��������������

������������������������������������������������

���������������

�����������������������������������������������

�����������������������������������������������������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

Grant Aufderhaar

Department of Defense

Ron Birk

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Wanda Ferrell

Department of Energy

John Filson

United States Geological Survey

Gary Foley

Environmental Protection Agency

Mary Gant

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

David Halpern

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Len Hirsch

Smithsonian Institution

John Jones

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Camille Mittelholtz

Department of Transportation

Raymond Motha

Department of Agriculture

Kenneth Peel

Council on Environmental Quality

Dan Reifsnyder

Department of State

Jason Rothenberg / Erin Wuchte

Office of Management and Budget

Tom Spence

National Science Foundation

Frances Weatherford

Tennessee Valley Authority

Ko Barrett

United States Agency for International Development

Carla Sullivan (NOAA)

Executive Secretary, IWGEO

INTERAGENCY WORKING GROUP ON EARTH OBSERVATIONS

OF THE

NSTC COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Ghassem Asrar, Co-Chair

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Cliff Gabriel, Co-Chair

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Greg Withee, Co-Chair

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

i

Table of Contents

Executive Summary . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iii

Introduction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1

Purpose, Vision & Goals . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5

Links to International Activities . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9

A Practical Focus for Earth Observations.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

Linking Observations to Societal Benefits . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..25

Establishment of a U.S. Governance Structure.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..29

Policy, Technical and Fiscal Aspects of Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..33

Architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 41

Integration of Earth Observation Systems .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..43

Next Steps in Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..49

Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..53

Appendices

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations Terms of Reference .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..55

Near-term Opportunities . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..59

Technical Reports.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..69

End Notes.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 147
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

ii
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

iii

A global system of Earth observations would provide us 

with tools to make national and global air quality forecasts, would help us to 

know in advance when droughts would occur and how long they would last, 

and would give us the capability to predict the outbreak of deadly diseases 

by tracking the environmental factors that contribute to their spread. The 

availability of these types of observational data would transform the way we 

relate and react to our environment providing significant societal benefits 

through improved human health and well-being, environmental management, 

and economic growth.

Executive Summary

����������������

��������������������������������������������������������������������

������������������������������������������������������

These and other societal benefits depend on a sustained and integrated Earth 

observing system underpinned by science and technology. Investments by 

the United States and our foreign partners over the last decade have provided 

unprecedented global views of the Earth as a set of complex, interacting 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

iv

processes. Despite these advances, our current system of observations is 

fragmented and incomplete. Now, using a new integrated approach, we must 

improve our Earth observation system so that we realize benefits for our people, 

our economy and our planet.

The National Science and Technology Council’s Interagency Working Group 

on Earth Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step in the 

planning process towards the development and implementation of the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System. In the context of broad, crosscutting 

societal, scientific, and economic imperatives, and the missions and priorities 

of the agencies participating in the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations, the approach for the development of the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System is to focus on specific and achievable societal 

benefits. The task is to integrate the nation’s Earth observation capabilities to 

address those imperatives and realize societal benefits. The planning process 

will identify and integrate new capabilities on the 

horizon. In addition, technology and capability gaps 

must be identified and addressed before societal 

benefits can be fully realized. 

Nine societal benefit areas (see green box) provide 

a starting place for discussion about what can be 

accomplished in several key areas where work is 

underway, and where progress can be realized most 

quickly. In this Strategic Plan, specific examples 

illustrate the link between observations and identified 

benefits.

��� ���������������������������

��� �����������������������������������������������

��� ��������������������������������������

��� �������������������������������������������������

���������������������������������

��� �������������������������������������������

����������������

��� �����������������������������������������������

������������������������������

��� ����������������������������������������

���������

��� �����������������������������������

��� �����������������������������������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

v

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with industry, academia, 

local, state, national, regional and international partners to strengthen 

cooperation in Earth observations. The United States will continue to work 

with the nations of the world to develop and link observation technologies for 

tracking environmental changes in every part of the globe, thus enabling citizens 

and leaders to make more informed decisions affecting their lives, environment, 

and economies.

The Earth is an integrated system. All the processes that influence conditions 

on the Earth, whether ecological, biological, climatological, or geological, 

are linked, and impact one another. Therefore, Earth observing systems are 

strengthened when data collection and analysis are achieved in an integrated 

manner. This Strategic Plan discusses the process for determining which 

observations should be integrated and outlines four areas of integration: Policy 

and Planning Integration, Specific and Issue Focused Integration, Scientific 

Integration and Technical Integration.

This plan recommends the establishment of a standing Earth Observation 

Subcommittee under the auspices of the National Science and Technology 

Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources. This 

Subcommittee will implement the principles and guidelines described 

here. The Subcommittee will be charged with continuing to pull together vastly 

expansive science and technical activities to satisfy the identified societal 

benefits.

This Strategic Plan addresses the policy, technical and fiscal components of an 

integrated Earth observation system. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

vi

The policy component identifies the aspects of Earth observations 

that will be defined as mandates or guidelines at the Federal level. 

Additionally, this policy component addresses data sharing and the 

identification of critical observations, and recognizes the requirement 

for decisions based on sound science and defined need. 

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting 

that this system will build upon existing systems. This component of 

the plan will also identify and document observation gaps and needs 

in the societal benefits areas, and, where possible, note promising 

new capabilities and technology developments that could address 

them. 

The fiscal component points out the need for a process for 

identification of agency budgetary priorities within the framework of 

the Office of Management and Budget’s research and development 

investment criteria, leading to overall prioritization of Earth 

observation activities.

The functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System include data 

collection, data management, data discovery, access, data transport, data 

archive, processing, modeling, and quality control. Because no comprehensive 

and integrated strategy for communicating all the current data exists, enhanced 

data management is highlighted as both an overarching need and a critical 

first near-term action. In addition, using tangible, achievable examples, the 

Strategic Plan points out some near-term opportunities of the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System, and illustrates the observational needs and societal 

benefits associated with improved observations for disaster warning, global land 

cover, and sea level, drought, and air quality monitoring. 

Finally, the plan identifies next steps, recognizing the need for establishing an 

organizational structure and describing the near-, mid- and long-term actions 

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

vii

that are needed to develop the common system architecture required for the 

success of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System. 

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide the nation a unique 

and innovative perspective on the complex, interacting processes that make 

up our planet. This observing system must continue to evolve to meet the 

changing needs of society and to take into account emerging technologies 

and scientific advances. Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System represents an exciting opportunity to make lasting improvements in U.S. 

capacity to deliver specific benefits to our people, our economy and our planet.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

viii
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

1

Introduction

A global system of Earth observations would provide us 

with tools to make national and global air quality forecasts in the same way 

we currently make weather forecasts. Think of the benefits to the millions of 

Americans suffering from asthma.

A global system of Earth observations would help us know in advance when 

droughts would occur and how long they would last. Think of the benefits 

to the millions of farmers who could plan their planting and harvesting with 

increased confidence.

A global system of Earth observations would give us the capability to predict 

the outbreak of deadly diseases by tracking the environmental factors that 

contribute to their spread. Think of the benefits to world health and economies.

Realization of these and other benefits is dependent upon a sustained, 

integrated, and constantly evolving Earth observation system underpinned by 

science and technology. Today we have sophisticated tools to increase the 

efficiency and effectiveness of Earth observations, unparalleled opportunities 

for collecting and synthesizing the vast amount of data they provide, and the 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

2

expanded capability to deliver this data to end users 

for practical applications. 

Over the past decade, the investments made by the 

United States and our international partners have 

provided unprecedented global views of the Earth 

as a set of complex, interacting systems. Despite 

significant advances in our ability to measure and 

understand the Earth, building a comprehensive, 

integrated, and sustained Earth observation system 

remains a major challenge. Future investments must 

not only improve tools and capabilities, but must 

focus on an integrated approach, serving a diverse 

set of users and ultimately realizing a wide range of 

benefits for our people, our economy, and our planet. 

Recent progress in coordinated international planning (box 1), building upon 

decades of scientific and technical successes, provides a unique opportunity 

to plan and implement an integrated, comprehensive and sustained Earth 

observation system.

Building on this progress, the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step towards the 

development and implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System. This Strategic Plan provides a pathway towards the development of 

the integrated system. The scientific and technical foundations for the vision 

and implementation approach have been developed over the past year by 

���������������������������������������

�����������

����������������������������������������������

�����������������������

���������

��������������������������

���������

����������������������������

�����������������������

�����������������������������������������������

�����������������������

���������������������������

����������

�����������������������������

����������

����������������������������������������������������

���������

Box 1: Recent international emphasis on Earth observations 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

3

Box 2: Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

����������������������

�����������������������������������

��������������

���������������������������������������

����������

���������������������

�����������

�����������������������������������

������

������

������������������������������

��������������������

�����������������������������

��������

��������������������������������������

���������������

�������������������������������

�������������������������������

������

��������������������������

����������������������

�������������������

����������������������������

��������������������������������

�������������������������������

��������������

���������������������������

�����������������������

��������������������������

������������������������������

�����������

������������������������������

������������������������������

���������������������

�����������������������

���������������������

����������������������

���������������������

������������������������������

���������������������

�����������������������������

�����������������������������

the agencies of the Interagency Working 

Group on Earth Observations (box 2) 

(terms of reference in Appendix 1). 

This document responds to the 

guidance in the 2003 White House 

Office of Science and Technology 

Policy/Office of Management 

and Budget FY2005 Interagency 

Research and Development Priorities 

memorandum, which charged the 

National Science and Technology 

Council to enhance capabilities to 

assess and predict changes in key 

environmental systems. 

The National Science and Technology 

Council, through its Committee on 

Environment and Natural Resources, established the Interagency Working 

Group on Earth Observations to develop and implement a coordinated, 

multi-year plan for Earth observations. This Strategic Plan builds on existing 

and evolving scientific and technical plans and is intended to improve our 

understanding, monitoring and prediction of changes to the Earth system 

(including atmosphere, land, fresh water, ocean, and ecosystems). We will 

continue to refine the Plan as technology develops and as we achieve its goals. 

To continue and sustain the efforts of the Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations, this plan calls for the establishment of a standing Earth 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

4

Observation Subcommittee (in the National Science and Technology Council 

and under the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources) with 

responsibility to implement the principles and guidelines developed here. The 

Subcommittee will continue to pull together vastly expansive science and 

technical activities to satisfy the diverse societal benefits, leading towards an 

integrated, comprehensive and sustained Earth observation system—the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

5

Purpose, Vision & Goals

A. Purpose

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with local, state, 

national, regional and international partners to strengthen cooperation in Earth 

observations. Building on this work, the U.S. Interagency Working Group on 

Earth Observations prepared this Strategic Plan to provide a management, 

planning, and resource allocation strategy for a U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System. This strategy will provide the United States a framework 

for participating in the international effort to develop a 10-year plan for a Global 

Earth Observation System of Systems. This U.S. integrated system will be 

based on new and existing Earth observation systems and capabilities, and 

will be developed to meet national and international societal, scientific, and 

economic imperatives. 

����������������

��������������������������������������������������������������������

������������������������������������������������������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

6

B. Vision

A comprehensive Earth observation system will benefit people around the 

world by improving our ability to monitor, understand, and predict changes 

to the Earth. The United States will work with other nations to develop and 

link observation technologies for tracking environmental changes in every 

part of the globe, thus enabling citizens and leaders to make more informed 

decisions affecting their lives, environment, and economies. This international 

cooperation, along new developments in monitoring, assessing, and predicting 

environmental changes, will enable development of capabilities to predict 

droughts, prepare for weather emergencies and other natural hazards, plan and 

protect crops, manage coastal areas and fisheries, and monitor air quality, to 

name but a few direct benefits that affect our economic prosperity and quality 

of life. 

C. Goals for U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System

To accomplish the purpose and vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System, the agencies will:

Identify current and evolving requirements in the full range of societal 

benefits.

Recommend priorities for investment, including new requirements, as 

necessary. 

Utilize available and/or develop new technologies, instruments, 

systems, and capabilities to meet the identified requirements and 

priorities.

Streamline and sustain existing Earth observation systems that are 

necessary to achieve societal benefits. 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

7

Establish U.S. policies for Earth observations and data management.

Expand existing governmental partnerships at all levels and 

develop new long-term partnerships with industry, academia, nongovernmental, and international organizations that further the 

realization of these strategic goals.

Develop human and institutional capacity to enable the translation of 

observations into societal benefits.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

8
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

9

Links to International Activities

International cooperation in Earth observations has 

already resulted in benefits greater than could be achieved by individual 

nations acting alone. The international scientific community, working together 

within key international organizations (such as the World Meteorological 

Organization and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission), has 

improved understanding of environmental phenomena. Environmental 

observations and science are international in scope and in the very 

nature of their activity. International cooperation is a prerequisite for their 

success. Recognizing this, ministers from 34 nations and representatives from 

25 international organizations met at the first Earth Observation Summit in July 

2003. This meeting resulted in an international effort to develop a Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems. 

This international effort emphasizes the importance of capacity building, as 

information from Earth observations is critical for developing nations. Building 

capacity is integral to a global implementation strategy, which includes ensuring 

full utilization of the data. Growing world populations with expanding economies 

will require access to Earth observations for a wide range of societal, scientific, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

10

and economic needs. The development of new systems will contribute to the 

gross domestic product of developing (and developed) countries. International 

contributions are also essential for completing the data sets needed to address 

important U.S. national issues.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will promote international 

cooperation and capacity building. It will address the development of human, 

institutional, and infrastructure resources necessary to meet research, 

operational and decision support requirements, and will build on existing 

initiatives and sustainable development principles.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

11

A Practical Focus for Earth 

Observations

Our approach for developing the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System is to focus on specific and achievable societal benefits and 

to link U.S. efforts to international activities. 

Based on discussions about the needs and priorities 

of the agencies participating in the Interagency 

Working Group on Earth Observations, nine societal 

benefit areas (box 3) were chosen as the preliminary 

focus. This list was then vetted and approved by the 

National Science and Technology Council Committee 

on Environment and Natural Resources. This list is 

not meant to be exhaustive or static. It is intended 

to provide a framework for discussion about 

improvements in several key areas where work is 

underway. These benefit areas are described further 

in the next section of this document (and detailed in 

Appendix 3). Box 3: Preliminary set of societal benefit areas

��� ���������������������������

��� �����������������������������������������������

��� ��������������������������������������

��� �������������������������������������������������

���������������������������������

��� �������������������������������������������

����������������

��� �����������������������������������������������

������������������������������

��� ����������������������������������������

���������

��� �����������������������������������

��� �����������������������������������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

12

In the past, individual government agencies sought to implement and optimize 

their observation systems to meet their specific needs and mandates. The U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System transcends individual agency perspectives 

and focuses the activity on broad societal, scientific, and economic imperatives. 

A. Healthy Public—Societal Imperatives

A growing world population, projected to increase by roughly 50% in the next 

50 years before leveling off,1 will place increasing demands on crucial resources 

like food and clean water. Populations and economic activities are shifting from 

rural areas to urban centers, many in low-lying coastal regions or seismically 

active zones. In the United States, more than half of the population lives within 

50 miles of our coasts,2 areas that are particularly vulnerable to storm surges 

and flooding. We rely upon coastal regions for healthy fisheries, and reliable 

transport and navigation. Increased dependence on infrastructure networks 

(roads, power grids, oil and gas pipelines) intensifies the potential vulnerability

of more developed societies to impacts from natural disasters. Improved 

understanding of the complex workings of Earth systems will help us protect 

society and manage our resources and infrastructure in a more efficient and 

effective way. 

B. Healthy Economy—Economic Imperatives

In pure economic terms, studies show that national institutions that provide 

weather, climate, public health, and water services to their citizens contribute an 

estimated $20 - $40 billion dollars each year to their national economies.3 In 

the United States, weather- and climate-sensitive industries, both directly and 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

13

indirectly, account for as much as 1/3 of our nation’s GDP—$2.7 trillion4—

ranging from agriculture, energy, finance, insurance, transportation, and real 

estate, to retail and wholesale trade, and manufacturing. Economists have 

quantified the benefits of improved El Niño forecasts to be an estimated $265-

300 million annually, throughout El Niño, normal and La Niña years. Likewise, 

annual benefits in a small Northwest Coho salmon fishery are estimated at 

$250,000 to $1 million.5 The return on our investments for Earth observations 

has brought great benefits to the general public. However, we can do much 

more.

C. Healthy Planet—Scientific Imperatives

Improved management of resources and forecasting of Earth system changes 

cannot be achieved without a much more comprehensive and detailed 

understanding of the Earth. We are faced with a number of pressing science 

questions, such as:

How are all of Earth’s “life support systems” interrelated? 

How do geophysical phenomena interrelate? 

How do social and economic factors interrelate with Earth system 

changes?

These questions call for an interdisciplinary Earth science approach to provide 

useful answers. We need to know how the parts fit together and function as a 

whole.

The multiple components and processes of the Earth’s atmosphere, ocean 

and land surfaces operate interactively, as a complex, dynamic system. More 

importantly, the multiple “feedback loops” operating among component 

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

14

processes of the hydrosphere, geosphere and biosphere determine the state of 

the Earth system at any given time. In order to take the “pulse of the planet,” 

we must establish a valid end-to-end process that will take us from observations 

to user-related products. Scientific needs for this end-to-end process require 

that we:

integrate observation, data management, and information delivery 

systems,

quantify environmental processes by direct or indirect observations,

improve coupled Earth system models that integrate the best state of 

knowledge,

assimilate the Earth observation data streams into models (eventually 

in real time),

test our Earth system models over varying time and spatial scales 

against observations and the geologic/environmental record,

understand the drivers of climate variability and change, the rates of 

change and the possible precursors to climate variability and change, 

understand and explain the mechanisms underlying observed 

patterns, and

communicate that scientific understanding to all stakeholders.

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

15

Linking Observations to 

Societal Benefits

Connections between societal benefits and Earth 

observations must be clear to both decisions makers and the general public. In 

the following sections, we illustrate the expected linkage between observations 

and societal benefits in nine specific areas.6 In selected cases, we illustrate 

how this linkage is achieved today. 

Figure 1 depicts the linkage and flow of information from observations to 

societal benefits. Although the focus is on achievable specifics, the approach 

Figure 1: Linking Earth Observations to Societal Benefits

�����������

������������

���������������������������������������������������

����

����������������

��������

��������

����������������

����������

���������

��������

���������

�������������������

�������

�������

����������

��������

������������������

�������

���������������

�������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

16

includes using a common system architecture, so that the resulting systems 

are interoperable and the solutions can be easily expanded, extended, and/or 

replicated to address future challenges. 

A. Improve Weather Forecasting7

Weather is an important area and vital to the other societal benefits. Weather 

observing, along with the associated national and international data 

management mechanisms, is probably the most mature observing system 

example in wide use today. The current weather system provides billions of 

dollars in value to the nation in areas such as transportation safety, agricultural 

productivity, and energy management. Enhanced observations would greatly 

facilitate the weather mission in the U.S., as well as supply crosscutting 

information for the user requirements in the other societal benefit areas. For 

example, high-resolution lower-atmosphere global wind measurements from a 

spaceborne optical sensor would dramatically improve a critical input for global 

prediction models, improving long-term weather forecasting.

B. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from 

Disasters8

Natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, wildfires, 

extreme weather, coastal hazards, sea ice and space weather, plus major 

pollution events, impose a large burden on society. In the US, the economic 

cost of disasters averages $20 billion dollars per year.9 Disasters are a major 

cause of loss of life and property. The recent California wildfires and the 

Denali Alaska earthquake underline the importance of preparedness, planning, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

17

and response. Our ability to predict, monitor, and respond to natural and 

technological hazards is a key consideration in reducing the impact of disasters.

Sensors onboard geostationary satellites known as GOES supply observations 

used to detect and monitor forest fires every half-hour for the entire Western 

Hemisphere, including remote areas. This allows early detection of fires 

and indicates whether or not they are intensifying. During the 2001 Viejas 

fire in San Diego, the GOES observation product recognized the fire 15 

minutes after the estimated ignition time. This product is available within 

minutes (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/burn/wfabba.html). To extend 

the fire monitoring coverage beyond the Western Hemisphere, data from 

the Terra and Aqua research satellites and other international polar orbiting 

satellites, are combined with GOES data to create a global fire map. Polar 

orbiting satellite data are currently used to create active fire maps for the 

US (http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us/). Fire incident maps, generated daily 

for use by firefighters on the ground, require higher-resolution (usually 

airborne) infrared imagery, superimposed on topography of the area.

C. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource10

Ocean resources account for a significant portion of the U.S. economy, and 

recent estimates indicate that coastal areas provide 28 million jobs, millions 

of dollars in goods and services, and tourist destinations for over 180 million 

Americans per year. Our ability to observe and manage coastal and marine 

resources will continue to provide these key benefits to society. Managing 

ocean resources require accurate information from an integrated observing 

system to allow for detection and prediction of the causes and consequences 

of changes in marine and coastal ecosystems, watersheds and non-living 

resources. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

18

The draft recommendations of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (2004), 

White Water to Blue Water (see http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2002/15624.

htm) and other reports and studies endorse an ecosystem approach and/

or a watershed approach for observation systems. These systems should 

be able to assess and predict phenomena such as impacts of weather 

events like coastal storms, oil spills, pollution, and other activities such 

as fishing, recreational activities, marine transportation, coastal activities 

and ocean drilling/exploration. Observations are needed for a wide range 

of physical, biological, chemical, geological and atmospheric variables 

within U.S. coastal regions, islands and territories, and open ocean regions. 

Coordination of this information obtained at various time and space scales, 

and from existing and planned networks, along with indicators, models 

and decision support systems can provide great benefits to society.

D. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and 

Adapt to Climate Variability and Change11

The Earth’s climate is a dynamic system undergoing continuous change on 

seasonal, annual, decadal and longer timescales. Scientific evidence suggests 

that a complex interplay of natural and human-related forces may explain such 

climate variability and change. Better preparation for any impacts due to climate 

variability and change requires better understanding of its causes and effects. 

According to the National Academy of Sciences, improved global observation 

is a fundamental need for filling knowledge gaps in climate science. Noting 

that climate models are based on observations and that “the observing 

system available today is a composite of observations that neither provides 

the information nor the continuity in data needed to support measurements of 

climate variables,” the Academy called for creation of a long-term observing 

system able to fill such existing data gaps.12 In addition, a better understanding 

of greenhouse gas accounting and carbon management would greatly facilitate 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

19

decision-making related to sustainable development of terrestrial, oceanic and 

atmospheric resources.

The climate observing system, including the associated data management 

system, and the community of users constitute a climate information system. 

Climate data users include government agencies (federal, state, local), private 

industries (electric utilities and gas industries, tourism, shipping, agriculture, 

fishing, insurance/reinsurance, etc.), universities, recreational organizations, 

and non-governmental organizations. Usage is diverse, including research 

and operational applications, policy making and coordinated planning for 

climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as decision-making by 

businesses, organizations, and individuals. Coordination of acquisition of 

information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing activity of 

federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science Program and 

the Climate Change Technology Program, under the Committee on Environment 

and Natural Resources of the National Science and Technology Council.

E. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, 

and Combat Land Degradation13

Food production is a national priority and it is characterized by fluctuations 

related to climate conditions, land management practices, agricultural 

technologies, market forces and investment. Seasonal and longer-term trends 

of temperature and rainfall patterns are a great influence on agricultural, desert 

and range, and forestry sectors. Success depends on farmers, ranchers, and 

foresters adapting to seasonal or longer-term changes, based on receiving 

timely and accurate information for decisions. Drought and extreme weather 

decrease food production, foster desertification, and harm forests. Improved 

observations, models, and predictions of critical parameters (such as weather, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

20

salinity, erosion and soil loss, fires, pests and invasive species) can help mitigate 

these effects on farms, ranges, and forests. 

F. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors 

on Human Health and Well-Being14

All the components of this integrated Earth observation system contribute 

to improving human health and well-being. Researchers, service providers, 

policy makers, and the public currently use Earth observations to understand 

environmental factors in order to make decisions and take actions. These 

decisions and actions help reduce the impact of disasters, protect and manage 

natural resources, adapt to and mitigate climate variation, support sustainable 

agriculture, forecast weather, protect areas valued for recreational, religious, 

or aesthetic purposes, and help prevent disease/dysfunction influenced 

by environmental exposures or. In the near future, the Earth observations will 

feed into real-time measurements of environmental factors and will further 

enhance the ability to predict changes in these important indicators. 

The ability to predict the disease emergence and intensity has long been a 

dream of public health workers, economic planners and ordinary citizens. For 

those diseases that are influenced by environmental factors, the development 

of predictive models will open the door to the possibility that if one could link 

risk of disease with certain variables, one could eventually apply these models 

to predict occurrence and possibly control or prevent these diseases in human 

populations.

Enhanced Earth observations that lead to better air quality data and the 

ability to predict air pollution episodes would contribute to improvements 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

21

in human health via: reduced incidence of acute attacks and deaths from 

chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma; fewer air pollution-related 

emergency room visits; and fewer days absent from school or work. Air 

pollution affects the environment in many ways that ultimately impact on 

our health and well-being: by reducing visibility, damaging crops, forests, 

and buildings; acidifying lakes and streams; and stimulating the growth of 

algae in estuaries. Rapid development and urbanization around the globe 

has created air pollution that threatens people everywhere, as air pollution 

can travel great distances across oceans and national boundaries.

G. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological 

Forecasts15

The primary goal of ecological forecasting is to predict the effects of biological, 

chemical, physical, and human induced pressures on ecosystems and 

their components at a range of scales and over time, given a certain set of 

assumptions. Examples of such pressures include extreme natural events, 

climate variability and change, land and resource use, pollution, invasive 

species, and human/wildlife diseases. Earth observations and relevant modeling 

tools help identify key cause-effect relationships. Once certain causeeffect relationships are established, the goal then is to use Earth observation 

information to develop management strategies and options to reverse declining 

trends, reduce risks, and to protect important ecological resources and 

associated processes. Such an approach provides critical support to longterm economic growth and sustainable development. The use of ecological 

indicators and forecasting will move us toward sustainable management of 

goods and services.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

22

Ecological forecasting requires the acquisition of a wide range of environmental 

data, as well as development of models. Lifemapper (www.lifemapper.

org) is an Internet and leading-edge information technology model that 

retrieves plant and animal records from the world’s natural history museums. 

Lifemapper analyzes the data, computes the ecological profile of each species, 

maps where the species has been found and predicts where each species 

could potentially live. Lifemapper has been used to model and simulate the 

spread of emerging diseases, plant and animal pests, or invasive species 

of plants and animals and their effects on natural resources, agricultural 

crops and human populations. Environmental scientists have modeled and 

predicted the effects of local, regional and global climate change on Earth’s 

species of plants and animals. Land planners and policy-makers have used 

Lifemapper to identify the highest priority areas for biodiversity conservation. 

H. Protect and Monitor Water Resources16

The availability and quality of freshwater for humans are critical factors 

influencing the health and livelihood of people across the nation. Over one 

billion people in the world are currently without safe drinking water. Continued 

growth in human populations and water use, continued degradation of water 

supplies by contamination, and greater recognition of the needs for freshwater 

in order to support critical ecosystem functions could contribute to increasing 

scarcity and conflict over water supplies. By providing more complete and 

detailed water information and forecasts, people and decision-makers could 

make better decisions on water supplies and activities that affect humans, 

plants and animals.

The Great Lakes hold one-fifth of the Earth’s freshwater and are one of the 

Nation’s most important aquatic resources from an economic, geographic, 

international, ecological, and societal perspective. The Great Lakes continually 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

23

face extremes in natural phenomena such as storms, erosion, high waves, 

high and low water levels, and climate variability, all of which influence 

water quality and efforts to restore habitat. Population growth in the 

region will continue to increase stressors on the Great Lakes, adding to the 

complexity of management issues. Enhanced and increased observations 

and systems coupled with indicators, models and decision support tools 

such as the Great Lakes Observation System (http://www.glc.org/glos/pdf/

glosbrochure-web.pdf) will foster restoration activities including wetlands 

banking, rehabilitation of Brownfields sites, restoration of coastal wetlands 

and other habitats, establishment of protected areas, use of dredged 

material to enhance fish and wildlife habitat, improvement of water quality, 

fisheries management, and prevention and control of invasive species. 

I. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources17

Energy management and monitoring are compelling needs throughout the 

world. Energy availability, use, and cost vary regionally. Focused efforts with 

improved Earth observations can help to optimize decision-making, and help 

provide needed energy supply, while protecting the environment and human 

health. For example, it has been estimated that improving weather forecast 

accuracy is critical for timely, safe, and cost effective transport of energy 

resources, as described in the newspaper excerpt below.18

“The annual cost of electricity could decrease by at least $1 billion if the 

accuracy of weather forecasts improved 1 degree Fahrenheit ... [The 

Tennessee Valley Authority] generates 4.8% of the USA’s electricity. Forecasts 

over its 80,000 square miles have been wrong by an average of 2.35 degrees 

the last 2 years, fairly typical of forecasts nationwide. Improving that to 

within 1.35 degrees would save TVA as much as $100,000 a day, perhaps 

more. Why? On Monday at 5:30 a.m., TVA’s forecast for today called for an 

average four-city high of 93 degrees in Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville and 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

24

Chattanooga, rising from 71 degrees at 6 a.m. TVA has scheduled today’s 

power generation based on this forecast and will bring on line a combination 

of hydro, nuclear, coal, wind, natural gas and oil plants as temperatures 

rise. It will buy wholesale electricity if that costs less than generating its 

own power. Gas plants are more expensive to operate than nuclear or coal, 

so TVA will fire up its ‘peakers’ only when it expects demand to be very high. 

If the average temperature comes in 1 degree hotter, rising to 94, TVA’s 

customers will demand 450 more megawatts. There would be no time to 

fire up an idle gas plant, and the cost of last-minute wholesale electricity 

could skyrocket. ‘There are times when electricity is $80 (per megawatt 

hour) a day ahead and $800 to $8,000 24 hours later,’ says Robert Abboud 

of RGA Labs, which helps utilities with complex decisions. On the other 

hand, if the four-city temperature comes in a degree cooler than forecast, 

TVA may have fired up a plant unnecessarily, or bought electricity a day in 

advance that will go wasted. Temperature is most important, but utilities 

can also benefit from accurate forecasts of cloud cover and humidity...”
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

25

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System

The development of an integrated, comprehensive and 

sustained Earth observation system is a challenge that requires a structured 

plan for development. Figure 2 illustrates the U.S. approach to implementation, 

which begins with the clear definition of the vision (see page 16). After 

considering the missions and priorities of the participating agencies, the 

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations identified nine societal 

benefit areas. Given the vision and the societal benefits that the system will 

address, the next steps include definition of the functional and performance 

requirements (box 4) necessary to guide the development of the integrated 

system architecture. The final step identifies the existing and planned 

systems to be implemented in the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System 

architecture.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

26

Interface with the user community and the decision 

support systems they use (requirements specification)

Collect Earth observations (remote and in situ)

Manage data (includes data archiving, access, 

processing, communications and delivery)

Sustain capacity (includes research, training, and 

development)

Deliver information (tailored to the needs of the user 

community)

»

»

»

»

»

Box 4: Functional requirements.

In following this approach for implementation it is important to have a clear 

understanding of the scope of the U.S. effort for developing an Integrated Earth 

Observation System. The following bullets describe the partnerships that will be 

critical for the success of the U.S. effort. 

Figure 2: Approach to Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

�������

������������

������������

�����������������

������

��������������
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

27

The U.S. effort will be multi-disciplinary. It will take into consideration 

the interaction among multiple science disciplines, including physical, 

life and social sciences. 

The U.S. effort will be interagency. It will build upon existing systems 

and strategies to develop a framework for identifying gaps and 

priorities. 

The U.S. effort will link across all levels of government. The 

stakeholder capacity to use assessment and decision support tools 

for decision-making will be supported through education, training, 

research, and outreach. Building domestic user capacity is a key 

consideration.

The U.S. effort will be international. Environmental observations and 

science are international in scope and international cooperation is 

imperative both to the U.S. and global plans. 

The U.S. effort will encourage broad participation. Many entities 

(public, private, and international) acquire and use Earth 

observations. The scope of the integrated Earth observation system 

will encompass the needs of these entities including the commercial 

Earth observation data providers, value-added intermediaries, and 

commercial users.

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

28
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

29

Establishment of a 

U.S. Governance Structure

The joint OSTP/OMB guidance memorandum

dated June 6, 2003, gave the National Science and Technology Council, 

through its respective agencies, the charge to “develop and implement a 

coordinated, multi-year plan to enhance data time series, minimize data 

gaps, and maximize the quality, integrity, and utility of the data for shortterm and long-term applications.” To this end, a standing Earth Observation 

Subcommittee of the Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural 

Resources will be established. The Subcommittee will develop efficient and 

streamlined operations for the US integrated Observation System and will 

further the work accomplished by the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations in leading and coordinating the implementation of this multi-year 

U.S. plan on Earth observations. This subcommittee will have responsibility 

for periodic assessment of the multi-year U.S. plan, as well as annual reports 

to the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources on progress and 

recommendations. 

Consistent with the President’s Management Agenda, Federal research and 

development investments for an integrated and sustained system of Earth 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

30

observations will be managed as a portfolio of interconnected interagency 

activities, taking into account the quality, relevance and performance of each 

project. Working with the external stakeholder community (consistent with the 

Federal Advisory Committee Act), this strategy will address not only planning, 

management and prospective assessment, but will also seek retrospective 

assessment of whether investments have been well directed, efficient and 

productive.

The agencies, through the Earth Observation Subcommittee, will recommend 

priorities for investment for near-term, mid-term and long-term activities, 

recognizing that we may develop new requirements in addition to those already 

identified as critical for the societal benefit areas, and allowing for maximum 

flexibility as the system develops and coordination needs change. In addition, 

the Subcommittee will, over time, assemble its own benchmarks and metrics 

as self-assessment tools to effectively quantify the plan’s relevance, quality and 

performance across societal benefits areas. The broad overlap of the societal 

benefits and the various agencies’ missions is illustrated in Table 1, depicting 

agencies as users, providers, or both user and provider of relevant Earth 

observations.

The Subcommittee will continue to formulate U.S. positions and inputs into 

the Global Earth Observation System of Systems, taking into account the full 

range of U.S. policies and interests, and the requirements of the widest range 

of decision-makers, researchers, service-providers, the public, and other 

stakeholders worldwide.

It is clear from the data presented in Table 1 that a coordinated interagency 

approach to the Integrated Earth Observation System is imperative. The 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

31

participating agencies have distributed responsibilities and requirements across 

the nine societal benefit areas. A sustained interagency effort will ensure that 

effectiveness and efficiency in achieving these benefits is maximized.

U.S. Agencies Related To Societal Benefit Areas

U.S. AGENCIES

TABLE KEY

DOC/NISTDOC/NOAADODDOEDHHS/NIEHSDHS/FEMADOI/USGSDOSDOTEPANASANSFTennessee Valley A. SmithsonianUSAIDUSDA

P = primarily provides data

U = primarily uses data

B = uses/provides data

Societal Benefit 

Areas

Weather B B U U U U B U B U U U B B

Disasters P U U U U B U U U P B U U U U

Oceans B B B U U B U P B U U

Climate B U B U U B U U U B B U B U

Agriculture P U U U P U P P B U B P

Human Health P P B U B P B U B

Ecology B B U B B B P B B B B

Water B B U U B B U B P B U B U

Energy P B U U B P U B P U B U U

Table 1: U.S. Agencies as primarily provider, primarily user, or both provider and user of Earth 

observation data associated with the identified societal benefit areas.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

32
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

33

Policy, Technical and Fiscal Aspects 

of Implementation

Policy Aspects of Implementation

The strategy for implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System 

has three components: policy, technical and fiscal. The policy component 

identifies the aspects of Earth observations that will be defined as mandates or 

guidelines at the Federal level. Additionally, this policy component addresses 

data sharing and the identification of critical observations, and recognizes the 

requirement for decisions based on sound science and defined need. The best 

way to generate knowledge is through science. The critical observations are 

the observations essential for sound science and decision-making, and are best 

determined through stakeholder involvement. 

A. Data Sharing

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide full and open 

access to all data in accordance with OMB Circular A-130. All data (subject to 

applicable national security controls and proprietary rights), shall be available 

for the operational, research, commercial, and academic communities with 

minimum time delay and at minimal cost.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

34

B. Critical Observations

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will focus on collecting 

critical observations - elements considered of sufficient importance to 

mandate their collection based on their societal, economic, and scientific 

imperatives. Obtaining the appropriate metadata (data about the data, such 

as its quality and how it was acquired) will be an additional focus, enabling the 

effective use of all data collected. Table 2 illustrates the societal benefit areas 

and describes the relative importance of a selected set of specific observations.

Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations

Societal Benefit Areas

TABLE KEY

WeatherDisastersOceansClimateAgricultureHuman HealthEcologyWaterEnergy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth Observations

Note: This list of observations is not meant to be 

comprehensive

Land Elevation/Topography M H H M H M H H L

Land Use/Land Cover 

(Crops, Forests, Urban, etc.) M M L M H H H M M

Ecosystem Parameters 

(Health, Diversity, etc.) L L H H H H H M L

Fire 

(Detection, Extent, Severity) L H L M H H H M L

Soil Moisture M M L H H H M H L

Ice and Snow 

(Cover and Volume) M M M H M M M H M

Land and Sea Surface Temperature H H H H H H H M H

River Runoff 

(Volume, Sediment, etc.) L H H H H H H H H

Water Quality 

(Contamination, Spills, etc.) L H H M H H H H L
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

35

Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations

Societal Benefit Areas

TABLE KEY

WeatherDisastersOceansClimateAgricultureHuman HealthEcologyWaterEnergy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth Observations

Note: This list of observations is not meant to be 

comprehensive

Sea Surface Height/Topography L M H H L M H L L

Ocean Current and Circulation M L H H L L H L L

Ocean Salinity L L H H L L H L L

Ocean Color 

(Chlorophyll, etc.) L L H M L H H L L

Atmospheric Constituents 

(Ozone, Greenhouse Gases, Black Carbon, 

Volcanic Ash and other Aerosols, etc.)

L H M H L H L H H

Atmospheric Profiles 

(Temperature, Pressure, Water Vapor) H H L H L M L L L

Wind Speed & Direction 

(Surface, Tropospheric, Stratospheric) H H H H M H M L L

Cloud Cover 

(Properties, Type, Height) H M M H M L L L L

Total and Clear Sky Radiative Flux H L M H H H M M H

Solar Irradiance L L L H L H M L L

Space Weather L H L L L M L L H

Deformation/subsidence/ground 

failure L H M L L L L M L

Earthquake and volcanic activity, 

Gravity, Magnetic field variations L H L M L L L L L

Geology (bedrock and surficial) and soils L H L L M L M H M

Species 

(Occurrences, density, etc.) L M H H H H H M L

Table 2: Relative importance of an illustrative list of Earth observations to the identified societal 

benefit areas.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

36

Technical Aspects of Implementation

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting 

that this system will be built upon existing and planned systems and will 

identify and document observation gaps and needs in the societal benefits 

areas. Currently, most of the data and information related to Earth observations 

are encompassed within the U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure, and 

integration of Earth observations will be implemented within that legal, policy, 

and institutional framework. The technical implementation component will 

establish the standards, protocols, and metadata for observation systems. The 

strategy will also recommend the optimum operating environment and support 

developing the associated human and institutional capacity. 

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System builds upon current cooperation 

efforts among existing observing systems (including but not limited to the 

physical integration of observing systems on the same platform or at the same 

ground site, and by sharing space platforms and observing towers on the 

ground for various observations), processing systems, and networks, while 

encouraging and accommodating new components. Across the processing 

cycle from data collection to information production, participating systems 

maintain their mandates, their national, regional and/or intergovernmental 

responsibilities, including scientific activities, technical operations and 

ownership. 

For required new components, the Earth Observation Subcommittee will 

recommend appropriate stewardship roles. The U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System participants will coordinate with commercial, academic, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

37

and other non-government organizations consistent with the Federal Advisory 

Committee Act.

A. Interoperability/Protocols/Standards

Standards (including metadata standards) and protocols will be followed 

for the successful implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System. These standards and protocols will address data and metadata access, 

interoperability, processing, dissemination, and archiving. 

Interoperability will focus primarily on interfaces, defining how system 

components interface with each other and thereby minimizing any impact 

on affected systems other than interfaces to the shared architecture. Since 

interoperability agreements must be broad and sustainable, fewer agreements 

accommodating many systems are preferred over many agreements 

accommodating fewer systems.

To the maximum extent possible, interoperability agreements will be based on 

non-proprietary standards. Tailoring of standards (profiles) will be specified 

when standards are not sufficiently specific. Rather than defining new 

specifications, system implementers will adopt standard specifications agreed 

upon voluntarily and by consensus, with preference to formal international 

standards such as those of the International Organization for Standardizations 

(ISO). 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

38

B. Information Assurance and Security

Services providing access to Earth observations data and products often 

include significant requirements for assuring various aspects of security and 

authentication. These range from authentication of user identity for data with 

restricted access, to notification of copyright restrictions for data not in the 

public domain, and to mechanisms for assurance that data are uncorrupted. 

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will promote convergence on 

common standards for these various aspects. 

C. Hardware/Software

Software capabilities will be required to support the functions described 

elsewhere in this document; that is, data and metadata management, data 

access, data transport, archive management, processing/modeling, quality 

control, and geospatial information systems, among others. These crosscutting 

functions are in addition to any software functions required to process 

observations.

New hardware capabilities will only be required to the extent that they fill a need 

for a dedicated function that is not currently provided or anticipated. From 

the overall system perspective, it is anticipated that several types of new or 

refocused data and information “centers” are possible, as follows:

Archive centers to acquire, preserve, and provide long-term access to 

Earth observation data.

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

39

Regional data centers to acquire and provide access to Earth 

observation data collected in specific geographic regions. These 

centers often collect a variety of physical, biological, and chemical 

ocean data that are used to support scientific, public, and commercial 

interests in the region. 

Data assembly centers to obtain Earth observation data and provide 

access to it. They typically specialize in certain types of data, and 

often provide quality control and data products in their area of 

expertise.

Modeling centers to procure and synthesize observational data to 

produce products such as analyses, predictions, or hindcasts that may 

span a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. 

High-performance computing centers to process anticipated highvolumes of data from next generation Earth observing systems. 

D. Infrastructure/Bandwidth

The successful operation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will 

rely directly on the provision of a communications infrastructure sufficient to 

carry observations at sizes and rates ranging from point observations of a few 

hundred bytes to thousands of gigabytes. As a part of the inventory process 

that was begun by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations, a 

comprehensive sizing/timing study will be conducted to develop a multi-year 

communications plan. The communications plan will include milestones for 

rollouts of capability, including the infusion of next generation technology.

E. Human and Institutional Capacity

Support for developing human and institutional capacity is critical. The 

identification of user requirements and capacity gaps for the U.S. Integrated 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

40

Earth Observation System should occur early in the implementation of the 

plan. Capacity building efforts should build on existing local, regional, national 

and international initiatives. Priorities include education, training, research and 

outreach.

Fiscal Aspects of Implementation 

The fiscal component points out the need for a process for identification of 

agency budgetary priorities within the framework of the Office of Management 

and Budget’s research and development investment criteria, leading to overall 

prioritization of Earth observation activities. Additionally, this national strategy 

will address interaction with partners at all levels (interagency, state and local, 

intergovernmental, and private sector).

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System requires 

specific prioritization of resources to ensure critical observation systems are 

developed or sustained. Prioritization of near-term Earth observation activities 

will be included in annual submissions to the Office of Management and 

Budget and the Office of Science and Technology Policy. This Strategic Plan 

establishes a process for the identification of agency budgetary priorities 

within the framework of Office of Management and Budget’s research and 

development investment criteria (quality, relevance, and performance). 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

41

Architecture for the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System

The necessary functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System include data collection, data management, data discovery, 

access, data transport, data archive, processing, modeling, quality control, and 

others. The development of the integrated system will be based on the following 

key architectural principles: 

Supports a broad range of implementation options (driven by user 

needs), and incorporates new technology and methods;

Addresses planned, research, and operational observation systems 

required for participants to make products, forecasts and related 

decisions;

Includes observing, processing, and disseminating capabilities 

interfaced through interoperability specifications agreed and adhered 

to among all participants;

Records and stores observations and products in clearly defined 

formats, with metadata and quality indications to enable search and 

retrieval, and archived as accessible data sets; and 

Provides a framework for securing and sustaining the future continuity 

of observations and the instigation of new observations.

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

42

Builds on existing systems and historical data, as well as existing 

assessments of observational needs in the specified societal benefit 

areas. 

The Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework19 is a conceptual model that 

defines a documented and coordinated structure for crosscutting businesses 

and design developments in the government. The Earth Observation 

Subcommittee will develop the architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System in accordance with the Federal Enterprise Architecture 

Framework.

The integrated system architecture description will be a “living” document, 

continuously revised under the direction of the governance process established, 

to account for new and evolving requirements and capabilities to meet those 

requirements. 

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

43

Integration of 

Earth Observation Systems

The Earth is an integrated system. Therefore, 

all the processes that influence conditions on the Earth are linked, 

and impact one another. A subtle change in one process can 

produce an important effect in another. A full understanding 

of these processes and the linkages between them requires an 

integrated approach, including observing systems and their data 

streams. Figure 3 provides a visual overview of the integration 

process.

Integration is necessary and appropriate for those systems where 

the parts are well understood and the benefits outweigh the added 

scientific and/or financial costs. 

The process of integration begins with these key questions:

Which observing systems functions are related to the identified 

societal benefits (a question that requires understanding user 

needs)? 

What level of integration is desired and cost-effective?

Which observing systems functions will be integrated? 

»

»

»

�����������������

��������������

���������������

�����������

�������������������

�������������

����������������������

��������������

����������

���������������

���������

Figure 3: Overview of the 

Integration Process
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

44

Which observations need to be integrated?

What tools and methods will be used to accomplish the integration of 

the observing systems functions?

What plans need to be developed and implemented?

This plan starts to answer these questions by viewing integration from four 

perspectives:

policy and planning integration,

issue and problem focused integration, 

scientific integration, and

technical systems integration.

A. Policy and Planning Integration 

Policy and planning integration addresses the identification of and focus on 

specific societal benefit areas. In the past, Earth observing systems (research 

and operational) have been typically deployed for one purpose, and then 

adapted for other applications. In some cases, this approach has worked well, 

where observing systems were flexible to accommodate new users. In others, 

the original system design and life cycle planning have not matched well with 

secondary or unforeseen user applications, either in terms of the technical 

and scientific specifications or the availability of operational capabilities and 

capacities. The framework developed in this plan helps to lay the foundation for 

an integrated approach to policy development for Earth observations systems 

that will maximize these synergies. 

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

45

B. Issue and Problem-focused Integration 

Issue and problem-focused integration addresses how the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System addresses a particular issue. In order to get 

from observations to societal benefits, several links in a chain need to be 

forged. These links include data analysis, research, process modeling, 

and finally development of decision support tools. The development of a 

decision support tool for application requires the integration of several chains 

of investigation of various topics. Effective communication is a crucial link 

between operations, science and society. The results of Earth observations 

need to be described in common, consistent, and understandable terms that 

are useful for decisions at all levels.

Drought, for instance, impacts virtually all of the nine societal benefit areas. The 

assessment and analysis of drought depends on measurements across many 

time and space scales, as shown in Table 3. Integration involves common 

observing, data, and analysis. The Weekly Drought monitoring reports 

distributed to the public, with contributions from various agencies, show how 

this Earth observation information is integrated across all societal benefit 

areas. On monthly time-scales a subset of the Table 3 data and information 

from three countries (Canada, Mexico, and the United States) are integrate

d. International integration is still in an experimental stage and considerable 

data and information have yet to be incorporated into comprehensive drought 

assessments. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

46

Societal Benefit Areas Important Observations Time-scales of Interest

Agriculture Soil moisture Weekly

Energy Reservoir and lake water levels Monthly

Water resources Ground water and lake levels/water quality Seasonal to decadal

Weather Circulation, water vapor Daily to weekly

Climate Boundary conditions Weekly to decadal

Ocean resources River flow Monthly

Human health Water availability/quality Daily to seasonal

Ecology Water availability/quality Weekly to decadal

Disasters Vegetation and wildfires Daily to decadal

Table 3: Examples of How Drought Integrates Across Societal Benefit Areas

C. Scientific Integration

Scientific integration addresses those parts of an unresolved problem that 

require information across the societal benefit areas or across scientific 

sub-disciplines within each of the areas. An important element of scientific 

integration includes modeling of Earth processes. 

Our understanding of Earth processes begins with scientific research. It 

is important that research continue to refine existing models and develop 

new paradigms. These models can be useful tools in defining scientific 

integration priorities. In some cases, research evolves in a straightforward 

manner to operational applications used in regularly scheduled forecasts and 

projections. However, when different models for the same process give differing 

answers, we know we have more work to do. A broader set of observations, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

47

targeted experiments, or better knowledge of underlying mechanisms may be 

required to aid our understanding. 

Scientific integration can be illustrated by using the example of sea level 

change. While measuring sea level change only requires observations, 

understanding why sea level is changing requires scientific integration of data 

from various sources. Measurements of global sea level data are needed from 

tide gauges and satellite altimetry. Additional data concerning the causes of sea 

level change include information related to the thermal expansion or contraction 

of the sea, which can be acquired through a variety of platforms and 

instruments (such as ships, satellites, buoys, expendable bathythermographs, 

acoustic tomography, etc.) and information related to land-ice accretion or 

ablation (acquired through satellites and in situ measurements). Data on rates 

of change of stored water on land are also important. To aid our understanding, 

all of these data and information can be integrated into land-ice models, ocean 

models, land-runoff models and ultimately into even broader integrated sea 

level models. Ongoing comparisons of model predictions with observations help 

improve and validate these models.

D. Technical Systems Integration

Technical systems integration addresses the coordination of observing system 

technology and data management systems that enable research and operational 

applications. Across many of the societal areas, there are common challenges 

that would benefit from an investment in integrated solutions. Salient among 

these are the following (with associated examples): 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

48

Information technology integration: control of the data flow 

(communications), processing (analysis) and standards and 

protocols. This includes the data protocol integration necessary for 

distribution of data to a variety of user applications, such as open 

data formats for processing data.

Observation platform and observation site integration: the 

infrastructure and the underpinning of observing systems. This 

platform and site integration could include: the physical integration 

of observing systems on the same platform or at the same ground 

site, such as sharing space and suborbital platforms and observing 

towers on the ground for various observations; and maintaining and 

upgrading major in situ networks in an orderly way. 

Multifunctional integration: using observing platforms not only for 

Earth observations but also for communication. For example, the 

Climate Reference Network in the U.S. uses the GOES satellite to 

transmit real-time benchmark climate observations for a variety of 

applications including weather and climate. 

Scientific and operational integration: the assurance of the continuity 

of the observations. Adequate mechanisms need to be developed to 

assure the effective transition of observation systems from research 

to operational status. 

Integration considerations must also address observing system 

evolution. Observing system upgrades, new systems, system replacements, 

etc. all need to be considered in the context of a structured system integration 

approach. The significance and role assigned to models and other decision 

support tools in the integration process must also be considered. In some 

cases observing system experiments can be conducted to provide an 

objective, quantitative assessment of “how much something helps and 

contributes.” However, objective analysis is not possible in every case, and a 

well-disciplined subjective evaluation may be necessary.

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

49

Next Steps in Implementation

Both the establishment of an appropriate organizational 

structure and the development of a common system architecture are critical 

to the successful implementation of this Strategic Plan. The steps required to 

accomplish both are described below.

A. Establishing the U.S. Integrated Earth 

Observation System Organizational Structure

Three organizational steps must be accomplished: 

Establish formally the Earth Observation Subcommittee (the successor 

organization to the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations, 

whose charter terminates on November 30, 2004). 

Commit necessary agency resources to accomplish the governance 

functions. 

Implement the approved governance functions of the Earth 

Observation Subcommittee. The following is an initial list of 

governance functions that will be finalized in the Terms of Reference 

for the Subcommittee.

Establish a process for interaction with external stakeholders, 

consistent with the Federal Advisory Committee Act. 

»

»

»

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

50

Identify and vet requirements, both within the government and 

with external stakeholders, including continued review and 

assessment of existing and emerging societal benefit areas, 

architecture/ data utilization, and capacity building/ international 

cooperation. 

Establish a process for prioritization of observation system 

investments. 

Submit an annual report to the National Science and Technology 

Council that includes near-term priorities for the upcoming 

budget year at the end of each calendar year. Current near-term 

opportunities are described in Appendix 2.

Submit to the National Science and Technology Council the midand long-term activities before April of each year. 

Establish assessment mechanisms and metrics to validate 

quality, relevance, and performance.

Assess current and potential new societal benefit areas. 

Refine and clarify the roles and opportunities for commercial 

observation networks and for international systems in achieving 

the vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System. 

B. Developing a Common System Architecture

A common system architecture is a necessary key enabler for the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System. The following are near-, mid-, and longterm architectural steps towards the vision for the system. 

The near-term architectural steps are:

Establish multi-year process to develop and sustain the Federal 

Enterprise Architecture Framework for the U.S. Integrated Observation

Complete an inventory of the systems included in the U.S. Integrated 

Earth Observation System

›

›

›

›

›

›

›

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

51

Further refine the initial mid- and long-term architectural steps.

The initial list of mid- and long-term architectural steps includes:

Identify candidate system solutions, consistent with the architecture 

framework, to deliver Earth observation information in support of the 

selected societal benefit areas

Update and maintain inventory of systems

Continue cooperation with the international Earth observation 

community and the Global Earth Observation System of Systems

The Earth Observation Subcommittee will regularly review and assess the 

implications of scientific and technological advances, particularly innovations 

that change the structure and approach to the architecture. 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

52
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

53

Conclusion

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will 

provide the nation with a unique and innovative perspective on the complex, 

interacting systems that make up our planet. This strategic plan defines the 

purpose and vision. It outlines a practical approach with a societal benefits 

focus, identifying key issues in integration and governance. This plan highlights 

specific opportunities ripe for near-term action by the participating agencies, 

and identifies the next steps in implementing the governance and system 

architecture. 

Like the Earth, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will continue 

to evolve. An evolving system, taking into account emerging technologies 

and scientific advances, is necessary to meet the changing needs of 

society. Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System represents 

an exciting opportunity to make lasting improvements in U.S. capacity to deliver 

specific benefits to our people, our economy and our planet.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

54

Appendices
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

55

Appendix 1: 

Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations Terms of Reference

NSTC

Committee on Environment & Natural Resources (CENR)

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations (IWGEO)

TERMS of REFERENCE

I. Purpose

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations (IWGEO) is hereby 

established by action of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 

(CENR) of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). The IWGEO 

operates under the guidelines established by NSTC for a working group. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

56

II. Goals

The two goals of the working group are, inter alia, (1) to develop and begin 

implementation of the U.S. framework and ten-year plan for an integrated, 

comprehensive Earth observation system to answer environmental and societal 

needs, including a U.S. assessment of current observational capabilities, 

evaluation of requirements to sustain and evolve these capabilities considering 

both remote and in situ instruments, assessment of how to integrate current 

observational capabilities across scales, and evaluation and addressing of data 

gaps; and (2) to formulate the U.S. position and input to the international ad 

hoc Group on Earth Observations (GEO) as formed at the Earth Observation 

Summit on July 31, 2003. 

III. Functions

For Goal 1, the IWGEO will (i) examine different methodologies to develop a 

framework or architecture of a coordinated, comprehensive, and sustained 

Earth observation system and, if necessary, make recommendations to the 

CENR for consideration, (ii) coordinate with existing national and international 

bodies regarding standards for data quality and data management for U.S. 

contributions to a global system of Earth observations, (iii) determine what 

U.S. data will be included, (iv), determine gaps in U.S. data collection, and 

recommend actions to fill such gaps, and (v) build upon existing and evolving 

strategies that include an Earth observation component. 

For Goal 2, the IWGEO will formulate a U.S. position and prepare inputs to 

the international ad hoc GEO. The IWG will plan and, after CENR clearance, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

57

execute measures to implement the goals of the Earth Observation Summit and 

its Declaration and take all necessary steps to help ensure its ultimate success.

To carry out these functions, the IWGEO will actively solicit inputs from CENR 

member agencies and CENR subcommittees, as well as from other government 

entities and nongovernmental sources, in a manner consistent with FACA 

regulations.

IV. Chairs And Membership

IWGEO Co-Chairs are senior officials of NOAA, NASA, and OSTP. IWGEO 

membership consists of representatives from agencies with CENR membership 

and from other Federal government entities, as appropriate. Chairs of CENR 

subcommittees serve as ex officio members of the IWGEO, which does not 

exclude their possible appointment to the IWGEO by the subcommittee chair’s 

CENR agency. The IWGEO may form a smaller Steering Group, composed of 

the Co-Chairs and member representatives.

V. Termination Date 

Unless determined otherwise by the Co-Chairs of CENR, the IWGEO shall 

terminate in November 2004, upon completion of its duties to formulate and 

implement a ten-year U.S. framework and plan for Earth observations. 

VI. Determination

We hereby determine that formation of the CENR IWGEO is in the public interest 

in connection with the performance of duties imposed on the Executive Branch 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

58

by law and that such duties can best be performed through the advice and 

counsel of such a group.

Approved:

Paul Gilman

Environmental Protection Agency

CENR Federal Agency Co-Chair

Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr.

National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration

CENR Federal Agency Co-Chair

Kathie Olsen

Office of Science and Technology Policy

CENR White House Co-Chair
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

59

Appendix 2:

Near-term Opportunities

Near-term Opportunities

Because there is currently no comprehensive and integrated strategy for 

communicating existing data, data management is highlighted as both an 

overarching need, and the necessary first near-term action for this integrated 

system. Several other near-term opportunities are identified in this section that 

can be supported by the Office of Management and Budget’s Research and 

Development Investment Criteria (Quality, Performance, and Relevance), and 

that can be achieved in a relatively short period of time. 

Clear plans have been developed for these opportunities, which are relevant 

to national priorities, agency missions, and customer needs. The identified 

observations needs are high-priority and multi-year in their goals, with tangible 

results easily identified. These potential outcomes cut across all societal benefit 

areas identified in this strategy. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

60

A. Data Management

Requirement/Need: The U.S. needs a comprehensive and integrated data 

management and communications strategy to effectively integrate the wide 

variety of Earth observations across disciplines, institutions, and temporal and 

spatial scales. 

Why now? There are three urgent needs for data management:

New observation systems will lead to a 100-fold increase in Earth 

observation data.

Individual agencies’ current data management systems are challenged 

to adequately process current data streams.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, linking the 

observations and users of multiple agencies, compounds these 

challenges.

Data management is a necessary first step in achieving the synergistic benefits 

from the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System described in this document. 

Outcome: The expected outcome includes data management systems that are 

well-linked and support the full information cycle from observation acquisition 

to information delivery. At a minimum, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation 

System must address these urgent needs by focusing on specific data 

management solutions: 

Data and products will be made readily available and easily accessible 

by applying data management systems.20 This activity will include 

standardizing vocabularies across agencies and developing browsing 

and visualization systems. Interoperability is achieved through 

protocols and standards agreed upon by the member agencies. These 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

61

tools will enable users to effectively locate data and information 

relevant to their needs. 

The quality of earth and space-based data will be improved 

by building on the approaches used by previous scientific data 

stewardship projects (such as the satellite pathfinder data 

reprocessing projects) and model reanalysis projects (such as 

North American Reanalysis, Global Reanalysis, and Global Ocean 

Data Assimilation Experiments). The output of these projects can 

help achieve important objectives of many users: improved data 

integration, quality, and granularity. 

Metadata will be critical to the success of any integrated data management 

system. Technological solutions are currently available to maximize metadata 

usage.21 Current efforts are limited to pilot projects. Emphasis must be focused 

on a dedicated commitment to implement these software solutions for all 

science and technology needs.

B. Improved Observations for Disaster Warnings

Requirement/Need: Disasters afflict all regions of the world, and improved 

global disaster reduction and warning is a shared, global need. Geo-hazards 

such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and subsidence are examples of 

hazards where improved monitoring can provide improved forecasting. We 

need a complete monitoring system that supports risk assessment surveys, 

providing information critical to improved mitigation strategies and providing 

systematic and sustained monitoring of regions at risk. The greatest set of 

unmet observational requirements is for systematic, widespread coverage. This 

can best be delivered by maintaining and modernizing existing in situ

atmospheric, ground-based, and ocean observation systems and by enhancing 

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

62

our capabilities in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and interferometric synthetic 

aperture radar (InSAR) systems. Applications of InSAR include robust 

observations of surface deformation, which complements time-continuous 

observations of deformation derived from GPS networks. Other major SAR 

hazards applications include monitoring sea ice, oil slicks, and inundation from 

flooding. 

Why now? In many cases, in situ airborne and ground-based systems are 

not being maintained to meet research and operational objectives and are 

not being modernized to meet their research and operational potentials, even 

though plans exist for development of these systems. In the next few years, the 

governments of Canada and Japan will launch advanced synthetic aperture 

radar satellites, and there is a pressing need to work in advance on data 

access. Although we have demonstrated the capability through limited sporadic 

synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, we currently have no operational radar 

satellite system that could truly help in a real-time manner, reduce hazards, help 

mitigate disasters, and realize goals of saving lives and reducing damage.

Outcome: Improved ground-based disaster research and warning networks, 

incorporating more systematic use of InSAR and exploitation of SAR’s allweather capability, will: 

access data from existing and planned synthetic aperture radar 

systems by the U.S., Canada, Europe and Japan; 

improve rapid observation of damage and landscape change caused 

by the geohazards;

provide better monitoring of land and sea ice, oil slicks, and flooding;

enable better forecasts, preparations, and more rapid responses to 

disasters; and

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

63

broaden access and distribution of key data sets to the relevant 

communities of scientists, operational agencies and decision-makers.

C. Global Land Observing System

Requirement/Need: We need a comprehensive and sustained land observing 

system to support land management decisions. These data are currently 

broadly used in a wide variety of research and management areas such as:

the influence of land cover on water quality, 

the extent of urban sprawl, and

how best characterize biodiversity, agricultural production, forest and 

vegetation health, fire management, etc. 

Why now? We are in danger of losing continuity of the main source of our 

current land observing data, Landsat, due to technological obsolescence and 

mission life limitations. The Landsat Data Continuity Mission has faced delays 

throughout its programmatic history. 

Potential Outcome: A global observing system that provides sustained 

national and global observations of land cover and high-resolution topography 

from satellite, airborne and surface systems to complement the historical 

archive. Examples of capabilities this system should provide included:

High resolution digital topographic data including digital elevation 

maps

Continuity of Landsat-quality data

Access to commercial land remote sensing imagery

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

64

D. Sea Level Observing System

Requirement/Need: We need an operational sea level observing system to 

provide comprehensive and sustained sea level data and prediction of future 

changes in sea levels. With millions of people living near the coast, changes 

in sea level will be a concern to life and property, especially for barrier 

islands, coastal cities, river deltas, and islands. The storm surge generated by 

hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones would exacerbate the effects of potential 

sea level rise. Improved data on global sea level rise is a high priority issue 

requiring strengthened international cooperation in the sustained collection of 

high-quality observations as the basis for sound decision-making. Currently 

there is no integrated operational ocean altimetry system. 

Why now? We have the opportunity to transition satellite altimetry research 

capabilities to operational use (Jason-1). Future UAVs and other suborbital 

systems will provide unique opportunities to monitor processes and change in 

coastal regions and wetlands. Lack of timely action may prevent the effective 

transition of this capability to operational status. Globally averaged sea level 

could rise 9 to 88 centimeters over the coming century, impacting coastal 

infrastructure investments that are being made today.22 Alaska is already facing 

relocation of over 100 villages due to coastal erosion and reduced sea ice 

cover.23 Critical measurements are needed immediately to validate models to 

properly project sea level. 

Outcome: The outcome is an operational sea level observing system that allows 

us to:

» Determine the rate of change in global sea level 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

65

Understand the interaction of factors that cause sea level rise

Predict future state of sea level and its impacts on coastal areas

E. National Integrated Drought Information System

Requirement/Need: Drought is a threat to the economic stability and prosperity 

of the Nation, and is having a $6-$8 billion annual impact. 

Why now? We are facing the worst severe drought consequences in the 

western United States in 70 years.24 There is an urgent national interest in 

better information on drought. Recently, the Western Governors’ Association 

developed a set of requirements, through a broad-based team of Federal 

and nonfederal partners, for a National Integrated Drought Information 

System. These requirements were developed in conjunction with the National 

Drought Policy Commission’s report to Congress and the pending Drought 

Preparedness Act before Congress. In addition, earlier this year, the Committee 

on Environment and Natural Resources Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction 

acknowledged its seriousness by including it as one of its eight “Grand 

Challenges.” 

Outcome: The National Integrated Drought Information System represents 

a comprehensive, user-friendly, web accessible system to serve the needs 

of policy and decision-makers at all levels—local, state, regional, and 

national—concerned with U.S. drought preparedness, mitigation, and relief/

recovery. Research efforts seek to improve drought-related observations 

such as soil moisture as envisioned in National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s Hydros mission. Improved drought prediction is a main 

emphases and outcome in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

66

Program Plans for Climate-Weather Connections Research and Climate 

Prediction, and are consistent with coordinated interagency efforts, with 

Academic partners, to develop an integrated Earth System Modeling 

Framework.25

F. Air Quality Assessment and Forecast System

Requirement/Need: Understanding air quality and its influence on people 

and the environment requires enhanced surface-based observations. Existing 

surface monitoring networks must be integrated with air quality observations 

from other platforms, including satellites, ships and aircraft, and used to develop 

and evaluate improved predictive models and decision support tools.

Why now? Despite dramatic improvements in air quality in the United States 

over the last 30 years—a period in which our population grew 39 percent, our 

energy consumption grew 42 percent, and our economy grew 164 percent—

air quality problems have grown in many areas of the world, particularly in 

some fast-growing developing countries. Even with continuing air quality 

improvements in the United States, Over 100 million people live in U.S. 

counties that exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards.26 It is well known 

that poor air quality is harmful to the health of adults and children. 

Potential Outcome: An enhanced observational system integrated with modeling 

and decision support tools will:

Improve the ability to forecast air quality across large parts of the 

country (and in other parts of the world) for which forecasts are not 

currently available

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

67

Provide better information about emissions and transport mechanisms 

on regional to the international scales

Provide important information to help the public avoid harmful 

exposures and to help air quality management better manage air 

pollution episodes over the short and long terms.

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

68
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

69

Appendix 3: 

Societal Benefit Area Technical 

Reference Report Summaries

Preamble

This Appendix provides summaries of detailed technical reference reports for 

each societal benefit area. These technical reports were written by interagency 

working teams as part of the development of the Draft Strategic Plan for the 

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System. The purpose of the technical 

reports was to: 1) provide the state of Earth observations in each of the societal 

benefit areas; 2) identify what observations are currently underway 3) identify 

observational gaps and research needs, and 4) describe how these gaps are 

being addressed. The interagency working teams are continually updating the 

reports and incorporating comments from the public and scientific community, 

both inside and outside the federal government. As such, these documents 

are not statements of U.S. Government policy, but are “living” documents, 

for reference throughout the process of coordinating our Earth observations 

into a truly integrated system. The associated technical reference documents 

may be accessed in their entirety on the Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

70

This appendix provides an “Executive Summary” of those technical reports, and 

is not intended to be an exhaustive reference. It is divided into nine sections, 

each summarizing the observations for a benefit area, starting with the most 

mature system, Weather Forecasting. The benefit areas not only vary greatly 

in maturity of observation systems, but also by their very nature—for example 

weather forecasting is vital to every societal benefit area. On the other hand, 

Human Health and Well-Being relies on observations and the resulting data 

products from across the set of benefit areas. There are, however, some 

common threads across all benefit areas as discussed below.

Users of Observations

The beneficiaries of improved Earth observation will be society as a 

whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of existing systems and identify 

gaps and future needs, we first must understand who the critical users are, and 

identify their needs. In the context of the nine societal benefits areas, these 

groups are: 

End users include the general public, the commercial sector and 

authorities with responsibility, for example, for managing the 

distribution and quality assurance of resources.

Scientists, managers, and policy makers in advisory, service 

and regulatory agencies who need to make informed decisions on 

predictions of future conditions, respond to environmental changes 

and disasters in real time, develop accurate assessments and 

simulation tools to support decision-making, and run operational 

forecast and modeling centers.

Research scientists whose research is directed toward improving 

our understanding of the physical, chemical, biological, and ecological 

relationships that define our Earth system.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

71

Integrated Data Transformation

An integrated Earth information system must provide for a seamless link 

between the providers and users of information systems. The following figure 

summarizes the issues in terms of transformations of raw observational data 

from many sources, from the long term record of observations, from data 

collected as part of research investigations, to highly precise continuous 

observations, to new types of data from improved observation systems. Such 

data require a comprehensive and reliable data management archive, coupled 

with tools to derive information products, a system for distribution, support 

for user interactions with the information products, and decision support 

tools that provide for user feedback to maintain and improve the end-to-end 

system. Observation systems must provide for integration of the data in the 

full end-to-end system that meets the requirements for: 1) stringent standards 

of calibration, sampling and accuracy necessary for useful data; 2) stability 

to maintain ongoing data archive; and 3) continued improvement through 

technical advances and user feedback.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

72

Maintenance of Existing Systems and Data 

Collections

A critical challenge across all benefit areas is to maintain and operate observing 

capabilities and existing data archives. Progress in Earth observations will come 

in part from new capabilities and information. However, without the simple 

maintenance or enhancement of existing systems, for example, stream flow 

gauges for water monitoring and continuity of Landsat capabilities , progress will 

be spotty at best. Stability of observing systems is another important issue—we 

need to ensure that there will not be gaps in, for example, continuous satellite 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

73

measurements. A third critical issue is the maintenance of observational 

records at all levels to allow scientists to evaluate the effects of change in, 

for example, air quality and or drinking water quality. Other key variables 

requiring maintenance include, for example, monitoring of disease, population 

characteristics, food production and distribution. Since the value of existing 

datasets greatly increases as the record is extended over time (e.g. weather 

and climate data), it is imperative that existing capabilities be maintained and 

improved, while at the same time new requirements are incorporated.

Section 1: Improve Weather Forecasting

1. The State of Earth Observations for Weather Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for weather forecasting is the most mature 

observing system in the United States. As described in a recent National 

Research Council report, provision of weather services within the U.S. has 

evolved, over the past 40 years, from an almost exclusively governmental 

function to one carried out by the public sector (a combination of federal, state, 

and local government agencies), the private sector, and academia. Partnerships 

exist at all levels to support meeting the weather needs of an increasingly 

diverse user community.

On the federal level, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological 

Services and Supporting Research (also known as the Office of the 

Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM)) ensures the effective use of 

federal meteorological resources by leading the systematic coordination of 

operational weather requirements and services, and supporting research, 

among the federal agencies. Fifteen federal agencies are currently engaged 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

74

in meteorological activities and participate in the OFCM’s coordination and 

cooperation infrastructure. Each year, OFCM prepares The Federal Plan for 

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research for the next fiscal year. This 

Congressionally mandated plan is a one-of-a-kind document, which articulates 

the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted by 

federal agencies. The Fiscal Year 2004 plan can be found at http://www.ofcm.

gov/fp-fy04/fedplan.htm. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

The U.S. uses both remote sensing and in-situ

observation systems to collect required weather 

observations. Earth observation satellites provide 

an inherent wide area observation capability, 

non-intrusive observations, uniformity, rapid 

measurements, and continuity. In-situ observation 

systems provide measurements unobtainable from 

space, measurements complementary to those 

from space, and validation of satellite measurements. Weather information 

providers need observations from both types of systems to provide required 

weather forecasts. Major observational infrastructure investments by NOAA, 

NASA, FAA, and DOD provide the bulk of the currently deployed U.S. weather 

observing capabilities. The U.S. has an impressive space-, surface- and airbased weather observation infrastructure. For example, NOAA’s catalog of 

observing systems is contained in the Strategic Direction for NOAA’s Integrated 

Global Environmental Observation and Data Management System. Also, NASA 

Weather Forecasting Functional Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of observations

Observations of environmental elements not 

presently observed

Improved timeliness, data quality, and long-term 

continuity of observations

Integrated multi-purpose observing systems 

and networks that allow rapid dissemination of 

weather information

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

75

describes its Earth observing systems within its Destination Earth website (http://

www.earth.nasa.gov).

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

The box above illustrates the capabilities necessary for improving weather 

observing. Major gaps affecting weather forecasting improvements exist in two 

broad areas: exploiting weather information that currently exists, and improving 

that existing information. Within these two broad areas, there are five subcategories of gaps in weather information that can be addressed by the U.S. 

Integrated Earth Observation System:

Observational Lack of complete global observational coverage of 

the atmosphere, land, and oceans (e.g., poor resolution, inadequate 

quality) inhibits development and exploitation of extended-range 

products. The following critical atmospheric parameters are not 

adequately measured by current or planned observing systems: wind 

profiles; vertical profiles of moisture; precipitation; thermal profiling 

of the ocean mixed layer; soil moisture; surface pressure; and snow 

equivalent-water content.

Modeling Inadequate aspects of scientific modeling (data 

assimilation, numerical weather prediction, and statistical post 

processing) limit the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts and 

warnings. Numerical weather prediction (NWP) models have gaps in 

the following categories of data that increase uncertainty and reduce 

model accuracy: vertical profiles of moisture flux; coverage of tropical 

land areas and ocean areas; measurements of clouds, precipitation, 

and ozone; rigorous calibration of remotely sensed radiances.

Decision Support Tools Decision analysis in disparate areas needs 

more than an accurate weather forecast. Techniques are needed to 

tailor those forecasts to specific applications to achieve full value.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

76

Information Technologies Telecommunication and computerprocessing gaps limit observations exchange, scientific collaboration, 

and dissemination of critical information to decision-makers and the 

general populace. Also, full implementation of new observing systems 

technologies is challenging due in part to a lack of structure to 

facilitate transition of research technologies to operational use in all 

components of the end-to-end weather-information services system. 

Education and Training With improvements in all facets of 

producing and delivering weather information, parallel improvements 

in education and training processes are necessary to ensure full user 

exploitation of that information.

A recent article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 

listed warm-season quantitative precipitation forecasts as the poorest 

performance area of forecast systems worldwide. This report illustrates the 

gaps and challenges facing the national and international weather forecasting 

communities. Key gaps were found in understanding scientific processes, 

observations, and data assimilation. Specifically:

Scientific processes Knowledge of environmental aerosols may 

prove necessary for properly representing cloud microphysical 

processes, but there are no efforts underway to provide routine 

observations of aerosols or even to provide a systematic research 

assessment of the forecast sensitivity.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

77

Observations Observations on the scale of the events being forecast 

(e.g., summer thunderstorms) are limited to those available from 

surface mesonets, profilers, radars, and geostationary and GPS 

satellites. While useful, these observing systems do not provide 

certain key pieces of information required by models. For example, 

the quality and vertical resolution of geosynchronous satellite data 

over heterogeneous continental backgrounds remains unacceptably 

low. Distant radars overshoot the boundary layer while nearby 

radars leave a “cone of silence”, and surface mesonets provide 

no information about the free troposphere unless augmented with 

profiling devices.

Data assimilation Data assimilation may be the most critical path 

through which advances in forecasting convective precipitation will 

be modulated. Two glaring gaps exist here: (1) a serious deficiency 

in human resources working on data assimilation, and (2) a large 

fraction of current observations are not being assimilated into today’s 

models.

Addressing these challenges, the USWRP recommends a tightly knit 

implementation plan addressing basic research, advanced development 

(observations, assimilation technologies, and forecast systems), and 

experimental forecast demonstrations (with emphasis on verification metrics 

that are relevant to and understood by the general populace).

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

The U.S. is addressing gaps in weather forecasting in three broad areas: plans, 

programs, and research.

Plans NWS has published two plans that form the basis of improving weather 

information within the U.S.—the NWS Science and Technology Infusion 

Plan (STIP) and the NWS Service Improvement Plan (NSIP). The NWS 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

78

STIP: looks into the future and explains how science and technology 

may evolve NWS products and services; defines long-term strategies, 

objectives, and programs; and illustrates how the NWS plans to take 

advantage of scientific opportunities beyond the next ten years. The 

NSIP translates the grand vision of the NWS STIP into specific customer 

service improvements in the areas of aviation, climate, fire weather, 

hydrology, marine weather, health (e.g., air quality), and homeland 

security.

Internationally, the WMO Expert Team on Observational Data Requirements 

and Redesign of the Global Observing System (GOS) has developed a vision for 

the GOS of 2015, which includes an observation component (with both remote 

sensing and in-situ systems), and a data management component. This vision 

document provides a prioritized list of critical atmospheric parameters that are 

not adequately measured by current or planned observing systems. Those 

parameters in order of priority are:

Wind profiles at all levels

Temperature profiles of adequate vertical resolution in cloudy areas

Precipitation

Soil moisture

Surface pressure

Snow equivalent water content

Programs Two new operational weather satellite systems—the National Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) and 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R (GOES-R)—

will replace NOAA’s current polar and geostationary satellites in 2009 

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

79

and 2012, respectively. Both will provide improved technologies 

to support the detection and monitoring of severe weather, tropical 

cyclones, volcanic eruptions, and volcanic-ash clouds. These 

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and 

will include a wider range of spectral bands than current U.S. polarorbiting systems, although some bands currently available and used 

for fire detection will either be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS 

equivalent for fire detection during daytime.

Other weather-related future solutions include expansion of the commercial 

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally, 

and more use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based radar 

wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development and 

deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the 

quantity, quality, and timeliness of weather information during extreme weather 

events, and operational deployment of high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicles 

such as NASA’s Global Hawk. The DOT Intelligent Transportation Systems 

Program and NOAA are working to expand the collection and integration of 

surface-based observing systems, particularly as it pertains to commerce and 

surface transportation. Two initiatives in particular, the Nationwide Surface 

Transportation Observing and Forecasting System (also known as Clarus) and 

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration, are exploring the exploitation of land- and 

vehicle-based technology to collect additional weather data.

Research There are several collaborative research and development 

activities focused on improving operational weather forecasting 

capabilities. While this is not an exhaustive list of research programs, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

80

it illustrates the national focus on improving weather forecasting to 

benefit society.

First, through the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation, NOAA, NASA, and 

DoD are developing common NWP model and data-assimilation infrastructure 

for:

Accelerated development of assimilation algorithms for current 

operational satellite soundings from GOES, POES, and DMSP

Rapid assimilation of programmed operational (CrIS, ATMS, and VIRS 

on NPOESS) and research satellite data (from QuickSCAT, TRMM, and 

MODIS) into operational models

Second, NOAA is working with NASA’s Short-term Prediction Research and 

Transition Center to accelerate the infusion of NASA science and technology to 

help meet Weather Forecast Office requirements for improved:

Aviation forecasts

Specification of convective initiation and evolution

Specification of precipitation type

Prediction of precipitation amounts and area extent

Third, NASA has a Weather Research Roadmap, which is a combined vision 

of NASA, NOAA, and the research community. This Roadmap outlines 

recommended steps to help the nation achieve improvement in near-, mid-, 

and far-term forecasts using NASA’s latest data and modeling research. The 

Roadmap sets weather forecast improvement goals, identifies key steps 

to achieve those goals, identifies enabling research for improved weather 

forecasts, and links this weather-program implementation plan to the NASA 

Science Directorate research strategy. 

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

81

Fourth, DOT activities, including the FAA Aviation Weather Research Program 

(AWRP) are striving to increase scientific understanding of atmospheric 

conditions that cause dangerous weather impacting aviation. The research 

is aimed at producing weather observations, warnings, and forecasts that 

are more accurate and more accessible. Within the AWRP, FAA partners 

with NOAA, DoD, the National Center for Atmospheric Research, and the 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratory to develop product 

development teams (PDTs). These PDTs are teams of scientists from the 

partner organizations who work together to solve aviation problems caused by 

weather. Teams are currently organized to address the following topics: in-flight 

icing, aviation forecasts, forecast quality, turbulence, winter weather, convective 

weather, terminal and national ceiling and visibility, model development and 

enhancement, advanced weather radar techniques, and oceanic weather. In 

addition, FHWA, NOAA, NASA and NCAR are working to improve surface data 

collection that improve weather information for surface transportation users and 

operators.

Fifth, through USWRP, federal agencies are partnering with universities and 

other research institutions to mitigate the effects of weather disasters (such 

as hurricanes) and to improve predictions of precipitation and flooding. Four 

current USWRP initiatives promise immediate benefits to national security, 

energy, and the economy:

The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) will be used by 

both researchers and forecasters, putting research improvements 

into immediate operational use. With USWRP and other funding, a 

prototype has been developed and is currently being tested. WRF is 

a collaborative effort among a number of government agencies and 

universities.

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

82

The Hemispheric Observing System Research and Predictability 

Experiment (THORPEX), a major international field experiment over the 

Pacific Ocean, will improve two- to ten-day forecasts for U.S. regions 

and urban areas. THORPEX is planned for 2003-2010, and involves 

dozens of institutions, and researchers and operational meteorologists 

from 14 nations from the Northern Hemisphere.

Operational testbeds will evaluate new weather-prediction models 

and new forecasting techniques without interfering with the day-today operation of forecast centers. Two test beds are currently being 

developed—one for hurricane predictions and another for modeling 

improvements.

Short-term forecasting improvements will focus on a few hours out to 

two days and will improve predictions of severe storms, distribution of 

precipitation, temperature, and air quality.

From an international to a local perspective, improving the accuracy, timeliness, 

and reliability of weather information is critically important. Gradually, more 

nations are recognizing the societal benefits to be gained through Earth 

observations and the efficiencies to be realized by working together. Within 

the U.S., an Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS) will help realize those 

efficiencies, and create a synergy between improved weather forecasting 

and the development of an IEOS. Weather forecasters have made significant 

progress in establishing common requirements across the spectrum of 

users. Continued weather-forecasting improvements and a sustained weatherinformation infrastructure will depend on effective partnerships, implementing 

appropriate components of existing plans, and developing and implementing 

the IEOS. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the 

Weather Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Weather Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.

ssc.nasa.gov.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

83

Section 2: Reduce Loss Of Life And Property 

From Disasters

1. The State of Earth observations for Disaster Mitigation

Natural and technological disasters, such as 

hurricanes and other extreme weather events, 

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and 

debris flows, wildland and urban-interface fires, 

floods, oil spills, and space-weather storms 

impose a significant burden on society. Within 

the U.S., disasters inflict many injuries and 

deaths, and cost the Nation $20 billion each 

year. The Earth observation systems needed 

to forecast and mitigate disasters are diverse in type and maturity. The 

Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) Subcommittee on 

Disaster Reduction report “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through Science 

and Technology” identifies the many existing interagency and international 

partnerships that are involved in an array of valuable cooperative programs 

for improving the resiliency of American communities to all hazards. The 

Subcommittee for Disaster Recovery has identified many existing interagency 

partnerships that deal with particular hazards. An example is flood monitoring 

and response, which involves coordination among the NWS, USGS, FEMA and 

USACE. Another example is dealing with the hazards posed by volcanic ash 

clouds. Safe air traffic control involves coordination between NOAA (both the 

NWS and NESDIS), the USGS, the USAF, and the FAA. 

Disaster Mitigation Functional Requirements:

Continuity of operations, 

Continuous, real-time data streams, 

Rapid tasking of other data sources, 

Global coordination of resources, 

Rapid generation of accurate information and 

forecasts, and 

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs.

›

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

84

Disasters can also span beyond our borders, where international cooperation 

is paramount to ensure public safety. Some key international partnerships 

and coordinating bodies for disaster observations include the WMO and the 

associated Meteorological Watch Offices, the nine Volcanic Ash Advisory 

Centers, the International Charter for Space and Major Disasters, the 

Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Organization, 

which has a number of monitoring systems, and the International Space 

Environment Service. We are beginning to see the success of linking global 

observations to help mitigate disasters, examples are the National Ice Center 

which collaborates internationally through the WMO/IOC; the International 

Ice Chart Working Group, formed in 1999, provides operational cooperation 

amongst national ice services, with regional (North American) collaboration 

handled by the US-Canadian Joint Ice Working Group. Another category 

of international partnerships includes programs such as the USGS Volcano 

Disaster Assistance Program (cosponsored by the USGS and USAID/OFDA) 

and the Civil Military Emergency Preparedness program of the USACE. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems currently exist for use in observing wildland fires, 

earthquakes, volcanic activity landslides, floods, extreme weather, tropical 

cyclones, sea and lake ice, coastal hazards, pollution events and space weather.

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one hazard. For 

instance, there is extensive overlap among the weather or weather-driven 

hazards. Some overlap also exists among the solid-Earth hazards and, in 

certain areas, among floods, sea ice, and coastal hazards. However, there are 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

85

other significant commonalities that may be less widely appreciated: wildland 

fires, volcano eruptions, and some pollution events have overlaps for thermal 

signals, gas emissions, smoke and aerosols, and sediment and other discharges 

into water. Seven of the individual hazards listed require information on soil 

moisture. 

Significant overlap exists between the observational needs for pollution events, 

such as oil or chemical spills, and those for the natural events. In addition, 

most large natural disasters (especially wildland fires, earthquakes, and floods) 

result in significant pollution as part of the event. 

Below is a brief summary of the observation capabilities that currently exist for 

each type of disaster: 

Extreme Weather, Tropical Cyclones See the section on Weather 

forecasting in this Appendix. These capabilities are augmented 

by 1) low-resolution topographic observations, and 2) location of 

infrastructure and transportation routes.

Flood hazards The monitoring, evaluation, and forecasting of floods 

(such as those produced near large rivers, whether by large storms or 

spring snow melt) are relatively mature, and depend on a combination 

of ground-based and remotely sensed data streams. Data categories 

are: topographic observations; water chemistry; tides and coastal 

water levels; and vegetative state. 

Earthquakes Archiving of seismic records (by the USGS and IRIS) is 

systematic and more mature than for most other kinds of solid Earth 

hazard data. Current observational capabilities include low-resolution 

topographic observations; high resolution gravity and electric field 

measurements; thermal and gas emissions; water chemistry; and 

water levels.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

86

Volcanic eruptions Monitoring volcanic activity, including volcanic 

ash and aerosols, requires a wide range of airborne or satellite 

support. Current observing capabilities include low-resolution 

topography; strain monitoring; high resolution measurements of 

gravity and electric fields; physical properties of Earth materials; 

thermal emissions; water chemistry; and discharges into water.

Landslides Current capabilities include low-resolution topography; 

bedrock characterization; seismic monitoring; ground movement 

(including liquefaction); deformation monitoring; water levels; stream 

flow; and inundation areas.

Wildland and urban-interface fires These extremely complex 

events require rapid weather observations, at various time scales and 

spatial resolutions. Current observing capabilities include sediment 

discharges; stream flow; and low-resolution topography.

Coastal hazards, tsunami, and sea ice hazards These hazards 

require coordination of information across a range of observing 

systems. For example, accurate forecasting of storm surge 

and coastal flooding depends on combining hurricane landfall 

forecasts with stream flow information and tidal and wave height 

data. Available observations include: low-resolution topography; 

surficial deposits; ground movement; seismic monitoring; physical 

properties of Earth materials; water chemistry; discharges into water; 

and stream flow.

Pollution hazards These hazards may be triggered by other hazard 

events (such as an earthquake or flood), or be induced by human 

activity. An example is the release of chemicals or petroleum on 

land, into fresh-water systems, coastal zones, the sea, or into the 

atmosphere. Oil spills can be tracked with satellite imagery, in 

particular with synthetic aperture radar imagery. Other current 

capabilities include topography; smoke and ash cloud detection; water 

chemistry; stream flow; and inundation area.

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

87

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Observation systems for disaster prediction and monitoring, though some are 

relatively mature, must be continually maintained and improved. There are still 

many significant gaps, including instrumental, temporal and spatial coverage, 

baseline data and models, communications networks, and decision-support 

tools. Addition, some existing capabilities are deteriorating or will be lost. Some 

major gaps include: 

Easier access to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. Currently this 

means seeking better access to Canadian and European C-band SAR 

satellite imagery. In addition, Japan plans to launch a new L-band 

SAR (the PALSAR sensor on the ALOS satellite) in 2006. That will be 

a welcome development, but PALSAR and other current SAR sensors 

are designed as research instruments, and share power and downlink 

capabilities with other sensors on the same satellites. Consequently, 

the amount of SAR data available is severely limited now, and will be 

for the next 6-8 years. Specifically, it is inadequate for both routine 

ice monitoring (the principal use of the Canadian Radarsat) and for 

routine use of interferometric SAR (InSAR) to monitor deformation 

caused by volcanic activity, or by local surface instability (such as 

landslides or subsidence) or by motions on faults or plate boundaries 

on a continental or global scale. Additional C-band (or X-band) and 

L-band SAR capability, to generate all-weather imagery suitable for 

InSAR, for a wide range of hazards, could address this gap.

Improved access to moderate-to-high-resolution near- infrared (IR) 

and short-wave IR imagery is needed, especially for fire response, and 

for volcano monitoring. High-resolution imagery needs for volcanoes, 

plus rapid, tactical IR imagery support for wildfire response, would be 

better met by airborne IR cameras, as there will be less interference 

from clouds. 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

88

High-resolution satellite and airborne imagery support are needed for 

nearly all types of disasters. For example, detailed images are needed 

for wildfire response not only during severe fire season, but also for 

pre-fire studies to characterize the health and types of vegetation, 

and fuel loading. Such information is essential to assess areas at 

highest risk of fire in the immediate future. Detailed mapping of 

geologic and topological features are essential for improved response 

to wildfires, solid Earth hazards, floods, ice hazards, and coastal 

hazards. 

Examples of gaps in land-based observation capabilities include deformation 

monitoring for earthquakes, volcanoes, and coastal hazards; more extensive 

stream flow monitoring for extreme weather and flooding; improved seismic 

monitoring for earthquakes and volcanoes; detailed mapping of surficial 

deposits (including fill, dumps) for land-based hazards, ice hazards and 

pollution events; and strain and creep monitoring for earthquakes and 

landslides. Other problem areas include inundation forecasting, especially in 

heavily developed areas, sufficiently rapid modeling and warnings for flash 

flooding, and effective snow melt forecasting. 

Other needs include the expansion of emergency airborne capabilities 

including UAVs (for severe weather, fire/fuels mapping, volcano observation, 

characterization of airborne contaminant plumes), and expansion of capabilities 

for airborne LIDAR and SAR (to support detailed observation of topography 

and topographic changes). Research into new instrumentation (cost-effective, 

portable, sensitive, accurate, and quickly deployable) to identify/monitor a 

wide range of trace gases, toxic chemicals, or explosives in soil, water, and 

the atmosphere would provide critically important data for many disaster 

and hazard situations. Remotely controllable sensors that can function in 

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

89

extreme or unusual environments (near erupting volcanoes, in wildfires, or in 

malfunctioning nuclear reactors) will be needed. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Plans to address gaps include two new satellite systems—the NPOESS 

and GOES-R. These systems will replace current polar and geostationary 

satellites in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Both satellites will provide improved 

technologies to support the detection and monitoring of severe weather, 

tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions and ash clouds, and will provide data 

essential to the fundamental research on these processes and events. Onboard 

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and will include 

a wider range of spectral bands than instruments on current POES systems, 

although some bands currently available and used for fire detection will either 

be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS equivalent for fire detection in 

daytime. In addition, the GEO Lightning Mapper will monitor lightning in support 

of better extreme-weather assessment. 

Future weather-related solutions also include expansion of the commercial 

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally, 

and increased use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based 

radar wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development 

and deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the 

quantity, quality and timeliness of weather information in extreme weather, 

and operational deployment of high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicles such as 

NASA’s Global Hawk. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

90

Most of the gaps in disaster-related Earth observations systems require 

further analysis and planning. Many land-based systems, such as stream 

flow monitoring and seismic monitoring, exist but need to be expanded and 

upgraded. Satellite observations of thermal emissions via infrared imagery, 

which could make a significant contribution to our ability to forecast and 

manage fires and volcanoes, must be expanded and improved. 

For disaster-related Earth observations, the two overarching considerations for 

future Earth observation systems are:

(1) The development of a process whereby the unmet needs for expansion 

and modernization of the vast array of surface-based monitoring 

systems can be dealt with in the 10-year time span of the plan. This 

work is essential to maintain the benefits of the status quo, to define 

the needed communications infrastructure, and to prepare for the 

future expansion of population and infrastructure into areas of high 

risk. This deployment can be incremental, but it should be systematic, 

for all critical systems. This array of surface-based monitoring 

systems will provide the landscape-scale observations needed for 

basic research to understand natural hazards and their root processes, 

and to improve modeling and forecasting of hazard events.

(2) The clarification of responsibility for designing, building, launching and 

operating satellites that are intended to observe the solid surface of 

the Earth at moderate spatial resolution, with temporal resolution and 

spectral capabilities adequate for the range of natural hazards discussed 

here. NOAA/NESDIS covers weather and other atmospheric observational 

requirements, and many ocean requirements, but operational satellites 

for solid-Earth surface observations currently have no home. Earth 

surface observations are essential for both operational purposes and basic 

research on geographically distributed natural processes. For a more 

in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Reducing Loss of 

Life and Property from Disasters arena, as well as for a list of references, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

91

please see the Reducing Loss of Life and Property From Disasters 

Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 3: Protect And Monitor Our Ocean 

Resource

1. The State of Earth observations for Ocean Resources

Observing systems for ocean resources 

are in various stages of development and 

maturity. Some systems have been in place for 

over 100 years such as water level networks; 

others such as Autonomous Underwater 

Vehicles and ocean carbon monitors are 

relatively new. Observing system assets are 

available in various levels of operation and 

reliability. Research and pilot efforts are also 

in progress, either planned or transitioning from development efforts into the 

operational systems. New scientific knowledge has established the importance 

of monitoring the global blue water, in addition to our Exclusive Economic 

Zone (EEZ), inland seas, rivers and watersheds. Also critical is the concept of 

ecosystem management. 

The newly released U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy calls for the integrated 

ocean/coastal observing system (IOOS) to be coordinated among federal 

agencies, academics and regional ocean information groups. The National 

Oceanographic Partnership Program’s (NOPP) National Research Leadership 

Council (NORLC) formed the Ocean.US Executive Committee (EXCOM) that 

Monitoring Ocean Resource Functional Requirements:

Open access to continuous, real-time, near real-time, and 

delayed data streams, and rapid access to archives

Robust calibration and validation for all systems

An efficient process to transition research into operations

Global coordination of resources

Rapid generation of accurate information and forecasts

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats that 

are adapted to users’ needs

›

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

92

oversees the activities of the Ocean.US office, which is now coordinating the 

development and implementation of the U.S. IOOS. Reducing the impacts 

to ocean resources will require better global datasets and improvements in 

now-casting, in addition to forecasting effects of weather, climate, and human 

activities on the coastal ocean, its ecosystems, and living resources. These 

drivers will require additional ocean observing capabilities, and extensive data 

management efforts, along with links to other ocean observing systems. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Ocean observing systems can monitor many physical, biological, geological 

parameters using a variety of methods. As illustrative examples, remote sensing 

methods can provide sea surface temperature, sea surface height, surface 

winds, ocean color, type and condition of coastal habitats; ship-based systems 

provide temperature and salinity profiles, fish abundance, age and condition, 

bottom topography; in situ systems provide river flows, water levels, sediment 

load, nutrient concentrations, biological community sampling. 

Concerted national and international efforts have taken place for over a decade 

during the development of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS); 

where initial efforts focused on climate, and coastal systems implemented in 

several European countries. IOOS is the U.S. component of a larger Global 

Ocean Observing system (GOOS) that is being developed under the auspices 

of IOC/UNESCO, both of which will be vital components of the Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems. 

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one ocean 

resource issues. For instance, water levels are needed for navigation safety, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

93

flood forecasting, habitat restoration and coastal zone management. On the 

other hand, fish abundance has more limited application. Specific sensor types 

and networks used include:

Remote sensing instruments on aircraft, satellite and land-based 

platforms, such as: passive electro-optical imaging sensors 

(multispectral and hyperspectral) and active electro-optical (LIDAR); 

passive microwave (radiometers and sounders) and active microwave 

(altimeters, scatterometers, and Synthetic Aperture Radar), and high 

frequency radar.

Ship-based measurements, such as net sampling, manual and 

pumped measurements of physical, chemical, optical and biological 

properties, and acoustic measurements of bathymetry and currents.

Coastal, open ocean, or land-based in-situ systems that allow for 

unattended (autonomous or semi-autonomous) operation, such as: 

wind, wave and temperature sensors on moored buoys; drifters; shore 

based platforms such as tide gauges; water quality sensors; and 

autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). 

In-water measurements that require attended operation, such as: 

manual sampling of underwater species; remotely operated vehicles 

(ROVs); underwater video/photography; and underwater laboratories. 

Sentinel and research sites located at the shoreline; in bays, 

estuaries, rivers, offshore, and the deep ocean; and on the ocean 

floor.

Systematic regional fisheries and protected species surveys 

conducted by observers on ships and aircraft to establish seasonal 

indices of abundance and distribution, and, from these, key indicator 

species over time.

Long-term sampling programs that measure contaminants in the 

water column, sediments and marine organisms, such as NOAA’s 

National Status and Trends Program; EPA’s National Estuary Program; 

and EPA’s National Coastal Assessment Program.. 

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

94

Orbital sensors are available on satellite missions, such as NOAA’s Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellites and Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellites; DOD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 

NASA’s Landsat, SeaWiFS, Terra, Aqua, TRMM, TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 

satellites; and various commercial ventures. Examples of global in-situ systems 

include the Argo buoys, and the U.S. contribution of drifting buoys. Global 

systems that combine in-situ and satellite assets include NOAA’s contribution to 

Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) and the U.S. Climate Observation 

Program. National in-situ systems include NOAA’s National Data Buoy Center 

(NDBC) networks of weather buoys and land-based measurement stations, 

National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON), Physical Operational RealTime System (PORTS), and NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System (NEOS); 

EPA’s National Coastal Assessment Program and National Estuary Program; 

and the USGS stream gauge network. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Observation systems for ocean resources must be continually maintained and 

improved. There are still many significant gaps, whether in instrumentation, 

temporal and spatial coverage, baseline data and models, communications 

networks, and decision-support tools. These have been identified in IOOS 

and Global Ocean Observing System reports and are provided in detail in 

the GEO Technical Report. Key areas for observational capacity building are 

deploying enhanced sensor packages that are more precise and accurate, 

are automated, and require less maintenance. Target areas for improvement 

are biogeochemical measurements, remotely sensed technologies including 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

95

remotely-operated vehicles, small automated free flyers, and/or modeling to 

increase the observational network capacity. Other major gaps include: 

Remote sensing measurements:

Better procedures for calibrating and representing data in coastal 

waters

Precise sea surface height and surface vector wind measurements

Finer scale resolution sensors for SST, salinity, winds, ocean color 

Continuity in ocean color, winds and sea surface height 

measurements

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats 

(inter-tidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Need to acquire ocean color imagery (multi- and hyperspectral) of 

coastal areas at sufficient frequency and optical resolution to identify 

and analyze changes in the spatial distribution and extent of coastal 

and near-shore habitats

Integration of in-situ measurements with remotely-sensed 

observations

Ship-based measurements:

More ship-based measurements of temperature and salinity profiles 

(need to equip more ships of opportunity)

Better determination of global fluxes of heat, fresh water and carbon 

(need to repeat measurements similar to those from the World Ocean 

Circulation Experiment)

Comprehensive and standardized fisheries and protected species 

surveys, measuring relative abundance from fishery-independent 

data to improve the quality of LMR stock assessments and the 

understanding of population dynamics

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

96

Better instrumentation for physical, chemical, geological and 

biological information

Multi-beam sonar measurements to collect detailed bathymetry and 

habitat information, particularly in near-shore and shelf environments, 

but also in watersheds and out to the EEZ

In-situ measurements:

Long-term, continuous measurements of river flow volume at more 

sites.

More sites for water level measurements 

More frequent sampling of key properties, such as sediment load, 

nutrient concentration and selected chemical contaminants, at more 

sites

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats 

(inter-tidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Expanded coastal network of moored instruments at more locations 

that measure meteorological variables (including atmospheric 

deposition) and oceanographic properties (physical, chemical, 

biological)

Additional deep ocean observatories and sentinel sites

New remote sensing/AUV technologies/techniques to obtain fisherydependent and fishery-independent data

Innovative and cost effective techniques to eliminate the need for 

manual sampling, photography, etc.

Standardization of methodologies for biological community sampling

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Currently, evolutionary changes of in-situ measurements of key ocean variables 

are expected, with corresponding changes in data communication and local 

initial data processing (QA/QC checks for example). More accurate and 

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

97

comprehensive remote sensing of key variables in coastal regions is expected 

in the next generation of U.S. satellites (GOES-R, NPOESS), aircraft, ships and 

AUVs. 

National and international partnerships involving ocean resource data will be 

key to addressing ocean observation gaps. US federal agencies and the US 

ocean research community have played lead roles in development of the IOOS 

and GOOS, global and basin scale satellite systems and the development and 

implementation of international research programs of global scope, including 

WOCE, JGOFS, TOGA, CLIVAR, SOLAS, CEOS, and IMBER. These efforts 

do much to lay the foundations for the partnering required to achieve the 

necessary coverage of the global ocean and of coastal waters regions. These 

ties will need to be continued and strengthened. Strengthening and 

formalization of critical international partnerships is also needed, so that global 

coverage and open access to all nations’ ocean data are assured. 

Because there are many gaps and limited resources, comprehensive analysis 

and planning is needed to determine the location and attributes of existing and 

planned observing systems, and where to fill gaps for the greatest benefit. In 

the interim, maintaining existing systems and integrating data that are currently 

available into standardized formats, will provide users rapid and easy data 

access. Developing new products that combine available data sets are also 

high priority actions to consider. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth 

observations in the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean Resources area, as well 

as for a list of references, please see the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean 

Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.

gov.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

98

Section 4: Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, 

And Adapt To Climate Variability And 

Change

1. The State of Earth observations for Climate

Several new Earth-observing satellites, suborbital systems, surface networks, 

reference sites, and process studies are now producing unprecedented 

high-quality data that have led to major new insights about the Earth-climate 

system. The United States is now contributing to the development and 

operation of several global observing systems which collectively attempt to 

combine the data streams from both research and operational observing 

platforms to provide for a comprehensive measure of climate system variability 

and climate change processes. These systems provide a baseline Earth 

observing system and include: Earth-observing satellites; the global component 

of the Integrated Ocean Observing System; the Global Climate Observing 

System (GCOS) sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization; the Global 

Ocean Observing System sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic 

Commission; and the Global Terrestrial Observing System sponsored by the 

Food and Agriculture Organization. Coordination of federal acquisition of 

climate information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing activity 

of federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science Program 

(CCSP) and the Climate Change Technology Program, under the Committee 

on Environmental Research (CENR) of the National Science and Technology 

Council, acting for the President’s Office of Science and Technology Policy 

(OSTP). 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

99

Earth observations are urgently needed by Earth system models. Earth 

observation models are scientists’ primary tools for: (1) integration of 

observations into a comprehensive analysis of the climate system; (2) 

forecasting of the climate system on multiple time/space scales; and 

(3) simulation of the impact of a particular gap or enhancement of the 

comprehensive GEOSS. Existing Earth system models (e.g. from GFDL, 

NSIPP, GMAO, NCAR, NCEP, and those of our international partners) are 

now transitioning to an improved architecture, the Earth System Modeling 

Framework (see http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/), that will enable improved incorporation 

of new observations, comparison of multiple models, and testing and validation 

of new approaches to climate modeling. 

Required observed variables include benchmark large-scale climate 

observations such as the total radiative energy output from the Sun that drives 

the Earth’s climate system, the Earth’s global average surface temperature, 

the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and other atmospheric constituents, as 

well as climate variables such as precipitation, land use, and land cover, that 

undergo regional and local changes that have significant environmental and 

human impacts. In order to meet climate requirements, monitoring systems 

for climate must adhere to the 10 GCOS climate monitoring principles listed in 

the CCSP Strategic Plan. For satellite systems, CCSP specifies an additional 10 

principles to ensure that observations meet the required stringent standards of 

calibration and sampling necessary for useful climate applications. 

Another critical challenge is to maintain current observing capabilities 

that already exist in each of these areas. For example, maintenance of 

the observational record of stratospheric ozone is essential so that the 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

100

effects of climate change on the nature and 

timing of expected ozone recovery can be 

discerned. Other key variables requiring 

maintenance include radiative energy fluxes of 

the Sun and Earth, atmospheric carbon dioxide, 

and global surface temperature. Since the value 

of existing climate datasets greatly increases as 

the record is extended in time, it is imperative 

that existing observing capabilities be maintained 

and improved, while at the same time new 

requirements are incorporated. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

A system that integrates atmospheric, oceanographic, terrestrial, cryospheric 

and cross-cutting observations does not currently exist, per se. However, many 

components are available. For example, GCOS is a fairly well documented 

but not completely implemented international approach that has a process 

to identify climate requirements. GCOS is intended to provide a focused 

set of observations from a subset of established measurement sites that are 

considered to have sufficient climate history and spatial distribution. The 

system discussed here, however, goes beyond GCOS. The CCSP has expanded 

the initial inventory of important climate observations to encompass the needs 

of research and applications related to the global cycles of carbon, water, 

energy, and biogeochemical constituents; atmospheric composition; and 

changes in land use. 

Climatic Functional Requirements:

Improved knowledge of Earth’s past and present 

climate, including natural variability, and 

understanding of causes of observed variability and 

change

Climate system variables that specify the state, 

forcings, and feedbacks

Reduced uncertainty in Earth’s climate change 

forecasts

Integrated observations from operational and 

research observing systems

Better understanding of the sensitivity and 

adaptability of natural and managed ecosystems 

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

101

A current inventory of U.S. systems contributing to global climate observing, 

and related to the atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial climate subsystems, can 

be found in the U.S. Detailed National Report on Systematic Observations for 

Climate.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

The GCOS list of essential climate variables can be found in the GCOS Second 

Adequacy Report, April 2003. This set of required observables provides 

an excellent baseline, but will clearly need to be augmented. For example, 

incoming solar irradiance is listed, but also needed are in-situ measurements of 

profiles of radiative fluxes in the atmosphere. Additional extensions are needed 

for atmosphere, ocean and terrestrial variables. A process for updating these 

variables needs to be established as we learn more about the Earth’s climatic 

system. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

GCOS, in consultation with its partners, is developing an implementation plan, 

if fully implemented, will provide most of the observations of essential climate 

variables detailed in the GCOS Second Adequacy Report. As the US plan 

for climate observations moves forward, it should strive to build on the GCOS 

Implementation plan by addressing the following elements over the near-term 

(2-4 years), mid-term (4-7 years), and long-term (7-10 years). 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

102

Maintenance and Standards A high priority is to maintain and 

extend the records of key climate variables such as global carbon 

dioxide, ozone, temperature, and other essential climate variables 

now being monitored by current systems. The climate quality of 

these records must be assured by adherence to the GCOS climate 

monitoring principles, as extended by the CCSP Strategic Plan to cover 

satellite systems. 

Modeling and Integration Continued development and improvement 

in climate analyses and periodic reanalysis is required for integration 

of climate observations. Continued development of ensemble 

forecasting for climate is needed for applying and evaluating 

observations, and for better definition of requirements for future 

observations.

A detailed phase-in plan will be needed to provide efficient integrated 

implementation, to address all climate change challenge themes within realistic 

budget constraints, and to take advantage where possible of governmental and 

non-governmental partnerships. 

Near-term (2-4 years): 

Land/Ecosystems/Human Dimensions Improve monitoring, 

measuring, and mapping of land use and land cover, and the 

management of these data; Determine cycling of nutrients such as 

nitrogen and how these nutrients interact with the carbon cycle; 

launch a follow-on Landsat satellite at the earliest possible date, and 

continue the Landsat long-term acquisition plan.

Polar/Feedback Enhance capacity to observe land and sea ice 

parameters including ice thickness; develop continuous highresolution altimetry over the ice sheets, and SAR capability to 

monitor glacial advance/decline; improve resolution of global gravity 

measurements; integrate modeling of global climate and glaciers/ice 

sheets.

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

103

Aerosol Reduce uncertainties in the changing aerosol radiative 

forcing of climate. This requires reduced uncertainty in the 

sources and sinks of aerosols and their precursors, in aerosol solar 

absorption, and in aerosol effects on cloud radiative fluxes and 

precipitation. Direct observations of aerosol physical and chemical 

properties and their interaction with clouds and precipitation 

are urgently needed to estimate the aerosol forcing directly from 

observations and to improve model treatments of aerosol forcing. 

Water Planned satellite measurements and focused field studies 

to better characterize water vapor in the climate-critical area of the 

tropical tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere and the 

stratosphere)

Carbon Determine North American and oceanic carbon sources and 

sinks; the impact of land-use change and resource management 

practices on carbon sources and sinks; secure the measurements 

needed for the North American Carbon Program; enhance the ocean 

carbon observing network.

Mid-Term (4-7 years): 

Water Improve accuracy and global diurnal sampling of precipitation 

and water vapor to identify trends in the intensity of the water cycle; 

improved global/regional ocean and terrestrial observing systems and 

data exchange; improved technology (satellites and in situ, including 

suborbital, surface, and sub-surface) to measure soil moisture 

and evapotranspiration; improved observations and modeling of 

water vapor-cloud-climate-radiation feedback processes; closure of 

terrestrial hydrological budgets; impacts of climate change on the 

global/regional water cycle; and studies related to physical, biological, 

and socioeconomic processes to facilitate efficient water resources 

management.

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

104

Radiation Budget Provide for continuity of solar and Earth-emitted 

radiation budget observations at the top-of-atmosphere and surface, 

to continue the satellite record that began with Nimbus-7 in 1978, 

continues with current Earth Observing System platforms, and is 

planned to be extended by NPOESS satellite missions beginning after 

2010. Equally important is to maintain the related network of surface 

stations such as the Baseline Surface Radiation and Atmospheric 

Radiation Measurement sites. 

Long-term (7-10 years):

Temperature Reducing uncertainties in the evaluation of 

temperature trends will require: (1) implementing an improved 

climate monitoring system designed to ensure the continuity and 

quality of critically needed measurements of temperature, and 

concentrations of aerosols and trace gases: and (2) making raw and 

processed atmospheric measurements accessible in a form that 

enables a number of different groups to replicate and experiment 

with the processing of the more widely disseminated data sets such 

as the Microwave Sounder Unit (MSU) tropospheric temperature 

record. Multiple independent atmospheric sounding systems (e.g., 

microwave, infrared, and GPS occultation) will produce atmospheric 

temperature and water vapor fields that are more accurate and 

reliable than any one sounding system by itself.

Paleoclimate Enhance and where possible regularly update 

paleoclimate observations and data management systems to generate 

a comprehensive set of variables needed for climate change research; 

enhance tree ring, coral and ocean core records. Gaps in paleoclimate 

observations can be better addressed by enhancements in: (1) 500-

2000 year long coral records to reproduce temperature and salinity in 

the tropical oceans; (2) high sedimentation rate deep sea cores; and 

(3) marine geochemical proxy records of temperature trends for the 

past 2,000 years using corals, mollusks, and marine sediments from 

around the globe.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

105

An area requiring future development is the ability to not only track climate 

anomalies but also to attribute them on multiple time scales to: (1) external 

forcings (solar, volcanoes, atmospheric composition); (2) internal forcings 

(e.g., El Nino Southern Oscillation, Sea Surface Temperatures and ocean heat 

content, soil moisture anomalies, state of vegetation, and sea ice); and (3) 

natural variability (essentially unpredictable).

Analysis and planning are envisioned as major components of these 

activities, so as to maintain and advance existing systems and address gaps 

in observations. Creation of new systems will involve the requirements of 

users and the need for access to data and results in a timely fashion. The 

development of decision support tools will help the diverse user community 

understand results. A feedback loop between users and system developers will 

further optimize observations and the utility of support tools.

Analysis and planning is envisioned as a major part of these activities, 

so as to maintain and advance existing systems and address gaps in 

observations. Creation of new systems will involve the requirements of 

users, and the need for access to data and results in a timely fashion. The 

development of decision support tools will help the diverse user community 

understand results. A feedback loop between users and system developers will 

further optimize observations and the utility of support tools.

Climate observations need to be taken in ways that satisfy the climate 

monitoring principles and ensure long-term continuity and ability to discern 

small but persistent signals. The health of the monitoring system must be 

tracked and resources identified to fix problems. Satellite observations must 

be calibrated and validated, with orbital decay and drift effects fully dealt 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

106

with, and adequate overlap to ensure continuity. Reanalysis of the records 

must be institutionalized along with continual assessment of impacts of new 

observing and analysis systems. Such an end-to-end Earth information system 

will be key to the success of the U.S. effort in supporting the GEOSS over the 

next 10 years. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in 

the Climatic Variability area, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Climatic Variability Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.

nasa.gov.

Section 5: Support Sustainable Agriculture And 

Forestry, And Combat Land Degradation

1. The State of Earth observations for Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, 

and Combating Land Degradation

The state of agriculture and forestry observations 

continues to mature, as technology provides us with 

more tools to monitor ground cover. Partnerships exist 

between private land managers, Federal agencies, 

Conservation Districts, Resource Conservation and 

Development Councils, state and local conservations 

agencies and organizations, non-govermental 

organizations, state, local and tribal governments, rural 

communities, businesses, universities and others. Cooperation among these 

organizations is increasing agricultural productivity and efficiency, conserving 

natural resources, improving the environment, and enhancing quality of life for 

rural areas.

Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and 

Combating Land Degradation Functional 

Requirements:

Land Cover Assessment 

Change Detection 

Soil Moisture Content 

Species Composition Surveys

Linking Observations Across Different Scales

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

107

However, we are realizing the weaknesses of earth observations from nonintegrated, stand-alone observations. Creating useful information out of 

disparate databases is extremely time consuming, and is therefore often 

ignored. Inferences based upon one source of data can prove misleading to 

decision makers. Integrating various key measurements of the ecosystem will 

provide a truer perception of the actual environment, leading to better decisions 

on how to manage our scare resources.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems for monitoring agriculture, forestry and land cover exist on 

a variety of scales. Some of the observations currently being used include:

Land cover and land use within, and surrounding, a particular 

landscape or ecosystem: the required detail for meeting program 

objectives ranges from highly specific (crop type, species, 

plant community, etc.) to general (agricultural, forested, urban, 

etc.). Definitions of land cover vary by application and by spatial 

resolution, as do requirements for accuracy. Imagery ranging from 

panchromatic aerial photography to coarse resolution multispectral 

satellite data are used for land cover and land use analysis. 

Change in land cover, and plant, and animal species composition: it 

is important to assess short term changes, such as within a growing 

season, and long term ranging, from years to decades or more.

Field data in the form of animal specimen locality records and 

vegetation plots are used for modeling habitat distribution, and 

calibrating remotely sensed spatial data, as well as for validation 

and accuracy assessment. Field data for operational purposes are 

frequently the most expensive to acquire. 

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

108

Topography in the form of a digital elevation map (DEM): This is 

commonly used as an element of base maps. Accuracy requirements 

range from sub-meter to tens of meters. Photogrammetric 

methods still dominate acquisition. RADAR, LIDAR and kinematic 

GPS are increasingly used and may replace photogrammetric 

methods. Watershed boundaries are especially important to 

producers, land managers, and governmental programs focused on 

soil and water quality issues. 

Soil series maps and USGS 1:24,000 scale maps depicting waterways, 

and cultural features, etc. are common sources of base maps for 

many applications. Use extends beyond suitability for planting to 

susceptibility to erosion, construction of infrastructure including 

access routes, etc.

Long-term data for change detection, calibration of algorithms, and 

species inventory: There is a need to continue converting historical 

imagery, maps, field notes, and data sheets to digital form. 

Development of infrastructure for land use planning: Highways, 

pipelines, and train routes require detailed surveys for optimal 

placement to minimize land degradation while maximizing efficient 

transportation.

A tool commonly used is the Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS 

is employed as a tool during data collection, as a common platform 

for assimilating data from multiple sources, conducting analysis, and 

communicating information. Data and information are communicated via 

tables (i.e., statistics) and maps. Digital maps from a GIS can be used to drive 

variable-rate within-field planting, irrigation, and agrochemical applications. 

Land observation needs range from sub-landscape to global. The time scales 

range from hourly to decades. Applications now demand more accurate and 

finer scale information as the intensity of land use increases and expands into 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

109

less resilient soils, and less favorable climatic conditions. Industry needs are 

primarily for higher spatial and temporal resolution. Higher spatial resolution 

is also particularly important for many international users. Small cultivation 

areas and different cultivation practices of many regions of the world often 

make it difficult to ascertain what parts of a landscape are under cultivation by 

developing countries.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

A few of the omissions in the realm of land observations are either because a 

sensor has not been developed, or because deployment of a particular sensor 

is limited. This limitation could be due to cost, data archiving problems, or 

socio/political reasons. Here is a list of a few omissions we currently have in the 

land observation realm:

A general lack of appropriate spectral resolution measurements by 

both in situ and remote sensing devices. For example, hyperspectral 

measurements increase the observed parameters of a given subject 

from less than 20 bands to over 100 bands. Each band can then 

be a useful criterion to help discriminate individual objects, be it 

vegetation, soil types or man-made surfaces.

Lack of sufficient in-situ sensors spatially and temporally. Currently 

there are large gaps in both physical area and in frequency of 

measurement for many essential parameters. Examples are soil 

moisture, precipitation, and air quality. Our current systems 

attempt to mitigate these losses using techniques such as kriging 

(a geostatistical approach to modeling), but extrapolations of 

conditions based on a few readings is not as accurate as many in situ

measurements 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

110

There is a need to move some of the current sensor systems in 

use today from a research status to an operational status. This is 

necessary to ensure continuity of experimental observations that have 

been proven to provide critically important information. Some of the 

sensors used today are actually research sensors, with no identified 

follow-on system or even maintenance of the existing system. An 

example is the Landsat mission that has provided Earth observations 

for over 30 years. Although the data have been essential for land 

use managers over the years, until recently, the Landsat mission was 

not considered to be an operational program with commitments to its 

continued existence. Hence, a failure to address the continuance of 

our present sensors will create significant data gaps.

Weather and climate-related observations, such as incoming solar 

radiation and CO2 flux, used in models ranging from local to global 

in scope, are spatially sparse. The measurements are becoming 

increasingly important globally, and the demand for better modeling 

means more observations.

Computer modeling of various Earth processes continues to be 

refined. Validation of these complex models will need sensors with 

increasing resolution and density to substantiate or refute current 

theories.

Site-specific observations are often required due to the complexities 

of certain ecosystems. Optimization and validation of models for 

these specific locations is critical. Interdisciplinary teams will 

be required to develop the technologies for efficient and reliable 

assessments of these areas.

Data distribution will be one of the most challenging tasks to 

overcome. As the increased sensor capacities increase the volume 

of data collected, it will be even harder to obtain data in a quick and 

reliable way. How to protect and insure the integrity of the data over 

time is also a huge challenge.

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

111

Development of convenient and accurate decision support systems 

that autonomously collate this raw data and process it into useful 

information is another gap that needs to be closed. Only then can we 

truly understand what the data are telling us. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Currently our existing baseline observations systems are being enhanced 

in resolution and in spectral discrimination, mainly due to technology 

advances. This is true for our operational systems, such as the GOES weather 

satellites. It is not necessarily true for applying our traditional research systems 

such as Landsat, where funding has been an issue on both the hardware 

development and the product development. 

There have been other satellite missions recently launched, such as the NASA’s 

Terra Program which are able to perform such functions as surface temperature 

readings day and night, vegetation indices corrected for atmosphere, soil, 

and directional effects, and aerosol properties defined as optical thickness, 

particle size, and mass loading. There is increased recognition of the value 

of automated in situ systems for observing the processes and state of land, 

water, and air resources. As the sophistication and reliability of systems such 

as micrometeorological stations, soil moisture and temperature sensors, and 

sunphotometers increase, the costs have come down. This provides greater 

opportunities to increase spatial and temporal coverage.

Additionally, gaps can be compressed when sensors are transitioned into an 

operational status, and funding of the program enters a long-term basis. Using 

the Landsat example, a decision has been made to integrate 30-meter 

resolution Landsat-type sensors onboard the new NPOESS environmental 

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

112

satellites beginning as early as 2009. This will ensure continuity of medium 

resolution imagery for land cover change, economic forecasting and land use/

human impact studies beyond our current 30-year archives.

Mechanisms for data delivery of observations from systems to users will be 

the extremely challenging. Questions as to the long-term storage of data, who 

has responsibility for data recovery, and how reliable feedback loops for data 

quality all must be answered. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth 

observations in the Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land 

Degradation area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Sustainable 

Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land Degradation Reference 

Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 6: Understand The Effect Of Environmental 

Factors On Human Health And Well-being

1. The State of Earth observations for Human Health and Well-Being

Human health and well-being are essential for human life, economic growth 

to support life, and to foster methods to assure the vitality of ecosystems that 

support life. From a social and economic perspective, observations to generate 

information for human uses, such as sustainable development, industry, 

agriculture, water quality and waste disposal, air quality, and the protection of 

human and ecosystem health, are critical. With continued growth in human 

population and associated resource use, the need for enhanced observations, 

information, tools and models, and decision support systems to inform decisionmakers and the public is paramount.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

113

The Human Health and Well-Being discipline 

is on the cusp of having a number of 

opportunities coming into place to advance 

this societal benefit. The future is bright and a 

number of opportunities are suggested below 

and in the associated technical reference 

document. Examples of these opportunities 

include the air quality field, where AirNow/AQI 

predictions are carried in daily papers. In addition, 

opportunities are emerging to deal with such air and water quality issues as 

asthma, water quality for recreational swimming and harmful algal blooms.

Monitoring of the global availability, use, and cost of resources, as well as their 

influences on human health and the environment, is an important requirement 

for developing sound decisions. Observation and analysis of consumption 

and supply through the integration of technologies and sustainable design 

techniques is increasingly important for managing resources and decisionmaking that influences human health and well-being.

These parameters of interest vary geographically, making local and regional 

monitoring critical. Future growth of the world’s economies will depend on 

sustained, secure, and reasonably priced resources, as well as accurate 

forecasts of needs. Improved forecasting can help reduce costs of many 

activities. For example, it is known that the use of improved weather forecasting 

accuracy is critical for food production and its timely, safe and cost effective 

transport to people.

Human Health and Well-Being Functional 

Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of observations

Observations of environmental elements not 

presently observed

Issue-specific observations, especially those 

related to air and water quality

Long-term, sustained observations of ground 

cover, and air and water quality.

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

114

The beneficiaries of improved monitoring, information, and decision support 

systems will be society as a whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of 

existing systems, and identify gaps and future needs, we first must understand 

who the critical users are, and identify their needs. 

The observing systems, data systems, associated tools, and the community of 

users of the information will constitute the components of an Earth information 

system, which is the end goal of the GEOSS. The observing systems must be 

linked to an integrated data system that provides full and open access, which in 

turn links to tools that support the generation and access to information needed 

by the health community including researchers, service providers, and policy 

makers.

Users of data and information include government agencies, industry, 

universities, public institutions, non-governmental organizations, and the 

public. Applications include research and operations, policy for adaptation 

and mitigation, as well as decision making by businesses, organizations, 

and individuals, applied in local, regional, national, and international 

contexts. Coordination of federal acquisition of information and support for 

applications is an ongoing activity.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Several new Earth observing satellites, airborne or suborbital systems, in-situ

or surface networks, reference sites, and process studies are now producing 

unprecedented high quality data that have or will lead to new insights about 

human health and well-being.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

115

A number of groups collectively attempt to combine the data streams from 

both research and operational observing levels or platforms to provide for a 

comprehensive measure of variability and change processes. These systems 

provide baseline Earth observing systems and they include: NIH, EPA, CDC, 

NASA, NOAA, USGS and others employing ground level, airborne or mobile 

level, and Earth observing satellites in a variety of system-integrated programs 

or activities.

A critical challenge is to maintain and operate current observing capabilities that 

already exist. For example, maintenance of observational records at all levels 

is essential so that the effects of change in, say, air quality and drinking water 

quality can be discerned. Other key variables requiring maintenance include, 

for example, measures of disease, population characteristics, food production 

and distribution. Since the value of existing datasets greatly increases as 

the record is extended in time, it is imperative that existing capabilities be 

maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are 

incorporated.

Due to the multiple factors involved, scientists from different disciplines 

have been or may be called upon to work together. To create an integrated 

observation system for both environmental and health research, management, 

and decision-making communities, partnerships are essential. Strong 

partnerships help ensure that the appropriate data sets are collected, integrated, 

interpreted, and used properly. It will be critical to develop a system of 

collaborative partnerships among agencies, state and regional governments, 

tribal nations, and the public to create a useable system. Additionally, Federal 

agencies and partners must encourage consistent practices, interoperability, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

116

and information sharing among state and local agencies that gather data. 

Examples of existing partnerships include: NOAA/NWS provides weather 

forecasts to CDC staff who are involved in research on the effects of heat waves 

and in working with State and Local officials to prevent heat-related morbidity 

and mortality. Similarly, HHS and FEMA for their disaster preparedness and 

response roles rely on NOAA/NWS to predict the location and severity of 

extreme weather events. NIAID and NASA have an interagency agreement to 

support training for African scientists in the use of new technologies for the 

control of malaria, to determine if remotely sensed information could be used to 

develop predictive models for risk of malaria transmission. 

Bacterial contamination is monitored by local public health agencies. 

NOAA, EPA and other Federal agencies assist by providing updated 

methodologies. National databases on bacterial contamination are updated 

by collecting data from state agencies that, in turn, collect it from the local 

agencies that made the measurements. The USGS National Biological 

Information Infrastructure (NBII), which is composed of multiple sector 

partnerships (Federal, state, and local agencies; universities; private industries, 

and non-governmental organizations), provides increased access to biological 

data and information on our nation’s plants, animals, and ecosystems to 

a variety of audiences including researchers, natural resource and health 

managers, decision-makers, and the public.

Environmental monitoring that crosses national borders is often best 

coordinated by the appropriate organizations. For example, the international 

aspects of bacterial water quality monitoring are best handled through the 

World Health Organization or, in the Americas, through the Pan American 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

117

Health Organization. New partners from the remote sensing and environmental 

community could provide useful contributions to those monitoring activities.

Application of enhanced in-situ and remote sensing data and techniques 

to air quality evaluations is very promising, and a potential area for early, 

demonstrable results. Efforts like the State of New York GRID air quality 

forecasting system, a joint effort between the State, EPA and NOAA, should be 

encouraged to demonstrate the promise of forecasting conditions for the public 

and decision-makers, but also track the results to see if forecasting produces 

improved air quality by people and governments making decisions that reduce 

pollution.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

It is necessary to enable the easy transfer of environmental information to 

researchers, response communities, and decision makers. Thus, it is important 

to develop user-friendly systems for quick access to Earth science data for 

applications in human health and well-being. However, many factors have 

hindered the use of space- and ground-based data for health applications. 

Some of the most important are:

Lack of appropriate spatial, temporal and spectral resolution 

measurements by the current ground or in-situ and satellite sensors. 

Lack of good communication and understanding between the data 

producer community and users in the health and environment fields of 

research.

Absence of continuous temporal and spatial data sets required for 

the study of specific diseases or disorders, including human activity 

patterns.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

118

Access difficulties to data and value-added products due to 

differences in format, resolution, projection, computer systems and 

lack of an integrated system with generally accepted standards for 

unified studies.

Insufficient technology transfer methods to move from research 

to operational environments, and need for an information system. 

Enterprise architecture and/or systems of web portals.

Inadequate development of remote sensing and ground-based 

methods to continuously monitor speciated environmental pollutants 

or their indicators affecting human health.

Lack of ongoing observation systems available for collecting human 

activity or human exposure data. 

Lack of very high spatial resolution sensors for monitoring mosquitobreeding sites. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Focused efforts are needed to improve technology transfer and development 

of user-friendly tools, indicators, models and decision support systems for 

mass distribution. Effective implementation requires promotion of both public 

and private sector use and dissemination of observation data/products; As 

well as effective technology transfer to extend the combined use of ground or 

surface measures, remote sensing, and models and decision support systems 

for the needs of decision-makers and the public. This, in turn, requires the 

development of information systems and/or Enterprise architectures and 

systems of web portals, all to communicate more efficiently observations, 

information, indicators, models and decision support systems. 

In particular, the combination of in-situ measures and remote sensing 

data along with GIS,GPS, models, indicators and others are fundamental 

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

119

tools. These tools can facilitate the planning, analysis, surveillance and 

intervention in the control and management of infectious diseases outbreaks, 

air and water quality decisions, food security and transportation, and the like. To 

take full advantage of these technologies, it is necessary to be fully integrated to 

benefit the decision-maker and public in timely and cost-effective ways. 

Many infectious diseases are greatly impacted by the weather and by 

patterns of agriculture. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agriculture 

and vegetation cover remains a key need. Improved resolution will assist to 

identify, understand, and predict crop yields and evaluate the scale of potential 

problems in the food supply and its transportation, such as crop failure and 

famine or unexpectedly high yields that may presage a booming rodent or 

insect population and associated disease risks. 

It is important to note that most research linking environmental exposure to 

the increased prevalence or exacerbation of asthma and allergy is based on 

in-situ measurements in the local environment. The further integration of 

remote observations, models and decision support systems will lead to a better 

understanding of causative conditions and related decision-making. Other 

needs which are being addressed include:

Adequate data archival capabilities to allow for a better 

understanding of the development of chronic diseases and diseases 

resulting from long-term environmental exposures. 

More extensive databases on human activities to integrate with 

pollutant concentrations to estimate exposures, and particularly so for 

air and water quality.

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

120

Integration and display of data from multiple scientific disciplines in a 

meaningful way in order to create a successful integrated observation 

system that is useable by members of the environment; human, 

animal, and plant health communities; and by decision makers.

Appropriate spatial and temporal resolution data to relate directly to 

exposure or human health. 

Archive model outputs for use in future health and epidemiological 

studies to determine relationships between environmental exposures 

and disease.

Continued research on use of genomics in monitoring for 

environmental factors that influence human health and well-being

Current in-situ and remote sensing technologies offer great potential for 

human health studies. It is important to maintain and enhance existing 

systems. The advent of geostationary sensor systems with improved spatial 

and spectral resolution would allow study of air, weather, wetland, water and 

related phenomena. Maintenance and enhanced day/night sensing capability 

is important in the UV, visible, near, middle and far infrared, as well as the 

microwave regions. A denser network of air and water quality observations 

would also improve analysis of human health issues. 

The U.S. should also increase capacity for developing country scientists through 

training programs and collaborative research programs. Examples of existing 

programs include the Fogarty International Center at NIH/HHS International 

Research Training in Environmental and Occupational Health Program and its 

Health, Environment and Economic Development Program now operating in 11 

countries. NASA, NOAA, EPA (STAR grants and fellowships), and other Federal 

agencies also have programs for capacity building in related areas. 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

121

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Human 

Health and Well-Being area, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Human Health and Well-Being Reference Document on the IWGEO website at 

http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 7: Develop The Capacity To Make 

Ecological Forecasts

1. The State of Earth observations for Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for application to ecosystems and ecological 

forecasting are less mature than for many of the other societal benefits. While a 

number of activities exist, which are based on years of international and national 

collaboration, many more needs are awaiting to be addresses. It is now widely 

recognized that ecosystem forecasting is critical to reducing environmental 

threats, maintaining a healthy economy, and to sustaining a wide range of 

ecological services upon which society depends.

Forecasting species and environmental 

changes represent a formidable challenge, 

in that the basic mathematics and modeling 

approaches for such forecasting are still in 

their infancy. Ecosystem complexity and 

scaling issues increase error and uncertainty in 

forecasting. Ecological forecasting requires the 

acquisition of a wide range of environmental data, 

depending upon the scale (from micro to macro) 

of the initiative. Most systems will also require 

Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Functional 

Requirements:

Understand ecosystem composition, structure, and 

function

Monitor status and trends in ecosystem conditions 

and important ecological processes

Develop and improve ecological prediction and 

interpretation tools

Develop and test a comprehensive forecasting 

framework through pilot and case studies

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats 

that are adapted to users’ needs

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

122

extensive tools to be developed, or at the very least, enhancements to existing 

models. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Ecological forecasting is an integral part of many of the goals of the other 

societal themes, and to the associated user communities. These efforts 

are especially related to: (1) terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems, (2) 

understanding, assessing, and mitigating the impacts of climate variability 

and change, (3) identifying options for sustainable agriculture and reversing 

and combating land degradation and desertification, (4) promoting human 

health and well being, (5) protecting water resources, and (6) understanding, 

monitoring, and preserving biological diversity. 

Many organizations and government agencies need Earth observation data 

and models to forecast changes in important ecological resources and 

processes. These include city, county, and watershed organizations that 

are trying to evaluate smart growth options balanced by the vulnerability of 

ecological resources. There is also a need to evaluate near-term environmental 

conditions, as well as longer-term impacts and degradation. Other users 

will be managers of Federal, state, and tribal lands and waters charged with 

maintaining the viability of these areas and complying with the mandates of 

relevant environmental legislation, such as the Clean Water Act, Endangered 

Species Act, and National Environmental Policy Act. 

Currently, there are a number of monitoring programs that collect information on 

biological, physical, and chemical attributes of ecosystems, some of which are 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

123

regional and national in scale. Data from these programs have been used to 

develop, calibrate, apply, and refine ecological models.

One example of a successful and extremely relevant partnership can be found 

in the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) consortium that was 

formed in 1992 between several US Federal agencies in order to share the 

cost of acquiring satellite-based remotely sensed data for their environmental 

monitoring programs. The MRLC resulted in the National Land Cover Data set 

and other successful programs, including the Coastal Change Analysis Project, 

the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Program and the Gap Analysis 

Project.

Many observation systems are valuable. Radar system measurements are 

used to assess surface roughness, subsidence, three-dimensional aspects of 

vegetation canopies, biomass, and wetland extent. LIDARs represent another 

active sensing technology that holds much promise for the remote detection 

of vegetation structure and complexity, as well as biomass. LIDAR data can 

provide fine-scale estimates of vegetation canopy structure and elevation 

profiles, which are important input variables in ecological and hydrological 

process models as applied to relatively small areas

Hyperspectral measures are used to detect relatively fine-scale patterns of 

vegetation species distributions and structure, as well as the biochemical 

makeup of vegetation, soil, and surface waters. Some see the possibility of 

developing systems capable of remotely fingerprinting biological phenomena, in 

terms of both taxonomy and condition or health, arising from this technology. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

124

Airborne digital multi-spectral photography provides vital information on 

vegetation characteristics, stream morphology, coral reef extent, coastline 

characteristics, and many other Earth and marine features and biophysical 

variables at relatively high spectral and spatial resolutions. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Forecasting is fundamental to understanding what needs to be done to 

avoid human and environmental disasters and to promote sustainable 

development. In this regard, forecasting plays an important role in early warning 

and risk assessment. Generally, managers, stakeholders, and decision-makers 

require two types of ecological forecasts: (1) short-term forecasts from 3-24 

months and (2) longer-term forecasts from 5-50 years. Short-term forecasts 

give early warning of events and conditions that might affect key economic 

activities and human safety. These “near-real time” data are also used to 

target areas that need more detailed data collections. Long term forecasts 

are necessary to identify areas of high concern. The data required for these 

forecasts will come from observations which can typically fall into two general 

classes:

spatially continuous biophysical data derived from remote sensing and 

other sources

field or site data on specific ecological and hydrologic processes and/

or state variables

Site-specific data are needed to measure and estimate important ecological 

and hydrologic variables across space and time. These data can then be 

related empirically, via process or mechanistic models, to spatially continuous 

biophysical data. Gaps in data of these sorts can be categorized into six general 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

125

classes: (1) field and site data (in-situ), (2) remotely sensed and other spatial 

data, (3) modeling, (4) data and system interoperability/data standardization 

and management, (5) technology transfer, and (6) education and capacity 

building gaps. Each of these issues needs to be resolved in order to improve 

and extend our ability to conduct ecological forecasting.

There are also gaps in measurement variables, at a variety of scales that need 

to be addressed to improve ecosystem forecasting across the globe:

vegetation indices, leaf area index, photosynthetically active radiation

evapotranspiration, net photosynthesis and primary productivity

land surface temperature and emissivity, fires and burning biomass

land cover change and vegetation cover conversion, invasive species

snow cover; sea ice cover

ocean chlorophyll concentration, ocean chlorophyll fluorescence, and 

ocean primary productivity; and sea surface temperature

marine and lake organic matter concentrations

cloud characteristics from satellites

Other specific gaps and recommendations have been identified, here, and in 

other societal benefits areas. They include:

Complete national digital databases on soils and geology at a scale of 

1:100,000

Acquire in-situ and remotely sensed data needed to measure status 

and changes in: (1) land cover and land use, (2) net primary land and 

oceanic productivity, (3) carbon balance, and (4) water balance.

Deploy sensors that will measure the canopy structure of vegetation.

Deploy sensors that will measure water quality and temperature for 

the wide range of water bodies across the US.

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

126

Continued deployment of a SAR satellite platform.

Continued deployment a comparable ocean color sensor.

Digitize existing biological data using NBII taxonomic and other formal 

data standards.

Standardize, convert and integrate existing biological and ecological 

data to easily accessible digital accessible formats.

Extensive research is being conducted at universities and institutes to integrate 

field and remotely sensed data through development of dynamic, multi-scale 

process models. For example, there is a need for shorter-term forecasting 

(daily to monthly) in a direct sense at the local level where many decisions or 

scenarios are made is also sorely needed. These forecasts should account for 

perturbations from large-scale atmospheric and other forcing variables. Current 

weather generators, which are commonly used to provide input to management 

and ecological models, could be improved by including perturbations and 

resulting influences.

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Satellite remote sensing of the Earth’s surface has only been in existence for 

just over 30 years, Archives of photographic imagery (while not contiguous at 

the national level) extend much further back in time to the early 1930s and 

1940s. As such, they provide an invaluable time series for understanding 

landscape changes and associated phenomena. Preservation and digitization 

of these archives and the unique information they hold is of the utmost 

importance. Ensuring the continuity of Landsat-type satellite remote sensing 

data to provide critical information on land cover and other land surface 

features is crucial for the Ecological Forecasting community. Deploying a 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

127

Landsat-type system that will increase temporal resolution (e.g., for withinseason and year measurements) will fill gaps now in a number of societal 

benefit areas.

Although there are a number of deployed Earth observations systems across 

the U.S, including individual site monitoring stations and airborne and satellite 

imagery, lack of interoperability, coordination, and enforcement of Federal 

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) data standards within and among these 

programs prevent optimal use of resulting data and information for ecological 

forecasting. New approaches in data mining and networking should improve 

data integration and modeling to a certain extent, but there are a number of 

issues related to data collection and availability that will limit the success of 

such programs. Certain types and scales of ecological forecasting are possible 

given current data and capabilities, and these are being pursued to fill gaps. 

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Ecosystems 

and Ecological Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see 

the Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO 

website at: http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 8: Protect And Monitor Water Resources

1. The State of Earth Observations for Protecting and Monitoring Water 

Resources

Earth observations for water availability and quality should include 

measurements of the fluxes and storage of water in a watershed and its 

underlying aquifer system; precipitation, streamflow, lake and reservoir storage, 

water quality, evaporation and transpiration, soil moisture, ground-water 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

128

storage, ground-water recharge and discharge, and 

withdrawals for various uses should all be measured. 

Snowfall is of particular interest to water-resources 

managers because of the seasonal storage of water 

in the snowpack. Water quality concentrations 

and loads of various significant natural and 

anthropogenic contaminants must also be measured 

to determine their impact on water availability and 

on aquatic habitats in freshwater, estuarine, and 

marine environments. Most of these measurements 

must be made using in situ sensors, sampling, and manual measurement 

techniques, with only some available from remote sensing. Temporal variability 

and long-term trends in these measures of availability must be recorded and 

documented. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observations for monitoring and protecting water resources are made by several 

Federal agencies. The observations include monitoring of fluxes and storage 

in the various components of the hydrologic cycle, and monitoring of chemical 

and biological characteristics of water resources. There are some examples 

of strong coordination and collaboration among agencies, but it is currently 

not possible to go to one single source for comprehensive water-resources 

monitoring information. Notable examples of water-resources monitoring 

programs are described below:

Water Availability and Quality Functional 

Requirements:

Continuity of operations, 

Continuous, real-time data streams, 

Rapid tasking of other data sources, 

Global coordination of resources, 

Rapid generation of accurate information and 

forecasts, and 

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs.

›

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

129

Precipitation Precipitation quantity monitoring is done by NOAA 

using a combination of ground-based observation stations and remote 

sensing. The stations provide national coverage at a resolution of 

about 1⁄4 degree of latitude and longitude.

Snow NOAA’s National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center 

(NOHRSC) provides remotely-sensed and modeled hydrology products 

for the conterminous U.S. and Alaska. The national and regional 

snow analyses provide a daily synoptic overview of snow conditions 

for the conterminous U.S. as well as for the 18 U.S. snow regions 

at a higher resolution. The snow analyses are text descriptions of 

daily snow accumulation based on snow observations and modeled 

snowpack characteristics. NOHRSC provides both the meteorological 

observations of snowfall and snow on the ground as well as the 

snowfall and snow accumulation simulated by the NOHRSC snow 

model. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Agriculture installs, 

operates, and maintains an extensive, automated system called 

SNOTEL (SNOwpack TELemetry) to collect snowpack and related 

climatic data. The system measures snowpack in the mountains of 

the West and forecasts the water supply. The programs began with 

manual measurements of snow courses; but since 1980, SNOTEL has 

used telemetered data from 600 automated sensors in 11 western 

states including Alaska.

Precipitation Quality The National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

coordinates an interagency network of 250 precipitation quality 

monitoring stations to monitor the acidity of precipitation as well as 

other constituents such as nitrates, sulfates, and ammonia. Annually 

the data are disseminated in several forms, including national maps.

Streamflow The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates a 

national network of about 7,000 telemetered stream gauges. This 

network is supported jointly with other federal, state, and local 

governments. The number of gages in the network has been declining 

slightly in recent years as federal and state budgets have become 

tighter. The database is updated about 8 times per year at each 

station. 

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

130

Surface Water Quality There are numerous federal, regional, state, 

tribal, and local monitoring programs for ambient surface water 

quality conditions and compliance monitoring. Most of these data 

are input to EPA’s Storage and Retrieval (STORET) database. EPA 

summarizes state and federal water-quality data annually in the 

National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress (305(b) report) to 

inform Congress and the public about general water quality conditions 

in the United States. This document characterizes water quality, 

identifies widespread water quality problems of national significance, 

and describes various programs implemented to restore and protect 

waters. It characterizes water body types (rivers, streams, creeks, 

lakes, ponds, reservoirs, bay, estuaries, coastal waters, oceans, and 

wetlands) as “good”, “threatened”, or “impaired”, based on sampling 

results submitted by the states. The USGS also supports water 

quality monitoring programs: The National Water Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) program is a nationwide monitoring and assessment 

tool that includes a network of 6,100 stream-quality monitoring 

sites. USGS also supports a program for modeling surface-water 

quality, titled SPARROW. This program relates in-stream water-quality 

measurements to spatially referenced characteristics of watersheds, 

including contaminant sources and factors influencing terrestrial and 

stream transport.

Suspended sediment is an important water-quality parameter 

that is a controlling factor for many total maximum daily load 

allocations, as well as for determining the useful lifespan of many 

dams and reservoirs. The USGS and several cooperating agencies 

have developed a suspended sediment database that provides daily 

concentrations and loads of sediment at many locations around the 

nation, plus ancillary data.

Lake and Reservoir Storage Data on lake and reservoir storage 

are included in the USGS National Water Information System as 

water-level data. Storage data are collected for individual projects 

by reservoir management agencies, typically using automated SCADA 

systems, but are not collected and reported on a national basis.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

131

Evaporation and Transpiration NOAA collects and disseminates 

nationwide evaporation data based on observations at weather 

stations equipped with evaporation pans. Some excellent academic 

and government studies of evaporation and transpiration are 

underway. 

Soil Moisture The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service 

also monitors soil moisture as part of their Soil Moisture/Soil 

Temperature Pilot project (SM/STPP), and disseminates a limited 

set of soil moisture data for the U.S. via the Soil Climate Analysis 

Network. NOAA provides soil moisture that is estimated by a 

one-layer hydrological model using observed precipitation and 

temperature. These data are used for nationwide assessment and 

prediction purposes. A more sophisticated soil moisture product 

is the four-layer soil moisture estimate calculated in the Land Data 

Assimilation System (LDAS), based upon the NOAA four-layer land 

surface model. The North American LDAS is produced in real time at 

NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Prediction, in collaboration 

with NASA and university partners. LDAS will lead to more accurate 

reanalysis and forecast simulations by numerical weather prediction 

(NWP) models, which typically have large errors in stores of soil 

moisture and energy and in turn, degrade the accuracy of forecasts. 

Ground Water Storage The USGS maintains a network of wells 

to monitor the effects of droughts and other climate variability on 

ground-water levels. The network consists of a national network of 

about 150 wells. Some of these have real-time telemetry, some have 

continuous records obtained periodically during field visits, and some 

have periodic manual measurements.

Drought Monitoring The National Drought Mitigation Center at 

the University of Nebraska, in cooperation with NOAA, USDA, and 

other agencies, assembles drought-related data from many sources 

and provides them on a single web site. There are good efforts 

underway to extend this drought monitoring to cover all of North 

America. Several data products are provided, along with a combined 

drought monitor map for the U.S.

»

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

132

Ground Water Quality Monitoring of ground-water quality is 

spotty. Most states have programs for ambient ground-water quality 

monitoring, but they are not coordinated as a national network. The 

USGS National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA), which includes 

ground water, has water-quality data from 7,000 wells in its data 

warehouse.

Ground-Water Recharge and Discharge These important 

components of the hydrologic cycle are usually estimated rather than 

measured directly. Availability and reliability of estimates varies 

greatly among U.S. aquifers. 

Drinking Water The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maintains 

several databases with nationwide information about drinking-water 

systems. The Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS/FED) 

contains data about locations and characteristics of the Nation’s 

public drinking water systems, and about violations of drinking-water 

standards or protocols. SDWIS/FED stores the information EPA 

needs to monitors of approximately 175,000 public water systems. 

For data on concentrations of contaminants in drinking water, EPA 

maintains a National Contaminant Occurrence Database (NCOD). 

NCOD provides a library of water sample analytical data (or “samples 

data”) that EPA is currently using and has used in the past for 

analysis, rulemaking, and rule evaluation. The drinking water sample 

data, collected at Public Water Systems, are for both regulated and 

unregulated contaminants. The data have been extensively checked 

for data quality and analyzed for national representative-ness. Within 

its National Water Quality Assessment Program, the USGS maintains 

a database of water quality data from domestic wells. Domestic 

wells are not regulated by EPA and do not contribute data to the EPA 

databases.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

133

Land Use and Impervious Area Remote sensing systems such 

as Landsat and MODIS provide spatial information covering certain 

aspects of land use that are of great importance in understanding, 

protecting, and predicting the quantity and quality of our water 

resources. The measurements include amounts and types of crops 

grown, the extent of irrigated land, the types of best-management 

practices employed to protect watersheds, various practices related 

to forestry, mining, grazing, and urbanization all affect water 

resources. Of particular interest is the extent of impervious or paved 

area in any given watershed, since impervious area retards infiltration 

and contributes to quicker runoff and higher storm peak flows in 

streams. 

Wetlands The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monitors wetlands, 

which are an important component of the hydrologic system, both 

biologically and hydrologically. Wetland maps, developed through a 

combination of remotes sensing and ground-truth, are available in a 

number of formats. 

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

An important commonality of all of the surface-water related data mentioned 

above is the association of specific data with a specific section of a stream in a 

network where flow relationships (upstream and downstream) are known. This 

spatial information is the core of the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD), 

a collaboration of EPA and USGS. NHD is a digital depiction of the stream 

reach network of the entire country, with each reach connected to the network 

in such a way that flow relationships are known. In many cases, point data 

mentioned above are associated with individual stream reaches in the NHD. In 

other cases, this association has yet to be made. The NHD is the key to linking 

surface water data with other geospatial coverages important to hydrology, such 

as digital elevation models (which help to describe drainage area boundaries 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

134

and stream slopes), watershed boundaries, land cover and land use, and 

impervious area.

One of the important gaps is the monitoring of lake and reservoir water quality, 

which was formerly coordinated and funded under the Clean Lakes Program. 

Some lake monitoring is encouraged under the implementation of section 

319 of the Clean Water Act by EPA and state and local governments. Other 

areas are monitored by reservoir management agencies such as the Corps of 

Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, the USGS, academic institutions, and 

other entities.

Ground water assessments need enhanced measurements, both in total ground 

water storage levels, and ground water quality. There are many thousands of 

monitoring wells that are measured by a variety of federal, state, local, and 

tribal agencies, but there is little coordination of the monitoring programs. Most 

states have programs for ambient ground-water quality monitoring, but they are 

not coordinated as a national network. 

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

The recent report issued by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy 

recommended the development of a national water quality monitoring 

network. Though a network of this type will require substantial coordination 

and resources, there is strong interest among participating agencies such as 

the USGS, EPA, and NOAA. A framework is being developed by the Advisory 

Committee on Water Information, through its National Water Quality Monitoring 

Council, that will provide a starting point towards the goal of a national network 

for water quality. This network would consist of in-situ measurements of 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

135

specific constituents, complemented and supplemented by remotely sensed 

data, to define the distribution and intensity of hypoxia, sea- grass loss, 

sedimentation, harmful algal blooms and other adverse conditions. 

Soil moisture experiments are underway by the USDA and NASA to monitor 

soil moisture using remote sensing satellites. Additionally, there is an effort 

underway using NASA’s Aqua satellite and the Japanese ADEOS-II Advanced 

Microwave Scanning Radiometer to develop daily soil moisture products.

In the field of drought monitoring, NOAA has developed a plan, endorsed by the 

Western Governors Association, for a National Integrated Drought Information 

System that would provide enhanced monitoring capabilities, greater integration 

of data related to droughts, and enhanced forecasting capabilities. For a more 

in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Protecting and Monitoring 

Water Resources arena, as well as for a list of references, please see the 

Protecting and Monitoring Water Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO 

website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 9: Monitor And Manage Energy Resources

1. The State of Earth observations for Monitoring and Managing Energy 

Resources

Observing systems for energy fall into three broad categories. The first set of 

observations relate to the Nation’s consumption of energy. Energy consumption 

is tied significantly to weather and climate. Extremes of hot and cold weather 

seriously increase our energy consumption. Therefore, weather observations 

and prediction provide a tool for energy management. The second broad 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

136

category is energy exploration. Earth observations 

are used extensively in the search for fossil fuels 

and are increasingly being used in the siting and 

development of renewable energy sources. The third 

broad category is observing the impacts of energy 

consumption, and these observations fall mainly 

within the realm of atmospheric characterization 

and climate change detection. The National Energy 

Policy outlines policies to enhance energy security 

while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and recommends aggressively 

developing alternative fuels and hydrogen, advancing carbon sequestration 

technologies, and promoting energy efficiency and renewable energy. 

2. What Can We Observe Now?

Observation systems are currently useful for detecting the consequences of 

energy consumption and for determining the availability of traditional energy 

resources, and for applicability of alternative energy sources and technologies. 

Responsibility for the operation of the currently deployed observing systems is 

summarized below, beginning with the most mature efforts:

Energy Resources Functional Requirements:

Continuity of operations, 

Continuous, real-time data streams, 

Time scales of hours, days, seasons, years and 

decades

Geographic scales including point source, 

regional, and global scale, 

Efficient sharing of information products, in 

formats that are adapted to users’ needs

›

›

›

›

›
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

137

Energy Supply, Consumption and End-Use 

Technologies Measurement and monitoring systems provide the 

capability to evaluate the efficacy of efforts to reduce greenhouse 

gas emissions through the use of: (1) low-emission fossil-based 

power systems; (2) energy supply technologies that are reportedly 

greenhouse gas-neutral, such as biomass energy systems, 

geothermal, and other renewable energy technologies; and (3) enduse technologies for greater efficiencies. Observations needed to 

successfully fulfill these needs are: climate measurements, physical 

properties of Earth materials, meteorological measurements, 

hydrologic measurements, high-temperature sensors for emissions, 

fast-response mass spectrometry, continuous emissions monitors, and 

remote sensing of emissions.

Energy Exploration and Development Both satellite and in situ

observations are used to identify patterns in geology, hydrology, and 

biology to aid in the location of favorable Earth habitats for fossil 

fuel occurrences or potential sites for renewable energy installations. 

Observations needs are geologic materials and structures, spectral 

reflectance thematic mapping of Earth surface materials, vegetation 

composition and patterns, and hydrologic flows and patterns.

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

138

Measurement and Monitoring of Greenhouse Gases This includes 

observations that: (1) provide inventories, concentrations and crossboundary fluxes of CO2 and other greenhouse compounds, including 

the size and variability of the fluxes; (2) provide data for determining 

the efficacy and durability of particular mitigation technologies or 

other actions, and for verifying and validating results; (3) provide 

data to evaluate the role of various technologies and strategies for 

mitigation by quantifying anthropogenic changes in sources and sinks 

of greenhouse gases; (4) provide data to identify opportunities and 

guide research investments in carbon markets; and (5) provide data 

to assess relationships among changes in greenhouse gas emissions, 

fluxes and inventories due to changes in surrounding environments. 

Observations required are atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and 

co-emitted species, atmospheric CO2 isotopic composition, eddy 

covariance measurements of CO2 fluxes between land surface and 

atmosphere, forest biomass inventories, fossil fuels consumption 

records, remote sensing, static and dynamic chambers. Observations 

besides CO2 are atmospheric isotopic composition, eddy covariance 

measurements of fluxes between surface and atmosphere, forest 

biomass inventories, fossil fuels consumption records, and activity 

data (e.g., cattle number and type, fertilizer mass use, landfill inputs, 

population for waste disposal).

Measurement and Monitoring of Carbon Storage and 

Sequestration Methods used to measure and monitor terrestrial 

sequestration of carbon address both the capture and retention 

of carbon in components of ecosystems. The measurements are 

used to evaluate net sequestration, greenhouse gas emissions 

that might occur from management practices and other 

environmental factors. Observations required are the soil carbon 

and nitrogen content, soil moisture content, standing biomass, 

atmospheric exchange of greenhouse gases, soil erosion, vegetation 

characterization, and soil survey.

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

139

Active Geothermal Energy Systems Measurements are used to 

identify solid Earth formation and rock constituents likely associated 

with geothermal power sources. Observations needed are the land 

surface/land cover, soil characterization, soil moisture, topography, 

strain monitoring, high resolution measurements of gravity and 

electric fields, physical properties of Earth materials, thermal 

emissions, water chemistry, and water discharges.

Renewable Energy Optimization Systems Renewable energy 

technologies include solar, wind and hydrological power. Estimating 

resources requires climatological information such as the duration 

of sunshine and solar elevation of an area, the cloudiness, the 

wind fields and the precipitation. Hydrological power also requires 

information about the water shed basin that drains into the river 

which is subsequently dammed for power production. Observations 

required in this area are meteorological measurements, cloud cover, 

solar radiation, precipitation, and hydrologic measurements.

3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

Several areas identified for consideration in future portfolio planning for energy 

supply and consumption that deserve new or increased emphasis. These 

include: Improvements in performance, longevity, autonomy, spatial resolution 

of measurements, and data transmission of CEMs, along with the ability to 

measure multiple gases over broad geographic areas. More thorough process 

knowledge and life-cycle analysis are needed. Tower-mounted sensors, aircraft 

and satellite-based sensors for direct measurement of CO2 and other gases 

or indicators, tracers, and isotopic ratios would be beneficial. There is a need 

for low cost, multiple wireless micro-sensor networks to monitor migration, 

uptake, and distribution patterns of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in soil, 

forests, vehicles, and facilities. Data protocols and analytical methods for 

producing and archiving specific types of data to enable interoperability and 

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

140

long-term maintenance of data records, data production models, and emission 

coefficients that are used in estimating emissions require further development. 

Direct measurements are needed to replace proxies and estimates when direct 

measurements are more cost-effective in optimizing emissions and in better 

understanding the processes behind the formation of greenhouse gases.

Improvements are needed in the measurement and monitoring of Greenhouse 

Gases to include: techniques for measuring soil respiration and nocturnal fluxes, 

observations of land management, land cover and change, biomass burning, 

and deforestation. Measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes, observations 

of in-situ CH4 oxidation, and process level models of N2O production and 

indirect N2O emissions are required on a global basis to fully understand 

impacts of LULCC. Additional research is also needed to effectively interpret 

observations. Development and testing of process-level models, linking between 

measurement and remotely sensed observations, will all need to have global 

observations for validity.

Research topics identified for consideration in future research and development 

portfolio planning are categorized as follows: national implementation of a 

hierarchical system to quantify stocks, emissions, and sinks of CO2 from the plot 

scale to the national scale; development of imaging and volume measurement 

sensors for land use/cover and biomass estimates; development of low-cost, 

practical methods to measure net carbon gain by ecosystems, and to conduct 

life cycle analysis of wood products; isotope markers to determine the source 

and movement of greenhouse gases in geological, terrestrial, and oceanic 

systems; and new measurement technologies that support novel sequestration 

concepts, such as enhanced mechanisms for CO2 capture from free air, 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

141

new sequestration products resulting from genome sequencing studies, and 

modification of natural biogeochemical processes.

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

Partnership for Solar Energy Resource Assessment DOE and 

NASA have an established partnership to assess and improve solar 

resource mapping. Plans are being made for a task to be performed 

under the International Energy Agency involving DOE, NASA and 7 

foreign nations (Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Canada, and 

Japan). The task is planned to assess existing solar resource maps 

and to establish a criterion for the assessment of future predictions of 

solar resource on several different time scales. For predictions, NASA 

and NOAA will collaborate.

Partnership with Utility Companies Utility companies need to be 

able to better predict demand loads. These are crucially dependent 

upon forecasts of weather and other parameters. Improved weather 

parameters will help to improve load forecasts and better anticipate 

peak demands. A partnership between NASA, NOAA and Electric 

Power Research Institute (EPRI) was initiated to accomplish such 

a task. NASA/NOAA will collaborate to provide recent past and 

forecast data in formats and with parameters important to the load 

forecasting problems. 

Global R&D Satellites such as NASA’s Earth Observation System 

research satellites and NOAA’s operational weather and climate 

satellites, as well as NOAA’s distributed ground network, which 

includes the Mauna Loa Observatory, are currently operational and 

support data gathering relevant to CCSP and CCTP. Landsat 7 and 

Landsat 5 continue to collect spectral reflectance data for land cover 

and land change observations.

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

142

Continental R&D Ongoing research involves estimating net 

CO2 emissions for the North American continent using different 

approaches: inversion analysis based on CO2 monitoring equipment 

as currently arrayed, remote sensing coupled with ecosystem 

modeling, and compilation of land inventory information. European 

researchers have embarked on a similar track by combining 

meteorological transport models with time-dependent emission 

inventories provided by member states of the European Union.

Regional R&D Advanced technologies, such as satellites, are 

monitoring and/or verifying countries’ anthropogenic and natural 

emissions. NOAA is building an atmospheric carbon monitoring 

system under the CCSP using small aircraft and tall communications 

towers that will be capable of determining emissions and uptake on a 

1000 km scale. 

Local (micro or individual) R&D A number of techniques are 

currently used to directly or indirectly estimate emissions from 

individual sites and/or source sectors, such as mass balance 

techniques, eddy covariance methods (e.g., at the AmeriFlux sites, 

where source identification is being done using isotope signatures), 

application of emissions factors derived from experimentation, 

forestry survey methods, and continuous emissions monitors in the 

utility sector. 

In the long term, the envisioned approach is to evaluate data needs and 

pursue the development of an integrated overarching system architecture that 

focuses on the most critical data needs. Common databases would provide 

measurements for models that could determine sources and estimate additions 

to and removals from various greenhouse gas inventories, forecast the longterm fates of various greenhouse gases, and integrate results into relevant 

decision support tools and global-scale monitoring systems. This approach 

would include protocols for calibrated and interoperable (easily exchanged) data 

products, emissions accounting methods development, and coordination with 

»

»

»
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

143

basic science research in collaboration with CCSP. Tools would be validated 

by experimentation to benchmark protocols (to quantify the improvements 

that the tools provide), so that they would be recognized and accepted by the 

community-of-practice for emissions-related processes. For a more in-depth 

look at the state of Earth observations in the Monitoring and Managing Energy 

Resources area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Monitoring 

and Managing Energy Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website 

at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Summary

The goal of this appendix was to provide an “Executive Summary” of the 

associated technical reference documents for the nine societal benefit areas.It is 

not intended to be an exhaustive reference, but a link between the vision of the 

Draft Strategic Plan and the state of observations in those areas. The technical 

reference documents are living documents, which will be updated on a regular 

basis with inputs from the Federal scientific community, as well as through 

public workshops and comment. It is hoped that the interested reader will go 

to the website and provide comments on these longer documents in addition to 

commenting on the Draft Strategic Plan.

Additional technical documents on Architecture, Integration and Data 

Management are being developed by the Federal agencies and will be available 

for review in the near future. 
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

144

List Of Acronyms

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observation Satellite

ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

AWRP Aviation Weather Research Program

CCSP Climate Change Science Program

CCTP Climate Change Technology Program

CEMs Continuous Emissions Monitors

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural 

Resources

CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability 

Programme

CrIS Current Research Information System

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DOD Department of Defense

DSS Decision Support System

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

GCOS Global Climate Observing System

GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of 

Systems

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamic Laboratory

GMAO Global Modeling and Assimilation Office

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System

HHS Health and Human Services

IMBER Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and 

Ecosystem Research Project

IOOS Integrated Ocean Observing System

IRIS Incorporated Research Institutions for 

Seismology

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System

IWGEO Interagency Working Group on Earth 

Observations

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

LDAS Land Data Assimilation Systems

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging

LMR Living Marine Resources

MDCRS Meteorological Data Collection and 

Reporting System

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer

MRLC Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics 

Consortium

MSU Microwave Sounder Unit

NAWQA National Water Quality Assessment 

Program

NASA National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration

NBII National Biological Information 

Infrastructure

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric 

Research

NCEP National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

145

NCOD National Contaminant Occurrence 

Database

NDBC National Data Buoy Center

NEOS NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System

NESDIS NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, 

Data & Information Service

NHD National Hydrography Dataset

NIAID National Institute of Allergy and 

Infectious Diseases

NIH National Institutes of Health

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remote 

Sensing Center

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Environmental 

Satellite System

NSIP NWS Service Improvement Program

NSIPP NASA Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction 

Project

NWLON National Water Level Observation 

Network

NWP Numerical Weather Prediction

NWS NOAA/National Weather Service

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for 

Meteorology

PALSAR Phased Array type L-band Synthetic 

Aperture Radar

PDTs Product Development Teams

POES Polar Operational Environmental Satellite

QuickSCAT NASA’s Quick Scatterometer

SDWIS Safe Drinking Water Information System

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field of view Sensor

SM/STPP Soil Moisture/Soil Temperature Pilot 

Project

SNOTEL Snowpack Telemetry

SOLAS Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study

STIP NWS Science and Technology Infusion 

Plan

STORET EPA’s Storage and Retrieval Database

THORPEX The Hemispheric Observing System 

Research and Predictability Experiment

TOPEX

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAF United States Air Force

USAID/OFDA United Stated Agency for International 

Development/Office of U.S. Foreign 

Disaster Assistance

USGS United States Geological Survey

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting Model
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

146
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

147

End Notes

1

 United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Prospects 1950-2050 (The 1996 

Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996).

2

 Bookman, Charles A., Culliton, Thomas J., and Warren, Maureen A., Trends in U.S. Coastal 

Regions, 1970-1998: addendum to the proceedings, Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. 

National ocean and Coastal Policy, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Oceans and Coasts, Special Projects Office, Silver 

Spring, MD, 1999. Also available online at http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/

retiredsites/natdia_pdf/trends_addendum.pdf.

3

 WMO Looks Forward: Fifth WMO Long-term Plan 2000-2009. Summary for decision makers, 

World Meteorological Organization, WMO–No. 909, ISBN 92-63-10909-5, 2000.

4

 Dutton, John A., Opportunities and Priorities in a New Era for Weather and Climate Services,

Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, September 2002, Volume 83, No. 9, pp 

1303-1311.

5

 Weiher, Rodney, ed. Improving El Niño Forecasting: The Potential Economic Benefits, NOAA, 

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997, p. 29, p. 43, for U.S. agriculture and fisheries, 

respectively. 

6 See Appendix 3, for detailed technical reports on societal benefits areas.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid.
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

148

9

 van der Vink, G., et al., “Why the United States is Becoming More Vulnerable to Natural 

Disasters,” Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 79, No. 44, November 3, 

1998, pp. 533, 537.

10 See Appendix 3.

11 Ibid.

12 Cicerone, Ralph J., et al., Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions,

National Research Council, 2001, National Academy Press, pp 23, 24.

13 See Appendix 3.

14 Ibid.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 Jones, Del, USA Today, “Forecast: 1 degree is worth $1B in power savings,” June 19, 2001.

19 The Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996 assigned Agency Chief Information Officers (CIO) with 

the responsibility to develop information technology architectures (ITAs). The Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) M-97-02, Funding Information Systems Investments, 

October 1996, requires that Agency investments in major information systems be 

consistent with Federal, Agency, and Bureau ITAs. The CIO Council began developing the 

Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework in April 1998 to promote shared development 

for common Federal processes, interoperability, and sharing of information among the 

Agencies of the Federal Government and other Governmental entities. 

20 See for instance, the Data Management and Communications System in the Integrated Ocean 

Observing System at http://dmac.ocean.us/dacsc/imp_plan.jsp and the National Model 

Access Data System. 

21 Tools like Metis and Open Geospatial Data System standards are used to tie together existing 

observing system architecture and related metadata.

22 3rd Assessment Report (2001) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
DRAFT Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

149

23 Robinson, Robert A., Alaska Native Villages: Villages Affected by Flooding and Erosion 

have Difficulty Qualifying for Federal Assistance, GAO Testimony before the U.S. Senate 

Committee on Appropriations, GAO-04-895T, June 29, 2004. 

24 See: Climate of 2002—May Southwest Region Drought, National Climatic Data Center, June 

17, 2002, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/2002/may/sw0205.html

25 Earth System Modeling Framework, found at http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/

26 “The Ozone Report—Measuring Progress Through 2003,” EPA454/K-04-001, April, 2004.