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General Information

Shorebirds belong to the diverse avian Order

Charadriiformes, suborder Charadrii, and members

occupy a wide range of environments. Habitats include coastal, saline, and freshwater wetlands, flooded

agricultural fields, interior grasslands, and arctic tundra. Most shorebirds have small bodies with long,

thin legs for wading. Three unwebbed toes point forward and the hind toe is reduced or absent (except in

the partially webbed-toed American Avocet and lobedtoed phalaropes). Beaks come in a variety of shapes

and sizes, and each is designed for a specific foraging

substrate. Shorebirds such as oystercatchers and

sandpipers exhibit countershading, where dark colors

on the back balance the shaded light-colors on the

underside. Killdeer and Semipalmated plovers display disruptive colorationóbold patterns break up the

birdís outline to help avoid detection by predators. If

juvenile birds survive their first year, life spans greater

than ten years are not uncommon for some shorebird

species.

Shorebirds are champion migrators, travelling thousands of miles between Arctic nesting grounds and

wintering grounds in Central and South America. Migration routes typically follow coastlines or interior

water sources. Staging areas and stopover sites in

North America provide abundant food resources crucial for supplying the energy needed to complete migration. About 51 species migrate through North

America each year. However, declining numbers have

been observed at many staging grounds.

Wetland habitat alterations have contributed to significant decreases in populations of Eskimo curlews, buffbreasted sandpipers, whimbrels, and sanderlings.

Nearly all Charadrius plover species including mountain plovers, piping plovers, killdeer, and snowy plovers have experienced population declines and have

serious status concerns. In the lower 48 states, more

than 50% of original wetland habitat suitable for shorebirds has been destroyed or degraded since the late

1700s. Coastal and wetland developments have limited foraging and staging areas along migration routes.

Inland fresh and salt water habitats continue to be

threatened by industrial and agricultural land use, agricultural runoff, and chemical pollution. Human use of

American avocet.

Shorebirds

July 2000 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 17

Family name Species representatives

Haematopodidae Oystercatchers

Recurvirostridae Stilts and avocets

Charadriidae Lapwings and plovers

Scolopacidae Sandpipers, godwits, curlews, 

willet, yellowlegs, phalaropes,

dunlin, red knot, turnstones,

dowitchers, and whimbrel

Jacanidae Jacanas

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute
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shorebird habitats (e.g., hiking, fishing, motor vehicle

use, and walking unleashed dogs) also disturbs nesting shorebirds and can cause them to abandon nest

sites, eggs, or young.

This leaflet provides an introduction to the habitat requirements of shorebirds and is intended to assist landowners and managers in developing comprehensive

shorebird management plans. The success of any management plan depends on targeting the specific needs

of the species in question and analyzing and manging

habitats to maximize its quality. Practical habitat management activities that attract shorebirds and help maintain existing populations are included. This leaflet encourages landowners to engage experienced wildlife

professionals to identify and achieve shorebird management objectives.

Range

The ranges of some shorebird species span entire continents and oceans. Species of plovers, sandpipers,

and phalaropes have breeding ranges throughout the

U.S. and Canada. Winter ranges for many shorebirds

extend from the southern United States to the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America.

Breeding ranges of some oystercatchers, plovers, and

killdeer stretch from southern Canada down to southern Atlantic and Gulf Coast shorelines. Populations

of killdeer, American avocets, marbled godwits, upland sandpipers, snowy plovers, and piping plovers

occupy breeding ranges in grasslands of the Great

Plains. The Great Basin region of North America supports breeding groups of long-billed curlews, mountain plovers, snowy plovers, and black-necked stilts.

Migration

Migration routes are largely determined by food

availability. Superabundant food resources drive

migrating shorebirds to build fat reserves needed to

complete migration routes. For example, the whiterumped sandpiper travels about 13,000 miles to complete one round-trip migration cycle. An enormous

amount of energy is needed to complete such a journey. Shorebirds that follow coastlines to wintering

grounds have relatively stable foraging opportunities.

Predictable tides and seasonal food sources coincide

with migration patterns. These birds usually travel in

large groups and exhibit a jumping migration strategy

(long distance travel over large expanses of water with

few stops). If food sources have been depleted at

stopover sites, then those shorebirds might not survive migration. Transcontinental (inland) migrants typically travel in small numbers and may hop between

stopover sites to reach wintering grounds. This strategy involves flying short distances between stops to

replenish fat reserves. Wetland degradation and landShorebirds

The four major North American flyways are the Atlantic,

Mississippi, Central, and Pacific. There are two major

staging areas in addition to those on the map above:

Washingtonís Grayís Harbor and Utahís Great Salt Lake.

(Helmers 1992).

Snowy plover. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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use conversion have modified many interior stopover

sites, reducing the potential of frequent stops. Unpredictable weather and fluctuating water levels in areas

like the Great Basin and Prairie Pothole Regions can

also negatively affect food supplies.

About two-thirds of all western hemispheric shorebird species leave Arctic breeding grounds in the fall

and move south via North American flyways to wintering grounds. The four main migration routes follow

the Atlantic coast, Pacific coast, Mississippi, and Central flyways. Most shorebirds winter in the temperate

regions of South America and sub-tropical areas of

the U.S. and Mexico, and return to northern breeding

grounds in the spring. Peak migrations occur from

March through May (spring) and from July through

September (fall). On the west coast of North America,

peak migration times occur later than those in the adjacent plains region. There are seven ìsuperî staging

sites for migrating shorebirds in North America, (along

with dozens of other major sites), and each location

provides rich foraging opportunities: Alaskaís Copper

River Delta, Washingtonís Grayís Harbor, Canadaís

Bay of Fundy, Kansasí Cheyenne Bottoms, the Great

Salt Lake of Utah, San Francisco Bay, California, and

beaches of Delaware Bay in New Jersey, Maryland,

and Delaware. For example, 500,000 to 1.5 million

shorebirds arrive on and depart from Delaware Bay

beaches within a three to four-week period in the

spring. This stopover is synchronized with the annual

breeding cycle of horseshoe crabs, which come ashore

to lay eggs on the beach. Birds gorge themselves on

crab eggs to store fat needed to fuel their journey to

northern breeding grounds. Effective shorebird management plans could help protect these and other important habitats for migrating shorebirds.

Conservation of wintering and staging areas for migrating shorebirds is a growing concern. Increasing

harvest of horseshoe crabs by fishermen may threaten

populations of common species like red knots, sanderlings, ruddy turnstones, and semipalmated sandpipers. Loss of Central and South American wintering

sites presents an additioanl challenge for shorebirds.

Shorebirds

Common shorebird food items.

Aquatic insects:

 Water boatmen, backswimmers, water scorpions, giant water bugs, diving beetles, dragonfly nymphs, caddis flies,

mayfly nymphs, pillbugs, and larvae of mosquitos, flies, midges, crane flies, soldier flies, dance flies, snipe flies, horseflies, brine flies, flower flies, and water beetles.

Crustaceans and other aquatic invertebrates

 Crayfish, fiddler crabs, horseshoe crab eggs, shrimp, squid, clams, mussels, oysters, snails, polychaete and oligochaete

marine worms, amphipods, and copepods.

Terrestrial invertebrates

 Grasshoppers, flies, gnats, wasps, crickets, beetles, caterpillars, cutworms, earthworms, bloodworms, spiders, ants,

weevils, mites, and ticks.

Fishes

 Very small herring, smelt, minnows, dace, killifishes, and other small fish.

Reptiles and amphibians

 Skinks, small frogs, tadpoles, and salamander larvae.

Plants (minor part of diet)

 Grasses, sedges, tender shoots, wild berries, roots and tubers of aquatic and marsh plants, pondweeds, wigeon grass,

and seeds of bulrushes and smartweeds.
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Habitat Requirements

Comprehensive shorebird management should focus

on habitat improvements for local migrant species.

Landowners should consider the length of nesting seasons when coordinating shorebird management planning with other land uses. The majority of shorebird

species nest between late April and early July, but

courtship and territory establishment activities usually

start in March. Most chicks fledge by mid-August. It

is beyond the scope of this leaflet to identify detailed

habitat requirements for each individual species, but

broad guidelines for the general habitat needs of most

species are provided.

Food and foraging sites

Interior grasslands, beaches, natural wetlands, and

flooded agricultural fields provide foraging areas for a

wide variety of shorebirds. Most shorebirds forage in

water less than four inches deep, although some forage in upland sites (e.g., curlews, upland sandpiper,

woodcock) and in deeper water by swimming (e.g.,

phalaropes). Most shorebird diets consist of insects,

aquatic invertebrates, mollusks and small fish. Through

ìresource partitioning,î several different species may

forage together in suitable habitats. Each species seeks

its preferred foods by using distinct feeding methods,

which helps prevent direct competition among species for food. Some members of one species may

assist the foraging efforts of another species without

significant costs or benefits. For example, ìbeatersî

stir up prey while ìattendantsî follow and forage in the

disturbed substrate. Coastal shorebirds usually sort

themselves into preferred feeding habitats as the high

tide recedes. Least sandpipers feed on insects in drier

marsh mud while dowitchers probe the substrate in

shallow water for mollusks. Sanderlings search for

crustaceans in wet sands, while greater yellowlegs feed

in deeper water, snatching small fish from the surface.

Waste grain in harvested agricultural fields is a

minor food item (if present, about 5% of the total

diet). However, flooded agricultural fields can be a

rich source of invertebrate foods for wintering shorebirds.

Maintaining viable invertebrate populations is the most

important aspect of shorebird food management, particularly where water levels change frequently. Comprehensive wetland management that enhances invertebrate populations can help compensate for loss of

more natural shorebird feeding sites associated with

loss and degradation of wetland habitats.

Natural nesting cover

Most shorebird species prefer open, sparsely vegetated nesting cover near shallow water. These areas

include lowland arctic tundra, wide sloping beaches,

More than 30 shorebird species take advantage of the

interior wetlands in the great Plains and Prairie Pothole

Regions. The Prairie Pothole Region includes portions

of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Montana, North

Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa. Large

numbers of breeding birds gather in the Prairie Pothole

Region including Wilsonís phalarope, killdeer, marbled

godwits, American avocets, and piping plovers. These

upland areas are typically grassland and agricultural

lands interspersed with shallow depressions filled with

water. Seasonal changes in water levels and severe

weather (droughts or floods) can destroy food and cover.

Prescribed burns, mowing, and grazing should be

excluded during the nesting season. Integrated wetland

management helps maintain the upland and aquatic

habitats required by shorebirds. (Figure courtesy of

Prairie Pothole Joint Venture.)

Shorebirds
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and wetlands edges. Shorelines of inland aquatic habitats also support local breeding populations. Some

shorebirds favor natural nesting substrates, such as

broken bits of shells and pebbles, on sandy beaches.

Preferred vegetation types include morning glory vine,

sea oats, and wrack (dead organic material) washed

up by the tide. Nest sites are selected near feeding

sites and where a source of fresh water for adults and

chicks is available. Shorebird chicks can not metabolize salt for the first few weeks of life, so adult birds

need to nest close to a freshwater source. Later, the

birds can move to more saline wetlands to take advantage of their ample invertebrate food resources.

Shorebird nesting habitats are most productive when

free from human disturbance.

Artificial nesting cover

Spoil islands (composed of mixtures of sand, silt, and

clay) formed by disposal of dredged material are becoming important nesting habitats for shorebirds, as

natural coastal nesting habitats have been lost or degraded in many areas. Shorebirds usually favor nesting on sandy substrates on spoil islands than on finer

textured dredged material. Killdeer have adapted to

nesting sites on gravel covered roof tops, especially in

the southeastern United States. These sites are frequently selected for nesting, even where feeding sites

are as much as two miles away.

Shorebirds

Spotted sandpiper

Plovers

Curlews

Turnstones

Small

Sandpipers

Medium

Sandpipers

Avocets &

Stilts

Yellowlegs

Phalaropes

Godwits

Dry Wet 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

 Upland areas Water depth (cm)

Typical foraging depths of various shorebirds (from Helmers 1992).
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Wintering and migration staging areas

Wintering shorebirds usually gather in large flocks on

estuarine mudflats, inland shorelines, and other open

wetland areas. The spacing of wintering birds depends on location, time of day, and density of food

resources. Some migrating birds feed along the margins of inland lakes and rivers. Spotted sandpipers,

Wilsonís plovers, and wandering tattlers defend individual feeding territories that have well-defined boundaries. Winter territories may be occupied for several

weeks or months. Stilt sandpipers, red knots, and

short-billed dowitchers move in large foraging flocks.

Migrating shorebirds need suitable staging areas to

complete migration. Inland stopover sites for migrating birds are just as important as coastal habitats. Fluctuating water levels in inland wetlands provide mudflat

and shallow water sites used by feeding shorebirds.

Upland areas interspersed with wetlands are also important, making the Prairie Pothole Region a major

stopover area. Most shorebirds favor foraging areas

with less than 25 percent vegetative cover, whether it

is sandy beaches or shortgrass prairies.

The future of many migrating shorebirds depends on

the suitability of wintering and staging sites. Winter

habitats in Central and South America are quickly disappearing because of increased human land development activity. Chemical or oil spills at ìsuperî staging

sites could significantly reduce food resources and

negatively affect migrating shorebird populations. Ensuring adequate quantity and quality of migrating and

winter habitats is important, as most shorebirds spend

nine or ten months of the year in these areas.

Interspersion of habitat types

Shorebird habitat management should emphasize maintaining a variety of wetland types to support the needs

of various species. A mixture of aquatic and upland

habitats maximizes habitat quality for some shorebirds.

Optimal habitat requirements depend on whether the

Habitat component Habitat requirement

Food Aquatic insects and other invertebrates including crustaceans,

and mollusks, terrestrial insects, small fish and amphibians.

Water Adult food contain sufficient water; chicks need fresh water source

during the first few weeks of life.

Nesting habitat Most prefer open, sparsely vegetated sandy habitats along coastal

and inland wateeways and wetlands; arctic lowland tundra. Human

disturbance reduces nesting habitat potential.

Wintering and Wide variety of coastal and inland waterways and wetlands, including

migrating habitats natural and artificially managed wetlands and flooding agricultural

lands.

Habitat interspersion Prefer feeding and nesting sites in close proximity.

Shorebird habitat requirements summary table.

Shorebirds

Long-billed dowitcher. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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species is nesting, feeding, or migrating. Most shorebirds nest or roost in close proximity to foraging habitats.

Minimum habitat area

Most shorebirds do not have a minimum area requirement, but plovers, oystercatchers, and others are

known to defend nesting territories. Migrating flocks

and individual pairs may have well-defined foraging

boundaries for a few weeks or months.

Limiting Factors

For planning purposes, use the table above to subjectively rate the availability and quality of shorebird habitat

within a planning area, based on the above habitat requirement descriptions. Habitat components that are

absent or rated low are probably limiting shorebird

habitat quality.

Shorebird Management

It is important to consider landowner objectives, local

landscape features, and population goals for species

of concern when planning management actions for

shorebirds. In general, there are two strategies for

improving shorebird habitat: 1) protect existing sites

by restricting human activities to limit disturbance when

shorebirds are present, and 2) improve the habitat with

increased food availability (water depth management)

and nesting or roosting areas (vegetation management).

Prohibiting all human disturbance is not always possible, but landowners should attempt to limit human

activity in shorebird nesting areas at least during the

nesting season. Since shorebirds occupy a wide range

of habitats, management plans should focus on supporting both suitable wetland and upland habitats.

Managing coastal habitats

Many preferred coastal habitats on open, sandy

beaches are eroding from natural and man-made

causes. Natural succession of primary dunes into secondary dune and scrub-shrub habitats produces

thicker vegetation not favored by nesting shorebirds.

Human disturbance often hastens natural beach eroding processes and reduces the amount of available nesting habitat. Naturally occurring plants like sea oats

and morning glory vines stabilize dunes and provide

more suitable nesting cover. Shell and gravel debris

can be deposited to help control thick vegetation, creating additional nesting areas for shorebirds. Spoil

islands and eroded shorelines can be enlarged by depositing clean dredge materials.

Managing wetlands for shorebirds

Integrated wetland management, management that

maximizes benefits for wetland wildlife, also supports

shorebirds as well as waterfowl and wading birds.

Natural wetlands should be preserved whenever possible. In more artificial wetland settings, water control

structures are commonly used to regulate water levels

to stimulate the growth of wetland plants whose seeds

and tubers are consumed by waterfowl (ducks and

Shorebirds

Availability/Quality

Habitat component High Medium Low Absent

Food and foraging habitat

Nesting habitat

Winter and roosting habitat 

(May not apply to areas in which 

shorebirds do not winter.)

Interspersion of habitat components

Factors affecting local shorebird habitat quality.
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geese). Shorebirds take advantage of the rich invertebrate populations found in the saturated and flooded

substrates of wetlands managed for moist soil plants.

Seasonal flooding and sequential draw down of moist

soil wetland water levels provide productive shorebird foraging substrates. In the late summer or early

fall, dry areas can be reflooded (four to six inches) for

the fall migration. Flooding in the early fall, before the

first major freeze, also allows invertebrate food resources to survive the winter. Water levels can be

drawn down in the spring by systematically draining

areas that are regulated by flashboard risers or other

water control structures. Landowners can start drawdown of fall-flooded areas at the rate of one inch per

week, just before spring migration starts. Most foraging shorebirds prefer water depths that vary from

one to six inches.

Shallow disking of moist soil areas every two to three

years removes thick, emergent vegetation that is not

favored by shorebirds. Emergent plants grow along

shorelines and extend above the surface of the water.

Disking removes this vegetation and reconditions the

wet soil by incorporating organic plant material, which

attracts invertebrates. Draining and flooding practices

should be planned, with the help of local wildlife professionals, to mimic natural flooding cycles as much as

possible to benefit shorebirds and other wetland wildlife. NRCS personnel can help landowners determine

the best locations for water control structures, as well

as with installation.

Where water level management is not feasible, such

as in natural wetlands and wetlands restored without

water control structures that manipulate water levels,

and where wetlands are restored to function as natural systems, natural hydrologic cycles periodically provide high-quality shorebird habitat.

Managing agricultural lands for shorebirds

Flooded agricultural lands can make productive wintering and migrating shorebird foraging habitats. Where

water control structures and levees provide water

management opportunities on crop fields, water management can greatly improve shorebird habitat. Agricultural fields flooded during winter can be dewatered

at a rate of one inch per week beginning in late February or early March to benefit early migrants. The types

of crops, planting dates, and harvest dates determine

draw down rates and how long fields are flooded.

Insects and other invertebrates found in cultivated and

wild rice fields on the Gulf Coastal Plain, Mississippi

Alluvial Valley, and Californiaís Central Valley provide food rsources for shorebirds and other wildlife.

Human disturbance and effects on shorebirds

Shorebirds

Short-billed dowitchers

Flooded agricultural fields provide productive foraging

sites for migrating and wintering shorebirds due to their

potentially high invertebrate production.
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Studies show human disturbance (e.g., walking, dog

walking, sunbathing, birdwatching, fishing, and driving

on the beach) negatively impacts populations of nesting, migrating, and foraging shorebirds. Disturbed

migrating shorebirds cannot build adequate fat stores

and may be forced to fly underweight. Consequently,

these birds may not survive to reach their next staging

site thousands of miles away. Nesting shorebirds may

abandon eggs or chicks if they are flushed repeatedly.

During high tide, shorebirds and humans compete for

space on thin bands of beach and tips of coastal barrier islands. Permanent or seasonal closure of areas

used by shorebirds may be required to sustain local

nesting populations.

Driving and walking buffer zones limit human use at

high tide. Prohibiting human activity above the average high tide line helps keep shorebirds separated from

human activities. If area closure is not an option, signs

that describe local species should be posted (by authorized persons) in areas of high shorebird concentrations. Leaflets and educational materials about regional shorebird species and habitat conservation

should be made available at public beach access sites.

Management Practices

Management treatments should address the habitat

components that are determined to be limiting shoreShorebirds

Management options for increasing Cons. Practices and

Habitat component habitat quality or availability assistance programs

Protect coastal and freshwater wetlands, 390, 643, 657

Food marshes, lakes, and ponds from siltation WRP, WHIP, EQIP,

and non-point source pollution by fencing off PFW, CRP

livestock. Plant riparian vegetation to stabalize 

banks and shorelines.

Reduce pesticide use, especially near water, 

where applications reduce invertebrates.

Permanent or seasonal closures for areas with 

high shorebird concentrations (nesting, 

wintering, or foraging) to limit human disturbance

establish tidal walking/driving buffer zones (50m).

Promote protection of natural shorebird nesting 327, 390, 643, 657

Nesting and areas: barrier islands, shorelines, wetlands. WHIP

migrating habitats Enhance artificial nesting sites with natural 

substrates or sparse vegetation.

Control thick vegetation in grasslands and 338, 528a, 645

conduct appropriate grassland mgmt. practices. PFW, WRP, WHIP

Reduce herbicide use when application results

in loss of nesting, foraging, or loafing cover.

Limit human disturbance as described for food.

Water Provide freshwater source for chicks. 657 WRP

Interspersion of Maintain mosaic of quality habitat

habitat components through combination of management actions. 

Shorebird management options for increasing habitat quality or availability.
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Shorebirds

Program Land eligibility Type of assistance Contact

Conservation Reserve Highly erodible land, 50% cost-share for est. permanent NRCS or FSA

Program wetland and certain cover and conservation practices, and state or county 

(CRP) other lands with cropping annual rental payments for land enrolled office

history. Stream-side in 10 to 15 year contracts. Additional

areas in pasture land. financial incentives available for some

practices.

Environmental Quality Cropland, range, grazing Up to 75% cost-share for conservation NRCS state or

Incentives Program land and other agricultrual practices in accordance with 10 to 15 county office

(EQIP) land in need of treatment. year contracts. Incentive payments for

certain management practices.

Partners for Fish and Most degraded fish and/ Up to 100% finanical and technical Local office of

Wildlife Program or wildlife habitat. assistance to restored widlife habitat the U.S. Fish

(PFW) under a minimum 10 year cooperative and Wildlife

agreement. Service

Waterways for Private lands. Technical and program development Wildlife Habitat

Wildlife assistance to coalesce habitat efforts of Council

corporations and private landowners to 

meet common wateshed level goals.

Wetlands Reserve Previously degraded 75% cost-share for wetland restoration NRCS state or

Program wetland and adjacent under 10 year contracts and 30 year county office

(WRP) upland buffer, with limited easements, and 100% cost-share on 

amount of natural wetland restoration under permanent easements.

and existing or restorable Payments for purchase of 30 year or 

riparian areas. permanent conservation easements.

Wildlife at Work Corporate lands. Technical assistance on developing Wildlife Habitat

habitat projects into programs that allow Council

companies to involve employees and the

community.

Wildlife Habitat High-priority fish and Up to 75% cost-share for conservation NRCS state or

Incentives Program wildlife habitats. practices under 5 to 10 year contracts. county office

(WHIP)

State fish and wildlife agencies and private groups, such as local Audubon chapters, may have

assistance programs or other useful tools in your area.

Programs that provide technical and financial assistance to develop fish and wildlife habitat on

private lands.

Code Conservation Practice

327 Conservation Cover

647 Early Successional Habitat Development

338 Prescribed Burning

528a Prescribed Grazing

390 Riparian Herbaceous Cover

643 Restoration of Declining Habitats

645 Upland Wildlife Management

657 Wetland Restoration

(Right) NRCS Conservation Practices that

may be useful in undertaking shorebird management actions.
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Shorebirds

bird habitat potential. For planning purposes, select

among the possible action items listed on Page 9 to

raise the quality or availability or each habitat component considered limiting. NRCS Conservation Practices and various programs that may provide financial

or technical assistance to carry out specific management practices are listed on Page 10.

Available Assistance

Landowners interested in making their individual efforts more valuable to the community can work with

the Wildlife Habitat Council and NRCS to involve

school, scout, and community groups, as well as state

and federal fish and wildlife agency personnel, in habitat projects when possible. On-site education programs demonstrating the necessity of shorebird management can greatly increase the value of a shorebird

management project. Corporate landowners should

encourage interested employees to start a habitat management team. Involving federal, state and nonprofit

conservation agencies and organizations in the planning and operation of a shorebird management plan

can greatly improve the projectís success. Assistance

programs available through various sources are listed

for shorebird conservation.

Shorebird Conservation Plans and Programs

Additional information on shorebird conservation is

available on the world wide web and elsewhere.

Websites listed below contain useful links to find information about shorebirds and wetland habitat conservation. The Shorebird Management Manual was

designed to coordinate shorebird and nongame species into wetland management efforts. Nesting ecology, habitat requirements, disturbance factors, and

management issues for shorebirds in fresh water and

coastal wetlands are also included. Other scientific,

habitat management, and educational resources are

found on the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve

Network website at http://www.manomet.org/

WHSRN.htm.

U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan

Increasing recognition of conservation opportunities

has prompted many public and private landholders,

researchers, educators, and policy makers to integrate

wildlife management into land use activities. The U.S.

Shorebird Conservation Plan focuses on managing

shorebird populations while promoting conservation

of biodiversity and habitat of common and abundant

species. The three major goals of the plan are:

1. Develop a standardized, scientifically-sound

system for monitoring and studying shorebird

populations that will provide practical information to researchers and land managers for

shorebird conservation;

2. Identify the principles and practices upon

which local, regional, and national management plans can effectively integrate shorebird

habitat conservation with multiple species

strategies; and

3. Design an integrated strategy for increasing

public awareness and information concerning

wetlands and shorebirds.

North American Waterfowl Management Plan Joint

Ventures and Partners in Flight professionals work

closely with those developing the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan to improve management recommendations for other species in prime shorebird habitat. The

U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan website is http://

www.manomet.org/USSCP.htm.

International Shorebird Survey (ISS)

The Manomet Center for Conservation Science organized the International Shorebird Survey in 1974 to

collect information on shorebirds and wetland use.

This is now the largest single database on shorebird

migration. Results of ISS surveys show populations

of 16 out of 26 shorebirds species in North America

have declined since 1972, some by as much as 80

percent. ISS researchers hope to assist management

initiatives by monitoring strategic staging sites and learn-
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Shorebirds

ing how different species depend on certain wetlands

and flyways. In cooperation with the U.S. Forest

Service, Department of Defense, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and state agencies, ISS monitoring practices have been successful.

Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network

(WHSRN)

Manomet is also the vehicle for the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Composed of

145 private and public organizations responsible for

over 20 million acres of habitat in seven countries, the

primary objective of WHSRN is to study shorebirds

and gain international support to protect and conserve

important habitat sites. Efforts concentrate on protecting wetlands that international migrants depend on

for food and rest, especially in areas where commercial and agricultural land use seems incompatible with

shorebird management. WHSRN works to monitor

threatened shorebird populations, improve management techniques, and educate local communities to

increase awareness of shorebird conservation.

WHSRN provides on-site technical assistance to habitat enhancement projects and conducts regular training workshops for wildlife biologists and land managers throughout North America. Contact: Manomet

Center for Conservation Sciences, P.O. Box 1770,

Manomet, Massachusetts 02345. Tel: (508) 224-

6521 or email: whsrn@manomet.org.

Shorebird Sister Schools Program (SSSP)

The Shorebird Sister Schools Program was established

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Alaska as an

educational and public outreach tool to help students,

schools, and educators track migrations of shorebirds

from their nesting grounds in the Arctic to tropical wintering sites. The interactive, on-line program covers

all major flyways in North America and includes an

email listserve, workshop listings, and K-12 curriculum. Since 1994, SSSP has offered non-governmental organizations, schools and researchers opportunities to work with state and federal wildlife agencies

and protect wetlands while monitoring migrating shorebirds. See www.fws.gov/r7enved/sssp.html.

North American Waterfowl Management Plan

(NAWMP)

The primary objective of the NAWMP focuses on

reducing wetland loss while enhancing existing habitat

for wetland wildlife. Although management of waterfowl populations has been its primary goal, shorebirds

and other wetland-dependent wildlife species are also

targeted in the planís management efforts.

Prairie Pothole Joint Venture (PPJV)

The Prairie Pothole Joint Venture focuses on providing quality wetland habitats to waterfowl and migratory nongame species, including shorebirds. In 1987,

PPJV was developed under NAWMP and includes

portions of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota,

Minnesota, and Iowa. The Prairie Habitat Joint Venture (PHJV) includes the Canadian provinces of the

Prairie Pothole Region: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and

Manitoba. The PPJV hopes to protect 2 million acres

of wetland and associated upland habitats, and restore or enhance up to 5 million additional acres for

waterfowl and nongame migratory bird species.

Conclusion

Effective shorebird management plans include techniques that sustain and improve regional habitats, food

sources, and migration staging sites. Landowners can

provide quality habitat for shorebirds if they incorporate the needs of local shorebird species with habitat

management strategies. Most importantly, landowners and managers must develop (or supplement) a reliable food source free from human disturbance. Staging

sites are important areas for migrating and wintering

shorebirds, so they should be preserved to protect

habitat quality and support a wide variety of foraging

opportunities. Managing coastal and interior wetlands

for shorebirds also benefits waterfowl, wading birds,

and other wetland-associated wildlife.

The key to successful, long-term shorebird management is clear communication between landowners and

natural resource professionals. Economic and social

objectives must be defined before management actions take place. Biologists can supply technical in-
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Shorebirds

formation, and landowners learn about environmental

stewardship and habitat management on their property.

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Wildlife Habitat Management Institute

100 Webster Circle, Suite 3

Madison, Mississippi 39110

(601) 607-3131

In cooperation with partners, the mission of the

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute is to develop

and disseminate scientifically based technical

materials that will assist NRCS field staffs and

others to promote conservation stewardship of fish

and wildlife, and deliver sound habitat management

principles and practices to Americaís land users.

Wildlife Habitat Council

1010 Wayne Avenue, Suite 920

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 588-8994

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council is to

increase the amount of quality wildlife habitat on

corporate, private, and public land. WHC engages

corporations, public agencies, and private, non-profit

organizations on a voluntary basis as one team for the

recovery, development, and preservation of wildlife

habitat worldwide.

www.wildlifehc.org

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color,

national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or familial status. (Not all prohibited bases apply

to all programs.) Person with disabilities who require alternate means for communication of program information (Braille, large print,

audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDAs TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW,

Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Acknowledgments

The primary author of this publication was Holly L. Plauny. Drafts of this publication were reviewed by: Dr.

James M. Corven, Wetlands Conservation Director, Manomet Center for Conservation Science; Dr. Susan

K. Skagen, U.S. Geological Survey, Midcontinent Ecological Science Center; Dr. Susan Haig, U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecological Science Center; and Charlie Rewa, Wildlife Biologist, Wildlife

Habitat Management Institute.

www.ms.nrcs.usda.gov/whmi
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Shorebirds