer officers, 

including the Chief of Engineers, were appointed 

to investigative committees evaluating the feasibility of excavating a canal across the Isthmus 

of Panama. The Corps' legacy continued with the 

appointment of Lt. Col. George W. Goethals, an 

Army Engineer who replaced chief engineer John 

Stevens under whose masterful direction the first 

phases of canal construction were completed. Two 

other Engineers, Maj. David D. Gaillard and Maj. 

William Sibert, once roommates at West Point, 

were chosen to direct the most difficult construction efforts of the Panama Canal-the 

100,000,000 cubic yard excavation between Lake 

Gatun and the Pacific entrance, and the massive 

concrete structures of Gatun Dam and Gatun 

Locks. 

After the canal opened in August 1914, George 

Goethals remained as governor of the Canal 

Zone, and until the zone ceased to exist (by order 

of the Panama Canal Treaty of 1979) the position 

of governor was traditionally a Corps of Engineers assignment. 

The duty environment at the canal is unique 

because of its tropical setting, unusual political 

status and because the canal itself is so unusual. 

Officers assigned to this project gain experience 

few others share. Americans and Panamanians, 

military and civilian; each doing their part to 

keep the canal open to world shipping. Additionally, most officers acquire a working knowledge 

of Spanish in order to effectively communicate 

with their Spanish-speaking co-workers. A crew works to expose rail soon to be re- placed using the "alternate tie" method. The U.S. Army Element, Panama Canal ComUntil now, the Panama Canal's tow track 	 mission, is currently comprised of four Engineer 

system has had few improuements since 	 officers commanded by Maj. Michael Bates. The 

its installation in 1913,(photos bv" . caDt. 	commander also serves as director of the EngiFrederick Ferrin.) 	 neering and Construction Bureau, which employs 

2,480 civilians within its five divisions of engineering, electrical, maintenance, dredging and 

industrial. 

In January 1981, the maintenance division began renovation of the ship tow track system at 

the three sets of canal locks. The project, expected to be completed by 1985, will possibly be 

one of the last, major in-house projects undertaken by the commission before transfer of the 

canal to the Republic of Panama in the year 2000. 
Few improvements have been made to the original tow track system, installed circa 1913 during 

construction of the locks. Much of the system has 

become badly worn, and the weight of today's 

powerful towing locomotives and the lateral loads 

induced by larger ships have dramatically increased stresses to the system. 

The towing system consists of two 90-pound 

crane rails, a continuous slotted rack with which 

the towing locomotive's quill gear meshes and a 

440-volt conductor slot which provides power to 

the locomotives. 

The track renovations call for repair or replacement of system components as necessary; and at a 

minimum, the 90-pound rail closest to the lock 

chamber must be replaced with 105-pound rail 

and new, high-strength attachment hardware 

will be installed. 

The most important criterion of the project is 

that replacement of the rail system must not effect normal canal operations. Any disruption of 

this strictly programmed and vitally important 

commercial enterprise causes worldwide repercussions in the shi~~ine .. - industrv. The ~roiect . " engineer, therefore, must make maximum use of 

the time between the passing of each day's last 

and first ships. It is only during this daily 

"window" that rail may actually be removed. 

However, if a lane at one of the locks is placed 

out of service for routine or planned maintenance, the track renovation engineers will use 

the time to accelerate the normal renovation 

schedule. 

Unique Repair Method 

The method currently used to repair the locks' 

tow track system was developed several years ago 

by the engineering division of the Panama Canal 

Commission. The procedure, dubbed the "alternate tie method," is novel in that it can be performed during regular towing operations without 

adverse effect upon freshly placed concrete. 

The towing locomotive rails are supported every eighteen inches by alternating short and long 

ties. A long tie supports both the waterside and 

landside rails, passing below the slotted rack between the rails. The short ties are, as the name 

implies, much shorter and support only one rail. 

Both the long and short ties rest on and in 

concrete. 

Renovation begins when the concrete encasing 

the ties is demolished down to the ties' bottom 

flange. A 2% inch hole is drilled into the concrete 

at the waterside end of each long tie, and a 2 inch 

schedule 80 pipe, driven into the hole until refusal, is then welded to the long tie. This pipe provides temporary support to the long tie as concrete below the long and short ties is demolished. 

The short ties are removed and repaired, and the 

old 90-pound rail is replaced by new 105-pound 

crane rail. The repaired short ties are returned 

A test run over new track at Pedro Miguel Locks. 

and high-strength attachment hardware is used to 

connect the new rail to the ties. Concrete is 

placed below and around the short ties and the 

temporary shims are removed, allowing rail loads 

to be transferred entirely onto the long ties while 

the concrete encasing the short ties is curing. 

Once this encasement has attained a compressive 

strength of 3,000 psi, the short ties are permanently attached to the track and the temporary 

shims between the long ties and the rail base are 

removed. At this point the load has been effectively transferred and is being carried entirely by 

the short ties. Concrete is placed below and 

around the long tie, up to the top flange. After 24 

hours, or when the concrete has attained a compressive strength of 3,000 psi, final connections 

between rail and tie are made with a precision 

track gauge and calibrated torque wrench. The final step is placement of a broom-finished, concrete cap over the ties and around the new rail 

and attachment hardware. 

In performing their work on the tow track system, Engineer officers assigned to the Panama 

Canal Commission are not only gaining valuable 

experience, but also contributing to the successful operation of the canal while continuing the 

Corps' proud and historic tradition in Panama. 

Capt. Frederick R. Ferrin is a project manager 

for the Panama Canal Commission and directs 

work at the Atlantic and Pacific-side locks. 
NCO Training 

For German Engineers 

by SGM Dieter Helmig 

Noncommissioned officer training and advancement in the West German Army is quite 

unlike the typical NCO paths in the American 

Army, and, as one would expect, these variations 

reflect some of the cultural differences of our two 

countries. In Germany, for example, all men from 

the ages of 18-28 may be drafted. Women serve in 

the German Army only as medical doctors, pharmacists or dentists. 

After finishing intermediate school (at age 15 

or 16), both male and female students receive vocational training to qualify them for their later 

career. This training lasts two-to-three and onehalf years and could be in any skill from salesman to mechanic. By law, vocational training 

ends with a formal, state examination. 

In the German Army, soldiers enlist in two 

ways-as volunteers through recruiting offices or 

as draftees who wish to enlist for longer terms; 

draftees have the opportunity to enlist anytime 

during their 15 months of active service. Although soldiers enlist for various terms, they 

may reenlist-extend their enlistment-at any 

time. All German soldiers fit into one of three 

categories. He is either a draftee, a short-term 

volunteer (2-15 years) or career soldier. 

If an enlistee desires to serve as an NCO, he is 

tested before he enlists. If he passes the test, he is 

identified as an NCO candidate and takes basic 

training for three months along with draftees and 

those identified as officer candidates. 

In the German Army, basic training is given by 

the division to which the soldier will be assigned. 

After basic, the NCO candidate, draftee and officer candidate begin six months of advanced training. In the case of engineer soldiers, common military skills are covered, as is engineer training. If 

he is doing excellent work, the advanced training 

graduate is promoted to GEFREITER (private 

E-2). At this point, he has been on active duty for 

nine months. 

The NCO candidate now attends UNTEROFFIZIERGRUNDLEHRGANG TEIL I & I1 (NCO Basic Course Part I & 11)for a total of six months. 

The NCO Basic Course I1 for engineers is given 

in Munich, Bavaria, and trains the soldier to be a 

leader, a supervisor, a specialist with expert 

knowledge, and an instructor. If the NCO candidate had enlisted for at least four years, he will 

also attend for one month a supplementary 

course emphasizing principles of human 

leadership. 

After completing the NCO Basic Course and 

supplemental course (if applicable), the candidate 

must pass a test consisting of written, oral and 

practical portions. The test is required by German law. After returning to his unit, the successful NCO candidate is promoted to 

UNTEROFFIZIER (sergeant). 

The German sergeant serves as a squad leader 

and instructor. The requirements for the sergeant grade are high, and he must be able to 

lead, to motivate, and to train his squad using all 

the principles of modern leadership. 

The Senior NCO 

In the German Army Corps of Engineers, many 

platoon leaders are senior NCOs with the rank of 

HAUPTEFELDWEBEL (master sergeant or sergeant major). The engineer platoon is the smallest independent element in the company, and, especially in the armored engineer company, it has 

a high degree of autonomy. Accordingly, it is vital that the platoon leader be able to accomplish 

assigned missions using his own judgment and 

initiative. He must be able to follow the reasoning of his superiors. He has command authority 

and must not wait for orders if a situation demands immediate action. It should be noted that 

in the German Army, commanders at all levels 

are given considerable latitude on how to accomplish a mission. When the company commander 

assigns his engineer platoon leader a mission, the 

platoon leader determines on his own the method 

and resources required to accomplish the task. 

To assist him the NCO platoon leader normally 

has another senior NCO or deputy, and three jun- 
Advanced Technical Traininv 

German engirseers are identified by this badge 

worn on a red beret. 

ior NCO squad leaders. How is the NCO platoon 

leader prepared to be an instructor, superior and 

leader? The answer is through the FELDWEBELLEHRGANG (Advanced NCO Training 

Course). To attend the course, an NCO must: be a 

STABSUNTEROFFIZIER (staff sergeant), have 

at least four vears of service. have enlisted for at 

least eight and meet specified physical fitness and professional skill levels. 

The Advanced NCO Course lasts 16-23 weeks. 

The NCOs receive training as an instructor and 

are placed in command positions. Sand table instruction is an important part of this course. A 

large part of the course is devoted to leadership 

training and to civic education. After completing 

the course, the NCO has mastered: 

the principles of command and control 

command organization 

command and control 

logistics 

All gradyates are licensed to perform demolition work and to act as demolition OICs. NCOs 

going to ribbon bridge, AVLB or CEV platoons 

become licensed examiners and are authorized to 

issue operator permits for all engineer equipment 

in their platoon. To graduate, all NCOs must 

pass a written, oral and practical exam, as required by German law. 

After the NCO Advanced Course, the NCO returns to his unit and serves an "internship." 

When his probationary period is over (that is dependent upon his supervisor's evaluation), he is 

promoted to FELDWEBEL (sergeant first class). 

Completion of the NCO Advanced Course gives 

him the credits required to become a career NCO 

(who stays on active duty until age 53) or to be 

selected to be a FACHOFFIZIER (specialist officerjc in his seventh year of service. 

Every NCO, by law, has the right to advanced 

technical training in the knowledge and skills of 

a civilian occupation. All soldiers who enlist for 

at least four years are given an assignment pattern called a "training package." In the Corps of 

Engineers, this is used primarily for the main 

construction tracks of bricklayers, concrete laborers, carpenter, and so on. 

If the NCO successfully completed vocational 

training and has enlisted for eight years, he receives advanced technical (vocational) training. 

Most technical course graduates acquire the 

status of "master craftsmen" in their skill during 

a six or nine month course. This is called Level A. 

Other NCOs become qualified "clerks of works 

master builders" or "certified technician for construction engineering" from a two-year study 

course. This is Level B. All vocational training 

ends with a state exam. 

NCO Options 

During the NCO's seventh year of service, if he 

has graduated from the NCO Basic and Advanced 

Courses and performed well in a troop unit, he 

has to make a decision. He will either leave the 

army after 12 or 15 years service, become a career NCO until age 53, or apply to become a specialized officer (FACHOFFIZIER). 

A soldier may also leave the NCO career field 

at any time and attempt to qualify as a commissioned (line) officer. Although few NCOs pass the 

very high officer qualification standard, those 

that do become the best officers in the Corps of 

Engineers. 

This, briefly, is the process through which German eneineer NCOs are trained and advanced 

throughuthe ranks. All NCOs complete basic and 

advanced training courses, serve as squad and 

platoon leaders in troop units, and receive advanced technical training. 

This combination of intensive training and 

practical experience produces the best NCO corps 

in the German Army. 

SGM Dieter Helmig has been assigned to the 

U.S. Army Engineer School as German liaison 

NCO since 1978. He entered the Army in 1960 

and has served as a platoon leader and engineer 

senior NCO. He was promoted to sergeant major 

in 1971, and is a certified technician for construction engineering in the German Army. 

*Thefachoffizier is similar to the U.S. Army's warrant 

officer, but there are important differences. A 

fachofizier, for example, may command a specialized unit; a U.S.warrant officer does not serve in command positions. 
The Engineer Workbook 

Bridging the Training Gap 


by John Florence 

"It is the most outstanding training management method I've ever seen. It does more to help 

the unit commander than any training document 

I've come across," says Col. Claude W. Biehn, 

former deputy director, Training Management 

Study of the Reserve Components, Office of the 

Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense. 

Indeed it is an impressive document. In 1,058 

pages, the new Engineer Trainer's Workbook defines training objectives and supplies complete 

ARTEP training plans; training evaluation 

standards; and a plenary, Army-wide reference 

listing for all engineer ARTEP missions. The prodigious workbook is the culmination of a siuyear effort hy the 579th Engineer Battalion 

(Combat) (Corps), California Army National 

Guard, to produce explicit guidelines implementing the philosophy of the Battalion Training 

Management System (BTMS). 

The document is being published by the U.S. 

Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) and distributed by late spring to all active 

Army and reserve component combat engineer 

battalions. The workbook will be bound as a 

loose-leaf document to encourage trainers to use 

it for its intended purpose-as a ~uorkbook. Appropriate pages can be easily removed for reference or photocopied and used by trainers for 

planning or recording training notes. 

Background 

The version of the workbook distributed by 

TRADOC traces its lineage back to 1976 when its 

originators, Maj. Jerrald Jurin and Capt. Jim 

Combs set out to upgrade unit training. 

Combs at the time was commanding B Company and Jurin recently finished his command time 

in A Company (where Combs had served as a platoon leader). The two men shared a desire to ameliorate training quality by providing better training guidance to their NCOs. "If our training 

guidance is vague or shallow," Combs says, "then 

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results are the same. As managers, we (the officer corps) have been very effective at setting 

training goals, but very ineffective at providing 

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Figure 2. Every engineer ARTEP task is presented (not shown) a list of applicable training 

in an operations order format, followed by a list of references. 

related tasks, a training and evaluation plan and 

ing vehicle, the "packet training program," which 1982. 

proved successful at company level and was Jurin and Combs launched a whirlwind effort 

adopted by the battalion. But while it was a sig- to complete the workbook within the 13 month 

nificant improvement to the 579th'~training pro- suspense. Janet Jurin, Maj. Jurin's wife and a 

gram, it still was not the single-source training graphic artist, worked on the project full-time 

document Combs and Jurin envisioned. without pay for those 13 months, purchasing outJurin and Combs set out to simply revise the of-pocket most of her equipment and supplies. Ofpacket training program, but their three-year ten working as much as 16 hours a day, she creeffort proved so extensive that an entirely new ated from scratch a readable and functional 

document emerged. Jurin during this time was design for the workbook, procured or prepared ilbattalion XO and was employed in a full-time lustrations, and researched and designed a sysmanning position at the battalion headquarters tem of logos graphically identifying each of the 

at Santa Rosa. Combs quit his successful scuba mission areas in the workbook. She prepared all 

diving equipment sales job to also accept a full- the dummy pasteups, all camera ready pasteups 

time manning slot at the battalion, reasoning and handled other production duties. 

that he could then more conveniently collaborate Other key personnel assisting Combs and Jurin 

with Jurin on the workbook. Because their tech- were SSG Peggy Custer of the 579th and SFC 

nician jobs kept them busy during the day, efforts Ronald Wiese, the battalion's active Army trainon the workbook were reserved for nights and ing advisor. By the time the workbook was ready 

weekends. In February 1981, TRADOC learned of to go to TRADOC, in just 13 months over 2,600 

the project, provided $14,000 in funding and documented volunteer manhours had been conasked for the completed document by March tributed to the project. Over a four-year term, 

",I, 

.* (1, /.l.'.l 
 I/./, I*.//*. sw .w*a my.r-rru rwr I.,,.,. 4-3O'Cad.. I" X.

...-, ",.,, .11. 
14TH ENGINEERS 

Patrons of the Engineer Workbook 

According to the 579th Engi- making significant individual 

nee r Bat t a 1ion ( C om b at ) contributions to the workbook 

(Corps), California Army Na- include 1st Lt. Thomas Curran 

tional Guard, the keystone in who spent three months at 

their ability to produce the En- 579th headquarters in Santa 

gineer Trainer's Workbook was Rosa. Curran was praised by 

the strong support of Lt. Col. Gill and by the 579th for his 

Clair F. Gill and his 14th Engi- long hours of painstaking reneer Battalion (Combat)(Corps) search in producing reference 

at Fort Ord. Calif. lists for everv ARTEP mission 

The 579th-14th Engineers 

nexus is the Reserve Deployment Enhancement Program 

(RDEP). The 14th Engineers is 

the only active Army unit having direct experience with the 

workbook. Because of their affiliation under RDEP, the two 

units frequently train together 

and cooperate on jointly beneficial projects, such as the recent 

coproduction of the new battalion tactical SOP now used by 

both units. 

Regarding the Engineer 

Trainer's Workbook, the 14th 

in the workbLok. SFC Thomas 

Austin also assisted the 579th 

from Fort Ord as a program 

writer-developer. 

According to Gill, 80 percent 

of the workbook is directly applicable to active Army engineer battalions. Gill says that 

so far, the workbook has been 

most beneficial to the 14th in 

preparing the training and 

evaluation outlines required 

under the Battalion Training 

Management System (BTMS) 

prior to conducting ARTEPs. 

Maj. Donald Holzwarth, $3 for 

the 14th. cites preparation of 

Using a draft copy of the 

workbook, Holzwarth says his 

office prepared the ARTEPs in 

one-fifth the time normally required. Personnel from the 7th 

Infantry Division's 13th Engineer Battalion served as 

ARTEP evaluators and, according to Gill, "they were ecstatic" 

over the convenience and utilitv 

of the evaluation forms with 

which they were provided. The 

forms came from the Engineer 

Trainer's Workbook. 

Although the workbook will 

be helpful to training planners 

at all levels, Gill says the primary trainer, the squad leader, 

will ultimately benefit most because the workbook will provide 

him a complete list of references 

for each ARTEP task. "In the 

past", Gill says, "we had so 

many references in so many different places, that it took a magician to pull them together." 

supported the ~uardbmenwith last 0cGber's fbur- simultane- If the Engineer Trainer's 

advice, manpower and served as ous, company-sized, external Workbook lives up to its billing, 

a test bed for certain portions of ARTEPs as an example of the it will add its own magic to enthe workbook. 14th Engineers workbook's value. gineer training. 

$22,185 of personal funds were spent on the pro- a1 workbook overview and chapter index. 

gram, most of it contributed by Combs and the Chapter Two contains key training docuJurins. ments including mission lists, operations orA key supporter who Jurin credits with in- ders, training plans, and a consolidated referjecting sustaining lifeblood into the endeavor was ence list for each mission area. 

Lt. Col. Clair F. Gill, commander of the 14th En- *Chapter Three is a complete training program 

gineer Battalion (Combat) (Corps), Fort Ord. The for the headquarters company and headquar14th and the 579th are linked under the Reserve ters platoons. Included are documents to 

Deployment Enhancement Program, and, accord- plan, resource, conduct and to evaluate comingly, the two battalions often train together. mon task training, section training and MOS 

Gill provided advice, personnel, and the 14th training. 

field tested specific training programs described Chapter Four supplies professional developin the workbook. (Details on the 14th'~contribu- ment training plans for officers and NCOs in 

tions to the workbook are noted above). mission related leadership tasks and adminCOMPOSITION OF THE WOR-KBOOK istrative duties. 

The utility of the Engineer Trainer's Workbook 

The workbook is divided into four chapters: begins with preparing annual training forecasts. 

Chapter One includes an introduction, gener- Each mission category (construction, for exam-
ple) is covered by a "training packet." The first 

page of the training packet is the mission list 

showing the task number, title, and page location 

of each ARTEP task described within the packet. 

The mission list serves as an important planning 

tool since it identifies the applicable task level 

(squad-platoon-compan~) and provides space for 

the training planner to indicate when the unit 

will train in each skill area (see Fieure - 1). For

example, referring to the construction mission 

list, a National Guard company commander 

might schedule Task 13-22, Construct Culverts, to 

be covered during annual training; Task 4-3, Secure Worksite, might be planned for a weekend 

drill, and Task 14-17, Install Plumbing and Fixtures, may be programmed for post mobilization. 

Tasks at which the unit is already proficient are 

also noted. According to Jurin, by using the 

workbook, the 579th'~ yearly training forecast 

can be completed in three-to-four hours; 

preworkbook planning required entire drill weekends for several months. 

Using the mission list and accompanying training packet, planners can review, in a single 

source, all pertinent information about training a 

particular task, then decide the most appropriate 

time to conduct the training. To benefit the primary trainer, every training packet contains a 

complete list of applicable references ranging 

from manuals to TV tapes to correspondence 

courses. 

Critics have suggested that such extensive 

training assistance stifles trainer initiative and 

denies to them the experience of fully preparing 

their classes. Jurin and Combs strongly disagree, 

saying that the trainer's mission is to present 

high quality training, not to become a part-time 

librarian prospecting for suitable reference material. In a National Guard or reserve unit, Combs 

notes, time is an especially precious quantity. 

Unit training must be prepared quickly, accurately and presented professionally. 

Op Order Format 

Along with the mission list and reference inventory, each training packet presents an 

ARTEP task as an order, Jurin says 

they departed from the usual BTMS taskconditions.and standards formatbecause the 

workbook offered a valuable opportunity to encourage troop and trainer familiarity the operations order. According to Jurin. "The o~erations 

order is a proven dociment; it works. we want it 

so ingrained in our people, that they're always 

thinking in terms of op orders." 

Following the operations order, is the training 

plan which includes a sequence of tasks for trainees to perform and a section for the training supervisor to list a golno-go status. There is also 

space to indicate a passtfail status on the overall 

task, an area to record the names of attending 

personnel and room for remarks regarding individual strong or weak points (see Figure 2). 

In the three years that the 579th has been 

using exclusively the concepts in the trainer's 

workbook, Combs says that unit training quality 

has markedly improved and has manifested in 

measurably better performance during annual 

training. Col. Biehn, now with the Office of Policy and Liaison, National Guard Bureau, says 

that during his visit to the 579th last year, NCOs 

had high praise for the workbook. Combs says the 

579th'~ improved training quality has led to 

higher unit morale and carried the battalion's retention rate to third best in the California Army 

Guard. 

The Engineer Trainer's Workbook was written 

for reserve component engineer battalions, but 

active units can easily perform the minor 

changes necessary to make the workbook fully 

suited to their needs. The book should be a boon 

to planners, to trainers and ultimately to the 

troops themselves as they benefit from better 

planned, better organized training programs. 

As Jurin says of the workbook, "I like to think 

of this as a life insurance policy for the soldier." 
Platoon 

Inventory 


by Maj. Curtis R. Rogers 

A fter meeting his commander and receiving a briefing on 

the unit, a newly assigned lieutenant faces his first real challenge-conducting a 100 percent inventory of his platoon's 

equipment. His signature on 

that inventory will mark the final step in his full assumption 

of responsibility for his platoon, 

and he should take care to do it 

right. 

His first step in the inventory 

process should be to get together with the experts-the battalion S4 or the property book officer, the company executive 

officer, and the company supply 

sergeant. Thirty minutes with 

an expert can unravel what at 

first may look like an insurmountable problem. During the 

discussion, he should ask them 

about any recent change or 

problem that could affect the 

inventory. 

At the same time, he should 

obtain from them the current 

technical manuals, supply bulletins, supply catalogs, and any 

other publications he will need 

to conduct the inventory. In addition, he must make certain 

that the appropriate TM for 

each piece of equipment, along 

with its publication date, appears on the master hand receipt. 

These publications are essential: without them an inventorv 

is a'waste of time, because the; 

describe the equipment through 

photographs and equipment 

listings. The major components 

of the equipment must be reviewed with reference to both 

the descriptive pictures and the 

BII (basic issue items) list. 

This advice cannot be stressed 

too strongly. Failure to use the 

current publications in the inventory process is probably the 

most common mistake a new 

platoon leader makes, and the 

most costly. He should therefore 

follow the rule: "If you ain't got 

the book, don't look." 

Once he is satisfied that he is 

sufficiently educated and 

equipped, the lieutenant can 

begin the formal inventory 

process. 

A change of command inventory is a joint mission. It should 

be done with both the outgoing 

and the incoming officers present; it should not be conducted 

if one or the other is absent. A 

sufficient amount of time 

should be set aside for the inventory, and the entire process 

should be well organized. Unrelated tasks must be set aside 

until the inventory has been 

finished. 

All items that are to be 

inventoried-that must be 

counted-should be put out in 

the open where both parties can 

see them. The front of the company's area is probably as good 

a place as any. All of the platoon's equipment must be made 

available; otherwise, those taking the inventory will spend a 

lot of time trying to chase down 

the missing items. 

When physically counting 

equipment, both platoon leaders 

must be certain of the actual accountable quantity. For example, a unit may have been issued or may have turned in 

items since its last master hand 

receipt was made. (If the unit is 

using the division logistics systems (DLOGS), a computerized 

list will be provided.) Normally, 

the master hand receipt is updated before the inventory, and 

this should eliminate any need 

to review "sub-hand receipts." 

But a platoon may have equipment signed out to its members; 

if so, it must be turned in 

before-not during-the inventory and then re-issued. This 

simple formula can be used to 

insure a correct balance sheet: 

Hand receipt count, plus issues 

and minus turn-ins, minus 

equipment in maintenance, 

equals the accountable 

quantity. 

One critical aspect of accounting for the equipment that is in 

maintenance is to make sure 

the complete item is turned in. 

Although this is normally required, sometimes components 

are turned in but not some of 

the other end items. 

The identification of equip-
Supply discipline is a high priority ... 

ment may be difficult, too, but If any problem arises during At the end of his tour, he 

the new platoon leader must the inventory that seems impos- must conduct a final 100 perstick with it. He may even have sible to resolve, the platoon cent inventory with his sucto measure, weigh, and compare leader should go back to the ex- cessor. 

certain items carefully. Above perts and insist on a detailed Supply discipline and equipall, he must be certain of the explanation. Often the problem ment accountability are high 

presence and composition of ev- will turn out to be simple priorities for today's unit leadery item of his equipment. administrative errors on hand er. A 100 percent inventory may 

Duringtheinventory,equip- receipts-evenexpertscan notbeasexcitingasacombat 

ment should also be checked for make mistakes! patrol or a platoon raid, but it is 

its serviceability. If it is badly Finally, the new platoon at least as important. And any 

worn and a replacement can be leader should be sure that the platoon leader-either a new 

ordered, it should be done at master hand receipt he signs re- one or an old one-owes it to 

that time. Any missing items flects things as they really are. himself to do it right. (Reshould be reported immediately To discover otherwise later can printed from I nf a n t ry 

to the commander and to the S4 be professionally and financial- Magazine.) 

or property book officer, and ly devastating. 

supply actions should be started After the new platoon leader 

to remedy the shortages. This has signed for his platoon's Maj. Curtis R. Rogers was comequipment should not appear on equipment, he should make it a missioned through Officer Canthe hand receipt. point to continue to inventory didate School in 1969 and 

At the same time, any excess and inspect that equipment served as a rifle company comequipment must be turned in to throughout his tenure in that mander and a battalion S4 with 

the supply people; this is as unit. In fact, the semi-annual the 193d Infantry Brigade in 

much a moral problem as it is a inventory is as important as the Panama. He is o I977 graduate 

physical and monetary one. It initial one. He must pay special of the Uniuersity of Tampa and 

may be found, also, that certain attention to any items that recently completed the Foreign 

items no longer serve a purpose might be added to the BII after Area Officer Course. He is now 

within a unit, and with the com- his initial inventory and see assigned to the Rapid Deploymander's approval, they should that they are put on the hand ment Joint Task Force at McDill 

be turned in as well. receipt. Air Force Base, Fla. 

II The ENGINEER Solution 

The horizontal force of the backfilled soil (Hd The force created by the soil is proportional to 

varies proportionately with the depth of the soil. the density, the internal angle of friction and the 

The loading diagram is shown below. The entire height of the wall. 

loading system can be resolved into one force H ,. Its point of application divides the loading triangle into equal halves. This occurs at 113its height H, = (Ka .y s hw) hwi2 

(hw13) or 1013 feet from its base. where Ka = the coefficient of 

active earth pressure 

Ka = tan2 (45-012) = tan2 (45-33.512) = ,289 

Hb= (.289) (130) (10) (1012) = 1879 lbs per foot of 

The moment arm about point A is hwl3 or 3.33 

feet. Therefore, the wall must create resisting 

moment of M = 1879 (3.33) = 6257 ft-lbs clockwise. 
APPLE TO THE RESCUE 


No Seeds. No Pits.No Errors. 

Since adding an Apple I1 Plus microcomputer to their maintenance shop, the 14th Engineer Battalion (Combat) (Corps) at Fort Ord 

is producing maintenance reports and other 

documents in only a fraction of the time previously required. According to CW2 Steven 

Gardner, battalion equipment repair technician, a single Apple operator now completes 

in less than an hour deadline reports that 

used to take four TAMMS clerks an entire 

day. 

Besides saving time, Gardner says the computer printouts are virtually error free and 

not being handwritten, are always legible. 

Genesis of the program was Gardner and 

then Battalion Motor Officer Capt. Richard H. 

MacCombie deciding that their maintenance 

management system needed streamlining. 

When the decision was made to computerize, 

MacCombie moved his personal microcomputer, a TRS-80 Model I, into the maintenance shop. Gardner then determined which 

tasks most needed attention, and MacCombie 

did the programming. 

Meanwhile, Battalion Commander Lt. Col. 

Clair F. Gill formally requested a microcomputer system from FORSCOM. MacCombie's 

replacement, 1Lt. James Roberts, kept the 

pressure on FORSCOM until the 14th finally 

received an Apple I1 Plus with Monitor I11 

display screen and Epson MX-80 FIT printer. 

The battalion currently uses the Apple to 

prepare daily (and other periodic) company 

and consolidated deadline reports directly 

onto DA Form 2406, Material Conditwn Status Report. The computer is also used to prepare printouts of the battalion's scheduled 

maintenance reports, and Gardner plans to 

add replacement parts record keeping to the 

Apple inventory since the 14th is under 

SAILS (Standard Army Intermediate Level 

Supply Subsystem). 

In the case of daily deadline reports, each 

morning the company motor sergeants provide to the battalion maintenance shop vehicle and equipment status reports. The Apple 

operator then adjusts the previous day's deadline report according to the new information, 

receives a printout, and an hour later the motor sergeants pick up their copy of the revised 

document. The company reports are consolidated for the overall battalion picture with all 

reports including a final percentage figure 

showing the amount of mission essential 

equipment operational. 

The Apple system is also used for selected 

administrative tasks, specifically for the battalion's "good guy", "bad guy" reports. 

I'Iq'C Se Ho KL~I pr~pr~n'.s(1 ~~zaaitenance report

OIL the 14th Engilre~r.5' Apple II microcomputer. 

Battalion maintenance personnel routinely 

conduct spot vehicle inspe-ctions in the motoE 

pool and battalion area. If his vehicle and log 

book are in proper condition, the operator receives, through his company commander, a 

letter from Gill acknowledging the good performance. If his vehicle fails the inspection, 

the operator receives a less cheery epistle. In 

either case, the Apple operator simply enters 

the vehicle driver's name and unit, and the 

Apple prints a programmed letter onto a DF 

ready for Gill's signature and the company 

commander's endorsement. 

The 14th offers to assist other engineer 

units desiring to computerize maintenance 

operations by supplying to them copies of the 

paperwork required to secure the computer. 

The 14th will also transfer programming if 

they are supplied a blank 514-inch floppy 

diskette. The program will be compatible only 

with another Apple I1 Plus, 48K. For more information call CW2 Steven Gardner at (408) 

242-2050, AV 929.-John Florence 
A 27-foot erection boat pulls a ribbon bridge built by Company E, 2nd Engineer Battalion,2nd Infantry Division, during Team Spirit exerciees in the Republic ofKorea. 

(Photoby David Polewski)