The National Flood Insurance Program: 

An Annotated Bibliography 

January 2002 

Completed for the Federal Emergency Management Agency

Under Contract Number 282-98-0029

The American Institutes for Research

The Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation

Deloitte & Touche LLP
Acronyms 

CAC 

CAP 

CAV 

CBRS 

CRS 

FEMA 

FHBM 

FIA 

FIMA 

FIRM 

FY 

GAO 

HUD 

LOMA 

LOMR 

OIG 

NFIP 

PL 

SFHA 

WYO 

Community Assistance Contact

Community Assistance Program

Community Assistance Visit

Coastal Barrier Resource System

Community Rating System

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Flood Hazard Boundary Map

Federal Insurance Administration

Flood Insurance and Mitigation Administration

Flood Insurance Rate Map

Fiscal year

General Accounting Office

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Letter of Map Amendment

Letter of Map Revision

Office of Inspector General

National Flood Insurance Program

Public Law

Special Flood Hazard Area

Write Your Own
Record Number: 243

Abernathy, Ann Marie and Leslie Weiner. (1995). Evolving federal role for emergency

relief. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, 10(1), 45-8.

Keywords :

disaster relief, history of FEMA

Abstract: The evolving philosophy, activities, and responsibilities of FEMA are outlined

from the first federal law to authorize funding for disaster relief enacted in 1950 to proposed legislative amendments in 1994. Originally assisting with natural disasters such as

earthquakes and floods, FEMA has come to provide assistance with technological, humanmade, and natural catastrophes today. FEMA’s emphasis on hazard mitigation shows a focus on consequences of disasters and emergencies. Internal agency improvements to increase federal responsiveness and efficiency are described.

Record Number: 244

Al-Futaisi, Ahmed and Jery R. Stedinger. (1999). Hydrologic and economic uncertainties

and flood-risk project design. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management,

125(5), 314-24.

Keywords :

flood, flood damage, mathematical models, risk assessment

Abstract: A hypothetical basin was developed to explore the performance of designs

identified by different economic-risk decision models. Models that reflect alternative ways

of addressing uncertainty are explored. A Monte Carlo analysis that assesses the performance of several promising decision and flood-risk model combinations is presented. In addition, the benefits of including parameter uncertainty and prior information in the posterior description of flood risk are described.

Record Number: 256

American Geological Institute. (2000). Natural Hazards Mitigation and Insurance Update.

American Geological Institute, Government Affairs Program.

Keywords :

flood insurance, mitigation

Abstract: On October 30, 2000, President Clinton signed H.R. 707, the Disaster Mitigation and Cost Reduction Act, into law (P.L. 106-390). The law amends the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act to require that states submit a detailed,

comprehensive state program for emergency and disaster mitigation prior to receiving

funds from FEMA. The law requires FEMA to hold a public comment period before

"adopting new or modified policies that may result in a meaningful change in the amount

of assistance a state or local community may receive."

Record Number: 388

American Society of Civil Engineers. (2000). Reducing Flood Losses through the International Code Series: Meeting the Requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program.

American Society of Civil Engineers.

Keywords :

construction, floodplain management, I-Codes

1
Abstract: The guide’s purpose is to help community officials decide how to integrate the

2000 edition of the International Codes (I-CodesTM) for building safety into their current

floodplain development and regulatory processes. The I-CodesTM contain provisions that

meet the minimum flood resistant design and construction requirements of the National

Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The guide neither endorses any specific approach nor

does it explain the NFIP requirements and how to administer them. Chapter 1 includes an

overview of the NFIP, community and state responsibilities under the NFIP, the benefits of

participation in the NFIP, and the implications of not participating. Chapter 2 reviews approaches to floodplain management, noting that integrating a community's approach with

the I-CodesTM involves planning to reduce overlap of regulations, duplications of effort,

and conflicts. Worksheets are provided to help communities assess how their current approaches to regulating development compare to the NFIP’s requirements and to facilitate

decisions. Chapter 3 discusses the implications of adopting the I-CodesTM in terms of development other than buildings and structures, on-site utility systems, NFIP’s Community

Rating System, building code amendments for consideration by communities that choose

higher standards, requirements for handling substantial improvement and repair of substantial damage, and the provision of “Increased Cost of Compliance” coverage for substantially damaged buildings. Chapter 4 reviews community responsibilities under the

NFIP, including record keeping, permits, notification requirements, flood hazard maprelated duties, elevation certificates, inspections, enforcement and violations, and the variance process.

Record Number: 22

Anderson, Dan R. (1974). The national flood insurance program: Problems and potentials.

Journal of Risk and Insurance, 16(4), 579-99.

Keywords :

communications, marketing

Abstract: The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 provides for subsidized floodinsurance and seeks to reduce long-term flood damage through land-use and other control

measures. The floods of 1972 and 1973 provided early tests of the program, and it appears

to have been deficient in many respects. The author examines these deficiencies and offers

reasons for their existence. Ameliorative actions that were taken and others that have been

proposed to improve the program are analyzed. Finally, the lessons learned from this study

are used to postulate guidelines for improving existing and future government-industry

programs. These guidelines include the use of modern marketing techniques, adequate incentives for salesmen, commitment from management, and measuring demand for the

product.

Record Number: 368

Anderson, Dan R. (2000). Catastrophe insurance and compensation: Remembering basic

principles. CPCU Journal, 53(2), 76-89.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: This publication reviews the basic principles for insurance as it relates to catastrophe insurance. The author concludes that the current systems for insurance and compensating property damages caused by natural disasters, including floods, are flawed by en2
demic problems. The severity of the problems has grown over 25 years in conjunction with

increasing catastrophe-related property damage. A review of the problems (increased frequency and severity of events, rapid population of properties in high risk areas) and recommendations for new/alternative approaches are described, including a return to fundamental insurance principals.

Record Number: 376

Anselmo, V., G. Galeati, S. Palmieri, U. Rossi, and E. Todini. (1996). Flood risk assessment using an integrated hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach: A case study.

Journal of Hydrology, 175, 533-54.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: This paper describes an integrated hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach for the risk assessment of a flood-prone area and its application to analyzing the

effects of extreme flood events on the Montalto di Castro thermoelectric power plant. The

approach is based on four major steps. The first step entails a detailed analysis of available

critical events as well the collection of hydro-meteorological and cartographic data to perform a statistical evaluation of extreme rainfall events and an estimation or the probable

maximum precipitation (PMP). The second step involves the calibration of a rainfallrunoff model for the upper catchment area based on the data observed during a recent flood

event. The third step involves the calibration of a two-dimensional hydraulic model for

simulating floodplain inundation using the previously reconstructed runoff and a comparison of the results with the maximum flood levels observed during the same event. The final step concerns the simulation by the two-dimensional hydraulic model of the flood wave

obtained via the rainfall-runoff model using the extreme and PMP values of rain redefined

in the first step. The results of this approach appear to be extremely useful and easily transferable to other areas.

Record Number: 312

Armstrong, John M. and R. Bruce Denuyl. (1977). An investment decision model for

shoreland protection and management. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 3(3), 237.

Keywords :

coastal management, erosion

Abstract: An investment decision model for problems associated with shoreline erosion is

presented. The model determines the economic benefits that a landowner can realize from

available alternative protection structures. Benefits are estimated from erosion induced

property value decline for specific reaches of shoreline. This approach enables the decision-maker to determine the local economic impact of alternative shore land management

policies. The economic effects of coastal management policies, such as nonstructural shore

land protection, wetlands regulation, and public beaches, are discussed in terms of the

model's ability to evaluate and compare the opportunity cost of alternative policies. Computational examples of the model output are presented and discussed.

Record Number: 29

Arnell, Nigel W. (1984). Flood hazard management in the United States and the National

Flood Insurance Program. Geoforum, 15, 525-42.

3
Keywords :

pre-FIRM buildings

Abstract: The NFIP provides flood insurance to floodplain occupants and encourages local communities to adopt floodplain land-use regulations. A major issue influencing the

success of the NFIP in curbing flood damages is its treatment of properties built before the

adoption of floodplain regulations. The potential for using the NFIP to encourage floodproofing and influence post-flood hazard mitigation must be fully explored.

Record Number: 432

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1996). Coast to Coast: 20 years of Progress.

Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Conference of the Association of State Floodplain

Managers, June 10-14, 1996, San Diego, CA. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: Coast to Coast: 20 Years of Progress is divided in 12 parts: national policy and

programs; multihazard mitigation; multi-use watercourses; local planning and management

for flood mitigation, coastal hazard mitigation, hydrology and hydraulics; modeling and

computer programs; mapping; precipitation, gauging, forecasting, and warning; stormwater

management; on construction techniques, building, performance, and data collection; and

planning for, using, and maintaining structures for loss reduction. The most relevant contributions to this book include: (a) Michael Davis’ “New Directions for the Corps of Engineers Water Resources Programs.” Davis, who was Deputy Assistant Secretary of the

Army for Planning, Policy and, Legislation, summarized the Corps of Engineers' new policies. He emphasized the need for both developing strong partnerships with state and local

governments and nonstructural approaches: “this will require some cultural changes at the

state and local level, but it will require some cultural change in my organization as well”;

(b) Shirley Mattingly's “Mitigation and Partnerships for Floodplain Management.” Mattingly, director of FEMA's Region IX, argued that "with the creation of the Flood Mitigation Assistance Program ... FEMA can now establish a pre-disaster mitigation program”;

(c) Bernard Scheff and Kenneth Nacci’s “Floodplain Management in Urban Redevelopment: A Case Study in Multiple Objective Management.” This presentation introduced the

Arcadia Creek flood control project as a case study to show how multiple objectives of urban development could be effectively achieved: “the challenge was to develop a flood

control project that served as a water amenity and ultimately an enticement to urban deve lopment”; (d) David Knowles and Peter Richardson's “The Zone A Crunch.” In this presentation, the authors pointed out the increasing demand for better mapping, particularly

“now that banks are strictly enforcing the flood insurance purchasing requirements”; (e)

William Weaver’s “Urban Stormwater Regulations: A Worthy Opponent to DevelopmentInduced Flooding.” He concludes that since the late 1970s, urban regulations have been

important to reduce the impact of urbanization upon flood conditions; and (f) Frank Thomas, who provided a summary of the conference. Thomas identified the two major issues

that surfaced during the meeting: the inherent policy conflicts between land-use development and natural hazard loss reduction and the need to build closer working relationships

within a multigovernmental, multihazard, and multidisciplinary framework.

4
Record Number: 63

Association of State Floodplain Managers, Flood Mitigation Committee. (1996). Use of

Benefit/cost Analyses to Evaluate the Elevation of Substantially Damaged Structures.

Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, floodplain management,

Abstract: The report offer comments on the use of benefit/cost analyses for FEMA-funded

elevation of substantially damaged buildings. In 1996 FEMA issued a policy memorandum

waiving the requirement for a benefit/cost analysis in the acquisition of substantially damaged buildings, except in coastal areas. Compelling arguments are made on both sides of

the issue as to whether a benefit/cost analysis should be required when elevating substantially damaged buildings. Arguments in favor of requiring benefit/cost analysis focus on

the position that limited mitigation funding can be put to better use than in projects that do

not provide an equitable return in damage prevented. Supporters of a waiver of the analysis

requirement cite a variety of efficiency and consistency issues. In the vast majority of

cases, substantially damaged buildings are cost effective to elevate, and the NFIP requires

it. To devote resources to project-by-project benefit/cost analyses wastes resources, interferes with other planning considerations, and probably has little effect on projects, at least

in some people’s opinions.

Record Number: 433

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1997). Floodplain Management in a Multifaceted World. Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Conference of the Association of State

Floodplain Managers, April 28-May 2, 1997, Little Rock, Arkansas. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: Floodplain Management in a Multifaceted World is divided in 13 parts: national

policy and programs; state and local planning and management for flood mitigation; watershed management; coastal issues; lessons from Hurricane Fran; hydrology and hydraulics;

mapping; using structures for loss reduction; using geographic information systems; protecting and using floodplain resources; evaluating environmental projects, international

approaches; and the practice of floodplain management. Especially relevant contributions

include: (a) James Lee Witt (FEMA’s Director), who summarized FEMA's initiatives, in

particular those involving buyouts, mapping, and communication. He also announced a

ASFPM-FEMA cooperative project to develop an academic fellowship for floodplain

management; (b) Michael Davis (Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Planning,

Policy and, Legislation) who concluded that integrated policies are possible: “we do not

have to choose between flood protection and environmental protection”; (c) Dennis Mileti

who argued that the traditional perspective in dealing with natural disasters is flawed because it has focused on a hazard-by-hazard approach. He argued for a more holistic view of

hazards instead; (d) Gilbert White, who argued that the next challenge for floodplain ma nagement is to find ways “to incorporate this whole range of concepts” in “a rather fresh

approach to floodplain management”; (e) Robinson et al., who presented the Corps of Engineers' new cost-effectiveness and incremental-cost analysis software called ECO-EASY;

and (f) Hansen et al., who discussed the environmental planning research at the Corps of

5
Engineers. They pointed out that the Corps had initiated the Evaluation of Environmental

Investments Research Program (EEIRP) in 1993 to “provide Corps planners with methods

and techniques to develop supportable environmental restoration and mitigation projects”

under a limited budget.

Record Number: 435

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1999). Planning Ahead: Reducing Flood

Losses in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Conference of the Association of State Floodplain Managers, May 24-28, 1999, Portland, OR. Madison, WI:

Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: Planning Ahead: Reducing Flood Losses in the 21st Century addresses: local

projects and programs for planning, mitigation, acquisition, and recovery; watershed management; protecting and restoring natural and cultural resources in floodplains; community

assistance for the NFIP; techniques and projects in stormwater management; hydrologic

forecasting; flood modeling, GIS and simulations; flood hazard mapping; special floodrelated hazards; international approaches to floodplain management; flood insurance; and

federal programs, policies, and initiatives. Relevant contributions include: (a) Peterson et

al.’s “Reducing Flood Losses Through Floodprone Land Acquisition: Identifying Total

Costs and Benefits.” The authors analyzed Pima County's (AZ) flood-prone land acquis ition program (FLAP), which the county had initiated in 1984. The initial concept behind

that program was the offering to individuals who had either lost their homes or sustained

severe damage the option of selling their property to the county rather than rebuilding at

the same location (although it was later expanded to include the acquisition of underdeve loped properties and parcels in upper watershed areas). According to the authors, the program has several advantages. Two of the most important are that it is often less expensive

than a structural solution and that it eliminates flood insurance costs. The authors also

point out that this program has the disadvantage of requiring a funding source to purchase

properties and that it provides lower perceived political benefit compared to structural improvements; (b) Burrell Montz and Graham Tobin’s “The Effectiveness of the NFIP in

Two Communities: Syracuse, NY, and Tampa, FL.” (c) Mark Boyer's “Coming Full Circle: Using the NFIP to Prevent At-Risk Development in Flood-Prone Lands.” The author

concludes that “the best mechanism for achieving no new building in flood-prone zones

may well be to use the federal policy that is already in place, the National Flood Insurance

Act” and (d) Michael Scheffler's “Flood Risk Assessment and Mitigation - An Insurance

Company's Approach.” The author suggests that the flood management community needs

to ally with and drawn on the insurance industry’s network of loss-control engineers. They

should obtain the free flood insurance study backup information from FEMA that is available during the 90 days post revision. The author feels insurers, floodplain managers, and

the public need ready access to the organized data sets used in FEMA’s analyses of flood

hydrology and hydraulics. Schleffer also considers it essential to reverse cutbacks on

funding in the U.S. Geological Survey’s stream gauge program, which provides critical

data to quantify and direct changes in flood risk.

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Record Number: 467

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2000). The Nation's Responses to Flood Disasters: A Historical Account. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This document examines the forces and events that have shaped floodplain management policy and practice. One major result of past influences was the merging of flood

control, disaster assistance, and resource protection programs. Future concerns lay in

needed policy changes suggested by a number of floodplain and natural hazard response

assessments conducted during the 1990s. Floods continue to teach us about the need for

fundamental policy changes in disaster response, recovery, and mitigation and for longterm floodplain management. Because policy changes during the last decades of the 20th

century were largely the result of agency initiatives, the outlook for significant congressional actions going into the 21st century are not promising for either providing overall

direction on national flood policy or in coordinating federal programs and policies.

Record Number: 87

Association of State Floodplain Managers Inc. (2000). National Flood Programs in Review-2000: Summary. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers Inc.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This study examines national floodplain management policies and programs and

identifies improvements that would help secure sustainable floodplain lands and disasterresilient communities for the future. The study identifies five areas in which the Association will focus over the next several years: (a) fostering responsibility and capability at the

individual, local, and state levels; (b) refining policies, programs, and coordination to build

on existing strengths and remedy deficiencies; (c) assembling and improving the data and

tools that are vital to wise floodplain management; (d) enhancing education, training, and

public awareness; and (e) assessing and evaluating programs so that the appropriate lessons can be learned from them.

Record Number: 7

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2000). Study of the Economic Effects of

Charging Actuarially Based Premium Rates for Pre-FIRM Structures. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

subsidies

Abstract: This study attempts to determine the number and types of properties nationwide

that would be affected by reducing or eliminating pre-FIRM subsidies and estimating the

resulting effects on premiums, participation in the program, property values, and property

tax revenue. The study undertook field surveys and data collection. The conclusion suggests that if the flood insurance subsidy were eliminated among the many pre-FIRM policies, within a year the average premium would increase from $585 to about $2,000 per

year. The study analyzes various scenarios for eliminating the subsidy.

7
Record Number: 440

Attanasi, E.D. and M.R. Karlinger. (1979). Risk preferences and flood insurance. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 490-95.

Keywords :

flood insurance, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: A detailed theoretical model characterizing the individual’s decision to purchase

flood insurance is specified and the magnitude of the risk parameter is estimated using data

based on transactions of flood insurance purchases. Empirical results for several samples

of this subset of the general population indicated that consumers exhibited a relatively uniform degree of risk aversion across various localities where different hydrologic and economic conditions prevailed. More specifically, results indicate that the individual’s demand for insurance becomes more price inelastic and shifts to the right as the risk parameter value increases. While the estimates presented should not be directly extrapolated to

the entire population located in a flood prone area, they provide evidence that parameters

determining an individual’s and/or community’s willingness to pay for flood protection

can be measured.

Record Number: 8

Aucoin, J.L. (1985). Missouri’s resourceful sales tax. Environment, 27(May), 44-5.

Keywords :

conservation, Missouri

Abstract: In August 1984, following a grassroots effort by agricultural and environmental

groups, Missouri’s voters approved a 0.1 percent sales tax to finance soil-conservation

programs and state-park maintenance. The tax was expected to generate over $150 million

during the next five years. The authors expected that funds allotted to the Small Watershed

Protection and Flood Prevention Program and the Soil and Water Conservation Cost-Share

Program, which assist farmers in installing conservation measures, would help tackle the

state's erosion problems (half of the funds would go to the Division of Parks and Historic

Preservation for building and grounds maintenance, public services, and other uses).

Record Number: 56

Ayscue, Jon K. (1996). Hurricane Damage to Residential Structures: Risk and Mitigation.

Natural Hazards Research Working Paper #94, Natural Hazards Research and Applications

Information Center Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.

Keywords :

hurricanes, mitigation

Abstract: This paper describes potential hurricane hazards from wind and water. Damage

to residential structures from three recent intense hurricanes - Hugo, Andrew, and Iniki -

shows that wind is responsible for greater property loss than water. The economic cost of

the damages caused by these hurricanes is reported.

Record Number: 441

Barnard, Jerald R. (1978). Externalities from urban growth: The case of increased storm

runoff and flooding. Land Economics, 54(3), 298-314.

Keywords :

development, modeling

8
Abstract: This paper is concerned with the problem of increased frequency and magnitude

of flooding from urban growth and its impact on urban residential property. The research

involves a joint hydrologic and economic investigation into urban growth in small watersheds. Additionally, the paper adds to the list of negative externalities linked with urban

growth, namely the increased flood hazard that can develop in a small watershed due to

urban growth. Results indicate that an externality and income-distribution effect arise

from urban expansion in a small watershed. The hydrologic evidence shows that as urban

expansion spreads further into the upper portions of the watershed, the probability of

flooding downstream properties is increased. The analysis of property values indicates that

the property market has recognized the effect of flood hazard, and property owners in the

lower part of the watershed have suffered a relative decline in property values

Record Number: 377

Baumann, Duane D. (1984). Determination of the Cost-effectiveness of Flood Hazard Programs. In selected abstract of papers presented at the Sixth Annual Applied Geography

Conference.

Keywords :

cost effectiveness

Abstract: This research sought to develop and evaluate three information programs directed toward increasing awareness of, affecting attitudes toward, and eliciting the adoption of flood damage mitigation measures by homeowners vulnerable to the threat of

floods. Each program was designed according to a previously determined set of principles:

the programs differed only according to intensity (cost) of application.

Record Number: 420

Bea, Keith. (1992). Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Disaster Relief Fund.

Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Keywords :

disaster relief

Abstract: FEMA was established in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and consolidated the

emergency management and preparedness functions of various federal agencies. The

agency is responsible for a broad range of statutory authorities and falls within the jurisdiction of a number of congressional committees and their subcommittee. FEMA administers the principal federal disaster relief authority, the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief

and Emergency Assistance Act. While authorized disaster relief funds have traditionally

been appropriated with little debate, a funding shortfall occurred in 1991. Action was taken

to prevent recurrence of a shortfall.

Record Number: 108

Bea, Keith. (2000). Disaster Mitigation Assistance Bills in the 106th Congress: Comparison of Provisions. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Keywords :

development, floodplain management

Abstract: The author argues that the Clinton administration’s initiative to shift federal

emergency management policy away from a “response and recovery” emphasis generated

little congressional controversy, although some raised concerns about the cost effective9
ness of implementing a mitigation strategy. Greater attention, it is generally argued, should

be given to mitigation (loss reduction) efforts before disasters occur in order to reduce future losses. Some future disasters may be prevented, or their impact lessened, by taking

action beforehand. State and local governments have lowered disaster costs by retrofitting

buildings in earthquake zones, elevating structures in floodplains, revising and enforcing

building codes, or modifying land use plans. Advocates of the legislation seek to support

these and other mitigation efforts.

Record Number: 405

Beard, Leo R. (1997). Estimating flood frequency and average annual damage. Journal of

Water Resources Planning and Management, 123(2).

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: In the National Research Council’s report, Flood Risk Management and the

American River Basin--An Evaluation, the use of expected probability (accounting for

sampling uncertainty) in estimating flood frequencies and average annual flood damages,

as practiced by the Corps of Engineers, was said to be biased. Alternative procedures recommended in the report are based on studies of samples drawn from a Gaussian population

with a fixed damage function. There is no extension of the study to diverse populations

(many flood locations) with different flow-damage functions, but conclusions drawn are

that the recommended procedures provide frequency and damage estimates that are nearly

unbiased. Beard seeks to demonstrate that expected-probability procedures used by the

Corps are appropriate for flood-frequency estimation and for estimation of average annual

flood damages.

Record Number: 121

Belsie, Laurent. (1998). Rethinking a river. Christian Science Monitor, 91(5), 11.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri River

Abstract: This article examines efforts to return the Missouri River to a more natural state

in the late 1990s. It discusses the importance of the river’s floodplains to the ecology of the

river, balancing the economic and commercial needs of people along the river with environmental concerns, the percentage of the river’s native fish and wildlife species, which

are on federal and state protection lists, the Missouri River Basin Association, and how the

1993 flood has impacted efforts to aid the floodplains.

Record Number: 313

Bennett, Dery. (1993). Paying for sand. Audubon, 95(Sept./Oct.), 132.

Keywords :

flood cost

Abstract: The author complains that despite geological evidence that the edge of the sea is

an imprudent place to build houses, development along the Atlantic coastline is increasing.

The author argues that many shore communities are inaccessible to the public yet rely on

public funds for flood insurance, shore protection, post-storm cleanup, and restoration of

houses damaged by coastal storms. The author concludes that if individuals were forced to

10
bear more of the cost of shoreline living, homebuyers might think twice before deciding to

build expensive homes on the coast.

Record Number: 507

Berz, Gerhard. (2000). Flood Disasters: Lessons from the Past - Worries for the Future.

Munich, Germany: Munich Reinsurance Company.

Keywords :

flood losses

Abstract: Flood disasters account for about a third of all natural catastrophes throughout

the world (by number and economic losses) and are responsible for more than half of the

fatalities. Trend analyses reveal that major flood disasters and the losses generated by them

have increased drastically in recent years. Cooperation between the state, the affected

population, and the insurance industry assumes a key role with regard to the flood hazard.

Scientists, engineers, and insurers must work together in formulating their requirements

and shaping them in such a way that politicians can derive clearly recognizable policy options (e.g., land-use restrictions) from them. Another important aspect is stepping up the

efforts being made towards curbing climate change, which might otherwise exacerbate the

risk situation in the future.

Record Number: 375

Bin Atan, Ismail and A.V. Metcalfe. (1994). Estimation of seasonal flood risk using a twostage transformation. Water Resources Research, 30(7), 2197-206.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: Hydrological time series are often asymmetric in time, insomuch as rises are

more rapid than recessions, as well as having highly skewed marginal distributions. A twostage transformation is proposed for deseasonalized series. Rises are stretched and recessions are squashed until the series is symmetric over time. An autoregressive moving average (ARMA) model is then fitted to the natural logarithms of this new series. The residuals

from the ARMA model are represented by a double mixture of Weibull and exponential

distributions. The method is demonstrated with 24 years of daily flows from the River

Cherwell in the south of England and a 40-year record from the upper reaches of the

Thames. Seasonal estimates of flood risk are given, and these can be conditioned on

catchment wetness at the time of prediction.

Record Number: 89

Bollens, Scott A. (1990). Public policy and land conversion: Lessening urban growth pressure in river corridors. Growth & Change, 21(1), 40-59.

Keywords :

floodplains

Abstract: The author examines the extent to which floodplain management programs influence the investment and predevelopment decisions of owners of vacant floodplain land

in ten cities: Arvada, CO; Cape Girardeau, MO; Fargo, ND; Omaha, NE; Palatine, IL; Savanna, GA; Scottsdale, AZ; Toledo, OH; Tulsa, OK; and Wayne, NJ. He discusses the role

of landowners in the urban floodplain market, land acquisition, holding vacant land, the

11
influence of local floodplain policy on land holding, property value expectations, and

landowners as targets of public policy.

Record Number: 457

Bollens, Scott A., Edward J. Kaiser, and Raymond J. Burby. (1988). Evaluating the effects

of local floodplain management policies on property owner behavior. Environmental Management, 12(3), 311-25.

Keywords :

construction and location regulations, floodplain management, mitigation, nonstructural

approaches

Abstract: This article examines the degree to which riverine floodplain management affects purchase and mitigation decisions by owners of developed floodplain property. Based

on a survey (N=105) of floodplain property owners in ten U.S. cities with floodplain management programs, the authors find that the stringency of such policies does not lessen the

purchase of properties in floodplain because of the overriding importance of site amenity

factors. Indeed, flood protection measures incorporated into development projects appear

to add to the attractiveness of floodplain location by increasing the perceived safety from

the hazard. Property owners’ responses to a flood hazard after occupancy involve political

action more often than individual on-site mitigation. It is suggested that floodplain programs will be more effective in meeting their objectives if they are directed at intervention

points earlier in the land conversion process.

Record Number: 82

Booz-Allen & Hamilton. (2000). Blueprint for the Future. Final Report. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: From March through August 2000, the FIA developed a strategic Blueprint for

the Future for the NFIP through a series of leadership workshops attended by members of

the FIA Executive Committee and through independent data gathering and analysis. This

report incorporates the results of the workshops and supplemental analysis and includes a

discussion of program mission, customer and stakeholder analysis, program vision, future

scenarios, impediments to achieving strategy, goals and objectives, action plans, implementation guidance, and next steps. NFIP's Program Vision for the next five years is threefold: (a) a program that efficiently delivers insurance products that are accessible, desired,

and seamlessly provided to its customers and partners; (b) a program where communities

not only meet, but exceed NFIP's floodplain management standards; and (c) a program that

is financially sound both as an agent of change and as a long-term insurance solution.

Record Number: 245

Bowker, R. R. (1993). Audit of Flood Insurance Mapping Activities. Collingdale, PA:

DIANE Publishing Company, Reed Elsevier Inc.

Keywords :

mapping

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Abstract: The cornerstone of the NFIP is the identification and mapping of flood areas.

The maps are critical to the NFIP’s mitigation and insurance activities. This audit discusses

how the FIA could improve the mapping process and distribution of the maps.

Record Number: 514

Bozell. (2001). The Cover America and Cover America II Campaigns: A history of Bozell's

Efforts to Promote the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: FIMA.

Keywords :

Cover America, marketing

Abstract: This report reviews all of Bozell’s efforts involving the Cover America campaigns and their work with the NFIP. The report summarize all aspects of the Cover

America and Cover America II campaigns, including types of advertising, the markets that

were targeted, and when the ads ran. Bozell then presents the campaign results for the

various types of media utilized and by each year of the campaigns. The overall results of

the campaign show that both awareness and favorable opinions of flood insurance and the

NFIP increased by 4 percentage points for each year of the campaigns.

Record Number: 513

Bozell and KRC Research and Consulting. (2000). Cover America Campaign Evaluation

(Draft). Washington, DC: FIA.

Keywords :

Advertising, Cover America

Abstract: This report was prepared as an evaluation of the Cover America campaign,

which ran from October 1995 to March 1999. The campaign incorporated television, radio,

and print advertising, as well as direct mailings and public relations efforts such as media

tours and articles, to increase knowledge about floods and flood insurance and to help generate sales of policies. The report outlines the entire campaign by area of advertising and

presents the methodology and results for determining the campaign’s success. The report

shows that the campaign was successful in increasing awareness and favorability of FEMA

and the NFIP and outlines which methods were the most efficient way to reach potential

buyers and agents. NOTE: This report was in draft form at the time of it inclusion in this

bibliography. Consequently, FEMA had not yet provided comments necessary for Bozell

and KRC Research and Consulting to produce a final version.

Record Number: 143

Breo, Dennis L. (1993). Flood, sweat, and tears - Trying to build ‘emotional levees.’ Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 2860-2.

Keywords :

flood, mental health

Abstract: Breo discusses the experiences of some counselors who have been dealing with

the psychological damage caused by the 1993 flooding in the area of the Mississippi and

Missouri Rivers. Many of the affected people live with the nightmare of the floods returning the following year.

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Record Number: 122

Browne, M.J. and R.E. Hoyt. (2000). The demand for flood insurance: Empirical evidence.

Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 20(3), 291-306.

Keywords :

flood insurance, demand

Abstract: Flood damages that occur worldwide remain largely uninsured losses despite the

efforts of governmental programs that often provide insurance available at less than fair

market cost. The current study focuses on the financial experience of the NFIP from 1983

through 1993 to examine the hypothetical determinants of decisions to purchase flood insurance. The same set of factors is important for both individuals and businesses -- price,

probability of loss, and amount of loss. Additionally, there is a negative relationship between the amount of money the federal government spends on mitigation and both the

number of policies purchased and the amount of insurance purchased. At the state level,

purchase of flood insurance correlates highly with the level of flood losses during the previous year.

Record Number: 503

Burby, Raymond J. (1994). Floodplain planning and management: Research needed for the

21st century. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 44-51.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This article acknowledges the progress in research on the management of floodplains but laments the “gaps” in what we need to know to manage floodplains effectively.

State and local floodplain managers, in particular, will have to develop more sophisticated

tools for building the private sector’s commitment to and capacity for accomplishing

flood-loss reduction. The major gaps that are highlighted include: (a) research on the effect

of floodplain management on development decision making in the private sector and on

the ultimate impacts of public policy on economic, social, and environmental well-being;

(b) research on cost-effective programs that motivate individuals and firms to reduce risk

to existing developments; (c) research on the impact of nonstructural flood-hazard mitigation programs on various accounts; and (d) research to identify the effects of existing

floodplain management programs on communities' economic, social, and environmental

well-being and to develop usable policy analysis tools for local decision makers.

Record Number: 472

Burby, Raymond J. (2001). Flood Insurance and Floodplain Management: Issues for

Evaluation. Presented in Boulder, CO, July 2001.

Keywords :

subsidies

Abstract: To deal with the rising exposure to flood losses, the federal government provides flood insurance through the NFIP. The NFIP has three key elements: identification of

flood hazard areas and risk; mitigation of flood losses through mandated local regulation of

construction in floodplains; and provision of flood insurance. Evidence to date suggests

that while its accomplishments are notable, in many respects the program has fallen short

when measured against its primary objectives. Flood hazard identification is incomplete.

Mitigation has failed to contain increasing exposure to property damage in floods and

14
coastal storms. And, market penetration of flood insurance may be low, in spite of the

availability of subsidized insurance rates for two-thirds of the buildings located in floodhazard areas. These conclusions, however, are based on circumstantial evidence and need

to be evaluated through systematic study.

Record Number: 171

Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French. (1981). Coping with floods: The land use management paradox. Journal of the American Planning Association 47(July), 289-300.

Keywords :

local government

Abstract: The authors surveyed 1,203 local political jurisdictions to measure their activities in floodplain management. The authors found that communities with the greatest exposure to the NFIP tend to have adopted the broadest, most stringent local programs. Yet,

these very communities were often the ones that had allowed more development of floodplains in the past. The authors also found that the NFIP was not effective in slowing

growth in the floodplains, partly because the communities that were experiencing the

greatest growth were also inclined to join the program, causing adverse selection, which

makes the paradox of the program apparent.

Record Number: 159

Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French with Beverly A. Cigler, Edward J. Kaiser, David

H. Moreau, and Bruce Stiftel. (1985). Floodplain Land Use Management: A National Assessment. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This book concentrates on floodplain management as a component of broader

urban programs to control floods that might also include structural measures, floodproofing of existing buildings, participation in the NFIP, preferential tax treatment, density

transfers, and public information programs. A major finding of the study is that management of land use in floodplains is most effective in communities that use a number of the

flood control instruments just mentioned and in which the goal of flood control is int egrated with other public objectives such as recreation, preservation of open space, and the

protection of natural areas.

Record Number: 178

Burby, Raymond J., Scott A. Bollens, James M. Holway, Edward J. Kaiser, David Mullan,

and John R. Sheaffer. (1988). Cities under Water: A Comparative Evaluation of Ten Cities'

Efforts to Manage Floodplain Land Use. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science,

University of Colorado.

Keywords :

land use

Abstract: The authors studied the efforts of ten cities to manage land use in floodplains

and conclude that floodplain management has significantly reduced annual flood damage

(a saving of $11 million per year in reduced losses). However, the authors believe that the

NFIP, by making floodplain structures safer through building standards and flood control

15
works and more financially secure through flood insurance, seems designed to stimulate

rather than retard consumers’ willingness to locate in floodplains.

Record Number: 186

Burby, Raymond J. and James M. Holway. (1990). The National Flood Insurance Program’s impacts on the development of riverine floodplains. In Challenge Ahead: Flood

Loss Reduction Strategies for the ‘90s. Boulder, CO: Institute for Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: The authors compared changes in floodplain development between 1976 and

1985 in ten cities and conclude that the NFIP and the floodplain management regulations it

has fostered in communities across the United States are having a measurable effect in reducing new development in riverine flood hazard areas.

Record Number: 452

Burby, Raymond. J. with Beverly A Cigler, Steven P., French, Edward J. Kaiser, Dale Roenigk, Dana Weist, and Dale Whittington. (1991). Sharing Environmental Risk: How to

Control Governments’ Losses in Natural Disasters. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Keywords :

natural disasters

Abstract: This book summarizes the results of an extensive study of public losses from

natural disasters during the 1980s and how those losses can be controlled through reforms

in federal, state, and local policy. The study, initiated in 1986, considered its objective to

provide a carefully conducted study that documents the magnitude and character of public

losses in over 130 natural disasters, describes a range of policy options for dealing with

those losses, and evaluates opportunities for and constraints on innovation and reform in

this policy arena. The study uses data from federal records to investigate local losses due to

natural disasters, a case study of the Whittier Narrows earthquake (October 1987) to demonstrate the wide variation in losses nearby governments experience in a large, presidentially declared disaster, and several surveys to evaluate the impact of federal policies on

local governments’ adoption of protective measures.

Record Number: 380

Burges, Stephen J. (1979). Analyses of uncertainty in flood plain mapping. Water Resources Bulletin, 15(1), 227-43.

Keywords :

mapping, water resource planning

Abstract: Components contributing to uncertainty in the location of the fringe of a mapped

floodplain are identified and examined to determine their relative importance. First-order

uncertainty analysis is used to provide a procedure for quantifying the magnitude of uncertainty in the location of the fringe. Application of the procedure indicated that one standard deviation of uncertainty in floodplain inundation width is about one-third of the mean

computed inundation width for several population-flood geometry combinations. Suggested mapping criteria, which directly incorporate uncertainty estimates, are given. While

these criteria are more suitable for use in developing areas than in floodplains that have

16
had extensive development, the analysis procedure can be used to accommodate property

owners who challenge the validity of estimated flood fringe boundaries. Use of uncertainty

analysis in floodplain mapping should enhance the credibility of the final plan.

Record Number: 383

Burn, Donald H. (1999). Perceptions of flood risk: A case study of the Red River Flood of

1997. Water Resources Research, 35, 3451-8.

Keywords :

public education, risk, risk perception

Abstract: Burn examines issues that affect an individual’s perceptions of risk associated

with national hazards in the context of the 1997 flood of the Red River in Manitoba, Canada. Information about risk perception came from ten public meetings held by the Manitoba Water Commission to review actions taken during the flood. The response to the flood

event varied between and within various locations in the Red River Valley. Flood damages

were limited in areas that were adequately prepared for the flood, where there was good

support from local government, and where recent experiences from the 1996 flood were

relevant. Areas that experienced widespread flood damage were those that were unable to

prepare in time because of misleading experience in 1996 and poor forecasts, or newly

flooded areas that lacked relevant flood experience and received limited warning and

minimal support from the local government. The greatest success occurred where planning

for the flood started early. The paper concludes that, “warnings of flood events should be

tailored to the experiences of the individuals in different areas since the unique experiences

of the individuals will lead to different responses.” However, because experience is a complex factor, there are limits to the benefits that can be derived from previous experience.

Two recommendations are made: (a) the experience of individuals and local government

officials should be used to revise and update the emergency flood response plan for an

area, and (b) public education immediately following a major flood event can increase

awareness of flood risks and the importance of developing and following an emergency

plan.

Record Number: 295

Campbell, W.A. and M.S. Heath, Jr. (1979). Legal Aspects of Flood Plain Management.

Water Resources Research Institute: Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina.

Keywords :

floodplain regulations, insurance, North Carolina

Abstract: The NFIP has made it possible for some landowners to obtain subsidized insurance protection against flood damages. As a condition of this protection, however, the local governments in which flood-prone land is located must adopt certain restrictions on the

use of land in the floodway and flood hazard areas. North Carolina’s legislative centerpiece for authorizing local floodplain regulations is the Floodway Act. This act was deficient both in terminology and in scope of coverage when examined in light of the NFIP’s

requirements. To remedy these deficiencies it is recommended that the act's coverage be

broadened to include flood hazard areas beyond the floodway, to include areas of coastal

flooding, and to delete the uses automatically permitted in the floodway. It is important for

the state to play a major coordination and advisory role in land-use regulation for flood

protection. Local governments need technical assistance in preparing and administering

17
the necessary regulatory measures, and the state has an important role to play in coordinating local efforts with the FIA and in overseeing the program. In addition, state property

must meet the federal requirements in order for the state to obtain insurance or to qualify as

a self-insurer. Statutory changes are suggested to meet these needs.

Record Number: 414

Chang, Semoon. (1984). Do disaster areas benefit from disasters? Growth and Change, 15,

24-31.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: “With the premise that recovery from a disaster is a process in which lost community assets are replaced by outside assistance, this study examined, on the basis of Hurricane Frederic data, how closely outside aid came toward making a complete recovery

possible.” The author found that the disaster counties in Alabama did not benefit from the

hurricane and that most of the disaster aid provided was not retained in the disaster area.

Record Number: 32

Changnon, Stanley, A, Jr. (1985). Research agenda for floods to solve policy failure. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 111, 54-64. Champaign, IL:

Illinois State Water Survey Division.

Keywords :

mitigation, nonstructural approaches

Abstract: For the first 60 years of the 20th Century, U.S. policy regarding floods was

aimed at flood control. In the next 20 years, policy shifted to a goal of mitigation. Ho wever, flood losses continued to rise and the Congress and others raised questions about the

causes of policy failure. The answer is complicated because flood policy involves four

changing issues, including the shift from federal to local-state responsibilities, the existence and form of the NFIP, the shift to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, and

the developing programs for emergency assistance. A comprehensive assessment of research needs reveals that policy must have a view of efficient use of floodplains, not just

loss reduction. The socioeconomic database is considered inadequate for many policy decisions, and our knowledge of floods is uneven, with much more known in the physical sciences than in the social sciences. Attention to interdisciplinary research involving economists, sociologists, political scientists, and geographers is needed to achieve better policymaking and flood hazard mitigation.

Record Number: 31

Changnon, Stanley A., Jr. (1987). Future flood research agenda for the United States. In

Flood Hydrology: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Flood Frequency and

Risk Analyses 14-17 May 1986. Louisiana State University.

Keywords :

mitigation, nonstructural approaches, structural approaches

Abstract: Flooding remains a major unresolved problem in the United States with losses

mounting after 60 years of largely structural efforts to mitigate loss. Hence, a major twoyear assessment of research needs to more effectively address flood mitigation was conducted within the context of our national shift to new federalism, the NFIP, the shift of

18
emphasis from structural to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, and the evolution in national programs of emergency assistance where flooding is but one of many hazards treated. Recommendations for research centered around six general themes: (a) more

attention to socioeconomic-political research; (b) a goal of efficient use of flood-prone

lands, not loss reduction; (c) the importance of interdisciplinary research (70 percent of all

115 recommended tasks are multidisciplinary); (d) the need to develop comprehensive data

banks and flood information centers; (e) orienting future research needs to user needs; and

(f) the need for continuing re-assessment of flood research every three years.

Record Number: 455

Changnon, Stanley A. Jr., ed. (1996). The Great Flood of 1993: Causes, Impacts, and Responses. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Keywords :

assessment, forecasters

Abstract: Through detailed case studies and sectoral analyses, this volume diagnoses the

social and economic impacts of the Midwest floods of 1993, assessing how resource managers, flood forecasters, public institutions, the private sector, and millions of volunteers

responded to it. This comprehensive evaluation of the 1993 flood examines the ways

floods are forecasted and monitored, the effectiveness of existing recovery processes, and

how the nation manages its floodplains. The flood offered major lessons for future flood

disasters, both to the public and private sectors, and these lessons are identified. The emphasis here is on the flood’s many impacts and the policy issues that they raise.

Record Number: 360

Changnon, Stanley A., Jr., R. Schicht, and R. Semonin (1983). Plan for Research on

Floods and their Mitigation in the United States. Final Report to the National Science

Foundation. Champaign, IL: Illinois State Water Survey.

Keywords :

hazard identification, mitigation

Abstract: Recent assessments of flood problems and issues are used to compile a comprehensive assessment of the research needed relevant to flooding and flood mitigation. The

assessment of the research needs, largely done by experienced researchers on floods, was

performed in the context of current and future policy issues affecting flood mitigation. This

effort identified four new major national issues or trends: (a) a shift in responsibilities from

federal to local and state entities; (b) the policy of the NFIP;(c) the shift of emphasis from

structural approaches to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, such as floodplain

management and zoning, coastal zone management, flood warning systems, evacuation

and relocation, flood insurance, and land acquisition; and (d) the recognition of the deve loping national programs in emergency assistance. The major conclusion of the assessment

is that much flood-related research must be interdisciplinary in nature. It identifies 115

high-priority research tasks in the fields of meteorology, hydrology and hydraulics, ecology, public health, economics, sociology, political science, and interdisciplinary fields. All

115 tasks met the criteria for critical research, namely, that the problem being addressed

will probably be solved by further research and that the cost of the research is justified by

the benefits.

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Record Number: 204

Chatam County, Georgia. (2000). Preparing a crisis communication plan. Presented at the

Project Impact Summit 2000, November 14-15, 2000. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, risk communication

Abstract: This presentation points out the need for communities to have a crisis communications plan to audit all vulnerabilities, establish guidelines for crisis communication coordination, state roles of key people and agencies, and precoordinate with other plans before

a crisis occurs. When a crisis occurs, the document suggests that communities assess the

incident, assemble a crisis team, communicate facts, and minimize rumors. It also suggests,

among others, that communities should activate a crisis center, designate a lead spokesperson, develop a crisis fact sheet, contact critical players, open a media center, and establish

guidelines for the news media.

Record Number: 205

Chatam Emergency Management Agency. (2000). Media guidelines. Presented at the Project Impact Summit 2000, November 14-15, 2000. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management , risk communication

Abstract: This presentation details the procedural guidelines to be employed whenever the

Chatham County (GA) Emergency Operations Center (EOC) is activated. The goal of

these guidelines is “to ensure the most rapid and comprehensive news coverage while permitting unimpeded emergency response operations.” Some of the suggested procedures

include a preliminary media briefing prior to activation of the EOC; after the initial activation of the EOC, allow the media, one station or network at a time, to take file footage

shots of the EOC; to make available a media office next to the press conference area in the

basement; reserve parking space for media vehicles; as developing conditions permit, to

conduct routine press conferences each hour according to pre-established schedules; and to

accommodate specific requests for information whenever possible.

Record Number: 315

Cheatham, L.R. (1975). A Case Study of Some Economic Aspects of the National Flood

Insurance Program. Mississippi State University: Water Resources Research Institute.

Keywords :

insurance, Mississippi

Abstract: Based on a study of Columbus, MS, this research was designed to determine if

subsidized, pre-FIRM insurance has been a cause of increases in capital investment on that

community’s floodplains. The scope was limited primarily to determining the effect on

new construction, on location decisions of businesses, and on land values. Analysis of

flood insurance statistics, amounts of new construction, location decisions, and data on

land values in Columbus revealed only insignificant evidence to substantiate the hypothesis that flood insurance has encouraged encroachment into floodplains. The results suggested that most firms did not view the flood hazard as being as great as other types of insurable hazards. Moreover, in general, both commercial and noncommercial properties

subject to flooding had shown greater increases in value than those of negligible flood ha zards. The only exceptions included those with extremely high-expected flood frequencies.

20
The effects of subsidized flood insurance on land values were relatively insignificant. Economic growth factors were primarily responsible for increases in values of land in floodplains. Lastly, the study revealed little evidence to support the hypothesis that subsidized

flood insurance stimulated encroachment. Federal disaster aid appeared to provide more

inducement to locate and remain on lands where flood losses were likely to be sustained.

Record Number: 33

Cheatham, L.R. (1979). An Assessment of Some Economic Effects of FIA Land Use Requirements on Urban Coastal Zone Development: Mississippi State University: Mississippi

State Division of Business Research.

Keywords :

economic impact, property values

Abstract: Land-use requirements for eligibility in the early NFIP did not cause any significant decreases in total annual construction in urban coastal floodplains along the Mississippi Coast. Construction activity in Zone A continued at high levels. The relatively

high cost of elevating residential structures, along with other factors unrelated to ordinances, caused some relocation of new construction to other areas of communities. The

inability to construct commercial structures to comply with ordinances and maintain functional utility prevented some commercial construction. The impacts on construction employment were negligible. The value of land and existing structures increased in communities, but less so in Zone A. The county’s total construction employment and income were

not affected by ordinances. In the typical community of Biloxi, less than half of total new

construction in Zone A was actually regulated due to exemptions for repairing, remodeling, and so on, not exceeding 50 percent of structure value. In this community, construction of regulated new structures decreased slightly, but patterns in nonresidential new

structures did not confirm any decrease. Total construction in Biloxi increased since ordinances were implemented.

Record Number: 268

Childers, Cheryl D. (1999). Elderly female-headed households in the disaster loan process.

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17(1), 99-110.

Keywords :

disaster assistance, social impacts

Abstract: The purpose of this exploratory research was to compare the income and approval rates of elderly single-female households and other types of households applying

for disaster aid. Households from two parishes involved in the flooding in and around New

Orleans, LA, in May 1995 who applied for federal loans via FEMA’s National Teleregistration Center were compared on demographics and outcomes. The analysis showed that

elderly single-female households were over represented in the population applying to

FEMA; they were two and one-half times as likely as other elderly households or nonelderly households to have incomes of $11,000 or lower; and three times less likely than other

elderly households to receive a low-interest loan. This study indicates that the current federal low-interest loan program does not adequately address the needs of poor elderly

women. Special initiatives are needed that target this population effectively.

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Record Number: 86

Christian Science Monitor. (1998). Buying back beaches. The Christian Science Monitor

90(199), 20, September 8.

Keywords :

erosion

Abstract: This editorial discusses efforts in the United States to prevent further erosion of

the country’s beaches and shorelines. It forecasts the percentage of people who will live

near the shore by 2025 and hypothesizes why changes to the NFIP could be effective. It

questions the validity of beach restoration projects, and discusses efforts by the federal

government to shift the cost of erosion prevention programs to states and local communities.

Record Number: 415

Clark, Charles S. (1993). Disaster response: Does the country need a new national strategy? CQ Researcher, 3, entire issue.

Keywords :

Hurricane Andrew

Abstract: “Natural disasters are becoming more frequent and more serious in the United

States. The property damage wrought by Florida’s Hurricane Andrew last year - quadruple

that of any previous calamity-has prompted government officials, insurers, scientists and

relief specialists to call for a new national strategy to deal with and prevent disasters.

Americans in hazard-prone areas are being asked to rethink their living situations, and the

federal government is considering a new national reinsurance fund that would stand behind

the commercial insurance industry in the event of unprecedented devastation.” This article

contains a map of the United States that locates natural disaster danger zones.

Record Number: 257

Clark, R.D. (1998). CAI comments to FEMA regarding national flood insurance program.

Washington, DC:FEMA.

Available at http://www.caionline.org/govt/advoc/fed/fema-flood-comments.cfm

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: The Community Associations Institute (CAI) represents the nation’s 205,000

condominium associations, cooperatives, and homeowner associations. In the opinion of

the CAI, “FEMA’s residential condominium/association building policy (RCBAP) contains a coinsurance requirement that places an undue penalty on community associations

and has skewed data for rate determinations.” CAI further suggested that “FEMA should

eliminate the coinsurance requirement, as there is no coinsurance requirement for any other

type of building in any of NFIP’s other programs. Eliminating the requirement will allow

for affordable premiums by way of lower coverage limits. In turn, more associations would

carry flood insurance allowing for a broader premium base to help FEMA absorb large

shock losses and help minimize adverse selection.” CAI also complained about FEMA’s

policy deductibles (limited to $1,000 and $5,000), and suggested that FEMA allow “for

higher deductibles so that associations can afford to carry flood insurance. Increased coverage will reduce the risk of loss due to the perils of flood, heavy rains or other water

sources. Attendant to higher deductibles should be dramatic reductions in rate. Since the

22
majority of flood claims occur in the first dollar layers of coverage, self insuring associations (those that choose high deductibles) will be rewarded by significant reductions in

premiums.”

Record Number: 90

Clemens, Petra and Jennifer R. Hietala. (1999). Risk of domestic violence after flood impact: Effects of social support, age, and history of domestic violence. Applied Behavioral

Science Review, 1999, 7(2), 199-207.

Keywords :

domestic violence, North Dakota

Abstract: Community professionals observed an increase in domestic violence during the

aftermath of the 1997 Grand Forks flood. In the past, research has documented emotional

symptoms that result from natural disasters, and separate studies have observed domestic

violence to result from these same emotional symptoms. No research was found, however,

specifically on the effects of natural disasters on domestic violence. The purpose of the

current study was to test the effects of a model of variables on domestic violence, including flood impact, the emotional symptoms, as well as other intervening variables that

might act as a buffer against the effects of flood impact. Results of this cross-sectional survey of 140 adults in Grand Forks ND indicated that domestic violence was significantly

greater among respondents after the flood. Flood impact led to increased levels of anxiety,

depression, and hostility. Whether these emotional symptoms subsequently led to increased domestic violence depended on the level of social support, the age of the respondent, and whether he/she had a history of domestic violence before the flood. Those with

lower social support, the elderly, and those with a prior history of violence were most affected. The results have implications for work with the elderly, with domestic violence

treatment and prevention programs, and with communities affected by floods.

Record Number: 123

Clinton, William J. (1995). Message to the Congress transmitting the report on floodplain

management. Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 31(10), 372-7.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This message focuses on the proposal to reform floodplain policy for the Mississippi River in the wake of the damage caused by massive floods in 1993. It discusses the

impact of the flood on agricultural and urban property owners, the construction of mainstream levees, and the conversion of wetlands to agriculture. The message concludes that

the conversion of floodplain wetlands to agriculture throughout the Mississippi River Basin has been extensive. Eighty percent of the floodplain wetlands of the Lower Mississippi

River have been cleared and converted to cropland. Clearing rates in much of the Upper

Basin and the Missouri River system have been comparable. The message also suggests

that the Mississippi River’s system of dams, levees, and river training works is awesome

but not sustainable over the long term: “People have gone too far in severing the river and

its tributaries from their floodplains. The message from the floods is that the Mississippi

wants to recapture the floodplains that historically were part of the river. It lies in wait for

major flood events to do this.” The message concludes by noting that: “A program of

floodplain restoration would go a long way towards creating a much more sustainable,

23
low-cost flood management system in the Mississippi River Basin than exists today.” The

message also suggests that the Corps of Engineers must reform how it spends federal dollars on flood control works in the basin, while the federal government expands the Wetland

Reserve Program created by the 1990 Farm Act in the Mississippi Basin.

Record Number: 258

Comerio, Mary C. (2000). Paying for the next big one. Issues in Science and Technology,

16(3), 65-72.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: The author states that private insurance companies were shocked by losses from

natural disasters such as Hurricane Andrew. Because of that, most companies no longer

offer disaster insurance along with a traditional homeowner policy in California, Florida,

and Hawaii. Coverage is available only through state-managed disaster insurance pools

with high premiums, high deductibles, and limited coverage. The author points out that

until 1996, disaster appropriations were designated as emergency funds and were therefore

exempt from budget limitations. The 104th Congress changed that rule, and now supplemental disaster appropriations require compensating cuts from other domestic programs.

Thus, the author argues, although the public believes that insurance is unnecessary because

FEMA will be there to pick up the pieces, the reality is that federal disaster recovery programs will be subject to political whims and partisan deals. To bolster disaster recovery,

new policies that promote shared risk and responsibility are urgently needed. The author

explains that, because of the limited availability of insurance and caps on federal spending,

FEMA has advocated establishing “disaster resistant communities.” Under this strategy,

seed funds would be provided to cities to promote mitigation of hurricane hazards by

building owners before disaster strikes in order to limit federal and personal recovery

costs. This program has enjoyed some success. However, the success of individual projects does not necessarily translate into regional or national programs. One of the limitations of this program is that, despite the fact that mitigation can reduce losses, the real estate market does not reward a building owner for such expenditures in higher rents or

higher property values. Similarly, FEMA has a buyout program in which homes and property in flood-prone communities are purchased and converted to parks or wetlands. Although this program has been a success in a few small towns in Illinois, Wisconsin, and

Oklahoma, most owners simply refuse to move or even elevate their homes. The author

argues that the promotion of predisaster mitigation by the government will need a combination of regulation and incentives. Tax credits are an obvious incentive, she notes, but she

also complains that they tend to go to those who would do the mitigation anyway. To reach

a large number of homeowners and some apartment owners, it is important to devise a

policy that taps into the real estate marketplace. The author concludes that, since FEMA

wants to promote mitigation as a cost cutter, the agency should promote policies to help

insurance companies return to the market and promote programs that incorporate safety

assessments into real estate transactions.

Record Number: 371

Casualty Actuarial Society, Committee on Ratemaking Principles. (1988). Statement of

Principles Regarding Property and Casualty Insurance Ratemaking.

24
Keywords :

insurance rates

Abstract: This statement was produced by the Casualty Actuarial Society to identify and

describe principles applicable to the determination and review of property and casualty insurance rates. The statement consists of: definitions, principles, considerations, and conclusions. The principles discussed in the statement provide the foundation for the deve lopment of actuarial procedures and standards that seek to protect the insurance system’s

financial soundness and promote equity and availability for insurance consumers.

Record Number: 120

Congressional Budget Office. (2000). CBO's Review of a Study of the Economic Effects of

Charging Actuarially Based Premium Rates for Federal Flood Insurance. Washington,

DC: Congressional Budget Office.

Available at http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=2449&from= 4&sequence=0

Keywords :

insurance, premium rates

Abstract: This document was submitted to the Subcommittee on Housing and Community

Opportunity of the House Committee on Banking and Financial Services. It reviews

FEMA’s study on actuarially based premiums, provides an overview of the study’s data,

methods, and limitations, and interprets the subnational results. It concludes that FEMA’s

findings should be interpreted primarily in qualitative terms, particularly with regard to the

results of individual communities and small groups of communities.

Record Number: 286

Conners, John B. (1998). Coastal Exposure and Community Protection: Hurricane Andrew's Legacy. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

coastal protection, hurricanes

Abstract: This book examines problems raised by destructive hurricanes with respect to

the growing concentrations of people and property in high-risk coastal areas. It also discusses the urgent need to provide better protection for people, buildings, and communities

through more rigorous construction standards and better enforcement of building codes,

flood insurance requirements, and land-use regulation in areas subject to hurricanes. It also

includes an appendix showing the value of insured coastal property exposures by state for

coastal counties on the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico.

Record Number: 70

Conrad, David R., Ben McNitt, and Martha Stout. (1998). Higher Ground: A Report on

Voluntary Property Buyouts in the Nation's Floodplains: A Common Ground Solution

Serving People at Risk, Taxpayers and the Environment. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.

Keywords :

buyouts, floodplain management

Abstract: This report reviews the status of voluntary property buyouts and relocations as a

strategy for floodplain management. In addition, the report analyzes the 18-year history of

repetitive flood losses to identify communities that may have significant potential to utilize

25
new nonstructural approaches to reduce flood hazards. The report provides recommendations for program and policy changes to improve floodplain management and to increase

the utilization of nonstructural approaches to reduce flood damages.

Some of the offered recommendations include: the need for federal, state, and local governments to coordinate and develop predisaster hazard-mitigation plans to facilitate timely,

coordinated hazard-mitigation efforts before and after floods occur; the need for Congress

and the Executive Branch to provide support for programs such as FEMA’s Project Impact

and to develop a flexible, consolidated, and streamlined voluntary buyout and relocation

assistance program; the need for FEMA and Congress to revise flood insurance rate schedules and community participation standards for the NFIP to provide increased incentives to

reduce flood risks; the need for FEMA to enforce the NFIP’s substantial damage requirement for elevation or removal of substantially damaged buildings after floods; the need for

Congress and the Executive Branch to eliminate the current bias in federal water resource

project planning and evaluation procedures that favor structural approaches for flood damage prevention and mitigation over nonstructural approaches; the need for Congress to reduce the basic cost-share for federally supported flood control projects to 50 percent, with

incremental cost-share incentives to promote flood hazard mitigation ranging to a maximum 65 percent federal cost-share; and the need for Congress and the Executive Branch to

increase levels of funding and support for programs that provide technical assistance to

states and communities for improving floodplain management and flood loss reductions

activities.

Record Number: 283

Cooney, Catherine M. (2000). NIEHS eyes potential threats from Hurricane Floyd. Environmental Science & Technology, 34(1), 8.

Keywords :

Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina

Abstract: This paper describes the long-term environmental and human damage of Hurricane Floyd in North Carolina. It also describes the role of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in monitoring damage in weather-related disasters. It also reports concerns on the contamination of soils and groundwater by chemicals, as well as the

risk for diseases due to polluted well waters.

Record Number: 1

Cordes, Joseph J. and Anthony M.J. Yezer. (1998). In harm’s way: Does federal spending

on beach enhancement and protection induce excessive development in coastal areas?

Land Economics, 74(1), 128-45.

Keywords :

coastal development, insurance

Abstract: Residential development on beaches grew faster in the past 32 years than residential development generally. In the 42 beachfront communities examined for this paper,

the average annual rate of growth in housing units (3-9 percent) was well above the nation

generally (2.4 percent) between 1960 and 1992. The authors offer an econometric model to

measure the extent to which this growth can be attributed to (a) demand for recreational

property; (b) public investments in shore protection (such as Corps of Engineer projects)

and (c) the NFIP. They conclude that, on balance, “the growth in beach front communities

26
has been prompted mainly by increased demand for recreation caused by rising income and

employment in inland areas. Federal flood insurance also appears to have encouraged additional shoreline development. But public investments in shore protection seem to have

had little or no effect” (p. 128). They go on to say the NFIP’s effect depends on whether

the insurance premium is subsidized. During the emergency phase of the program, before

flood insurance rate maps are available, the authors’ model suggests that the NFIP had a

significant positive effect on residential development, resulting in an increase of building

permits of about 50 percent over what they otherwise would have been. This finding is in

direct contrast to the finding of the General Accounting Office in 1982 that said the program had only marginal effect on development. It supports the findings by Shilling, Sirmans and Benjamin (1989) that during the NFIP’s emergency phase the program created

an incentive to develop as much land as possible before a FIRM was finished. Developers

recognized that property built after the map was in place would not qualify for subsidized

insurance rates. This is carried forward in the authors’ further finding that once a community moved into the regular (post-FIRM) phase of the program when insurance would be

available only at actuarial rates, the program did not precipitate growth or development.

Record Number: 124

Correia, F.N., M.D. Saraiva, F.N. Da Silva, and I. Ramos. (1999). Floodplain management

in urban developing areas. Part I - Urban growth scenarios and land-use controls. Water

Resources Management, 13(1), 1-21.

Keywords :

Europe, floodplain management

Abstract: Some of the most critical flood problems occur in urban areas where values at

risk are higher and damages tend to be larger than in nonurban areas. Fast developing urban regions raise problems because of the unsteady situation of these regions in terms of

catchment land-use and urban encroachment. A realistic approach to flood management in

these situations requires the consideration of urban growth scenarios and the simulation of

the corresponding flood conditions. Coastal towns are frequently located in floodplains and

are subject to flood hazard. This is the case for many coastal areas in Southern Europe that

are still developing fast due to in-migration. In such cases, flood management cannot be

disassociated from land-use management, and non-structural measures for flood control

can play a crucial role. It is important to make an ex-post evaluation of these measures in

areas where they have been adopted. These issues are addressed in two Portuguese catchments, representative of urban growth and related to flood problems in Portugal and other

Southern European regions. The Laje catchment is used for the ex-post evaluation of nonstructural measures, and the Livramento catchment is used for the modeling of urban

growth scenarios. Quantitative results and policy recommendations are presented based on

these two case studies. Floodplain management is better done with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), especially if it is linked to hydrologic and hydraulic modeling capabilities. The use of GIS for conducting these studies is presented in Part II of this article.

Record Number: 125

Correia, F.N., M.D. Saraiva, F.N. Da Silva, and I. Ramos. (1999). Floodplain management

in urban developing areas. Part II - GIS-based flood analysis and urban growth modeling.

Water Resources Management, 13(1), 23-37.

27
Keywords :

floodplain management, urban development

Abstract: In Part I of this article the very dynamic nature of floodplain management was

discussed and the need for modeling the urban growth processes and formulating scenarios

of urban development was emphasized. In this second part, the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for addressing those problems is presented. GIS have been recognized as a powerful means to integrate and analyze data from various sources in the context of comprehensive floodplain management. Adequate information and prediction capability is vital to evaluate alternative scenarios for flood mitigation policies and to improve

decision-making processes associated with floodplain management. A framework for the

comprehensive evaluation of flood hazard management policies is also addressed in this

article. This comprehensive approach to flood problems is more than an attitude or a philosophical starting point. It makes use of specific technological tools conceived to be used by

different actors, some of them being non-experts in flood analysis. These tools, based on

GIS, are appropriate for a participatory approach to the formulation of strategies for floodplain management because they help communicate with the public in a scientifically correct and yet rather simple manner.

Record Number: 391

Coy, Peter. (1999). Don't subsidize castles built on sand finance. BusinessWeek, September

27.

Keywords :

Hurricane Floyd

Abstract: Hurricane Floyd did more than smash real estate. By the time the cleanup and

rebuilding are complete, all U.S. taxpayers will have paid for Floyd through big payouts on

subsidized flood insurance as well as grants and low-cost loans to people living in federally designated disaster areas. The author believes that government policies thwart sensible

behavior. They make it too easy for people to live in beautiful but disaster-prone places

such as barrier beaches, floodplains, cliff sides, tinder-dry canyons, and seismic fault

zones. That’s one reason why financial losses from natural disasters are growing at a rate

faster than the economy itself is expanding. The solution isn’t some elaborate new government disaster-relief program. In most cases, the best thing the government can do is to

get out of the way and let the free market do its work. James Lee Witt, the director of

FEMA, advocates denying subsidized flood insurance to people who make repeated claims

and refuse to take preventive measures, ranging from sealing their basements to raising

their houses on stilts. A version of the proposal was introduced in the House of Representatives this summer as the Two Floods and You Are Out of the Taxpayer's Pocket Act.

Meanwhile, the Coastal Barriers Act is up for reauthorization. A revamped disasterinsurance program would not only save money, it would save lives. With the proper incentives, people will choose to live in safe homes on safe ground and everyone will benefit.

Record Number: 179

Cross, John A. (1985). Flood Hazard Information Disclosure by Realtors. Working paper

#53. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado.

Keywords :

development

28
Abstract: Based on a survey of realtors in the lower Florida Keys, the author found that

although disclosure of flood hazard information seemed to have a positive effect on decisions to buy flood insurance, it did not diminish the growth of population in flood hazard

areas of the Keys.

Record Number: 180

Cross, John A. (1989). Flood insurance and coastal development. The Florida Geographer,

23, 22-45.

Keywords :

development

Abstract: Based on a survey of realtors in the lower Florida Keys, the author concluded

that the availability of flood insurance may have contributed to the increased occupation of

the coastal flood zones.

Record Number: 269

Cross, John A. (1990). Longitudinal changes in hurricane hazard perception. International

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 8(1), 31-7.

Keywords :

Florida, risk perception

Abstract: Data on perceptions of the hazards associated with hurricanes, periodically collected over a 12-year period from the same sample of Lower Florida Keys residents, were

analyzed to determine what changes in hazard perception and mitigation behavior had occurred. Contrary to hypotheses that concerns about hazards decline with length of residence in hazard zones, overall perceptions that both hurricane winds and flooding are

problems facing local residents have increased. Awareness of the hurricane threat remains

high, with two-thirds of the residents stating that it is likely that the area will experience a

damaging hurricane within the next ten years, even though a major hurricane has not occurred within the area for nearly three decades.

Record Number: 35

Crowell, Mark. (1997). Coastal erosion and the national flood insurance program. Shore

and Beach, 65, 24-6.

Keywords :

coastal erosion, economic impact, mapping

Abstract: The National Flood Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA) was enacted into law on

September 23, 1994. Section 577 of the Act requires that FEMA to submit a report to Congress that evaluates the economic impact of erosion and erosion mapping on coastal communities and on the NFIP. Section 577 follows many years of debate concerning whether

the effects of erosion should be considered in mapping flood risk zones and setting rates

for flood insurance rates.

Record Number: 34

Crowell, Mark, Stephen P. Leatherman, and M.K. Buckley, (1991). Historical shoreline

change: Error analysis and mapping accuracy. Journal of Coastal Research, 7(3), 839.

Keywords :

coastal erosion, mapping

29
Abstract: FEMA is assessing technical methodologies and procedures for the collection,

analysis, and computation of coastal erosion rates. This assessment is being performed to

determine the feasibility of generating such data for use as a basis for administering Section 544 of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1987 (commonly known as

the Upton-Jones amendment to the NFIP). It is likely that the methodology selected will

involve the use of historical data compared with current shoreline information. Several

states use this fundamental approach to predict shoreline location based on extrapolation of

past changes in developing data to support setback programs. Requirements contemplated

for data development include: (a) standardization of a methodology for developing data on

erosion rates; (b) consistency in application; (c) capability of being applied in a timely

manner; and (d) accuracy commensurate with program needs. This paper addresses the last

issue by examining sources of errors inherent in the raw data. Source data include historical and recent National Ocean Service (NOS) T-sheets (produced ca. 1840s to present) and

air photos (taken ca. late 1930s to present) as well as any other types of accurate map and

photographic data. A study of this nature requires extensive preparation of the required

source material prior to digitization. For example, the high water line or bluff line must be

identified and annotated on the air photos and maps. Furthermore, the source material must

undergo extensive pre-digitization and postdata compilation accuracy checks and reliability assessments necessary to screen inaccurate maps and air photos. For example, older

historical maps with obsolete coordinates must be updated to current standards and analyzed to insure that distortion has not rendered the map inaccurate and unusable. In addition, computerized techniques (e.g., metric mapping, analytical stereoplotter) or manual

techniques (such as the Zoom Transfer Scope) must be used to correct for distortion inherent in aerial photography.

Record Number: 427

Dacy, Douglas C. and Howard Kunreuther. (1969). The Economics of Natural Disasters.

New York, NY: The Free Press.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: The book’s main objective is to formulate a clear-cut case for developing a

comprehensive system of disaster insurance as an alternative to what the authors consider

to be a paternalistic federal policy. To do so, the authors searched the literature relevant to

insurance for disasters. These studies and reports were primarily concerned with organizational problems during the emergency postdisaster period and only occasionally referred to

economic phenomena. The authors’ treatment of the economics of disaster can be conveniently divided into three parts: (a) the framework for analysis; (b) empirical evidence on

short-term recuperation behavior; and (c) the capital and labor needs facing disaster areas.

The authors also critically examine the federal government’s role in providing disaster relief to the private sector. The Small Business Administration (SBA) was the principal

agency offering low-interest loans for replacing or repairing damaged homes and bus inesses. The authors explore the inequities of the SBA program and suggest alternative

policies for eliminating these effects. They conclude that comprehensive disaster protection under the alternative system should lead not only to a more efficient and equitable recovery but would also curtail the growth of hazard-prone areas that resulted from the existing relief program.

30
Record Number: 443

Daniels, R. Steven and Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels. (2000). Transforming Government: The

Renewal and Revitalization of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Birmingham,

AL: The PricewaterhouseCoopers Endowment for the Business of Government.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: In this study, the researchers investigated the evolution of the disaster assistance

programs of FEMA from the Bush administration to the Clinton administrations. The federal response to Hurricane Hugo, the Loma Prieta Earthquake, and Hurricane Andrew revealed serious flaws in FEMA’s structure and procedures. Extraordinary tensions existed

between the secretive National Preparedness Directorate and the more public State and local Programs and Support Directorate. The Bush administration frequently bypassed

FEMA and centralized response in the White House. The administration’s response to

catastrophic disasters was largely reactive. Little of the funding went toward mitigation of

future disasters. The media, Congress, and several evaluative organizations including the

General Accounting Office, the National Academy of Public Administration, and FEMA’s

Inspector General all underscored the shortcomings of FEMA’s structure and operations.

Learning from the Bush experience, the Clinton administration moved quickly to recast

federal disaster response. President Clinton appointed James Lee Witt, Arkansas’s eme rgency services director as director of FEMA and elevated the FEMA’s director to cabinetlevel status. Director Witt moved to redefine FEMA’s mission, reorganize the agency

around basic emergency management functions, make FEMA more consumer oriented,

rebuild the staff’s commitment to FEMA’s mission, and redirect the focus of disaster assistance toward mitigation. Consequently, media and political criticism has diminished.

However, FEMA is not free from problems, with issues, regarding financial management

and decision criteria still remaining to be addressed.

Record Number: 144

David, Sheila D., Sarah Baish, and Betty Hearn Morrow. (1999). Uncovering the hidden

costs of coastal hazards. Environment, 41(8), 10-19.

Keywords :

coastal hazards, Hurricane Hugo

Abstract: This paper focuses on the hidden costs of coastal hazards, like business interruptions, social problems, disruption of governmental services, and damage to natural resources and ecosystems. This article reports the immediate hidden or unreported costs of

traumatic coastal disasters, particularly those related to Hurricane Hugo in 1989.

Record Number: 401

Dawdy, David R. and Dennis P. Lettenmaier. (1987). Initiative for risk-based flood design.

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 113(8).

Keywords :

modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: A recent report of the Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data found

that there is “no current procedure for assigning an exceedance probability to the probable

maximum flood (PMF) ... in a reliable, consistent, or credible manner.” This conclusion

was used as justification for continuation of the current, quasideterministic, PMF-based

31
spillway design methods used by all federal agencies. This is despite criticism by both researchers and practitioners that PMF-based methods tend to lead to a false sense of security and to misallocation of resources for dam safety improvements. As an alternative to

perpetuation of the status quo, the writers outline four general areas in which research

should be promoted for improved estimation of extreme floods, as well as research aimed

at development of a method for incorporation of risk information into spillway design. The

writers believe that if the federal agencies were to promote research in the areas suggested

the current stagnation that has set in would be broken, and the self-fulfilling prophecy that

there are no alternatives to current practice could no longer be justified.

Record Number: 372

Deloitte & Touché. (1999). Evaluation of the National Flood Insurance Program's Underwriting and Loss Adjustment Processes.

Keywords :

insurance, underwriting

Abstract: This consultant report provides recommendations to improve the NFIP’s operations by identifying practical changes to the underwriting/rating and claims processes and

to FIA controls. Although the NFIP’s requirements and controls (and compliance with

them) were found to be generally adequate to ensure effective management of the NFIP,

and the degree of compliance with NFIP underwriting/rating and claims requirements is

adequate, areas for improvement were noted in four major functional categories: operational/communications, underwriting, claim/loss adjusting, and financial reporting/audit.

These functional areas correspond to areas in which opportunities for improvements in the

process and controls areas were detected.

Record Number: 373

Deloitte & Touché. (1999). NFIP Financial Stabilization Project.

Keywords :

financing, modeling, risk transfer

Abstract: FEMA hired Deloitte and Touché to investigate alternatives to current financing

from the Department of the Treasury for the NFIP. This report details the consultant’s research findings on agreed upon risk financing and risk transfer options, including the identification and interviewing of organizations with relevant option and commercial financing

experience. The report discusses the development of a stochastic model using underlying

FIA assumptions to simulate the NFIP’s total financing costs over a ten-year period. The

total financing activity and stabilization effect (i.e., variability) of the following eight scenarios are reviewed: (a) bank financing; (b) financial reinsurance; (c) catastrophe bonds -

interest and principal at risk; (d) catastrophe bonds - interest at risk; (e) program capitalization; (f) funding the premium differential; (g) Treasury financing; and (h) capitalization

from congressional appropriations. The document concludes that the first four scenarios,

which involve commercial financing activities, add costs to the NFIP’s operations. It also

concludes that scenario iii would be the least expensive (99 percent nonexceedence level).

The economic value of scenarios i and ii varied depending on the nonexceedence level reviewed. Scenario i was the least expensive at low exceedence levels due to the 100 basispoint fee charged on the unused bank facility. Scenario ii is the least expensive at the mid32
exceedence levels. The remaining scenarios include congressional appropriations and assume appropriations are provided on an interest-free basis.

Record Number: 293

Diggins, William. (1980). Necessary decisions? Disaster mitigation policy on the local

level. Paper presented at the American Sociological Association, New York, NY.

Keywords :

disasters, government intervention, risk, modeling

Abstract: A model of “administrative decision making” in local communities is tested for

the case of the policy of land-use and building regulations for the purpose of mitigating

flood risks. This model implies that the extent of the problem in the community causes local decision makers to perceive the problem as being serious, this then causes appropriate

decisions to be made to alleviate the problem. Multiple regression analysis of flood data

from the Red Cross and interviews with 432 mayors and council members in 100 local

communities shows that the extent of the flood problem in local communities has positive

effects on the officials’ perceptions of the extent and seriousness of the local flood problem. However, these factors have little effect on the officials’ attitudes toward policies affecting the mitigation of flood risks.

Record Number: 36

Dixon, L.S. (1990). Inclusion of wetlands in designated floodway studies. In Hydraulics/Hydrology of Arid Lands (H2AL). New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Keywords :

environmental protection, mitigation, wetland protection

Abstract: The traditional methods and procedures used by hydrologists and hydraulic engineers to define floodways and floodway fringe areas are changed so that designated

floodways are adjusted to encompass wetlands, resulting in better protection of the nation’s

diminishing wetlands and a reduction in development problems due to permit requirements

pursuant to Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Hydrologic studies to define floodways

and floodway fringe areas are an important tool in the management of floodplains. A

minimum standard for defining floodways has been developed under the NFIP. Implementation of more stringent standards is a local community decision. By proposing the inclusion of wetlands in the determination of designated floodways, hydrologists and hydraulic engineers have an opportunity to contribute to the protection of wetlands and to

assist in better defining floodway fringe areas available for development.

Record Number: 306

Donnelly, William A. (1989). Hedonic price analysis of the effect of a floodplain on property values. Water Resources Bulletin, 25(3), 581-6.

Keywords :

land value, modeling, property values

Abstract: The effects of a floodplain location on the market value for property is controversial, with the conventional wisdom being that buyers are myopic. Previous statistical

tests have proven inconclusive in deciding the issue. Herein, a theoretical model, that of

hedonic price indexes, is posited and tested, using housing sales characteristics data ob33
tained from a Multi-List Service cooperative. This study suggests that home buyers do

adjust the purchase price for houses within a floodplain, and this amounts to, on average,

just over 12 percent. The data are from a small midwestern town in which the last severe

flooding occurred a decade ago.

Record Number: 407

Douglas, James, M. and Brad Hail. (1986). Risk information for floodplain management.

Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 112(4).

Keywords

communication, risk assessment

Abstract: The United States began structural flood measures in the 1950s and added complementary nonstructural measures in the 1950s. Nevertheless, national flood damage totals continue to increase. Reversal of this trend will require better communication among

regulatory agencies, experts assessing risk, and floodplain occupants. Modern technology

provides tools to measure specific risks and communicate the hazards of property loss and

personal dangers to individuals able to reduce the losses. One problem with the existing

communication, based on a safety standard tied to the 100-year floodplain, is that some

locations in the 100-year floodplain are subject to only trivial damage by shallow flooding,

while other locations outside that boundary are subject to major devastation and threats of

drowning by floods that could be as common as the true 25-year event. Systematic estimation and dissemination of the risk of economic loss can reduce flood losses, vary community programs with the hazard to life and property, and help every floodplain occupant accommodate more effectively with his site-specific problem.

Record Number: 270

Driscoll, Paul and Michael B. Salwen. (1996). Riding out the storm: Public evaluations of

news coverage of hurricane Andrew. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(3), 293-03.

Keywords :

Florida, Hurricane Andrew, risk communication, risk perception

Abstract: Residents of South Florida who experienced Hurricane Andrew evaluated the

credibility of the hurricane-related information from television as more trustworthy than

that from other sources. Contrary to what was hypothesized, the broadcast medium of television (but not radio) was evaluated on the dimension of expertise as being higher than

newspapers. As predicted, interpersonal sources were judged high on trustworthiness, but

much lower on expertise than any of the mass media sources. The findings indicated that

when people wanted factual information and self-help information, they expressed reservations about the credibility of other people (friends, neighbors, or relatives). In such

cases, there was a marked tendency to place emphasis (or faith) in television.

Record Number: 317

Dunn, S., R. Friedman, and S. Baish. (2000). Coastal erosion: Evaluating the risk. Environment, 42(7), 36-45.

Keywords :

insurance

34
Abstract: The risk to property in the United States from coastal erosion is discussed.

Coastal erosion caused by rising sea levels, large storms, and powerful ocean waves is

wearing away the 10,000 miles of U.S. ocean and Great Lake shoreline and could destroy

85,000 houses over the next 60 years. In March, the H. John Heinz III Center for Science,

Economics, and the Environment completed a nationwide study of the effect of erosion on

the NFIP and other federal programs and on coastal communities. The findings suggest

that property owners must be informed of the erosion risks that they face. Furthermore,

erosion risk must be included in local land-use planning, state coastal management, and

private and public lending and insurance practices.

Record Number: 271

Emani, Srinivas and Jeanne X. Kasperson. (1996). Disaster communication via the information superhighway: Data and observations on the 1995 hurricane season. International

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(3), 321-42.

Keywords :

risk communication, risk perception

Abstract: Although researchers and practitioners have been using the Internet to communicate information on disasters, few systematic studies have assessed the type of information that is or should be communicated via this medium. This paper presents an exploratory, yet systematic, study of FEMA's coverage of the 1995 hurricane season via e-mail

and the World Wide Web. An overview analysis of the 1995 season shows that FEMA

distributed 184 e-mail messages of which 138 were hurricane-related and 46 were nonhurricane-related. Following this overview analysis, a case study is presented of FEMA's coverage of Hurricane Opal, which was associated with significant impacts in Florida. The

focus of analysis in the case study is a type of e-mail message called the situation report

(sitrep), which FEMA used to communicate information on disasters. The number, timing,

and content of sitreps that FEMA issued for Hurricane Opal are analyzed and the results

used to discuss the agency's communication efforts via the Internet.

Record Number: 106

Evatt, Dixie S. (2000). Does the national flood insurance program drive floodplain deve lopment? Journal of Insurance Regulation, 18(4), 497.

Keywords :

development, floodplain management

Abstract: Presents a review of 36 studies in the United States that assessed whether the

NFIP has influenced development in floodplains. The author provides an historical perspective of the program; lists factors to be considered about the flood insurance program,

and points out the consequences of outlawing federal insurance for sensitive coastline. The

author concludes that there is insufficient empirical evidence to support the popular belief

that the NFIP is a primary factor in floodplain development today. Neither does the empirical evidence lend itself to the opposite conclusion.

Record Number: 339

Faber, Scott. (1996). On Borrowed Land: Public Policies for Floodplains. Cambridge,

MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

35
Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: Flooding is a natural hydrologic occurrence, but flood-related damage to property and the risks to human life are exacerbated by urban growth and other intensive deve lopment in floodplains. The conventional response has been to construct ever-larger flood

control systems, but floodplains are not fixed and they defy simply structural solutions.

The report considers ecological, economic and legal issues of land use in floodplains

through case studies of local responses to the disastrous 1993 floods in the Midwest, as

well as other river basin management programs around the country.

Record Number: 489

Faber, Scott and Constance Hunt. (1994). River management post-1993: The choice is

ours. Water Resources Update, Spring (95), 21-5.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River

Abstract: Largely the result of hydrologic alterations, the upper Mississippi River basin

has become destabilized and is no longer physically compatible with its climate. The river

is experiencing higher and more frequent flood stages and lower flows during dry seasons.

The result is an unpredictable river that can flood farmhouses miles from its normal channels during floods and render barges marooned during droughts. Due to the Midwest

floods of 1993, the opportunity is in hand to reverse current watershed management and

restore some of the natural conditions that made the Mississippi River an unusually rich

ecosystem. This article considers the policy implications of these floods focusing on

changing the funding priorities on the federal level to favor programs that enhance the

ability of the landscape to retain and filter water with their floodplains and programs that

provide technical and financial assistance to landowners for wetland restoration.

Record Number: 272

Faupel, Charles E., Susan P. Kelley, and Thomas Petee. (1992). The impact of disaster

education on household preparedness for hurricane Hugo. International Journal of Mass

Emergencies and Disasters, 10(1), 5-24.

Keywords :

South Carolina, risk communication, risk perception

Abstract: This article examines the impact of disaster education on hurricane preparedness

among residents in Charleston, SC. The article examines: (a) the impact of participation in

disaster education programs generally; (b) the impact of hurricane experience as a type of

education; and (c) the impact of participation in earthquake specific education programs to

determine whether there is any transference of knowledge across agent types. Two indices

of preparedness are used: household planning activities and adaptive response activities.

Participation in some type of disaster education program was strongly related to the preparedness measures. Hurricane experience had some minimal effect on adaptive response

but not on household planning. Participation in the earthquake specific education programs

was not a significant predictor when controlling for other variables.

Record Number: 156

FEMA. (1982). National Flood Insurance Programs Act. Washington, D.C: FEMA.

36
Keywords :

laws, regulations

Abstract: This publication represents an update to June 1982 of the consolidated laws

governing all aspects of the NFIP. This document covers the program responsibilities of

both the FIA (insurance) and the State and Local Programs and Support Directorate

(floodplain management engineering).

Record Number: 27

FEMA. (1983). Improving the Flood Insurance Study Process. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

cost analysis, mapping

Abstract: The Committee on Flood Insurance Studies Research of the National Research

Council’s Advisory Board on the Built Environment reviewed the NFIP’s operations and

concluded that considerable progress has been made but that there exist many operational

concerns related to the need for: (a) continuation of flood insurance studies and mapping in

areas not yet studied; (b) restudy of areas previously studied; (c) improved flood insurance

study products; and (d) more economical and efficient methods for the preparation of flood

insurance studies and restudies.

Record Number: 73

FEMA. (1989). Guidance for Conducting Community Assistance Contacts and Community

Assistance Visits. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

community assistance, floodplain management

Abstract: This manual provides guidance to FEMA employees, states, and other federal

departments and agencies conducting Community Assistance Contacts (CACs) and Community Assistance Visits (CAVs) under the NFIP’s Community Assistance Program

(CAP). The major objective of the NFIP’s CAP is to ensure that communities participating

are achieving the program’s objectives for the reduction of flood losses. FEMA uses CACs

and CAVs to identify floodplain management issues and opportunities to assist communities’ management of their floodplains.

Record Number: 207

FEMA. (1991). Detailed Chronology of Significant National Flood Insurance Program

Events. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

NFIP

Abstract: This document contains a comprehensive but concise chronology of significant

events affecting the NFIP. Events appear briefly summarized in the document by month

and year of occurrence. The chronology begins in August 1956, pointing out that it was

then when the Federal Flood Insurance Act of 1956 became law. The chronology ends by

with the initiation of the Mortgage Portfolio Protection Program in January 1991.

Record Number: 398

FEMA. (1993). Audit of Flood Insurance Reinspection Activities. Washington, DC: Office

of Inspector General, FEMA.

37
Keywords :

audit of claims, insurance

Abstract: The primary goal of the FIA’s reinspection program is to ensure that claims are

properly paid. This report finds that the program is not accomplishing its goal. Specifically, procedures to reinspect claims written by Write Your Own (WYO) companies are

much more lenient than those used for direct claims, and the number of WYO claims reinspected is much smaller than that for direct claims. Moreover, the FIA does not have an

effective internal control system to track or monitor the results of reinspections. The report

therefore recommends that the FIA use uniform reinspection procedures for a test period to

demonstrate the effect of using different procedures, increase the number of WYO claims

inspected, and have WYO companies notify FIA within a few days of a claim filing to allow FIA to reinspect the claim before payment. Furthermore, the report recommends that

the FIA develop policies and procedures to track recommended claim adjustments and any

subsequent repayments.

Record Number: 466

FEMA. (1994). Audit of FEMA's Mitigation Programs. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: This report covers the audit of FEMA’s and selected states’ mitigation activities.

It addresses initiatives to make mitigation a priority, obstacles to overcome, and suggestions for improving mitigation activities. The audit concludes that an effective mitigation

strategy depends on state and local governments being willing and able to plan and fund

such activities. All administrations and directorates within FEMA need to cooperate as do

other federal agencies with responsibilities for mitigation. More streamlining of postdisaster grants can be achieved. Recovery programs need to emphasize mitigation. Measures of

effectiveness must be developed. Innovative approaches should be encouraged.

Record Number: 333

FEMA. (1995). The 50% rule: The eligibility of facilities for replacement under 44 CFR

206.226(d)(a). Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

building replacement, public assistance,

Abstract: This document covers the interpretation of FEMA’s regulations that govern the

cost of replacement for damaged facilities. The regulation states that “a facility is considered repairable when disaster damages do not exceed 50 percent of the cost of replacing a

facility to its pre-disaster condition, and it is feasible to repair the facility so that it can perform the function for which it was being used as well as it did immediately prior to the disaster.” The document states that the determination of eligibility of a facility for replacement will be calculated by the following fraction: The cost of repair of the disaster damage

(repair of the damaged components only, using present day materials and methods) divided

by the cost of replacement of the facility with a facility of equivalent capacity, using current codes for new construction. If this calculation is greater than 50 percent, then replacement is considered to give a better return on the taxpayers’ investment and is thus eligible

for funding.

38
Record Number: 397

FEMA. (1995). Audit of the Accuracy of Flood Zone Ratings. Washington, DC: Office of

Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance ratings

Abstract: This audit found that there were zone misratings in at least 27 percent of the

policies in the sample, and 10 percent of the sample policies had incorrect premiums. Accordingly, the report concludes that the FIA needs to improve its internal controls by expanding its review programs to include verification of rating factors. An obstacle to this is

the complexity of the rating process, particularly the policy of administrative grandfathering. The report recommends assessing the impact of eliminating administrative grandfathering, and, if feasible, to begin phasing it out. It further recommends the establishment of

a quality control program to monitor the accuracy of premium ratings and to identify

problem areas. This will require improving the accuracy and content of FIA’s database on

flood insurance policies. Lastly, the report recommends that the Mitigation Directorate establish a committee that includes map users to review mapping procedures and determine

cost-effective ways to increase the detail on FIRMs to make them more user-friendly.

Record Number: 209

FEMA. (1995). Guidelines and Specifications for Wave Elevation Determination and V

Zone Mapping. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

flood management, mapping

Abstract: Coastal communities generally have unique flood hazards because of storm

surges and wave action from large open water bodies. Defining Coastal High Hazard Areas

(V Zones) requires determination of wave elevations associated with the 100-year flood.

FEMA compiled the Guidelines to specify technical policies and procedures to be employed in the preparation of coastal Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) and restudies. The

Guidelines provide unified instructions on the application of the methodologies used to

determine the coastal flooding elevation hazards set forth in the FIS, and on the delineation

of the flood elevations and hazards on the FIRM. The Guidelines are not applicable to

studies on Great Lakes coasts because different analysis procedures and computer models

are applied there.

Record Number: 393

FEMA. (1995). Options for Reducing Public Assistance Program Costs. Washington, DC:

Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance, public assistance

Abstract: This inspection discusses potential cost reductions through changes to eligibility

criteria for public assistance grants. Options are presented in the four primary areas of

building codes and standards, repair versus replacement, private nonprofit organizations,

and alternate projects. These options include amending the Stafford Act to limit funding to

the federal estimated cost of returning a facility to its predisaster condition regardless of

code requirements, to eliminate public assistance grants for private nonprofit organizations,

and to eliminate the opportunity to accept reduced funding to use public assistance grants

39
for alternate projects. The report also concluded that costs could be reduced by revising 

FEMA’s regulations to raise the cost repair threshold that triggers replacement of a public 

facility. In addition, the inspection identifies cost saving opportunities achieved from 

shortening the appeals process, depreciating building contents when calculating replacement costs, and converting eligibility for publicly owned parks, recreational facilities, and 

income producing facilities from public assistance grants to federal loans. 

Record Number: 208

FEMA. (1995). The Zone A Manual: Managing Floodplain Development in Approximate

Zone A Areas: A Guide for Obtaining and Developing Base (100-year) Flood Elevations.

Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping

Abstract: This guide was developed for use by community officials, property owners, developers, surveyors, and engineers who may need to determine Base (100-year) Flood Elevations (BFEs) in special flood hazard areas designated as approximate Zone A on

FEMA’s Flood Insurance Rate Maps. One of the primary goals of this document is to provide a means to determine BFEs at a minimal cost. This guide is primarily intended for use

in riverine and lake areas where flow conditions are fairly uniform (i.e., those that do not

involve unusual flow regimes no areas that experience alluvial fan flooding. The guide is

not appropriate for use in Zone V (velocity) areas or coastal Zone A areas that are subject

to flooding due to storm surge from hurricanes and other coastal storms.

Record Number: 394

FEMA. (1996). Unintended Consequences: The High Cost of Disaster Assistance for Park

and Recreational facilities. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

mitigation, natural disasters, park and recreation facilities, mitigation

Abstract: This report focuses on six areas that accounted for considerable disaster grants

for park and recreational facilities between FY 1989-95: debris removal, building damage,

revenue-generating facilities, marinas, golf courses, and tree and shrub replacement. The

report discusses cost reducing options in these areas and the associated impacts their implementation would incur. The options discussed include: (a) limiting funding for parks

and recreational facilities to debris removal only; (b) limiting funding to the repair/replacement of recreational buildings only; (c) excluding revenue-generating facilities

from receiving any grant funding; (d) eliminating funding for marinas and golf courses

with the exception of debris removal; and, (e) eliminating funding for trees, shrubs, and

other planting replacement for all recreational facilities other than parks. The report makes

no recommendations.

Record Number: 109

FEMA. (1997). Guidance on Estimating Substantial Damage Using the NFIP Residential

Substantial Damage Estimator. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

estimation of damage

40
Abstract: Communities that participate in the NFIP often have difficulty determining

whether structures meet the program’s definition of being substantially damaged. This is

particularly true after a major flood or other disaster in which large numbers of buildings

have suffered damage and there is a need to provide damage determinations so that reconstruction can begin. Structures in special flood hazard areas that are substantially damaged

must be brought into compliance with the minimum requirements of that community’s

laws or ordinances and the NFIP. To assist communities in making such determinations,

FEMA developed the Residential Substantial Damage Estimator software, which provides

guidance in estimating building value and damage costs for both single family and manufactured homes. Based on the NFIP’s regulatory requirements, the software is intended to

be used in conjunction with industry-accepted, residential-cost estimating guides. The

guidance document provides information on how to use the software as well as how to

collect data and conduct field inspections.

Record Number: 460

FEMA. (1997). Modernizing FEMA's Flood Hazard Mapping Program: A Progress Report. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: This report is the initial report of a task force convened to plan the future of

FEMA's Flood Hazard Mapping Program. It surveys the current state of the program, presents a visionary plan for the future, and details the strategies for implementing the plan.

The cornerstones of the modernization plan are to: (a) develop accurate and complete flood

hazard information for the entire nation; (b) provide that information in a readily available,

easy-to-use format; and (c) alert and educate the public regarding the risks of flood ha zards. This plan will use existing digital engineering, mapping, information management,

and electronic communication technologies to improve the program in four primary areas:

map accuracy and completeness; map utility; map production; and public awareness and

customer service. A cost-benefit analysis is currently being conducted.

Record Number: 23

FEMA. (1997). Multihazard Identification and Risk Assessment. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

hazard identification, risk assessment

Abstract: This document summarizes the findings of a research project to clarify and

document previous efforts to identify natural and technological hazards and to assess associated risks. The report is one part of an effort to develop a national approach to mitigating

human and economic loss caused by disasters. The chapter on floods includes sections on

hazard identification; risk assessment; research, data collection, and monitoring activities;

and mitigation approaches. Among others, the report concludes that the large influx of

people to coastal areas over the past 30 years resulted in thousands of residents who are

unaware of the hazard associated with hurricanes and floods in coastal high-hazard zones.

Also, the report claims that in the immediate shorefront area affected by tropical cyclones,

relocation of exposed utility lines, water mains, sewer lines, and roadways has been effective in mitigating damage. The report warns that land-use controls and regulatory setback

programs in coastal high hazard zones can be difficult because of intense development

41
pressure and high property values. The report states that the NFIP has probably been the

most dominant positive influence on floodplain management over the past 15 years. However, the majority of buildings exposed to identified flood hazards remain uninsured.

Record Number: 390

FEMA. (1997). Strategic Plan FY 1998 through FY 2007 with Operational Objectives

through FY 2003: Partnership for a Safer Future. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Available at http://www.fema.gov/library/splan.pdf.

Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: This update of FEMA’s 1994 strategic plan fulfills the requirements of the Government Performance and Results Act. The plan describes FEMA’s role as leader for the

Nation's emergency management system and its specific responsibilities, mission, vision,

eight core values, and strategic planning template. The plan then identifies the agency’s

three strategic goals: (a) protect lives and prevent the loss of property from all hazards; (b)

reduce human suffering and enhance the recovery of communities after disaster strikes;

and (c) ensure that the public is served in a timely and efficient manner. For each goal,

strategic objectives for FY 2007 are identified, including performance measures, strategies

to achieve each goal, five-year operational objectives, the legal authorities to support the

strategy, the technology to implement it, and how performance will be evaluated.

Record Number: 335

FEMA. (1998). Annual Performance Plan: Fiscal Year 1999. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: The Annual Performance Plan outlines how FEMA’s strategic goals and objectives will be pursued during FY 1999 (later to be replaced by FEMA's Annual Performance

Plan for FY 2001). This document accompanies FEMA’s Strategic Plan, Partnership for a

Safer Future. The Annual Performance Plan presents annual performance goals for FY

1999. Each of these supports a five-year operational objective contributing to one of three

strategic goals: “Protect Lives and Prevent the Loss of Property From Natural and Technological Hazards”; “Reduce Human Suffering and Enhance the Recovery of Communities

After Disaster Strikes”; and “Ensure the Public is Served in a Timely and Efficient Manner.” Some of the objectives within these goals include a reduction in expected annual

flood disaster losses by $1 billion and the identification of the most critical 10-percent of

weaknesses in state capability while maintaining the current capability of states and localities to respond to disasters. Other objectives seek to achieve training and education opportunities for the fire protection community and to use information technology upgrades

to improve services and accessibility that reduce the costs for the response to and recovery

from emergencies and disasters.

Record Number: 462

FEMA. (1998). An Evaluation of the National Flood Insurance Program's Community

Rating System. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

Community Rating System, mitigation

42
Abstract: In 1994, a formal evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the Community

Rating System (CRS) was initiated. Due to the technical and statistical nature of these

evaluation analyses and the need for some impartial expertise, FEMA retained Human

Technology, Inc. to assist in this endeavor. The data collection and analysis techniques included questionnaires and surveys, technical studies, site visits, focus groups, and reviews

by experts. As a result of the evaluation efforts, three general conclusions were reached

with regard to changes in the CRS creditable activities: (a) certain elements deserve more

credit based on a review of their effectiveness in reducing flood losses; (b) communities

should be encouraged to design their own programs; and (c) scoring procedures and documentation requirements should be simplified. Overall, CRS has become an important tool

for mitigation as well as a mechanism for integrating mitigation with insurance.

Record Number: 210

FEMA. (1998). Federal Programs Offering Non-structural Flood Recovery and Floodplain Management Alternatives. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping

Abstract: This document provides information to interested parties about federal programs

that support nonstructural approaches to floodplain management. It includes broad strategies and specific federal programs that could form the basis for a non-structural response to

a flood event. Some of these programs include flood mitigation assistance; floodplain

management service program; planning assistance to states; river, trails, and conservation

assistance program; watershed protection and flood prevention program; and others.

Record Number: 328

FEMA. (1998). Hazard Mitigation Funding under Section 406 (Stafford Act). Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: This document is intended to guide FEMA personnel responsible for the administration of its public assistance grant program. Its aim is to help ensure national consistency in the use of Section 406 mitigation funds, promote measures that reduce future

loss to life and property, protect the federal investment in public infrastructure, and, ult imately, to help build disaster-resistant communities. An appendix lists potential mitigation

measures that can be considered cost effective. FEMA considers a mitigation measure to

be cost-effective when it: (a) does not exceed 100 percent of the project’s cost; (b) is appropriate to the disaster damage; (c) will prevent future similar damage; (d) is directly related to the eligible damaged elements; (e) does not increase risks or cause adverse effects

to the property or elsewhere; (f) meets standards of good professional judgment; and, (g)

otherwise meets requirements stipulated in the policy on Hazard Mitigation Funding Under

Section 406 (Stafford Act).

Record Number: 396

FEMA. (1998). Review of FEMA’s Implementation of Insurance Requirements in the Public Assistance Program. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

43
Keywords :

insurance, public assistance

Abstract: The purpose of this review was to determine whether FEMA could improve its

administration of the insurance coverage mandate in the Public Assistance Program. The

review identified the following opportunities to streamline the application, review, and approval process for such assistance: (a) recruit a cadre of insurance specialists; (b) require

all pertinent insurance information at the time of application for assistance; and (c) consider anticipated insurance proceeds in determining eligibility for funding at the beginning

of the process. The review also recommends that FEMA clarify its rules governing waivers

of requirements for insurance that are granted by state insurance commissioners.

Record Number: 216

FEMA. (1999). Cooperating Technical Community (CTC) Guidance Document. FY 2000-

2001. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping

Abstract: Because flood conditions change over time due to natural and man-made

changes in watersheds and floodplains, FEMA has an ongoing program to update flood

maps for flood-prone communities. At the same time, however, the need for updated flood

maps is increasing and federal funding is limited. As a result, a significant portion of the

100,000-panel flood map inventory is outdated. Therefore, in 1997 FEMA designed a plan

to modernize the inventory. Over time, the objective is to eliminate the existing backlog of

outdated maps and to convert all the maps to a digital format. One of the key objectives of

the modernization plan is to increase local involvement in, and ownership of, the mapping

process. Therefore, the Cooperating Technical Community (CTC) concept was developed.

As technologies have increased dramatically, many states, regional agencies, and local

communities have become increasingly sophisticated and have invested significant resources in the identification of flood hazards. This document contains the initial guidance

for the CTC initiative. Some of the objectives of the CTC initiative are (a) to recognize the

contributions that FEMA’s partners (states, regional agencies, and communities) make in

assisting FEMA by providing timely and accurate flood hazard information; (b) to integrate contributing partners into the mapping process; and, (c) to provide training and technical assistance. To implement these objectives, CTC partners need to enter into an overall

partnership agreement with the appropriate FEMA Regional Mitigation Division. As the

CTC partner and FEMA identify specific tasks to undertake, agreements will be developed

and entered into under the umbrella of the overall CTC Partnership Agreement.

Record Number: 218

FEMA. (1999). Cover America. FIA's Marketing and Advertising Campaign. Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Available at http://www.fema.gov/nfip/market2.htm#1.

Keywords :

flood management, marketing, risk communication

Abstract: In October 1995, FIA started a nationwide marketing and advertising campaign

called Cover America. The campaign’s goals include improving awareness of and attitudes

about the NFIP and flood insurance, stimulating demand for flood insurance, and provid44
ing opportunities for insurance agents, Write Your Own (WYO) companies, and other

NFIP stakeholders to participate in and build on the messages delivered. The Cover

America campaign uses paid advertising and public relations to reach consumers, insurance agents, and other NFIP stakeholders. Market research is conducted throughout the

year to assess how well the campaign is meeting its goals. Findings from this research and

other tracking mechanisms are used to improve the campaign. This document describes the

campaign and its different components: television, print and radio advertising, direct mail,

and Yellow Pages. This document also describes the NFIP co-op advertising program,

which provides WYO insurance companies and agents the opportunity to split their advertising costs for any approved flood insurance print or Yellow Pages display ads with the

NFIP as well as the development of collateral materials such as brochures and public relations. This document also provides some results attributable to the Cover America campaign. Those results are in concordance to those produced for FEMA by Gallup and

Robinson, Inc (1999).

Record Number: 330

FEMA. (1999). Environmental Policy Memoranda. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

environmental policy, natural disasters, public assistance

Abstract: This document compiles all environmental policy memoranda that have been

issued by FEMA that were in effect as of May 1999. The goal of this memoranda is to

serve as an easy reference by program staff in coordinating public Aasistance grant activities involving environmental issues. Five environmental memos are included: (a) Categorical Exclusion (CATEX) of Projects Involving the Acquisition of Damaged Properties and

Implementation of E.O. 12898 Concerning Environmental Justice, April 18, 1994; (b)

Other Federal Agency Clearance for Environmental Assessments, May 24, 1994; (c) Policy for Projects Completed Without Environmental Review Required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), March 24, 1995; (d) Availability and Use of the Updated

List of Categorical Exclusions Published February 5, 1996, as a Revision of 44 CFR 10.8,

February 27, 1996; and (e) Documentation of National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

Categorical Exclusions (CATEX), June 20, 1997.

Record Number: 212

FEMA. (1999). Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Map Production Coordination

Contractors. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping

Abstract: These guidelines define the technical requirements, coordination and documentation activities, and product specifications for a variety of technical tasks such as reviewing the results of studies completed by FEMA’s study contractors; converting nonfloodprone and minimally flood-prone communities to the regular phase of the NFIP; processing requests for revisions to flood insurance studies and FIRMs; identifying letters of map

change that are superseded when a revised FIRM becomes effective; processing community requests for map updates to reflect recent annexations; processing requests for

FEMA’s review of determinations made by lending institutions whether buildings or

manufactured homes are located in identified SFHAs; responding to inquiries from

45
FEMA’s constituents about the NFIP; responding in writing to inquiries from the U.S.

Congress about mapping-related matters; processing map revisions under the Coastal Ba rrier legislation; performing riverine and coastal erosion studies; providing risk assessment

activities; and others.

Record Number: 336

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation at Work: Two Alabama Communities. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

Alabama, cost-benefit analysis, mitigation

Abstract: This report tells the story of how FEMA helped Elba and Geneva, AL reduce

the impact of repeated flooding. The document begins with a discussion of FEMA's Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP). It also provides a cost-benefit analysis for the

mitigation measures applied at both localities. This report concludes that “hazard mitigation can be a cost-effective way to help reduce the toll of future disasters.”

Record Number: 337

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation at Work: Two Georgia Communities. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, Georgia

Abstract: This report tells the story of how FEMA helped Newton and Albany, GA reduce

the impact of repeated flooding. Both cities have a history of flooding, and both suffered

severe damage in the floods caused by Tropical Storm Albert in 1994. This document reviews the FEMA-funded hazard mitigation projects implemented in each community after

the floods: removing hundreds of flood-prone properties. It also explains how the costbenefit analysis was conducted for each project. The document states that “as it turned out,

the projects prevented flood damages in each community only a few years after they were

implemented.” In March 1998, heavy rainstorms caused more flooding in southwest Georgia. While generally not as severe as in 1994, both Albany and Newton again suffered extensive flooding. But because the project removed the structures from flood-prone areas

after the 1994 floods, millions of dollars in damages were avoided. This document concludes that “these results underscore the need for hazard-prone communities to get serious

about mitigation.”

Record Number: 326

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation Grant Program Desk Reference. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Available at http://www.fema.gov/mit/toc.pdf

Keywords :

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, natural disasters

Abstract: Authorized under Section 404 of the Stafford Act, the Hazard Mitigation Grant

Program administered by the FEMA provides grants to states and local governments to

implement long-term hazard mitigation measures after a major disaster declaration. The

purpose of the program is to reduce the loss of life and property due to natural disasters

and to enable mitigation measures to be implemented during the immediate recovery from

46
a disaster. FEMA can fund up to 75 percent of the eligible costs of each project. Eligible 

applicants are state and local governments, Native American tribes, and certain nonprofit 

organizations. Although homeowners and businesses cannot apply directly to the program, 

a community can apply for them. 

Record Number: 214

FEMA. (1999). Mandatory Purchase of Flood Insurance Guidelines. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords : 

insurance, mandatory purchase

Abstract: Title V of the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement

Act of 1994 (the Reform Act) substantially amended the National Flood Insurance Act of

1968 and the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. The Reform Act tightened the mandatory purchase provisions that originated with the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973.

Because of the Reforms Act’s continuing impact up lenders, the FIA updated and reformatted the purchasing guidelines, previously issued in October 1989 and May 1997. This

report notes that implementing the mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements is the

responsibility of the various federal agencies that oversee lenders, not the FIA. “However,

federal Agencies and Instrumentalities shall, in cooperation with the Director of FEMA,

issue appropriate rules and regulations to govern the regulations under the Reform Act.”

Record Number: 217

FEMA. (1999). Mapping Activity Statement Templates for Cooperative Technical Partners

Initiative. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping

Abstract: The Mapping Activity Statements cover a range of products and services that

depend on the partner’s interest, technical expertise, and available resources. The statements can cover simple activities, such as providing a digital base map, and more sophisticated activities, such as conducting flood hazard studies and preparing print-ready digital

flood maps for distribution by FEMA. Nine templates for Mapping Activity Statement are

included. These templates address the most common mapping activities. They can be used

directly or as guidelines for the development of specific agreements between FEMA and

its local, regional, or state partners. FEMA states that agreements other than the nine listed

may also be possible.

Record Number: 332

FEMA. (1999). Model Programmatic Agreement. Historic Review. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords : 

historic sites, mitigation, public assistance 

Abstract: This document makes available the Model Programmatic Agreement to accomplish the Section 106 requirements under the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) 

of 1966, as amended. It is intended for FEMA personnel in coordinating historic review for 

FEMA undertakings using grant funds for public assistance. Section 106 of NHPA requires 

all federal agencies to review the effect of an agency undertaking on historic properties 

47
prior to funding the project, activity, or program. FEMA developed this document in order 

to simplify and expedite coordination and to provide specific guidance to consulting parties in the historic review process. This document also exempts routine disaster-recovery 

activities with little potential of adversely affecting historic properties from the review 

mandated by the NHPA. 

Record Number: 358

FEMA. (1999). Modernizing FEMA's Flood Hazard Mapping Program. Recommendations

for Using Future Conditions Hydrology for the National Flood Insurance Program.

Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance ratings, mapping

Abstract: This document describes FEMA’s plan to modernize its mapping program

through cooperative agreements with state and/or local partners. FEMA will provide funds

for mapping, technical assistance, and mentoring to the state or local partner, which will

then develop and maintain all or a component of its flood map, thus maintaining the connection between mapping and managing flood hazard areas. One conclusion is that

FEMA’s maps should display floodplains based on future conditions hydrology, as determined by the local partners, while FEMA will continue to require regulation of floodplain

development based on existing conditions data. Topics discussed include the role of state

and local partners; emphasis on local mapping needs; historical perspective on future conditions; defining future conditions; use of flood hazard maps for floodplain management,

flood insurance rating, and other purposes; constraints and benefits of using future conditions data on NFIP maps; conclusions; and implementation through map specifications,

Cooperating Technical Community agreements, revisions, rule making, and outreach.

Record Number: 141

FEMA. (1999). Modernizing FEMA's Flood Hazard Mapping Program (Fiscal Year 1999

Progress Report). Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: In 1997 the FEMA developed a plan to modernize its flood mapping program.

This report summarizes the progress the agency made toward implementing the plan in FY

1999. The plan is a seven-year effort to upgrade its inventory of flood maps and enhance

its products, services, and processes. It is anticipated that the map modernization plan will

help prevent approximately $26 billion in flood damages to new buildings over a 50-year

period. The map production process includes a mapping needs assessment, a tailored scope

of work to be developed with FEMA's mapping partners, and concurrent production processes. Objectives of the modernization plan that have been completed include Flood Hazard Mapping Web Site Architecture, the establishment of the FEMA Map Assistance Call

Center, Multi-Year Study Contracts, Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Map Production Coordination Contractors, and a Memorandum of Agreement with the Department of

Defense. Other objectives are ongoing, have been deferred, or are new objectives.

Record Number: 331

FEMA. (1999). Mutual Aid Agreement for Public Assistance. Washington, DC: FEMA.

48
Keywords :

mitigation, public assistance, state and local governments

Abstract: This document specifies criteria by which FEMA will recognize the eligibility

of costs under the Public Assistance Program incurred through mutual aid agreements between applicants and other entities. It is intended for personnel involved in the administration of the Public Assistance Program. It applies to emergency work authorized under Sections 403, 407, and 502 of the Stafford Act. The motivation for this document is as follows: many state and local governments and private nonprofit organizations formulate

mutual aid agreements to provide emergency assistance to each other in the event of disasters or other crises. The conditions of the agreements may be to provide reciprocal services or to receive direct payment through specific labor and equipment rates outlined in the

agreements. These agreements usually are written but, occasionally, are by understanding

or are arranged after a disaster occurs. This document addresses both written and unwritten

mutual aid agreements. Among others, this document lists the conditions under which

FEMA will reimburse the cost of mutual aid agreement associated with emergency assistance (e.g., “the mutual aid agreement applies uniformly in emergency situations. The

agreement must not be contingent upon a declaration of a major disaster or emergency by

the federal government or on receiving federal funds.”), states that “there are no provisions

for reimbursement for mutual aid when there is no formal written agreement,” and warns

that “long term use of these agreements is not expected. Applicants must advertise and

award competitive bid contracts for permanent repairs.” "FEMA recognizes only mutual

aid agreements that are between governments or private nonprofit organizations in separate

areas. FEMA does not recognize ‘mutual aid agreements’ between agencies, departments

or entities of the same town, county or state go vernment.”

Record Number: 215

FEMA. (1999). The National Flood Insurance Program Community Status Book. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: This book provides information about communities participating in the NFIP as

well as communities that are not participating in that program but that have had special

flood hazards identified by the FIA. The purpose of this book is, among others, to assist

lenders in determining whether flood insurance must be required as a condition of federal

or federally related financial assistance; assist property owners and insurance agents in determining whether flood insurance is available in a particular community, and whether a

map showing flood zones is available. This book also contains several useful appendices,

such as the mandatory purchase guidelines, lender regulations, Mortgage Portfolio Protection Program, Write Your Own Company guidelines and requirements, and private flood

insurance criteria.

Record Number: 211

FEMA. (1999). Numerical Models Accepted by FEMA for NFIP Usage. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

coastal areas, modeling

49
Abstract: FEMA has developed a comprehensive listing of all numerical models that are

accepted for NFIP usage. This document is arranged under a chart format that provides essential references for coastal models (coastal storm surge, coastal wave height, and coastal

wave effects models), hydrologic models (single event and continuous event models), statistical models, hydraulic models (one-dimensional steady flow, one-dimensional unsteady

flow, two-dimensional steady/unsteady flow, and floodway analysis models), and sediment

transport models.

Record Number: 329

FEMA (1999). Public Assistance Guide. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

natural disasters, public assistance

Abstract: This guide supports FEMA’s grants for infrastructure recovery through the Public Assistance Program. Potential recipients of this funding include state and local governments and certain types of private nonprofit organizations. The guide replaces FEMA 286,

issued in September 1996. It describes the program’s provisions and application procedures.

Record Number: 64

FEMA. (1999). Riverine Erosion Hazard Areas: Mapping Feasibility Study. Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

erosion, mapping, modeling

Abstract: Section 577 of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 requires that

FEMA submit a report to Congress that evaluates the technological feasibility of mapping

Riverine Erosion Hazard Areas (REHAs) and assesses the economic impact of erosion and

erosion mapping on the NFIP. The purpose of this study is to determine whether it is technologically feasible to map riverine erosion hazards. Based on a literature review, case

study analysis, and input from experts, methodologies for analyzing and mapping REHAs

were identified. Using cost data associated with existing case studies, the document estimated the approximate cost per river mile of conducting riverine erosion hazard studies

and adding areas to existing FIRMs. The case studies indicated that there are scientifically

sound procedures for delineating riverine erosion hazards, although for shorter time frames

(30 years) than the 60 years specified in Section 577. Estimated average study values were

$2,000-$3,000 per mile for geomorphic methods, $6,000-$7,000 for engineering methods,

and $10,000-$12,000 for mathematical modeling methods. The report estimated that the

implementation of this effort as part of the NFIP would cost between $200 and $300 million. This report does not include a cost-benefit analysis.

Record Number: 74

FEMA. (2000). 1999 Stakeholder's Report. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

stakeholders

Abstract: This report is the most recent annual update of the status of the NFIP and all of

its components. It details the activities in the areas of insurance policy changes, marketing,

50
claims, and mitigation, and provides statistical profiles of the NFIP's income and expenses

by types.

Record Number: 334

FEMA. (2000). Annual Performance Plan: Fiscal Year 2001. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: The Annual Performance Plan outlines how FEMA’s strategic goals and objectives will be pursued during FY 2001. The plan presents 30 annual performance goals for

FY 2001. Each of these supports a five-year operational objective contributing to one of

the three FEMA strategic goals. Some of the objectives include an increase in the availability and effectiveness of natural hazards information and an increase in the availability

of loss-estimation and risk-assessment methods and tools. Other activities include working

with federal agencies that influence the built environment to develop and implement a consistent federal policy on natural-hazard mitigation; providing incentives and support to the

nonfederal public sector to increase disaster resistance; increasing by 20 percent over 2000

baselines the private sector’s involvement in disaster resistance; and supporting states,

tribes, and communities in their mitigation activities. FEMA will also collect and validate

building and flood loss data; confirm that the reduction in estimated losses from NFIP activities exceeds $1 billion; and continue systematic assessment of the NFIP’s impact and

effectiveness; increase the number of NFIP policies in force by 5 percent; and operate the

mitigation program for repetitive-loss properties and implement measures to reduce the

subsidy to pre-FIRM properties to improve the program’s underwriting ratio.

Record Number: 399

FEMA. (2000). Audit of FEMA's Cost Estimate for Implementing the Flood Map Modernization Plan. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: This report concludes that FEMA’s estimates of the cost of modernizing its

maps can, and should, be improved. In some instances, FEMA did not verify data, use reliable cost data, or establish a sound basis for some assumptions. In addition, FEMA did not

fully consider savings that could be realized from technology. The report recommends that

FEMA validate its mapping needs for mapped and unmapped communities and determine

whether creating or updating maps would be cost beneficial; track costs related to map

modernization so that actual cost data will be available to use in estimating future costs;

and present the estimate as a range to better disclose the uncertainty in the assumptions and

the financial impact of alternative assumptions. It is additionally recommended that Mitigation Directorate expedite the incorporation of new flood-study and terrain data collection

techniques and include in the Flood Map Modernization Plan the cost impact of partne rships with state and local governments, new mapping techniques, and technological advances.

Record Number: 72

FEMA. (2000). Call for Issues Status Report. Washington, DC: FEMA.

51
Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: In 1998, FEMA decided to solicit outside input. This solicitation was implemented through a nationwide Call for Issues. Through the Call for Issues, FEMA requested comments on all facets of the NFIP from its partners and customers. The Call for

Issues Status Report summarizes issues related to the FIA, mitigation, and hazard identification and mapping. FEMA responded to each issue submitted with a definitive decision or

action and provided an explanation for each issue to clarify the decision and possible actions to be taken.

Record Number: 227

FEMA. (2000). Compendium of Flood Map Changes Archive. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping, mitigation

Abstract: The Compendium of Flood Map Changes is a list of all the changes made to the

NFIP maps including Physical Map Revisions, Letters of Map Revision, and Letters of

Map Amendment during a given six-month period. For each Letter of Map Change, information on the map panel(s) affected, effective date of this change, case, number and determination type is provided. For each physical map change, the Map Revision listing provides the map panel(s) affected and the effective date of this change. The listing is updated

every six months and published in the Federal Register.

Record Number: 219

FEMA. (2000). Cover America II. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Available at http://www.fema.gov/nfip/coverii.htm

Keywords :

marketing, risk communication

Abstract: This document describes the characteristics of the Cover America II campaign.

This campaign started in 1999 and will continue until 2003. It replaces the Cover America

I campaign (1995-1999). This document announces that to increase awareness, improve

attitudes and increase flood insurance sales, FEMA has “established a brand for the NFIP.

It builds on the yellow diamond street sign, which we see everyday, used to warn drivers

of upcoming dangers and to change their behavior as a result of the potential danger. Our

new brand couples this sign with the message: ‘Be Flood Alert.’ To the right of the sign

are the words: ‘National Flood Insurance Program.’ This brand aims to serve as the foundation for all components of the campaign, including advertising, co-op advertising, and

public relations, and gives us the opportunity to talk about all aspects of the NFIP, from

mitigation to flood insurance. This document describes the 1999 radio and TV campaign

and the co-op advertising program. It also lists ‘mat stories’: stories written and distributed

to newspapers across the country throughout the year. These articles provide tips about

floods, flood insurance, and flood prevention.” The document contains samples of printed

ads as well as the testimony of some co-op advertising partners, and some recent mat stories.

52
Record Number: 57

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment Reports for Hurricane Floyd for New Jersey.

Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

economic impact, Hurricane Floyd, New Jersey

Abstract: This report, completed by the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development Administration at FEMA’s request, is intended to: (a) provide a comprehensive assessment of the economic impacts of Hurricane Floyd on the affected areas of New Jersey;

(b) provide recommendations for businesses, state and community officials on how to accelerate the recovery process; (c) build back safer, stronger, and smarter; and, (d) create

disaster-resistant businesses and jobs. Hurricane Floyd affected more than 76,000 residences and 4,000 businesses in the nine disaster declared counties in New Jersey. The assessment focuses on six communities that were most at risk for long-term negative impacts

from the storm: the boroughs of Lodi, Bound Brook, and Manville and the cities of Trenton, Passaic, and Paterson.

Record Number: 58

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment Reports for Hurricane Floyd for North

Carolina. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

economic impact, Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina

Abstract: This report, completed by the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development Administration at FEMA’s request, is intended to: (a) provide a comprehensive assessment of the economic impacts of Hurricane Floyd on the affected areas of North Carolina; (b) provide recommendations for businesses, state and community officials on how to

accelerate the recovery process; (c) build back safer, stronger, and smarter; and, (d) create

disaster-resistant businesses and jobs. Hurricane Floyd caused approximately $6 billion in

economic losses in North Carolina: $1 billion in business structural losses, $4 billion in

business revenues; and $1 billion in agricultural losses. Sixty-six of the 100 counties in the

state were declared disaster areas, with 44 counties suffering economic impacts ranging

from minor to severe. The assessment focuses on these 44 counties. The analysis is divided

into nonagricultural and agricultural business sectors.

Record Number: 59

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment Reports for Hurricane Floyd for Virginia.

Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

economic impact, Hurricane Floyd, Virginia

Abstract: This report, completed by the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development Administration at FEMA’s request, is intended to: (a) provide a comprehensive assessment of the economic impacts of Hurricane Floyd on the affected areas of Virginia; (b)

provide recommendations for businesses, state and community officials on how to accelerate the recovery process; (c) build back safer, stronger, and smarter; and, (d) create disaster-resistant businesses and jobs. Throughout Virginia, Hurricane Floyd affected 206 businesses, with losses of $35 million. In addition, agricultural losses reached $17 million. The

City of Franklin, and the adjacent counties of Isle of Wight and Southampton, were espe53
cially hard hit by flooding. These areas of the Commonwealth therefore became the focus

of the detailed analysis and recommendations in the report.

Record Number: 225

FEMA. (2000). FEMA Launches Project Impact Disaster Prevention Radio PSA. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mitigation, Project Impact, risk mitigation

Abstract: FEMA’s Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities launched a

combined television and radio public service announcement (PSA) campaign encouraging

Americans to ask what their community is doing to become disaster resistant.. The PSA

followed two recent surveys regarding tornado and hurricane seasons. Survey respondents

said they felt well prepared for disasters, but that they had not taken any prevention measures to prepare for natural disasters. In hurricane-prone states, 76 percent of respondents in

northern states and 58 percent in southern states had not taken any prevention measures.

The National Association of Broadcasters, which serves and represents America's radio

and television stations, has taken on FEMA's Project Impact as a national campaign and

will work to promote among its members the importance of prevention measures to reduce

disaster damage.

Record Number: 221

FEMA. (2000). Flood Insurance Manual. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: The Flood Insurance Manual is used primarily by insurance companies and

agents writing flood insurance. This new Manual reflects all of the changes in the rewritten

Standard Flood Insurance Policy (SFIP), which is included in the Manual’s policy section.

A summary of significant changes to the SFIP is provided in front of each policy form. A

full edition available at http://www.fema.gov/nfip/covr1000.pdf also contains the 1994

Edition that was revised and reprinted October 1997, the change pages for May 1, 1998,

October 1, 1998, May 1, 1999, October 1, 1999, May 1, 2000 and October 1, 2000.

Record Number: 226

FEMA. (2000). NASA joins FEMA's Project Impact Effort. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mitigation, mapping, Project Impact

Abstract: FEMA and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) signed

an agreement under which FEMA will use NASA science, technology and remote-sensing

research in emergency management and disaster prevention activities. FEMA expected that

the cooperative agreement would result in updated and more accurate maps of floodplains,

a better understanding of wildfires and maps to improve disaster recovery and mitigation

by state and local communities throughout the United States. The first cooperative activity

under the agreement involved mapping floodplains in California’s Los Angeles basin and

around Sacramento, CA, Virginia Beach, VA, the Red River along the North Dakota and

Minnesota borders, and San Francisco.

54
Record Number: 228

FEMA. (2000). National Flood Insurance Program Community Rating System. Biennial

Report to Congress. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

Community Rating System, mapping, mitigation

Abstract: This third biennial report submitted to Congress provides an overview of the

Community Rating System (CRS) from inception to future directions. This report reminds

the reader that (a) the CRS was implemented in 1990 "to recognize and encourage community floodplain management activities that exceed the minimum NFIP standards; (b) the

National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 codified the CRS in the NFIP, and (c) under

the CRS, flood insurance premium rates are adjusted to reflect the reduced flood risk resulting from community activities. The report describes the ten CRS classes (class I requires the most credit points and gives the largest premium reduction). The report states

that over 900 communities received discounted insurance premiums based on their implementation of measures that go beyond minimum NFIP requirements. The report points out

that these 900-plus communities accounted for over 66 percent of the NFIP’s policy base.

Record Number: 361

FEMA. (2000). Opportunities to Enhance Compliance with Homeowner Flood Insurance

Purchase Requirements. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

compliance

Abstract: The report notes a 38 percent compliance rate with the requirement that property

owners with mortgages from federally regulated lending institutions acquire and maintain

flood insurance. The report recommends that to increase compliance the FIA should study

compliance levels in areas most recently impacted by floods and identify structures that

were originally outside special flood hazard areas, but where after the flood map was updated, the status may have been changed. The report also recommends a process to ensure

that lapsed policies are identified.

Record Number: 222

FEMA. (2000). Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities. Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance, mitigation

Abstract: In the past ten years, FEMA has spent $20 billion to help communities repair

and rebuild after natural disasters. That is only a fraction of the total cost. Insurance companies spent additional billions in claims payments; businesses lost revenues; employees

lost jobs; and other government agencies spent millions more. Worst of all, however, is the

loss that can never be recovered: human life. With Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities, FEMA expects to change the way America deals with disasters. Project Impact aims to help communities to protect themselves from natural disasters. Project

Impact bases its work and planning on three principles: preventive actions at the local

level; private sector participation; and long-term efforts and investments in prevention

measures. The report explains that in 1997, FEMA partnered with seven pilot communities

across the country and was encouraged by the benefits seen and the determined commit55
ment that flourished at the local level. Project Impact quickly became a nationwide initiative as more communities began to see the value in disaster planning and mitigation. Today

there are nearly 250 Project Impact communities, as well as more than 2,500 businesses

that have joined as Project Impact partners.

Record Number: 395

FEMA. (2000). Project Impact: Identifying and Reporting Partner Contributions. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

communication, mitigation, Project Impact

Abstract: This report assessed the community mitigation grant initiative of NFIP’s Project

Impact and revealed several areas where the identification and reporting of partner contributions should be improved. The report recommends that FEMA take steps to increase the

accuracy of reported partner contributions by issuing guidance to communities to identify

contributions more accurately and consistently and to improve its strategy for reporting

quantifiable and nonquantifiable contributions so that valuable attitudinal and behavioral

changes in communities are not overlooked. As the number of Project Impact communities

grows, the report recommends that “best practice” examples be disseminated to share successful ideas and exemplary tasks and that FEMA realign its resources to better meet the

increasing workload placed on regional coordinators. The report further recommends that

FEMA educate communities about grant procedures, ensure that communities are selecting

viable projects, and more closely monitor mitigation projects using federal funds so that

the current trend of communities’ slow spending of federal grant monies can be changed.

Record Number: 387

FEMA. (2000). Report on Costs and Benefits of Natural Hazard Mitigation. Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

evaluation, mitigation

Abstract: This report reviews benefits that can accrue to different segments of society

from mitigation, the costs incurred, the types of analyses needed to evaluate costeffectiveness, the tools of hazard mitigation (including design and construction, land use

planning, organizational plans, and hazard control and how they are implemented), and

FEMA’s mitigation programs. Sixteen case studies illustrate the diversity of mitigation

measures that can address risk situations. The cases demonstrate that mitigation is effective

against several types of natural hazards and can be accomplished through the use different

mitigation tools. The report concludes that hazard mitigation is a long-term communitybased undertaking that relies on an investment from all sectors of the community, not just

federal, state, and local governments. Mitigation often requires a structuring of incentives

and relies on a recognition of the risks of natural disasters and the development of new

methods to reduce these risks.

Record Number: 220

FEMA. (2000). Summary of Significant Changes to the Standard Flood Insurance Policy

Effective December 31, 2000. Washington, DC: FEMA.

56
Keywords :

Insurance policies

Abstract: This report summarizes changes to the standard flood insurance policy that took

place in 2000. These changes include 16 changes affecting the insurance coverage of

dwellings, 13 changes affecting the insurance coverage of general properties, and another

13 changes affecting the insurance coverage of residential condominium buildings.

Record Number: 511

FEMA. (2001). Buyouts: Hurricane Floyd and Other Issues Relating to FEMA's Hazard

Mitigation Grant Program, Report to the Chairperson, Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and

Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate (I-02-01). Washington,

DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

buyout, cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Hurricane Floyd

Abstract: This report summarizes the Office of Inspector General’s findings concerning

money allocated for buyout and relocation programs (P.L. 106-113 and P.L. 106-246) following Hurricane Floyd. The Inspector General was requested to determine whether

FEMA’s buyout estimates are accurate and to provide an assessment of FEMA’s oversight

procedures. The report’s first section focuses on: (a) the process used to identify buyout

structures; (b) the method used to estimate the total cost of the buyout; (c) the impact of

other sources of disaster assistance on buyout decisions; (d) the process developed for allocating funds; and, (e) the procedures used for cost-benefit analysis. The second section addresses concerns regarding the implementation of the Hazard Grant Mitigation Program

(HGMP) and develop recommendations for action and issues for further review. In the

final section, the report suggests further improvements that can be made to the HMGP.

Record Number: 6

FEMA. (2001). Coastal Barrier Resources System: FEMA’s Management Controls Governing the Prohibition of Flood Insurance. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General,

FEMA.

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resource System, insurance

Abstract: FEMA’s Office of Inspector General (OIG) conducted this review of internal

controls to prevent the sale of flood insurance to properties within the Coastal Barrier Resource System (CBRS). The OIG reviewed relevant legislation and regulations governing

the CBRS and the prohibition on the sale of flood insurance to these properties. The OIG

reviewed files maintained for resolution of policies issued in the CBRS and reviewed all

policies indicated to be potentially within the CBRS in Alabama, Florida, Rhode Island,

and South Carolina. The OIG also conducted interviews with officials at FIMA as well as

contractors who have a role in CBRS compliance requirements and WYO companies involved in the sale of insurance in near CBRS areas.

First, the OIG found that policies potentially in the CBRS were not always fully processed

or reported due to lack of accurate community identification, low confidence level in addresses, and outdated digital FIRM data. The OIG recommended that all policies be fully

processed using the Geographic Policy Edit System even when only incomplete information is available and that policies potentially in the CBRS be reported to Write Your Own

57
(WYO) companies and FIMA’s Direct Serving Agent for further clarification. Second, the

OIG examined how policies identified as potentially in the CBRS are resolved. The OIG

found that of the policies examined potentially in the CBRS, about 46 percent had no record of determination (it is not required for WYOs to seek determination). The OIG recommended that FIMA require resolution of all cases where there is no record and encourage use of the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service to resolve unclear policies. Lastly, the OIG

recommended that FIMA explore the possibility of requiring the resolution policies potentially in the CBRS prior to issuing policies.

Record Number: 450

FEMA. (2001). Compliance with Public Assistance Program’s Insurance Purchase Requirements. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

enforcement, public assistance program

Abstract: This inspection assessed compliance with insurance purchase requirements as

required for FEMA’s Public Assistance Program, the insurance review process for the program, insurance applicability issues, and possible rule changes for insurance. With respect

to compliance with insurance purchase and maintenance requirements, the inspection revealed that 34 percent of the projects were not maintaining insurance, 39 percent of the

project files did not contain acceptable evidence of insurance, and some projects were purchasing less insurance than required. With respect to the insurance review process, the report recommends that FEMA take specific steps to improve the quality of the documentation accepted as proof of insurance for projects in order to decrease the likelihood of

FEMA providing unnecessary assistance. The report also recommends that FEMA regularly monitor public entities to ensure they are maintaining insurance on public buildings

that previously received public assistance. The report proposes an option for a proposed

rule that would help eliminate current disincentives, streamline insurance reviews, and encourage state and local governments to obtain insurance cover.

Record Number: 481

FEMA. (2001). Fiscal Year 2002 Annual Performance Plan. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

strategic planning

Abstract: The Annual Performance Plan outlines how the strategic goals and objectives of

the FEMA will be pursued during FY 2002. The plan illustrates how FEMA will execute

its mission to “reduce the loss of life and property and protect our institutions from natural

and technological hazards by leading and supporting the nation in a comprehensive, riskbased emergency management program of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.” The following goals are identified: (a) support the development of disaster resistance

in communities and states; (b) collect, validate, and refine building and flood-loss data and

confirm that the reduction in estimated losses from NFIP activities exceeds $1 billion; (c)

increase the number of NFIP policies in force by 5 percent, with the active assistance of

new and existing program partners; and, (d) improve the “bottom line” or combined loss

and expense ratio by 1 percent.

58
Record Number: 512

FEMA. (2001). Status of Funds Awarded under the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program and

Other Project Management Issues (I-03-01). Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA.

Keywords :

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program

Abstract: In this report FEMA’s Office of Inspector General evaluated the status of

awards under the Hazard Mitigation and Grant Program (HMGP) and examined factors

impacting timely distribution of funds and completion of mitigation projects. The report

concluded that the large balance of undisturbed funds is due to the inability of FEMA,

state, and local governments to spend available funds and implement projects in a timely

manner and it is neither fiscally prudent nor responsible for FEMA to carry such large balances. Another factor is FEMA’s failure to consider state and local capacity before providing grants and the weakness of program designs. The report makes a series of recommendations about how the program could be more effectively implemented, including allocating funds on an annual basis, broader incentives for states to expedite mitigation projects, and establishing a competitive process for deobligated funds. The report finds that

FEMA has addressed some of the recommendations made in the report and has made progress in shortening the project approval timeframes, however several recommendations remain unresolved.

Record Number: 76

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force. (1992). Floodplain Management

in the United States: An Assessment Report, 2 volumes. Vol. I – Summary Report. Boulder,

CO: University of Colorado Natural Hazards Information Center. Vol. II – Full report.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This assessment of floodplain management in the United States is a report to the

public and to the Congress on progress toward implementation of A Unified National Program for Floodplain Management. It states that although a truly unified national program

to manage floodplains is not yet in place, great strides have been made in that direction.

Awareness of flood hazards, particularly among public officials, has clearly increased,

while loss of life and injury due to flooding has been curtailed. Nationwide mapping of

flood-prone areas by the FIA has resulted in the initial mapping of more than 12,000 communities and the restudy of over 1,700 communities since coordinated studies began in the

1960s. Eighty-two percent of all flood-prone communities in the United States have joined

the NFIP. Computers are increasingly being incorporated into floodplain management and

now facilitate such functions as hydrologic modeling, flood warning, and floodplain mapping. The study also states that modifying flooding has traditionally been the most popular

strategy for reducing floodplain losses because the states or federal government conducts

most of the planning, funding, construction, and implementation for structural measures

and because local and individual adjustments or sacrifices are minimal. Although there is

increased recognition of possible adverse effects of these approaches, they are still needed,

particularly to protect existing development. In contrast, the strategy of restoring and preserving the natural and cultural resources of floodplains has had little exposure to date and

59
needs to be better integrated both with other floodplain management tools and strategies

and with efforts in other fields, such as river corridor management and pollution control.

Record Number: 77

Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force. (1994). A Unified National Program for Floodplain Management 1994. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This report provides a conceptual framework for floodplain management that

includes a statement of overall purpose, definitions, working and general principles, and

management strategies and tools. The report also suggests setting national goals and a

timetable for their achievement, providing for periodic evaluations of the status of floodplain management, defining the roles and responsibilities of each level of government and

the private sector. Floodplain management aims to achieve a reduction in the loss of life,

disruption, and damage caused by floods and the preservation and restoration of the natural

resources and functions of floodplains (which, in turn, lessens damage potential). There are

four main strategies for managing floodplains: (a) modifying human susceptibility to flood

damage and disruption; (b) modifying the impact of flooding on individuals and the community; (c) modifying flooding; and (d) preserving and restoring the natural resources of

floodplains. Under this framework, the decisions of floodplain managers involve choosing

the best mixture of strategies and tools, balancing competing uses, weighing costs and

benefits, and evaluating various alternatives. To ensure that the result of this ongoing decision-making process is improvement of the status of floodplains, four broad goals have

been recommended, along with a list of objectives that must be accomplished to reach

them. The goals include: (a) formalizing a national goal-setting and monitoring system for

floodplain management; (b) reducing, by at least half, the risks to life, property, and the

natural resources of the floodplains; (c) developing and implementing a process to encourage positive attitudes toward floodplain management; and, (d) establishing capacity for inhouse floodplain management.

Record Number: 446

Flanigan, George, Rob Isaacs, David C. Marlett, and Elaine Sebald. (2000). Managing

Flood Losses: An International Review of Mitigation and Financing Techniques. The central Illinois chapter research project 1999-2000. Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters.

Keywords :

financing techniques, international, mitigation

Abstract: This article identifies effective methods for handling the flood peril. It also considers whether such techniques should be considered by the U.S. government and/or private insurance market to strengthen the flood risk safety net. The authors compare the U.S.

flood risk financing and mitigation system with those used by Australia, Brazil, Canada,

China, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.

Record Number: 229

Flood Hazard Team. (2000). Earth Observation Satellites for Flood Management, Flash

Flood Analysis and Prediction. Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, Disaster Management Support Group.

60
Keywords :

mapping, risk identification

Abstract: The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites Disaster Management Support

Group “supports natural and technological disaster management on a worldwide basis by

fostering improved utilization of existing and planned Earth Observation (EO) satellite

data.” This report addresses the use of Earth Observation satellites for flood managers,

flash flood analysis and prediction, and the user community. This report concludes that the

potential of high and low resolution polar orbital Earth Resource Satellites have been

shown to be an excellent tool for providing hydrological information. A family of satellitederived products from the operational meteorological satellites (geostationary and polar)

for application to general flood and flash flood analysis and prediction is also presented.

Gaps in our remote sensing capabilities are discussed and future improvements and requirements are presented. The ultimate goal is to integrate geostationary with polar orbital

data and to have microwave onboard geostationary satellites early in the next millennium.

Record Number: 478

Flood Insurance Interagency Task Force. (1998). Enforcement and Compliance Procedures Necessary to Carry Out the Provisions of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act

(NFIRA) Final Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Flood Insurance Interagency Task

Force.

Keywords :

compliance, insurance

Abstract: The Flood Insurance Interagency Task Force conducted studies resulting in the

following actions, conclusions, and recommendations: (a) a compliance model checklist

was developed to provide a general framework for the comparison of existing flood insurance compliance programs; (b) a catalog of compliance assistance materials was developed

to ensure adequate compliance with the laws governing flood insurance; (c) a reasonable

degree of standardization of enforcement exists within the organizations responsible for

implementation; (d) on fees charged by the flood zone determination industry and deve loped conclusions about the reasonableness of these fees.

Record Number: 107

Fox, Richard T. (1995). Measuring catastrophic events on operating viability of firms:

Hurricane Hugo and hospitals. International Advances in Economic Research, 1(3), 251-

62.

Keywords :

Hurricane Hugo, modeling

Abstract: The author developed a model to isolate for study the immediate, short-, and

long-run effects of natural disasters on business. The author applied the model to assess

the impact of Hurricane Hugo on hospitals in its path. This paper reports on the most seriously affected hospitals.

Record Number: 442

Freeman, A. Myrick, III and Robert H. Haveman. (1970). Cost-benefit analysis and multiple objectives: Current issues in water resources planning. Water Resources Research,

6(6), 1533-9.

61
Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis

Abstract: This paper critiques Major’s (1969) analytical framework for cost-benefit

analysis in a multiple objective investment planning framework. Major showed how a

cost-benefit ratio can be calculated, which, through a weighted function, combines the effects of an investment on both objectives. This paper identifies the shortcomings of Major’s analysis. Basic principles of multiple objective planning are discussed. The need for

careful, nonoverlapping, empirically measurable definitions of each objective is brought

out. The limits placed on multiple objective planning by the absence of a set of social

weights are pointed out, and the possibility of deducing these weights from congressional

actions is discussed. The regional development objective receives particular attention.

Record Number: 37

French, R.H. (1992). Preferred directions of flow on alluvial fans. Journal of Hydraulic

Engineering-ASCE, pp.1002-13.

Keywords :

hazard identification, modeling

Abstract: In this paper, modifications of the method used to delineate floodplains on active alluvial fans for the NFIP are suggested, given new data regarding the deviations of

channels from the medial radial line at the apex of the fan. In the original methodology, it

was assumed that every point on an alluvial fan contour had an equal probability of being

impacted during a flood event (i.e., a uniform probability distribution was assumed). Data

now available suggest that a normal distribution better describes the probability of points

on an alluvial fan contour being hit during a flood event. Results from an example of the

application of the modified methodology are compared with the results obtained using the

original methodology.

Record Number: 18

French, Steven P. and Raymond J. Burby. (1980). Managing Flood Hazard Areas: The

State of Practice. Center for Urban and Regional Studies, University of North Carolina at

Chapel Hill.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: By 1979, many communities and regional agencies had become involved in

floodplain management as a result of the NFIP, the Coastal Zone Management Program,

numerous state programs, and the initiative of local citizens. This report describes current

practices in floodplain management in these agencies. The data presented were derived

mainly from two mail surveys conducted in 1979. The first survey was directed to a sample of local agencies involved in the NFIP. Members of the National Association of Regional Councils received the second survey. Information on the goals, methods, and implementation of floodplain management was gathered. Local and regional perceptions of

the relative effectiveness of various methods, the overall effectiveness of agency efforts,

and the major obstacles to better floodplain management were also obtained.

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Record Number: 78

Fridgen, Patrick M. and Steven D. Shultz. (1999). The Influence of the Threat of Flooding

on Housing Values in Fargo, North Dakota, and Moorhead, Minnesota. Fargo, ND: Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University.

Keywords :

development, housing, Minnesota, modeling, North Dakota

Abstract: The hedonic valuation method (HVM) was used to quantify the impact of the

threat of flooding on housing values in Fargo, ND and Moorhead, MN (Fargo-Moorhead).

Prices of 3,783 Fargo-Moorhead homes sold between 1995 and 1998 were regressed

against structural housing characteristics, neighborhood and environmental indicators, and

three flood risk variables. Being located in the 100-year floodplain lowered the sale price

of an average home by $8,900 and approximately 81 percent of the price depreciation was

associated with required flood insurance premiums. After the extensive 1997 flood, homes

in the 100-year floodplain were on average priced $10,241 less than similar homes located

outside the floodplain were before the 1997 flood event. The aftermath of publicity of the

1997 flood was responsible for average homes in the 100-year floodplain being reduced by

an additional $1,350. In contrast, homes in the 500-year floodplain on average sold for

$3,100 more than similar homes not in the floodplain. It was concluded that homebuyers in

Fargo-Moorhead place a value on flooding risk, that more disclosure is needed regarding

the location of the 500-year floodplain, and that substantial housing-related benefits are

likely to be generated by various flood mitigation projects in the area that result in a redesignation and reduction of the 100-year floodplain.

Record Number: 111

Friends of the Earth. (1998). Flood Funding Fiasco: National Flood Insurance Program.

Friends of the Earth.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resource System, development, Florida

Abstract: This memorandum states that NFIP has more than 3.8 million policies along the

nation’s coasts and rivers, with a potential liability of over $400 billion. This report argues

that limited (beneficial) reforms to NFIP were enacted in 1994, but a provision included in

the 1996 Omnibus Parks bill exempted eight Florida beaches from the Coastal Barrier Resources System, thus allowing developers to obtain flood insurance (which can cover storm

damage) for disaster-prone beachfront properties. Thus the NFIP hurts both taxpayers and

the environment by inducing development in floodplains.

Record Number: 430

Fukuoka, Shoji, ed. (1998). Floodplain Risk Management. Proceedings of an International

Workshop on Floodplain Risk Management, held in Hiroshima, November 11-13, 1996.

Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield.

Keywords :

risk management

Abstract: This international workshop examined the risk management measures taken in

the past to minimize loss of life and property damage in the event of large-scale flooding of

a city by river or sea water, following partial or complete collapse of a levee. It was also

intended to identify proper techniques and counter measures by discussing national and

63
international risk management for floods in the context of actual cases of large-scale

flooding in which the risk of flooding was minimized. The following topics were discussed

in the workshop: floods (forecasts, analysis, and case studies); mechanisms of levee breach

and design standards for levees; emergency management systems, including sharing roles

by national and municipal governments; development of hazard maps and their usage; information release, evacuation, rescue, volunteer activities, and flood fighting; secondary

damage; flood insurance and land acquisition; law suits against flood damage; use of

floodplains and restrictions on their use; flood control without disturbing the natural environment; and basin-wide flood control and management. The papers fall into two categories: those written by senior engineers who are responsible for managing major floods in

different countries and have had experience in decision making for mitigation of flood

damage and those written by researchers who investigated the risk management of floodplains.

Record Number: 494

Galloway, Gerald E., Jr. (1994). Floodplain management: A present and a 21st century imperative. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 5-8.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: As a result of the development of the floodplain, both for agricultural and recreational purposes, the nation faces three major problems: (a) people and property remain

at risk, not only in the floodplains of major rivers, but also throughout many other areas in

the nation; (b) many regions face severe ecological consequences due to the loss of habitat

in riverine areas; and (c) the division of responsibilities for floodplain management among

federal, state, tribal, and local governments lacks clear definition. This article summarizes

the conclusions and recommendations provided in Sharing the Challenge by the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee in 1994. The committee recommended supporting a strategy that avoids unnecessary human use of the floodplain, that

supports permanent evacuation of flood-prone areas, flood proofing of structures remaining in the floodplain, creation of additional natural and artificial storage, and provision of

adequately sized and maintained levees and other structures.

Record Number: 127

Galloway, Gerald E., Jr. (1995). New directions in floodplain management. Water Resources Bulletin, 31(3), 351-7.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River

Abstract: Over the past 30 years, average annual riverine flood damages have exceed $2

billion. Damages associated with the Midwest floods of 1993 exceeded $12 billion and

these costs do not include the nonquantifiable, human impacts of this disaster. In a report

submitted to the White House in June 1994, a federal interagency floodplain management

review committee proposed better ways to manage the nation’s floodplains. The committee

indicated that the 1993 flood was the result of a significant hydrometeorological event, that

federal flood control efforts in the Mississippi basin had prevented nearly $20 billion in

potential damages, and that, in spite of flood-damage reduction efforts, people and property remain at risk due to inevitable future flooding. The committee also recommended that

64
the division of decision and cost-sharing responsibilities among federal, state, and local

governments be more clearly defined and that the nation adopt a strategy of, sequentially,

avoiding inappropriate use of the floodplain, minimizing vulnerability to damage through

both nonstructural and structural means, and mitigating damages as they occur. The report

did not call for abandonment of human use of the floodplain but argued for full consideration of the economic, social, and environmental costs and benefits of all future floodplain

activity.

Record Number: 230

Gallup and Robinson, Inc. (1999). Cover America: A Campaign Evaluation Report. Pennington, NJ: Report to the FEMA.

Keywords :

marketing, risk communication

Abstract: In 1995, the FIA contracted for the initiation and implementation of a nationwide marketing and advertising campaign called Cover America. The purposes of the program were to establish the importance and value of flood insurance in the minds of consumers, stimulate demand for flood insurance, and provide opportunities for other NFIP

stakeholders to communicate with the market. The bulk of the 43-month program (May

1995 through December 1998) consisted of media advertising, with direct mail and public

relations also included. This report summarizes the results of an independent review that

FEMA requested of the effectiveness of the Cover America campaign. This report concludes that, “based on our review of the available data, we believe that the Cover America

campaign has successfully met its objectives.” More specifically, this report states that the

Cover America campaign has positively influenced consumers. It has increased awareness,

changed attitudes, generated intermediate actions like information requests, and produced

desired outcomes, including sales. Awareness of NFIP has also increased. Before the campaign, 52 percent of respondents said they had never heard of NFIP. Most recently, 43 percent of respondents said they had never heard of NFIP. However, the proportion of respondents who have never heard of FEMA has remained generally unchanged since the

Cover America program was launched. Similarly, the positive image of NFIP has improved during the advertising period, from 18 to 30 percent, while the positive image of

FEMA has stayed the same. Among those aware of NFIP, positive image has improved 16

percentage points and among those aware of FEMA, positive image has improved 8 percentage points.

Record Number: 400

Garner, Anna C. (1996). The cost of fighting Mother Nature: News coverage of the 1993

Midwest floods. Journal of Communication Inquiry 20, 83-98.

Keywords:

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This article contrasts national and local press coverage between July 1 and

August 31, 1993, of the “The Great Flood of 1993,” exploring major themes used to explain the disaster and to knowledge of the flood and its impact on people of the Midwest.

National coverage in Time, Newsweek, and The New York Times focused on depersona lized economic costs of the flood, framing the flood in political terms such as entitlement

programs, while the regional Des Moines Register focused on the flood’s impact on ind i65
viduals, families, and communities. The main theme of all the flood discourse was a fight

with Mother Nature. Subthemes were (a) technological progress (especially in the national

media), with a counter-theme of skepticism of technology; (b) national and personal cost,

with a secondary theme of the cost to the taxpayer (the national media suggested that flood

insurance is a federal bailout, while local media took a more positive approach); and, (c)

the politics of compassion (including the concern and support of elected officials and celebrities), which the national media regarded as undermining self-reliance. The author suggests that personal stories are important in covering disasters in that they help readers understand and relate to the event.

Record Number: 367

Geotrac. (1999). Lender Compliance Flood Study.

Keywords :

compliance, North Dakota

Abstract: This study determined that one-quarter to one-third of flood-damaged properties

in Grand Forks, ND required to have flood insurance were not covered. The outcome is

significant in terms of the flood event and study timeframe because it was following the

National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994, which was designed to strengthen enforcement of the lender compliance requirement enacted in 1973.

Record Number: 145

Glick, Daniel. (1994). The flood insurance game. National Wildlife, 32, 44-5.

Keywords :

development, evaluation

Abstract: The author argues that the NFIP, which has three goals--limit government

spending on disaster relief, halt development in floodplains, and provide insurance to residents of flood hazard areas, has not succeeded. The author argues that development in

floodplains continues, while participation in the flood insurance program is poor. The

author argues that the NFIP may be one of the biggest domestic liabilities, next to Social

Security.

Record Number: 197

Godschalk, David R. (1984). Impacts of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act: A Pilot Study.

Chapel Hill, NC: Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resource System

Abstract: At the time of this study for the U.S. Department of Commerce, the Coastal Ba rrier Resources Act (CBRA) was only two years old. The author sought to identify initial

impacts of CBRA. He conducted two case studies, made inquiries directly to insurance and

financial organizations and sent a survey to authorities in three states. He said withdrawal

of federal flood insurance from Topsail Island in North Carolina had a clear impact in deferred development, so much so that local developers tried unsuccessfully to sue to get

their lands removed from the designation so they could regain access to flood insurance.

Withholding of federal funds for infrastructure was also having an effect. The author found

that on Hutchinson Island in Florida, local authorities placed a moratorium on new projects

referred and denied several pending proposals when they found that federal help would not

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be forthcoming to improve the carrying capacity of bridges serving the barrier island. From

his surveys, Godschalk predicted a range of possible future effects of the CBRA limitations, including increased development in already developed areas or a shift from reliance

on federal insurance coverage. “The most common response, however, was that effects of

federal flood insurance and infrastructure assistance are not yet apparent, overall impacts

have been either minor or neutral to date” (p. ii).

Record Number: 285

Godschalk, David R., David J. Brower, and Timothy Beatley. (1989). Catastrophic

Coastal Storms: Hazard Mitigation and Development Management: Duke University

Press.

Keywords :

coastal protection, development, hurricanes

Abstract: This is a study of coastal storm hazards and related policies. The authors outline

a strategy for overcoming obstacles to safeguarding people and property. They conclude

that federal policies encouraging development in vulnerable coastal hazard areas must stop.

They advocate withholding disaster assistance and federal flood insurance from areas that

have disregarded previous hazard-reduction requirements. This book discusses coastal

storm risk as a policy problem; alternative approaches to mitigating coastal storm hazards;

mitigation measures after hurricanes Camille, Frederic, and Alicia; federal and state mitigation programs and policies; local mitigation tools and techniques; mitigation practice in

high-hazard coastal localities; and influences on mitigation priority, adoption, and effectiveness.

Record Number: 509

Godschalk, David R., Timothy Beatley, Philip Berke, David J. Brower, Edward J. Kaiser,

Charles Bohl, and R. Matthew Goebel. (1999). Natural Hazard Mitigation: Recasting Disaster Policy and Planning. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Keywords :

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation

Abstract: This book begins by describing the importance of natural hazard mitigation and

describing the history and evolution of mitigation and disaster assistance policy. Next, it

describes in detail six natural disaster cases, including Florida after Hurricane Andrew,

Missouri after the Midwest Floods of 1993, Iowa after the Midwest Floods of 1993, California after the Loma Prieta and Northridge earthquakes, Massachusetts after Hurricane

Bob and other storms, and Tennessee after a series of floods and storms. The book also

provides an assessment of the national mitigation system and the Hazard Mitigation Grant

Program. Finally, it provides ethical guidelines for hazard mitigation and planning for

sustainable communities.

Record Number: 247

Green, Robert H. (1999). Risk-based Analysis for Flood Damage Reduction Studies Engineer Manual. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

risk assessment

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Abstract: This book describes and provides procedures for risk and uncertainty for U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) flood-damage reduction studies. The guidance presented

and procedures described in this manual apply to all ACE elements, major subordinate

commands, labs, and field operating activities having civil works responsibilities. The procedures described herein lead to estimation of expected benefits of proposed flood damage

reduction plans using risk and uncertainty analysis. Quantitative and qualitative methods of

representing the likelihood and consequences of exceedance of the capacity of selected

measures are also included.

Record Number: 287

Greene, Mark R. (1979). A review and evaluation of selected government programs to

handle risk. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,

443(May), 129-44.

Keywords :

evaluation, insurance programs

Abstract: Six government insurance programs are evaluated against criteria of size and

significance of the economic burden imposed by the risks covered, public acceptance of

the program, and need for government to accept the risk if private insurers will not do so.

The author concludes that governmental insurance of flood and swine flu liability risks is

justified; that the necessity of federal crop insurance is questionable due to the existence of

private insurance against this risk; and that government programs of riot reinsurance, crime

insurance, and nuclear energy liability should be terminated.

Record Number: 128

Griffith, Charles T. (1994). The national flood insurance program: Unattained purposes.

William & Mary Law Review, 35(2), 727-65.

Keywords :

floodplain management, insurance

Abstract: This article discusses the development and history of the NFIP presents problems and suggested solutions. The author reviews the three stages of implementing NFIP

in a community. He also poses problems of the NFIP with the Disaster Relief Act and examines the effects of three cases, known as the trilogy cases, to NFIP. He concludes with

other existing measures being implemented to improve the NFIP.

Record Number: 307

Grigg, Neil S. and Otto J. Helweg. (1975). State-of-the-art of estimating flood damage in

urban areas. Water Resources Bulletin, 11(2), 379-91.

Keywords :

flood damage

Abstract: With implementation of the Flood Insurance Act of 1968 many additional local

flood protection projects are being considered. Consulting engineers and local agencies

need consistent methods to estimate flood damage in order to perform feasibility studies.

Federal agencies have a great deal of data and long experience in making damage estimates

but no comprehensive guides are available at the local level. Curves of flood damages to

different residential structure types are presented. The relationships in use by the FIA are

shown to be reasonable and are recommended for use as approximate guides.

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Record Number: 129

Grimm, Mike. (1998). Floodplain management. Civil Engineering, 68(3), 63-9.

Keywords :

Colorado, floodplain management

Abstract: The author describes how floodplain management efforts in Fort Collins, CO

reduced the loss of life and property damage after a massive flood struck the city in July

28, 1997. He discusses the background on the city’s floodplain management, the positive

effects of predisaster mitigation, the adoption of a storm-water basin map, and the identification of floodplains in the Master Drainageway Plans.

Record Number: 259

Gruntfest, Eve. (1995). Long term social and economic impacts of extreme floods. Paper

presented at the U.S.- Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and

Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy.

Keywords :

economic impact, social impact,

Abstract: This paper complains that social science research following disasters is limited.

Also, most longitudinal studies are 25 years old. This paper summarizes the existing research efforts on these impacts, reviews the actual impacts from nine extreme events (Eight

of them in the US: 1889 and 1997 Johnston, PA; 1972 Buffalo Creek, WV; 1972 Rapid

City, SD; 1976 Big Thompson, CO; the Midwest floods of 1993; 1990s Yuba City, Linda,

and Olivehurst, CA; and 1997 Grand Forks, ND). This paper also provides recommendations for future research. Some of the most difficult questions that need to be addressed are

these: (a) What time frame constitutes long term? (b) How can the social and economic

effects of a flood be isolated from other local, regional, and national factors? (c) How can

the negative effects of a flood on a neighborhood be evaluated when they may be ove rshadowed by prosperity at the community level? Finally, the author suggests that disaster

prevention needs to address economic and political issues, not only geological and meteorological aspects. In consequence, the author argues, the links between social and physical science need to be developed.

Record Number: 493

Gruntfest, Eve and Daniel Pollack. (1994). Warnings, mitigation, and litigation: Lessons

for research form the 1993 floods. Water Resources Update, Spring (95), 40-44.

Keywords :

communication, risk assessment

Abstract: This article explores the relationship between warnings and litigation. It examines a case study in St. Louis to analyze where technological and scientific limits are

reached and where legal liability begins. The authors make recommendations for future

research concerning warnings. Four conclusions follow from their analysis: (a) forecasting

accuracy is not precise; (b) natural and technological hazards are inextricably linked; (c)

more precise forecasts and more confidence in the forecasts might have allowed the company studied (Phillips) to avoid the problems that ensued when their propane contaminated

the river; and (d) the severity, frequency, and “fault line” of a flood are more predictable

than other natural disasters and should be acknowledged. The article calls for research that

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addresses the links between technological and natural disasters, as well as the relationship

between technological sophistication and forecasting accuracy.

Record Number: 273

Gruntfest, Eve and Marc Weber. (1998). Internet and emergency management: Prospects

for the future. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 16(1), 55-72.

Keywords :

communication, mitigation, risk assessment,

Abstract: This article reports on the growing value of Internet resources for the emergency

management profession. The analysis has six components: (a) a brief history of the field

prior to the introduction of the Internet; (b) an overview of the changes in emergency management since the introduction of the Internet and a summary of the characteristics of

Internet communications; (c) some descriptions of how the Internet is currently used in

flood, earthquake, and volcano research; (d) examples of Internet use as a tool for education; (e) federal and state employment of the Internet in emergency management during

disasters and for public education and awareness between disasters; and (f) conclusions

and suggestions for future research.

Record Number: 38

Grzeda, Stan. (1996). FEMA digital flood mapping program. Earth Observation Magazine,

5, 22-5.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping, mitigation

Abstract: FEMA uses Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) to acquire flood risk data through

hydrologic and hydraulic studies. Currently, FISs have been completed for virtually all of

the 21,400 communities with flood risks. The results of each FIS are utilized by FEMA’s

Technical Evaluation Contractors to prepare FIRMs. These maps depict the spatial extent

of Special Flood Hazard Areas, subject to inundation by the 100-year flood (>1 percent

annual probability) and other thematic features. The FIRM is the basis for floodplain management, mitigation, and insurance activities of the NFIP being utilized as the basis for

establishing premiums for flood insurance.

Record Number: 260

Haeuber, Richard A. and William K. Michner. (1998). Natural flood control. Science and

Technology Online (Fall 1998).

Keywords :

floodplain management, insurance

Abstract: The authors point out that, although we understand all too well the damage

floods do, we have not, until recently, understood well the many beneficial aspects of

flooding. Floods are critical for maintaining and restoring many of the important services

provided to humans by riparian ecosystems. Then, the authors argue, it has become apparent that floods present us with a paradox. On the one hand, we want to prevent them, because they threaten our lives and ways of life. On the other hand, we find ourselves

searching for ways to allow or even reintroduce flooding, because it supports the biological

infrastructure that makes valued aspects of our lives possible. Thus flood control per se

cannot be effective over the long term. Rather, the key is a new, more informed kind of

70
flood management, one that involves working with the forces of nature instead of simply

trying to eliminate them.

Record Number: 39

Hamlin, M. (1994). Avoiding liabilities downstream. Mortgage Banking, 55, 111-26.

Keywords :

compliance, geographic information systems, mapping

Abstract: New flood legislation not only exposes lenders to the risk of financial penalties

for noncompliance but also now dramatically increases the risk of lawsuits by borrowers

arising from inaccurate determinations. Thus, lenders must take the accuracy issue seriously. While there are many ways of determining whether a property is in a special flood

hazard area, accuracy improves by utilizing more specific sources for locating the property

and by using more cross-checks. Mapping determination processes range from strictly

manual to fully automated. Three general categories of automated systems exist. One, the

probability system, assesses the probability that a given property is in a special flood ha zard area. Flood mapping systems that rely on geographic information systems generally

require two distinct layers of information: a flood map layer and a secondary source street

map layer. Digital flood maps can be created by converting the paper into computer form

through a process called digitizing. FEMA is beginning to release some digital flood maps.

Record Number: 350

Hampson, Rick. (2000). So many people- And nowhere left to run. USA Today, July 25.

Keywords :

evacuation, Florida

Abstract: The U.S. coastline has become too crowded to evacuate everyone safely when

disaster strikes. Evacuations must begin earlier, when there is still uncertainty about a

storm’s path (three-quarters of evacuations turn out to be unnecessary). A two-decade lull

in hurricane activity may be ending, sea levels are rising, and a surprising number of people don't flee hurricanes. Lee County, FL, has considered several unconventional and controversial approaches: (a) public storm shelters (not endorsed by the American Red Cross)

in areas that could be inundated by strong hurricanes; (b) refuges of last resort (which

some believe encourage people not to evacuate); (c) growth controls; (d) review of new

construction; and (e) storm-proof parking garages. Lee County is also trying to develop an

“evacuation culture,” in which the threat of disaster is taken seriously. This would involve

evacuation plans for each family, houses with “safe rooms” for sitting out weaker storms,

and Interstates in which all lanes can be easily converted to move away from the storm.

The article provides estimated evacuation times during peak tourist season for a Category 4

hurricane for 16 “problem areas”-ranging from 20-29 hours in areas such as Myrtle Beach

and Long Island to 50-60 hours in Ft. Myers and New Orleans.

Record Number: 353

Hampson, Rick. (2000). Where nature is immovable object. USA Today, July 25

Keywords :

development, erosion, Florida

Abstract: Sanibel Island, FL, is relatively undeveloped, with almost two-thirds a wildlife

preserve. The causeway that connects the island with the mainland threatened the island

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with over development, and the city voted to adopt a growth cap restricting the number of

new housing units. Part of its argument was that it was not safe to have more people on the

island than could be evacuated in an emergency. The city became synonymous with smart

growth, with a tough building code and zoning laws, as well as conservation laws to preserve the landscape. The city purchased land where erosion was a problem and replaced

sand only after much debate. Residents want to save the coastal environment and see a

problem with people who build too close to the beach.

Record Number: 437

Harrington, Scott E. (2000). Rethinking Disaster Policy. Regulation, 23(1).

Keywords :

disaster assistance, risk management

Abstract: The author explores the conventional view of disaster policy which suggests that

government programs reduce dependence on “free” disaster assistance and promote efficient risk management by property owners and farmers. He draws three conclusions from

his analysis. First, the narrow scope of private-sector disaster insurance reflects in large

part the low demand for coverage. Demand is low in part due to the availability of disaster

assistance, which substitutes for insurance. Federal tax policy reduces supply by substantially increasing insurers’ costs of holding capital to cover large but infrequent losses.

Second, because of subsidized rates and limited underwriting and risk classification, go vernment insurance programs fail to encourage efficient risk management. Third, the practice of subsidizing government insurance, while giving disaster assistance to people who

eschew coverage and to some people who have it, is more likely to raise taxpayers’ costs

than to reduce them.

Record Number: 261

Hartill, Lane. (2000). Are we drowning in flood insurance? The Christian Science Monitor,

March 30, 16.

Keywords :

development, flood insurance, Hurricane Floyd

Abstract: This article states that “In fiscal 1999, more than $750 million in loss and loss

adjustment (a large percentage of this came from Hurricane Floyd) was paid out nationally,

compared with $533.8 million in claims paid in 1989. The findings are nothing new to officials and James Witt, director of FEMA, acknowledges the crisis.” The author also states

that “the stubborn irony about the damage caused to people living in floodplains, say both

federal disaster officials and environmentalists, is that it is caused by people continuing to

build in these naturally at risk areas.”

Record Number: 11

Haveman, Robert H. (1972). The Economic Performance of Public Investments: An Ex

Post Evaluation of Water Resources Investments. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, evaluation

Abstract: This book deals with the analytical problem of doing ex-post evaluations of

public investments (as opposed to ex-ante). Particularly relevant is Chapter II: “The ex72
post evaluation of flood control investments.” A case study (the John H. Kerr Reservoir) in

which ex-post results fell short of the ex-ante expectations is presented.

Record Number: 232

Hazard Mitigation Technical Assistance Partnership, Inc., French & Associates, Ltd., and

FEMA. (2000). Evaluation of CRS Credited Activities during Hurricane Floyd. Washington, DC: FEMA (FEMA).

Keywords :

Community Rating System, Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina, risk mitigation

Abstract: This report reviews the performance of several communities’ activities as part of

the Community Rating System (CRS) during and after the flooding caused by Hurricane

Floyd in North Carolina in 1999. Using a combination of data collected in the field, data

from flood insurance claims, and interviews with local officials and residents, this report

evaluates the impact of several CRS activities and elements (public information activities,

mapping and regulations, and flood damage reduction). The report finds that although residents of CRS have a higher level of awareness that they are exposed to a flood hazard, a

higher level of flood insurance coverage, and have implemented more flood protection

measures, such awareness could not be statistically linked to community-run public information programs. Also, the report estimated that the average savings from preserving

flood-prone areas as open space ranged from $47,500 to $111,000 per acre. The report also

found that the acquisition and relocation of flood-prone buildings was more effective at

reducing flood losses than any other approach. The report also found that the CRS was the

cause for starting or modifying some local activities. However, in many cases it was not

the only cause and it was overshadowed by recent flooding and disaster assistance funds.

Further, the report found that the CRS had a greater impact on activities that were inexpensive or could be implemented with current staff resources (e.g., public information and

flood warning).

Record Number: 233

Heaton, J. (2000). Creative financing workshop. Funding sources. Presented at the Project

Impact Summit 2000, November 14-15, 2000. Washington, D.C: Summit sponsored by

FEMA.

Keywords :

risk mitigation

Abstract: This presentation identifies and summarizes existing federal and state funding

sources for hazard mitigation activities other than FEMA’s Project Impact. Some of the

programs listed in this presentation are: the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, the Flood

Mitigation Assistance Program, the NFIP, Floodplain Management Systems, community

development block grants, the Emergency Watershed Protection program, and low-interest

disaster loans provided by the Small Business Administration. The author warns the reader

that the provided list of sources is not exhaustive.

Record Number: 423

Higney, Francis. (1999). Lucky escape for insurers. Post Magazine, September 23, 12.

Keywords :

Hurricane Floyd

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Abstract: Insurers may have fared relatively well in the wake of Hurricane Floyd, which

swept along the eastern seaboard of the United States in September 1999, wreaking havoc

in many states. Property damage caused by flooding is expected to reach $2.5 billion but

insured damages may only be in the area of $0.5 billion as most policies exclude flood

damage, according to the Insurance Information Institute. A large part of insurers’ liability

will be for damages to vehicles covered by comprehensive policies. Allstate and Natio nwide said they had each received around 10,000 claims. State Farm said it had received

over 26,000 but expected this number to rise as flood waters subside. This latest catastrophe has thrown the viability of the catastrophe bond market, used by some insurers as an

alternative to reinsurance, into stark relief.

Record Number: 62

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. (2000). Evaluation

of Erosion Hazards. Washington, DC: FEMA. Summary available at

http://www.fema.gov/mit/tsd/hz_erosn.pdf

Keywords :

coastal erosion, evaluation

Abstract: This study concludes that, despite facing higher risk, homeowners in erosionprone areas currently are paying the same amount for flood insurance as are policyholders

in nonerosion areas. The study suggests that FEMA incorporate the risk of erosion into the

cost of insurance along the coasts. Otherwise, other NFIP policyholders will have to subsidize what it is likely to become a substantial cost.

Record Number: 449

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. (2000). The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards: Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation. Washington, DC: Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, Island Press.

Keywords :

coastal areas, environmental costs, mitigation, risk assessment

Abstract: This book addresses the need for a broader understanding of the categories and

range of coastal hazard costs. It makes specific recommendations for the improvement of

the estimation and reporting of the cost of coastal hazards, for the improvement of risk and

vulnerability assessment, and for the development and evaluation of mitigation strategies.

The recommendations for improvement in these areas demand efforts at the federal, state,

and local levels, and they focus on expanding the conceptual framework, previously limited to economic considerations, to include social, business and environmental costs. In

addition to these recommendations, the report proposes a framework for community planning. This framework is organized around three principles: (a) the importance of developing a broad set of alternative mitigation and preparedness strategies, recognizing the relevance of the status quo but not being restricted by current policy; (b) the importance of

characterizing the potential losses from disasters of different magnitudes by linking risk

assessment with a region’s vulnerability; and (c) the need to incorporate a broad range of

economic, business, social, and environmental costs (both immediate and incurred over

time) associated with weather-related hazard events when evaluating alternative mitigation

and preparedness strategies.

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Record Number: 40

Ho, F.P. (1974). Storm Tide Frequency Analysis for the Coast of Georgia, National

Weather Service Technical Memo. Silver Spring, MD: National Weather Service, Office of

Hydrology.

Keywords :

Georgia, hazard identification, modeling

Abstract: Storm tide height frequency distributions are developed on the Georgia coast for

the NFIP by computing storm tides from a full set of climatologically representative hurricanes, using the National Weather Service’s hydrodynamic storm surge model. Tide levels

are shown in coastal profile between annual frequencies of 0.10 to 0.002. The report is intended for use in estimating actual risk to buildings from coastal floods and in land-use

management.

Record Number: 318

Holway, James M. and Raymond J. Burby. (1990). The effects of floodplain development

controls on residential land values. Land Economics, 66(3), 259-71.

Keywords :

development, elevation requirements, floodplain management, modeling

Abstract: This paper considers the effect of floodplain management programs on the market for vacant residential land. The authors model the land developers’ profits from housing production to illustrate the expected effects of parcel characteristics on land value. The

hedonic method is utilized to analyze data on vacant floodplain parcels from nine communities that vary by type of flooding, regulatory programs, and geographic location. The

authors’ results show that zoning floodplains for lower density development, implementing

building regulations requiring elevation above the level of the flood, and providing clear

local leadership of programs each contribute to lowering floodplain land values.

Record Number: 2

Holway, James M. and Raymond J. Burby. (1993). Reducing flood losses through local

planning and land use controls. Journal of the American Planning Association, 59(2), 205-

16.

Keywords :

elevation requirements

Abstract: The NFIP emphasizes building elevation requirements to protect property from

flood damage and to limit continued increases in flood losses. Economists believe that the

cost to elevate buildings will shift some development to flood-free locations. This article

provides evidence that elevating buildings to NFIP standards does indeed reduce losses,

but that adding additional elevation requirements will have little effect on the rate of increase in floodplain development. Instead, these requirements must be supplemented with

regulations of land use in floodplains.

Record Number: 385

Houck, Oliver A. (1985). Rising water: The national flood insurance program and Louisiana. Tulane Law Review, 60, 61-165.

Keywords :

enforcement, Louisiana, mitigation

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Abstract: This article discusses the evolution and operation of the NFIP and Louisiana’s

stake in its success. Louisiana is a major participant in the NFIP, representing almost 12

percent of all policies in 260 participating communities. Research on the execution of the

program in a number of specific inland and coastal Louisiana regions and communities illustrates successes and problems in its implementation. The author notes that federal disaster relief payments might be lower if participation in the NFIP were required in high-risk

areas. The article also considers the emerging problem of enforcement and the extent to

which floodplain ordinances give rise to duties and liabilities. The largest litigation to arise

under the NFIP occurred in Louisiana in the case of United States v. Parish of St. Bernard,

which sued for violations of obligations and ordinances under the NFIP. The impact of this

case may determine whether litigation could become an enforcement tool, and it will affect

NFIP communities nationwide as NFIP’s ordinances are crucial to the program’s financial

success and efficacy. The article also examines the question of what the federal government can do to recover its losses. Recommendations for making the NFIP economically

and politically viable include actions at the congressional level, such as structuring water

project construction and disaster relief to aid rather than frustrate the NFIP; examining

other federal assistance and disaster relief benefits to flood-prone areas; and mandating a

study of the degree to which upstream levees and channelization affect water downstream.

Other recommendations involve improvements available to FEMA and local authorities

within the NFIP, suggestions for structural elevation and storm-proofing requirements for

insurance eligibility, and suggestions for strengthening FEMA’s resources.

Record Number: 41

Hovey, S.T., C. Daniel, and P.E. Bryant. (1998). Complementing Remote Sensing Systems

in Flood Mitigation and Preparation. Fort Belvoir, VA: Army Topographic Engineering

Center.

Keywords :

mapping, mitigation

Abstract: As a result of FEMA’s response to the many natural disasters of the 1990s, the

U.S. Congress directed FEMA to place mitigation of impacts from future natural hazards

as its highest priority in working with state and local governments. The NFIP, and its related flood-risk studies and flood hazard mapping activities, are increasingly important

mitigation support functions. A current focus is on the modernization of maps to speed the

flood-mapping process, lowering its cost, and increasing the accuracy of these results. A

further emphasis is on more support to the local areas as exemplified by Project Impact,

which seeks to mitigate disasters’ impacts by taking actions in advance of these events.

Record Number: 42

Howard, JoAnn. (1999). National flood insurance compliance. Credit Union Magazine, 65,

43-4.

Keywords :

compliance, economic impact

Abstract: The NFIP's Federal Insurance Administrator explains that mandatory purchase

provisions of the 1994 National Flood Insurance Reform Act require owners of all structures located in flood hazard area of participating communities to purchase and maintain

flood insurance as a condition of receiving a federally related mortgage or home equity

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loan on that structure. Although policyholder growth has increased markedly since the effective date of the joint final rule on loans in areas having special flood hazards, a considerable gap remains between the number of households that the program insures in hazard

areas compared with the number at risk. By following the correct procedures to determine

whether the structure to be refinanced is in a special flood hazard area as shown on FIRMs,

lenders will comply with the law. A basic approach to complying with flood insurance requirements for all mortgage-related personnel in any lending institution includes four

steps. First, understand the flood peril. It can and does flood everywhere throughout the

United States and its territories, especially in special flood hazard areas but also in nonhazard areas. Many lending institutions have outsourced the responsibility of performing

flood zone determinations to a flood zone determination company. Second, know all the

compliance issues. The act and its accompanying regulations cite compliance provisions in

the areas of coverage, escrow, force placement, determination fees, use and retention of

required forms, dispute resolution, and proper notification procedures. Three, focus on

retention. Have a process in place to monitor renewals; keep service information up-to-date

on all policies so that expiration notices get to the proper entities; develop a diary system

to verify that each policy does renew. Four, be a risk manager. Manage flood insurance

issues beyond their compliance minimums. Treat it the same way you manage all other

risk-related issues in the loan process.

Record Number: 43

Hudgens, D. (1999). Adapting the national flood insurance program to relative sea level

rise. Coastal Management 27(4), 367-75.

Keywords :

coastal areas, floodplain management, mitigation, sea-level rise

Abstract: Congress created the NFIP to provide much-needed flood insurance to property

owners and to decrease the nation’s susceptibility to flooding. Relative sea-level rise now

poses a threat to the nation’s flood preparedness, with coastal property owners facing increasingly severe flooding. FEMA could address this vulnerability through several different approaches. By recalculating and extending the 100-year floodplains to incorporate estimates of relative sea-level rise, the program would prepare coastal property owners for

the near-future flood risks. Further adaptation approaches to improve the NFIP include requiring floodproofing, obtaining “rolling easements,” and conducting education campaigns.

Record Number: 190

Hughes, Rebecca Quinn. (1990). Bailing out the victims: A look at federal programs affecting coastal development. In Focus on Maryland's Forgotten Bays. Report on the Conference on the Outer Coastal Bays, May 5, 84-6, 92-101.

Keywords :

development

Abstract: In her capacity as legislative officer, Association of State Floodplain Managers,

Inc. and Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Administration,

Hughes takes exception with the assumption that the NFIP is a major factor in coastal development. She notes that much of the development occurred before the NFIP was established. Indeed, state coastal zone managers told the Congressional Research Service (1988)

77
that they could not document how the NFIP affects patterns of coastal development and the

value of coastal property. She cited as an example the Sail Beach of North Carolina, where

privately funded infrastructure has led to development.

Record Number: 251

Hulsey, Brett and Geoff Tichenor. (2000). How Restoring Wetlands Can Help Family

Farmers, Reduce Water Pollution and Flood Risks. Madison, WI: Sierra Club Midwest

Office, Sierra Club.

Keywords :

watersheds, wetlands

Abstract: This article states that since its inception in the 1985 Farm Bill and its expansion

in the 1990 Farm Bill, the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), Emergency WRP, and

Emergency Watershed Protection Program have protected more than 900,000 acres of

wetlands. The authors claim that “there are 170,000 acres backlogged in Upper Mississippi

River Basin states and 500,000 backlogged in the U.S.” and therefore, “if we really want to

help farmers, the environment and reduce flooding, we need to expand this program.”

Record Number: 498

Hunt, Constance E. (1994). Improving the effectiveness of flood damage reduction policies

through an integrated approach to watershed management. Water Resources Update,

Autumn(97), 21-4.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: The coordinator of the Coalition to Restore Aquatic Ecosystems (CRAE) highlights four findings from Sharing the Challenge with respect to floodplain management:

(a) integration of multiple objectives; (b) interagency coordination; (c) local control; and

(d) coordination mechanisms. Within the CRAE, there exists general consensus that strategies to reduce flood damage should be integrated with strategies for achieving other objectives. Communities should take the lead in the development and implementation of these

strategies for their subbasins while considering information on the relationship between

their subbasins and the rest of the watershed. State and federal agencies should work at a

regional level to develop the larger watershed context in which these strategies will operate, and provide data and technical and financial support to these local efforts. This wellintegrated framework for making decisions on water resource management can realize

economic and environmental objectives on a sustainable basis and cut the costs of flood

control.

Record Number: 292

Institute for Business and Home Safety. (1999). Flood Insurance and the 1997 Flood in

Grand Forks, North Dakota: Homeowner Survey Results. IBHS Technical Report Series

#1, Institute for Business and Home Safety (IHBS). Boston, MA: Institute for Business and

Home Safety.

Keywords :

flood insurance, North Dakota, Red River

Abstract: In 1997, devastating floods along the Red River of the North in North Dakota

affected over 90 percent of Grand Forks’ 50,000 residents. Only 20 percent of damaged

78
homes were covered by flood insurance, leaving taxpayers and victims to shoulder most of

the costs of recovery. In an effort to improve awareness of the need for disaster protection,

the “Grand Forks Flood Insurance Summit” was held, bringing together federal, state, and

local government officials with the insurance industry. In preparation for the summit,

IBHS and the University of North Dakota’s Bureau of Governmental Affairs conducted a

survey of Grand Forks homeowners to determine which factors influenced their decision to

purchase or not purchase flood insurance. The Homeowner Survey Results report indicates

that most homeowners simply believed they were not at risk from flooding. It also describes actions taken since the flood and provides recommendations to the insurance industry and government to improve flood awareness and the purchase and retention of flood

insurance.

Record Number: 115

Insurance Research Council. (1986). Catastrophic Losses: How the Insurance System

Would Handle Two $7 Billion Hurricanes. Malvern, PA: Insurance Research Council.

Keywords :

hurricane, insurance

Abstract: This study starts with two hypothetical hurricanes causing $7 billion each in insured property losses and tracks those losses through the insurance system to find out

where they would fall. It also analyzes the financial impact two such losses would have on

primary companies and reinsurers, as a group, in the United States and abroad. The study

also collected information on actual hurricane losses for 1983 and 1985, resulting in a substantial upward revision of earlier loss estimates for those storms (details to be added).

Record Number: 113

Insurance Research Council. (1989). Surviving the Storm: Building Codes, Compliance,

and the Mitigation of Hurricane Damage. Malvern, PA: Insurance Research Council.

Keywords :

coastal areas, compliance, enforcement, mitigation

Abstract: This study indicates that good building codes and strong enforcement can reduce hurricane damage to property. But it also shows wide variations in wind codes and

code compliance among Gulf and Atlantic coastal states. Included are state-by-state estimates of insured property values exposed to hurricanes and the added costs of making

homes more hurricane-resistant.

Record Number: 114

Insurance Research Council. (1990). The National Flood Insurance Program: Agency and

Insurer Perspectives. Malvern, PA: Insurance Research Council.

Keywords :

communication, risk perception

Abstract: Surveys of insurers and agents explore their views and practices regarding the

NFIP and Write Your Own programs. The study examines reasons for participation/nonparticipation by providers and property owners, the role of lenders in the sale of flood insurance, growth in policies sold, and views on who is responsible for promoting flood insurance.

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Record Number: 112

Insurance Research Council. (1995). Coastal Exposure and Community Protection: Hurricane Andrew's Legacy. Malvern, PA: Insurance Research Council.

Keywords :

development, Hurricane Andrew, modeling

Abstract: This study uses data from coastal counties in the 18 states along the Atlantic

Ocean and Gulf of Mexico to document population and insured exposure increases from

1980 through 1993. The devastation of Hurricane Andrew is analyzed to show the

strengths and weaknesses of current building code practices and enforcement and to make

recommendations for improvement. Computer models are presented that estimate potential

losses from future hurricanes.

Record Number: 319

Insure.com. (1998). Lawsuit seeks to end Florida flood insurance rule. Available on-line

at: www.insure.com/states/fl/home/fwuasuit898.html

Keywords :

coastal areas, Florida

Abstract: This document argued that Florida homeowners in coastal areas may be favored

by a class-action lawsuit that might force the Florida Windstorm Underwriting Association

(FWUA) to change the way it does business. In 1998, the FWUA required that people who

live in SFHAs A and V purchase flood insurance for about the same amount as their wind

(the Flood Rule). Alan Cook, a spokesman for the FWUA, said that the Flood Rule started

after Hurricanes Erin and Opal in 1995, both of which were very wet storms. “There were

a lot of people who had flood damage but no flood policies, and they wanted their wind

policies to pay for their damage,” recounted Cook. State Rep. John Cosgrove and Owl

Food Stores Inc. filed suit against the FWUA on Aug. 13, 1998. Together, the plaintiffs

hoped to represent both private citizens and business owners who were forced to buy policies from the state’s last-resort windstorm insurer.

Record Number: 231

Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. (1994). Blueprint for Change --

Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management into the 21st Century. Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, risk mitigation

Abstract: In January 1994 the Clinton administration’s Floodplain Management Task

Force assigned the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. Its mission

was to delineate the major causes and consequences of the Midwest floods of 1993 and to

evaluate the performance of existing floodplain management and related watershed ma nagement programs. The committee was also asked to make recommendations to the Task

Force on changes in current policies, programs, and activities of the federal government

that most effectively would achieve risk reduction, economic efficiency, and environmental enhancement in the floodplain and related watersheds. This is the final report of the

Review Committee. The thesis of the report is straightforward: floods will continue to occur. The goals for floodplain management are clear. The means to carry out effective

floodplain management exist today but need improvement and refocusing. The report con80
cludes that the United States has lacked the focus and the incentive to engage itself seriously in floodplain management. The 1993 flood managed to focus attention on the floodplain and provided the incentive for action. The Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee proposes “a better way” to manage the floodplains. It begins by establishing that all levels of government, all businesses, and all citizens have a stake in properly managing the floodplain. The Review Committee supports a floodplain management

strategy of, sequentially, avoiding inappropriate use of the floodplain, minimizing vulnerability to damage through both structural and nonstructural means, and mitigating flood

damages when they do occur. To ensure a long-term, nationwide approach to floodplain

management, the Review Committee proposes legislation to develop and fund a national

Floodplain Management Program with principal responsibility and accountability at the

state level. It also proposes revitalization of the Water Resources Council to better coordinate federal activities, limited restoration of some basin commissions for basin-wide planning, and issuance of a presidential executive order requiring federal agencies to follow

floodplain management principles in the execution of their programs.

Record Number: 362

International Joint Commission (IJC). (2000). The Next Flood: Getting Prepared. Final

Report of the International Joint Commission. IJC.

Keywords :

marketing, Red River Basin

Abstract: The report examined the 1997 flooding in the Red River Basin and the previous

flooding history in that area and provides recommendations to reduce the impact of flooding and to increase focus on preparedness and mitigation for major flood areas. The report

also recommends that FEMA expand efforts to market flood insurance in the area both

within and outside the 100-year floodplain. Innovative marketing was offered as a solution

to attract and retain policyholders, in addition to increasing the waiting period from 30

days to 60 days.

Record Number: 28

Jacob, Klaus H. (2000). Futuristic hazard and risk assessment: How do we learn to look

ahead? Natural Hazards Observer, 24, 2-5.

Keywords :

future hazards, mapping, mitigation, risk assessment

Abstract: Quantitative, probabilistic hazard assessment is generally based on the record of

past hazardous events and used to account for present and near future hazards. However,

the catalog of hazardous events is not always the only input to the assessment. Sometimes,

generalized models, based on the historic record that account for the physical processes in

the region, are used. To be maximally effective, the latest scientific knowledge must be

applied when estimating future hazards and risks. Take, for instance, NFIP maps. For most

localities, flood zones were mapped many decades ago. Since then, land use patterns have

drastically changed in many of the most rapidly developing regions of the United States,

altering the ability of the land to absorb high amounts of precipitation and to extend the

duration of runoff in rivers and floodplains. Flooding beyond designated flood zones appears to be increasing, although systematic surveys to confirm this notion are generally

lacking. Hence, flood-zone mapping does not depict the present state of the hazard, nor

81
have we evaluated other increasing risk exposures threatening many parts of the United

States.

Record Number: 284

Jaffe, Greg and Rich Motok. (1998). Building in waves: Mere hurricanes won't stop this

barrier island. Wall Street Journal, Eastern Edition, 232(43), July 15, A1.

Keywords :

disaster relief, Hurricane Bonnie, North Carolina

Abstract: This article reports on how homes and condominiums, located on Topsail Island, NC, are often damaged or destroyed when hurricanes move up the coast. It also reports criticism over government aid to high-risk areas. It describes financial aid given to

the area by FEMA. It presents some statistics such as the number of homes covered with

flood insurance on the island.

Record Number: 262

Jensen, Ric. (1990). Finding answers to flooding woes. Federal policies, unsound deve lopment, and reservoir operations all contribute to flood problems. Texas Water Resources,

16 (Fall).

Keywords :

dams, development, mitigation, modeling, Texas

Abstract: This article asks the reader if building flood control dams and other structures

are the best way to cut flood damages. Structural measures like large dams provide a false

sense of security that makes people feel they are safe from flooding. Structural measures

are also expensive and can result in catastrophic losses if they fail. In contrast, nonstructural alternatives include managing existing dams to mitigate floods during emergencies,

preventing construction in low-lying areas, lessening the impacts of urbanization, and increasing the effectiveness of flood insurance and floodplain management. The author

summarizes efforts in Harris County, TX to alleviate flood risks: in 1990, studies were underway that would assess the impact of floods depending on the amount of development

that is allowed. Development in the region’s floodplain was being regulated by establishing uniform criteria. Harris County started to build computer models to provide a better

idea of how many homes and businesses have been built in low-lying areas. New deve lopments were also required to include provisions to store stormwater runoff temporarily.

The U.S. Geological Survey was working with state agencies to improve models to simulate flows in the Trinity River basin and to identify high-risk areas.

Record Number: 44

Johnson, A.A. (1990). Improvements to mapping of alluvial fan flooding. In Hydraulics/Hydrology of Arid Lands (H2AL). (pp. 25-27). New York, NY: American Society of

Civil Engineers.

Keywords :

mapping, modeling

Abstract: FEMA is working to refine its assistance to engineers and floodplain managers

by issuing revised and simplified guidance and modeling to mapping the regulated floodplains subject to alluvial fan flooding. FEMA has also developed and released a model to

be used on a personal computer that is intended to simplify the application of FEMA’s al82
luvial fan flooding methodology. The timeliness and accuracy of mapping or remapping

the flood risk for alluvial fan flooding sources shown as SFHAs on FIRMs has improved

and will continue to improve. FEMA has taken steps in FY 1990 to improve the quality of

the draft flood insurance studies by revising the study guidelines and by releasing the PC

version of the alluvial fan model. In FY 1991, FEMA planned to work to revise the guidance and regulations to define more clearly the documentation that would demonstrate that

the protection provided by natural or structural flood-control measures warrants removing

areas from alluvial fan SFHAs.

Record Number: 198

Jones, E. and W. Stolzenburg. (1988). Building in the coastal barrier resources system. In

Paper Presented on behalf of the National Wildlife Federation to the Coastal Zone 1989

Conference, Charleston, SC, July 13, 1988. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, development

Abstract: This study is cited in testimony by the National Association of Realtors before

Congress during consideration of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act. The hearing on S.

2729 was held before the Senate Committee on Environmental and Public Works. A copy

of the paper is no longer available, therefore, the summary provided here represents the

assessment of the realtors and should be viewed in that light. The realtors say: This paper

assesses development in areas of the CBRA over a six-year period (1982-88). Jones and

Stolzenburg examined aerial photographs of the areas concluding that there was a 40.7

percent increase in the number of structures in these areas, half of which are in Florida.

Although one of the purposes of the act was to discourage development by denying the

availability of flood insurance and federal financial assistance, the study found that the

prohibition of flood insurance in these areas did not preclude development.

Record Number: 274

Kaiser, Edward J., Raymond J. Burby, Scott A. Bollens, and James M. Holway. (1987).

Private sector land market decision agents as targets of floodplain policy. International

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 5(3), 311-35.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: This article examines the influence of floodplain land-use policy on land market

decisions of three private-sector decision makers: owners of vacant land, developers, and

building owners. It is based on a mail survey of 312 such decision makers in ten cities

across the United States. The findings imply that effective floodplain programs must target

builders and developers and owners of vacant land because their decisions come earlier in

the rural-to-urban land conversion process and they are more likely to avoid the hazard or

take mitigation actions in response to information, incentives, and regulations. Nevertheless, policy should also target the consumer, emphasizing insurance and awareness of the

risks of flood damage, something that current policy does not do adequately.

83
Record Number: 421

Kamimura, Gary, Jeffrey A. Zinn, and Malcolm Simmons. (1987). Managing Coastal Development through the Coastal Zone Management and Flood Insurance Programs: Experience to Date and the Views from Selected States. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Keywords :

coastal areas, development

Abstract: The Federal Coastal Zone Management Program and the NFIP both foster wiser

use of coastal areas. Sometimes, however, they work at inconsistent purposes. These inconsistencies are examined, using information supplied by federal agency officials and responses by 11 states (Alabama, California, Delaware, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan,

New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin). The report concludes with recommendations for possible congressional action.

Record Number: 303

Karlinger, M.R. and E.D. Attanasi. (1980). Flood risks and the willingness to purchase

flood insurance. Water Resources Research, 16(4), 617-22.

Keywords :

insurance, modeling

Abstract: Computer simulation experiments were conducted to determine the effects of

alternative sources of uncertainty on the willingness to pay for flood insurance. Two alternative insurance protection schemes were investigated: coinsurance and fixed coverage.

The question investigated here is to what extent does the insurance scheme influence how

purchasers respond to flood risks? Floods were assumed to be log normally distributed

and the effects on the purchase of insurance of uncertainties in the parameters of the distribution were explored using response surface analysis. Results indicate that fixed coverage

insurance provisions shift most of the uncertainty in the physical parameters governing

natural disaster occurrences away from the insured and onto the insurer. The results also

show that the form of the damage function has little effect on the demand for flood insurance.

Record Number: 402

Karlsson, Per-Ola and Vacov Y. Haimes. (1989). Risk assessment of extreme events: Application. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 115(3), 299-320.

Keywords :

dams, risk assessment

Abstract: The safety of many existing dams could be improved by modifying them structurally in accordance with recent advances in statistical hydrology and improved availability of meteorological and hydrological data. Any increase in safety that might be gained by

structural changes must be balanced against their costs. The risk analysis methodology

known as the partitioned multiobjective risk method (PMRM) is explored in this paper

through a dam-safety problem. The PMRM is well suited to the task of solving the probabilistic optimization problem posed by such risk-versus-cost considerations. With the

PMRM, a number of conditional expected-damage functions are generated. Of these, one

that represents events of a more extreme and catastrophic character is of particular interest

here. The close relationship that exists between the expectation of damage and the statistics

84
of extremes is shown to simplify the implementation of the PMRM, and the relationship

also permits the derivation of closed-forin equations that determine (for any partitioning of

the probability axis) the expected damage, given that a flood with a return period that

equals or exceeds n years occurs. Finally, an analysis is made as to how the choice of the

distribution function representing the annual flood peaks might affect the conditional expectations.

Record Number: 488

Keeney, Dennis R. and Robert H. Alexander. (1994). Droughts, floods, and sustainability.

Water Resources Update, Spring(95), 15-20.

Keywords :

Iowa, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This article views the catastrophic rainfall and flooding in the Midwest in the

larger context of regional sustainability. It discusses how converging strategies from different sources suggest how we might work cooperatively toward achieving healthy environments and healthy economies, now and in the future, while minimizing losses from disasters. The recommendations include: (a) creating demonstration projects within the area

of intense 1993 flooding to illustrate ways that flood hazard mitigation and regional

sustainability can advance together; (b) showcasing and monitoring exemplary programs

that are already under way; and (c) considering such programs as centers of innovation

waves and of voluntary adoption of sustainable land-management practices. Examples

from Iowa are cited.

Record Number: 495

Kelmelis, John A. (1994). Scientific river basin management. Water Resources Update,

Autumn (97), 9-13.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: In response to the Midwest floods of 1993, the Clinton administration recognized the need to make scientific information readily available to planners, managers, and

policy makers in the basin area. To acquire and begin analyzing the data, the Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team (SAST) was established in November 1993. SAST was an

interdisciplinary, interagency team that also provided scientific support to the Interagency

Floodplain Management Review Committee. This article discusses the major findings of

the SAST and a strategy to incorporate scientific information into river basin management

more effectively. The findings of the SAST show clearly that using scientific information

when making decisions could help reduce the impact of floods. Such information and advice must be derived from a well-coordinated plan of activities that incorporates baseline

information, detects changes to the system, determines the effects of changes, improves

methods of predicting changes, and makes the knowledge available to the user community.

Record Number: 406

Kerns, Waldon R., Robert J. Byrne, and Carl H. Hobbs. (1980). An economic analysis

strategy for management of shoreline erosion. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 8(2),

165-84.

85
Keywords :

economics, erosion

Abstract: An economic framework for making management decisions on tidal shoreline

erosion is provided. It provides for evaluation of the impacts of coastal erosion on shoreland property and structures. Coefficients for estimating erosion-induced loses to property

and dwellings were determined. Lots that contained a dwelling decreased in value by an

average of $0.24 for each square foot of soil lost to erosion. Decrease in value of dwelling

due to erosion-induced loss of distance between dwelling and shoreline was an average

decrease of $8.64 per foot of distance lost. These values plus other measures were applied

to three case study coastal areas in Virginia. The evaluation procedure provided a realistic

basis for comparisons: (a) of benefits and costs of selected erosion control measures; (b)

between various levels of control; and (c) distribution of costs of controls among property

owners and between the private and public sectors.

Record Number: 275

Kirschenbaum, Alan. (1996). Residential ambiguity and relocation decisions: Population

and areas at risk. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(1), 79-96.

Keywords :

relocation

Abstract: Residential relocation is one means of coping with living in a perceived highrisk area. An analysis of a sample of household members who live in such an area showed

the extent to which fear of recurring emergency events affects attitudes toward seeking an

alternative safer area in which to reside. Intent to relocate is linked to specific subgroups of

families on the basis of how they comprehend the risks of remaining (educational level)

and the extent of possible economic damage (level of assets). A series of independent variables reflected affective-emotive behavior during the disaster. Post crisis trauma related

attitudes, and pre/post disaster neighborhood bonds were likewise linked with an intention

to move to a safer neighborhood. A regression model focused the analysis on the degree to

which concern of psychological damage to children played a decisive role in determining a

relocation decision.

Record Number: 311

Klein, Robert. (1998). Regulation and catastrophe insurance. In Howard Kunreuther and

Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph Henry Press.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: This chapter assesses the role that insurance regulation has played in society’s

response to disaster risk and identifies the issues that must be addressed in evaluating how

regulatory policy might be modified to help lower disaster costs and support a more efficient and equitable way to finance them. This chapter provides a brief overview of the

structure of insurance regulation, focusing on its primary institutions and functions. The

author also provides a detailed evaluation of the areas of regulation that are most relevant

to insuring disaster risk (e.g., regulation and its effect on availability and price and control

of market entry and exit) and the options available to regulators to improve market condi86
tions (e.g., financial regulations, policy forms and coverage requirements, rates, underwriting restrictions, and claims adjustment).

Record Number: 438

Kleindorfer, Paul R. and Howard Kunreuther. (2000). Managing catastrophe risk. Regulation, 23(4), 26-31.

Keywords :

mitigation, modeling

Abstract: In this article the authors utilize computerized risk-mitigation measures (RMMs)

models to examine the effect that risk mitigation increases would have on property owners

and insurers. With this technology, the authors constructed statistical models of two earthquake-prone cities mimicking Oakland, California and Miami Dade County, Florida. They

examined the reduction in damages that increased use of RMMs would have on these areas. In addition, they studied the effect that increased use of RMMs would have on the performance of two prototypical insurance companies, one small and large insurance company. The computer models indicate that mitigation would reduce aggregate losses to the

insurer and the homeowner in both Oakland and Miami. If all homeowners mitigate in

Oakland, the expected annual loss is $2.38 million. In Miami if all households employ

RMMs it would reduce the total cost to homeowners by $1.46 million. Given the result that

RMMs do save homeowners, insurers and taxpayers money, why are these groups of people not doing more risk mitigation? The study suggest that homeowners do not invest voluntarily and insurers do not reward such investment behavior because of existing policies

and decision-making limitations concerning their ability to judge and prepare for the consequences of rare events. Moreover, existing government programs dull the incentives for

individuals and institutions to prepare for catastrophic natural disasters. A prescriptive approach would be to advocate insurance and mortgage reform so that the key players in the

housing market would have the incentive to encourage homeowners to mitigate.

Record Number: 281

Kochaniec, Joanne Wojcik. (1999). Flood of claims to come: Farms, businesses devastated

by Floyd's rains. Business Insurance, 33(39), 1.

Keywords :

Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina

Abstract: Industry sources say that although big commercial policyholders and agricultural operations in North Carolina are likely to be insured for damages resulting from the

severe flooding caused by Hurricane Floyd, most small businesses and individual property

owners will likely be uninsured for those losses. According to Scott Ellwanger, manager of

claims at FM Global in Park Ridge, IL, most large commercial policyholders use flood insurance from FEMA as a primary layer and back this up with excess coverage from a

commercial property insurer. However, JoAnn Howard, the top official at the NFIP, says

that only around 25-50 percent of home and business owners in flood-prone areas typically

buy flood insurance. The flood damage caused by Hurricane Floyd to farms and businesses

in North Carolina is discussed.

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Record Number: 510

KRC Research & Consulting. (1995). Report on In-depth Interviews Conducted with Direct Agents, Lenders and WYO Agents. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

attitudes, advertising, lenders

Abstract: The research was sponsored by FEMA in order to gather information about attitudes of the general public towards planning for disasters, specifically dealing with insurance coverage. The report is based on in-depth telephone interviews with three WYO

agents, four independent agents, and three lenders in Broward County, Florida, Des

Moines, IA and Santa Clara County, CA. The report is a summary of findings and does not

include detailed methodology or results. The report suggests that agents have a poor understanding of FEMA’s role and its relationship to the NFIP, few had direct contact with

FEMA. Agents were generally satisfied with the status quo and did not see flood insurance

as a high priority. Lenders feel like they know little about FEMA and the NFIP, however

they would like to see more contact between themselves and FEMA. The report concludes

that communication between FEMA and lenders and agents needs to be improved and lists

suggestions from lenders and agents on how to accomplish this.

Most of those interviewed agreed that the public is not well informed about flood insurance, what it covers, and why they need it. Lenders felt a national advertising campaign

was the best way to increase awareness in the public and among lenders. Agents were less

open to a public education campaign believing that the public would not trust the government to sell them insurance. The report concludes that if those stakeholders interviewed are

not invested in the NFIP's goals then they will have only limited interest in selling flood

insurance. Therefore an effort should be made to develop and maintain and a strong relationship with these groups.

Record Number: 327

KRC Research and Consulting. (1995). Quantitative Benchmark Report. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

communication, evaluation

Abstract: This document provides a comprehensive look at consumer and business decision-maker attitudes toward the need for and at their understanding of various aspects of

flood insurance. KRC Research & Consulting conducted a quantitative research study

during the period of September-October 1995, which consisted of a telephone-based survey of 1200 consumers and 600 business decision-makers (1/3 of the total sample obtained

from high-risk areas, 2/3 from a random national sample, in each case). Some of the conclusions of this report are that: (a) FEMA and NFIP are not well known among either consumers or business decision-makers; (b) 52 percent of consumers and 40 percent of business decision-makers who know FEMA rate it favorably; (c) floods and hurricanes are topof-the-mind natural disasters for most respondents, but few feel personally threatened by

floods (even those who live in high-risk areas); (d) in the event of a flood, most would expect their insurance company to cover damages. FEMA is specified by only 2-3 percent;

(e) About half of each group think the government should pay for clean up and repair after

a natural disaster “because I/my company pay taxes.” However, when asked who is primarily responsible for finances, both groups mention their insurance companies and them88
selves before they speak of the federal government; (f) about half of each group has taken

precautions in the event of a natural disaster (efforts vary but most often include references

to insurance: 24 percent of consumers, 43 percent of businesses); (g) while most consumers think flood insurance is a wise investment (65 percent), most business decision-makers

don't (only 37 percent agree it is). Based on these findings, this report recommends to (a)

“get the NFIP on the map, using any and all means possible”; (b) “break through the assumption that fires are a greater danger than floods”; (c) educate people “about the measures of risk” and convince them to “ask their agents to make sure they are covered by flood

insurance”; (d) “educate the target audience as to exactly what is and what is not covered

by flood insurance”; (e) “explain the concept of a federal disaster area”; (f) “tell the target

audience that they can buy NFIP insurance through their insurance agent” and that “it is

less expensive than they think”; and (g) “use a flood victim as a spokesperson instead of a

character.”

Record Number: 356

KRC Research & Consulting. (1995). Qualitative Research Report: In-depth Interviews

with Community Officials, Lenders, Realtors, and Advisory Board Members. Washington,

DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

public perception

Abstract: FEMA retained KRC Research to conduct qualitative research with four key

audiences (lenders, realtors, community officials, and members of an advisory board) to

help guide the development of strategies and creative messages to facilitate the sale of

flood insurance. In August 1995, 27 in-depth interviews were conducted with the key audiences. This research report summarizes general perceptions of the insurance industry, obstacles to understanding the flood insurance industry, and perceptions of the NFIP, the

public’s decision-making process, and suggestions for a campaign. Respondents felt that

lack of knowledge about flooding, risk, and insurance is the primary reason people do not

own flood insurance. Eligibility and coverage are major areas of confusion. While Advisory Board Members have a good knowledge of the NFIP, the other respondents are

largely ignorant of the nature of the program. The four constituencies agreed that the insurance industry does not have a good public image and that disaster insurance is generally

unprofitable. They felt that retention is mainly the result of compliance with insurance requirements. All respondents felt that an education campaign is critical to improving the

volume of flood insurance sold. They called for improved communication between the

NFIP and themselves and the public, and they expressed enthusiasm for an advertising

campaign.

Record Number: 363

KRC Research & Consulting. (1998). Agent Quantitative Survey Results. Washington, DC:

FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance agents

Abstract: KRC conducted a quantitative 20-minute telephone survey to investigate insurance agents’ knowledge, perceptions, practices, attitudes, and beliefs about what flood insurance covers, writing policies, and the benefits of flood insurance. The survey contained

89
two components, one with a nationally representative sample of 300 agents who sell flood

insurance (flood agents), and another with 100 agents who do not sell flood insurance

(nonflood agents). The main survey results follow. First, flood agents are much more

aware of and favor the FEMA and NFIP, compared with nonflood agents. Second, in both

groups, the decision to sell flood insurance is closely related to the agents' opinions of

flood risk in the area where the client resides. Nine of ten agents would be more inclined to

recommend flood insurance if they learned their clients were in areas with a high risk of

flooding or that a flood was predicted for the client’s area. Third, it may be difficult to sell

flood insurance to clients who do not believe they are at risk or who think that the insurance is too expensive. Communications should continue to emphasize that virtually everyone is at risk for flooding, and that flood insurance is not as expensive as some might

think. Fourth, flood agents are more likely to know that floods are likely to occur even in

areas not designated as floodplains and therefore know that these people also need insurance. Fifth, the majority of flood agents believe that flood insurance is a wise investment,

offering excellent coverage at a fair price. In contrast, nonflood agents do not think it is a

wise investment given current levels of coverage and the price. Sixth, flood insurance is

not seen as an overly difficult policy to write, but the rating system and the process of obtaining elevation certificates are seen as more difficult and time-consuming. Most agents

indicate that learning that there is an easy-to-write policy available for 90 percent of homeowners would prompt them to recommend flood insurance. Agents aware of the Co-op

Advertising Program believe it to be a good one; only a few

Record Number: 364

KRC Research & Consulting. (1999). Quantitative Evaluative Report IX, 1999. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

evaluation, marketing

Abstract: This report includes the findings of the ninth wave of tracking research conducted by KRC to assess the attitudes of consumers and business decision-makers (BDMs)

regarding the need for and understanding of flood insurance and the success of an adve rtising campaign. Conducted from January through April 1999, FEMA Quantitative IX consisted of telephone interviews with 1,200 consumers and 600 BDMs from both a random

national sample and high-risk areas. The study sought to assess perceptions of natural disasters in general and floods in particular, flood risk, insurance companies and insurance

agents, awareness and perceptions of FEMA advertising, and flood insurance knowledge.

The study’s findings include the percentage of consumers and BDMs who, in the last two

months, saw or heard an ad for flood insurance or insurance that would cover a natural disaster; the messages recalled; awareness of and favorability toward the FEMA and NFIP;

perceived risk for natural disaster/flooding; incidence of flood insurance coverage; flood

insurance knowledge; the vital role of the insurance agent; and “apathetics” and “proactives” (those who do not and do purchase flood insurance). The report concluded that the

advertising campaign continues to be successful in increasing familiarity and favorability

toward the FEMA and NFIP among consumers and BDMs, but the percentage of respondents who are aware of the ads could be higher. Recommendations include the following:

(a) spend more on the campaign; (b) continue to emphasize that floods can happen anywhere and make the connection between flooding and permanent water damage; (c) make

90
the point that flood insurance is a wise investment; (d) include a single response mechanism at the end of the ad; (e) in hurricane-prone areas, communicate that floods often occur

alongside hurricanes and that current coverage may be insufficient; and, (f) inform insurance agents about the risk of flood and that flood insurance may be easier to write and

service than they think.

Record Number: 119

Kriesel, W. and C. Landry. (2000). Modeling the decision to buy flood insurance: Results

from 62 coastal communities Paper Presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL.

Keywords :

coastal areas, modeling

Abstract: The authors analyze how a household decision to purchase flood insurance relates to other measures of risk reduction and particular aspects of flood and erosion risk.

They argue that there are five reasons why the NFIP does not have a higher rate of participation among property owners at risk of flooding: (a) government disaster relief programs

provide a disincentive for purchasing flood insurance; (b) people tend to underestimate

their chances of being a disaster victim; (c) the NFIP may undercompensate for losses; (d)

coastal property owners regard the expected value of the potential loss as only a small part

of their total wealth; and (e) the model’s results apply only to risk-averse individuals. Their

results indicate that the variables of income, waterfront (percent of properties that have

frontage on the water), armor (percent of survey returns indicating the existence of coastal

armoring at the nearest shore), elevation, built post-FIRM, mortgage, Pacific Region, and

Gulf Region were significant at the .05 level or below in predicting the proportion of a

community's properties protected by flood insurance.

Record Number: 45

Krimm, R.W. (1978). The national flood insurance program and wetland protection. In

Proceedings of the National Wetland Protection Symposium, Reston, VA, June 6-8, 1977.

(pp. 123-5). Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

floodplain management, wetland protection

Abstract: The NFIP was designed to reduce loss of life and property from floods. Part of

the program’s responsibility involves the development and enforcement of floodplain

management standards to reduce flood damages. Regulations recently adopted requires that

communities wishing to qualify for the program protect mangrove stands and dunes that

act as barriers to storm surges. The program also indirectly protects wetlands in several

ways. It establishes disincentives for location of structures in areas of known flood risk,

prohibits the use of fill for elevation purposes in identified coastal high hazard areas, and

encourages use of columns for elevation to minimize the use of fill. Recent wetland and

floodplain executive orders and their relations to the NFIP are discussed.

Record Number: 160

Krutilla, John V. (1966). An economic approach to coping with flood damage. Water Resources Research, 2(2), 183-190.

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Keywords :

economics, floodplains, insurance

Abstract: Krutilla proposes a compulsory flood insurance system as a mechanism to

achieve efficient uses of floodplains. The author argues that insurance premiums proportional to risk and equal to both the private and social cost of floodplain occupancy would

serve as a rationing device, eliminating economically unwarranted uses of floodplain lands.

Record Number: 301

Kuczera, George. (1983). A Bayesian surrogate for regional skew in food frequency analysis. Water Resources Research, 19(3), 821-32.

Keywords :

flood identification, modeling

Abstract: The problem of how to best utilize site and regional flood data to infer the shape

parameter of a flood distribution is considered. One approach to this problem is given in

Bulletin 17B of the U.S. Water Resources Council (1981) for the log-Pearson distribution.

Here a lesser known distribution is considered, namely, the power normal that fits flood

data as well as the log-Pearson and has a shape parameter denoted by ? derived from a

Box-Cox power transformation. The problem of regionalizing ? is considered from an

empirical Bayes perspective where site and regional flood data are used to infer ?. The

distortive effects of spatial correlation and heterogeneity of site sampling variance of ? are

explicitly studied with spatial correlation being found to be of secondary importance. The

end product of this analysis is the posterior distribution of the power normal parameters

expressing, in probabilistic terms, what is known about the parameters given site flood data

and regional information on ? This distribution can be used to provide the designer with

several types of information. The posterior distribution of the T-year flood is derived. The

effect of nonlinearity in ? on inference is illustrated. Because uncertainty in ? is explicitly

allowed for, the understatement in confidence limits due to fixing ? (analogous to fixing

log skew) is avoided. Finally, it is shown how to obtain the marginal flood distribution,

which can be used to select a design flood with specified exceedance probability.

Record Number: 234

Kunkel, Kenneth E., Stanley A. Changnon, and Steven E. Hollinger. (1993). A regional

response to climate information needs during the 1993 flood. Bulletin of the American

Meteorological Society, 76, 2415-21.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: Effective responses by government agencies, businesses, and private industry to

climate disasters such as the disastrous Mississippi River flood of 1993 hinge on the regional availability of diverse up-to-date weather, climate, and water information. In addition to the obvious need for accurate forecasts and warnings of severe weather and floods,

other types of meteorologically based information can contribute to effective responses.

Some examples of information requested during and after the 1993 flood include (a) hydroclimatic assessments of the magnitude of the event; (b) agricultural assessments of the

impacts of heavy rains and flooding on corn and soybean production; and (c) probabilistic

outlooks of the recurrence of flooding based on soil moisture conditions. The authors conclude that quick responses to these needs necessitate: (a) a real-time climate monitoring

92
system; (b) physical models to assess effects and impacts; and (c) scientific expertise to

address complex issues.

Record Number: 146

Kunreuther, Howard. (1979). The changing societal consequences of risks from natural

hazards. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1979(443),

104-16.

Keywords :

disaster relief, insurance

Abstract: This article point out that the federal government in recent years has given substantial relief to victims of natural disasters, largely because such individuals often are not

protected by insurance. Standard insurance protects against fire, wind, and hail; flood and

earthquake policies can also be purchased, but most residents of hazard-prone areas have

not done so. Recent empirical findings support a bounded rationality model of individuals’

decisions about unlikely, though potentially severely harmful, events which indicates that

individuals must be made graphically aware of the need for insurance to consider purchase.

The author concludes that those who decide to do so are guided by informal networks of

friends and neighbors.

Record Number: 3

Kunreuther, Howard. (1996). Mitigating disaster losses through insurance. Journal of Risk

and Uncertainty, 12(2-3), 171-87.

Keywords :

building codes, Hurricane Andrew, insurance, mitigation, natural disasters

Abstract: Losses from natural disasters have increased in recent years due to population

increases in hazard-prone areas and inadequate enforcement of building codes. This article

contends that in the past and until not so far ago, insurers viewed their role as a passthrough mechanism rather than as a promoter of safety. Following Hurricane Andrew, the

insurance industry has taken a new view toward mitigation measures because of the severe

losses that they incurred. This article proposes a disaster-management program that utilizes insurance coupled with well-enforced building codes to reduce future damage. Banks

and financial institutions play a key role in this program by requiring inspections of homes

as a condition for a mortgage. New forms of reinsurance coverage against catastrophic

losses from natural disasters are necessary to protect insurers against potential insolvency

from the next mega-disaster.

Record Number: 309

Kunreuther, Howard. (1998). A program for reducing disaster losses though insurance. In

Howard Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of

Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph

Henry Press.

Keywords :

insurance

Abstract: The author looks at the market for insurance against natural disasters by addressing the following questions: What are the factors influencing property owner’s demand for insurance? Why are insurers reluctant to provide coverage against hurricanes,

93
floods, and earthquakes? Regarding the demand for insurance, the author concedes that

what determines the demand for insurance when individuals have the freedom to specify

coverage limits is still not well understood. The author points out that many homeowners

at risk are not anxious to purchase insurance voluntarily because they feel the disaster will

not happen to them. Others who have compared premiums with potential benefits may feel

that insurance is not a good investment. The author also points out that the framing of the

insurance decision process is relevant. For instance, some factors that may encourage individuals to buy an insurance policy against natural disasters are the vividness of the media’s

reporting, the use of rebates so that policyholders feel they have experienced a gain if they

do not collect their policies, and the use of the status quo as a reference point. On the supply side, the author argues that private insurers are averse both to risk and ambiguity,

which make them follow a safety-first approach in their business decisions (in other words,

the author suggests that insurers are first concerned with the safety of their firms, and then,

with profit maximization). Therefore, the author concludes that private insurers have been

reluctant to promote coverage against hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes because of uncertainty regarding the risk and because of concern with what the financial consequences

of a natural disaster would be for their companies. Hurricane Andrew and the Northridge

earthquake were wake-up calls for many firms, alerting them to the possibility of insolvency following another major event. The author suggests several measures to improve the

market for insurance against natural disasters. He implicitly argues in favor of reducing

the ambiguity insurers and individuals face. Some of the measures the author suggests are

the provision of better information on cost-effective mitigation alternatives, as well as better enforcement of current policies (e.g., building codes). The author argues that public

sector agencies have the role to assist low-income families in adopting cost-effective

measures. Finally, because public sector damage from natural disasters results in a large

cost to taxpayers, the author suggests that government officials should be encouraged to

purchase insurance for public structures and invest in cost-effective risk reduction measures.

Record Number: 411

Kunreuther, Howard, R. Ginsberg, L. Miller, P. Slovic, B. Borkan, and N. Katz. (1978).

Disaster Insurance Protection: Public Policy Lessons. New York, NY: Wiley.

Keywords :

disaster protection

Abstract: The author seeks to demonstrates empirically that, even if people have knowledge and opportunity, relatively few of them will expend effort and money to avail themselves of needed protection--either through the implementation of loss prevention techniques such as sound land-use and control measures in flood- and earthquake-prone areas,

or through the purchase of insurance.

Record Number: 305

Kunreuther, Howard and Louis Miller. (1985). Interactive computer modeling for policy

analysis: The flood hazard problem. Water Resources Research, 21(2), 105-13.

Keywords :

modeling, public planning

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Abstract: This paper discusses an interactive modeling system to support policy analysis

for dealing with flood hazards. Policy analysis in this area is complex due to many

stakeholders with varying concerns, the variety of scenario that might be considered, and

alternative policy options. These conditions require that a modeling system be flexible and

support users in a variety of ways. The system should be viewed as a decision aid rather

than a burden. The modeling system described in this paper attempts to achieve these

goals for microanalytic models and deal with samples of homeowners in a flood-prone

community.

Record Number: 491

Kunreuther, Howard C. and Gilbert F. White. (1994). The role of the National Flood Insurance Program in reducing losses and promoting wise use of floodplains. Water Resources

Update, 95(Spring), 31-5.

Keywords :

lenders’ compliance

Abstract: This paper discusses the NFIP’s objectives and accomplishments. Due to the

NFIP’s apparent failure to meet its original objectives, the article provides several hypotheses that should be tested. Concerning the demand for insurance, the article hypothesizes that the failure of most floodplain dwellers to purchase insurance when not required

to do so is due primarily to their belief that a damaging flood will not occur during their

occupancy of the structure. Another hypothesis with respect to insurance demand is that

underinsurance is due to the limited enforcement by banks and other lending institutions of

the required coverage. With respect to the supply of insurance, the article hypothesizes that

there are limited financial incentives for private insurance agents to promote flood coverage. The authors make five recommendations related to increasing the coverage under the

NFIP and increasing the quality and use of flood mitigation activities.

Record Number: 320

Kunreuther, Howard and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. (1998). Paying the Price: The Status

and Role of Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC:

Joseph Henry Press.

Keywords :

Florida, Hurricane Andrew, insurance, natural disasters

Abstract: This book reviews, among other disaster related matters, issues related to floods

including reasons for consumer resistance. It “considers the effectiveness of insurance coverage for low-probability, high-consequence events such as natural disasters--and how insurance programs can successfully be used with other policy tools, such as building codes

and standards, to encourage effective loss reduction measures.

The authors discuss the reasons for the dramatic increase in insured losses from natural

disasters since 1989 and the concern that insurers have about their ability to provide coverage against more such events in the future. It addresses why there has been an increasing

demand for hazards insurance, what types of coverage private insurers are willing to offer,

and the role of reinsurance and private-/public-sector initiatives at the state and federal levels for providing protection to victims of natural disasters. Detailed case studies of the

challenges facing Florida in the wake of Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and California following the Northridge earthquake in 1994 reveal the challenges facing the insurance in95
dustry as well as other concerned stakeholders. The NFIP illustrates how a public-/privatesector partnership can mitigate damages and provide financial protection to victims. The

book identifies new initiatives for reducing future losses and providing funds for recovery

through cooperation by the relevant parties.”

Record Number: 172

Kusler, Jon A. (1982). Regulation of flood hazard areas to reduce flood losses: Volume 3.

Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Natural Hazards and Applications Information

Center.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: The author looks back to the 1970s at the use of federal regulations, including

flood insurance, as one element of a national strategy to manage floodplains. The author

was concerned that during its emergency phase, the program had encouraged some unwise

floodplain and wetland development in coastal areas or barrier islands. The author also

points out that, although it was difficult to separate the importance of insurance from other

factors that foster development, most research tends to support the idea that the flood insurance program had encouraged development.

Record Number: 499

Kusler, Jon A. (1994). Flood response and the restoration of wetlands, riparian areas, and

broader floodplains: Lessons learned from the Great Flood of 1993. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 25-8.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, restoration

Abstract: Federal, state, and local government efforts to “restore” wetlands and floodplains after the flood of 1993 provided many lessons that should be applied in future efforts. Floods do create restoration opportunities. But, there are also severe impediments to

restoration in postflood contexts, given the limited statutory goals of post disaster programs that do not address the restoration of natural systems, the narrowly targeted funding,

the lack of preflood assessments and plans, the lack of coordination of agency efforts, and

the need to deal with immediate and real suffering and human needs. New institutional

mechanisms are needed to both identify general restoration opportunities prior to flood

events as part of broader ecosystem management planning and to rapidly assess specific

restoration opportunities after a flood event. The article lists several specific recommendations (consistent with the overall recommendations of Sharing the Challenge) both for the

Mississippi Basin and other future context.

Record Number: 131

Kusler, Jon A. and Larry Larson. (1993). Beyond the ark: A new approach to U.S. floodplain management. Environment, 35(5), 7-11, 31-34.

Keywords :

coastal areas, development, floodplain management

Abstract: The authors point out that traditional floodplain management emphasizes structural changes such as dams, levees, channel alteration, and shoreline protection. Because

approaches emphasize minimizing structural losses, other flooding impacts are ignored.

96
These include deterioration in water supply, erosion, sedimentation, nonpoint source water

pollution, or damage to wetlands and natural habitats. The authors suggest bringing floodplain management under the umbrella of broad multi-objective watershed management

planning, and emphasize the importance of local community participation in such an approach. Their approach requires a change in the role of federal agencies from "supermanagers" of the nation's floodplains to facilitators of state and local programs. The authors

acknowledge that bureaucratic inertia and opposition from certain interest groups may

make such an approach difficult to implement, but they maintain that the benefits would

ultimately justify the effort.

Record Number: 321

Landman, Georgina B. and T.W. Ihloff. (1976). The legal aspects of flood plain zoning

and management: An annotated bibliography. Council of Planning Librarians, 26.

Keywords :

flood regulations, insurance

Abstract: This bibliography contains materials devoted primarily to the legal aspects of

floodplain regulations including floodplain zoning and management. In addition, this bibliography covers the economic aspects of flood insurance; the planning, engineering, and

geographic aspects of flood management; government documents and government publications; and land-use planning abstracts.

Record Number: 92

Larson, Larry A. (1993). The Mississippi flood. Environment, 35(10), 4-6.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: In this commentary, the author agrees with the analysis and conclusion of the

article by Mary Fran Myers and Gilbert F. White in the same issue of Environment dealing

with the 1993 floods in the Midwest. He discusses farmers and the lack of levee protection,

farmers’ concerns about environmental groups, and the desire to change farmland to protected wetlands.

Record Number: 473

Larson, Larry A. and Doug Plasencia. (2001). No Adverse Impact: A New Direction in

Floodplain Management Policy.

Keywords :

development, disaster costs, floodplain management, “no adverse impact”

Abstract: Annual flood losses in the United States continue to worsen despite 75 years of

federal flood control and 30 years of the NFIP. This trend is due primarily to federal policies that have encouraged at-risk development, provided for insufficient consideration of

the impact of that development on other properties and on future flood and erosion potentials, justified flood control projects based on a cost-benefit ratio that favors an intensification of land uses within the floodplain, and engendered an unhealthy reliance on federal

resources by state and local governments. The authors propose a new “no adverse impact

floodplain” approach that shifts the focus from the techniques and standards used for

flood-prone development to how adverse impact resulting from those land-use changes can

be planned for and mitigated. The proposed policy promotes community involvement and

97
planning, sustainable development, and local land-use management, with consideration for

private property rights.

Record Number: 316

Laska, Shirley Bradway. (1986). Involving Homeowners in Flood Mitigation. American

Planning Association Journal, 52(4), 452-66.

Keywords:

Louisiana, mitigation

Abstract: This article summarizes efforts by floodplain managers to encourage homeowners to take action on their own property to minimize flood damage. The author challenges

earlier conclusions that homeowners would not be involved in mitigation efforts. Using a

case studies of Slidell, LA in 1983, about 18 months after major flooding had occurred, the

article shows evidence that homeowners who have been flooded recently are interested and

willing to participate in mitigation. The author than examines recommendations for improving homeowners’ involvement in mitigation from the Association of State Floodplain

Managers in light of her findings, also considering the roles of federal, state, and local

government.

Record Number: 235

Lave, Tamara and Lester B. Lave. (1991). Public perception of the risks of floods: Implications for communication. Risk Analysis, 11(2), 255-67.

Keywords :

Pennsylvania, public participation

Abstract: The authors pointed out that since the late 1960s, the U.S. government had emphasized flood insurance as the primary tool for improving construction location and

flood-proofing decisions, in addition to reimbursement for flood damage. However, interviews conducted with 22 residents of three flood-vulnerable communities in Pennsylvania

revealed that most respondents had little knowledge of the cause of floods or of what could

be done to protect themselves and their property. The authors concluded that there was little effective communication about the nature and magnitude of flood risks or of measures

people can take to lessen physical and economic loss. The authors suggested that a risk

management program was needed that emphasizes more adequate communication as well

as enforcement of the current (1991) law requiring people at risk who hold federally

funded loans to be insured.

Record Number: 202

Leatherman, Stephen. (1997). Flood Insurance Availability in Coastal Areas: The Role It

Plays in Encouraging Development Decisions. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

coastal areas, Delaware

Abstract: This report focuses on a coastal community: North Bethany Beach, DE. The

author concludes that the availability of flood insurance has had no real impact on ocean

side development. In contrast to the high dollar homes on the beach, the author noted that

in less affluent areas in the back bays, the availability, or lack thereof, of flood insurance

has had a negative effect in promoting development of low-priced lots. The author argues

that the main factors that promoted beachfront development were, in order of importance:

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proximity to major metropolitan areas, limited supply of desirable property in the face of

increasing demand, lifestyle issues, elite development with private beaches, and the

strength of the economy. The availability of flood insurance is, according to the author,

much less of a factor.

Record Number: 310

Lecomte, Eugene and Karen Gahagan. (1998). Hurricane insurance protection in Florida.

In Howard Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role

of Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph

Henry Press.

Keywords :

building codes, flood insurance, Florida, Hurricane Andrew, modeling

Abstract: The authors contend that the spate of hurricanes that struck Florida in the 1990s,

Hurricane Andrew in particular, revealed the precarious financial position in which many

Florida insurers find themselves. Due to the magnitude of insured losses inflicted by Hurricane Andrew, an immediate post-storm reaction of a number of insurance companies was

to attempt to reduce their underwriting exposure. Some of the factors that influenced such

actions included: (a) the inability to obtain adequate reinsurance for new and existing risks

in Florida;(b) the availability of new information from catastrophe risk models indicating

that existing levels of exposure might be more significant than previously realized; (c) significant reductions in insurers’ policyholders surplus as a result of Hurricane Andrew; (d)

concerns about rate adequacy, especially for coastal counties, and for certain classifications

of risk such as condominiums; (e) “hidden” exposures resulting from potential assessments

by various other mandated mechanisms (e.g., residual markets, catastrophe funds, etc.);

and (f) fear that an unfavorable catastrophe exposure would negatively impact the rating by

agencies such as A. M. Best and Standard and Poor. Some initiatives had been implemented to alleviate these problems. One initiative was a proposal by the Florida Insurance

Council (FIC) for an agreement establishing post-hurricane cooperation between the FIC,

the state insurance department, and state and local emergency management officials. In

addition, the governor created a Building Codes Study Commission to evaluate the effectiveness of the building code system. Another initiative was the Florida Commission on

Hurricane Loss Projection Methodology to examine the role of computer models in determining insurance rates. The commission developed a set of standards that a model must

meet and hired a professional team to audit the modeling companies on site.

Record Number: 250

Leonard, Barry. (1999). Answers to Questions about the National Flood Insurance Program. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

Community Rating System, insurance

Abstract: This book intends to acquaint the public with the NFIP. It is designed for readers who do not need a detailed history or refined technical or legal explanations, but do

need a basic understanding of the program and the answers to some frequently asked questions. This book includes an introduction to the NFIP; flood insurance information for prospective buyers; information on coverage; and how to complete a flood insurance claim. It

also includes floodplain management requirements; flood hazard assessments and mapping

99
requirements; NFIP address and phone directory; a list of available publications; and the

address for obtaining the coordinator’s manual for the Community Rating System.

Record Number: 246

Leonard, Barry. (1999). Mandatory Purchase of Flood Insurance Guidelines. Collingdale,

PA: DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

insurance, mandatory purchase

Abstract: This book includes: a brief description of the NFIP; the mandatory purchase requirement, with flowcharts; coverage availability; general mandatory purchase provisions;

condominiums, cooperatives, and timeshares; key provisions; legal references; lender

regulations; statutory provisions; notice requirements; NFIP resources; standard flood hazard determination form; waiting period for policy issuance; cooperatives and timeshares

policy issuance; private flood insurance criteria; and glossary.

Record Number: 487

Leopold, Luna B. (1994). Flood Hydrology and the Floodplain. Water Resources Update,

Spring(95), 11-14.

Keywords :

floodplain management, hydrology

Abstract: The proposal in this article is a broad consideration of the possibility of utilizing

the natural function of floodplains in conjunction with engineering works such as levees

and dams. The extent of flood damage reduction achieved by allowing some floodplain

areas to flood, its potential benefits and costs, and the locations and distribution of such

benefits and costs, have not been studied in an organized way. Theory and practice of

proven worth are available to compute the efficacy of using temporary storage of floodwater to decrease the downstream peaks. This theory has not been put to use in flood control policy. The technology of making the field measurements is available. The purchase of

easements for temporary flooding of some areas would decrease the amount of future disaster relief and would be a more permanent solution to some flood control needs.

Record Number: 424

Leopold, Luna B. and Thomas Maddock, Jr. (1954). The Flood Control Controversy. New

York, NY: The Ronald Press Company.

Keywords :

flood control, hydrology

Abstract: This book examines the controversial aspects of flood control in terms of the

technical problems that were involved in 1954. Starting with the ascertained facts in the

hydrology of rivers and floods, the authors show the possibilities and limitations both of

engineering structures and land management. They demonstrate that flooding can never be

completely eliminated in a river system. The major part of the book analyzes the effectiveness of upstream and downstream programs for flood control, as advocated by the Department of Agriculture and the Corps of Engineers. In discussing general problems of policy,

the authors present cogent arguments for redefining the federal interest in flood control and

for apportioning the costs and benefits more logically both for the groups who need flood

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protection and for the nation. Lastly, the authors provide an assessment of 1954 flood control measures and a lucid presentation of the hydrologic facts that are often overlooked.

Record Number: 431

Leuchtenburg, William E. (1972). Flood Control Politics: The Connecticut River Valley

Problem, 1927-1950. New York, NY: Da Capo Press.

Keywords :

Connecticut River Valley

Abstract: This book is about the attempt to provide flood control in the Connecticut River

Valley 1927-1950 and the conflicts that arose. The primary conflict, which is thought of as

a microcosm of the political struggles of the period, was a federal-state conflict in the Connecticut Valley, a quarrel over best uses of the resources of the valley and competing special interests over the allocation of resources.

Record Number: 403

Lewis, Gary L. (1992). Jury verdict: frequency versus risk-based culvert design. Journal of

Water Resources Planning and Management, 118(2), 166-184.

Keywords :

drainage, Wyoming

Abstract: A federal district court jury in Cheyenne, WY ruled that an act-of-God defense

could not be used when a railroad culvert backed water onto residential properties during a

catastrophic “10,000-year” rainstorm. The culvert capacity not only met but exceeded industry design standards, yet the jury conceded that the railroad was negligent for not installing a structure large enough to accommodate the “monster” storm. The 5-ft-diameter

culvert, installed to replace a larger, deteriorating trestle, is sized by frequency-based

methods to discharge the 50-year peak flow rate, with a nominal surcharge anticipated

during the 100-year event. Both sides agreed that the selected structure could have safely

passed more than a 500-year event, but was not able to discharge all the flows from the

freak storm. Backwater ponded 9 ft over the top of the culvert, flooding more than 20

basements in one subdivision. The defendant is held liable for the damages and cited as

negligent for not anticipating the storm and for failing to consider the risks to homeowners.

Under court order, a large structure is installed. This paper is a review of several matters

debated during the trial and in subsequent analyses, presented as a case study from the

writer’s perspective. The writer participated as an expert witness who performed the analysis for the defense, but was called to the stand as a witness for the plaintiff. The jury ve rdict was in favor of the plaintiff. Implications for improvements in drainage design and

expert testimony are discussed.

Record Number: 502

Lichtenberg, Erik. (1994). Sharing the challenge? An economist's view. Water Resources

Update, Autumn (97), 39-43.

Keywords :

economics, floodplain management

Abstract: The article addresses the following issues included in the recommendations of

Sharing the Challenge: (a) economically efficient flood risk management; (b) preserving

and enhancing the natural resources and functions of floodplains; (c) organizing floodplain

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management for success through the coordination of federal, state, and local agencies; (d)

using flood insurance to internalize the costs of floodplain development; and (e) the role of

the federal government in floodplain management. Several implications about floodplain

management follow from the general economic perspective presented: First, reducing expected flood damage should not be a goal of floodplain management per se; rather the appropriate level of protection from flooding should equate the marginal social benefits of

expected damage reduction with its marginal social cost. Second, over time, some flood

losses are certain to occur, even under optimal policy. Third, the concept of the Standard

Project Flood should have little or no place in floodplain management. Instead, the level of

protection for every location should equate marginal social benefit with marginal social

cost.

Record Number: 369

Leikin, Howard and Thomas Hayes. (1999). National Flood Insurance Program Flood Insurance Rate Review.

Keywords :

insurance rating and risk

Abstract: The background of the NFIP is reviewed with a focus on rating. The establishment of this target level of premium income (the NFIP intent is to generate premium) at

least sufficient to cover expenses and losses relative to what is called the “historical average loss year” for the NFIP as a whole accommodates the combined effect of the portion of

NFIP business paying less than full risk premiums (a subsidy provided by statute) and the

portion of the business paying full risk premiums that do contemplate in their rates the full

range of loss potential including catastrophic levels. The distribution of business written in

2000 is anticipated to be 32 percent at subsidized rates and 68 percent at full-risk premium

rates. The FIA estimates that, were the catastrophic contingency contemplated in establishing all rate levels, the pre-FIRM subsidized portion of the business would have to pay

about two-and-one-half times the current premium and the overall target level for premiums would have to increase on the order of 50 percent to 100 percent. The rate review also

discusses generally accepted actuarial principles in regards to ratemaking, overall rate level

indications, target level premium analysis, rate review results and other important considerations such as increased cost of compliance, expense constants and the federal policy fee.

The rate review indicates written premium based on all rate and rule changes through May

2000 is expected to be 118 percent of the level needed to fund the historical average loss

year.

Record Number: 300

Lind, Robert C. (1967). Flood control alternatives and the economics of flood protection.

Water Resources Research, 3(2), 345-57.

Keywords :

economics, flood control, insurance

Abstract: This paper discusses and compares the economic effects of alternative programs

for coping with flood losses (structural transformation of the river bed, which includes

dams, levees, channel improvements, etc.; flood insurance; flood warning and evacuation

systems; flood proofing, and flood zoning). The author argues that structural floodcontrol measures such as dams alter the stream flow so as to change the distribution func102
tion associated to flood losses. Thus “structural protection, by eliminating the smaller,

more frequent floods that account for a large part of total flood losses, thereby reduces the

expected value of losses.” Flood proofing, flood warning and evacuation systems do not

alter flood frequency but lower the level of flood damage associated with a given level of

flooding. Flood insurance does not reduce the expected value of losses. Flood zoning may

aim to reduce expected losses by affecting the pattern of development of the floodplain.

However, the author states that: “it is very likely that in practice flood zoning will exclude

some activities that could profitably locate in the floodplain.” The author concludes that

“first ... from an economic point of view, flood zoning is not a desirable method of coping

with flood loses. Flood zoning could be justified only on the grounds that it is politically

or administratively feasible, whereas other programs are not. Second, flood insurance

should be carefully considered as an integral part of any program for coping with flood

losses. Finally, land-enhancement benefits, properly measured, represent real gains that

should be incorporated in benefit estimates.”

Record Number: 355

Lohse, Deborah. (1999). Floyd teaches a hard lesson in flood insurance. Wall Street Journal, September 23.

Keywords :

flood damage, Hurricane Floyd, insurance

Abstract: Many persons affected by Hurricane Floyd did not pay attention to the terms of

their policies until it was too late. These include a renter whose renters’ insurance did not

cover flood damage, homeowners who did not expect to be flooded, and homeowners who

had coverage for their homes but not for their belongings. Carriers have long excluded

flood damage in standard homeowners’ insurance policies. While traditional insurance

covers some flood-related damage, it does not cover damage not technically related to

floods (e.g., roof damage). The NFIP sells to homeowners, renters, and small business

owners in flood-prone communities. Such coverage is mandatory for home buyers in these

areas who obtain mortgages from federally regulated lenders, but not all lenders enforced

the requirements. Floyd struck many areas that were not considered at high risk.

Record Number: 492

Lord, William B. (1994). Flood hazard delineation: The one-percent standard. Water Resources Update, Spring (95), 36-9.

Keywords :

one-percent flood standard

Abstract: This article examines the NFIP’s one-percent standard. This standard, which

describes an area with a one-percent probability of flood occurrence in any year, was established as the standard for defining the SFHA as presented on FIRMs. The standard was

useful for encouraging both community floodplain delineation studies and enrollment in

the regular program. However, now that 85 percent of flood-prone communities are participating in NFIP, the standard has become instead an obstacle to informed and efficient

floodplain management programs. What was intended to be a politically acceptable minimum standard of protection has too frequently become the only standard. Along with the

abolition of this standard, the article makes several recommendations for hydrologic and

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topographic studies, improved zoning, and the distinction between existing structures in

the floodplain from prospective development in hazard zone development.

Record Number: 161

Loughlin, James C. (1971). A flood insurance model for sharing the costs of flood protection. Water Resources Research, 7(2), 236-44.

Keywords :

development

Abstract: This paper provides an early analysis of the passage of the NFIP in 1968. The

author predicted that the higher degree of cost sharing would fall mainly on future deve lopers.

Record Number: 445

Lowry, G. Kem, Jr. (1980). Policy-relevant assessment of coastal zone management programs. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 8(3), 227-55.

Keywords :

coastal management, evaluation

Abstract: The central purpose of policy-relevant evaluation is to provide information that

is directly relevant to decisions about the development, alteration, or termination of coastal

zone management programs. Evaluation involves the analysis of the extent to which an

organization’s goals have been achieved. In policy-relevant evaluation, the critical design

issue is to anticipate the policy context in which the evaluative information will be used.

Anticipating the policy context involves responding to several questions. Who will make

policy decisions in regard to coastal zone management programs? What policy decisions

need to be made? Do policy-makers require evaluative information to make these decisions? What types of evaluative information do they need? Can this information be provided in time to be used in the decision-making process? Because of the number of potential clients for such information and the variety of decisions that have to be made, no single

evaluative approach is likely to be appropriate for all situations. Five general approaches

are outlined: program logic, compliance, process, goal achievement, and impact assessment. The choice of a particular approach depends primarily on the issues faced by policymakers. The choice of research design for policy-relevant evaluations of coastal zone

management programs is affected by a host of factors. Two considerations are likely to be

paramount, what types of policy decisions will the evaluations be used for? What are the

stakes involved in the decision? The design and conduct of evaluative studies of coastal

zone managements pose special problems. The causal analysis of the relationships among

program interventions and coastal environmental conditions illustrates the research design

problem. There are countless confounding factors that contribute to impacts on coastal

resources. These factors represent rival explanations that can contribute to changing

coastal conditions along with or instead of the program interventions. The ideal research

design allows an evaluator to separate out spurious effects for true effects of the program

intervention.

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Record Number: 19

Luloff, A.E. and K.P. Wilkinson. (1979). Participation in the national flood insurance program: A study of community activeness (sociological perspective). Rural Sociology, 44,

137-52.

Keywords :

community characteristics, Pennsylvania

Abstract: This research presents an analysis of the NFIP from a sociological perspective.

The identification of those factors that influence the adoption of flood insurance regulation

is based on a study of all flood-prone municipalities in Pennsylvania. Emphasis is placed

on the communities’ structural characteristics, typical patterns of response to previous issues, and past history with flooding. Through the use of multivariate analysis, support for

the utility of the field perspective of community action as an approach to the study of action outcome is generated. Interpretation and possible implementation of these findings are

advanced.

Record Number: 448

Lyons, Joseph K. and Robert L. Beschta. (1983). Land use, floods, and channel changes:

Upper Middle Fork Willamette River, Oregon (1936-1980). Water Resources Research,

19(2), 163-71.

Keywords :

development, modeling, Oregon

Abstract: Flow trends and channel characteristics from 1936 to 1980 were evaluated for

the Middle Fork Willamette River, which drains a 668-km2 forested watershed in the Cascade Mountains of western Oregon. An inventory of aerial photographs from 1959 to 1972

shows that landslides associated with roads and in clearcuts were 27 and 23 times more

frequent, respectively, than in forested areas. Numerous landslides unloaded sediments directly into the drainage system; most landslides appear to have been initiated during a large

flood (return period greater than or equal to 100 years) of December 22, 1964. Analysis of

precipitation and peak flows (greater than 100 m3 s-1) from 1958 to 1980 by means of

power function models suggests a trend of increasing flows as timber harvesting and road

building expanded in the basin. Changes in channel pattern, documented from aerial photographs, show major increases in channel width from 1959 to 1967 and a trend of decreasing width from 1967 to 1980. During summer low flows in 1979 and 1980, 65 cross

sections of the channel were surveyed to provide detailed measurements of existing cha nnel conditions. Channel widths of 62% of the aggraded reaches were significantly greater

(c = 0.05) than those for nonaggraded reaches.

Record Number: 148

MacDonald, Don M., James C. Murdoch, and Harry L. White. (1987). Uncertain hazards,

insurance, and consumer choice: Evidence from housing markets. Land Economics, 63(4),

361-71.

Keywords :

economics, modeling

Abstract: This paper extends the option-price literature on uncertain housing characteristics to include insurance. The theoretical model predicts a relationship between housing

price differentials and insurance premiums for housing located inside and outside of a haz105
ard zone. The relationship is dependent on the consumer’s perception of the loss from hazard relative to reimbursement from an insurance company. The theory provides an exogenous test (the insurance premium) for using the hedonic method to measure willingness to

pay for housing. The theory is tested using housing data inside and outside a flood hazard

zone.

Record Number: 474

MacDonald, Gordon J. (2000). A Note on Order Statistics and Property Losses from Catastrophic Hurricanes and Floods in the USA. Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for

Applied Systems Analysis.

Keywords :

Florida, hurricanes

Abstract: The relative short time scale and limited spatial scales of hurricanes allow a

normalization of damages at the present time. The most damaging hurricane in the period

1925-1995 was one that hit South Florida in 1926, following a path north of that followed

by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, and also caused damage along the Alabama coast. The

normalized losses form the 1926 hurricane totaled $72 billion compared with the normalized $33 billion loss caused by Andrew. The most probable loss for a hurricane causing a

loss greater than the 1926 hurricane is $152 billion. In constant current dollars, the average

yearly loss from flood in the USA is $3.1 billion while losses exceeded $4 billion in 25

years. The largest yearly flood-related loss was from the Midwest floods of 1993, which

caused a loss of $19.5 billion. The most probable value for yearly losses greater than that

of 1993 is $32 billion.

Record Number: 444

Maloney, Frank E. and Dennis C. Dambly. (1976). The National Flood Insurance Program:

A model ordinance for implementation of its land management criteria. National Resources Journal, 16(3), 665-736.

Keywords :

compliance, mandatory purchase

Abstract: After passage of the Flood Disaster Protection Act in 1973, property owners in

communities where flood insurance is being sold are required to purchase such insurance

to be eligible for any new or additional federal or federally financed assistance for any

construction located in areas identified by the Department of Housing and Urban Deve lopment as having special flood hazards. All identified flood-prone communities must enter the program within one year after formal notification that they contain special flood

hazard areas in order to qualify their citizens. To enter the program, communities must

adopt and submit required land use controls that govern flood plain management and apply

to all areas identified as flood plain areas having special flood hazards. However, such

land use controls are not self-executing, they require the enactment of local ordinances for

their implementation. This article offers a model ordinance by which communities can use

as an example to craft their own legislation. In addition, this article offers background for

better understanding the 1973 Act and the model ordinance, a history of the development

of the NFIP is set forth in part one of this article. An analysis of the NFIP in its present

form follows. And in part three is a discussion about the problem of whether regulation

under the Flood Disaster Protection Act and implementing state and local legislation con106
stitutes a taking of regulated property in violation of state and federal constitutional provisions against such takings. Finally, part four offers the model ordinance with commentary

including citation of sources from which the various provisions of the model were deve loped.

Record Number: 352

Marlowe, Howard. (2000). Coastal dwellers not to blame. USA Today, July 27.

Keywords :

erosion, renourishment

Abstract: The president of the American Coastal Coalition states that beach erosion is not

due to homes built near the coast but to the development of ports, inland waterways, and

dams that interfere with the natural flow of sand. He questions the allegation that coastal

property owners are subsidized by the rest of the nation, noting that NFIP premiums paid

by residents of coastal states exceed their claims, and that funds spent to restore and protect

coastal America pay off handsomely for all Americans. While unchecked erosion can leave

coastal communities more prone to damage caused by storm surges, studies such as the

1995 National Research Council report show that erosion is controllable by cost-effective,

environmentally benign measures such as beach renourishment.

Record Number: 412

May, Peter J. (1985). Recovering from Catastrophes: Federal Disaster Relief Policy and

Politics. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Keywords :

disaster relief

Abstract: “This book examines the evolution of disaster relief policy, assesses problems

with the current policy, and provides an understanding of the issues that are likely to be

involved in future deliberations about federal policy. Three interrelated aspects of the

history and politics of disaster relief are examined in the book. The first is legislative history, involving considerable change in disaster relief legislation, congressional politics, and

normative aspects of the federal role in providing assistance. A second aspect of the history

of disaster relief policy examined in the book is organizational history as it mainly relates

to repeated internal reorganizations of the disaster relief function in the excusive branch . .

. Finally, there is the history of what actually happened in the field in the aftermath of disasters concerning relationships among federal, state, and local officials. This aspect of the

history of disaster relief policy involves analysis of the way in which negotiations over

disaster-specific relief provisions shape overall policy.”

Record Number: 10

Mayer, David, Elizabeth Mayer, and Judith Mayer. (1984). Comparing costs of alternative

flood hazard mitigation plans: The case of Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin. Journal of the

American Planning Association, 50, 22-35.

Keywords :

relocation, Wisconsin

Abstract: The authors compared the cost of relocating the business district of Soldiers

Grove, WI, from its original site with cost estimates for raising traditional flood protection

structures. The authors concluded that the town’s choice (relocation) was the correct one.

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The authors reached their conclusion despite the almost identical cost estimates for both

alternatives because of the implied modernization of the town and the environmental consequences that the traditional measures could have caused (these measures were coupled

with a never-completed dam). The authors acknowledged that relocation may not be desirable or easy for larger communities.

Record Number: 93

McShane, John H. (1996). A watershed approach to flood hazard mitigation and resource

protection: The President’s floodplain management action plan. In Proceedings from Watershed 96.

Available at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/Proceed/mcshane.html

Keywords :

flood hazard

Abstract: The author contends that until recently, federal policy encouraged and funded

major flood-control projects, and thus contributed to the loss and degradation of the nation’s floodplain resources. However, in recent years floodplain lands and waters have

been recognized as ecologically productive, hydrologically important, and environmentally

sensitive. Following the Midwest floods of 1993, the Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force revised the Unified National Program for Floodplain Management to

reflect the increased recognition of the importance of protecting and restoring the natural

resources and functions of floodplains, as well as reducing the loss of life and property

caused by floods. During that same time, the Executive Office of the President established

the Floodplain Management Review Committee. The Committee prepared a report, Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management Into the 21st Century, which reinforced the

findings of the Task Force. As a result, the author concluded that a Floodplain Management Action Plan for the Nation is needed.

Record Number: 263

Mileti, Dennis S. (1995). Factors related to flood warning response. Paper presented at the

U.S.-Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and Management of

Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy.

Keywords :

risk communication

Abstract: This paper synthesizes the social psychological process that explains how members of the public receive, process, and eventually come to take protective actions in response to the receipt of warnings of extreme floods. The author argues that effective public

warnings must provide for public interaction and foster the search for information in addition to received warnings. The author states that risk communication to the public is an almost continual process when viewed globally.

Record Number: 252

Mileti, Dennis S. (1999). Disaster by Design. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, Joseph Henry Press.

Available at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309063604/html/5.html#pagetop

Keywords :

mitigation, risk assessment

108
Abstract: Disaster by Design is aimed at a general audience, including policymakers and

practitioners. This book comprises synthesized statements of what is known, collectively,

about hazards and human coping strategies, which in most cases cannot properly be attributed to a specific source. This book is one in a series published by the Joseph Henry Press

that stemmed from the second national assessment on natural and related technological

hazards and disasters. This book contends that many disasters losses rather than stemming

from unexpected events, are the predictable result of interactions among three major systems: the physical environment, the social and demographic, and the buildings, roads,

bridges, and other components of the constructed environment. The book contends that

settlement of hazardous areas has destroyed local ecosystems that could have provided

protection from flood and other natural perils (e.g., the draining of swamps in Florida).

Also, many mitigation efforts themselves degrade the environment and contribute to the

next disaster (e.g., levees built to provide flood protection can destroy riparian habitat and

heighten downstream floods). Another major problem that the book identifies is that some

efforts to head off damages from natural hazards only postpone them (e.g., dams or levees). The book suggests six objectives that must simultaneously be reached to mitigate

hazards in a sustainable way and stop the national trend toward increasing catastrophic

losses from natural disasters: (a) maintain and enhance environmental quality; (b) maintain

and enhance people's quality of life; (c) foster local resiliency and responsibility; (d) recognize that vibrant local economies are essential; (e) ensure inter- and intra-generational

equity; and (f) adopt local consensus building. The book concludes that in order “to support sustainable hazard mitigation, researchers and practitioners need to ask new questions

as well as continue to investigate traditional topics. Important efforts will include interdisciplinary research and education, and the development of local hazard assessments, computer-generated decision-making aids, and holistic government policies.

Future work must also focus on techniques for enlisting public and governmental support

for making sustainable hazard mitigation a fundamental social value. Members of the ha zards community will play a critical role in initiating the urgently needed nationwide conversation on attaining that goal.”

Record Number: 149

Millemann, Beth. (1993). The National Flood Insurance Program. Oceanus, 36, 6-8.

Keywords :

coastal development

Abstract: The author forecasted that the NFIP is going to be one of the biggest domestic

liabilities in the United States. Scientists at the National Hurricane Center predicted that

another storm cycle of "super hurricanes would mean claims of $3.5 billion to $4 billion.

The NFIP fund had less than $400 million, so any shortfall would have to be paid by the

federal taxpayer. The author claims that the NFIP was originally intended to discourage

overdevelopment of coastal areas, but it resulted in an explosion of coastal development in

the 1970s and 1980s. The author claims that Congress attempted to overhaul the NFIP in

1992, but a coalition of powerful interest groups fought against it, and the legislation was

not implemented.

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Record Number: 132

Miller, B.A., A. Whitlock, and R.C. Hughes. (1996). Flood management - The TVA experience. Water International, 21(3), 119-30.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Tennessee Valley Authority

Abstract: Increasing attention has been focused on the need for a move comprehensive

approach to flood management that combines traditional structural approaches with elements of nonstructural floodplain management. For the past 50 years, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has met its responsibilities for flood control in the Tennessee River

Basin through such a dual approach, combining a system of multipurpose dams and reservoirs with a floodplain management program to encourage appropriate shoreline development. This article provides an overview of TVA’s flood management program including a

description of the hydrologic conditions in the region, an overview of the reservoir system

and its flood control capabilities, and a description of forecasting procedures and flood

control operating strategy. The development and implementation of TVA's floodplain

management program, and its role in reducing flood damages in the Tennessee Valley are

also presented. The article closes with a discussion of the role of technological advances

and agency streamlining on future operations.

Record Number: 46

Miller, H. Crane. (1975). The National Flood Insurance Program and Coastal Real Estate

Development: The experience of Westerly, Charlestown, and South Kingstown, Rhode Island, 1975. Putnam, CT: Cheney, Miller, Ellis and Associates, Inc.

Keywords :

development, Rhode Island

Abstract: The predominant force influencing sales and development of beach properties in

Westerly, Charlestown, and South Kingston, RI, is the availability of direct financing of

such properties as a result of the availability of flood insurance. Bankers and realtors agree

that the availability of flood insurance has created a broader base of property owners than

previously, particularly among middle income individuals who can now afford beach

properties because of direct financing available up to 70 percent of the property value.

There is a definite cause/effect relationship between flood insurance and available direct

financing and a less definite relationship between accelerated sales and flood insurance.

The low cost of flood insurance is both affordable and negligible when compared with the

risks involved and the protection afforded property owners. Flood insurance premiums in

the early 1970s did not act as economic disincentives to development on the barrier

beaches of the three towns.

Record Number: 167

Miller, H. Crane. (1975). Coastal floodplain management and the national flood insurance

program: A case study of three Rhode Island communities. Environmental Comment, 3(2),

2-14.

Keywords :

coastal management, development, floodplain management, Rhode Island

Abstract: In this study of three communities, the author says that local banks voluntarily

withdrew from the first mortgage market due to hurricane destruction in 1938 and 1954.

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Building, however, continued during this period since homeowners were able to get mortgages from lenders outside the local market. Once flood insurance was available to secure

mortgages, however, local banks again began to issue mortgages on ocean front property.

Because the demand for coastal property was high before the flood insurance program was

enacted, the author argued that there was no clear evidence that the availability of flood

insurance increased that demand. The author claims that flood insurance is perceived as a

bonus by most property owners in the area. The author contends that there is some evidence that availability of flood insurance in coastal areas may work as a counter force

against sound coastal management, by sustaining and even increasing property values.

Record Number: 173

Miller, H. Crane. (1977/1981). Coastal Flood Hazards and the National flood Insurance

Program. Washington, DC: FIA.

Keywords :

development

Abstract: This research was an attempt to test whether the findings in Miller's 1975 study

of Rhode Island could be applied to the nation as a whole. The author chronicled a tremendous growth in coastal development in the 1960s and 1970s but the demand generally existed before the NFIP. The author concluded that: (a) adding the cost of insurance premiums to the property apparently neither increases nor decreases demand for coastal properties; (b) there was no evidence that floodplain management requirements on coastal deve lopment depressed demand for coastal property; (c) the greatest effect on property values

during this period wasn't the NFIP but rather market forces; and (d) in most coastal communities, the NFIP had not affected the basic investment decision on availability of financing.

Record Number: 181

Miller, H. Crane. (1983). Shifting sands of coastal barrier development subsidies. In Preventing Coastal Flood Disasters: The Role of the States and Federal Response. Madison,

WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center.

Keywords :

coastal development

Abstract: The author contends that federal subsidies for infrastructure and disaster assistance have played a significant role in coastal development since the end of the Korean

War. The author contends that in most cases, flood insurance was not the main force behind such development. Subsidies for bridge access, roads, water supplies, water treatment,

and wastewater treatment had a more profound impact on development.

Record Number: 201

Miller, H. Crane. (1990). On the Brink: Coastal Location and Relocation Choices. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

relocation, Upton-Jones Amendment

Abstract: This is another in a series of case studies by the author. Miller uses data from

two coastal communities to explain why the relocation provisions of the Upton-Jones

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Amendment are used infrequently. Interviews and other analysis of the two communities

led him to conclude that “...owners generally buy oceanfront property with knowledge of

the risk and of the history of storms and other hazards in the area. People buy on the oceanfront because they ‘want to be there,’ find their risk acceptable, and often would locate

there regardless of whether flood and wind insurance were available. Besides, they are far

more likely than their riverine counterparts, to rebuild in the same location if a disaster destroys their home” (p. 5). Each of the owners that Miller interviewed carried high amounts

of flood, wind and homeowners insurance. All said they realized they might lose their investment to erosion but felt the possibility a small one (p. 6). Retreating from the water's

edge, even with some government subsidy, was not economical for most of the owners

since they enjoyed a good secondary income by renting the ocean front property to seasonal visitors. For many, rental incomes, even when offset with the cost of insurance and

repairs, made the property a good personal investment. “The amenities of an oceanfront

location -- view, easy access to the beach, water recreation, nearby wetlands, peace and

quiet where it exists -- seem to meet deeply felt emotional needs of people who own property there” (p. 18).

Record Number: 249

Miller, John B. (1998). Floods People at Risk, Strategies for Prevention. Collingdale, PA:

DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This book draws on recent case examples and aims to provide authoritative scientific and technical information. This book includes flood statistics; information on the

Midwest floods of 1993; causes of floods; floodplain management, strategies for reducing

loss of life and property; floodplain mapping; flood insurance; structural counter measures

(such as dikes, flood control reservoirs, flood detention basins, and river training); nonstructural defense (such as floodproofing, soil and water conservation, and flood forecasting; dam safety); and emergency response (including flood precautions, post-flood recovery and post-flood review).

Record Number: 482

Missouri State Emergency Management Agency (MSEMA). (1995). Out of Harm's Way:

Missouri's Flood Buyout Program. Jefferson City, MO: MSEMA.

Keywords :

buyouts, hazard mitigation, Missouri

Abstract: This report illustrates the success of the Missouri Buyout Program (MBP) and

offers sufficient in-depth background for a public policy debate on continued funding of

such programs. The MBP is a proactive and cost-effective program that stresses a collaborative effort among federal, state, and local governments. It is a voluntary program, providing residents a practical solution by relocating to homes outside of the floodplain. Once

the properties are cleared, the publicly owned ground may then be used for open space

purposes more consistent with the threat of repeat flooding. Included in this report were the

following recommendations: the establishment of a programmatic buyout and hazard mitigation program with funding authorities independent of disaster declarations; maintaining

flexibility in hazard mitigation programs to promote cost-effective and appropriate mitiga112
tion techniques, including the option of states receiving funds as a block grant; and the development of common procedures for federal buyouts and mitigation programs.

Record Number: 47

Mittler, Elliott. (1996). Social consequences of flood mitigation. In 1996 International

Conference and Exposition on Natural Disaster Reduction. Washington, DC: American

Society of Civil Engineering.

Keywords :

buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, structural approaches

Abstract: Both structural and nonstructural solutions to disastrous floods have been sought

by the federal government. The cost-benefit analyses that drive the choices of mitigation

solutions, however, do not fully account for the social impacts of each decision. The

NFIP’s buyout plan aims to remove structures at risk within a floodplain . The social consequences of this plan have not been studied; they may include changes to the core urban

structure, loss of farmlands, and loss of passive recreation areas. Ultimately, these decisions favor those with money over those without. Even voluntary buyouts give the property owner poor choices: move out of one’s home or stay and have the surrounding areas

gradually reduced in economic and social value. This disproportionately affects those already living on the economic margin.

Record Number: 382

Mittler, Elliott. (1997). An Assessment of Floodplain Management in Georgia's Flint River

Basin. Program on Environment and Behavior Monograph #59. Boulder, CO: University

of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science.

Keywords :

building codes, Flint River Basin, Georgia, mitigation, recovery, relocation

Abstract: This 181-page book, based on research funded by the FEMA with the Association of State Floodplain Managers, assesses federal, state, and local flood loss reduction

efforts in the context of Georgia’s floods of 1994. The assessment focuses on an evaluation

of previous Flint River Basin studies; the political setting; federal, state, and local responses to the disaster in terms of recovery plans and mitigation programs; and the role of

the NFIP in helping to reduce flood losses. The assessment found that federal, state, and

local governments worked successfully at implementing policies and programs that will

reduce future flood losses. Reasons for the positive outcome include the implementation

and enforcement of preexisting federal recovery and mitigation policies; Georgia’s adoption of the federal policies as the main elements in its recovery plan and subsequent efforts

to establish state guidelines for acceptable local recovery plans; and the state's provision of

trained building inspectors to local governments to ensure the implementation and enforcement of state building codes. Other findings included the following. First, FEMA’s

buyout and relocation policy is too limited and inflexible to accommodate complex local

issues like those that arose in Albany, Georgia, such as failure to coordinate local and regional programs and a flawed method for determining buildings that were substantially

damaged. Second, flood insurance was not widely purchased in the Flint River Basin.

Those who purchased it tended to be underinsured, and disaster assistance was the primary

source of federal funds to individual victims. Third, federal, state, and local officials made

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less-than-optimal decisions because they did not share important data or effectively use

data collected by others.

Record Number: 182

Montz, Burrell E. (1983). The effects and effectiveness of flood insurance requirements:

Agent perspectives. The Environmental Professional, 5, 116-23.

Keywords :

development, floodplain management

Abstract: The author asked a local sample of diffusion agents (defined by her as mortgage

lenders, real estate agents and property insurance agents) a variety of questions about their

interaction with consumers who had purchased or were considering purchasing property in

flood hazard areas. One of the questions was whether the agents felt the NFIP and local

floodplain regulations made a difference in the demand for land in the floodplain. Generally, those who responded felt there was little or no effect of the NFIP on the local housing

market. In other words, it neither decreased nor increased demand. They reported that

when consumers first learn that a piece of property is in the hazard area, it seemed to concern them but ultimately did not deter them from the ultimate purchase decision. The extent to which their decision to go ahead was related to the comfort afforded by insurance

availability is not clear from these findings.

Record Number: 461

Montz, Burrell and Eve C. Gruntfest. (1986). Changes in American urban floodplain occupancy since 1958: The experiences of nine cities. Applied Geography, 6, 325-38.

Keywords :

compliance, development, floodplain management

Abstract: In 1958, researchers from the University of Chicago documented increases in

the number of structures in the floodplains of 17 American cities, a phenomenon attributed

to the prevalence of flood control structures. Because federal policies have shifted to managing floodplains, this paper updates the 1958 study for nine of the cities. Several trends

are apparent. Development pressures determine floodplain encroachment; floodplain management regulations have been implemented where it was easiest to do so. Further, structural measures continue to dominate. Thus, while many local officials are becoming more

aware of advantages of floodplain regulation, implementation and enforcement are inconsistent and uneven.

Record Number: 459

Montz, Burrell E. and Graham A. Tobin. (1988). The spatial and temporal variability of

residential real estate values in response to flooding. Disasters, 12(4), 345-55.

Keywords :

modeling, property values

Abstract: A relationship between residential property values and the incidence of flooding

is represented, using a case study of two Californian communities that were flooded following a levee break. Analysis of the real estate market before and after the flood shows

that the flood was capitalized into housing values, whereby both list and selling prices

dropped immediately and have recently begun to recover. However, recovery of the market

is not uniform throughout the floodplain. Houses that suffered from 18 inches of water re114
covered to near preflood values in less than one year. In contrast, houses that had approximately ten feet of water in them have not recovered to the same extent, indicating that

capitalization and recovery do not occur evenly. These findings suggest that policies and

programs should address these spatial and temporal differences in recovery, which are expected to vary with different flood frequencies and magnitudes.

Record Number: 85

Montz, Burrell E. and Graham A. Tobin. (1999). The Effectiveness of the National Flood

Insurance Program in Two Communities: Syracuse, NY and Tampa, FL Paper presented a

the Annual Meeting of the Association of State Floodplain Managers, Portland, OR.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, development, Syracuse, Tampa, watersheds

Abstract: This study is based on a research design developed by Newton, Myers, and

Monday (1996), which posed three questions related to floodplain activities over the last

30 years: (a) What has been the NFIP’s effect on human occupancy of floodplains; (b)

What has been the effect of the NFIP on net economic value of floodplain occupancy; and

(c) What has been the NFIP’s effect on the natural functions of watersheds. This two-city

pilot project was aimed at obtaining a preliminary view of the impacts of NFIP and at refining a methodology for a broader national assessment. The results reported focus on the

first two questions. The results suggest that there are differences in occupancy and economic value of floodplain and nonfloodplain areas since communities joined the NFIP.

Some differences can be attributed to economic and demographic characteristics, but others cannot. With all but multiple-family residences, there is a tendency toward decreased

investment in floodplains, but patterns differ between the two cities. In Syracuse, a decrease in the number of structures was evident, except with multiple family residences. In

Tampa, there were increases in all floodplain land uses, but the absolute change in number

of structures was higher in the nonfloodplain area. Thus, even with growth, there is a tendency toward less economic activity in the floodplain. The timing of this differs between

cities. In Syracuse, joining NFIP coincided with a decrease in the number of structures,

whereas in Tampa, the greatest increase in number of structures in the floodplain occurred

at this time. While these changes could have come about before entrance into NFIP, the

pace of investment decreased in the floodplain as community experience with NFIP increased, and this differs from nonfloodplain areas. It is clear, therefore, that these results

are not removed from other forces that affect investment in development. In Syracuse, the

study period includes times of economic downturn, and the decreases in numbers of structures could be attributable to that. However, if that were the case, the differences between

floodplain and nonfloodplain areas would probably not exist. As a result, it appears that

NFIP is making a difference, irrespective of the socio-economic characteristics of communities.

Record Number: 508

Moore, Jamie W. and Dorothy P. Moore. (1989). The Army Corps of Engineers and the

Evolution of Federal Flood Plain Management Policy. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science.

Keywords :

floodplain management

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Abstract: This study examines the relationship between the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

and the development of federal programs of floodplain management. While the narrative

primarily focuses on the Corps, any study of floodplain management must embrace many

subjects. The decisive players in the theory and practice of flood damage abatement include the evolution of associated engineering technologies; political, social and economic

impacts on the enactment of legislation; the sometimes mysterious and always fascinating

workings of the political process; the organizational impulses directing agency decisions

and practices; and important changes in public opinion reflected in new governmental

goals.

Record Number: 346

Moore, Martha T. (1998) Line in the sand over beach rebuilding. USA Today, May 22.

Keywords :

development, replenishment

Abstract: Coastal states and towns say that beach replenishment is vital to keep tourists

coming, to protect coastal property from storms, and to keep their economies healthy. But

environmentalists oppose beach replenishment, saying it does not last, is environmentally

questionable, and is bad fiscal policy. The federal government, which pays for 65 percent

of beach replenishment through the Army Corps of Engineers, wants to cut back. Opponents of beach replenishment argue that federal subsidies should not pay to protect coastal

properties. Environmentalists oppose building seawalls to protect beachfront property and

building groins and jetties to try to hold beaches in place. They say the real villain in erosion is development and recommend moving buildings back from the oceanfront. Since

1965 an estimated $3.5 billion has been spent on beach replacements according to a study

by Duke University’s Program for the Study of Developed Shorelines. The Army Corps of

Engineers cites much lower numbers but says it is spending $150 million a year on beach

replacement. The Clinton administration proposed cutting these funds in the Water Resources Development Act; it would pay for 65 percent of the initial cost but only 35 percent for the following 50 years of maintenance. With federal budget cuts, shore communities would be faced with tough decisions on whether they can or want to pay more of the

bill. Local decisions in five states are described.

Record Number: 48

Mrazik, Brian R. (1987). Flood risk analysis for the National Flood Insurance Program.

Application of frequency and risk in water resources. In Proceedings of the International

Symposium on Flood Frequency and Risk Analysis.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: Flood frequency and risk analysis play a fundamental role in the insurance,

floodplain management, and hazard mapping aspects of the NFIP. The analytic procedures

commonly utilized in flood insurance studies of riverine floodplains include flood frequency analysis for gauged and ungauged streams and stage-frequency determinations.

Coastal floodplain insurance studies include synthetic storm surge modeling, statistical

analyses, and wave analyses. Consistency in flood frequency estimates over both time and

space is needed to effectively administer the NFIP at national and local levels. Enhanced

capability in risk analysis for flood-related hazards such as ice jams, erosion, levee failure,

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shifting channels, long-term lake level fluctuations, and mudflows is also needed to support the program’s operations in these specialized hazard environments.

Record Number: 49

Muckleston, Keith W. (1983). The impact of floodplain regulations on residential land va lues in Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin, 19, 1-7.

Keywords :

development, mitigation, Oregon, property values

Abstract: Ambiguities about the relationship between floodplain regulations and residential land values in Oregon were investigated. Clarification of this relationship should facilitate the long-delayed implementation of a more comprehensive and successful approach

to flood hazard mitigation than is presently employed. The suggestion that current floodplain regulations significantly depress appreciation rates of regulated lands relative to those

of similar unregulated lands was rejected in most cases. When this suggestion was accepted, the circumstances rendered the conclusions tenuous. Problems and issues facing

this type of research are presented in case studies of two of the research study areas. Ho wever, conclusions should remain tentative because the research could not be carried out under ideal conditions. The criteria for establishing uniform study areas could not be fully

met, even though much attention was paid to this step in the research process. One problem

is that considerable development had taken place in some of the study areas prior to the

implementation of floodplain regulations. Under these conditions, a valid question regarding the relation between regulation and land values appears to be whether any possible

negative aspects of land-use regulations are not outweighed by the positive attributes of

flood insurance, which under the NFIP becomes available concurrent with the implementation of regulations.

Record Number: 50

Mueller, R.H. (1988). Feasibility of predicting 100-Year floodway width and depth in the

Tennessee Valley by multiple linear regression. In Floodplain Harmony. (Vol. 6). Boulder,

CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazards Research

and Applications Information Center.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: One of the most serious impediments to effective administration of local flood

damage reduction programs cited by community officials and state NFIP coordinating

agencies is the lack of detailed flood data (flood depth and floodway width). The Tenne ssee Valley Authority is making an effort to develop equations for estimating flood depth

and floodway width along natural, unobstructed stream reaches from common watershed

characteristics using multiple linear regression. Results show that floodway width cannot

be predicted with reasonable accuracy because of the inherent variability of floodway

width along a given stream reach. The U.S. Geological Survey and several state agencies

have had success developing regional equations for predicting 100-year flood depths.

Depth regression equations adequately cover most of the Tennessee Valley. The inherent

variability of floodway width discourages use of regional regression equations for predicting it. The need for an easy-to-use method for predicting floodway width remains.

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Record Number: 264

Myers, Mary Fran. (1995). The National Flood Insurance Program as a Nonstructural

Mitigation Measure. Paper presented at the U.S.- Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy.

Keywords: 

nonstructural mitigation

Abstract: This paper reviews the rationale behind the NFIP’s creation, describes the program’s purposes and how it operates in some 18,000 communities, highlights issues of

concern about the program that impact its effectiveness, and recommends research that

would result in information that could improve the NFIP’s ability to reduce vulnerability to

flood damages. The author concludes that in 1995, nearly 30 years after the creation of the

NFIP, it is evident that the program has had some positive effects in reducing the nation’s

susceptibility to flood damages. Yet, floods continue to be the most costly natural disaster

in the United States. The author identifies three areas where more knowledge is needed:

better data, a broader resource management, and post audits.

Record Number: 94

Myers, Mary Fran and Gilbert F. White. (1993). The challenge of the Mississippi floods.

Environment, 35(10), 6-9, 25-35.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This article discusses the U.S. federal government’s participation in flood management since 1825, the flooding in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri basins from

mid June through early August 1993, the impact of the flood on urban and rural families,

the dilemma of whether to repair or rebuild damaged buildings and levees, new recognition

of the values of floodplain management, and the need to include the idea of mitigation in

the disaster cycle of preparedness, response, and recovery. It questions why so many levees

failed. Sidebars list recommendations for floodplain management and significant events in

the development of U.S. flood control policy; charts depict the area’s weather and water

flow patterns; and a table presents preliminary estimates of damage to levees in the Mississippi River Basin in 1993.

Record Number: 80

Nakaya, Hiroaki. (2000). Policy Proposal: A Split for Unity. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

insurance ratings, mapping, subsidies

Abstract: This report analyzes the NFIP’s operating results. It first attempts to correct a

widespread misconception about the NFIP, namely, that the FIA gives taxpayer money to

flood victims. Second, statutory background is examined concerning the concepts of moral

hazard and adverse selection. Moral hazard is inherent in any insurance, and therefore must

be accepted as a matter of degree. Third, financial analysis shows that post-FIRM policyholders living below Base Flood Elevation (BFE) have been overpaying, and both preFIRM and post-FIRM above BFE have been underpaying. Thus the problem arises of an

internal transfer, or premium subsidy, within the NFIP. Fourth, two implications from this

internal transfer problem are discussed. One is that the map modernization project needs

much more attention. The other is that the lowest floor elevation information for pre-FIRM

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properties must be attained to determine the policyholder’s premium, thus taking potential

losses from a catastrophic year into consideration and making this group of policyholders

financially self-sufficient. Last, splitting NFIP policyholders into two groups, those with

actuarially based policies and those with policies with historical averages, is suggested.

The split would set post-FIRM policyholders who are living below BFE free from the burden of overpaying premiums, and would more appropriately place this burden on those

with historical average flood insurance, leading to a substantial premium hike. The only

way out for those policyholders, under the participation requirement mentioned above, is

to get elevation certificates, to conduct a thorough flood study, and to join actuarial-based

flood insurance. In the historical average method, those people with less than average risk

are forced to pay more than their fair share; by getting elevation certificates, they would

move to an actuarially based program. This rationale leads to an elimination of historical

average insurance, and it introduces flood mitigation loans based on risk information.

Without information on the lowest floor elevation and major leverage for map modernization, flood-related programs cannot achieve their goals.

Record Number: 439

Nash, J.E. and J. Amorocho. (1966). The accuracy of the prediction of floods of high return period. Water Resources Research, 2(2), 191-98.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to find expressions for the standard error of estimate

due to sampling variance only. Expressions in terms of sample size and parameters of the

probability distribution are obtained for the standard errors of sample estimates of flood

magnitudes corresponding to given return periods for normal and double exponential universes. The extrapolation of magnitude-frequency (or return period) relationships obtained

from a finite sample when the form of the frequency distribution is known it shows not to

be hazardous. These errors are shown to converge toward fixed proportions of the estimates for high return periods.

Record Number: 464

National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Coastal Erosion Zone Management. (1989).

Managing Coastal Erosion through the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington,

DC: National Academy Press.

Keywords :

coastal erosion

Abstract: In 1988, the FIA asked the National Research Council (NRC) to provide advice

on appropriate erosion management strategies, supporting data needs, and applicable

methodologies to administer these strategies through the NFIP. This report details the

NRC's conclusions and recommendations with respect to erosion hazard reduction, including: (a) hazard delineation; (b) recommended methodologies; (c) standards for deve lopment; (d) the impacts of navigational and flood control projects on shore stability; (e)

erosion control through coastal engineering; (f) sand and gravel mining; and (g) subsidence. The report also included recommendations for improving education, database development, and research. A key recommendation made in the report was the identification

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of coastlines subject to coastal erosion (E-zones) for the purposes of hazard delineation and 

determination of federal insurance ratings. 

Record Number: 506

National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies (NAFSMA). (2000).

NAFSMA position on floodplain management issues related to the NFIP and FEMA's Administration of Same. NAFSMA.

Keywords :

Community Rating System, mapping

Abstract: NAFSMA's mission is to advocate public policies that facilitate the achievement

of the public service functions of its member agencies. NAFSMA has identified the fo llowing areas of concern with regard to the NFIP and how FEMA is managing this program

as it affects the public service functions of its member agencies. NAFSMA’s concerns include: (a) mapping issues; (b) institutional bias against structural flood management projects; and (c) the Community Rating System. The member agencies of the NAFSMA want

to work with FEMA on the common goal of protecting the lives and property of American

citizens. NAFSMA would like FEMA to recognize the association’s commitment, its expertise, and its unique circumstances. In addition, NAFSMA would like its work products

to be more readily accepted by FEMA. To do otherwise is to waste precious resources.

Record Number: 476

National Credit Union Administration. (1997, 1999). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to

Congress 1995 to 1997. Alexandria, VA: National Credit Union Administration. 

Keywords : 

compliance, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: According to the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement 

Act of 1994, this report was submitted to Congress on the compliance by insured credit 

unions with the requirements of the NFIP. The report includes a description of the methods 

used to determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions examined during the 

reporting year, a listing and total number of insured credit unions found not to be in compliance, actions taken to correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of compliance, including a discussion of trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations regarding 

reasonable actions to improve the efficiency of the examination process. Reports are included for three periods: 1994-1995; 1995-1997; and 1997-1999. 

Record Number: 51

National Research Council. (1983). Evaluation of Flood-level Prediction Using Alluvial-river

Models. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Keywords : 

channel erosion, modeling 

Abstract: Many communities, primarily in the western states, have experienced problems 

with computing flood-water elevations for flood insurance purposes under the NFIP. These 

problems focused on modeling channel erosion and sedimentation using fixed-bed models 

for flood insurance studies in communities affected by rivers with movable beds or alluvial 

channels. The study involved application of six flow and sediment routing models for alluvial streams on reaches of selected rivers for which relatively complete data were available. The objective of this investigation was to determine whether river-bed degradation 

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during flood passage has an effect on flood stage that should be incorporated into the calculation of floodzone limits. It was concluded that, except in cases of rivers which have

been severely disturbed by human intervention through local degradation or aggradation,

the use of erodible river-bed models instead of fixed bed models cannot be justified in

flood insurance studies.

Record Number: 192

National Research Council. (1990). Managing Coastal Erosion. Washington, DC: National

Academy Press.

Keywords :

coastal erosion

Abstract: More and more of the nation’s vast coastlines are being filled with homes and

vacation resorts. The result is an increasing number of structures built on erosion-prone

shores with many of these structures facing collapse or damage. In response to mounting

property losses, Congress has given FEMA responsibility for incorporating coastal erosion

into the NFIP. This book addresses the immediate question of how to develop an erosion

insurance program as well as the larger issues raised by the continually changing face of

our shorelines. Managing Coastal Erosion explores major questions surrounding a national

policy on coastal erosion: Should the federal government be in the business of protecting

developers and individuals who build in erosion-prone coastal areas? How should such a

program be implemented? Can it prompt more responsible management of coastal areas?

The volume provides federal policymakers, state floodplain and resource managers, civil

engineers, environmental groups, marine specialists, development companies, and researchers with invaluable information about the natural processes of coastal erosion and

the effect of human activity on those processes. The book also details the workings of the

NFIP, lessons to be learned from numerous state coastal management programs, and much

more.

Record Number: 152

National Research Council, Committee on Flood Control Alternatives in the American

River Basin (1995). Flood Risk Management and the American River Basin: An Evaluation. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Keywords :

American River Basin, risk management

Abstract: This book reviews the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' (USACE) investigations

of flood control options for the American River basin and evaluates flood control feasibility studies for the watershed, with attention to the contingency assumptions, hydrologic

methods, and other analyses supporting the flood control options. This book provides detailed comments on many technical issues, including a careful review of the 1991 National

Research Council report American River Watershed Investigation, and looks beyond the

Sacramento case to broader questions about the nation's approach to flood risk management. It discusses how to utilize information available about flood hazard reduction alternatives for the American River basin, the potential benefits provided by various alternatives, the impacts of alternatives on environmental resources and ecosystems, and the

trade-offs inherent in any choice among alternatives which does not lie in the realm of scientists and engineers, but in the arena of public decision making.

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Record Number: 151

National Research Council, Committee on Assessing the Costs of Natural Disasters.

(1999). The Impacts of Natural Disasters: A Framework for Loss Estimation. Washington,

DC: National Research Council.

Keywords :

coastal erosion, development

Abstract: This book explores major questions surrounding a national policy on coastal

erosion: Should the federal government be in the business of protecting developers and individuals who build in erosion-prone coastal areas? How should such a program be implemented? Can it prompt more responsible management of coastal areas? The volume provides federal policymakers, state floodplain and resource managers, civil engineers, environmental groups, marine specialists, development companies, and researchers with information about the natural processes of coastal erosion and the effect of human activity on

those processes. The book also details the workings of the NFIP as well as lessons to be

learned from state coastal management programs.

Record Number: 253

National Research Council, Committee to Assess the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Water

Resources Project Planning Procedures. (1999). New Directions in Water Resources Planning for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Keywords :

Corps of Engineers, water resources

Abstract: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) has long been one of the federal government’s key agencies in planning the uses of the nation’s waterways and water resources.

Though responsible for a range of water-related programs, the ACE’s two traditional programs have been flood damage reduction and navigation enhancement. The water resource

needs of the nation have been shifting away from engineered control of watersheds toward

restoration of ecosystem services and natural hydrologic variability. In response to these

shifting needs, legislation was enacted in 1990 that initiated the ACE’s involvement in

ecological restoration, which is now on par with the ACE’s traditional flood damage reduction and navigation roles. This book analyzes the ACE’s efforts in ecological restoration, and provides broader recommendations on how the corps might streamline its planning process. The book also assesses the impacts of federal legislation on the ACE’s planning and projects, and provides recommendations on how relevant federal policies might

be altered in order to improve ACE planning. Another important shift affecting the ACE

has been federal cost-sharing arrangements (enacted in 1986), mandating greater financial

participation in the ACE’s water projects by local cosponsors. The book describes how this

has affected the ACE-sponsor relationship, and comments on how each group must adjust

to new planning and political realities.

Record Number: 254 

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National Research Council, Committee on American River Flood Frequencies. (1999).

Improving American River Flood Frequency Analyses. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Keywords :

American River, Corps of Engineers, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: In 1996 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) completed a congressionally

directed reevaluation of flood control options for California’s American River. In response,

Congress authorized a component of the recommended plan but not an adequate plan for

the reduction of flood risk for the Sacramento area. Thus, evaluations of alternatives are

still required, in particular because the American River experienced a major flood in January 1997. The 1997 flood suggested that it may be necessary to re-compute flow frequency

relationships for the American River at Sacramento. In February 1998, the USACE published a revised unregulated rain flood flow frequency analysis for the American River at

Fair Oaks. The analysis produced a flood frequency curve that indicates that large floods

are appreciably more likely than previously thought. The report prompted controversy

among local, state and federal government agencies, public interest groups, and others.

This report provides an independent scientific assessment of flood frequency relationships

for the American River at Sacramento. The 100-year flood estimate recommended by this

study would result in removal of some flood-prone areas of Sacramento from the AR zone,

which would result in suspension of building restrictions. However, the uncertainties in

these estimates are large. Because the negative consequences of falsely designating such

flood-prone areas to be out of the regulatory floodplain would be catastrophic, the committee recommends the establishment of a new interagency effort for flood-risk assessment

and management that would emphasize research focused on coordinated and cooperative

flood risk reduction.

Record Number: 66

National Research Council, Committee on Beach Nourishment and Protection. (1999).

Beach Nourishment and Protection. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Keywords :

beach protection, Corps of Engineers

Abstract: This book provides a basis for decision-making, with recommendations regarding the utility of beach nourishment, and the appropriate role of federal agencies. This

book also examines the economic and social role of beaches, the history of beach nourishment projects, and management strategies for shore protection; discusses the role of the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and other federal agencies, with a close-up look at the

NFIP; explores the state of the art in project design and prediction of outcomes, including

the controversy over the use of traditional and nontraditional shore protection devices; addresses what is known about the environmental impacts of beach nourishment; and identifies what outcomes should be targeted for continued monitoring by project officials.

Record Number: 67

National Research Council, Committee on Risk-Based Analysis for Flood Damage Reduction. (2000). Risk Analysis and Uncertainty in Flood Damage Reduction Studies. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Keywords :

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Corps of Engineers, risk analysis 

Abstract: This study describes and evaluates the Army Corps of Engineers’ use of riskbased analysis for the evaluation of hydrology, hydraulics, and economics in flood damage 

reduction studies. The study praises the Corps of Engineers for its adoption of risk analysis 

methods, but it also raises concern about several technical (modeling) issues. The committee recommended that the Corps: (a) use annual exceedance probability as the performance measure of engineering risk; (b) improve its analysis of hydrologic, hydraulic, geotechnical, and economic uncertainties; (c) focus greater attention on the probabilistic issues 

of identifying, estimating, and combining uncertainties; (d) strive to reduce the considerable variation in the estimates of water surface elevation when using different models of 

river hydraulics; (e) evaluate the risk-based performance of a levee as a spatially distributed system; (f) undertake statistically ex-post studies to compare predictions of geotechnical levee failure probabilities as well as ex-post studies of other flood-damage reduction 

structures; (g) calculate the risks associated with flooding and the benefits of a flood damage reduction project structure by structure, rather than conducting risk analysis on damage 

aggregated over groups of structures in damage reaches; (h) adopt a consistent terminology for communicating risk analysis concepts within the Corps and to the public; (i) simplify and improve the complex and somewhat confusing criteria for certifying levees for 

inclusion in the NFIP, and (10) move toward a more comprehensive decision-making approach in flood damage reduction studies. 

Record Number: 485

National Review Committee. (1992). Action Agenda for Managing the Nation's Floodplains: A Review of Floodplain Management in the United States: An Assessment Report.

Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This report was prepared to supplement the committee’s comments on a draft of

Floodplain Management in the United States: An Assessment Report. It outlines what the

committee regarded as the present situation with respect to floodplain management, how

federal aims and activities have evolved, and desirable next steps. The floodplain management goals are twofold and interrelated: to reduce the vulnerability of all Americans to the

danger and damage of floods and to preserve and enhance the natural values of the nation's

floodplains. After listing the findings from the assessment, the committee recommends the

following actions: (a) integrate flood loss vulnerability and protection of floodplain natural

values into broader state and community development and resource management processes; (b) improve the data base for floodplain management; (c) Give weight to local conditions; (d) minimize conflicts among federal programs; (e) Reduce the vulnerability of

existing buildings; and (f) improve professional skills and public education. The report

provides a table of the federal agencies involved in floodplain management and the programs that each agency provides.

Record Number: 236 

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Neal, David M. (1992). Hurricane Andrew churns up debate. Forum for Applied Research

and Public Policy, 10(1), 26-9.

Keywords :

Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Hugo, risk communication

Abstract: In the wake of Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta Earthquake in 1989, the

federal government developed a plan to guide future federal disaster response. The plan

received final approval in April 1992, “only four months before it would receive a fullscale test from Hurricane Andrew,” which struck south Florida in August. Despite the

plan, Andrew's landfall was attended by rampant confusion and miscommunication.

FEMA bore the brunt of post-disaster criticism. FEMA’s performance in the days following Andrew resulted in part from imperfections in the plan, which was overly bureaucratic

and inflexible. To improve its emergency responsiveness, the federal government must

simplify the presidential disaster-declaration process, continue to bolster the federal response plan, and help local governments boost their own preparedness while making them

aware that federal disaster response can take several days even under the best circumstances.

Record Number: 193

Newsome, Sharon. (1990). Reform of the national flood insurance program. In Focus on

Maryland's Forgotten Bays. Report on the Conference on the Outer Coastal Bays, May 5,

1990.

Keywords :

development

Abstract: The author, Vice-President for Resources Conservation for the National Wildlife

Federation, says that the NFIP has not achieved its statutory mandate to guide new deve lopment out of hazard-prone floodplain areas. No empirical evidence is offered.

Record Number: 95

Nickson, Stephen. (2000). Risk management at home. Risk Management, 47(9), 8-11.

Keywords :

coastal erosion, development

Abstract: This article reports the impact of coastal erosion on the risk management of

homeowners in the United States. It discusses the implication of land development in highrisk coastal areas for property owners, the impact of management failure on tax rates and

insurance premiums, and damage coverage in the NFIP policies.

Record Number: 96

North, Carol S. and Barry A. Hong. (2000). Project CREST: A new model for mental

health intervention after a community disaster. American Journal of Public Health, 90(7),

1057-9.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri

Abstract: When the Mississippi River and its tributaries flooded St. Louis, MO, in the

spring and summer of 1993, 250 mental health professionals stood ready to help the thousands whose lives the floods would affect. It turned out, however, that most of the flood

victims sought instead the support of community leaders they knew and trusted. To meet

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the need for community-based disaster support, disaster intervention training that had been

offered to mental health professionals during the summer of 1993 was adapted to train

community resource personnel, ranging from clergy to police. The result was Project

CREST (Community Resources for Education, Support, and Training). CREST’s purpose

is to maximize mental health resources within communities by equipping community leaders to provide initial crisis intervention and emotional relief services after community-wide

disasters, when professional resources are often limited. CREST has also been adapted to

other types of crisis intervention. Through Project CREST many people have received crisis intervention who otherwise would not have sought mental health care.

Record Number: 419

Norton, Clark F. (1988). Federal Disaster Relief Legislation and Administration: A Summary. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Keywords :

disaster relief

Abstract: This report for Congress reviews provisions of federal disaster relief from the

19th century though April 1998. It discusses the ad hoc relief provided by Congress until

the passage of the landmark “Major Disaster Relief Act of 1950”; it describes the provisions of that act and reviews subsequent developments leading to the 1970 and 1974 disaster relief acts and later amendments; and it identifies the executive agencies that have

administered federal disaster relief programs over the years. Appendices identify the emergency and major disaster relief powers of the president authorized by the 1974 Act and

present FEMA’s organization, which administers the program.

Record Number: 12

Nq, Y. (1992). Optimal investment in urban drainage: A framework for cost-benefit analysis. Australian Economic Review, 25(3), 19-28.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation

Abstract: This article addresses some basic issues (including distributional weights, discount rates, and the value of life) in the cost-benefit analysis of urban drainage and provides a framework for the estimation of the optimal amount of investment for flood mitigation. According to the author, such evaluation should involve: (a) the estimation of the

expected total damage from flooding in present-value terms before flood mitigation; (b) the

computation of the reduction in expected total damage as the average recurrent interval of

flooding increases; (c) estimating how this interval increases with the amount of investment in flood mitigation; and (d) choosing the optimal investment by equating marginal

benefit and marginal cost.

Record Number: 389

Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget (1998). Federal Programs Offering Non-structural Flood Recovery and Floodplain Management Alternatives.

Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President.

Keywords :

floodplain management, nonstructural approach, wetlands

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Abstract: This handbook, produced in cooperation with the various federal agencies represented, provides information about federal programs that support nonstructural approaches

to floodplain management, including broad strategies and specific federal programs that

could form the basis for a nonstructural response to a flood event. Programs are grouped

by three primary strategies: (a) acquisition, relocation, elevation, and floodproofing of existing structures; (b) rural land easements and acquisitions; and (c) restoration of wetlands.

Programs offering technical assistance for floodplain management are also reviewed.

Summaries of 36 federal programs include information about each program’s objective,

agencies involved, form of assistance, program target, eligibility requirements, costsharing requirements, available funding, repayment requirements, application procedures,

and contacts. The agencies that offer these programs include FEMA, the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers, National Park Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Small Business Administration, Economic Development Administration, Fish and Wildlife Service,

and Commodity Credit Corporation.

Record Number: 479

Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). (1984, March). Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation. Washington, DC: OTA.

Keywords :

wetlands

Abstract: The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) collected data from the scientific

literature, government reports, and responses to questionnaires about wetland use from 37

out of 38 Corps districts, from 48 states, and from 11 out of 20 trade associations surveyed.

The OTA also conducted case studies of wetland trends in 13 States and minor studies in

eight states and interviewed many federal and state personnel and industry representatives.

As a result of its studies, OTA has identified three issues related to wetlands management.

First, should federal involvement in protecting wetlands be increased or decreased? Second, should the federal government improve its policymaking capability through a systematic collection and analysis of additional information about wetlands? Finally, should the

federal government develop a more integrated approach for managing the use of wetlands?

Record Number: 477

Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS). (1997,1999). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to

Congress for September 1997 to August 1999. Washington, DC: OTS, Department of

Treasury.

Keywords :

compliance, mandatory purchase

Abstract: These reports were submitted to Congress in accordance with the requirements

of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The report includes a description of

the methods used to determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions examined

during the reporting year, a listing and total number of insured credit unions found not to

be in compliance, actions taken to correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of

compliance, including a discussion of trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations

regarding reasonable actions to improve the efficiency of the examination process. In its

final report (1999), the OTS observed that savings associations increased their overall

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compliance level from 84 percent to 90 percent from September 1, 1994 to August 31,

1999. OTS anticipates further increases in the future due to increased awareness of the importance of compliance with flood insurance regulations.

Record Number: 97

Olsen, J.R., P.A. Beling, J.H. Lambert, and Y.Y. Haimes. (1998). Input-output economic

evaluation of system of levees. Journal of Water Resources Planning and ManagementASCE, 124(5), 237-45.

Keywords :

economic valuation, modeling

Abstract: Large-scale flooding in northern California and the Midwest floods of 1993

flood demonstrate that floodplain management should be conducted for regions rather than

only for individual floodplains. Economic activities connect each floodplain to other

floodplains and to areas not affected by flooding. A method is presented to estimate the

economic effects of flooding over a region of interacting floodplains and other lands by

incorporating a Leontief economic input-output model with a probabilistic description of

the potential overtopping in a system of levees. Expected economic damages may be

greater if flooding reduces the availability of floodplain products that are used as inputs to

other sectors of the economy. The model is used to evaluate the economic risk for an example of a distributed system of levees.

Record Number: 133

Olsen, J. R., P.A. Beling, and J.H. Lambert. (2000). Dynamic models for floodplain ma nagement. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management-ASCE, 126(3), 167-75.

Keywords :

buyouts, development, floodplain management, modeling, Pennsylvania

Abstract: A dynamic model of floodplain management is developed that addresses no nstationary conditions, including land-use changes, channel modifications, economic deve lopment, and climate change and variability. The dynamic approach permits zoning, levee

construction, and other decisions to be made sequentially, rather than only at the present.

The dynamic model is formulated as a Markov decision process. A single-floodplain, single-objective, stationary model is extended to include multiple floodplains, nonstationarity,

and multiple objectives. Linear programming is used for solution, though the problem may

be large. The model is applied to a problem at Chester Creek, PA. The optimal policy for

levee building or replacement depends on whether a flood has just occurred and on the

costs of buying out property owners and rebuilding homes and levees. Two cases of nonstationarity are examined, future bridge construction and future hydrologic changes. With

nonstationarity, buyout of property owners following levee overtopping is an optimal policy since increased future flooding reduces the expected benefits of structural flood measures. When economic development is included with management costs and flood damages

in a multiobjective formulation, the optimal policies include building larger levees and increasing floodplain development.

Record Number: 183

Olson, Jerome M. (1983). Observations on community based flood hazard mitigation in the

United States. Disasters, 7(2), 83-5.

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Keywords :

development

Abstract: The author contends that there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate whether

the NFIP is guiding proposed development away from flood hazard areas or whether it was

contributing to the absolute decline in average annual flood losses. Yet, the author said,

anecdotal evidence suggests both may be occurring.

Record Number: 458

Ouellette, Pierre, Daniel Leblanc, Nassir El-Jabi, and Jean Rousselle. (1988). Cost-benefit

analysis of flood-plain zoning. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management,

114(3), 326-34.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, modeling

Abstract: The economic yield of a floodplain zoning program is measured by cost-benefit

analysis. The methodology entails the use of a probabilistic hydroeconomic model to

evaluate expected flood damages with and without zoning. The application shows that this

type of program, albeit cost-effective overall, may be unacceptable for various reasons to

the various parties involved. While the program is cost-effective for all parties of the society, it is redistributive. Landowners are the main beneficiaries, while the cost-benefit ratio

for governments is consistently less thanone. Owing, however, to market imperfections,

landowners gain no advantage from promoting such programs. This is an explanation why

such programs are not implemented more widely.

Record Number: 98

Owens, Robert W. and Joe R. Roberts. (1991). Appraising floodplain properties. Appraisal

Journal, 59(2), 191-8.

Keywords :

floodplains, property values

Abstract: The risk of flooding can represent a potentially significant value determinant in

property appraisal. This article addresses a number of important, if not well-known, factors

relevant to the appraisal of a floodplain property. The authors provide information on the

NFIP and suggest guidelines for appraising a floodplain property.

Record Number: 52

Park, W.M. and W.L. Miller. (1982). Flood risk perceptions and overdevelopment in the

floodplain. Water Resources Bulletin, 18, 89-94.

Keywords :

development, Indiana, floodplain management, property values

Abstract: There is a long-standing hypothesis that imperfect information about potential

flood hazard, an expectation of liberal disaster relief, and anticipation of future structural

protection have resulted in overdevelopment of floodplains. Data for a case study from

Logansport, Indiana were analyzed using multiple regression techniques in an effort to investigate this hypothesis. The effect of the introduction of the NFIP on residential property

values was investigated in order to determine whether property values in floodplains were

fully discounted for expected flood damages. The case study analysis showed that property

values in the floodplain were less than fully discounted for the existing flooding potential

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prior to the introduction of the NFIP. Low-cost information such as lot elevation and distance from the river were found to affect sale price, apparently due to its role in the formation of perceptions about the potential for flooding. Policy alternatives for floodplain management that would provide better information on flooding potential and eliminate the perverse incentives created by the expectation of liberal disaster relief include simple zoning

and actuarial insurance. Simple delineation of the 100-year floodplain with zoning restrictions would involve relatively low implementation costs, while the development of actuarially accurate premiums for flood insurance would be relatively costly. In any case, the

study results indicate that unless policy changes eliminating the perverse incentives of past

policies are adopted, overdevelopment of floodplains will continue.

Record Number: 134

Pasterick, Edward T. (1998). The National Flood Insurance Program. In Howard Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of Insurance

against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph Henry Press.

Keywords :

NFIP

Abstract: The author provides an overview of the NFIP, beginning with a short history.

He then discusses the three components of the program's structure (risk identification, ha zard mitigation, and insurance), and explains how the components need to be integrated

through the cooperation of the federal government, state and local governments, and the

insurance industry. The next section of this chapter describes the various initiatives of the

NFIP, including the National Flood Insurers Association, the Write-Your-Own Program,

and the Community Rating System. He concludes with a discussion of issues facing the

NFIP and offers some solutions to those issues. Among others, Pasterick concludes that

although the NFIP has been able to integrate its three critical components (risk identification, hazard mitigation, and insurance) in the past, within the current (1998) FEMA structure the risk identification and mitigation responsibilities are organizationally separated

from the insurance operation. Continued coordination under this structure will require a

level of effort beyond that needed when the three components were in the same office.

Pasterick also notes that a major issue to be addressed in the area of mitigation is the matter of existing structures. Consensus on this issue is needed in order to make any policy

effective. Pasterick also notes the NFIP’s low market penetration. He lists five reasons for

this low market penetration: (a) many floodplain residents underestimate the seriousness

and likelihood of flooding; (b) lenders have not been especially zealous in requiring the

purchase of flood insurance as the law requires; (c) policies for flood insurance are difficult

for insurance agents to write and, therefore, to market aggressively because they are singleperil policies and are viewed as more costly than other lines of coverage; (d) many potential consumers expect that federal disaster assistance will adequately provide for post-flood

recovery; and (e) many people are simply misinformed or unaware of the availability of

flood insurance.

Record Number: 276

Peacock, Walter Gillis. (1997). Cross-national and comparative disaster research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 15(1), 117-33.

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Keywords :

evaluation

Abstract: Distinguishing characteristics and issues of comparative and cross-cultural research, problems and opportunities, and an assessment of future prospects are offered and

related to disaster research. No single approach is advocated; rather, various approaches

(case study to cross-national, contemporary to historical, and qualitative to quantitative)

are recommended. Methodological issues including model specification, problems of aggregation, intra- versus international variation, and secondary versus primary data collection are addressed. Particular attention is devoted to issues of equivalence related to conceptualization, data comparability, operationalization and measurement, conversion, standardization, and units of observation. The need for systematic efforts to develop research

tools that can be utilized to measure critical concepts such as recovery, restoration, risk,

and mitigation is identified. Finally, discipline-based, yet disaster relevant, cross-national

and comparative research agendas consistent with a broader ecological perspective targe ting disasters, development, and the social production of vulnerability are advocated.

Record Number: 238

Perry, Ronald W. (1994). A model of evacuation compliance behavior. In Russell R.

Dynes and Kathleen J. Tierney, eds. Disasters, Collective Behavior, and Social Organization. (pp. 85-98). Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press.

Keywords :

communications, evacuation, modeling, Texas, Washington

Abstract: This study develops a model of evacuation compliance behavior based on secondary empirical analyses of three disasters - a flood in Abilene, TX, a hazardous materials

incident in Mt. Vernon, WA, and the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in Washington. Following

a brief discussion of the theoretical modeling process, factors influencing individuals’

evacuation decisions are identified: warning confirmation, source credibility and content;

perceived risk; possession of an adaptive plan; and family context. The data support the

assertion that families evacuate only after all members are present or known to be safe. The

author suggests that the creation of an adaptive plan (through warning information, prior

experience, and/or preplanning) would facilitate compliance with evacuation warnings, as

does the belief that the impending disaster would result in direct personal harm. The author

also found that evacuation is also promoted by the credibility of the source of information.

The author conclude that the most effective warning messages are specific concerning the

danger, consequences, timing, and response strategies in the face of disaster.

Record Number: 237

Perry, Ronald W., Michael K. Lindell, and Marjorie R. Greene. (1982). Crisis communications: Ethnic differentials in interpreting and acting on disaster warnings. Social Behavior and Personality, 10(1), 97-104.

Keywords :

communications

Abstract: This article examines the problem of communicating information about floods

to multiethnic communities. Data were gathered from interviews of a probability sample of

recipients of flood evacuation warnings (N = 200) from a small western U.S. town with a

large proportion of Mexican-Americans. Analyses revealed that they: (a) were more skep131
tical than whites about warning messages, no matter how specific the message; (b) interpreted the same warning messages as indicating lower levels of personal danger; and (c)

were less likely to undertake a protective action (i.e., evacuate) than whites.

Record Number: 195

Philippi, Nancy S. (1994). Revisiting Flood Control: An Examination of Federal Flood

Control Policy in Light of the 1993 Flood Event on the Upper Mississippi River. Chicago,

IL: Wetland Research, Inc.

Keywords :

development, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation

Abstract: This article examines the Midwest floods of 1993. It provides a history and detailed description of the event and pertinent mitigation policies. It describes three case

histories from which the author concludes that the programs that pursue the intended goals

of the U.S. flood control policy are flawed. (Such intended goals are to protect development where it is economically justified, to prevent and reduce damageable development,

and to compensate those who suffer blamelessly and excessively from flooding.) The

author argues that mitigation programs to reduce flood damages are still a minor part of the

NFIP. The author complains that the NFIP provides protection to private properties without calculating the cumulative costs of providing that protection, and that the “overly ge nerous” payments in compensation for agricultural flood damages eliminate the risk and

make it highly profitable to farm the floodplain. However, the author warns the readers

that “these are the general conclusions that can be drawn from the three case histories described in this report. Whether these cases are merely aberrations from the norm or

whether they truly reflect the state of these programs is beyond our scope to determine.”

Record Number: 154

Philippi, Nancy S. (1995). Plugging the gaps in flood-control policy. Issues in Science and

Technology, 11 (Winter), 71-8.

Keywords :

disaster assistance, flood control

Abstract: The author claims that U.S. flood-control policy (as of 1995) wastes money,

promotes behavior that exacerbates the problem, distributes relief disproportionately, and

damages the environment. The author also claims that although better policies are neither

expensive nor technologically difficult, they require the resolution of some sticky issues,

equity and firmness in their execution, and, most important, the political backbone to make

flood-control decisions before an emergency arises. New policy should reduce ad hoc disaster aid, establish a means test for distributing it, and use the savings to reduce damages

and restore wetlands; incorporate disaster funding into the annual budget process; tighten

existing flood- and crop-insurance programs; limit new structural protection to key facilities and examine the economic justification for repairing existing ones; and promote more

and better flood research.

Record Number: 162

Philippi, Nancy S. (1996). Flooding Management: Ecologic and Economic Perspectives.

Austin, TX: Environmental Intelligence Unit. R.G. Landes Company.

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Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This book synthesizes the past development and status of floodplain management in 1995. It describes the nature of flooding, its causes, and its importance in the

ecological cycle. It defines the conflict of interest between ecological and economic values

inherent in floodplain management. Philippi reviews the historical and logical development of floodplain management policy. She also identifies the problems encountered in

the execution of agreed-upon floodplain management objectives and it describes some scenarios, successful and otherwise, that future floodplain management may follow.

Record Number: 505

Pielke, Roger A., Jr. and Mary W. Downton. (2000). Precipitation and damaging floods:

Trends in the United States, 1932-97. Journal of Climate, 13, 3525-37.

Keywords :

flood damage, modeling

Abstract: This paper presents a conceptual framework for the systematic assessment of the

factors that condition observed trends in flood damage. Using the framework, it assesses

the role that variability in precipitation has in damaging floods in the United States at national and regional levels. Three measures of flood damage each lead to different conclusions about the nature of the flood problem. At a national level, the precipitation measures

most closely related to flood damage are the number of two-day heavy rainfall events and

the number of wet days. This study indicates that growth in recent decades in total damage

is related to both climate factors and societal factors. At the regional level, this study reports a stronger relationship between precipitation measures and flood damage and indicates that different measures of precipitation are most closely related to damage in different regions. This study indicates that climate plays an important, but by no means determining, role in the growth of flood in the United States in recent decades.

Record Number: 68

Piper, Daniel. (1971). Analysis of Alternative Procedures for the Evaluation of Agricultural Flood Control Benefits: Volume II. Alexandria, VA: Economic Research Service,

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Report submitted to the U.S. Army Engineer Institute for

Water Resources.

Keywords :

agriculture, modeling

Abstract: This article presents alternative procedures for the evaluation of agricultural

flood control benefits. The proposed analyses are based on the application of a regional

linear programming model.

Record Number: 496

Plasencia, Doug. (1994). Sharing the Challenge: Future impacts and next steps. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 14-16.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This article seeks to highlight four recommendations from Sharing the Challenge (commonly called the Galloway report) that lay the framework for continued policy

133
evolution and development. The first recommendation is improved federal coordination in

floodplain management programs and policy. Next, a more strategic and managed system

of delivering flood programs across a broad geographic region is needed to replace the current system. Third, the executive order on floodplain management, issued in 1977, should

be revisited and modified to reflect policy developments, including the identification of a

monitoring and enforcement mechanism. Finally, alternative means of quantifying federal

interests in the environment and other policy areas are needed to resolve some of the confusion surrounding the criteria for justifying projects.

Record Number: 184

Platt, Rutherford H. (1985). Congress and the coast. Environment, 27(6), 12-17, 34-40.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resource System

Abstract: Written not long after passage of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA),

this article notes that the act did not expressly prohibit the right of private owners to develop their property on the coast. It simply denies some but not all federal benefit, such as

flood insurance, when they decide to develop. The act did not touch other forms of federal

help such as federal disaster assistance to repair infrastructure and income tax write-offs

for casualty losses and accelerated depreciation after a loss. The author argues that by increasing the risk in these areas, the act may have increased pressure for private development of adjoining areas that are still entitled to the full spectrum of federal benefits, such

as flood insurance.

Record Number: 53

Platt, Rutherford H. (1986). Metropolitan flood loss reduction through regional special

districts. Journal of the American Planning Association, 52(4), 467-79.

Keywords :

floodplain management, governance, mapping

Abstract: Flood damage is increasing in U.S. metropolitan areas because of urbanization

in small watersheds and floodplains and because of inadequate storm drainage. The NFIP

is a necessary but insufficient response to the problem. Additional measures and programs

tailored to the particular region are needed since each area has different flood problems and

operates in a different legal and political framework. Three regional districts were examined and their attempts at solving the problems associated with flooding were described.

All three districts reflect a viewpoint that may be emulated elsewhere: that metropolitan

floods are an areawide phenomenon requiring a regional response. Local floodplain management, state, and federal mitigation efforts are necessary, but regional districts fill a

functional and administrative gap in the hierarchy of public authority. Regional districts

interact with other governmental organizations as well as act independently, as exemplified

by the described detention policies of the Harris (located near Houston) and Chicago districts. A regional district also may perform a particular function more competently than

another unit of government as shown by the example of the Denver district’s floodplain

maps. The fiscal autonomy of the regional district allows it to take needed actions

promptly and at no cost to the federal or state taxpayer. It is concluded that regional districts are effective in reducing flood losses.

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Record Number: 426

Platt, Rutherford H., ed. (1987). Regional Management of Metropolitan Floodplains.

Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science.

Keywords :

governance

Abstract: This report examines responses to metropolitan flooding at a regional level, that

is, on a scale broader than individual municipalities, but narrower than the state. Unlike

municipalities and states however, regions usually lack easily identifiable political surrogates. Governance of metropolitan regions is a patchwork quilt of traditional units of government - local, county, and state supplemented by a variety of programmatic adjustments.

Such adjustments include regional planning entities, special districts and authorities, intergovernmental agreements, boundary changes, and the modernizing of existing county

units. Part one of this volume describes three stages of research on regional experiences in

the United States. Part two consists of five case studies, conducted simultaneously with the

domestic ones, concerning response to metropolitan flooding in Canada, Great Britain,

Australia, Germany, and Japan. These studies illustrate the effects of differing legal and

political contexts, as well as diverse hydrologic regimes, on governmental response to me tropolitan flooding.

Record Number: 135

Platt, Rutherford H. (1995). Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain management into the 21st

century. Environment, 37(1), 25-9.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: The author reports on the floodplain management policies of the Mississippi

River Basin. He offers a reexamination of flood control policies and discusses the disaster

brought about by improper flood management. He asserts that the Midwest floods of 1993

were exacerbated by the filling of wetlands for agricultural construction of levees. He discusses decisions about the rebuilding of levees and the stress on interagency and intergo vernmental cooperation.

Record Number: 88

Platt, Rutherford H. (1999). Did Public Regulations Matter? Rebuilding the North Carolina Coast after Hurricane Fran. Report prepared under contract with the H. John Heinz

III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment.

Keywords :

Hurricane Bertha, Hurricane Fran, mitigation, North Carolina

Abstract: For a quarter century, North Carolina has sought to manage new oceanfront development under its 1974 Coastal Area Management Act. The results of these planning

efforts were put to the test in 1996 when Hurricanes Bertha and Fran struck the state within

a two-month period. With beaches and dunes impaired by Bertha, Fran inflicted widespread devastation along the southerly half of the state’s open ocean coast. The rebuilding

process was fueled by federal disaster assistance of many kinds, including emergency dune

replacement, flood insurance payments, and loans from the Small Business Administration

to homeowners. This report looks at the rebuilding of the North Carolina coast after Hurricane Fran and reviews how well or poorly traditional approaches to coastal hazards man135
agement have worked and whether public regulations have discouraged or encouraged redevelopment in high hazard coastal areas. The author reports that as of 1998, there has

been extensive rebuilding of pre-Fran structures at a larger scale, but in some cases with

greater safety from future storms through higher architectural elevation and setbacks along

eroding shores. Such mitigation, however, has been required only for structures determined

to be “substantially damaged,” and that key determination, among others, is largely made

by local officials. There is a perception in some quarters that politics and generous federal

disaster benefits have undermined the effectiveness of the state’s longstanding commitment to coastal hazard mitigation.

Record Number: 428

Platt, Rutherford H. (1999). Disasters and Democracy: The Politics of Extreme Natural

Events. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Keywords :

natural disasters

Abstract: This book is concerned with political response to natural disasters, however they

may arise. Specifically, the author is interested in the changing role of the federal government from distant observer to immediate responder, principal financier of disaster costs,

and, more recently, champion of hazard mitigation. The book raises the question as to

whether federalizing the costs of disasters is helping lighten the overall burden of disasters

or, perversely, whether it is making matters worse. Additionally, have the availability of

federal disaster assistance, flood insurance, and other benefits inadvertently contributed to

a false sense of security, roughly equivalent to the discovery in the 1960s that federal flood

control projects were stimulating development in protected floodplains?

Record Number: 323

Pompe, J.J. and J. Rinehart. (1995). The value of beach nourishment to property owners:

Storm damage reduction benefits. Review of Regional Studies, 25(3), 271-8.

Keywords :

beach nourishment, modeling, South Carolina, storm damage

Abstract: This study offers a method for estimating the benefits of reducing damages from

storms accruing to property owners from beach nourishment. The authors use a hedonic

pricing model to estimate the increased protection value that wider beaches provide for

single-family homes in two oceanfront communities in South Carolina. These storm damage reduction benefits accrue not only to oceanfront property that suffers the most damage

but also to properties farther back. The authors found that a proposed Army Corps of Engineers’ nourishment project would produce approximately $63.8 million of cumulative

benefits to owners of single-family houses, which translated into a cost-benefit ratio of

1.96.

Record Number: 501

Potter, Kenneth W. (1994). Estimating potential reduction in flood benefits of restored

wetlands. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 34-7.

Keywords :

modeling, wetlands

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Abstract: In the United States, most flood-related analysis is based on the simulation of a

small number of design events. This paper discusses the limitations of the use of design

events to evaluate wetland restoration. For example, because design events are based on

hydrologic modeling of discrete events rather than on continuous hydrologic modeling,

they do not account for the prestorm water stored in the wetland system, for the wide

variations that can occur in individual flood events in the spatial and temporal stormflow

conveyance. The article outlines an alternative methodology for evaluating floodmitigation benefits of specific restoration projects. Continuous simulation is an alternative

approach that overcomes many of the drawbacks of design event methods.

Record Number: 16

PR News. (1997). FEMA’s far-reaching public affairs efforts mitigate flood of concerns.

PR News, 53.

Keywords :

communications, public relations

Abstract: The FIA launched a significant public affairs program to prepare for a period of

high flood potential. Elements of the program include a TV spot, snow melt messages, radio announcements, news conferences, and roundtable symposia to address questions from

individuals living in areas where policy coverage has been sparse. Previously, FIA relied

on its “Cover America” ad campaign and miniconferences designed for the public, regional

press, local and state officials, and lenders in major floodplains. FIA’s new approach couples public-based issues with industry concerns and includes simple grassroots tactics designed to dispel myths (like the belief that flood insurance is an automatic part of any

homeowner’s policy) to offering insurers commissions if they write policies on behalf of

the government. The article also describes the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA)

public affairs campaign for its Superfund clean-up program for hazardous environmental

sites. The EPA uses broadcast faxes, the Wide Web and hotlinks, and e-mail delivery of

press releases to get information out about Superfund sites. In addition, community involvement coordinators (about 12 based at each Superfund site) host local meetings, go

door to door to talk to residents during emergency removals or long-term cleanups, set up

community advisory groups, and make informational materials available.

Record Number: 60

PricewaterhouseCoopers. (1999). Study of the Economic Effects of Charging Actuarially

Based Premium Rates for Pre-FIRM structures. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

economic impact, insurance rates

Abstract: This report presents the results of a study on the economic effects of charging

actuarially based premiums for pre-FIRM structures located in SFHAs. Among others, the

study concludes that the number of pre-FIRM properties is expected to decline; that flood

insurance premiums would rise substantially for pre-FIRM structures exposed to considerable flood risk; and a decrease in the national participation rate (proportion of structures

with flood insurance).

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Record Number: 370

Progression Group. (2000). An Analysis of Marketing ROI for the National Flood Insurance Program of FEMA.

Keywords :

marketing

Abstract: This report suggests the sales impact of media vehicles is variable in terms of

timing, geography, and the media vehicle. Major findings indicate that advertising drives

21 percent of new policy sales, $1,000 in advertising has sold an average of 13 policies,

floods drive 12 percent of new policy sales revenue, direct mail is the most efficient medium, ad media are inefficient in high risk areas, cable TV and magazines have fallen significantly below their peak efficiency levels due to their volume of spending, spikes in the

effectiveness of print media relatively quickly, ads placed 12 months before or 8 months

after a flood get a 20 percent sales lift, potential sales efficiencies differ tremendously by

geographical area, and legislation can have a significant impact on policy sales.

Record Number: 342

Quinn, Rebecca C. (1996). Floodplain management insures against losses. FORUM for

Applied Research and Public Policy, 11.

Keywords :

insurance, mitigation

Abstract: Mryland’s former state coordinator for the NFIP says that flood insurance has

failed because homeowners think floods would not happen to them, and, even if insured,

they often rebuild in the same vulnerable zones. The NFIP proposes offering mitigation

insurance, which pays the owner of an insured, flood-damaged structure an additional settlement to help pay for mitigation measures to prevent or reduce future flood damage.

Record Number: 136

Rasmussen, J.L. (1994). Floodplain management into the 21st-century - A blueprint for

change - Sharing the challenge. Water International, 19(4), 166-76.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: The article is a summary of the Interagency Floodplain Management Review

Committee’s Report to the Clinton administration’s Floodplain Management Task Force.

The author was a member of the committee, which proposed a better way to manage the

nation's floodplains. The report not only describes the nature and extent of the Midwest

floods of 1993 and government efforts to cope with the event, but also presents a blueprint

for change. This blueprint is directed at both the upper Mississippi River Basin and the nation as a whole. Its foundation is a sharing of responsibilities and accountability among all

levels of government, business, and private citizens. It provides for a balance among the

many competing river and floodplain uses; it recognizes, however, that all existing floodplain activity simply cannot be discarded as inappropriate. The committee believes that, if

implemented, the recommended approach will bring about changes necessary to reduce

flood vulnerability to both the infrequent major flood events and the more frequent smaller

ones. Implementation also will reduce the environmental, social, and economic burdens

imposed by current conditions on both public and private sectors. The committee’s report

includes an action plan delineating proposed responsibilities and time lines for execution

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of recommendations, a fiscal impact statement, and the findings of the preliminary Scie ntific Assessment and Strategy Team report.

Record Number: 500

Rasmussen, Jerry L. (1994). Environmental restoration - Floodplains vs. potholes. Water

Resources Update Issue, Autumn (97), 29-33.

Keywords :

ecosystems, endangered species

Abstract: Riverine habitats and ecosystems can be self-renewing and ecosystem integrity

can be effectively restored in the form of aquatic habitat restoration focus areas, aimed

primarily at preserving native riverine species. Restoration and maintenance of habitats

that simulate natural conditions are critical to the restoration and management of native

aquatic species and may be the last best chance to address riverine endangered species

needs. Specific features proposed by Senator Max Baucus’s Floodplain Management Bill

are described as critical to near-term aquatic ecosystem restoration in the Mississippi River

Basin. Included are the following: (a) comprehensive upper Mississippi River evaluation;

(b) river basin management planning; (c) habitat projects and resource monitoring; (d)

congressional recognition of environmental and recreational resources; (e) environmental

improvement; and (f) aquatic ecosystem restoration.

Record Number: 265

Reeve, D.E. (1998). Coastal flood risk assessment. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal

and Ocean Engineering, 124(5), 219-28.

Keywords :

flood control, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: The author theoretically investigate the use of probabilistic techniques in risk

assessment for sea defenses. The focus is on the estimation of the probability of flooding

caused by wave overtopping and the uncertainties resulting from this. Different probabilistic techniques are compared, and new and current methods are contrasted. The outcomes of

different methods were found to be in agreement on weak structures, but they sometimes

differed for more resilient structures.

Record Number: 54

Rettger, Michael J. (1977). An Economic Analysis of Alternative Federal Flood Damage

Assistance programs. Washington, DC: Office of Water Research and Technology.

Keywords :

modeling, New York

Abstract: An economic analysis of alternative flood relief programs is presented based on

the simulated flooding experience of the Binghamton, NY, metropolitan area. The theory

of consumer choice under conditions of uncertainty is used to develop evaluation criteria

for flood insurance and disaster loan programs, based on the benefits and costs of each

program to both the public and the private sectors. A simulation model provides data for

empirical implementation of the program analysis. The flood relief simulator is applied to

a variety of possible assistance programs, including the NFIP and the Small Business Administration’s Disaster Loan Program. Model results suggest that program designs cause

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substantial variations in costs, not only in terms of total outlay but also in the distribution

of costs between the government and individuals.

Record Number: 4

Rettger, Michael J. and Richard N. Boisvert. (1979). Flood insurance or disaster loans: An

economic evaluation. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61(3), 496-505.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: This study uses simulated data to perform an economic comparison between

flood insurance (as provided by the NFIP) and disaster loans. Disaster loans were the prevailing form of assistance in the 1950s, when the Small Business Administration was the

primary source of federal aid. Results were inconclusive since they varied according to

model assumptions. Variations in premium and interest rate subsidies had major effects on

the distribution of total cost between the public and private sector.

Record Number: 187

Richardson, Harry W., Peter Gordon, and Myung-Jin Jun. (1991). The Economic Impact of

FEMA Flood Protection and Insurance Requirements on Ten Cities in the Los Angeles

County Floodplain. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California, Planning Institute.

Keywords :

compliance, development, California

Abstract: The authors analyze the expected economic repercussions in the period 1992-

2005 of new construction standards and flood insurance requirements on ten cities in the

Los Angeles county floodplain. The authors looked at three variables they felt may cause

adverse local and regional economic impact: deferred construction, higher costs associated

with compliance requirements for development, and flood insurance premiums that may

drain resources from other forms of spending (in part offset by a stimulus to the insurance

industry). The authors surmise that the program will significantly discourage development

in the floodplain. They conclude that the adverse economic impacts on the ten cities in the

floodplain of FEMA flood protection and insurance requirements are massive.

Record Number: 384

Richman, Sheldon L. (1994). Federal flood insurance: Managing risk or creating it? Regulation, 16(3), 15-17.

Keywords :

coastal development

Abstract: The author contends that the Midwest floods of 1993 “demonstrate the selfdefeating nature of the federal government's handling of natural disasters” and that federal

policies subsidize the cost of living in risky areas such as floodplains. The NFIP runs a

deficit, has not constricted coastal development, and pays a third of payments to 3 percent

of claimants. While federal officials and the insurance industry maintain that floods are not

an insurable risk, some private policies are available though expensive. Deregulated private insurance is an alternative. Some insurers defend the NFIP because they make money

but incur no risk by selling policies. Senator John Kerry introduced S. 1405, which would

prohibit new federal insurance policies in high-risk erosion areas, but this bill does not go

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far enough and would expand federal control and violate property rights. The author believes that citizens should be free to do what they wish with their property and should accept the consequences.

Record Number: 456

Riley, Ann L. (1994). The greening of federal flood-control policies: The Wildcat-San

Pablo Creeks case. In Rutherford H. Platt, Rowan A. Rowntree, and Pamela C. Muick, eds.

The Ecological City: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.

Keywords :

California, environmental protection, flood control

Abstract: Local flood-control projects along streams and rivers have long been dominated

by designs that use concrete and hydraulic engineering that is rectilinear and nonecological. However, an urban flood-control project may be designed to restore natural

habitat and enhance the environment while reducing the threat from floods. The thirty-six

year history of planning for the Wildcat and San Pablo creeks in North Richmond, CA may

result in an environmentally sensitive flood control project if the current design is successfully implemented and managed over time. This experience offers many lessons for similar

projects elsewhere.

Record Number: 497

Robb, John A. (1994). Economic and environmental challenges. Water Resources Update,

Autumn (97), 17-20.

Keywords :

environmental protection, flood control

Abstract: The chairman of the Upper Mississippi Flood Control Association (UMFCA)

writes that flood control is the cornerstone of a river transportation infrastructure that permits navigation, economic development, and environmental and social stability. The environmental challenge for today is to find a way to provide for all four of these essential

parts in a compatible way without destroying or preventing future enhancement and deve lopment of any of the others. The challenge is complicated by the political environment

(i.e., pro-environmentalist) and financial reality. The UMFCA remains a strong supporter

of navigation improvements, the continued protection of private property, economic development, and environmental protection. It believes that the balanced system of flood control

and natural flooding areas, now in place, along the navigable rivers is the best environmental and wildlife producing system that has ever existed.

Record Number: 516

Robert, Benoit, Simon Forget, and Jean Rousselle. (2001). The Effectiveness of Flood

Damage Reduction Measures in the Montreal Region. Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal,

Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Risk and Performance Group.

Keywords :

development, economic value, mitigation

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of two flood damage reduction measures -- designation and dyking of floodplains. The study was carried out in

four Quebec municipalities located on the shores of Lac des Deux-Montagnes and Rivière

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des Mille-Iles, namely Sainte-Marthe-sur-le-Lac, Saint-Eustache, Rosemère and Bois-desFilion. Criteria for selecting the study areas were: area of the flood-risk zone, presence or

absence of dykes, presence or absence of buildings, and availability of data. The study areas were selected with the help of flood risk maps of the Greater Montreal region. In each

area, information on the number of buildings and their economic value was taken from the

municipality’s property assessment database. Trends in the occupancy and value of floodplains were identified and compared. The results of the study show that, as in other regions

of Canada, measures to reduce flood damage based on designation and mapping of floodplains have had no impact on occupancy, have failed to reduce flood damages, and have

not halted increases in such damages.

Record Number: 515

Robert, Benoit, Claude Marche, and Jean Rousselle. (2001). Computerization and Use of

Flood Impact Curves.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: A variety of methods are currently being used to assess the impact of flood risk.

Computerized tools primarily consider property damage and generate estimates of the

population potentially affected. CONSEQ, a tool that complements DOMINO, automatically generates impact curves following a specific procedure; it provides for the most exhaustive assessment possible of direct, tangible damage. Intangible damage and municipal

requirements in areas downstream from hydroelectric facilities are also considered. In this

paper, the authors present DOMINO and CONSEQ and the methodology for impact studies combined with the use of these tools. The needs of municipal emergency planning

managers will also be identified in order to generate key impact curves. The application of

the results to emergency measures and the incorporation of the curves into a retaining reservoir management plan will also be outlined. Curves generated in studies on hydroelectric

facilities will be presented in support of the above.

Record Number: 200

Robinson, Michael E. (1989). The National Flood Insurance Program and Floodplain Development. Unpublished working paper. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

building standards, development, wetlands

Abstract: Robinson identifies six points that are important in any discussion of the impact

of the NFIP in development: (a) because new construction is actuarially rated, there is no

insurance "subsidy" for property that was not already in place when the community was

first mapped; (b) added costs associated with NFIP building standards and insurance premiums should discourage floodplain development “provided that alternative flood free locations are available”; (c) in a few instances, the NFIP may “enable” development by

making lenders more willing to loan or invest in development. However, given the added

costs associated with NFIP’s building standards, this would most likely occur only when

the proposed development has high recreational value or where undeveloped flood free

property is scarce; (d) wetland losses are primarily due to agricultural and commercial or

industrial development neither of which are affected by the availability of flood insurance;

(e) the NFIP’s requirement that communities designate a regulatory floodway and prohibit

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development within that floodway that would cause any increase in flood heights provides

significant protection to river corridors; and (f) the NFIP’s building standards improve the

overall quality of development when it does occur. He concludes that “empirical evidence

does not support a conclusion that flood insurance is critical to coastal development” (p.

4).

Record Number: 277

Roenigk, Dale J. (1993). Federal disaster relief and local government financial condition.

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 11(2), 207-225.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: Federal relief for local governments following natural disasters is provided under the assumption that without aid disasters might overwhelm local resources thus slowing recovery. Using loss data for a sample of counties experiencing disasters in the mid1980s, this paper provides evidence that the financial condition of local governments was

not improved by receiving federal aid. Additionally, the paper shows that the initial financial impacts of disasters may be negative, but that within two years the net effect is positive.

Record Number: 425

Rosen, H. and M. Reuss, eds. (1986). Flood Control in Urban Areas: Past, Present and

Future. Proceedings of a National Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 26,

1986. Chicago, IL: Public Works Historical Society.

Keywords :

flooding

Abstract: This book summarizes the proceedings of the National Symposium, Flood Control Challenge: Past, Present, and Future held in September 26, 1986. This symposium

commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1936 Flood Control Act. The symposium

was sponsored by the Public Works Historical Society and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in cooperation with the American Public Works Association's Institute of Water Resources and Council on Emergency Management. The proceedings are arranged in three

parts; Part I: The 1936 Flood Control Act, Part II: Impact on Rural and Urban Areas, and

Part III: The Economics of Flood Control. Chapters of particular interest are: “Evolution

and future of flood control” by T.M. Schad; “Flood control in urban areas: past, present,

and future” by B. Steinberg; and “When may a post-audit teach lessons?” by Gilbert F.

White.

Record Number: 378

Rucker, Robert E. (1986). Rationality and legitimation: A study of the National Flood Insurance Program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(10).

Keywords :

history of the NFIP

Abstract: The dissertation analyzes the historical development and present workings of the

NFIP. The NFIP is the result of the U.S. government’s continued involvement in flood

control. This involvement goes back to the early 1800s. The NFIP is a response to the inability of structural measures to prevent increases in flood damages. The historical data

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were analyzed for themes and sensitizing concepts. The themes and sensitizing concepts

were then used to guide the second stage of data gathering using field work based on interviews, observations of public and private meetings, and current periodicals. This primary

data were analyzed using the themes, sensitizing concepts, and Jurgen Habermas’s theoretical work on late capitalism. The case demonstrated problems of rational administration,

economics, and ligitimation as the federal government has implemented the NFIP.

Record Number: 278

Scanlon, T. Joseph. (1988). Winners and losers: Some thoughts about the political economy of disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 6(1), 47-63.

Keywords :

economic impact of floods

Abstract: While it is obvious disasters are negative events causing injury and death, damage, and destruction, macroeconomic studies show little long-term economic effects from

disaster. That is because disasters create both losers and winners, and these balance out.

Who loses and who wins is not random but a result of public policy decisions. The losers

include individuals who are injured, lose their jobs, lose their homes, lose a wage earner, or

lose a place of residence. The winners include individuals who earn extra money because

they are involved in emergency response or restoration. They include wage earners and

their families. They include some businesses, not others. They include communities that,

because of substantial assistance, end up better off because of the disaster. Winners and

losers are created by decisions about where to build a dam, who should receive what sort

of assistance. This article is not based on new research but on an analysis of existing material. The author concludes that more research is needed on the economic effects on individuals, businesses and communities, and on the economic impact of policy decisions.

Record Number: 294

Schmidt, Charles W. (2000). Lessons from the flood: Will Floyd change livestock farming? Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(2), A74-7.

Keywords :

Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina

Abstract: Regulatory and policy implications for the swine industry in North Carolina in

the aftermath of Hurricane Floyd are discussed. The swine industry was responsible for

most of the flood-related environmental damage sustained during Hurricane Floyd. As part

of an emergency waste-management plan, waste-management systems that sustained more

than 50 percent damage will not be permitted to rebuild in the 100-year floodplain. Environmentalists and others contend that the massive hog farms should not be located in a

low-lying area that is vulnerable to flooding and ecologically sensitive, but state officials

are unwilling to provide any definitive answers as to whether regulatory changes to swine

farming will ensue to accommodate future flood conditions.

Record Number: 279

Seydlitz, Ruth J., William Spencer, Shirley Laska, and Elizabeth Triche. (1991). The effects of newspaper reports on the public's response to a natural hazard event. International

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 9(1), 5-29.

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Keywords :

risk communication, risk perception

Abstract: The literature on environmental hazards suggests that media reports constitute a

major source of information on which people base their responses. However, the effect of

media reports on responses is neither direct nor simple. Variables such as prior experience,

the responses of others, selectivity in attention, and various characteristics of the content of

media reports interact to influence responses. On the basis of the extant literature on media

and hazards, we construct a model of the effect of media reports on the public's response to

a natural hazard event. We test various hypotheses derived from this model by examining a

salt water intrusion in the Mississippi River that affected drinking water in the New Orleans metropolitan area in the summer of 1988. Using time series analysis, we examine the

effect of various characteristics of local newspaper stories on bottled water sales throughout the intrusion period. The results suggest that in the absence of personal experience,

people are more likely to respond to media reports regardless of personal relevance or seriousness of the consequences of the hazard events reported by the media. When people possess personal experience, they are more selective in their attention and response to media

reports. The results also suggest that people used media reports of others’ behaviors as

cues to appropriate responses. We discuss the conceptual and methodological implications

of these results for future research.

Record Number: 490

Shabman, Leonard. (1994). Responding to the 1993 flood: The restoration option. Water

Resources Update, Spring (95), 26-30.

Keywords :

land use, Midwest floods of 1993, wetlands

Abstract: This article takes a critical perspective on the restoration of floodplains. It describes how the nation’s goals for its wetlands and floodplains have changed over time

from development to preservation and, now, to ecosystem restoration. It states that effective policy analysis must go beyond the easy rhetoric of saying that the 1993 flood revealed "failed policies." Analyses must demonstrate that continued agricultural land use

imposes costs on others, that these costs are greater than the values from the current land

use, and that the society is willing and able to implement policies to restore the lands. It

comments on analytic and financing challenges for advancing a national restoration agenda

and concludes that the policy question posed by the 1993 flood is whether the nation

wishes to reverse the long standing policies that have encouraged the occupancy of floodplains and the drainage of wetlands and pursue a restoration agenda.

Record Number: 298

Shabman, Leonard and Kurt Stephenson. (1992). The possibility of community-wide flood

control benefits evidence from voting behavior in a bond referendum. Water Resources

Research, 28(4), 959-64.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: Voting behavior in a referendum on flood control in Roanoke, Virginia, provides evidence that people living and working outside the flood-prone area are willing to

pay for the construction of flood control projects. This voting behavior supports the argu145
ment that flood control benefits exist at the community level. In providing the cost sharing

required under recent federal legislation, local government financing that distributes project costs over the whole population of a local jurisdiction, and not just those persons living

or working in protected areas, may increase both economic efficiency and expand communities’ financial capacity to pay for such projects.

Record Number: 13

Shabman, Leonard and Kurt Stephenson. (1996). Searching for the correct benefit estimate: Empirical evidence for an alternative perspective. Land Economics, 72(4), 433-49.

Keywords :

contingent valuation, cost-benefit analysis, economic modeling

Abstract: This paper contrasts the results of the contingent valuation, hedonic price, and

property damages avoided valuation techniques. Each technique was used to estimate the

value of flood risk reduction from the construction of a flood control project. Voting behavior in a referendum called specifically for the provision of the project was used to further interpret the results from the three valuation studies. The authors found substantial differences between the estimates. The authors suggest economists should apply the estimation technique that best facilitates a collective choice process. An acceptable benefit estimation technique does not have to measure all possible effects in direct accord with theoretical willingness-to-pay logic, instead the decision-participants must believe that the estimate reflects some salient feature of a choice. It also means that the estimate needs to be

understood to those who might use it. For instance, the Property Damages Avoided (PDA)

technique could be a useful benefit estimation technique for a variety of reasons (understandable logic, understandable limitations), none of which is based on the argument that it

is an accurate or comprehensive measure of the benefits of flood control. In contrast, while

contingent valuation methods (CVM) are theoretically capable of establishing the willingness-to-pay for the entire range of environmental use. CVM may provide little useful policy information, sometimes even generating more controversy than application in decisionmaking. The authors conclude that to be effective in the public policy, economists have to

become more attentive to what techniques, advice, and analyses are useful to those involved in making choices. Policy economists will be ineffective if they cling to the notion

that there exists a “correct” benefit estimate and that their professional responsibility is to

measure it no matter what.

Record Number: 168

Sheaffer and Roland Inc. (1976). Case study of Padre Island National Seashore. [Supporting Study for Barrier Island Development Near Four National Seashores (1981)].

Sheaffer and Roland Inc.

Keywords :

coastal development, Hurricane Beulah, Texas

Abstract: This study provides a chronology of events that influenced a surge of development in the most southern portions of Padre Island, TX. The availability of flood insurance

through the NFIP is one of several factors identified in the growth of neighboring communities. At about the same time as the NFIP was enacted, the state legislature created the

Texas Catastrophe Property Insurance Association (now known as the Texas Windstorm

Insurance Association) that guaranteed windstorm and hail insurance to Texas coastal

146
communities. Of the two programs, the windstorm pool coverage clearly presented the

largest exposure. Also, the authors said that another large influence on development came

in the aftermath of Hurricane Beulah, in 1967. This hurricane destroyed mostly substandard structures, clearing the way (literally) for better quality development. The authors

concluded that while the NFIP was the first occurrence of federal subsidization in South

Padre Island development, the impact of the availability of flood insurance is difficult to

discriminate from the impact of the availability of wind and hail insurance and the impact

of Hurricane Beulah.

Record Number: 174

Sheaffer and Roland Inc. (1981). Barrier Island Development near Four National Seashores. Washington, DC: Council on Environment Quality, FEMA, Department of Interior,

and Department of Commerce.

Keywords :

Alabama, coastal development, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas

Abstract: This study looked at barrier islands in 6 states (AL, FL, GA, MS, NC, and TX).

The authors concluded that federal policies at the time supported development, effectively

leveraging private development money by shifting the public sector portions of the costs of

bridges, roads, causeways, water supply systems, waste water treatment systems, shore

protection, disaster relief, and flood insurance. Among these, the key factors in such deve lopment were bridges, causeways and road access. The availability of flood insurance was

not a key factor.

Record Number: 194

Shepard, Richard C. (1994). Floodplain development: Lessons learned from the great flood

of 1993. Urban Land, 53(3), 19-24, 42, 44.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This article by a real estate counselor says that the Midwest floods of 1993

“caught many business executives off guard -- unaware of the flooding danger, the need

for flood insurance, or what steps they should take in a flood emergency.” Shepard takes

exception with the use of the term “100-year floodplain” saying it is misleading and creates

a false sense of security. He says that while it is difficult to quantify the effect of flood or

fear of flooding on the real estate market, property values take a "major hit" after a flood.

He said it would take rebuilding levees to the 500-year floodplain level to reinstate market

values of land to the levels prior to the Great Flood.

Record Number: 188

Shilling, James D., C.E. Sirmans, and John D. Benjamin. (1989). Flood insurance, wealth

redistribution, and urban property values. Journal of Urban Economics, 26(1), 43-53.

Keywords :

property values, subsidies

Abstract: Using pricing models, the authors test the impact of property values of NFIP

subsidized and unsubsidized insurance rates. The authors identify what they describe as a

perverse effect of the way the NFIP was introduced. Because of the delays in completing

technical studies needed to publish maps, many communities remained in the emergency

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phase of the program for many years. Construction during this time was designated preFIRM and, therefore, qualified for subsidized premiums in perpetuity. The effect was reinforced by the fact that mandatory floodplain management measures did not have to be in

place until the maps were completed. The authors said this results in a wealth transfer or

redistribution because of the increased value of property that is eligible for the subsidized

rates.

Record Number: 255

Sierra Club. (2000). Report: Permitting Disaster in America. Madison, WI: Sierra Club

Midwest Office.

Available at http://www.sierraclub.org/wetlands/reports/flooding/

Keywords :

wetlands

Abstract: This report argues the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ plan makes progress towards limiting permits for development of wetlands destruction permits and more floodplain sprawl. The Sierra Club believes new Army Corps’ rules will limit wetland development, and help keep many people from harm’s way and protect sensitive wildlife habitat.

The Sierra Club also said that the Corps of Engineers has more work to do “before the program completely meets the President’s goals of guaranteeing full environmental review

and public notice of development plans in floodplains.” The Sierra Club said that in the

past, “rubber stamp” wetland permits allowed developers to build in 78,000 acres of wetlands, enough to store 78 billion gallons of floodwater, between 1988-96. (“Rubber stamp”

is how environmentalists call existing rules that govern sprawl development, mining, roadbuilding and other activities in wetlands.). The Sierra Club is pleased that the permits have

been limited to a half-acre. Robin Mann, chair of the Sierra Club's wetlands committee

said that such a reduction “is a significant step forward,” and that “the program contains

other protections that will help slow the destructive channeling, relocating, and mining of

our streams.”

Record Number: 176

Siffin, William J. (1981). Bureaucracy, entrepreneurship, and natural resources: Witless

policy and Barrier Islands. Cato Journal, 1(1), 293-311.

Keywords :

barrier islands, coastal development

Abstract: The author claims that urbanization of barrier islands are a direct result of flood

insurance, since it eliminates a major constraint on the development of vulnerable barrier

islands by subsidizing property loss risks. The author also claims that a number of other

federal programs cumulatively stimulate barrier island development.

Record Number: 203

Simmons, K. M. and J.D. Kruse. (2000). Market value of mitigation and perceived risk:

Empirical results. Journal of Economics, 26(1), 41-51.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: This paper explores the value of windstorm mitigation in a Gulf Coast city.

Policymakers have long assumed that agents will not voluntarily mitigate for a natural dis148
aster. Consequently, policy has focused on coercive measures. The study contains detailed

information on the inclusion of storm-blinds, a specific hurricane mitigation feature.

Homes with storm-blinds command a premium compared to homes without this feature,

thereby questioning the assumption held by policymakers. This result, however, is limited

to homes located on the island portion of the community indicating that agents differentiate

the risk from one area to another.

Record Number: 199

Simmons, Malcolm. (1988). The Evolving National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Keywords :

coastal barriers

Abstract: This brief overview of the NFIP contains the following comment: “One of the

more volatile issues for the NFIP has been whether it should provide any form of incentive

for development of coastal barriers. It became apparent to Congress that a variety of factors were producing growing pressure for the development of these fragile areas. These

factors not only included construction of infrastructure ... but also the availability of flood

insurance through the NFIP. Eliminating the availability of federal flood insurance for new

construction in these areas would remove one of these developmental incentives” (p. 15).

No evidence is offered in support of the comment.

Record Number: 157

Sims, John H. and Duane D. Baumann. (1987). The adoption of residential flood mitigation measures: What price success? Economic Geography, 63(3), 259-72.

Keywords :

communication, mitigation

Abstract: The authors compared the success of then existing flood programs to persuade

persons at risk to take protective measures against flooding. The study shows that information can be an effective component in the reduction of potential flood damage. It also

shows that an effective program need not be expensive or elaborate (this is not to conclude

that any type of minimal information program will be effective).

Record Number: 99

Singer, Saul Jay. (1990). Flooding the Fifth Amendment: The National Flood Insurance

Program and the “Takings” clause. Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review,

17(2), 323-71.

Keywords :

takings, U.S. Supreme Court

Abstract: The author examines the potential impact of U.S. Supreme Court rulings on the

constitutionality of the NFIP. Between early 1987 and 1990, the Supreme Court decided

three important cases involving the key question of what constitutes a taking of interests in

real property under the Constitution. The author discusses the Fifth Amendment debate

over the NFIP’s takings clause, the nature and extent of flood hazards in the United States,

and a brief history of the NFIP. The author concludes that there are few “new” practical

results emerging from the Supreme Court's 1987 “takings trilogy” that impact on the NFIP.

As the result of the takings trilogy, it is expected that the courts will scrutinize more

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closely both the regulatory purpose underlying laws affecting land use and the nexus relationship of statutes to purported regulatory goals. However, the NFIP has little cause for

the constitutional fear engendered in some circles by the three decisions. Considering the

hundreds of flood hazard-related land-use regulations upheld by the courts compared to the

handful of those overturned, it is more than likely that the courts will continue to sustain

soundly conceived and fairly administered floodplain regulations and loss-mitigation statutes.

Record Number: 239

Smith, David J., John C. Purvis, and Arthur Felts. (1995). Risk communication: The role of

the South Carolina State Climatology Office. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 76, 2423-31.

Keywords :

risk communication

Abstract: The federally supported state climatologist program ended in 1972. Thereafter,

most states supported these endeavors in coordination with the National Climatic Data

Center, but the current state programs vary widely. One of the functions of state climate

programs that evolved since 1972 is acting as a liaison between the National Weather

Service and various state agencies. This role was most apparent and controversial in coordinating state and local government response to severe weather and extreme climate

anomalies such as drought, flood, winter storms, and tropical cyclones. The activities of

the climate office in South Carolina during Hurricane Hugo in September 1989 and the

October 1990 floods revealed how these interactions occur in one state that mandated these

activities. The state climate office had to react to shifting weather conditions and to variable political conditions that affect public organizations. The climate office in South Carolina acts to interpret weather information, develop scenarios and predictions, and to assist

in postevent damage surveys. This review was presented to acknowledge and document the

expanding role of the state climate office in South Carolina in response to state and local

government needs for weather forecast interpretation and expert guidance in the event of

severe weather.

Record Number: 100

Sparks, Richard E. and Ruth Sparks. (1994). After floods: Restoring ecosystems. USA Today Magazine, 123, 40-43.

Keywords :

aquatic ecosystem, floodplains

Abstract: This article focuses on the proposals for an aquatic ecosystem restoration of the

floodplains in the United States. It offers an alternative to rebuilding of agricultural levees

and discusses the restoration of the natural services of floodplains. It reviews the modification of federal programs to protect life, property, and the improvement of the Upper Mississippi River ecosystems. The article suggests that although floodplain agriculture may be

profitable from a farmer’s perspective, no one really knows whether it is sustainable and

cost-efficient from a national perspective. This article questions whether it is necessary to

subsidize flood protection on floodprone lands and irrigation on arid lands when production is so high on prime farmland with more moderate moisture conditions that farmers are

paid not to grow crops. The article contends that “Now that most of the wetlands in the

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Midwest have been drained and virtually all the rivers have been degraded by excessive

erosion or sedimentation, there is increasing public demand to preserve what is left and

restore at least some of what has been lost.” Finally, the article concludes that “Aquatic

ecosystem restoration should be part of a revised and more effective national flood management program.”

Record Number: 324

Speyrer, J.F and W.R. Ragas. (1991). Housing prices and flood risk: An examination using

spline regression. Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 4(4), 395-407.

Keywords :

economic modeling, property values

Abstract: This article examines the impact of flood risk and mandatory flood insurance on

property values. Using a large data set of almost 2,000 homes sold in the New Orleans,

Louisiana, area from 1971 through 1986, the analysis confirms the finding of earlier studies that location in a floodplain does reduce property values. The present study, using

spline variables to adjust for locational variation in the data and an improved measure of

insurance cost, reveals that much of this reduction can be attributed to mandatory flood

insurance coverage. Moreover, while unexpected flooding does increase the insurance cost

capitalization, repeated flooding does not seem to reduce property values further.

Record Number: 290

Stakhiv, Eugene Z. (1995). Floodplain Planning and Management for Extreme Floods.

Paper presented at the U.S.- Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts,

and Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest flood of 1993

Abstract: This paper presents a brief overview of the Midwest floods of 1993 as the context for understanding the Corps of Engineers’ responses to the policy and programmatic

recommendations in the aftermath of the flood. The paper argues that generally, what is

lacking for good decision-making is basic information, rather than research. Public policies

are being made in the absence of good information in the form of data about flood damages, degree of inundation, severity and frequency of flooding. The author argues that research is needed to improve and refine existing methods rather than creating entirely new

approaches or methods: “much of the research and analysis that is required to act on the

recommendations of the 'Galloway Report' is to improve the administration and effectiveness of existing programs.”

Record Number: 240

Stedinger, Jery R. (1997). Expected probability and annual damage estimators. Journal of

Water Resources Planning and Management, 123(2), 125-35.

Keywords :

modeling, risk identification

Abstract: Controversy continues over the relative merits of traditional frequency estimators and the “expected probability” estimator of flood risk that incorporates an adjustment

for parameter uncertainty. Both have solid theoretical motivation, but address different

concerns. The description of hydrologic risk and uncertainty provided by new risk and un151
certainty procedures adopted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and risk-based design

procedures developed by others, are shown to be equivalent to the expected probability

model in simple cases. A 1995 National Research Council (NRC) report recommended

against use of the expected probability model for evaluating expected annual damages and

the probability of flooding; in particular, the NRC analysis and the 1989 Amell analysis

demonstrated that expected probability estimators yield risk and damage estimators that

generally have large positive biases. Historical arguments and related issues are reviewed.

Resolution of this controversy and success of the new U.S. Army Corps of Engineers risk

and uncertainty procedures require a clear framework for understanding what is meant by

risk, variability, and uncertainty. Such risk analyses can better represent a community’s

vulnerability to flooding and the large uncertainty in estimates of expected damages and

residual flood risk.

Record Number: 137

Suhayda, J.N. (1997). Modeling impacts of Louisiana barrier islands on wetland hydrology. Journal of Coastal Research, 13(3), 686-93.

Keywords :

barrier islands, coastal development, Louisiana, modeling

Abstract: Management and restoration of natural systems requires the quantitative assessment of the impact and cost effectiveness of management alternatives. This paper describes the methodology used in Louisiana to evaluate the role of barrier islands in influencing wetland hydrology and some preliminary results. The objective of the evaluation

was to determine the effect of barrier island geometry on the duration and depth of inund ation of coastal wetlands under average and extreme conditions. The model selected for use

was the overland flooding model developed by FEMA to predict hurricane flood elevations

for the NFIP. The model uses an explicit, two-dimensional, spaced-staggered, finitedifference scheme to simulate the flow of water caused by tides and wind systems. The

current size of the inlets between the islands is several times the equilibrium area based

upon the tidal prisms. Slight reductions in the cross sectional areas of the inlets between

the islands had only a very minor effect on reducing the depth and duration of wetland

flooding. If the barrier islands were removed from the model, the depth and duration of

tidal flooding slightly increased. Under extreme conditions, the island height and inlet size

had a significant effect on the depth and duration of wetland flooding. Hurricane Andrew

produced a maximum surge elevation at Cocodrie of about 2.7 m. The predicted surge elevation at Cocodrie would have been about .3 m higher if the present barrier islands were

destroyed and would have been as much as 1.2 to 1.5 m lower if the barrier islands were

raised and the inlets narrowed.

Record Number: 357

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (1998). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 1998

Annual Report. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: This is the third annual report of the Technical Mapping Advisory Council,

which provides advice and assistance to FEMA in determining how to best meet the needs

of various users of mapping products. The council’s main topic of discussion during 1998

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was the Map Modernization Plan (MMP) and the relationship of the plan to the council’s

congressional mandate. The council voted to strongly support modernizing FEMA's Flood

Hazard Mapping Program and identified individuals to work with the FEMA-designated

managers for the 37 MMP objectives. A second major topic considered by the council was

flood hazard maps, including map standards and various activities related to map development, distribution, and use. The council also debated several issues related to Letters of

Map Amendment and appointed a subcommittee on this topic. In addition, the council was

an active member of a task force to revise the Elevation Certificate, creating several drafts,

tabulating comments, and field-testing a new version. The annual report includes sections

on activities and accomplishments, issues, recommendations, future directions, progress,

and appendixes.

Record Number: 241

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (2000). 1999 Annual Report. Report to James Lee

Witt, Director of the FEMA. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords :

mapping, risk mitigation

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed

the FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council. The council was directed

to provide recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve FIRMs and the mapping process. The council began its work in 1996 and has produced three previous annual reports.

Each report has included recommendations to improve maps and the mapping process. The

council recommended that FEMA take the following steps: (a) encourage and support use

of future land-use conditions in calculating floods and delineating floodplain limits; (b)

improve floodplain delineations that were derived by approximate study methods and

mapped as Unnumbered A-Zones; (c) support the use of the recently issued study guidelines for mapping alluvial fans; (d) develop and implement procedures for including data in

products about multiple hazards that pose flood risks and continue to participate in the

Open GIS Consortium to provide links to other sites containing retrievable data affecting

flood risks; and (e); establish an indexing and retrieval system for archived data.

Record Number: 475

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (2000). Final report to the Honorable James Lee

Witt, Director, FEMA: A Summary of Accomplishments and Recommendations. Washington, DC: FEMA (FEMA).

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: This report responds to a mandate to evaluate and recommend improvements to

the production, distribution, and use of FIRMs and other mapping products prepared by

FEMA in support of the NFIP. The Council had four recommendations that they deemed

“most important”: (a) acquiring additional financial and technical resources for map programs; (b) building constituent interest and public support for modernizing the mapping

program using a process that includes public education and public outreach; (c) building

partnerships among various federal, state, and local governments, universities, and the private sector to accomplish NFIP objectives; and (d) creating a fully digital environment for

floodplain mapping and all related information.

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Record Number: 282

Tenenbaum, David. (1994). Rethinking the river. Nature Conservancy, 44(4), 11-15.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This paper examines the ecological impacts of the Mississippi River flood of

1993 and the rethinking of river management practices that has resulted. It provides a map

of the flood area that shows the occurrence of rare wildlife found in or near the region’s

rivers.

Record Number: 302

Thampapillai, Dodo and Warren F. Musgrave. (1985). Flood damage mitigation: A review

of structural and nonstructural measures and alternative decision frameworks. Water Resources Research, 21(4), 411-24.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: Literature from diverse sources such as public expenditure economics, management science, geography, agriculture, and engineering reveals a wide range of decision

frameworks for deriving strategies for flood mitigation. These different types of decision

frameworks are reviewed in this paper. The aim is to provide an understanding of these

frameworks, along with their relative adequacies and inadequacies. Such an understanding

reveals the directions along which the formulation of a more adequate framework should

proceed. However, the formulation of a given decision framework is influenced by the

types of economic benefits associated with the flood mitigation measures considered in

that framework. Hence the various flood mitigation measures are reviewed prior to the

various decision frameworks.

Record Number: 242

Thompson, Kay D., Jery R. Stedinger, and David C. Heath. (1997). Evaluation and presentation of dam failure and flood risks. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 123 (July/Aug.), 216-27.

Keywords :

modeling, risk identification

Abstract: Safety studies for existing dams have found that some do not satisfy current estimates of the probable maximum flood. An event or influence diagram can describe the

random factors that contribute to major inflow floods and that determine reservoir operation and possible downstream damages during a flood event. This allows calculation of the

probability of dam failure and the distributions of damages and loss of life using combinations of various analytical and Monte Carlo methods. This paper discusses the efficiency of

different evaluation methods: event trees, simple Monte Carlo sampling, Latin hypercube

sampling, importance sampling, and an analytical/stratified Monte Carlo (A/SMC) method.

The analysis suggests that the A/SMC method and importance sampling have great potential for the efficient estimation of dam failure risks. Numerical examples employ the distributions of damages and loss of life to show the character of trade-offs presented by different decisions and illustrate problems with the partitioned multi-objective risk method. The

use of partial expected damage and loss of life functions is recommended to show the importance of low-probability/high-consequence events.

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Record Number: 299

Thunberg, E. and Leonard Shabman. (1991). Determinants of landowner’s willingness to

pay for flood hazard reduction. Water Resources Bulletin, 27, 657-65.

Keywords :

mitigation

Abstract: Estimated benefits of flood control projects are typically limited to avoided

property damages. However, the possibility that there are benefits from reduced psychological stress among floodplain occupants and benefits to the community has long been

recognized. A survey of landowners residing in a floodplain in Roanoke, Virginia, found

that nonproperty considerations did help explain their expressed willingness to pay for

flood control. Of particular importance was the respondents’ concern for disruption of the

community caused by possible flooding.

Record Number: 138

Tibbetts, John. (1994). Waterproofing the Midwest. Planning, 60(4), 8-14.

Keywords :

buyouts, floodplain management, Missouri

Abstract: This article describes the efforts of officials in the Midwest to reduce flood

damage by updating local and federal laws on floodplain zoning. The author reports on the

inundation of Calhoun County, MO. He provides estimates of crop losses due to floods,

and discusses both provisions under county zoning code and the enforcement of regulations through building permit procedures. He concludes by reviewing the buyout process

as a focus of planners in the Midwest.

Record Number: 248

Tiedemann, Herbert. (1999). Flood Causes, Effects and Risk Assessment. Collingdale, PA:

DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords :

risk assessment

Abstract: This book provides a descriptive guide to assessing the risk of the flood peril,

particularly focusing on river floods. It is designed to help insurers to evaluate and differentiate risks to be covered. The necessary capability in risk assessment requires an understanding of the phenomena and the essential parameters that lead to flood and that influence damage and losses. This book includes recent significant flood events; methodology

of risk assessment; hazard; vulnerability; flood protection; insurance and reinsurance aspects; other causes of flood; rainfall data for selected places; list of major historical floods;

and flood related web sites.

Record Number: 344

Timberg, Craig. (2000). Flood-plagued Virginia town tries upward mobility. The Washington Post, December 28, A1.

Keywords :

relocation, Virginia

Abstract: The Army Corps of Engineers and the Virginia Department of Transportation

are funding a $177 million project to relocate the downtown of Grundy, VA, to higher

ground. This town in a distressed area of southwestern Virginia has been subject to recur155
rent destructive flooding from the Levisa River. The project will demolish old buildings

and replace them with a four-lane highway doubling as a flood wall. A new downtown will

be built across the river where a mountain now stands. Many hope that relocation will signify a new, high-tech beginning for the town, with Virginia Tech’s plans for bringing superfast wireless Internet technology to the reconstructed downtown. Opponents of the

project think it will harm the town’s sense of history and make rents for the new buildings

unaffordable.

Record Number: 101

Tobin, Graham A. (1995). The levee love-affair - A stormy relationship. Water Resources

Bulletin, 31(3), 359-67.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: A history of flood control in the United States shows an undying affair with levees. This love affair, however, was put severely to the test by the record flooding in the

summer of 1993. About 70 percent of levees in the upper Midwest failed during this time,

leading to extensive damage to both farmland and urban areas. Consequently, there were

repeated calls to re-assess policies for floodplain management. The report of the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee is one outcome of this and it forms the

basis of this commentary on levees. In many respects, levees are effective flood control

measures, being relatively cheap to implement and easy to build. At the same time, levees

have negative impacts, affecting the hydrological regime both up and down stream, and

often exacerbating flooding in other places. Furthermore, technical weaknesses in design,

planning, construction, and maintenance have all contributed to failures of levees. While

the report recommends changes in floodplain management to address some of these issues,

it is difficult to see how these will materialize given the current political, economic, and

social climate.

Record Number: 158

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1988). Catastrophic flooding and the response of

the real estate market. Social Science Journal, 25(2), 167-77.

Keywords :

California, property values

Abstract: This study examines the impact of flooding on residential property values. It

reviews the literature and produces a theoretical conceptualization for the subject. Such a

conceptualization is then applied to the analysis of the 1986 flood in Linda and Oliverhurst, in Yuba County, CA. The authors found support for the premise that flood frequency

affects the capitalization process. In other words, that the flood is initially capitalized into

housing values, but because of the infrequent nature of the hazard, values are expected to

rise, although the time for recovery is not certain.

Record Number: 483

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1990). Response of the real estate market to frequent flooding: The case of Des Plaines, Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical Society, Fall, 11-21.

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Keywords :

Illinois, property values

Abstract: This article investigates two questions: How does the residential real estate market respond to a high probability of flooding? Is there an identifiable pattern that might result in a predictive model of changing floodplain and land values? The authors contend

that the more floods experienced the greater is the impact on the housing market. Using

data from Des Plaines, IL in the form of flood histories, data on impacts of recent flooding

and on longer-term trends in the housing market, the researchers found that flood frequency is a valid spatial variable, demonstrated by variation in the recovery periods of

housing prices consistent with variation in the flood frequency in those markets. Thus, the

researchers concluded that flood frequency is an important variable to consider in evaluating the impacts of floods.

Record Number: 297

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1994). The flood hazard and dynamics of the

residential land market. Water Resources Bulletin, 30, 673-85.

Keywords :

modeling, property values

Abstract: Literature on the flood hazard/residential land market relationship is full of contradictory findings, many of which are counterintuitive to the belief that flooding has a

negative impact on house prices. This research advances a conceptual framework through

which these relationships might be re-examined. Based on the expected utility model, the

theoretical framework integrates the economic notion of capitalization with spatial and

temporal characteristics of the flood hazard. Four communities with different flood regimes are used to test the effect of flooding on the residential real estate market. Results

show that: (a) there is an identifiable relationship between characteristics of the flood ha zard and changes in house values; (b) the length of the recovery period is dependent on

characteristics and expectations of flooding, attributes of the real estate market, and availability of capital to fuel recovery; and (c) dynamics of the urban market and spatial extent

of the flood hazard influence these relationships. Further research is now necessary to examine these findings under different spatial, temporal, hydrologic, and socioeconomic

conditions.

Record Number: 5

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1997). The impacts of a second catastrophic

flood on property values in Linda and Olivehurst, California. Boulder, CO: University of

Colorado, Natural Hazards Center.

Available at http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr95.html

Keywords :

California, property values

Abstract: The authors assessed the relationship between flooding and property values in

Linda and Olivehurst, CA, an area that suffered several floods (with impacts first studied

in 1986). Following a theoretical framework developed by Tobin and Newton (1986) the

authors found that properties that experienced the first flooding did eventually recover to

near preflood levels, but the length of time required for recovery varied with depth of

flooding (houses with lower flood levels recovered more quickly). Thus, the flood created

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submarkets that remained identifiable over the long term in part because not all properties

in the areas with the greatest flood depths were repaired (the remainders that exist in the

communities influence recovery and this perpetuates the submarkets). The 1997 flood further compounded the situation.

Record Number: 163

Tobin, Graham A. and Thomas G. Newton. (1986). A theoretical framework of flood induced changes in urban land values. Water Resources Bulletin, 22(1), 67-71.

Keywords :

property values

Abstract: By integrating literature from flood hazard research and urban economics, the

authors developed a theoretical structure to explain changes in residential land values following flood events. The negative aspects of the flood hazard are shown to be capitalized

in the value of the property. Land values will vary both spatially across the floodplain and

temporally depending on the frequency, severity, and spatial characteristics of the flood

event. This approach allows for the recovery of the land market value, a novelty at that

time. This theoretical approach was applied later in several studies (e.g., Tobin and Montz,

1988).

Record Number: 280

Toulmin, Llewellyn M., Charles J. Givans, and Deborah L. Steel. (1989). The impact of

intergovernmental distance on disaster communications. International Journal of Mass

Emergencies and Disasters, 7(2), 116-32.

Keywords :

governance, risk communication

Abstract: Previous research into disaster communications, while fairly extensive, has been

limited primarily to sociological analysis and organizational theory. This body of research,

however, has not explored disaster communications in a federal, international, or other

multilevel governmental response system. This paper expands upon existing research to

present a new theory of intergovernmental disaster communications. The theory is based

on the concept of intergovernmental distance, which refers to distance in terms of differing

procedures and approaches used by organizations in different functional areas at various

levels of government. The theory postulates that the organizational distance created by

these differences becomes a critical factor that must be addressed during a disaster. The

study employs three sets of dimensions. The first is in two subdimensions and examines

distances between functional areas at various levels of government. The second is three

dimensional and considers distances between functional area and central management. The

third is multidimensional. Here a multiple regression equation is used to analyze intergo vernmental distance. The study concludes by addressing the policy implications of the

findings, especially the need to overcome inherent intergovernmental distance through disaster planning, the need to recognize the exponential increase in communications problems

caused by increases in the number of disaster responders, and the need to determine if the

marginal benefits contributed by each new responder exceed the marginal communications

and coordination costs each responder imposes.

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Record Number: 345

Treaster, Joseph B. (2000). Not all water damage is equal in eyes of insurers. The New

York Times, August 15.

Keywords :

insurance, New Jersey

Abstract: Most people in northern New Jersey whose homes were damaged by flooding

had homeowners’ insurance, but few had flood insurance because this area was not a highrisk flood area. Whether the damage is covered by homeowners’ insurance depends on the

insurance companies’ determination of what caused the damage-flood, wind, or water.

Homeowners cannot count on help from federal disaster assistance because most floods are

too small to quality for such help.

Record Number: 102

Tripp, James T.B. (1994). Flooding: Who is to blame? USA Today Magazine, 123, 30-3.

Keywords :

floodplains, Midwest floods of 1993, wetlands

Abstract: This article focuses on the proposal to reform the policies affecting the Mississippi River’s floodplains in the wake of the damage caused by the Midwest floods of 1993.

It discusses the impact of the flood on agricultural and urban property owners, the construction of mainstream levees, and the conversion of floodplain wetlands to agriculture.

The article concludes that the conversion of floodplain wetlands to agriculture throughout

the Mississippi River Basin has been extensive. Eighty percent of the floodplain wetlands

of the Lower Mississippi River have been cleared and converted to cropland. Clearing rates

in much of the Upper Basin and the Missouri River system have been comparable. It also

suggests that the Mississippi River flood control system of dams, levees, and river training

works is awesome, but not sustainable over the long term: “People have gone too far in

severing the river and its tributaries from their floodplains. The message from the floods is

that the Mississippi wants to recapture the floodplains that historically were part of the

river. It lies in wait for major flood events to do this.” The article concludes: “A program

of floodplain restoration would go a long way towards creating a much more sustainable,

low-cost flood management system in the Mississippi River Basin than exists today.” The

article also focuses on the economics behind such a floodplain policy. It suggests that the

Army Corps of Engineers must reform how it spends federal dollars on flood control

works in the basin, while the federal government expands the Wetland Reserve Program

created by the 1990 Farm Act in the Mississippi Basin.

Record Number: 20

Tucker, L. Scott. (1979). Flood Insurance and Flood Plain Zoning. Water Problems of

Urbanizing Areas. Henniker, NH: New England College.

Keywords :

floodplain management, mapping, risk assessment

Abstract: A review of the NFIP concludes that sufficient progress is being made that both

regulation and insurance should be continued. The regulatory program in alreadydeveloped floodplains has had a limited effect on flooding, erosion control, and water supply; results have been more successful in developing floodplains. Persistent problems with

respect to the protection of floodplains include: (a) the lack of awareness of flood problems

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by residents; (b) lack of adequate data on numbers of people living in floodplains, how

many are aware that they live in floodplains, and other questions related to the overcoming

of perception-awareness-resistance problems; (c) effectiveness of floodplain regulation; (d)

difficulty in the administration of effective local programs in the face of local political

problems; and (e) definition of floodplains using existing hydrology when future flows will

be greater due to urbanization. Though generally successful, NFIP results were mixed.

Ways have not been found to manage risk in the fringe areas where there is no NFIP (some

30 to 50 percent of flood damage may be in these areas). Additional problems needing attention include the slow rate of NFIP mapping, the need for more economics in analyzing

alternatives, the considerable differences between communities and among house types,

questions concerning the needed levels of flood risk reduction, and the need for alternative

approaches such as seed money to purchase flood-prone properties.

Record Number: 103

Tyler, Kimberly A. (2000). The effects of an acute stressor on depressive symptoms

among older adults. Research on Aging, 22(2), 143-65.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993, mental stress

Abstract: This study uses longitudinal data to examine the potential moderating effects of

social support and age among older adults exposed to an acute stressor. Using a sample of

651 older persons, data were gathered in the spring of 1992 and in the fall of 1993, approximately 60 days after the peak impact of flooding in the Midwest. Results indicate a

positive association between pre- and post-flood depression and a negative association

between social support and post-flood depression. For the youngest of the two older age

groups, there is also a positive association between flood exposure and post-flood depression, controlling for prior levels of depression. Age interactions reveal that social support

moderates the effects of flood exposure on depression only for the younger age group.

Record Number: 354

USA Today. (2000). How your dollars let others live at the beach, July 27.

Keywords :

beach nourishment, coastal development

Abstract: This editorial frames the series of articles in USA Today on the growth of the

population on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, with the view that federal aid helps drive migration to these areas and taxpayers are left with increasing disaster-relief costs when the

weather turns bad. Efforts to reduce subsidies have been met with stiff resistance from

lawmakers representing coastal areas. The Clinton administration’s effort to eliminate disaster relief for beaches was blocked, and FEMA’s effort to get Congress to stop spending

money on replacing beaches and dunes was also defeated. FEMA is taking steps to stop

rampant abuse of the flood-insurance program. The bill in Congress that would limit property owners to two flood claims has little chance of passing.

Record Number: 69

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1994). Procedures for Evaluating Wetlands Non-market

Values and Functions. Washington, DC: U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.

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Keywords :

nonmarket values, wetlands

Abstract: This technical note provides a framework for evaluating the economic value of

wetlands. More precisely, this note provides a guide for determination of the effects of a

proposed action on a wetland site. It emphasizes the importance for estimating economic

value of establishing the relationship and significance of the wetland’s site economic services within a larger economic context. The note points out that the evaluation of flood

control benefits requires estimating flood damages with and without the wetland's flood

control capacity. These benefits can be determined by establishing the relationships between wetland flood storage capacity and flood damages downstream and the cost of providing alternative flood control structures or provisions for flood control.

Record Number: 453

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1995). Flood Proofing Regulations. Washington, DC:

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Keywords :

building codes, floodproofing

Abstract: This publication supercedes the two previously published editions (1972, 1992),

which have been distributed worldwide as an administrative and technical model for code

design and enforcement of flood proofing. This version of the report includes the updates

made in 1992, which reflected almost 20 years of field experience, research, and advances

in engineering and building practices. The 1992 revision made numerous technical and

editorial changes to requirements for floodplain management. This publication makes

some clarifying changes to the 1992 edition, but retains the format of the original 1972

document. It specifies the flood proofing measures and techniques that can be followed to

regulate private and public building construction in riverine and flood hazard areas. It

contains implications for changes in existing building and house codes and provides for a

diversity of flood proofing methods and techniques.

Record Number: 484

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1995). Floodplain Management Assessment of the Upper

Mississippi River and Lower Missouri Rivers and Tributaries. Washington, DC: U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This report focuses on a comparison of impacts and costs of implementing a

wide array of alternative policies, programs, and structural measures by assuming they had

been in place at the time of the Midwest Floods of 1993. It explores three scenarios of

changes in flood insurance, state and local floodplain regulation, flood hazard mitigation

and disaster assistance, wetland restoration, and agricultural support policies. The data

collected for this report were almost exclusively data that were already available, such as

the economic damages from the 1993 flood. The feedback received during coordination of

this assessment highlights contrasting views regarding the use of the floodplain. The report

does not resolve all of the issues or recommend an overall best plan. Rather, it serves as

another tool in understanding the relative impacts of various potential actions.

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Record Number: 117

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1996). Risk-based Analysis for Flood Damage Reduction

Studies. (Vol. Manual EM 1110-2-1619). Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation

Abstract: Procedures described in this manual lead to the estimation of expected costs and

benefits of proposed flood damage reduction measures, a description of the uncertainty in

those estimates, and quantitative and qualitative representations of the likelihood and consequences of exceeding capacity of selected measures. The Corps suggests that the careful

communication of analysis results will better inform the public about what to expect from

projects to reduce flood damage and thus ultimately lead to better decision making.

Record Number: 366

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Flood Proofing Committee. (1998). Flood

Proofing Performance: Successes & Failures. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Keywords :

building codes, flood proofing

Abstract: This report examines how structural flood-proofing measures have performed

when tested by actual floods. Data were collected from 12 floods throughout the United

States by an engineer who reviewed the damage and building performance data on each

structure. The report identifies specific flood-proofing measures and whether they failed or

succeeded. The report noted more failures than successes and offered specific construction

lessons in flood-proofing structures.

Record Number: 469

U.S. Congress. (1992). A Descriptive Analysis of Federal Relief, Insurance, and Loss Reduction Programs for Natural Hazards. Report to the Subcommittee on Policy Research

and Insurance of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs. Washington,

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Keywords :

cost effectiveness, disaster assistance

Abstract: This report provides a summary of current federal disaster relief, existing and

proposed insurance and loss control programs, and briefly discusses their evolution. A

major theme in the report is whether the federal programs for dealing with natural disasters

are operating in cost-effective manners. Disaster relief policies present relatively straightforward issues for debate, including eligibility for assistance and the parameters of that assistance. Proposed insurance options, by comparison, require the consideration of additional issues, for example, the achievement of actuarial soundness. Actuarial soundness is

one measure of the insurance program’s cost-effectiveness. Insurance programs must also

consider the issue of participation and whether the availability of disaster relief may serve

as a disincentive to some to participate in insurance programs.

Record Number: 71 

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U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and FEMA. (1981). Evaluation of the Economic, Social and Environmental Effects of Floodplain Regulations. Washington, DC: HUD and FEMA.

Keywords :

development, environmental impacts, floodplains

Abstract: This study evaluates quantitatively the economic, social and environmental effects of regulating the 100-year floodplain. Twenty-three case study communities were selected for analysis according to different locations, flood hazard types, community sizes,

and economic conditions. Effects of floodplain regulations were evaluated by projecting

development for 1980 and 1990 under three regulatory scenarios: (a) no regulations, allowing the free market to determine the 100-year floodplain use; (b) moderate regulations

similar to those in effect at the time the report was published; and (c) stringent regulations

forbidding new development and substantial improvements to existing structures and “correcting” past land-use decisions that interfere with natural functions of the 100-year floodplain. The study concluded that, when no regulations are applied, average annual flood

losses increase sharply (29 percent by 1980; 71 percent by 1990). Under moderate regulations, the losses in Scenario I would be decreased by 87 percent in 1980, and by 85 percent

in 1990. Regulations that prevent development produce a small, but measurable absolute

decline in average annual flood losses (1 percent by 1990). Also, with no regulations, the

total number of housing units in the 100-year floodplain would increase 13 percent by

1980 and 35 percent by 1990; population would increase in the 100-year floodplain 12

percent by 1980 and 29 percent by 1990. With moderate regulations, this increase in

housing would be reduced by 37 percent in 1980 and by 78 percent by 1990; the increase

in population would decrease by 43 percent in 1980 and 41 percent in 1990. With stringent

regulations, housing units in the 100-year floodplain would decline 1 percent by 1980 and

6 percent by 1990. Finally, with no regulations there would be a continuing, unlimited

conversion of floodplain open land to urban uses, an additional 37 percent rise by 1990.

Moderate regulations would reduce this increase to 1 percent by 1990. Stringent regulations would not allow any further development of the floodplain, would begin to remove

existing deve lopment, and would result in a 2-percent reduction of developed acres.

Record Number: 470

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1975). National Attempts to Reduce Losses from

Floods by Planning for and Controlling the Uses of Flood-prone Lands. Washington, DC:

GAO.

Keywords :

Unified National Program

Abstract: This review was conducted to inform Congress about the effectiveness of a unified national program for reducing losses due to floods, as proposed by a task force established by the President in 1966. The GAO found that there has been little progress toward

curtailing disastrous flood losses by planning for and controlling the uses of flood-prone

lands. Development of such lands has continued, making the program’ objective more difficult to achieve. The main reasons cited for the lack of progress were: (a) federal agencies

did not evaluate flood hazards adequately; (b) the lack of adequate technical assistance

from federal agencies on planning and regulating the use of flood-prone lands; (c) the need

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for better monitoring and leadership for federal flood control efforts; and (d) the need for 

more cooperation between federal, state and local governments to minimize flood losses. 

Record Number: 9

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1975). Tulsa, Oklahoma’s Participation in the

National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords:

compliance, monitoring, Oklahoma, Tulsa 

Abstract: The GAO evaluated the nature and extent of development in Tulsa’s Mingo 

Creek floodplain between February 15, 1972 (when the city adopted floodplain management regulations) and December 15, 1974. This report examines the effectiveness of federal, state, and local monitoring procedures designed to prevent improper development. To 

accomplish this task the GAO identified all loans for acquisition or construction of property in the Mingo Creek floodplain to determine whether mandatory flood insurance was 

required and had been obtained. The GAO also examined NFIP policies, procedures, and 

legislative history. The final aspect of the study included interviews with federal, state, 

and local officials responsible for implementing the program as well as officials at financial institutions and the National Flood Insurers Association Serving Office. The GAO 

recommended five changes to increase the NFIP’s effectiveness: (a) approve legislation 

that would prohibit federally regulated financial institutions from purchasing mortgages in 

the secondary market on properties that are required to but do not have flood insurance; (b) 

require communities to demonstrate adequate procedures for enforcing floodplain management regulations as part of admission into the NFIP; (c) establish a monitoring system 

to ensure that communities comply with adopted regulations; (d) clarify FIA regulations on 

communities proposing changes to floodplain levels; and (e) require future development in 

floodplains to be 1 foot above the 100-year flood level. This report includes FIA’s response to each of the recommendations and actions to be taken. 

Record Number: 14

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1976). Report to Congress: Formidable Administrative Problems Challenge Achieving National Flood Insurance Program Objectives.

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 

compliance, mandatory purchase, mapping 

Abstract: This report examines efforts of the Department of Housing and Urban Deve lopment (HUD) to implement the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. The GAO’s extensive analysis of the NFIP for this report included: a review of pertinent policies, procedures, studies, and legislative history; interviews with federal, state, and local officials and 

FIA contractors responsible for implementing the NFIP; and visits to nine communities in 

five states to review local efforts to implement program requirements. The GAO found 

that: (a) flood insurance studies and rate maps were not being produced a rate to meet the 

August 1, 1983 deadline for having all flood-prone communities as part of the regular 

NFIP; (b) FIA needs to better monitor community efforts to adopt and enforce floodplain 

management regulations; (c) flood insurance was generally being obtained when any federal financial assistance was required (about 90 percent of mortgage transactions tested); 

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(d) federal policy on secondary market purchases is often inconsistent and needs to be 

clarified. The report includes responses from HUD, FIA, and other federal agencies impacted by the recommendations in the report. 

Record Number: 434

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1979). Report to HUD Secretary: Efforts to Reduce Flood Losses: FIA’s Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords:

compliance, mapping, monitoring

Abstract: This report was conducted to identify problems affecting program administration and the attainment of legislative objectives. The GAO interviewed FIA officials at

headquarters and three regional offices. The GAO also meet with state and local floodplain officials and obtained information from federal agencies and several private sector

experts. The GAO found problems identified in earlier studies still existed, including that

the mapping program would not meet the goal of having all communities mapped by 1983.

The report then identifies FIA policies that appear to be contrary to the objective of minimizing future flood damages, such as allowing the replacement of structures in the floodway. The GAO also found that communities required more help in the implementation of

the NFIP, particularly technical assistance and that improvements in the monitoring program are needed. The report also recommends that the 100-year floodplain as the single

national standard be evaluated. For each of the problems identified the GAO recommended

possible changes to the program. In almost all cases FIA agreed to investigate the feasibility of implementing the GAO’s recommendations.

Record Number: 468

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1980). Federal Disaster Assistance: What

Should the Policy Be? Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: This report examines the federal financial role in disaster assistance to determine

what it and the relevant guiding principles should be. It discusses the five major disaster

assistance programs, which are: the Small Business Administration’s disaster loan program, the Farmer'’ Home Administration's emergency loan program, the Disaster Payments Program (Department of Agriculture), the Federal Crop Insurance Program (administered by the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation), and the NFIP. These five program

provide three generic types forms of subsidized assistance: loans, grants, and insurance.

GAO believes the following general criteria should be recognized in designing disaster assistance programs: (a) Minimize incentives for poor locational decisions; (b) Likes should

be treated alike within programs, across programs, and over time; and (c) No individual or

group should be able to improve on their predisaster condition unless it would reduce future government cost.

Record Number: 196

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1982). National Flood Insurance: Marginal Impact on Floodplain Development, Administrative Improvements Needed. Washington, DC:

GAO.

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Keywords :

coastal areas, economic development

Abstract: Most of the work for this report was developed from case studies of six communities. Researchers compared the rate of community development and availability of flood

insurance. They looked at ten years of data on the number of new housing units authorized

for each community. Researchers interviewed 115 people. None of them said they viewed

flood insurance as the principal factor in development but almost all said it aided development since it was a “sweetener” in lessening investment risks. Many of those interviewed

said that the availability of flood insurance had affected their community by increasing financial security and by forcing higher construction standards. Both factors were viewed as

“enhancing” development. Nothing in the program effectively discourages new development. With the increasing growth in coastal areas, researchers felt the risk of loss was inevitably growing and concluded that there is no assurance that the structures would safely

survive a major storm, so it may be bad public policy to continue to provide coverage in

coastal areas. The report also notes that a multitude of factors influences a builder to construct, an individual to occupy a structure, or a businessman to locate in a coastal or barrier

island community. These factors include demand for location on highly desirable beach

property, viability of local economies and availability of community infrastructure. The

report observed that the NFIP offers a “marginal added incentive” to development: “many

people believe that development would still take place in most communities without flood

insurance but at a slower pace, by more creditworthy individuals, and for less costly and

durable structures.”

Record Number: 185

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1982). National Flood Insurance: Marginal Impact on Floodplain Development. Administrative Improvements Needed. Washington, DC:

GAO.

Keywords :

barrier islands, development

Abstract: This study focuses on six coastal and barrier island communities on the Atlantic

and Gulf coasts. The study documented large development in these communities. Although flood insurance was not found to be the principal factor in such development, it

was considered as a “sweetener” in lessening investment risks. Nothing in the program effectively discourages new development. Researchers concluded that since in the long run

there is no assurance that the structures would safely survive a major storm, it may be bad

public policy to continue to provide coverage in coastal areas.

Record Number: 422

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). Approaches for Converting National

Flood Insurance Program Communities from the Emergency Phase to the Regular Phase.

Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

mapping

Abstract: The GAO reports that FEMA will not meet the August 1983 deadline contained

in the Flood Insurance Act of 1968 for providing FIRMs for all flood-prone communities.

The primary reasons for such a failure are the unexpected magnitude of the undertaking

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and the nonuse of less costly and time-consuming alternative techniques for producing rate

maps. The GAO concluded that Congress should consider and select an optimal approach

to complete the mapping project.

Record Number: 408

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). Effect of Premium Increases on Achieving

the National Flood Insurance Program's Objectives. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

insurance rates

Abstract: In response to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the impact that recent

rate increases had on individual and community participation in the NFIP. GAO found

that in the first two years after the FEMA raised rates in January 1981, individual participation declined. Participation fell from a peak of about 2,014,500 policies in December

1980 to about 1,860,400 in November 1982. GAO identified several factors in addition to

the rate increases that could have contributed to the decline in individual participation.

These factors included: (a) the decline in the housing market during the last few years; (b)

the smaller number of floods and flood losses experienced in the last few years; and (c) the

general economic recession. During this period, six small communities left the program.

GAO found that none of the six communities left the program because of the rate increases. Rather, their reasons for leaving the program included the building restrictions

imposed by the floodplain management criteria, a belief that there was not a need for flood

insurance, and communities’ dislike of having the federal government tell them what they

could and could not do in their flood-prone areas.

Record Number: 416

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). National Flood Insurance: Major

Changes Needed if It Is to Operate without a Federal Subsidy. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

insurance rates, subsidies

Abstract: In this report, GAO reported that the NFIP had not collected sufficient premiums to cover the cost of providing the insurance of about 1.9 million policyholders living

in flood-prone areas. To compensate for the inadequate premium income, FIA borrowed

$854 million from the Department of the Treasury between 1970 and 1980. This report

says that FEMA had relied on a combination of models and judgment to set the insurance

rates, but methodological and data weaknesses in this approach had produced an overly

complex rate structure that had not generated sufficient income to cover the costs of providing insurance or build up a reserve. The report notes FEMA’s intention to eliminate the

federal subsidy by 1988. This report recommended the Congress to consider telling FEMA

whether it agreed with the agency’s shift toward rate increases or coverage reductions. This

report also recommended that FEMA establish a monitoring program to detect any adverse

impact that increases in chargeable rates or decreases in coverage may have on the program's objectives.

Record Number: 517

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1986). Flood Insurance: Federal Emergency

Management Agency’s Basement Coverage Liability. Washington, DC: GAO.

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Keywords: 

basements, insurance

Abstract: Effective October 1983, FIA limited insurance coverage for basements in order

to reduce the NFIP’s future flood claim payments. The limitation was initiated because

FIA believed that flooding of basements represents a risk inconsistent with a sound insurance program and that the program should respond only to the basic needs of its policyholders. This report was written in response to congressional requests about: (a) FIA’s

authority to make such a policy change; (b) the procedure used to justify the policy; (c) the

legality of the notification process; and (d) why other alternatives were rejected. GAO

found that FEMA had authority to decide what should be insured, the nature and limits of

loss or damage, the classification of risks by type, and risk limitations and rejections. After reviewing the analysis used to make the decision about limiting basement coverage, the

GAO found that two of the three reports used did not mention basement flooding and while

the examination of claim data may not have overstated loss claims due to basement cove rage, FIA should have used more complete methods, including a survey of closed claims.

GAO then examined the notification of policyholders about the new limitations placed on

basement coverage, finding that federal courts had ruled the procedure was legally adequate. This report also presents information about why FIA did not select the other five

alternatives for modifying basement coverage.

Record Number: 418

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1987). Flood Insurance: Information on the

Mandatory Purchase Requirement. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords:

compliance, lending institutions, mandatory purchase

Abstract: Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed property owners’ and lenders’ compliance with the mandatory flood insurance provisions of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. In compiling this report, the GAO conducted an extensive review of

legislation and regulations pertaining to the mandatory purchase requirement, including

information provided to lending institutions to guide them in the process. The GAO also

conducted interviews with officials from FEMA, lending institutions, and regulatory agencies. The GAO found that: (a) samples of properties for which flood insurance was required in Maine and Texas, about 22 percent and 79 percent, respectively, were not covered; (b) the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation reported that, in 95 percent of the

cases it examined in the last three years, the properties were covered by the required flood

insurance; (c) of the lenders the Federal Reserve System examined for compliance in 1988,

83 percent had no violations of flood insurance regulations; (d) many homeowners in

SFHAs find flood insurance premiums too expensive and allow their policies to lapse; (e)

lenders reported that FIRMs were difficult to read, not always accurate, and expensive to

maintain; and (f) the FIA took such actions as publishing guidance, sponsoring conferences, and collecting and reporting compliance information to improve compliance with

the provision.

Record Number: 522

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1987). Flood Insurance: Private Companies’

Participation in the Write Your Own Program. Washington, DC: GAO.

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Keywords: 

Write Your Own program

Abstract: In response to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the status of the Write

Your Own (WYO) program. Through interviews with officials at FIA, FEMA’s Office of

Inspector General, Computer Sciences Corporation (the contractor that manages the WYO

companies), and WYO companies as well as a review of legislative history and program

files, the GAO determined: (a) as of September 1986, there were over 1 million WYO

policies, about half of all NFIP policies; (b) The relationship between allowances retained

from policy premiums for administrative costs and benefits to the federal government is

uncertain. FIA does not require the companies to keep records of their actual costs to implement the program, but most indicated that they incurred administrative expenses for

various activities, including marketing; and (c) FIA is still in the process of implementing

statistical reporting requirements, on-site reviews, and audits to ensure that WYO comp anies sell and service policies in accordance with program requirements. GAO found that

FIA’s monitoring indicates that most companies have satisfactorily implemented the program. WYO companies expressed concern about the WYO program. WYO companies did

not want to compete with the FIA’s direct sales program, they also felt that FIA did not

provide enough advance notice on insurance premium changes and that they would need to

increase insurance rates in order to meet the program’s long-range goal of having them

share claims costs.

Record Number: 84

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1988). Flood Insurance: Statistics on the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords:

coastal resources, NFIP liability

Abstract: The GAO compiled this fact sheet in response to a request for more information

about the federal government’s role in protecting coastal resources and the exposure of the

government to undesired levels of liability. The statistics were produced by GAO using

information provided by FEMA, the numbers were not independently verified. The statistics presented fall into six categories: (a) NFIP’s annual operating income/deficit; (b) number of policies in coastal areas and Great Lakes’ states; (c) total and repetitive losses; (d)

flood-damaged property purchases by FEMA; (e) damages in excess of the maximum

flood insurance available; and (f) the annual average premiums and losses on policies for

property in coastal high-hazard areas. In 1987 the NFIP had about 2.1 million policies in

place, worth about $162 billion. In the period from 1978 to 1987 the NFIP had a cumulative net operating deficit of about $652 million, with losses totaling about $2.4 billion.

Record Number: 409

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1991). Federal, State, and Local Responses to

Natural Disasters Need Improvement. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

Hurricane Hugo

Abstract: This report examines how FEMA and other federal agencies responded to California’s Loma Prieta earthquake and to Hurricane Hugo, which struck the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Carolinas. The report contends that “preparedness is the most

169
critical aspect of emergency management because it affects states’ ability to respond to

disaster....Preparedness problems were linked to weaknesses in state and local programs,

as well as in FEMA’s assistance and overall guidance. These problems included inadequate planning had training for recovery, low participation by elected officials in training

and exercises, inadequate or no standard operating procedures for response and recovery

activities, failure to correct problems identified during earlier training expresses, a limited

number of staff having the necessary disaster assistance skills, and inadequate coordination

between several federal agencies.”

Record Number: 189

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1992). Coastal Barriers: Development Occurring Despite Prohibitions against Federal Assistance. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, development

Abstract: The GAO says that while the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982

and its successor, the Coastal Barrier Improvement Act of 1990 had effectively discouraged development in some areas, a few had undergone significant new development and

more was planned. The report notes that one part of the problem was lax compliance, noting that the NFIP did not have controls in place to assure that private insurers under the

“Write Your Own” program were complying. Based on sampling in five units, the GAO

projected that the NFIP had written coverage for 9 percent of the homeowners in CBRA.

Record Number: 410

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1993). Disaster Management: Improving the

Nation's Response to Catastrophic Disasters. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Iniki, natural disasters

Abstract: The nation’s management of disasters was strongly criticized after Hurricane

Andrew leveled much of South Florida and Hurricane Iniki devastated Kauai in 1992.

Even before these storms, the federal government’s response to major disasters like Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta earthquake drew intense criticism. The “GAO has testified

repeatedly in 1993 on the inadequacy of the federal strategy for responding to disasters.

This report summarizes GAO’s analyses, conclusions, and recommendations.”

Record Number: 519

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1994). Federal Disaster Insurance: Goals are

Good, but Insurance Programs Would Expose the Federal Government to Large Potential

Losses. Testimony before Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S.

Senate. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

disaster insurance

Abstract: This testimony reports some major concerns of the GAO about the design and

structure of a proposed reinsurance program. While some of the concerns involve technical

details, such as the definition of losses, others arise from incentives created by the bill that

could lead some insurers to engage in inappropriate business practices. GAO’s greatest

concern, however, is the way losses are to be shared between the federal reinsurance fund

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established by the bill and the insurance industry. The basis for determining when the fund

becomes liable for payment of disaster losses could be subject to insurers’ manipulation

that could result in substantial increases in the fund’s liability.

Record Number: 465

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1994). Flood Insurance: Financial Resources

May Not be Sufficient to Meet Future Expected Losses. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

actuarial soundness, insurance rates

Abstract: This report addresses the actuarial soundness of the NFIP. The GAO found that

it is intentionally not actuarially sound because the Congress authorized subsidized insurance rates to be made available for policies covering certain structures, and, as of 1993,

about 41 percent of policies were subsidized. With respect to the potential financial impacts of increasing subsidized flood insurance rates and enhancing program participation,

both were determined to be potentially harmful. Increasing premiums would encourage

policyholders to cancel their insurance and seek assistance through other federal disaster

relief programs. However, encouraging participation in the flood insurance program would

increase the amount of subsidized insurance rates, thereby worsening the NFIP’s financial

condition. Finally, the GAO describes the procedures used to set the program’s insurance

rates.

Record Number: 518

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1995). Disaster Assistance: Information on Expenditures and Proposals to Improve Effectiveness and Reduce Future Costs. Testimony

before Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: The report discusses ways to enhance the effectiveness of a number of federal

disaster assistance programs, identifies proposals to lower future federal costs, and addresses the accuracy of financial information in FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund. There ware

three main conclusions. First, there are ways to improve federal disaster assistance programs, including greater flexibility on FEMA’s part in providing grant funding, enabling

military reserve components to provide disaster assistance, and clarifying the conditions

under which FEMA would pay more than the replacement cost to restore certain structures.

Second, proposals have been made to modify and lower the costs of federal disaster assistance, including more explicit and/or stringent criteria for disaster assistance, emphasizing

hazard mitigation through incentives, and relying more on insurance. Third, problems exist

with FEMA’s current accounting systems, such as field office systems that are neither integrated nor linked to FEMA’s central accounting system.

Record Number: 471

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1995). Midwest Flood: Information on the Performance, Effects, and Control of Levees. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

Midwest floods of 1993

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Abstract: In response to the Midwest floods of 1993 in nine states, the GAO was asked to

examine the operation of levees. This report addresses the extent to which: (a) the U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers’ flood control levees prevented flooding and reduced damage

during the event; (b) the federal levees increased the height of the flooding and added to

the damage; and (c) federal, state, and local governments exercise control over the design,

construction, placement, and maintenance of nonfederal levees. The GAO found that most

Corps’ levees prevented flooding and reduced damage, levees increased flood levels but

are one of many factors affecting the extent of flooding, and that federal, state, and local

governments exercise some control over nonfederal levees.

Record Number: 463

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1996). Disaster Assistance: Improvements

Needed in Determining Eligibility for Public Assistance. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on VA, HUD and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, US

Senate. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

public assistance

Abstract: The GAO was asked to review FEMA’s criteria for determining eligibility for

public assistance; determine how FEMA ensures that public assistance funds are expended

only for eligible items, and identify changes in eligibility that could lower the costs of

public assistance in the future. The GAO reports that FEMA’s criteria for determining

public assistance are ambiguous, and that FEMA has systematically updated or disseminated to regional officials its policy changes affecting eligibility. FEMA relies principally

on states to ensure that expenditures are limited to eligible items. Program officials in

FEMA’s ten regional offices identified a variety of options that, if implemented, could reduce the cost of the public assistance program, including placing limits on the appeals process, eliminating eligibility for some facilities that generate revenue, lack required insurance, or are not delivering government services, and limiting the impact of codes and standards.

Record Number: 523

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1998). Disaster Assistance: Information on Federal Disaster Mitigation Efforts. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Water Resources

and Environment, Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

enforcement, mitigation, risk assessment

Abstract: This testimony briefly discusses the reasons why disaster mitigation efforts are

not always undertaken by state and local governments and individuals, including local sensitivity to such measures as enforcement of building codes and land-use planning; conflict

between mitigation and development goals; and individuals’ perceptions that the possibility of a disaster’s occurrence is low. FEMA’s efforts to encourage mitigation include

grants and training for state and local governments, funding for mitigating damage to public facilities and purchasing and converting flood-prone properties to open space, federal

flood insurance, and programs targeted at reducing the loss of life and property from earthquakes and fires. The effort for ensuring the cost-effective use of federal dollars for hazard

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mitigation is hampered by the need for better data to estimate risks and by the fact that

funds for hazard mitigation are provided through several programs and

Record Number: 521

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Disaster assistance: FEMA can improve

its cost-effectiveness determination for mitigation grants. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Emergency Management, Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation

Abstract: The statement provides information on the approaches FEMA and the states use

to ensure that the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program's awards are targeted to cost-effective

mitigation projects. It presents the GAO’s findings as to whether the approaches ensure

that the mitigation measures are cost-effective. The GAO found that not all the states conducted cost-benefit analyses to determine projects’ cost-effectiveness. Although FEMA

does use cost-benefit analysis as its primary approach for ensuring cost-effectiveness, it

also exempts certain types of projects from this analysis because of difficulties in quantifying the benefits of some projects and the time needed to gather data for conducting the

analyses. The GAO determined that the hazard mitigation projects receiving the majority

of the funding are cost effective. However, projects receiving one-third of the funding were

exempt from cost-benefit analysis, despite the absence of established analytical basis supporting the exemption of the majority of these projects.

Record Number: 170

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Disaster Assistance: Opportunities to Improve Cost-effectiveness Determinations for Mitigation Grants. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

cost effectiveness, mitigation

Abstract: The GAO reviewed how FEMA, together with the state, ensures the costeffectiveness of projects under the mitigation grant program. GAO found that the states

and FEMA work together to help ensure that program grants are awarded for cost-effective

projects. The states in GAO’s review established procedures and priorities for identifying

and selecting mitigation projects, but not all states did a formal analysis of a project’s costeffectiveness before submitting an application for the project to FEMA.

Record Number: 520

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Flood insurance: Information on Financial Aspects of the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before the Subcommittee

on Housing and Community Opportunity, Committee on Banking and Financial Services,

House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

actuarial soundness

Abstract: The statement provides information on three main areas related to the financial

condition of the NFIP. First, GAO reports that the NFIP has experienced losses from

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floods that were greater than the premiums collected from policyholders and that cumulative operating losses totaled about $1.56 billion during the six-year (1993-98) period. Second, two major factors contributed to these financial difficulties: the program is not actuarially sound because it does not collect sufficient premium income to build reserves to

meet the long-term future expected flood losses, and the cost of multiple-loss properties to

the program is large. Third, the FIA has studies under way to assess the economic impact

of eliminating subsidized flood insurance rates for policies covering certain structures, and

it has taken other actions recently (i.e., mitigation strategies to reduce or prevent future

losses due to floods) that may affect the program’s financial health.

agencies.

Record Number: 169

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Tennessee Valley Authority: Future Study

of Lake Levels Should Involve Public and Consider Costs and Benefits. Washington, DC:

GAO.

Keywords :

cost-benefit analysis, Tennessee Valley Authority

Abstract: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a wholly owned government corporation has harnessed the Tennessee River and its tributaries to serve various purposes, from

recreation, to flood control, to the production of hydroelectric power. Thirteen of TVA’s

projects along the river, known as multipurpose tributary projects, consist of dams and

lakes on the river’s tributaries, such as the Douglas and Cherokee projects, that provide

multiple public benefits. In operating its integrated system TVA often finds that the multiple purposes served by the project can conflict and/or compete with each other. This report

discusses: (a) the purposes served by TVA's multipurpose tributary projects and how TVA

operates them within its integrated system; (b) the operational changes TVA made to these

projects as a result of its December 1990 review of its project operations and the major

factors influencing these changes; (c) the steps TVA has taken since 1990 to address requests for changes in the way it operates these projects; and (d) TVA's plans for future

changes in the way it operates these projects.

Record Number: 451

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2000). Issues Related to the Development of

FEMA's Insurance Requirements. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords :

insurance regulation

Abstract: This report provides a description of the evaluation results of FEMA's efforts to

develop draft insurance regulations. The major findings are as follows: (a) FEMA took a

number of steps to obtain and incorporate input on the content of its draft and, based on

this input, made changes to its draft regulation; (b) FEMA failed to comply fully with Executive Order 12866 because it had not performed an analysis of the expected costs and

benefits of the draft regulation and had not prepared a comprehensive analysis of other alternatives; (c) many of the problems observed were related to processes FEMA followed in

developing draft regulations. The processes appeared to be the result of weaknesses in

FEMA’s internal rulemaking processes and procedures. For example, FEMA had not des174
ignated a regulatory policy officer, and its internal guidance and procedures governing the 

formulation of proposed rulemaking had not been updated in more than ten years. 

Record Number: 175

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2001). Flood Insurance: Emerging Opportunity

to Better Measure Certain Results of the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony

Before the Senate Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on

Appropriations. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords:

participation rates, performance goals

Abstract: In her testimony Ms. JayEtta Hecker, Director of GAO Physical Infrastructure

Issues, reports that while FEMA does have several performance goals used to evaluate the

NFIP’s effectiveness, the agency does not assess participation rates of residents living in

flood-prone areas. By collecting data on the number of insured and uninsured structures in

flood-prone areas, FEMA could assess how effectively the program is penetrating areas at

risk of flood damage and better target marketing efforts. However, Ms. Hecker points out,

“before participation rates can be used to measure the success of the NFIP, better data are

needed on the total number of structures in flood-prone areas.” Currently, data on the

number of structures are incomplete and inaccurate. She notes that FEMA is working to

improve the quality of these data.

Record Number: 25

U.S. Senate Bipartisan Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief. (1995). Federal Disaster

Assistance: Report of the Senate Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief. 104th Congress.

Keywords :

disaster assistance

Abstract: This report concludes that Congress needs to improve financial preparedness for

catastrophic events. It notes that Congress provided $3 billion to cover unmet costs in the

NFIP, excluding money spent to repair or rebuild damaged federal facilities. The report

contains information on federal disaster assistance programs and funding; assistance from

state and local funding and private insurance; the effectiveness of federal programs; and

proposals to modify federal disaster assistance; and options for modifying the budget process.

Record Number: 374

U.S. Senate, Committee on Banking and Currency. (1966). Insurance and Other Programs

for Financial Assistance to Flood Victims. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington,

DC.

NOTE: This report reproduces “A Report from the Secretary of the Department of Housing and Urban Development to the President, as required by the Southeast Hurricane Disaster Relief Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-339, 89th Congress, H.R. 11539, November 8,

1965.

Keywords :

history of flood insurance

Abstract: In response to a directive of the Hurricane Disaster Relief Act of 1965, a report

was compiled to address the need to provide flood insurance or other assistance following

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floods and other natural disasters. The report describes specific characteristics of floods

that require consideration for any proposed program. The report finds that floods are identifiable by specified local areas but unpredictable in terms of timing and magnitude and

ultimately inevitable. Any potential flood insurance program should consist of basic elements including accurate assessment of risks, compensation of risk bearers, subsidy of

premiums, if publicly desirable, incentives to policyholders to reduce risks, incentives to

states and local governments for wise management of flood-prone areas, and continuous

appraisals. The four program administrative options included a wholly private system

(“unlikely based on past experience”), private industry program with major federal help

(“most likely alternative, if mutually satisfactory terms can be agreed upon”) ; private industry operating government program (“raises questions of public policy”), and all federal

program (“would require relatively large federal administrative staff”). The final recommendations of the committee included the establishment of a NFIP with “government assistance or participation to the extent necessary to assure a workable method of pooling

risks, minimizing costs and distributing burdens equally among the property-owners protected by such insurance and the general taxpayers” in cooperation with state, local and

private industry. It was recommended that the existing federal flood program be modified

to meet the necessary elements reviewed in the report. Controls in assistance for uninsured

residents of a flood disaster were noted, with the recommendation for further study.

Record Number: 349

Ullmann, Owen. (2000). Facing mother nature’s fury: Despite danger and potential cost,

people “build castles in the sand.” USA Today, July 24.

Keywords :

coastal development, erosion, property damage

Abstract: The population of coastal counties (41 million) has outpaced total U.S. population growth by 15 percent, according to USA Today. As developers fill in wetlands, more

structures are becoming vulnerable to storm surges. A FEMA report estimates losses at

nearly $1 billion a year from damage due to erosion and rising sea levels. Disaster experts

predict that property damage in coastal areas could soar from an average of $5 billion a

year during the 1990s to $50 billion a year by 2030, with the taxpayers paying most of the

cost. Deductibles for private insurance coverage are also higher. More hurricanes are expected. Other threats include a rising sea level, beach erosion, inland flooding, and

evacuation gridlock.

Record Number: 351

Ullmann, Owen. (2000). Growth pressure keeps building. USA Today, July 27.

Keywords :

Barrier islands, coastal development, South Carolina

Abstract: Developers in Folly Beach, SC, won the right to build more houses on this fragile barrier island. Efforts by city and state officials to limit growth led to a series of legal

battles with property owners, who are encouraged to build by taxpayer-financed disaster

aid and beach replacement efforts. In one court ruling, the city lost a battle to halt deve lopment of the island’s northeastern tip. Residents want to build seawalls and have the

Army Corps of Engineers build groins, which environmentalists say could harm a nearby

pelican preserve.

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Record Number: 348

Ullmann, Owen. (2000). High-risk life, high expense to taxpayers federal disaster aid

makes it feasible to build in harm's way. USA Today, July 24.

Keywords :

Coastal Barrier Resource Act, coastal development, mitigation

Abstract: Federal disaster programs inadvertently encourage people to build in high-risk

coastal areas, and taxpayers pay most of the cost ($5 billion a year). FEMA has tried to

block federal spending, but Congress has been reluctant to make reforms. Congress also

rejected FEMA’s request for more funds for a project that requires property owners to elevate properties to make them less flood-prone. One proposal would allow no more than

two claims (repeat claims account for 36 percent of all payments), and others would bar

insurance for vacation homes and rental properties. Environmentalists want to ban people

from building close to the shore, but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states must compensate owners by paying the market value of their land if they ban development on private property. The Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982 was designed to discourage development on sections of barrier islands, but it spurred development in other coastal locations, creating expensive communities.

Record Number: 347

Ullmann, Owen, Paul Overberg, and Rick Hampson. (2000). Growth reshapes coasts: A

wave of development overwhelms the shore. USA Today, July 21.

Keywords :

Development, Massachusetts, South Carolina

Abstract: USA Today examined development in 1,000 counties along the Gulf and East

coasts and found them growing significantly faster than the rest of the country in population, employment, and gross domestic product. One in 7seven Americans live along the

East and Gulf coasts, and beach economies are growing fast as jobs, businesses, and services follow this migration. Urban planners say that growth along these coasts will continue

for 10 to 20 years, fed by demographic, economic, and social trends, such as the aging of

the baby boomers with financial resources to fulfill their retirement dreams, telecommuting

opportunities, improved transportation, and the quest for a better lifestyle. The article discusses the changing character of Cape Cod, MA, and Beaufort County, SC, with some attendant problems such as lack of affordable housing, water pollution, and strains on local

government.

Record Number: 15

Van Putten, Mark. (1997). Seeking solutions to the floods of tears. National Wildlife,

35(Aug./Sept.), 5.

Keywords :

buyouts, development

Abstract: The author contends that encouraging development and rebuilding in areas with

a high risk of future disaster fosters long-term reliance on government. The author proposes buyout programs to transform flood-prone neighborhoods into open space. The

author argues that buyouts can shift people to higher ground, are fiscally responsible, and

produce real environmental benefits.

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Record Number: 139

Van Putten, Mark. (1999). Higher ground. Bioscience, 49(10), 759.

Keywords :

floodplain management, wetlands

Abstract: This article presents the author’s opinion regarding floodplain management in

the United States. He discusses the impact of more intense and numerous hurricanes on the

environment of floodplains, the effect floodplain loss has on wildlife, and the efforts of the

U.S. Emergency Wetland Reserve Program to preserve these areas.

Record Number: 118

Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. (1999). Options for State Flood Control Policies

and a Flood Control Program. Waterbury, VT: Vermont General Assembly. Vermont

Agency of Natural Resources. Department of Environmental Conservation, Water Quality

Division.

Keywords :

floodplains, Vermont

Abstract: This report focuses, primarily, on how Vermont should prepare for floods, prevent flood damage, and clean up after the flooding is over. The study reports that the NFIP

has worked well in the state. Little flood damage has occurred to structures built under this

program. The shortcomings of this program are that it is not in effect in all Vermont towns

and, where it is in effect, it does not cover all flood-prone areas. The program does well

with mapping flood-prone areas adjacent to larger rivers and streams, but it does not account well for flooding in smaller tributaries and flooding that results in the formation of

ice jams or debris jams. This report suggests a more aggressive application of the FEMA’s

1995 mitigation policy that provides federal funding for building more expensive, but

properly designed, replacements for inadequate structures (undersized culverts, etc.) lost or

damaged during floods.

Record Number: 267

Vlachos, Evan. (1995). Socio-economic Impacts and Consequences of Extreme Floods.

Paper presented at the U.S.-Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts,

and Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy.

Keywords :

development, socioeconomic impacts

Abstract: The author argues that population, expansion, rapid urbanization, the increasing

occupation of floodplains, and competing and conflicting developmental demands have

exacerbated the impacts of floods on society and the environment. He contends that floods

as a sociological phenomenon extend beyond hydrological conditions. The author argues

that there is a need for more integrated, anticipatory and far-reaching water policies and

strategies.

Record Number: 104

Wahl, Richard W. (1994). The Mississippi flood. Environment, 36(5), 2-4.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993

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Abstract: The author comments on the “The Challenge of the Mississippi Flood,” by

Myers and White (1993) in Environment. He contends that unless the incentives that have

been associated with floodplain management and assistance are modified, the U.S. public

is doomed to revisit expensive relief efforts as often as disasters occur. The author points

out that implicit in much of Myers and White’s article is that, although federal objectives

should be different (more focus on nonstructural measures and restoration of wildlife

habitat), federal expenditures should play a prominent role. The author contends that if incentives are properly structured, however, many of these programs would not be federally

funded at all. The author claims that “most of the structures and lands affected by last

summer's floods are privately owned, and private insurance should be priced to cover the

appropriate level of risk. Forcing the adoption of private insurance would likely spawn entirely new creative approaches to reducing risks.”

Record Number: 105

Warrick, Joby. (1999). Seeking an end to a flood of claims. National Wildlife, 37(4), 30-4.

Keywords :

buyouts, repetitive losses

Abstract: The author reports that some communities in the United States are opting to

move homeowners to higher ground, after years of repeatedly rebuilding houses. He identifies U.S. states and territories with repetitive flood-damage claims, and discusses criticisms

against the NFIP. The author draws on a study performed by the National Wildlife Federation (Higher Ground) to contend that restoring floodplains to their natural function helps

limit the damage from future floods, while protecting water quality and creating prime

space for recreation and wildlife. The author complains that “old habits are dying slowly,”

but argues that things are changing: “last summer, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

broke with decades of flood-fighting tradition by announcing plans to promote buyouts and

wetlands restoration.”

Record Number: 381

West, Carol T. and David G. Lenze. (1994). Modeling the regional impact of natural disaster and recovery: A general framework and an application to Hurricane Andrew. International Regional Science Review, 17(2), 121-50.

Keywords :

economic impacts, Florida, Hurricane Andrew, modeling,

Abstract: Two common features of natural disasters are intense regional impact and the

call immediately after the event to estimate the economic impact of recovery and reconstruction. The broad purpose of this paper is to help fill the gap in the regional science literature that addresses this issue. Initially, the impact estimation problem is presented conceptually. Using a general regional model, direct disaster impacts on exogenous variables,

endogenous variables, and model linkages are identified. The conceptual problem is

adapted for practical application. This translation has two aspects: (a) modifying the direct

impacts for a specific model (common variants from the schematic are considered) and (b)

estimating those impacts from available data. One component of the latter identifies primary sources of information typically available at the time of a natural disaster and indicates how secondary data may be used to complement, cross-check, and expand those data.

A second component identifies areas of no information or high uncertainty and discusses

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treatment of that information gap in empirical analysis. A final section applies the research

to the problem of estimating the impact of Hurricane Andrew on Florida’s economy.

Record Number: 164

Whipple, William J. (1969). Optimizing investment in flood control and floodplain zoning.

Water Resources Research, 5(4), 761-6.

Keywords :

structural controls, zoning

Abstract: This article compares floodplain zoning against structural flood control. The

author observe that optimization of investment between these alternatives requires consideration of project-induced development (economic development that would not occur if the

project were not built) and site income (the return to the owner of new construction in the

floodplain net of the cost of development). The author claims that previously existing

methods that do not account for damages to project-induced growth may give unduly high

cost-benefit ratios. The author expects that a combination of flood control and zoning will

be most productive.

Record Number: 504

White, Gilbert F. (1994). Decision or procrastination in floodplain management. Water Resources Update, Autumn (97), 52-5.

Keywords :

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation

Abstract: In order to avoid a repetition of the Midwest floods of 1993 or in other regions

of the nation, we will have to act positively on at least five major issues. First, the operating policies of federal agencies must be coordinated with each other and with the integrating role on the ground of appropriate state agencies. Second, the present policies of providing federal disaster relief will need to be revised to emphasize mitigation. Third, government and private insurance against flood losses must be offered in a more coherent

fashion. Fourth, the prosecution of federal and cooperative programs for management of

the floodplains and watersheds must be planned upon the basis of integrated criteria and

studies that take account of the natural values of wetlands and floodplains. And last, we

need a more discerning and continuing executive and legislative audit of how well policy

directives are translated into action.

Record Number: 81

White, Gilbert F. (1999) Water Science and Technology: Some Lessons from the 20th

Century.

Keywords :

Hurricane Fran, regulations

Abstract: The author presents criteria that he believes would, if applied, lead to the selection of high-priority goals for achieving wise management of water resources. He states

that the science and technology community needs to address systematically, and with increasing intensity, at least four deficiencies in water and related environmental management. First, there is a need to fully recognize the complex social aims that are inherent in

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managing any one resource or combination of resources. While public policy is slowly

coming to take account of the many social and environmental relationships, it still largely

ignores some of them, particularly at the intersection of social and environmental systems.

Second, the criteria used to evaluate those relationships are frequently narrow, and while

measures such as flood damage reduction of the magnitude of communicable diseases are

used, they do not reflect other important costs and benefits needed to guide public policy.

Third, notwithstanding continued interest in comprehensive river basin planning and watershed studies, there still is no widely accepted national framework for planning and carrying out such studies in suitably delimited areas with responsible participation by representatives of a full range of concerned stakeholders, including citizens and local, state, and

national agencies. Fourth, even after a century of vigorous and promising activity in the

study and management of human interactions with water and other elements of the environment, the United States still lacks a program to appraise the results of such efforts rigorously in the lives of people and ecosystems. Severe problems of social organization and

process stand in the way of achieving such improvements in each segment of water management. In each there is need for imaginative research to extend the limiting conditions of

both organization and knowledge. The time is ripe for a unified effort.

Record Number: 325

White, Gilbert F. and E.J. Haas. (1975). Assessment of Research on Natural Hazards.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Keywords :

natural hazards, risk assessment

Abstract: This book focuses on natural hazards. It summarizes research on natural disasters in the United States, discusses future disasters, the nation’s response to extreme geophysical events, acceptable levels of risk, adjustment choices, possible improvements, application of research, methods of estimating research results, common adjustment research

themes, new research strategies, and last, hazards and their distinctive opportunities.

Record Number: 480

White House Office on Environmental Policy. (1993). Protecting America's Wetlands: A

Fair, Flexible, and Effective Approach. Washington, DC: White House Office on Environmental Policy.

Keywords :

wetlands

Abstract: The policy positions contained in this paper strongly support the effective protection and restoration of the nation’s wetlands, while advocating much-needed reforms to

increase the fairness and flexibility of federal regulatory programs. Five principles for federal wetlands policy were proposed: (a) the Clinton administration supports the interim

goal of no overall net loss of the nation’s remaining wetlands and the long-term goal of

increasing the quality and quantity of the Nation's wetlands resource base; (b) regulatory

programs must be fair, flexible, and predictable and must be administered in a way that

avoids unnecessary impacts on private property and the regulated public; (c) nonregulatory programs must be encouraged; (d) the federal government should expand partnerships with state, tribal, and local governments, the private sector, and individual citizens

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and approach wetlands protection and restoration in an ecosystem/watershed context; and 

(e) federal policy on wetlands should be based on the best scientific information available. 

Record Number: 429

White, W.R., ed. (1990). International Conference on River Flood Hydraulics. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: Hydraulics Research Limited.

Keywords :

hydraulics, modeling

Abstract: This book documents the proceedings of the International Conference on River

Flood Hydraulics in Wallingford, England. The purpose of the conference was to promulgate new ideas and to bring together international experts in the field. The aim of the conference was to link current experimental and analytical research to the needs of engineering practice. The topics selected for the conference covered areas of international research

interest and practical importance with a view to providing a forum for advancing the art of

river engineering. The major topics covered by the conference were: (a) flood analysis and

prediction; (b) field data; (c) hydraulics of flood flows; (d) sediment transport and morphological effects; (e) physical and numerical modeling; and (f) engineering design, maintenance, and operation of schemes.

Record Number: 21

Wild, Richard A. (1989). Disseminating flood hazard information at the local level: An

approach for the 1990s. In Floodplain Harmony. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado,

Institute of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information

Center.

Keywords :

community awareness, floodplain management, mapping, risk assessment

Abstract: A new mechanism is proposed for achieving community awarenessdevelopment of a state-by-state database to coordinate flood hazard information and to facilitate dissemination of that information. The NFIP was created to mitigate future flood

losses and to provide protection for property owners from potential losses. The NFIP was

established as a risk assessment and mapping program, and the data generated as part of

this program were to be used to develop actuarial flood insurance rates and local floodplain

management programs. Technological advances in the field of computer science have facilitated the cost-effective accumulation, manipulation, and transfer of database information and the production of reports by noncomputer-literate people. An inventory of Letters

of Map Amendments (LOMAs) and Letters of Map Revision (LOMRs) was prepared

based on fill, which is an example of the type of information that could be included in the

comprehensive database. The inventory was developed as information that could be

merged into the digital system of street addresses being investigated by FEMA. In the future, additional mechanisms will be developed for identifying, compiling, and disseminating available flood-hazard-related information that will be included in the proposed comprehensive database of flood hazard information from federal, state, and local sources. At

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the discretion of FEMA, the databases will be compiled in the following order: (a) LOMRs

not based on fill; (b) physical map revisions; and (c) federal insurance studies.

Record Number: 379

Wind, H.G., T.M. Nierop, C.J. de Blois, and J.L. de Kok. (1999). Analysis of flood damages from the 1993 and 1995 Meuse floods. Water Resources Research, 35(11), 3459-65.

Keywords :

mitigation, modeling

Abstract: This paper addresses uncertainties pertaining to damage assessments made for

the flooding of the Meuse River in 1993 and 1995. The analysis is based on flood damage

data that were collected by damage experts and consist of large sample sizes within each

municipality. The most interesting aspect of these two floods is that although the volume

of flooding and the inundated area were comparable in order of magnitude, the flood damage estimates in 1995 were 35 percent lower than in 1993. The authors concluded that part

of the reduction in flood damage during the 1995 flood was due to a reduction in the damage to household goods. This may be explained by a marginal increase in flood warning

time and experiences gained from the flood of 1993. As flood damage assessments are the

cornerstone in the evaluation of mitigation schemes, empirical data of previous floods

should be used to improve the foundations of the methods to assess flood damages.

Record Number: 486

Wright, James M. (1994). Coping with the flood: The next phase. Water Resources Update, Spring (95), 5-10.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: The article describes the evolution of approaches to floodplain management in

the United States. The evolution has come from the gradual merger of three policy streams

- flood control, resources protection, and disaster assistance - and it includes a shifting of 

responsibility from the state and local level to the federal level. Recent accomplishments 

include the employment of new approaches and programs to deal with flood problems, the 

emergence of the NFIP as the dominant federal activity for dealing with floods, and growing public awareness. The author recommends six general areas for improvement in the 

future: (a) achieve a proper accounting of flood risk in decision making; (b) further investigate flood loss reduction and resource protection strategies; (c) build floodplain management capability at all government levels; (d) achieve the intent of the NFIP; (e) avoid political responses to flood disasters; and (f) employ new approaches. 

Record Number: 140

Wright, James M. (2000). The Nation’s Responses to Flood Disasters: A Historical Account. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers.

Keywords :

floodplain management

Abstract: This report explores the forces and events that have shaped floodplain management policy and practice. It begins in the early 19th Century, with the debates about federal

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involvement in flood control. It then documents the Flood Control Acts of 1917, 1928, and

1936, with the federal government assuming an ever-larger role. As the United States became more urbanized, the potential for flood damage increased faster than it could be controlled, and a broader approach to the problem became necessary. The Tennessee Valley

Authority, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, and several states all played roles

in establishing regulations for floodplain management. In 1968 Congress established the

NFIP, and with it began, among other things, national floodplain mapping, stricter land-use

regulations, buyout programs, and the privatization of some flood insurance policies. In

1987 the Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force initiated an assessment

of the nation’s program for floodplain management. The assessment was completed in

1992 with the publication of a two-volume report, Floodplain Management in the United

States: An Assessment Report, and based on the report, the Task Force developed a revision to a Unified National Program for Floodplain Management in 1993 to reflect trends

affecting floodplain management, and to include findings in the 1992 assessment. Many

observers in the 1990s believed that still more changes were necessary in national policies,

as well as public awareness of the risks of living in flood-prone areas.

Record Number: 304

Yakowitz, Sidney. (1985). Markov flow models and the flood warning problem. Water Resources Research, 21(1), 81-8.

Keywords :

modeling

Abstract: Let {Yj} represent periodically sampled river discharge values. For simplicity,

say that a flood occurs at epoch n+1 if, for some fixed T, Y n+1 > T. Assume that at epoch

n, the decision maker must decide whether or not to issue a flood warning, this decision

being based on the past flow record {Y j} j,< n. Finally, assume that costs have been assigned to the two types of mistakes: the “false alarm” event and the event that a flood occurs when no warning was issued. It is argued that outside the Gaussian assumption, standard time series methodology is inappropriate for the flood-warning problem. The purpose

of this paper is to relate recent progress based on alternate principles. A noparametric inference procedure is described that converges to the optimal decision function for the flood

warning problem as the length of the historical record increases for any stationary G2-

ergodic Markov process. Under additional assumptions, rates can be established and shown

to be optimal in a certain sense. The new methodology is compared with autoregressive

moving average predictors on simulated and actual river flow data.

Record Number: 55

Zhao, B. and L.W. Mays. (1996). Uncertainty and risk analyses for FEMA alluvial-fan

method. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 122(6).

Keywords :

alluvial fans, Arizona, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: Alluvial fans along mountain bases pose quite interesting problems for the design of hydraulic structures and highway crossings and for flood insurance studies.

FEMA’s alluvial fan method is subject to uncertainties because it is an approximate

method. In this paper, Rosenblueth's point-estimate is applied to the alluvial fan method to

compute the mean and standard deviation for the 100-year discharge at any point on the

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fan and the mean and standard deviation for the fan area width. The mean and standard deviation for the 100-year discharge are used to obtain the risk that the 100-year discharge

will exceed the discharge capacity of hydraulic structures on the fan. The mean and standard deviation for the fan area width are used to estimate the risk that a given location on

the fan will be within the hazard flood zone. The HEC-1 rainfall-runoff computer model is

used to compute inputs to the FEMA method. The proposed uncertainty and risk analyses

are applied to an alluvial fan in north Scottsdale, AZ.

Record Number: 177

Zimmerman, Rae. (1979). The effect of floodplain location on property values: Three

towns in northeastern New Jersey. Water Resources Bulletin, 15(6), 1653-65.

Keywords :

New Jersey, property values

Abstract: The author says one way to evaluate the success of policies to reduce construction in the floodplain could be evaluated by comparing property values in and outside of

the floodplain. All other things being equal, if there is no difference in the values, then the

floodplain presents no deterrent to development. He evaluated the effect of flood hazards

on property values in three selected cities in New Jersey before the NFIP was fully operational in those communities. He found no significant difference in property values. The

author predicted that NFIP, by attempting to reduce incentives to development, “will be

facing a very difficult situation since part of its strategy involves altering the market

mechanism in such a way as to reduce the marginal value to new development relative to

the average value of existing structures in the floodplain” (p. 1664).

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