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TECHNICAL REFERENCE DOCUMENT

MONITORING AND MANAGING ENERGY RESOURCES

1. Introduction

Energy has been an engine of economic growth for modern civilizations since the earliest days of 

the industrial revolution and remains today an essential input to economic well being. Likewise, 

future growth of the world’s economies will depend on sustained, secure, and reasonably priced 

energy. Apart from its importance to economic growth, energy also lies at the root of potential 

technological solutions to many other challenges facing 21st Century civilization. Ensured access 

to clean water, adequate food supplies, and shelter; improved sanitation and human health; and 

expanded opportunities for less developed regions—all could be made more easily achievable by

the existence of abundant, affordable, reliable, and secure energy supplies. 

Forecasts of long-term energy demand suggest world energy consumption may increase three- to 

five-fold, or more, over the course of this century (IPCC 2000). The IPCC’s Special Report on 

Emission Scenarios reports long-term energy demand for 40 different future energy scenarios. 

These scenarios suggest that by 2100, primary energy demand may be as much as 6.5 times higher 

than it is today. In addition, demand for electricity is expected to grow faster than demand for 

fuels for heat and mobility, calling special attention to how electricity will be produced and used. 

Structural changes in the world economy and accelerated improvement in energy efficiency are 

expected to slow the rate of growth in total energy demand, compared to that for economic growth 

in general, but even under these circumstances, demand for fuels and power is expected to grow 

significantly.

Most energy supply today is derived from the combustion of fossil fuels, accompanied by 

emissions of the combustion byproducts, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2). In 2000, CO2 emissions 

accounted for about 80 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions, making CO2 the most important of 

the greenhouse gases. If favorable economics of fossil fuels were to continue indefinitely, such 

fuels would likely supply much of the world’s energy well into the 21st Century, and beyond. 

The National Energy Policy1 outlines policies to enhance energy security while reducing 

greenhouse gas emissions and recommends aggressively developing alternative fuels and 

hydrogen, advancing carbon sequestration technologies, and promoting energy efficiency and 

renewable energy.

Based on the National Energy Policy's recommendations, President Bush announced his 

commitment targeting "breakthrough technologies." On June 11, 2001, President Bush initiated 

two complementary research efforts: a science-focused Climate Change Research Initiative 
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(CCRI), and a technology-focused National Climate Change Technology Initiative (NCCTI). 

Among other things, the President charged the NCCTI to develop improved technologies for 

measuring and monitoring greenhouse gas emissions.2 Establishing the Climate Change 

Technology Program (CCTP) was one of the actions to implement the President's NCCTI. 3 The 

CCTP’s strategic vision has six complementary goals: 4 

1. Reducing emissions from energy use and infrastructure; 

2. Reducing emissions from energy supply; 

3. Capturing and sequestering CO2; 

4. Reducing emissions of other greenhouse gases; 

5. Measuring and monitoring emissions; and 

6. Bolstering the contributions of basic science.

2. User Requirements

Measurement and monitoring systems provide the capability to evaluate the efficacy of efforts to 

reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the use of: (1) low-emission fossil-based power 

systems; (2) energy supply technologies that are reportedly greenhouse gas-neutral, such as 

biomass energy systems, geothermal, and other renewable energy technologies; and (3) end-use 

technologies for greater efficiencies. The energy resources functional requirements are:

• Continuity of operations, 

• Continuous, real-time data streams, 

• Time scales of hours, days, seasons, years and decades

• Geographic scales including point source, regional, and global scale,

• Efficient sharing of information products, in formats that are adapted to users’ 

needs.

Observations using measurement and monitoring technologies can be used to establish 

informational baselines necessary for analytical comparisons. Climate and weather records 

required for the optimization of energy production, use, and distribution systems can be 

established and updated. Carbon storage and greenhouse gas fluxes can be measured across a 

range of scales, from individual locations to large geographic regions. If such baselines can be 

established, the effectiveness of implemented energy optimization and greenhouse gas-reduction 

technologies can be assessed against a background of prior or existing conditions and other natural 

phenomena. Many of the measurement and monitoring technologies and the systems they can 

enable would benefit from the ongoing research and development under the Climate Change 

Science Program, and from other Earth observation activities that are currently underway. All 

such measurement and monitoring systems and interactions need further development and 

constitute an important component of a comprehensive CCTP research and development portfolio.
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Measurement and monitoring of the environment is required for the design and specification of 

energy optimization and integration technologies in energy production and consumption. The 

integration of satellite-based, suborbital, and surface platforms containing such information and 

providing mechanisms for rapid, reliable, and accessible dissemination of the needed 

environmental information is crucial to energy optimization strategies. Many times the integration 

of global environmental information is achieved through atmospheric and oceanic models and 

analysis. Such a system of global climate data offers the potential to:

• Characterize local climates with weather and environmental information from 

long-term to more recent past at sufficient resolution for useful incorporation into 

design of buildings, planning of energy producing crops, estimation of electricity 

demands, computation of energy grid efficiencies, and incorporation of renewable 

energy sources (solar, wind) into estimated energy supply and demand needs for 

particular grids.

• Provide information of changes and trends of these climates for adaptation of these 

systems.

• Provide information of near-real time weather fluctuations and events that effect 

energy production, consumption, and dissemination. 

Developing an Integrated Observation System

Ideally, an integrated observation system strategy would measure and monitor the sources and 

sinks of all gases that have an impact on climate change, using the most cost-effective mix of 

techniques ranging from local in situ sensors to global remote sensing satellites. This would 

involve technologies aimed at a spectrum of applications, including CO2 from energy-related 

activities (including end-use, infrastructure and energy supply; CO2 capture and storage) and 

greenhouse gases other than CO2 (including methane, nitrous oxide, fluorocarbons, ozone, and 

other greenhouse gas-related substances, such as black carbon/soot). An integrating system 

architecture, if developed, could serve as a guide for many of the step-by-step development 

activities required in these areas. It could establish a framework for research and development that 

places measurement and monitoring technologies in context with the other CCTP technologies 

(see Figure 1). 

Such a framework could facilitate coordinated progress over time toward effective solutions and 

common interfaces of the gathered data and assessment systems. An integrating architecture 

would function within the context of and in coordination with other Federal programs (e.g., CCSP, 

the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations, the U.S. Weather Research Program) and 

international programs (e.g., the World Meteorological Organization, the Intergovernmental Panel 

on Climate Change) that provide or use complementary measurement and monitoring capabilities 

across a hierarchy of temporal and spatial scales. It could, therefore, take advantage of the 

synergy between observations to measure and monitor greenhouse gas mitigation strategies and 

the research observation systems for the Climate Change Science Program, as well as the 

operational observations systems for weather forecasting.
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Sequestration

Emissions Regional Energy/ 

Climate

Global Energy/ 

Climate

Air Quality

Other Greenhouse 

Gasses

Carbon 

Sequestration

Energy Efficiency

Energy Production

Integrated Earth 

Observations

Measurement and 

Monitoring Technologies

Assessment and 

Modeling

Scenario 

Assessment 

Tools

Emission 

Reduction 

Technologies

Figure 1: Measurement and Monitoring Technologies

In the near term, advancing greenhouse gas measuring and monitoring systems is an integral 

element of the CCTP research and development program and initiatives. Other measurement and 

monitoring efforts focus on monitoring the significant emission sources and sinks, and on 

measurement and monitoring of carbon sequestration and storage projects. Technology also can 

be developed to address knowledge gaps in greenhouse gas emissions and to improve inventories. 

In some cases it is not necessary or cost effective to measure emissions directly. In such cases, 

emissions can be estimated indirectly, by measuring related parameters, such as feedstock, fuel, or 

energy flows (referred to as “parametric” or “accounting-based” estimates), or by measuring 

changes in carbon stocks. Under CCTP, there is a need to undertake research to test, validate, and 

certify such uses of proxy measurements.

Measuring Emissions Parameters

The technologies that are emphasized in the following sections have been selected on the basis of 

several criteria:

• Is the measurement and monitoring technology critical to the successful 

implementation and validation of a technological option that mitigates a substantial 

quantity of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, on the order of a gigatonn of carbon 

equivalent or more over the course of a decade?
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• Will the measurement and monitoring technology reduce a key uncertainty 

associated with a mitigation option?

• Is the measurement and monitoring technology sufficiently differentiated from, or 

adequately integrated with, comparable research efforts in the Climate Change 

Science Program or other operational Earth observation systems?

• Is the measurement and monitoring technology essential to ensuring that a 

proposed technology does not threaten either human health or the environment?

Table 1 summarizes the proposed research and development portfolio for measurement and 

monitoring technologies. In the near-term, technologies are needed that measure multiple gases 

across spatial dimensions. In the long-term, a system (or systems) must be developed to provide 

the capacity for measurement and monitoring at a distance and for accounting of emissions. These 

long-term systems should be designed to add to and build upon the near-term development.

Greenhouse Gas Emission Source Nature of Emissions and Scale

Research and Development 

Portfolio of Measurement and 

Monitoring Technology

Power Generation Large point sources

Industrial Facility Many different processes, but mostly 

point sources

Residential and Commercial Buildings Point sources

Transportation Many mobile sources and widely 

distributed

Component and system-level 

technologies to enable and 

demonstrate direct measurements, 

continuous emission monitoring, onboard diagnostics, remote sensing, 

data transmission and archiving, 

inventory-based reporting, and 

decision support systems.

Table 1. Proposed Portfolio for Measurement and Monitoring of Energy Production

Research and development programs for measurement and monitoring technologies that span the 

federal complex are focused on a number of areas, including the following:

• High-temperature sensors for NOx and ozone, ammonia and other gas emissions, 

with application in caustic industrial environments (e.g., steel mills, pulp and paper 

industries)

• Engine diagnostics and controls 

• Fast-response mass spectrometers 

• Continuous emissions monitors (CEMs) for measuring multiple gases at point 

sources
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• Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) for remote monitoring of truck emissions 

• Development of an International Measurement and Verification Protocol for 

estimating energy savings resulting from efficiency improvements.

For more details on the current research and development activities see: 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/ tech-options/tech-options-5-2.pdf

There are several areas identified for consideration in future portfolio planning for new or 

increased emphasis. These include the following:

• Improvements in performance, longevity, autonomy, spatial resolution of 

measurements, and data transmission of CEMs, along with the ability to measure 

multiple gases

• More thorough process knowledge and life-cycle analysis

• Tower, aircraft and satellite-based sensors for direct measurement of CO2 and other 

gases or indicators, tracers, and isotopic ratios

• Low cost, multiple wireless micro-sensor networks to monitor migration, uptake, 

and distribution patterns of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in soil, forests, 

vehicles, and facilities

• Data protocols and analytical methods for producing and archiving specific types 

of data to enable interoperability and long-term maintenance of data records, data 

production models, and emission coefficients that are used in estimating emissions

• Direct measurements to replace proxies and estimates when direct measurements 

are more cost-effective in optimizing emissions and in better understanding the 

processes behind the formation of greenhouse gases.

Measuring Greenhouse Gas Emissions 

Greenhouse gases are global in their effect upon the atmosphere. The primary greenhouse gases, 

unlike many local air pollutants like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and volatile organic 

compounds, are considered stock pollutants. A stock air pollutant is one that has a long lifetime in 

the atmosphere, and therefore can accumulate over time. Stock air pollutants are also generally 

well mixed in the atmosphere. As a consequence of this mixing, the impact a greenhouse gas has 

on the atmosphere is mostly independent of where it was emitted. These characteristics of 

greenhouse gases imply that they should be addressed on a global (i.e., international) scale. 

The sources of greenhouse gas emissions are varied and complex, as are the potential mitigation 

strategies afforded by advanced climate change technologies. Anthropogenic emissions of 

greenhouse gases occur in every country of the world. These emissions result from many of the 

industrial, transportation, agricultural, and other activities that take place in each country. 

Countries that are signatories to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

(UNFCCC) are committed to reporting their anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the 

Secretariat of the convention. 
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Industry and the federal government are researching new energy production and consumption 

technologies that increase energy efficiency or integrate alternative forms of energy that result in 

reduced emissions. Measurement and monitoring systems will be needed to optimize and 

complement these technologies in order to assess their efficacy and sustainability. Contributing 

measurement and monitoring systems for greenhouse gas emissions cover a wide array of 

greenhouse gas sensors, measurement platforms, monitoring and inventorying systems, and 

associated analytical tools, including databases and inference methods. Similarly, energy 

production and use optimization strategies will depend upon the availability of accurate 

environmental data from space-based and surface platforms with associated analysis methods. 

Development and application of such systems can provide accurate characterizations of advanced 

technologies, enable increased understanding of performance, guide further research, reduce costs, 

and improve effectiveness. Further research and development on these systems will be required to 

facilitate and accelerate their adoption. 

Measurement and monitoring systems are important to addressing uncertainties associated with 

cycling of greenhouse gases through the land, atmosphere, and oceans, as well as in measuring and 

monitoring greenhouse gas-related performance of various advanced climate change technologies. 

These systems offer the potential to:

• Characterize inventories, concentrations and cross-boundary fluxes of CO2 and 

other greenhouse compounds, including the size and variability of the fluxes;

• Characterize the efficacy and durability of particular mitigation technologies or 

other actions, and verify and validate claims for results; 

• Measure (directly or indirectly through proxy measurements) anthropogenic 

changes in sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and relate them to causes, in part, 

to understand better the role of various technologies and strategies for mitigation; 

• Identify opportunities and guide research investments; 

• Explore relationships among changes in greenhouse gas emissions, fluxes and 

inventories due to changes in surrounding environments; and

• Optimize the efficiency, reliability, and quality of measurement and monitoring 

that maximizes support for understanding and decision making, while minimizing 

the transaction costs associated with mitigation activities.

Meeting the greenhouse gas measuring and monitoring challenge would be possible with a 

thoughtful system design that includes near- and long-term advances in technology. In the nearterm, it is possible, for example, to: (1) incorporate transportation measurement and monitoring 

sensors into the onboard diagnostic and control systems of production vehicles; (2) prepare 

geologic sequestration measurement and monitoring technologies for deployment with planned 

demonstration projects; (3) exploit observations and measurements from current and planned 

Earth observing systems to measure atmospheric concentrations and profiles of greenhouse gases 

from planned satellites; (4) undertake designs and deploy the foundation components for a 

national, multi-tiered monitoring system with optimized measuring, monitoring, and verification 
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systems; (5) deploy sounding instruments, biological and chemical markers (either isotopic or 

fluorescence), and ocean sensors on a global basis to monitor changes in ocean chemistry; (6) 

maintain in situ observing systems to characterize local-scale dynamics of the carbon cycle under 

changing climatic conditions; and (7) maintain in situ observing systems to monitor the 

effectiveness and stability of CO2 sequestration activities.

In the long-term, with sustained future investments, it may be possible, for example to: (1) 

enhance the capability to model emissions based on a dynamic combination of human activity 

patterns, emission source processes, and chemical processes; (2) develop process-based models 

that reproduce the atmospheric physical and chemical processes (including transport and 

transformation pathways) that lead to the observed vertical profiles of greenhouse gas 

concentrations due to surface emissions; (3) determine to what degree natural exchanges with the 

surface affect the net national emissions of greenhouse gases; (4) develop a combination of spaceborne, airborne (including satellite, aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles) and surface-based 

scanning and remote sensing technologies to produce three-dimensional, real-time mapping of 

atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations; (5) develop specific technologies for sensing of 

global methane “surface” emissions with resolution of 10 km; (6) develop remote sensing methods 

to determine spatially resolved vertical greenhouse gas profiles, rather than column-averaged 

profiles; and (7) develop space-borne and airborne monitoring for soil moisture at resolutions 

suitable for measurement and monitoring activities.

With continuing progress in greenhouse gas measuring and monitoring systems, policy decisions 

and research plans for the development and deployment of advanced climate change technologies 

could be informed and guided by field data. Additionally, the technology components of future 

strategies to reduce, avoid, capture or sequester CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions need to 

be expanded and eva luated.

3. Existing Capabilities and Commonalities 

Energy production levels are becoming increasingly out of balance with demands for energy 

resources. The expanding economy, the world’s growing population, and the rising standard of 

living put more demands on available energy resources. Energy availability, use, and cost (as well 

as influence on the environment and human health) vary regionally and internationally. Focused 

efforts with improved Earth observations can help to optimize decision-making, and help supply 

needed energy and maintain the environment and human health. For example, improving weather 

forecasting accuracy could provide information critical to timely, safe, and cost effective transport 

of energy resources.

One significant demand on energy use is in the building environment. Residential, commercial, 

and institutional buildings account for about one-third of primary global energy demand (IPCC 

2000). In the U.S. alone, buildings account for 65% of electricity use and 36% of total energy 

consumption. U.S. buildings also account for 36% of carbon dioxide emissions and 30% of 

greenhouse gas emissions (Environmental Building News, 2001). Growth in global energy 

demand in buildings averaged 3.5 percent per year since 1970 (IPCC 2000). Thus, optimizing 
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energy consumption and gaseous emissions by integrating renewable energy technologies and 

“sustainable” design techniques in buildings is becoming increasingly important toward managing 

energy resources. It has been has noted that industry now has the capability to design and 

construct buildings that use 50% less energy at no increase in construction cost, if accurate 

environmental data are available (Balcomb and Curtner, 2000). Therefore, environmental data 

(various temperature, solar radiation, illumination, winds, cloud cover, and humidity parameters) 

become the key to the energy and emission reduction strategies.

Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources

Alternative and Renewable energy resources use naturally occurring flows of energy to produce 

electricity. Alternative and renewable energy sources include renewable energy systems (such as 

solar, wind and hydrological power) biomass and biofuels, and geothermal systems. Hydrogen 

and fuel cell technologies have the potential to solve the major energy security and environmental 

challenges that face America today—dependence on petroleum imports, poor air quality, and 

greenhouse gas emissions. The challenge for developing a viable hydrogen economy is to develop 

a cost-effective source that does not depend on fossil fuels.

Renewable Energy 

Renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geothermal, hydrogen and biomass play an important 

role in the future of our nation. Estimating renewable energy resources requires climatological 

information on the duration of sunshine and solar elevation of an area, the cloudiness, the wind 

fields and the precipitation. Hydrological power also requires information about the water shed 

basin that drains into the river, which is subsequently dammed for power production.

Traditionally, meteorological parameters required for the design of these systems originated 

exclusively from ground measurements or extrapolations of ground site measurements. 

Increasingly, such parameters are being estimated from satellite based measurements and 

atmospheric assimilation model systems. A current portfolio for renewable energy map 

parameters includes the following:

• Solar resource maps (NREL – see map sect 2; NASA)

• Cloudiness maps (NREL, USAF, NASA)

• Wind resource maps (NREL – see map sect. 2; NASA)

• Hydrological resource maps (NREL – see map sect. 2; NASA)

• Temperature/Humidity maps (NOAA NCEP, NASA).

The current portfolio in surface measurements includes the following:

• Temperature (AFOS - NOAA)

• Humidity (AFOS – NOAA)

• Wind (AFOS – NOAA)

• Solar Radiation (SurfRad, BSRN, and ISIS – NOAA, ARM - DOE; other 

networks)
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• GPCP rain gauge network (NOAA).

Geothermal Energy 

Geothermal systems use steam and hot water generated by the heat from the Earth to produce 

energy. There are two types of geothermal systems. The first is geothermal power harnessed from 

heated steam from molten rock. Locating areas for power generation facilities requires information 

of the solid Earth. Remote sensing technologies in space such as LandSat, ASTER, SAR

measurements can be used to identify solid Earth formation and rock constituents likely associated 

with geothermal power sources. The second system, ocean floors, is also a potential source for 

geothermally produced systems. Information on geothermal energy generation and capability is 

available on http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html.

Alternatively, new heating and air conditioning systems today use the fact that the ground 

temperatures are more stable than surface temperatures. In winter, below-ground temperatures are 

warmer than surface and vice versa in summers. Thus, circulating water a few meters 

underground will act to save energy and reduce emissions either at the home (if the home uses 

natural gas, coal, oil or propane heating systems) or at the electrical plant (if heating is electric). 

The optimization of geothermal systems requires information regarding soil type, moisture, 

vegetation cover, etc. These parameters are observable from the surface and from space-based 

platforms. Currently, this information can be found in the following:

• Land surface/land cover atlas (IGBP)

• Soil type maps (USDA, USGS)

• Soil moisture maps (USDA, USGS)

Biomass and Biofuels

Biomass is organic matter that can be used to provide heat, make fuel, and generate electricity. 

Wood, the largest source of biomass, has been used to provide heat for thousands of years. Other 

types of biomass are also used as an energy source, such as plants, residue from agriculture or 

forestry, and organic materials from municipal and industrial wastes. Biomass can also be 

converted into liquid fuels, called biofuels, to meet transportation needs. Biomass uses include 

ethanol, biodiesel, biomass power and industrial process energy.

Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is one of the most promising ways for reducing the buildup of greenhouse 

gases in the atmosphere. In fact, even under the most optimistic scenarios for energy efficiency 

gains and the greater use of low- or no-carbon fuels, sequestration will likely be essential if the 

world is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at acceptable levels.

The federal government is supporting research that investigates the fundamental science of carbon 

sequestration, as well as research that seeks to transform the fundamental science into a portfolio 

of practical, affordable and safe technologies and mitigation strategies that the energy industry can 

use to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Microbes and plants play substantial roles in the 

global cycling of carbon through the environment. The federal government is also supporting 

research that leverages new genomic DNA sequence information on microbes important to the 
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global carbon cycle by characterizing key biochemical pathways or genetic regulatory networks in 

these microbes. 

Technology Strategy

The measurement and monitoring systems associated with terrestrial sequestration will require a 

research and development portfolio that provides for integrated, hierarchical systems of groundbased and remote sensing technologies. The system must be applicable to a wide range of 

potential activities and a very diverse land base, have sufficient accuracy to satisfy reporting 

requirements of the 1605(b) voluntary reporting system (EIA 1994), and be deployable at a low 

cost so that measurement and monitoring does not outweigh the value of the sequestered carbon. 

A balanced portfolio should address the following: 

• Low-cost remote sensing and related technology for land cover and land cover change 

analysis, biomass and net productivity measurements, vegetation structure

• Low-cost portable, rapid analysis systems for in situ soil carbon measurements; 

• Flux measurement systems; 

• Advanced biometrics from carbon inventories; 

• Carbon and nutrient sink/source tracing and movement, including using isotope markers; 

and, 

• Analysis systems that relate management practices (e.g., life cycle environmental 

assessments for forest products, changes in agriculture rotations, energy use in ecosystem 

management, and others) to net changes in emissions and sinks over time (e.g., changes in 

agriculture rotations, energy use in ecosystem management, and others)

The following table identifies the needed measurements and observational scale:

In situ Local1 Regional2

Continental/ 

Oceanic Global

i. Soil carbon and 

nitrogen content (forest 

inventory and 

ecological surveys; lab 

analysis [dry 

combustion, light 

induced breakdown 

spectroscopy]; on-site 

testing)

ii. Soil moisture content 

(direct measurement)

iii. Standing biomass

 1. Leaf area and stem 

diameter (direct 

measurement)

 2. Vegetation 

structure [altimetry] 

(Lidar, radar from 

i. Standing biomass 

(field sampling; airborne 

Lidar [LVIS or radar], 3-

D videography, 

inventories)

ii. Land cover, land use 

and land cover change 

(multispectral airborne 

or space borne 

instrument ( IKONOS, 

QuickBird, OrbView, 

Landsat, ASTER)

iii. Vegetation properties 

(from remote sensing 

and inventories) 

 1. Leaf area and 

canopy closure (Landsat, 

MODIS)

i. Vegetation 

characterization – type, 

condition, density, etc 

(Optical remote sensing 

from space borne 

platforms – Landsat, 

MODIS, VIIRS, MISR, 

ADEOSII, Envisat; data

from inventories)

 1. Phenology 

(Landsat, MODIS)

ii. Land cover change 

(Optical remote sensing 

from space borne 

platforms – Landsat, 

MODIS, VIIRS etc.)

iii. CH4 flux (MOPITT, 

AIRS, TES, Envisat)

i. Vegetation 

characterization 

– type, 

condition, 

density, etc 

(Optical remote 

sensing from 

space borne 

platforms –

Landsat, 

MODIS, 

AVHRR, 

VIIRS etc.)

ii. Land cover 

change – long 

term changes 

and near term 

disturbances. 

i. Vegetation 

characterization 

– type, 

condition, 

density, etc 

(Optical remote 

sensing from 

space borne 

platforms –

Landsat, 

MODIS, VIIRS 

etc.)

ii. Land cover 

change (Optical 

remote sensing 

from space 

borne platforms 

– Landsat, 
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In situ Local1 Regional2

Continental/ 

Oceanic Global

airborne platforms, in 

situ measurements)

 3. Carbon content of 

biomass (lab analyses 

by species and 

inventories)

 4. Vegetation 

inventory (field 

sampling)

iv. Atmospheric 

exchange (Tower 

measurements of eddycovariance CO2 and 

CH4 fluxes; automated 

soil-surface chambers; 

airborne concentration 

profilers)

v. Soil erosion 

(Sampling)

vi. Stream POC and 

DOC (Sampling and 

laboratory analysis)

 2. Foliar chemistry 

(airborne hyperspectral 

instrument, e.g. AVIRIS)

 3. Canopy height and 

structure (airborne lidar 

or radar [AIRSAR, 

LVIS]; space borne 

MISR)

iv. Soil moisture 

(AIRSAR, UHF/VHF 

radar (IIP), Hydros)

Vegetation inventory 

(Field sampling, remote 

sensing Landsat, 

MODIS)

iv. Soil survey (Field 

inventory, remote 

sensing Landsat, 

hyperspectral)

v. Soil moisture (SSM/I, 

Envisat, Hydros)

vi. Fire occurrence, 

intenisty, burnt area 

(Landsat, MODIS)

 1. Vegetation impacts 

(MISER, AVIRIS, lidar, 

radar AIRSAR)

 2. Carbon emissions 

(Field experiments)

vii. Carbon in wood 

products (from 

inventories)

(Optical remote 

sensing from 

space borne 

platforms –

Landsat, 

MODIS, VIIRS 

etc.)

iii. CH4 flux 

(MOPITT, 

AIRS, TES, 

Envisat)

 iv. Soil 

moisture 

(SSM/I, 

Envisat, 

Hydros (ESSP 

alternate))

MODIS, VIIRS 

etc.) 

iii. Total 

atmospheric 

carbon (OCO)

. Emissions by biomass 

burning (direct 

measurements)

ii. Removal by harvest 

(direct measurement; 

inventory)

i. Changes in 

atmospheric carbon near 

the ground (eddy 

correlation 

measurements from 

towers or ground based 

instruments; airborne 

instrumentation.)

ii. Land cover change 

(airborne or space borne 

instrumentation with 

ground resolution no 

greater than 15-30m.)

i. Land cover change 

(Airborne or space borne 

instrumentation with 

ground resolution no 

greater than 15-30m.)

1Up to 1 km2 

2Up to thousands of km2

: Information reportable at political (county/borough, state/province, country) and natural 

region (ecosystem) levels

Table 2: Measurement Parameters (Observables) and Scales of Interest

 for Biomass/ Biofuels and Carbon Sequestration

Current Portfolio

Current research activities associated with terrestrial sequestration are found across a number of 

federal agencies. For a detailed discussion on technologies and current research activities, see: 
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http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-5-4.pdf, 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-3-2-3-1.pdf, or 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-3-2-3-2.pdf

In summary, the current portfolio inc ludes the following:

• The EPA, with assistance from USDA/Forest Service, prepares national inventories of 

emissions and sequestration from managed lands. These inventories capture changes in 

the characteristics and activities related to land uses, and are subject to on-going 

improvements and verification procedures.

• The USDA Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis Program and the Natural 

Resources Conservation Services National Resources Inventory provide baseline 

information to assess the management, structure, and condition of U.S. forests, croplands, 

pastures, and grasslands. This information is then converted to state, regional, and 

national carbon inventories. Hierarchical, integrated monitoring systems are being 

designed in pilot studies such as the Delaware River Basin interagency research initiative 

(USDA 2004).

• Prototype soil carbon analysis systems have been developed and are undergoing 

preliminary field-testing.

• Satellite and low-altitude remote sensing systems have been developed that can quantify 

agricultural land features at spatial resolution of approximately 0.5 square meters.

• Prototype versions of Web-based tools are being developed for estimating carbon budgets 

for regions.

• Multidisciplinary studies are increasing the accuracy of carbon sequestration estimates 

related to land management and full accounting for land/atmosphere carbon exchange.

• The Agriflux and Ameriflux programs will improve the understanding of carbon pools and 

fluxes in large-scale, long-term monitoring areas. The flux measurements will provide 

quantitative data for calibrating and validating remote sensing and for making other 

estimates of carbon sequestration.

The Agriflux network is being developed by the USDA to measure the effects of 

environmental conditions and agricultural management decisions on carbon exchange 

between the land and the atmosphere. Studies will identify crop management practices 

to optimize crop yield, crop quality, and carbon sequestration and other environmental 

conditions. Research will lead to new ways for prediction and early detection of 

drought in agricultural systems based on weekly and monthly climate forecasts.

Ameriflux towers are taking long-term measurements of CO2 and water vapor fluxes in 

15 sites throughout the world, including the U.S. Data gathered from these 

measurement sites are important to understand interactions between the atmospheric 

and terrestrial systems. The AmeriFlux network is apart of an international scientific 

program of flux measurement networks (e.g., AmeriFlux, FLUXNET-Canada, 

CarboEurope, and AsiaFlux) that seeks to better understand the role of the terrestrial 

biosphere carbon cycle. See: ORNL 2003.
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• Other research activities focusing on imaging and remote sensing methods include LIDAR 

and RADAR, used for 3-dimensional imaging of the forest structure.

• Isotopes are being used to assess sequestration potential by monitoring fluxes and pools of 

carbon in natural ecosystems.

• Tillage and land conservative studies offer test-beds for ground-based and remote sensing 

methods, as well as verification of rules of thumb for emission factors.

Research and development on in situ and remote sensing technologies and laser-based diagnostics 

are underway in the U.S. At U.S. National Laboratories, for example, these diagnostics include 

microbial indicators; Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Laser Induced Breakdown 

Spectroscopy (LIBS), Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), and a variety of satellite programs:

• Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a robust chemical analysis 

technique that has found application in a range of areas where rapid, remote and 

semi-quantitative analysis of chemical composition is needed. Light is used to 

ionize a small portion of the analyte and the spectral emission (characteristic of the 

electronic energy levels) from the species in the resulting plasma is collected to 

determine the chemical constituents. Most often the light comes from a laser since 

high photon fluxes can be obtained readily with this type of light source. By 

focusing the light from the laser to a small spot, highly localized chemical analysis 

can be performed.

• LIght Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) uses the same principle as RADAR. The 

LIDAR instrument transmits light out to a target. The transmitted light interacts 

with and is changed by the target. Some of this light is reflected/ scattered back to 

the instrument where it is analyzed. The change in the properties of the light 

enables some property of the target to be determined. The time for the light to 

travel out to the target and back to the LIDAR is used to determine the distance to 

the target.

• Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) technology can measure more 

than 100 of the 189 Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) listed in Title III of the Clean 

Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA). The FTIR can measure multiple 

compounds simultaneously, thus providing an advantage over current measurement 

methods, which measure only one or several HAPs; FTIR methods can provide a 

distinct cost advantage since they can be used to replace several traditional 

methods.

4. Major Gaps and Challenges

Development of an integrated measurement and monitoring system is in its early stages of 

development and will require evaluation of measurement priorities and data quality needs. As 

such, there are numerous opportunities for consideration in future portfolio planning. Some 

specific goals are identified below.
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Merging Data: One goal is to develop a system that merges data from across the spectrum of 

measurement and monitoring systems, with information from one layer helping to calibrate, 

constrain, and verify information in other layers. Data fusion and integration technologies would 

enable the integration of information from numerous sources, such as satellite observations, realtime surface indicators, and reported emissions inventories. This data integration may require 

additional technology capacity in the area of data handling and processing, and, in some cases, it 

may depend on the development of innovative sensors, platforms, computational models and 

systems, and their integration into decision support resources. Cross-verification of these data 

elements requires coordination with national and international standards-setting bodies to develop 

protocols for interoperability of datasets. Data systems are also required for integrating and 

comparing data among hierarchical layers of the system and for application of the measurement 

and monitoring technologies. Some measurements would need to be averaged or processed to 

reflect the variability in emissions rates or volumes, as well as spatial and temporal variability.

Developing Spatial-Scale and Measurement-Layer Platforms: Another goal is to develop and 

use platforms for all spatial scales and measurement layers, for example, from new types of global 

sensors on satellite platforms and from new airborne platforms (e.g., remotely operated or 

autonomous). Greenhouse gas emission sources and geologic sequestration may require portable 

platforms for sensors and autonomous units that measure, analyze, and report emissions, while 

ocean sequestration would likely require development and deployment of autonomous 

submersible systems with appropriate sensors and reporting capabilities.

Developing Decision Support Tools: A final goal is to develop decision support tools to 

incorporate the data and information created from the measurement and monitoring systems (e.g., 

change in emissions, regional or continental information, fate of sequestered gases), along with 

model sensitivities and model predictions generated by CCSP activities into interactive tools for 

decision makers. These tools would provide the basis for “what-if” scenario assessments of 

alternate emission reductions technologies (e.g., sequestration, emission control, differential 

technology implementation time schedules in key countries of the developing world, etc.)

Future Research Directions

Research topics identified for consideration in future research and development portfolio planning 

are categorized as follows:

• National implementation of a hierarchical system to quantify stocks, emissions, 

and sinks from the plot scale to the national scale.

• Development of imaging and volume measurement sensors for land use/cover and 

biomass estimates.

• Development of low-cost, practical methods to measure net carbon gain by 

ecosystems, and to conduct life cycle analysis of wood products.

• Isotope markers to determine the source and movement of greenhouse gases in 

geological, terrestrial, and oceanic systems.
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• New measurement technologies that support novel sequestration concepts, such as 

enhanced mechanisms for CO2 capture from free air, new sequestration products 

resulting from genome sequencing studies, and modification of natural 

biogeochemical processes.

5. Future Earth Observation Systems that May Fill Gaps

An integrated measurement and monitoring system architecture can help establish a systems 

approach to delivering the information needed to plan, implement, and assess greenhouse gas 

reduction actions (see Figure 2). This architecture would provide a measurement and monitoring 

framework that contributes to integrated system solutions for greenhouse gas reduction actions 

and would help in identifying more cost effective solutions. It would enable the benchmarking of 

planned improvements against current capabilities.

Decision Support 

• Management 

Systems

• Assessments

• Decision Support 

Systems

Decision Support 

• Management 

Systems

• Assessments

• Decision Support 

Systems

Decision Support 

• Management 

Systems

• Assessments

• Decision Support 

Systems

High Performance

Computing,

Communication,

& Visualization

Standards &

Interoperability

Predictions

Observations

Measurement and 

Monitoring 

Systems

• Remotely-sensed

• In situ

Earth System 

Models

• Atmosphere/GHG

• Oceanic

• Terrestrial

• Geologic

Measurement and 

Monitoring 

Systems

• Remotely-sensed

• In situ

Earth System 

Models

• Atmosphere/GHG

• Oceanic

• Terrestrial

• Geologic

Earth System 

Analysis/Models

• Atmosphere/GHG

• Oceanic

• Terrestrial

• Geologic

DATA

On-going feedback to optimize value and reduce gaps

Observation 

Systems (across 

spatial scales)

• Remotely-sensed

• In situ

GHG Reduction

Actions

Figure 2: Integrating System Architectural Linking Measurement and Monitoring 

Observation Systems to Greenhouse Gas Reduction Actions

An integrated measurement and monitoring capability would have the ability to integrate across 

spatial and temporal scales and at many levels, ranging from carbon measurements in soils, to 

emissions from vehicles, from large point sources to diffused area sources, from landfills to 

geographic regions. This capability is graphically depicted in Figure 3. The integrated system 

builds on existing and planned observing and monitoring technologies of the CCSP and includes 

new technologies emerging from the CCTP research and development portfolio.
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Global 

Atmosphere

Regional 

and Continental 

Area Sources

Point Sources 

Micro and In Situ

Satellites Aircraft, autonomous 

submersibles, towers, 

flask networks, land 

measurements

CEMs, OBD

Micro, 

robotics, 

FTIR, LIDAR, 

LIBS,

Hyperspectral

and

Multispectral

Imaging

Continuous Emission Monitors

OBD: on-board diagnostics 

FTIR: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer

LIDAR: Light Detection and Ranging

LIBS: Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Figure 3: Hierarchical Layers of Spatial Observation Technologies and Capabilities

Advanced measurement and monitoring technologies offer the potential to collect and merge 

global and regional data from sensors deployed on satellite and aircraft platforms with other data 

from ground networks, point-source sensors, and other in situ configurations. An integrated 

system provides the benefits of compatibility, efficiency, and reliability while minimizing the total 

cost of measurement and monitoring.

Technology Strategy

The strategy for developing an integrated system is to focus on the most important measurement 

needs and apply the integrated concept design to ongoing technology opportunities as they arise. 

In the near- term, development of observation systems at various scales would be needed. In the 

longer-term, merging these spatial systems into an integrated approach would be needed. 

Current Portfolio

The current Federal research and development portfolio has been targeted on a number of 

developments. For a detailed analysis of the current research, see: 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/tech-options/tech-options-5-1.pdf

Some examples of the current research and development activities include:
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• Global: Satellites such as NASA’s Earth Observation System research satellites 

and NOAA’s operational weather and climate satellites, as well as NOAA’s 

distributed ground network, which includes the Mauna Loa Observatory, are 

currently operational and support data gathering relevant to CCSP and CCTP.

• Continental: Ongoing research involves estimating net CO2 emissions for the 

North American continent using different approaches: inversion analysis based on 

CO2 monitoring equipment as currently arrayed, remote sensing coupled with 

ecosystem modeling, and compilation of land inventory information. European 

researchers have embarked on a similar track by combining meteorological 

transport models with time-dependent emission inventories provided by member 

states of the European Union.

• Regional: Advanced technologies, such as satellites, are monitoring and/or 

verifying countries’ anthropogenic and natural emissions. NOAA is building an 

atmospheric carbon monitoring system under the CCSP using small aircraft and tall 

communications towers that will be capable of determining emissions and uptake 

on a 1000 km scale. As part of the Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) and 

the North American Carbon Program (NACP), NOAA is building a Carbon Cycle 

Atmospheric Observing System mainly across the U.S. in order to reduce the 

uncertainty in the North American carbon sink. In order to measure carbon fluxes 

on a 1000 km scale over land, vertical profiling is necessary. From about 24 sites, 

small aircraft will, on a weekly basis, carry automatic flask sampling systems. 

These systems will collect 12 samples for analysis of carbon gases and isotopic 

carbon ratios at predetermined altitudes from the surface to about 8 km. In 

conjunction, tall communications towers (~ 500 m) will sample carbon and other 

greenhouse gases continuously from about 12 U.S. sites. This technique will be 

capable of determining regional carbon sources and sinks and may have 

applications in the Climate Change Technology Program for monitoring the 

effectiveness of, for example, sequestration activities.

• Local (micro or individual): A number of techniques are currently used to 

directly or indirectly estimate emissions from individual sites and/or source sectors, 

such as mass balance techniques, eddy covariance methods (e.g., at the AmeriFlux 

sites, where source identification is being done using isotope signatures), 

application of emissions factors derived from experimentation, forestry survey 

methods, and continuous emissions monitors in the utility sector. 

6. Interagency and International Partnerships

Within the U.S., most of the energy systems are privately held. While the government retains 

responsibility for the roads and air traffic system in the transportation sector, the vast majority of 

the vehicles and systems that actually consume energy are privately held. Similarly, most of the 

U.S. built infrastructure is privately held. Commercial companies provide energy to their 
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customers in the forms of fuel oil, natural gas, and electricity, and commercial entities own and 

operate the energy distribution networks, such as the natural gas pipelines and the electric grid. 

Many of these commercial activities rely upon government Earth observations and environmental 

information for their planning and operations. For example, weather forecasts are critical for air 

travel, building management, planning and operations of renewable energy generation facilities 

such as hydro-, wind, and solar power generation systems. In addition to these governmentprovided observations, the commercial and competitive nature of the energy sector provides a rich 

environment for private observation systems and value-added data management, modeling, and 

decision support systems. 

Partnership for Solar Energy Resource Assessment

DOE/NREL and NASA have an established partnership to assess and improve solar resource 

mapping. Plans are being made for a task to be performed under the International Energy Agency 

involving DOE/NREL, NASA and 7 foreign nations (Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Portugal, 

Canada, Japan). The task is planned to assess existing solar resource maps and to establish a 

criterion for the assessment of future predictions of solar resource on several different time scales. 

For predictions, NASA and NOAA will collaborate.

Partnership with Utility Companies

Utility companies need to better predict demand loads. These are crucially dependent upon 

forecasts of weather and other parameters. Improved weather parameters will help to improve 

load forecasts and better anticipate peak demands. A partnership between NASA, NOAA and 

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) was initiated to accomplish such a task. NASA/NOAA 

will collaborate to provide recent past and forecast data in formats and with parameters important 

to the load forecasting problems.

7. Conclusions

The growing worldwide demand for abundant, affordable, reliable, and secure energy requires a 

well developed energy strategy that includes research on new technologies for alternative fuels, 

including hydrogen, the advancement of carbon capture and sequestration technologies, and the 

promotion of energy efficiency and renewable energy sources. A well integrated portfolio of 

research and observations on the efficacy of these new technologies will enhance energy security 

and reliability while helping to meet the growing demand for fuels and power that is forecasted to 

occur at the rate of three- to five-fold over the next century. 

Observations of the effectiveness of implemented energy optimization and greenhouse gasreduction technologies will require an integrated architecture of measurement and monitoring 

systems. Current systems of ground-based and remote sensing technologies must be enhanced and 

integrated across spatial scales to deliver the information needed to plan, implement, and assess 

ongoing greenhouse gas reduction actions.
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Partnerships between government and commercial sectors can be enormously beneficial for 

creating value-added data management, modeling, and decision support systems that help optimize 

energy production, use, and distribution. An effective energy strategy requires that sustained 

future investments be made in observations systems that can provide the information needed to 

assess the health of growing economies that depend on a strong and reliable energy sector. Only 

then can the world’s growing population realize a rising standard of living that includes increased 

longevity within a safe and wholesome environment.
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References

1. The IPCC’s Special Report on Emission Scenarios reports long-term energy demand 

for 40 different future energy scenarios. These scenarios suggest that by 2100, primary 

energy demand may be as much as 6.5 times higher than it is today.

2. Balcomb, J. D. and A. Curtner, 2000: Designing sustainable buildings: MCDM-23, a 

tool for making the right decisions. Proc. Solar 2000, solar powers life, share the 

energy, Madison, WI, Amer. Solar Energy Soc.

3. Environmental Building News, 2001: Buildings and the environment: the numbers. 

Brattleboro, VT, May, 1-10.

4. Report of the National Energy Policy Development Group, May 2001. 

5. U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Research and Current Activities 

Introduction, URL 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/library/2003/currentactivities/intro.htm accessed 

Aug. 5, 2004.

6. About the U.S. Climate Change Technology Program, URL 

http://www.climatetechnology.gov/about/index.htm accessed Aug. 5, 2004. 

7. S. Abraham, “The Bush Administration’s Approach to Climate Change,” Science 305, 

616-617 (2004)