U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Germanium Recycling in the United States in 2000

By John D. Jorgenson

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196–V

Flow Studies for RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN the United States

III

Foreword

As world population increases and the world economy expands, so does the demand for natural resources. An accurate assessment of the Nation’s mineral resources 

must include not only the resources available in the ground but also those that become 

available through recycling. Supplying this information to decisionmakers is an essential part of the USGS commitment to providing the science that society needs to meet 

natural resource and environmental challenges. 

The U.S. Geological Survey is authorized by Congress to collect, analyze, and 

disseminate data on the domestic and international supply of and demand for minerals 

essential to the U.S. economy and national security. This information on mineral occurrence, production, use, and recycling helps policymakers manage resources wisely. 

USGS Circular 1196, “Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the 

United States,” presents the results of flow studies for recycling 26 metal commodities, from aluminum to zinc. These metals are a key component of the U.S. economy. 

Overall, recycling accounts for more than half of the U.S. metal supply by weight and 

roughly 40 percent by value. 

Charles G. Groat

Director
IV

Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................III

Abstract........................................................................................................................V1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................1

Global Geologic Occurrence of Germanium...........................................................1

Production and Production Processes......................................................................3

Uses..........................................................................................................................3

Prices........................................................................................................................4

Sources of Germanium Scrap .........................................................................................6

Disposition of Germanium Scrap....................................................................................6

Recycling Efficiency.......................................................................................................6

Infrastructure...................................................................................................................6

Processing of Germanium-Bearing Scrap.......................................................................7

Fiber Optics .............................................................................................................7

Polyethylene Terephthalate Catalyst........................................................................7

Infrared Optics.........................................................................................................7

Other Uses ...............................................................................................................8

Germanium Recycling Research and Technology Notes................................................8

Outlook ...........................................................................................................................8

References Cited .............................................................................................................8

Appendix—Definitions.................................................................................................10

Figures

1. Flow diagram showing U.S. germanium materials flow in 2000..........................V2

2. Graph showing U.S. germanium consumption, by end-use sector, from 1981 

through 2000............................................................................................................4

3. Graph showing annual average germanium metal prices from 1981 through

2000 .........................................................................................................................5

Table

1. Salient statistics for U.S. germanium scrap in 2000.............................................V1
V

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

metric ton (t, 1,000 kg) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)
V1

Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the United States

Germanium Recycling in the United States in 2000

By John D. Jorgenson

Abstract

This report describes the recycling flow of germanium in 

the United States in 2000, as well as other germanium material flow streams. Germanium was recycled mostly from new 

scrap that was generated during the manufacture of germanium-containing fiber optic cables and from new and old scrap 

products of germanium-containing infrared imaging devices. 

In 2000, about 11.5 metric tons of germanium was recycled, 

about 40 percent of which was derived from old scrap. The 

germanium recycling rate was estimated to be 50 percent, and 

germanium scrap recycling efficiency, 76 percent.

Introduction

This materials flow study of germanium includes a description of germanium supply and demand factors for the 

United States in 2000 to illustrate the extent of germanium 

recycling1 and to identify recycling flows. Figure 1 shows the 

germanium recycling flow and the distribution of domestic 

supply of primary and secondary germanium in 2000.

Although predicted to exist in 1864, germanium was not 

discovered until 1886 (Butterman and Jorgenson, 2005, p.1). 

It is a hard, brittle semimetal that first came into common use 

in the 1950s as a semiconductor material in radar units and as 

one of the materials from which the first transistor was made. 

Today, it is used principally as a component of the glass used 

in telecommunication fiber optics; as a polymerization catalyst 

for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is a commercially 

important plastic; in infrared night vision devices; and as a 

semiconductor and substrate in electronics circuitry.

Salient germanium statistics, presented in table 1, are 

based mostly on the germanium content of fiber optic materials, polymer catalysts, and electrical/solar panels. In 2000, 

about 8.7 metric tons (t) of germanium contained in old scrap 

was generated, and about 4.6 t of germanium valued at about 

$6 million was consumed. The old scrap recycling efficiency 

was calculated to be about 76 percent, and the recycling rate, 

about 50 percent. Germanium contained in new scrap consumed was about 6.9 t.

1

Definitions for select words are found in the Appendix.

Global Geologic Occurrence of Germanium

Germanium is a dispersed element. It occurs in trace 

amounts in many minerals, which include some of the common metallic ore minerals. In nature, it never exists as the 

native metal and is rarely found in commercial quantities in 

the few minerals in which it is an essential component. In the 

crystal lattice of such minerals, it substitutes for arsenic, gallium, silicon, tin, zinc, and other elements. In coal, germanium is associated with the organic rather than with the mineral 

component of the seams (Plunkert, 1985; Brown, 2002).

Table 1. Salient statistics for U.S. germanium scrap in 2000.

[Values in kilograms, contained germanium, unless otherwise specified]

Old scrap:

Generated1 ............................................................. 8,700

Consumed2 ............................................................ 4,600

Consumption value3 .............................................. $6 million

Recycling efficiency4 ............................................ 76 percent

Supply5 .................................................................. 9,200

Unrecovered6 ......................................................... 2,200

New scrap consumed7 ............................................... 6,900

New-to-old-scrap ratio8 ............................................. 60:40

Recycling rate9 .......................................................... 50 percent

U.S. net imports of scrap10 ........................................ 1,900

Value of U.S. net imports of scrap ............................ $2.4 million

1

Germanium content of products theoretically becoming obsolete in the 

United States in 2000. It excludes dissipative uses.

2

Germanium content of products that were recycled in 2000.

3

Unit value of contained germanium in materials used in calculating total 

value of contained metal in scrap. 4

(Old scrap consumed plus old scrap exported) divided by (old scrap generated plus old scrap imported). 5

Old scrap generated plus old scrap imported. 6

Old scrap generated plus old scrap imported minus old scrap consumed 

minus old scrap exported. 7

Including prompt industrial scrap, but excluding home scrap.

8

Ratio of quantities consumed, in percent (see appendix). 9

Fraction of the germanium apparent supply that is scrap, on an annual 

basis. 10Trade in scrap is assumed to be principally in old scrap.
V2 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GERMANIUM DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GERMANIUM Release of Government stocks Imports of wrought germanium Old scrap generated 8.7 Old scrap supply 9.2 Old scrap exports Old scrap imports Unrecovered old scrap 2.2 Net change in germanium products reservoir +1.5 Exports of germanium- bearing metal/alloys Exports of germanium in finished goods Fabrication 28.0 Domestic production of germanium materials Process losses Germanium products to U.S. market 11.6 New (prompt) scrap generated Dissipative uses 6.9 11.6 3.95.6 17.0 28.0 45.0 10.2 8.7 0.5 2.4 2.2 4.6 2.8 3.5 1.4 6.9 Imports of unwrought germanium 4.2 23.0 Old scrap consumed 4.6 New (prompt) scrap consumed 6.9 Figure 1. U.S. germanium materials flow in 2000. In metric tons of contained germanium.
GERMANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2000 V3

The mean germanium content of the Earth’s crust lies in 

the range of 1.0 to 1.7 parts per million (ppm) and is usually 

placed at 1.4 or 1.5 ppm. Its mean concentration in igneous 

rocks is 1.0 to 1.6 ppm and in sedimentary rocks, excluding 

coal, 0.4 to 2.2 ppm; in some coals, its mean concentration is 

about 5.5 ppm (Weeks, 1973; Bernstein, 1985).

Ore deposits in which germanium is found are characterized by abundant base metals, especially zinc and copper. The 

most commercially important germanium-bearing ore deposits 

are zinc or lead-zinc deposits formed at low temperature, such 

as those in the Tri-State District of Kansas, Missouri, and 

Oklahoma and in the upper Mississippi Valley region. Some 

complex copper-arsenic-antimony-tin deposits, such as those 

at Butte, Mont., and Chuquicamata, Chile, also contain significant germanium, although it is not always recovered (Butterman and Jorgenson, 2005, p. 4-5).

Weeks (1973) listed 15 ore minerals in which germanium 

is present locally. The most important and widespread of 

these germanium occurrences are in the zinc sulfide minerals 

sphalerite and wurtzite (both ZnS) and less commonly in the 

copper minerals bornite (Cu5FeS4), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), 

enargite (Cu3AsS4), and tennantite (Cu12As4S13).

Most of the world’s supply of germanium is a byproduct 

of zinc smelting and a smaller amount derived from copper 

smelting; both sources reflect an origin in sulfide ores. Some 

germanium has also been extracted from fly ash at coal-burning powerplants in China, the United Kingdom, and the Commonwealth of Independent States.

In the United States, reserves of germanium are located 

mainly in the zinc deposits of the Red Dog District of Alaska; 

lesser amounts are found in the zinc ores of central Tennessee.

Production and Production Processes

Germanium is produced in the United States as a byproduct of base-metal mining, especially zinc, and as secondary 

product from scrap and waste. Germanium also has been 

recovered from mines that produce a germanium concentrate. 

In other countries, germanium also is recovered from fly ash, 

which is a product of coal combustion. All concentration of 

germanium is performed in other countries. Until recently, 

Pasminco Limited (Australia) mined germanium-bearing ores 

at its Gordonsville Mine in Tennessee. Pasminco sent a germanium-bearing concentrate from the Clarksville refinery in 

Tennessee to Belgium for further processing. (The Gordonsville Mine was closed in 2003, and no germanium-bearing 

materials are being produced.)

The Red Dog Mine of Teck Cominco Limited (Canada), 

located in northwestern Alaska, produces a germanium-bearing concentrate. This concentrate is sent to Teck Cominco’s 

Trail complex in British Columbia for processing. A large 

portion of the recovered germanium is converted to a germanium dioxide (GeO2

) solution and shipped to Japan as PET 

catalyst to be used in the plastic bottling industry.

The products of the different recovery processes that produce a germanium-bearing material are refined into the major 

germanium products—germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4), 

GeO2, first reduction metal, zone-refined metal, and single 

crystals. Germanium tetrachloride is distilled in a chlorinated 

environment from germanium-bearing residues and concentrates dissolved in hydrochloric acid. A series of fractional 

distillations then further purifies the crude tetrachloride.

Germanium dioxide is produced by the filtration and 

vacuum-baking of germanium hydroxide, which, in turn, is 

produced from hydrolysis of purified GeCl4. The burning of 

germanium disulfide can also be used to produce GeO2.

A first reduction metal is produced by burning GeO2 with 

hydrogen in a reducing environment. This produces a metal 

powder, which is melted and cast into ingots.

To produce an ultrapure germanium metal, which is used 

in electronic applications and for the production of single 

crystal germanium, first reduction germanium metal is “zone 

refined.” Passing the ingot through a series of induction coil 

heaters produces zone-refined polycrystalline germanium, 

which is the most widely traded germanium product. As the 

bar melts and resolidifies, the impurities are concentrated in 

the molten zone. The end of the bar that contains the impurities is then removed for reprocessing.

Single-crystal germanium, which is used in many critical 

electronic and infrared fiber optic applications, can be produced by two different processes. The vertical pulling process 

involves dropping a monocrystalline seed into molten germanium, rotating the crystal to maintain uniform temperature, 

and drawing the crystal slowly up through the melt as it is 

cooled. The horizontal pulling process entails the creation of a 

molten zone, which moves along from a monocrystalline seed 

to a polycrystalline rod lying in a graphite boat (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 1990; Thomas, 1997, p. 545-547).

Uses

Germanium has the following principal end uses: in the 

glass in telecommunication fiber optics, as a polymerization 

catalyst for PET, in infrared night vision devices, and as a 

semiconductor and substrate in electronics circuitry. In 2000, 

estimated end uses for germanium in the United States were 

fiber optic systems, 50%; polymerization catalysts, 20%; infrared optics, 15%; electronics/solar electrical applications, 10%; 

and other uses (mainly phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy), 5% (Brown, 2001). U.S. germanium consumption from 

1981 through 2000 is shown in figure 2.

Germanium owes its usefulness to at least five salient 

properties. First, as an intrinsic semiconductor, it will conduct electricity in the pure state, albeit poorly. Germanium is 

particularly effective as a semiconductor at high frequencies 

and low operating voltages. Second, germanium is transparent in the crystalline and glassy states to part of the infrared 

spectrum. Third, like silicon, it forms glass and is able to form 
V4 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

extended three-dimensional networks of germanium-oxygen 

tetrahedra that lack the long-range order of crystalline substances. Fourth, it has an exceptionally high refractive index. 

And, fifth, it exhibits low chromatic dispersion. These five 

properties, singly and sometimes in combination, determine 

the usefulness of germanium in electronic devices, solar power 

arrays, night vision devices, optical lens systems, and fiber 

optics. A sixth property, which is specific to a single but commercially important use, is the ability of germanium to catalyze the polymerization of PET without undesirable coloring 

of the plastic product.

Optical fibers are formed by the modified chemical vapor 

deposition process in a series of three stages. First, a hollow 

silica tube is heated, and a mixture of oxygen and germaniumand silicon-tetrachloride is passed through it; this process 

deposits a glass “soot” on the interior of the tube. Second, the 

temperature is increased, and the glass collapses into a “preform.” In the third and final stage, the preform is further heated 

and pulled into a thin optical fiber. Several of the advantages 

of the new technology of fiber optic communications compared 

with the old copper-wire technology include immunity from 

electrical interference; no crosstalk; fibers act as insulators even 

in high-voltage areas; bandwidths are increased to several gigahertz; the size and weight of cables are greatly increased, which 

improve ease of installation; and only a single fiber is required 

compared with the two-way circuit required to complete copperwire-based communications (Crisp, 2001).

Prices

In the mid-1970s, electronic-grade silicon substituted for 

germanium in diodes, rectifiers, and transistors. The resulting 

loss in germanium demand, however, was more than offset by 

its increased use in fiber optic communication networks and 

infrared night vision systems. The net increase in germanium 

demand led to tight supply and a surge in prices.

Events that had some impact on the price of germanium 

during the 1990s included vigorous demand for fiber optics 

in the telecommunications sector, growth in the use of germanium as a catalyst in PET, discovery of additional practical 

uses for infrared technology, and sales of germanium from 

the National Defense Stockpile (Brown, 1999). Increased use 

of germanium as a polymerization catalyst in PET, continued 

growth in fiber optic applications, and production shortages 

led to a significant spike in the germanium price in 1996. The 

telecommunications industry was experiencing strong growth, 

which was demonstrated by the increasing use of germanium 

in fiber optic applications. The releases of germanium from 

stockpiles in Russia, Ukraine, and the United States that resulted from a lowering of world military tensions stabilized the 

price of germanium by the end of the decade.

Figure 2. U.S. germanium consumption, by end-use sector, from 1981 through 2000.

Other

Fiber optics

Radiation detectors

Electrical/solar panels

Infrared systems Semiconductors

Polymer catalysts

CONSUMPTION, IN METRIC TONS

1981 1982 1983 1984

YEAR

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

45.0

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
GERMANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2000 V5

Zinc mineral concentrates from some mines are the primary source of germanium, and the price for germanium products can be significantly affected by zinc production. In spite 

of this association with zinc, the price for germanium products 

generally follows the demand for the end use products in 

which it is consumed. The price of germanium metal products 

also depends on purity. 

Figure 3 shows trends in the annual average price of 

germanium from 1981 to 2000. Between 1994 and 1996, the 

price for zone-refined germanium almost doubled (in constant 

dollars), and production could not meet market demand, which 

resulted in sustained inventory reduction.

Not until 1995 were domestic producer prices for germanium metal and set higher than the until-then-record-high price 

levels established in late 1981, which were $1,060 per kilogram 

and $660 per kilogram, respectively. From 1981 to 1995, domestic producers significantly discounted prices in response 

to competition from imported materials. Producer prices for 

zone-refined germanium reached $1,375 per kilogram in 1995 

and $2,000 per kilogram in 1996. Producer prices for GeO2 rose 

to $880 per kilogram in 1995 and $1,300 per kilogram in 1996. 

By 1997, the producer prices had fallen back to $1,475 per kilogram for the metal and $950 per kilogram for GeO2

. In 1998, 

prices increased again to $1,700 per kilogram for germanium 

metal and $1,100 per kilogram for GeO2. In 1999, prices were 

reduced to $1,400 per kilogram and $900 per kilogram, respectively, owing to sluggish demand. In 2000, prices continued 

to fall, reaching $1,250 per kilogram for germanium metal and 

$800 per kilogram for GeO2, mainly owing to plentiful supply 

rather than lack of demand.

Free market prices for GeO2, as published in Metal Bulletin, began 2000 in the $680-to-$750-per-kilogram range and 

ended the year in the $620-to-$700-per-kilogram range. The 

price for Belgian-produced GeO2, as published in Metal Bulletin, remained at $750 per kilogram all year.

In 1998, germanium prices increased despite an oversupply (a result of slight decreases in world demand for optical 

fibers and PET) and an increase in total supply (owing to 

greater amounts of recycling and continued releases of germanium from national stockpiles in Russia, Ukraine, and the 

United States). This increase in price probably was owing to 

anticipated increase in demand in the satellite communications 

sector. In 1999, when demand did not increase, germanium 

prices began to fall. This same mechanism prevailed in 2000 

when demand in satellite applications again did not increase 

and prices continued to fall.

Figure 3. Annual average germanium metal price from 1981 through 2000. Values are shown in current and 

constant 1998 dollars per kilogram for zone-refined germanium metal at 99.9999% purity. Sources: Metals 

Week, 1980-93; Platt’s Metals Week, 1993-94; U.S. Geological Survey, 1997-2002. PRICE, INDOLLARS PER KILOGRAM

1981 1982 1983 1984

YEAR

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

Current dollars

Constant 1998 dollars
V6 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Sources of Germanium Scrap

The value of germanium is a driving force for its recycling. Optical fibers and fiber optic detectors, which are the 

major end uses, accounted for about 50 percent of the end-use 

market in 2000. The amount of germanium recycled from 

finished fiber optic components (old scrap), however, is very 

small because this source has not yet been fully developed. 

New scrap materials reclaimed at manufacturing plants that 

produce germanium-containing fiber optic components are a 

major source of germanium supply and are delivered back to 

germanium processors for recycling. Germanium tetrachloride is used mostly in the manufacture of optical fibers and 

fiber optic detectors for the telecommunications industry. 

Domestic fiber optic demand is dependent on the demand 

for improved telecommunications and the overall state of the 

high-technology portion of the U.S. economy. Optical fibers 

typically contain about 4 percent GeO2 by weight (Lucent 

Technologies, 1997). The use of fiber optics also is affected 

by the perceived importance of increased speed, capacity, and 

clarity to the telecommunications industry consumers. This 

translates into a replacement of older copper-wire-based systems by fiber-optic-based systems by cable companies, network providers, and telephone companies (Freudenrich, 2003).

Another source of germanium scrap is broken lenses and 

glass from night vision devices, but only 5 to 10 percent of 

this material is recycled. Substrates, which are used mainly 

in solar cells, also are recycled especially where round substrates are manufactured. Generally, 20 to 25 percent of the 

substrates are unusable and will be recycled in manufacture as 

new scrap. Additionally, these round substrates are trimmed 

to squares, and an additional 25 to 30 percent is recycled, thus 

bringing the total new scrap recycled in substrate manufacturing to around 50 percent.

A small percentage of workable used computers and other 

electronic goods is sold and reused through the secondary resale market and is donated to schools and nonprofit organizations. Demanufacturing, or the disassembly of obsolete products, is another method for recycling electronic equipment, 

which often contains minute amounts of germanium. In North 

America, more than 300 facilities break down such electronic 

equipment components as hard drives and circuit boards for 

their resale value. Such barriers to demanufacturing as the 

lack of an adequate collection infrastructure, limited markets 

for recovered materials, and products that are not designed to 

be disassembled and recycled often make germanium recovery 

at these facilities unprofitable. Shredding is another option for 

recycling computer and other electronic equipment. Components, which range from laptops to mainframes, can be shredded, and the materials, separated, although the low germanium 

content precludes its economic recovery. Shredding is an efficient way to recycle large volumes of computers (Recycling 

Today, 2000; Resource Recycling, 2000a, b; Bleiwas and Kelly, 2001; Metal Bulletin Monthly, 2001; Mossholder, 2001).

Disposition of Germanium Scrap

In 2000, the 4.6 t of germanium recycled or reused from 

old scrap represented about 10 percent of domestic germanium 

supply. Because the United States has no germanium mining 

industry, germanium-bearing old scrap is a welcome addition 

to the germanium supply chain (See Infrastructure section). 

Of the estimated 9.2 t of germanium contained in old scrap 

that was available for recycling in 2000, about 25 percent was 

unrecovered, about 50 percent was used for domestic germanium supply, and the remainder was exported. Most of the unrecovered material was in the form of finished fiber optic cables. 

Recycling of germanium from old and/or discarded germanium-containing fiber optic systems has not been developed or 

used to any significant degree (ASM International, 1998).

Recycling Efficiency

Recycling efficiency shows the relation between what is 

theoretically available for recycling and what was recovered 

and not recovered. This relation is defined as the sum of old 

scrap consumed plus old scrap exports divided by the sum of 

old scrap generated plus old scrap imports plus or minus old 

scrap stock changes, as applicable, and is expressed as a percentage. Most germanium is either recycled or reused in fiber 

optics in the form of soot material, off-specification preforms, 

and fibers, in night vision devices as broken lenses and glass, 

in plastic polymers as used food containers, and in semiconductor solar cells as trimmings from substrates. A germanium-recycling efficiency of about 76 percent was estimated 

to have been reached in 2000. The recycling efficiency would 

have been higher if a more concerted program to reuse germanium from its major end uses had been implemented (Thomas 

Shillinglaw, Corning Incorporated, oral commun., 2004).

Infrastructure

Although germanium-containing ore was mined in Alaska 

and Tennessee in 2000, no germanium-containing ore was refined in the United States in 2000. All byproduct germanium 

was exported as concentrates. Metal, alloys, and compounds 

were produced by the Electro-Optic Materials Department 

of Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. from reprocessed scrap, fly 

ash, germanium concentrates, and semirefined germanium 

materials. Cabot Corporation in Pennsylvania and Atomergic 

Chemetals Corporation in New York produced germanium 

from reprocessed scrap and semirefined imported materials.

Savage Resources Ltd.’s zinc refinery at Clarksville, 

Tenn., produced germanium-rich residues as a byproduct of 

the electrolytic refining of zinc during 2000. These residues 

were shipped to Union Minière SA’s Electro-Optic Materials 

Business Unit in Belgium where a refined germanium product 

was produced.
GERMANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2000 V7

The United States imports a significant amount of its 

germanium requirements. The U.S. International Trade 

Commission’s Harmonized Tariff Schedule System (HTSS) 

categorizes some selected germanium materials as germanium 

oxides, waste and scrap, wrought metal, and unwrought metal. 

In 2000, imports of germanium metal and alloys totaled 

about 8.2 t of contained germanium valued at about $9.2 million. Overall imports came mostly from Belgium and China, 

but smaller amounts also came from, in descending order of 

quantity, Russia, Germany, Japan, Ukraine, Canada, Israel, 

the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and France. Imports 

that were categorized as “waste and scrap” in the HTSS and as 

“old scrap imports” in figure 1 contained an estimated 0.5 t of 

germanium scrap; Canada and Russia were the major suppliers of this scrap. Unwrought germanium imports totaled 4.2 

t, most of which came from China, and wrought germanium 

imports amounted to 3.5 t, most of which came from Belgium. 

The HTSS combines germanium oxides and zirconium dioxide in a single group, but a rough estimate of germanium oxide 

imports can be made based on the price of these imports.

Exports of germanium metal and alloys were insignificant, but a large portion of the overall production of finished 

goods, such as fiber optics and infrared devices, was exported. 

Old scrap exports exceeded old scrap imports by 1.9 t.

Processing of Germanium-Bearing

Scrap

Recycling of germanium scrap is discussed under each 

end use topic below. In general, though, old and new scrap is 

sent back to the original plant to be remanufactured into new 

end forms. Many of the military night vision applications of 

germanium are sent to depots where they are separated into 

those to be reground or refinished by contractors and those 

that are too thin for another regrind. Those that are too thin 

are sent back to the original manufacturer for recovery and 

recycling.

Other old and new scrap from fiber optic applications, 

such as used or bad optical fiber, optical pieces, or ends, is 

sent back to the original manufacturer for reprocessing. The 

largest part of what can be considered new scrap is germanium 

chloride soot, which is captured in scrubbers and sent back to 

the original manufacturer for purification and reprocessing. 

Yield in production of fiber optic materials is estimated to be 

far less than 50 percent, and the balance of the material goes 

back to the manufacturer for reprocessing. New and old scrap 

from solar applications also is sent back to the manufacturer 

for reprocessing into final forms.

Fiber Optics

Although about 50 percent of the germanium consumed 

in the United States is used by the telecommunications sector, 

the amount of germanium recovered from obsolete fiber optic 

applications is small. The relative growth of the fiber optic 

telecommunications sector, the long life of fiber optic cables, 

and the lack of an improved substitute for fiber optic communication systems promote the continued use of germanium in 

fiber optic products.

The main reason for recycling most fiber optic scrap is to 

recover the contained germanium. There is value, however, 

in the recovery of other materials, such as soot material, offspecification preforms, and fibers. New optical fibers contain 

about 60 percent recycled material and 40 percent virgin material. Recovering of as much as 80 percent of the germanium 

in material sent back as scrap has been shown to be commercially feasible. Recycling has not been a major consideration 

since 2001 when fiber optic production slowed and the cost of 

recycled material was at or above that of virgin material (Dennis Thomas, Umicore USA Inc., oral commun., 2004).

A new process was developed in 1985 for the recovery 

of germanium from effluents generated in the production of 

optic fibers. A germanium filter cake was produced through a 

process that included a gas scrubbing unit and a recirculation 

unit followed by precipitation and filtration. This process was 

reported to recover greater than 95 percent of the unreacted 

germanium in the effluent stream (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 1990).

Polyethylene Terephthalate Catalyst

The processing of germanium-containing PET is not 

particularly difficult or complicated, but the quality of the recycled product is degraded. PET resins are recycled in Japan, 

but the original bottles, which had contained potable liquids, 

are then remanufactured for use with products not to be consumed internally (for example, bleach and shampoo) and in 

other product containers for external-use-only materials.

Domestically, the trend has been moving away from the 

use of germanium as a catalyst in PET plastics. There is very 

little if any recovery of this material as old scrap. New scrap 

in internal production amounts to approximately 5 percent of 

the total used in new manufacture.

Infrared Optics

As shown in figure 2, the use of germanium in infrared 

optical applications decreased drastically in the early 1990s. 

About 15 percent of the germanium that is consumed in the 

United States is in the infrared optics sector; the amount of germanium recovered from obsolete and broken night vision optical elements and other infrared optic devices is relatively small 

at between 5 and 10 percent of the contained germanium sold. 

The relative stability of the infrared optic market can be affected 

by new applications, such as the night vision systems provided 

on top-of-the-line cars, use in fire rescue and detection, and the 

use in military applications (Hindus, 2000; Truett, 2001).
V8 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Other Uses

Germanium is used in manufacture of electrical and solar 

cells for use in satellite communication systems. This end use 

has been hard-hit in recent years by the delay of satellite launch 

projects. In this application, rounded substrates are cut into 

rectangular shapes to be used on the outside of satellites as part 

of the solar energy generation subsystem. Original manufacture 

of substrates has an approximately 75-percent yield rate with 

approximately 25 percent of the substrates recycled as unusable. 

An additional 25 to 30 percent of the germanium used in these 

substrates is recovered as new scrap when the rounded portions 

of the substrates are trimmed to form rectangular surfaces.

Additional applications for germanium include the production of phosphors for use in metallurgy and chemotherapy. 

Although it is still a relatively minor end use, several manufacturers have begun the production of silicon-germanium (SiGe) 

chips for use in telecommunications and computing equipment 

(Bindra, 2000; Paul, 2000).

Germanium Recycling Research 

and Technology Notes

The Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement has reported a new process for the recovery of metals, 

including germanium that was developed by Met-Tech Systems 

Inc. This proprietary process is a liquid ion exchange that breaks 

down many metal complexes. The process begins by solubilizing 

the feed material or converting the material into a form that can 

be readily loaded onto an extractant. The metals can then be selectively loaded onto an organic phase. The aqueous and organic 

phases are separated by gravity in a settler. The individual metals are later stripped to high concentrations to produce a salable 

product. Once the metal has been stripped of the extractant, the 

organic phase is then recycled back to the metal extraction circuit 

for loading of additional metals (Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement, The, 1996).

Hydrometallurgical treatment of flue dusts from secondary 

smelters has yielded treatable residues that contain recoverable 

germanium. The process used by Hydrometal SA consists of 

repulping, leaching, purification, and cementation. Each of the 

processes after the leaching stage is followed by solid-liquid 

separation process. The final product is then a residue with recoverable germanium product (Goldschmidt, 1995).

Outlook

The 20-year pattern of U.S. germanium consumption is 

shown in figure 2. The principal current use (almost 50 percent) 

for germanium, as GeCl4 in the production of fiber optic components, mainly fiber optic cables, was expected to continue. 

This market sector was expected to be retarded by the slowing 

of growth in the telecommunications industry in the short run 

but was expected to continue steadily in the longer term. Development of germanium fiber optic recycling (old scrap) in 

the telecommunications sector, however, was very limited and 

represented a major potential for future germanium recycling. 

Germanium recycling in this area needed to wait for fiber optic 

systems to become obsolete and required technological change 

to become part of a total recycling concept for the telecommunications industry. This required time and major effort and cooperation between the germanium industry and future recyclers for 

the telecommunications industry.

References Cited

ASM International, 1998, Recycling and life-cycle analysis—

Recycling, in Metals handbook (2d ed.): Materials Park, Ohio, 

ASM International, p. 1182-1196.

Bernstein, L.R., 1985, Germanium geochemistry and mineralogy: 

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 49, p. 2409-2422.

Bindra, Ashok, 2000, Silicon-germanium technology is ready for 

prime time: Electronic Design, v. 48, no. 14, July 10, p. 62.

Bleiwas, D.I., and Kelly, Thomas, 2001, Obsolete computers, “gold 

mine,” or high-tech trash?—Resource recovery from recycling: 

U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 060-01, July, 4 p.

Brown, R.D., Jr., 1999, Germanium, in Plunkert, P.A., and Jones, 

T.S., comps., Metal prices in the United States through 1998: 

U.S. Geological Survey, p. 45-47.

Brown, R.D., Jr., 2001, Germanium: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral 

Commodity Summaries 2001, p. 68-69.

Brown, R.D., Jr., 2002, Germanium, in Metals and minerals: U.S. 

Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2000, p. 33.1-33.4.

Butterman, W.C., and Jorgenson, J.D., 2005, Mineral commodity 

profiles—Germanium: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2004-1218, 19 p. (Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/

of/2004/1218/2004-1218.pdf.)

Crisp, John, 2001, Introduction to fiber optics (2d ed.): Oxford, 

Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 78-80.

Freudenrich, C.C., 2003, How fiber optics work: Website at 

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/fiber-optic.htm. (Accessed 

December 29, 2003.)

Goldschmidt, Jean, 1995, Hydrometallurgical recovery of non-ferrous 

metals from secondary sources: International Symposium on 

Recycling of Metals and Engineered Material, 3d, November 12-15, 

1995, Point Clear, AL, p. 5-12.

Hindus, Leonard, 2000, New estimate—U.S. night vision surveillance 

devices to pass $750 million by 2004: Advanced Imaging, v. 15, 

no. 4, April, p. 38.

Lucent Technologies, 1997, Innovative germanium-recovery process 

from Bell Labs is economically and environmentally friendly: 

Atlanta, Ga. Lucent Technologies news release, October 16, 1 p.

Metal Bulletin Monthly, 2001, Electronic scrap—A growing 

resource: Metal Bulletin Monthly, no. 366, June, p. 21-24.

Metals Week, 1980-93, [Prices]: Metals Week, [various issues], 

[variously paginated].

Mossholder, Nelson, 2001, Recycling electronic scrap: Recycling 

Metals from Industrial Waste—A Three Day Short Course and 

Workshop with Emphasis on Plant Practice, Golden, Colo., 

June 19-21, 2001, Presentation, [unpaginated].

Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement, The, 

1996, Metal separation by liquid ion exchange—Environmental 
GERMANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2000 V9

technology profile: Web site at http://www.oceta.on.ca/profiles/

met-tech/metals.html. 

Paul, D.J., 2000, The physics, material and devices of silicon-germanium 

technology: Physics World, v. 13, no. 2, February, p. 27-32.

Platt’s Metals Week, 1993-94, [Prices]: Platt’s Metals Week, [various 

issues], [variously paginated].

Plunkert, P.A., 1985, Germanium, in Mineral facts and problems: 

U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 675, p. 317-322.

Recycling Today, 2000, Electronics recycling—Re-boot re-use 

recycle: Recycling Today, v. 38, no. 4, April, p. 48-56.

Resource Recycling, 2000a, Closing the circuit on electronics 

recycling: Resource Recycling, v. 19, no. 6, June, p. 22-27.

Resource Recycling, 2000b, Demanufacturing—The emergence of 

an urban industry: Resource Recycling, v. 19, no. 2, February, 

p. 36-38.

Roskill Information Services Ltd., 1990, The economics of 

germanium (6th ed.): London, Roskill Information Services, 

p. 7-15.

Truett, Ray, 2001, Raytheon cranks up night vision production: 

Automotive News, v. 75, no. 5920, p. 24.

Thomas, Dennis, 1997, Germanium and germanium compounds, 

in Fuel resources to heat stabilizers, v. 12 of Kirk-Othmer 

encyclopedia of chemical technology (4th ed.): New York, John 

Wiley & Sons, p. 540-555.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1997-2002, Germanium, in Metals and 

minerals: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, v. I, 

[variously paginated].

Weeks, R.A., 1973, Gallium, germanium, and indium, in Brobst, 

D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., United States mineral resources: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, p. 237-246.
V10 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Appendix—Definitions

apparent consumption (AC). Primary plus secondary production (old scrap) plus imports minus exports plus adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

apparent supply (AS). AC plus consumption of new scrap 

(CNS).

dissipative use. A use in which the metal is dispersed or scattered, such as paints or fertilizers, making it exceptionally 

difficult and costly to recycle.

downgraded scrap. Scrap intended for use in making a metal 

product of lower value than the metal product from which 

the scrap was derived.

home scrap. Scrap generated as process scrap and consumed 

in the same plant where generated.

new scrap. Scrap produced during the manufacture of metals 

and articles for both intermediate and ultimate consumption, including all defective finished or semifinished 

articles that must be reworked. Examples of new scrap 

are borings, castings, clippings, drosses, skims, and turnings. New scrap includes scrap generated at facilities 

that consume old scrap. Included as new scrap is prompt 

industrial scrap obtained from a facility separate from the 

recycling refiner, smelter, or processor. Excluded from 

new scrap is home scrap that is generated as process scrap 

and used in the same plant.

new-to-old-scrap ratio. New scrap consumption compared 

with old scrap consumption, measured in weight and expressed in percent of new plus old scrap consumed; for 

example, 40:60.

old scrap. Scrap that includes, but not limited to, metal articles that have been discarded after serving a useful purpose. Typical examples of old scrap are electrical wiring, 

lead-acid batteries, silver from photographic materials, 

metals from shredded cars and appliances, used aluminum 

beverage cans, spent catalysts, and tool bits. This is also 

referred to as “postconsumer scrap” and may originate 

from industry or the general public. Expended or obsolete 

materials used dissipatively, such as paints and fertilizers, 

are not included.

old scrap generated. Metal content of products theoretically 

becoming obsolete in the United States in the year of consideration, excluding dissipative uses.

old scrap recycling efficiency. Amount of old scrap recovered 

and reused relative to the amount available to be recovered and reused. Defined as [consumption of old scrap 

(COS) plus exports of old scrap (OSE)] divided by [old 

scrap generated (OSG) plus imports of old scrap (OSI) 

plus a decrease in old scrap stocks (OSS) or minus an 

increase in old scrap stocks], measured in weight and expressed as a percentage:

old scrap supply. Old scrap generated (OSG) plus old scrap 

imported (OSI) plus old scrap stock (OSS) decrease:

old scrap unrecovered. Old scrap supply (OSSu) minus old 

scrap consumed (COS) minus old scrap exported (OSE) 

minus old scrap stock (OSS) increase:

price. Unit value of contained germanium in materials used in 

calculating total value of contained metal in scrap.

recycling. Reclamation of a metal in usable form from scrap 

or waste. This includes recovery as the refined metal or 

as alloys, mixtures, or compounds that are useful. Examples of reclamation are recovery of alloying metals 

(or base metals) in steel; recovery of antimony in battery 

lead; recovery of copper in copper sulfate; and even the 

recovery of a metal where it is not desired, but can be 

tolerated—such as tin from tinplate scrap that is incorporated in small quantities (and accepted) in some steels, 

only because the cost of removing it from tinplate scrap 

is too high and/or tin stripping plants are too few. In all 

cases, what is consumed is the recoverable metal content 

of scrap.

recycling rate. Fraction of the apparent metal supply that is 

scrap, on an annual basis. It is defined as [consumption of 

old scrap (COS) plus consumption of new scrap (CNS)] 

divided by apparent supply (AS), measured in weight and 

expressed as a percentage:

scrap consumption. Scrap added to the production flow of a 

metal or metal product.

X

#/3/3%

/3'/3)DECREASEIN/33OR
INCREASEIN/33

X

#/3#.3

!3

OSG + OSI + decrease in OSS

OSSu - COS - OSE - increase in OSS