A Community Economic 

Development (CED) 

Training Guide 

for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Peace Corps 

2002 

 Information Collection and Exchange

Publication No. M0069 
Information Collection and Exchange 

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fellow development workers. 
A Community Economic 

Development (CED) 

Training Guide 

for 

Peace Corps Volunteers 

Peace Corps 

2002 

 Information Collection and 

Exchange 

Publication No. M0069 
Acknowledgments 

The CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers is one of the first technical training modules 

created for use primarily in community-based training (CBI) settings. It provides a format that can 

be used by Trainees working individually or with a trainer. The concept was created, content 

selected, and final writing by Ava Allsman, Small Business Development Specialist for the EMA 

Regional Assistance Unit in the Center for Field Assistance and Applied Research. Elizabeth 

Beach Hacking provided research and draft assistance. 
Contents 

Introduction 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating a CED Strategic Agenda 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction — 1 

INTRODUCTION 

This guide was developed specifically to show Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) 

why and how community economic development (CED) is used to improve 

individuals’ and families’ economic well-being. As you do the activities in this 

guide and read the text, you will discover the potential of CED in expanding 

communities’ economies and building the capacity of citizens to take 

responsibility for their own economic future. The guide is based on the 

experiences of CED groups that first became active in the United States in the 

1960s, the efforts of international development organizations, and experiences of 

Peace Corps Volunteers. 

A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers is presented in five modules. 

Module 1 Promotes an understanding of CED by contrasting its unique 

approach to a more traditional economic development approach. 

Core CED activities are explained to afford a fuller 

understanding of CED concepts. 

Module 2 Stresses the participation of citizens in CED and presents 

techniques to increase and maintain participation. 

Module 3 Discusses practical methods—gathering community information 

and decision-making techniques—for planning a CED strategic 

agenda 

Module 4 Discusses implementing a CED strategic agenda. 

Module 5 Provides an overview of participatory monitoring and evaluation 

and discusses its importance in building community capacity and 

in gathering information for project stakeholders and to improve 

the CED project. 

CED is a process by which communities enhance the quality of life of their 

residents by creating new community and business wealth and building the 

capacity of residents to take control of their own economic future. It is the 

second goal of CED, building residents’ capacity to take control of their own 

economic future, that makes CED a unique economic development strategy. 

CED’s capacity-building strategy is consistent with the following Peace Corps 

programming criteria: 

1. Increases local capacity. 

2. Strives to address expressed needs of those who have limited access to 

resources and opportunities. 

3. Seeks sustainable results that complement other development efforts. 

4. Enlists local participants as partners in developing, implementing, and 

assessing the project. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction — 2 

5. Considers gender relationships and promotes women’s participation to 

increase their status and opportunities. 

6. Places Volunteers at the local level where needs arise. 

As you approach your work with CED, whether you walk into a community that 

has never thought about how it can be proactive in improving its economic 

situation or a functioning CED group, you will be surprised at how many of the 

skills you already possess are useful in working in CED efforts. 

Each module in the series is similar to a travel guide. It provides an itinerary that 

leads you from one CED site to the next. These self-directed modules allow 

flexibility in both the time spent and the opportunities to explore areas that 

interest you. Experiential activities, included in each module, are structured to 

encourage adapting what you know and topics discussed in the modules to the 

local community’s economic environment. To maximize learning, you are 

encouraged to share your observations, experiences, and conclusions with your 

fellow travelers—other training participants, Peace Corps trainers, and staff. 

Travel guides often include sections on the local culture and some useful phrases 

of the local language. In A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers, 

key terms are defined and space is provided to write the local language 

translation. Questions highlighting cross-cultural issues are incorporated into the 

experiential activities. 

How much you learn during your visit to the world of CED is up to you. If you 

observe carefully, interact with the local people, and are open to new 

experiences, you will have a rewarding experience. PCVs want to learn about 

their host countries and to work with the citizens to improve the lives of 

individuals and families. As you journey through these CED training materials, it 

is useful to have a journal to record your observations, experiences, and 

thoughts; a camera; and an open mind. 

A mind is like a parachute—only useful if it is open.

HOW TO USE A CED TRAINING GUIDE FOR PEACE 

CORPS VOLUNTEERS

Learning is not a spectator sport! To learn you must be actively involved. Your 

host community is a place for discovery, a place for observing, experiencing, 

processing, and implementing your learnings. Even “what you think you know” 

needs to be reevaluated in your new cultural environment. 

Throughout these five modules are activities to promote community interaction. 

Adults learn best through experience—the most relevant experiences are in 

communities similar to those where you will live during your Peace Corps 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction — 3 

service. Many activities include community observation, information gathering, 

and/or involvement. 

Your technical expertise is nearly useless until you adapt and apply what you 

know to fit the local culture and you can share your knowledge and skills in the 

local language. 

At the beginning of each module is a list of objectives regarding: knowledge, 

skills, and attitude. These learning objectives point you in the right direction. 

After completing each module you should review the learning objectives to 

determine if you have understood the module contents and if you have mastered 

the knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In each module, you are reminded to 

analyze what you know and what you are learning in the context of local 

conditions. Technical training is not complete without the integration of 

language and culture. 

A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers is designed for the selfdirected adult learner. Self-directed does not mean you have to learn on your 

own, but rather that you take responsibility for mastering the knowledge, skills, 

and attitudes. Activities, case studies, and hands-on exercises in these modules 

are based on experiential learning methodology. 

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE 

An experience that activates the experiential learning cycle may come from your 

past, an activity in your host community, a simulation game, or a written case 

study in a module. 

Reflection is a special kind of thinking—it is both active and controlled. You are 

only reflecting as long as you stick to the problem or task at hand. Reflection is 

the kind of thinking that looks for the reasons for believing one thing rather than 

another, the kind of thinking that asks questions. It aims at making sense out of 

an experience. Practice reflecting on your experience, imagine the possibilities, 

and consider alternative meanings. 

 EXPERIENCE 

APPLICATION REFLECTION 

 GENERALIZATION 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction — 4 

Many Volunteers find that keeping a journal encourages reflective thinking. Try 

writing in a journal every day for two or three weeks to determine if this works 

for you. 

Socrates believed that it is through this kind of 

thinking [critical thinking, reflective thinking] that 

people shape their lives. 

He felt people need to think 

about what they do and why they do it, 

about what they believe and why they believe it. 

He said that a day should never pass without such 

questions and that a life without such questions 

is not worth living. 

— reprinted with permission from Boostrom, Robert. 

Developing Creative and Critical Thinking: an 

Integrated Approach. National Textbook Company, 

Lincolnwood, IL, USA. p. 4. 

During generalization, you expand on what you learned to fit new and different 

situations. Generalization is an especially relevant step in the experiential 

learning cycle for a PCV operating in a new and different country and culture. 

The last step of the cycle, application, requires that you use what you have 

learned. As you apply your learnings, you generate new experiences and the 

experiential learning cycle begins again. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction — 5 

As a self-directed learner, you are responsible for: 

• Thoughtfully reading the modules; 

• Actively participating in the suggested activities; 

• Engaging with community residents to learn about microenterprises 

in the local context; 

• Integrating cultural and language learnings to understand the 

technical subject matter in the local context; 

• Provocatively seeking additional information to understand the 

microenterprise topics; 

• Keeping an open mind to different ideas and ways of doing things; 

and 

 • Assuring that learning objectives are achieved. 

Enjoy your 

 community economic development 

journey! 

* * * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

INTRODUCTION 

The role of the trainer: The trainer is responsible for facilitating the learners’ 

understanding of community economic development (CED) by: 

• Identifying opportunities and materials to enable learners to experience, 

observe, and gather information related to the activities and topics; 

• Helping learners contextualize their experiences and observations based on 

the trainer’s understanding of the local environment and culture; 

• Encouraging learners to take an appreciative approach, looking for 

resources and strengths rather than problems and needs in their journey of 

discovery, and 

• Facilitating the processes of reflection, generalization, planning, and 

application, using the trainer's technical, cross-cultural, and country-specific 

expertise. 

How to use A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers: The modules 

are written for Peace Corps trainees and/or Volunteers (PCVs) who expect to 

work in CED through their primary assignment or in community outreach 

activities. These materials also should be useful for Peace Corps staff in 

understanding the development possibilities associated with CED. A CED 

Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers can be adapted for community 

partners and local development workers. 

A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers will be used most often 

during Pre-Service Training (PST) and In-Service Training (IST). Because the 

modules are designed for the self-directed learner, they can be adapted to a 

center-based, community-based, or hybrid training model. Also, Volunteers can 

use them for self-study anytime during their Peace Corps service, some sections 

can be used in CED Counterpart trainings. 

Although a training participant benefits from individual study, working with a 

small group is often more interesting, and sharing ideas deepens understanding. 

Interaction of a knowledgeable skilled technical trainer is not essential, but 

highly desirable. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

Trainer’s Notes, continued 

Writing training materials to fit every Peace Corps post and training situation is 

not possible. These modules are furnished electronically to facilitate making 

changes to better fit the local conditions, culture, and training model. We urge 

you to invest the time and effort to adapt A CED Training Guide for Peace 

Corps Volunteers. Work with the post’s programming and training staff to: 

• Rewrite sections not applicable to local conditions; 

• Add country-specific examples and graphics; and 

• Adjust activities to your training situation. 

Trainer’s notes are found at the end of each module. They include the 

following: 

• Overview of the topics covered in the module/activities to explain the 

reason for including the topics. 

• Time to complete the module/activities. You may need to adjust times to fit 

the training schedule. 

• Materials that should be on hand before starting the module/activities. 

• Preparation that should take place before beginning the module/activities. 

• Hints for debriefing and processing the learnings of the module/activities 

to assist trainers in guiding training participants through the reflection, 

generalization, and application steps of the experiential learning cycle. 

Through debriefing and processing the experience(s), a skilled trainer adds 

value to self-directed learning. 

At the beginning of the reader’s section of each module are knowledge, skills, 

and attitude objectives. The learning objectives are stated in behavioral terms 

and stress the application of learnings developed during the module. Application 

is the final step in the experiential learning cycle. Key terms, listed at the end of 

each module, include significant words and phrases defined as they are used in 

the module. Space is provided for the local language translation of each key 

term. Encourage training participants to seek help from the language staff in 

translating and learning the key terms. 

Listed at the end of each module are resources from the Peace Corps Information 

Collection and Exchange (ICE) Catalog and from select Internet sites. These 

readily available materials allow trainees and trainers to acquire additional 

information on topics covered in the module. 

Continued
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

Trainer’s Notes, continued 

The following training books, available from ICE, are recommended for A CED 

Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers trainers. 

The Art of Facilitation: How to Create Group Synergy. Dale Hunter, Anne 

Bailey, and Bill Taylor. (Fisher Books) 1995. 241 pp. (ICE No. TR114) 

 [Distribution to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 Provides an in-depth examination of the art of intervention and 

cooperative beliefs and values underlying facilitation for creating group 

synergy. The toolkit includes facilitative designs for workshops, 

meetings, projects, and evaluations. In addition, experienced facilitators 

offer a personal perspective on facilitation. 

101 Ways to Make Training Active. Mel Silberman. (Jossey–Bass Pfeiffer) 

1995. 303 pp. (ICE No. TR116) 

 Presents both fun and serious individual and group exercises to 

enlighten and deepen learning and retention in training sessions. 

Contains strategies and techniques to get active participation from the 

start and how to teach information, skills, and attitudes actively. 

Methods for Development Work and Research: A Guide for Practitioners. 

Britha Mikkelson. (Sage Publications) 1995. 269 pp. (ICE No. TR074) 

 Describes and analyzes different development research models, 

devoting special attention to the participatory approach, but also 

considering conventional and quantitative research methods that can 

complement this approach. Discusses the development issues that are 

being researched, with a separate chapter on poverty and gender 

analysis. Offers detailed information that can be useful in training field 

workers to do research. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Introduction TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

Trainer’s Notes, continued 

 Training Trainers for Development–Conducting A Workshop on 

Participatory Training Techniques. The CEDPA Training Manual 

Series Volume I, 1999. 92 pp. (ICE No. TR111) 

 [Distribution to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 Compilation of training activities that CEDPA has used in many 

programs to strengthen the training capacity of health, family planning, 

and other types of development organizations. Manual prepares 

managers and trainers to conduct interactive, learner-centered training 

of trainers. 

The Thin Book of Appreciative Inquiry. Sue Annis Hammond. (Kodiak 

Consulting) 1996. 61 pp. (ICE No. TR110) 

 Simple, practical explanation of Appreciative Inquiry and how to use it. 

Also includes useful information on project planning and 

nongovernmental organization development. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1 

Understanding 

CED
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 1

MODULE 1 

UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (CED) 

A VOLUNTEER’S STORY 

Developing a Community 

Kubease was considered a sleepy and not especially attractive village 

in the Republic of Ghana. The villagers are mainly small farmers, 

and a few have jobs in a nearby town. Bobiri Butterfly Reserve is 

situated two and one-half miles from Kubease; the road to the reserve 

passes right through the village. But residents derived very little 

economic benefit from the tourists and scientists who visited the 

reserve. 

A business Volunteer was the catalyst who changed the community. 

He formed a committee of nine villagers and introduced them to the 

possibilities for community economic development. An impressive 

entrance to Kubease with a welcome sign was erected. A tourism 

information center and toilet facilities were built. Houses were 

replastered, and a local artist painted murals depicting African lifestyles on some of the houses. Sidewalks were built, trees planted, and 

an open pavilion constructed. Village merchants learned what goods 

and services visitors like and how to provide customer service. A 

bicycle rental shop opened to serve those who came by bus and 

wanted to ride rather than walk to the butterfly reserve. 

Kubease has become a pleasant place where visitors stop and spend 

some of their money. Citizens enjoy both the new prosperity and 

improved community environment. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Community economic development is a process by which communities enhance 

the quality of life of their residents by creating new community and business 

wealth. CED concepts, and techniques to put these concepts into action, are 

presented through experiential activities, Volunteer stories, and readings. You 

will find out how Volunteers work with individuals and community groups to 

improve communities’ economies. By the time you finish this module you should 

have gained the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to: 

• Explain how CED differs from traditional economic development. 

• Describe a significant shift in development strategy that has occurred over 

the last several years. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 2

• Demonstrate ability to use strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats 

(SWOT) analysis for CED. 

• Identify five activities that a community might undertake to improve the 

quality of life of their residents by creating new community wealth. 

• Identify four activities that a community might undertake to build 

community capacity. 

CED—A DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 

The synergy of working with an entire community rather than individual 

businesses appears to leverage economic benefits. There is no single successful 

CED approach because communities differ widely in their geographic attributes, 

social organization, economic resources, structure, and capacity of their political 

institutions. Each community, therefore, has a unique set of economic 

development challenges—this makes working in CED interesting. 

Regardless of the community, several factors increase the likelihood of 

successful CED: 

• Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the local economy and its 

comparative advantages. 

• Local leadership that brings together the human knowledge and financial 

resources of three sectors of society: government, business, and the third 

sector (nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs). 

• Policies and programs that are planned around local needs and use local 

resources. 

• A development facilitator with the right attitudes, skills, and knowledge 

willing to assist the community. This could be your job as a Peace Corps 

Volunteer (PCV). 

“Nothing is permanent but change.” 

— Heraclitus, 500 BC 

A MINI HISTORY OF “THE FIELD OF DEVELOPMENT” 

The Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II is 

credited with launching “the field of development.” Shortly after the Marshall 

Plan was begun, a number of international organizations were established. One 

of these was the World Bank, then known as the International Bank for 

Reconstruction and Development. Established originally to facilitate the 

reconstruction of postwar Europe, the World Bank went on to provide aid for the 

development of what became known as the Third World. The United States 

Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Monetary 

Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), now 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 3

known as the World Trade Organization (WTO), were also established. In 

addition to these government-sponsored organizations, international NGOs such 

as Care, PLAN, and Save the Children grew substantially during the postwar 

period. 

The reconstruction process in Europe led development practitioners to believe 

that major infrastructure projects such as roads, dams, and other large-scale 

efforts were the most effective means to develop a society and a nation. What 

became apparent many years later is that the approaches used in Europe did not 

work when transferred to Third World countries. They had little effect on 

bringing developing countries out of poverty. 

The visions of the 1950s and 1960s for a better world—full employment, decent 

incomes, universal primary education, health for all, safe water supplies, stable 

populations, and fair terms of trade between rich and poor countries—have not 

yet been realized in the Third World. 

Practitioners have learned that to successfully develop the Third World requires 

not only addressing the infrastructure, but also requires a broader transformation 

that includes building the capacity of people, organizations, and communities. 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Statistics taken from the 1999 United Nations Development 

Programme (UNDP) Human Development Report:

More than 880 million people lack access to health services, 

and 2.6 billion lack access to basic sanitation. 

About 840 million people are malnourished; the overall 

consumption of the richest fifth of the world’s people is 16 

times that of the poorest fifth. 

Nearly 1.3 billion people live on less than a dollar a day, and 

close to one billion cannot meet their basic consumption 

requirements. The share in global income of the richest fifth of 

the world’s people is 74 times that of the poorest fifth. 

More than 250 million children are working as child laborers. 

Every year nearly 3 million people die from air pollution—more 

than 80 percent of them from indoor air pollution—and more 

than 5 million die from diarrhea diseases caused by water 

contamination. 

* * * * * * * * * 

The Cold War, too, affected development in many countries. Competition for 

allies between the Western and Eastern blocs influenced the type of development 

aid that was offered and the projects that were undertaken. Military advantages 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 4

at times were given greater consideration than the needs of the underdeveloped 

countries. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the end of the Cold War. 

Our understanding of the importance of civil societies has improved with the 

lessons learned as communist societies have moved toward open societies with 

free markets. Today, strategies that empower people to build civil societies are 

being incorporated into Third World development programs. 

Beginning in the 1990s and continuing today, globalization is a major force that 

affects Third World development. Globalization has been in fast forward, but the 

world’s ability to understand and react to it has been in slow motion. Global 

markets, new trading groups—the European Union (EU) and North American 

Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), for example—faster transportation, and the 

rapid flow of information are linking millions of people more closely than ever 

before. However, in less developed countries billions of people are not 

beneficiaries of globalization and in some cases are victims of globalization. 

From the time the Peace Corps was formed in the early 1960s through today, 

various development theories and approaches have emerged and been modified 

or discarded: Growth to Equity, Minimum Needs Programs, the trickle-down 

theory, the trickle-up theory, and Basic Human Needs Programs. In applying 

these theories and approaches, development professionals came to understand 

better and experienced some success. Today, development professionals are 

applying their experience to a range of new theories and approaches, such as 

participatory methods, environmentally sustainable programs, replicable 

projects, promoting civil societies, and many others. And they are still learning. 

What the development community has learned through the years is that 

fundamentally people develop themselves. They are not “developed.” 

The development field is wide and vast. Development is the building of latrines 

and a water supply system in small villages. Development is maternal and child 

health, reduction in communicable diseases, knowledge of nutrition, and more. It 

is education: preschool, primary, secondary, university, guidance counseling, 

sports, teacher training, and school management. It is economic development: 

generating new income, creating micro and small businesses, building employee 

skills, promoting the entrepreneurial spirit, and securing investment capital. 

The Peace Corps works at the grass-roots level where Volunteers can make a 

difference in communities through the building of human capacity. PCVs try to 

understand individuals and groups, learn their aspirations, and work with them to 

build lasting “good” change in their communities. Over the next two years as a 

PCV you can join with others working and learning in the dynamic and everchanging “field of development.” 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 5

ACTIVITY 1:1 

HOW INCREASING BUSINESS ACTIVITY 

MULTIPLIES COMMUNITY INCOME 

Note: It is more fun and makes for a more dramatic experience to use role play 

to illustrate the situations. 

Situation 1: 

Assume Mr. X brings home a salary of $100. His family lives in the community 

of Lalaville, which has no businesses. What is the increase in community 

income? ___________ 

Did you answer $100? You are right! 

Situation 2: 

Now assume a local store opens in Lalaville and Mr. X’s family spends $50 of 

his salary at the local store to purchase food and household supplies. The store 

owner and clerk live in Mr. X’s community. Of the $50 spent by Mr. X’s family, 

$4 is the profit of the store owner, $1 goes to pay the salary of the clerk, and the 

other $45 goes outside the community to pay for the merchandise. Mr. X’s 

family spends his other $50 outside the community to purchase a $10 school 

uniform for his daughter and a $40 chair for the family’s home. How much did 

Mr. X’s salary increase income in the community? ___________ 

Did you answer $105? You are right. 

Situation 3: 

Two more businesses open in Lalaville, a seamstress who makes school uniforms 

and a furniture maker. The seamstress makes a profit of $3 on each school 

uniform she sells for $10, and the furniture maker makes a profit of $5 on each 

chair he sells for $40. Both purchase their raw materials outside the community. 

How much did Mr. X’s salary increase income in the community if, in addition 

to his purchase at the local store, he bought the school uniform and chair locally? 

___________ 

Did you answer $113? You are correct. This is assuming that the store clerk, 

seamstress, or furniture maker did not make any purchases at the local store or 

from each other, which would slightly increase community income. 

Continued 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 6

Activity 1:1, continued 

Situation 4: 

Can you think of ideas for more businesses that would continue to circulate the 

funds in the community and would further increase the community’s income? 

Do you see that the more times earnings circulate in the community before they 

leave the community the greater the increase in community income? Economists 

call this the multiplier effect.

What about the income of people in neighboring communities? Doesn’t this 

strategy of keeping funds circulating in Lalaville deprive them of income? It is 

true that other communities will not receive the dollars as quickly. However, 

eventually the $100 will leave Lalaville, just as it did in Situation 1. Considering 

the time-value of money, neighboring communities are somewhat worse off. 

Discuss the following questions with your fellow trainees. 

 • What conclusions can you make about increasing the income of a 

community from the activity you just completed? 

 • What CED strategies might you suggest for communities based on your 

conclusions? 

Note: For possible answers to these two questions, see Activity 1:1 Sample 

Answers, at the end of this module. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 7

“When I was arguing that helping a one-meal family 

to become a two-meal family or enabling a woman 

without a change of clothing to afford to buy a 

second piece of clothing is a development miracle, I 

was ridiculed. That is not development, I was 

reminded sternly. Development is economic growth 

of the economy, they said; growth will bring 

everything. We carried out our work as if we were 

engaged in some very undesirable activities. When 

the UNDP’s Human Development Report came out, 

we felt vindicated. We were no longer back street 

operators; we felt we were in the mainstream.” 

— Professor Muhammad Yunus, Founder 

Grameen Bank, Bangladesh 

WHY CED IS UNIQUE 

Community economic development is an integrated holistic strategy that works 

at the community level to build citizens’ capacity to take control of their own 

economic futures. CED has been successful in alleviating poverty in both 

developed and underdeveloped countries. CED assists families in meeting some 

of their basic economic needs—paying the school fees for their children, gaining 

access to basic health care, and providing nutritious food for the family. CED is 

an approach that highlights community cooperation. It is extremely difficult for 

one person to create a better business environment. It takes a collective effort for 

businesses to thrive and the economic well-being of community members to 

improve. 

Study the following table to learn how CED differs from traditional approaches 

to economic development. Note how development lessons of the last 40 years 

have been incorporated into CED and how CED is consistent with the Peace 

Corps’ development strategy. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 8

CONTRAST BETWEEN 

COMMUNITY AND TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT 

Community Economic 

Development 

Traditional Economic 

Development 

Economic vision 

comes from: 

Residents seeking 

improvement 

Investors seeking profit 

Perspective: Long-term, sustainable, 

and fair to citizens 

Short-term profit 

Focus: The development process Products and results 

Overall goal: Development of people 

and communities and 

economic growth 

Economic growth in general 

Objectives: • Create jobs and benefits 

for residents 

• Improve income 

distribution 

• Produce goods and 

services for residents 

• Invest community 

resources in selfsustaining activities 

• Revitalize depressed 

local communities 

• Short-term profits (jobs 

and benefits are byproducts 

of seeking profits) 

• Produce economic activity 

• Invest community 

resources in whatever is 

most profitable 

• Promote growth in a costeffective manner 

Resources: Starts with local people 

and material resources 

Seeks least costly human 

and material resources 

Expertise: Supplements local 

experience and talents 

with outsiders 

Supplements outside 

expertise with local people’s 

experience and talents 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 9

Note: Community economic development (CED) and municipal development

(MD) have much in common. The distinguishing characteristic is who assumes 

leadership. In CED, citizen groups take responsibility for initiating economic 

development and partner with businesses and local government to achieve 

economic development. In MD projects, the local government is the most active 

player, and it seeks to enlist the assistance of businesses and citizens groups to 

develop the local economy and improve residents’ quality of life. 

A slightly expanded version of MD, local economic development (LED), 

includes regional governments or associations of regional municipal 

governments. The LED approach is similar to the MD approach; the primary 

leadership comes from regional governments or associations of regional 

governments. 

When PCVs and other development workers assist an MD project, they focus on 

strengthening the municipal government through such activities as improving the 

skills of municipal employees and the ability of elected officials to analyze 

problems, identify resources, make decisions, and provide leadership. When 

PCVs and other development workers facilitate CED projects, they focus on 

building the capacity of citizen groups to analyze problems, identify resources, 

make decisions, and provide leadership. 

MD and CED use many of the same strategies to achieve their goals: create 

business and provide business development services, improve infrastructure, 

train the workforce, improve education, develop public–private partnerships, and 

promote a spirit of cooperation. 

The CED approach is based on the assumption that development starts at the 

grass-roots level and the initiative, creativity, and energies of the people can be 

used to improve their own lives. It implies that through consciousness-raising, 

people at the grass-roots level can realize their own potentials. In an ideal

situation, the members of the community organize themselves in a voluntary 

democratic manner to: 

• Define their problems, assets, and aspirations; 

• Develop plans and strategies; and 

• Implement plans with maximum community participation to reap the 

benefits. 

CED ACTIVITIES 

The uniqueness of CED is its equally important goals of initiating economic 

growth and building community capacity. To better understand the core CED 

activities, we have divided them into those that primarily impact economic 

growth and those that primarily impact community capacity. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 10

CORE ECONOMIC GROWTH ACTIVITIES 

Increasing business activity: Because business is the engine of growth of a 

neighborhood, a town, or a city, CED efforts are directed toward: 

• Creating new businesses, 

• Renovating and expanding existing businesses, 

• Attracting new businesses, and 

• Assuring an adequate supply of local skilled workers. 

Micro and small businesses generate income and create jobs. CED groups 

support the start-up and growth of informal and small businesses through: 

• Provision of low cost nonfinancial services: information dissemination, 

technical assistance, management training, creation of networks among 

businesses, and access to markets. 

• Facilitating the availability of financial services (credit and savings) through 

the attraction and/or creation of credit unions, village banks, or other types 

of microfinance institutions. 

• Engaging as partners in major projects to organize business centers, 

business incubators, cooperatives, or business parks that benefit 

microenterprises and small businesses.

AN NGO’S PARTICIPATION IN CED 

To combat the unemployment and poverty that plague Boston’s 

Roxbury community, Nuestra Comunidad (Spanish for Our 

Community) Development Corporation launched a microenterprise 

initiative named Village Pushcarts in 1998. It purchased 10 pushcarts 

and rented them to residents. 

Pushcarts are one of the oldest, most successful forms of urban 

enterprise. They represent a CED strategy because they offer a unique 

competitive advantage: low-income entrepreneurs can start a business 

with limited capital, and brightly decorated pushcarts contribute to the 

commercial vibrancy and festive look of a community. 

Influencing national and international policies: One of the most important 

lessons that communities embarking on CED activities learn is what they can and 

cannot do. Although CED activities must be tailored to local comparative 

advantage, the activities still occur within both a wider national and international 

context—contexts that profoundly influence the effectiveness of CED efforts. 

The national government influences CED projects by making fiscal and 

economic policies that structure the economy, as well as by setting the nation’s 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 11

financial, legal, and physical infrastructure. National governments create the 

economic and political environment in which local economic development can 

take place and structure how the community accesses the national and global 

marketplace. Put simply, national governments set the tax, regulatory, and legal 

structure that shapes the overall national business climate, which helps or hinders 

business growth. 

High taxes and regulations place heavy burdens on businesses, especially small 

businesses. Taxes compete directly with money that a business would use to 

reinvest in the firm. Reinvestment creates jobs and expands the tax base through 

increased production and increased revenues. 

Although national policy impacts local economics, citizens groups and local 

governments may mitigate negative effects of national policy by acting as a: 

• Catalyst: Working to strengthen local governments by encouraging 

decentralized systems and national economic reforms.

• Team player: Understanding national economic policies and working with 

national officials to implement effective economic projects.

• Information and service provider: Providing services that help businesses 

navigate through the national tax and regulatory systems.

Improving infrastructure: Another factor to consider before embarking on a 

CED plan is the impact of infrastructure on the community’s economy. Local 

economic development is held back by inadequate infrastructure. Infrastructure 

is the foundation of a good business climate because it facilitates trade. The main 

components of infrastructure are: 

• A reliable transportation system means that companies can transport their 

products and receive materials. A good transportation system facilitates the 

movement of the labor force, allowing employees to get to work efficiently, 

thereby losing less work or production time. 

• Reliable and reasonably priced utilities are important to businesses and to 

citizens’ quality of life. 

• Telecommunication is a fundamental factor in the elimination of time, 

distance, and geography as barriers to market competitiveness and access to 

information. 

• Land management activities such as zoning, redeveloping blighted property, 

preserving historic landmarks, and offering land as a business incentive are 

approaches that have been used in CED. 

• Municipal services affect the quality of residents’ lives. Municipal services 

include fire, police, health department and emergency services, and garbage 

collection; they often serve as incentives for the creation, expansion, and 

attraction of business. These services create local jobs, and without these 

municipal services local economic development will not reach its potential. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 12

When CED efforts are successful, business activity increases, the tax base 

increases, and government can provide better services without relying on tax 

increases. 

The biggest obstacle to revitalizing infrastructure is the cost. Because 

infrastructure is a public good, investment in infrastructure remains, to a great 

degree, a public sector responsibility. However, CED players can make a 

difference by looking for creative ways for a community to improve its 

infrastructure and by facilitating partnerships between the government, business, 

and third sector (citizen groups or NGOs) to address infrastructure issues. 

Sustaining development: Sustainable development is defined as development 

that meets present needs without reducing the ability of future generations to 

meet their needs. Sustainable development provides a framework under which 

communities can use natural resources efficiently, create efficient infrastructures, 

protect and enhance quality of life, and create new businesses to strengthen the 

economy. Sustainable forms of development are oriented toward redevelopment, 

reuse, and recycling. 

CORE COMMUNITY CAPACITY-BUILDING ACTIVITIES 

Stabilizing distressed communities requires more than creating new business 

activity and decent housing. Part of what makes CED unique is the 

comprehensive economic development strategy that combines physical 

development activities with an array of capacity-building activities. Capacitybuilding activities build the ability of individuals and organizations to work 

together to take control of their economic future. Communities that have built 

capacity can turn their ideas into action. 

Expanding, diverse, inclusive citizen participation: Where capacity is being 

built, an ever-increasing number of people are included and participate in all 

types of community activities and decisions. 

Enlarging the leadership base: Community leaders that bring new people into 

decision-making are building community capacity. Also, providing opportunities 

to acquire skills and to learn and practice leadership is an important part of 

developing the community leadership base. 

Strengthening individual skills: A community that uses a variety of resources 

to create opportunities for individuals’ skill development is building community 

capacity in an important way. As individuals develop new skills and expertise, 

the capacity of both the individual and the community is increased. 

Creating a strategic community agenda: Creating a vision of the best future is 

one step in bringing a community together. When individuals and organizations 

consider future changes and plan together, the result is a strategic community 

agenda. Setting a community-wide agenda is one way to understand and manage 

change. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 13

Increasing the effectiveness of community organizations and institutions:

All types of civic organizations and traditional institutions—such as churches, 

schools, and newspapers—are the mainstays of community capacity building. 

When organizations and institutions are run well and efficiently, the community 

will be stronger. 

Using resources efficiently: Ideally, the community should select and use 

resources in the same way a smart consumer makes a purchase. Communities 

have to balance the use of resources today with the resource needs of future 

generations. A community faces many choices in allocating recourses. Which 

activities or projects will make the best use of scarce resources? Should the 

community seek external resources or rely on locally available resources? In 

most communities, human capital is the most readily available resource. People 

are a community’s most valuable resource!

The degree to which each community successfully promotes economic 

development depends on the community’s capacity to: 

• Understand the local economy, 

• Identify key goals, 

• Design doable activities and projects to achieve the goals, and 

• Provide leadership in mobilizing the people/resources of the local economy. 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Reread the Volunteer story near the beginning of this module. 

What were the simple things the community of Kubease did to 

bring additional income to the community? To improve the 

infrastructure? To improve the residents’ quality of life? 

* * * * * * * * * 

Now it is time to apply what you have just learned about CED and its core 

activities by analyzing a local community’s economic condition. SWOT 

(strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threat) analysis is a useful method to 

collect and organize information. You may have used this technique before to 

analyze a private business. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 14

ACTIVITY 1:2 

COMMUNITY ECONOMICS SWOT ANALYSIS 

Residents tend to focus on problems internal to their neighborhood or 

community when analyzing a situation. They often overlook the community’s 

assets or fail to consider the external environment in which the community 

functions. 

SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) helps 

residents take a more balanced look at their community. SWOT analysis forces 

residents to identify both strengths and weaknesses internal to the community 

and to look at opportunities and threats in the surrounding economic 

environment as well. 

Practice using SWOT analysis in small groups. If possible, ask some local 

residents and/or Volunteers who have been in the country for several months to 

participate. Choose a local community with which you are familiar, such as your 

training community. Use the form at the end of this activity to complete a SWOT 

analysis. 

1. List the strengths, which are located within the community and enhance its 

economic potential of the community. Examples: a stable local government is 

stable, workers are skilled, town is on a well-maintained highway. 

2. List the weaknesses, which are also located within the community but hinder 

its economic potential. Examples: Electricity goes off and on several times a day, 

most unemployed workers are unskilled, secondary school does not exist in the 

community. 

3. List the threats and opportunities. These are outside the community. 

Review the Core Economic Growth Activities and the Core Community 

Capacity-Building Activities in this module to determine if there are other ideas 

that should be included in your SWOT analysis. 

After completing the SWOT Analysis: 

• Look at each strength and determine at least one action to capitalize on the 

strength. 

• Look at each weakness and determine one action that could help eliminate 

the weakness. 

Continued 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 15

Activity 1:2, continued 

• Look at each opportunity and determine at least one action for the 

community to take advantage of the opportunity. 

• Look at each threat and determine at least one action to prepare the 

community to deal with the threat. 

SWOT analysis can be the first information-gathering step in designing a CED 

plan for a community. 

Who would you involve in conducting a community SWOT analysis? 

Continued 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 16

Activity 1:2, continued 

SWOT ANALYSIS 

INTERNAL 

Strengths: Weaknesses: 

EXTERNAL

Opportunities: Threats: 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 17

There are risks and costs to a program of action. 

But they are far less than the long-range risks 

and costs of comfortable inaction. 

— John F. Kennedy 

In your travels through the first CED module you encountered a mini lesson in 

the history of development and were introduced to the philosophy of CED and 

its core issues. You also practiced using SWOT analysis to analyze the 

economics of a local community. 

Before you put this module away, take a minute to look through the suggested 

ICE and Internet references in the Resources section at the end of the module. If 

you see something that interests you, ask your trainers if a copy is available or 

how you can obtain one. The Internet contains almost unlimited information on a 

variety of topics including development and CED. Unfortunately, Internet access 

is not yet available at all Peace Corps training sites. Check with your trainers to 

determine if this resource is available. 

As a final task, review the skills, knowledge, and attitude objectives at the 

beginning of the module. Test yourself. You are responsible for your own 

learning! Have you mastered the skills, knowledge, and attitude objectives? If so, 

Congratulations! 

If there are items you are unsure of or want to know more about: 

• Reread the material in the module. 

• Investigate the materials in the Resources section. 

• Discuss the material in this module with other trainees; share ideas and 

experiences. Volunteers come to the Peace Corps with various backgrounds 

and skills. You can learn a lot from your fellow trainees. 

• Talk to your trainers. They are one of your resources as you prepare for your 

Peace Corps assignment. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 18

KEY TERMS 

Key terms are defined as they are used in this module. A space is provided to 

write the translation of a word or phrase into the local language. Building a local 

language vocabulary of terms related to CED prepares you to function 

effectively in this area of development. Work with your language instructors to 

find the appropriate translation and definitions in the local language and build 

your technical vocabulary as you study this module. 

Capacity is the ability to put an idea into action.

Community is a group of people having interests, work, ownership, or 

participation in common. 

Community-based organizations (CBOs) are those whose mission is primarily 

focused to meet a specific social or human-service need within a given 

community. The need may be of national concern as well and, in fact, the CBO 

may be part of a national association. The difference is that the small 

organization within a community is focusing on a particular problem within the 

demographic context of its immediate environment. 

Community economic development is a process by which communities 

enhance the quality of life of their residents by creating new community and 

business wealth. 

Development is the process of making positive changes. When the number of 

life choices increases, development has occurred. 

Empowerment happens when people have the power to make their own choices. 

To become empowered people need to acquire the capacity to put their ideas 

into action and have the freedom to do so. 

Goals are broad statements of the desired changes that are expected to occur as 

the result of planned actions. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 19

Microenterprise is commonly considered a business with fewer than 10 

workers, including the owner (some definitions say five or fewer workers 

including the owner). Most microenterprises support only one family. 

Nongovernmental organization (NGO) is the most common name used 

internationally for an organization formed to help others that is not governmental 

or a for-profit business. 

Small business is commonly considered to have fewer than 50 employees. 

* * * * * * * * * 

RESOURCES

These resources are available through the Peace Corps Information Collection 

and Exchange (ICE). The citations are presented as they appear in The Whole 

ICE Catalog. 

Building Communities From the Inside Out: A Path Toward Finding and 

Mobilizing a Community’s Assets. John P. Kretzmann and John L. 

McKnight. (ACTA Publications.) 1993. 376 pp. (ICE No. CD051) 

 Guide to asset-based community development, summarizing lessons 

learned by studying successful community-building initiatives in 

hundreds of U.S. neighborhoods. Outlines what local communities can 

do to start their own asset-based development, including how to 

rediscover local assets; how to combine and mobilize strengths; and 

how “outsiders” in the government can effectively contribute to the 

process of asset-based development. 

Collaboration Handbook: Creating, Sustaining, and Enjoying the Journey. 

Michael Winer and Karen Ray. (Wilder Foundation.) 1996. 179 pp. 

(ICE No. CD053) 

 Gives expert advice on how to establish and operate a successful 

collaboration, including how to find and attract the right people, build 

trust, and change conflict into cooperation. Handbook includes 

numerous worksheets, sidebars, and tips for a successful collaboration. 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 20

The Cutting Edge: Small Business and Progress. Ernst A. Brugger, Jane 

Nelson, and Lloyd Timberlake. (McGraw Hill Interamericana in Chile.) 

1994. 170 pp. (ICE No. SB190) 

[Distribution to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 Explores the potential of small business to become the “cutting edge” of 

economic progress and development in Latin America. Straightforward 

description of the realities of small business and how the system can 

work against owners of small enterprises. Positive and optimistic look 

at the opportunities that small businesses can provide. Text includes 

excellent photographs and is bilingual (English and Spanish). 

Roles of the Volunteer in Development: Toolkits for Capacity Building. 

(Peace Corps ICE.) 2002. 225 pp. (ICE No. T0005) 

This unique publication is a series of toolkits that can be separated into 

seven booklets. The introductory booklet provides an overview of the 

Peace Corps’ philosophy of development, introduces the capacitybuilding roles a Volunteer might play, and then provides guidance for 

Volunteers in identifying what roles they will play. The other six 

booklets each address one of the roles: Learner, Co-Trainer, CoFacilitator, Mentor, Change Agent, and Co-Planner. In each booklet, 

there is a chart delineating the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed 

for the role; background readings on the role; and activities to learn 

more about and gain skills in carrying out the role. The booklets can be 

used as self-study, or used in conjunction with training sessions. 

Internet: 

www.undp.org — United Nations Development Program 

www.pactpub.com/PMEpdf.html — Participating Agencies Collaborating 

Together 

www.aed.org — Academy for Educational Development 

www.idealist.org — great information and links 

www.sid.org — Society for International Development 

www.devdir.org — The Directory of Development Organizations 

 A guide to microfinance institutions, small enterprise development 

organizations, NGOs/PDOs, development agencies, international 

organizations, private-sector institutions, banks, government ministries, 

universities, and development consulting firms. 

Many of these sites have links to other sites that will be helpful to your work. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) — 21

ACTIVITY 1:1 Reference 

SAMPLE ANSWERS 

Two conclusions can be drawn from the situations described. 

1. Bringing new money into a community increases community income; 

2. Circulating money within a community from one business to another 

increases community income. 

CED strategies include (1) identifying citizens’ needs to purchase goods and 

services and attracting businesses to the community to meet these needs, and (2) 

encouraging citizens to “buy locally” to keep money circulating in the 

community. 

In a healthy local economy, money circulates and recirculates. The benefits 

produced by these funds are retained within the community, making local people 

better off and economic growth possible. CED groups use both strategies to 

increase the income of community residents. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) 

 TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

MODULE 1 

UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT (CED) 

Overview: 

Training participants acquire an understanding of community economic 

development (CED) through readings and experiential activities. In the last part 

of the module, the Peace Corps Volunteer’s preferred role in CED as a catalyst/ 

facilitator in development is explained. 

Time: 

Reading 1 hour 

Activities and debriefing 3 hours 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, pens, markers, colored construction paper, scissors, colored 

pencils, large poster paper, note paper. Peace Corps Information Collection and 

Exchange (ICE) materials listed in the Resources section at the end of the 

module. 

Preparation: 

You are encouraged to adapt these materials to fit your local community 

economic conditions and training situation. Your experience as a trainer with 

first-hand knowledge of the training plan, the post’s projects, and the country is 

critical in adapting these CED training modules. 

As you prepare a training schedule for this first CED module, “Understanding 

Community Economic Development (CED)”: 

• Create situations where training participants can work with the community 

and listen to the community’s wants and aspirations. 

• Look for ways to integrate language, cross-cultural, health, and safety 

training with technical training. For example, host families are resources for 

technical training as well as language learning and cross-cultural 

understanding. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) 

 TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 1:1 

HOW INCREASING BUSINESS ACTIVITY 

MULTIPLIES COMMUNITY INCOME 

Overview: 

This activity illustrates for training participants how community income is 

increased when new funds are brought into the community and recirculated. 

Time: 30 minutes 

Materials: 

Photocopies of play local money. 

Note: Do not use photocopies of actual currency. This is illegal in many 

countries. Make your own play local money if none exists. 

Preparation: 

This activity will be more effective if you use the local currency, the name of a 

local community, and actual residents for Mr. X, the seamstress, and the 

furniture maker. Photocopy play local money to use in the role-play. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Discuss ways that local communities can attract new money and recirculate 

funds. How can PCVs work with community groups to facilitate these strategies? 

Concentrate on simple, doable suggestions. To help participants screen their own 

ideas, ask the following questions. 

• Is the activity one that community residents would want to do? 

• Will residents be able to see the results of the activity? 

• Is the activity financially doable? 

• Can the activity be accomplished in a relatively short time? 

• Which residents will the activity benefit? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) 

 TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 1:2 

COMMUNITY SWOT ANALYSIS 

Overview: 

This activity introduces a useful tool and provides participants an opportunity to 

practice its application using a local CED example. 

Materials: 

Flip charts and markers if participants want to share their SWOT analysis with 

the larger group. 

Procedure: 

• Have participants work in groups of two or three. If possible, ask some local 

residents and/or Volunteers who have been in the country for several months 

to participate. 

• Choose a local community with which participants are familiar. It may be 

your training community. 

• Use the SWOT analysis form provided or draw the form on flip charts. 

• List the community’s strengths, which are located within the community and 

enhance its economic potential. Examples: Local government is stable, 

workers are skilled, town is on a well-maintained highway. 

• List the weaknesses, which are also located within the community but hinder 

its economic potential. Examples: Electricity goes off and on several times a 

day, most unemployed workers are unskilled, secondary school does not 

exist in the community. 

• List the opportunities and threats. These are outside the community. 

• Ask participants to review the Core Economic Growth Activities and the 

Core Community Capacity-Building Activities in the module to determine if 

there are other ideas that should be included in the SWOT analysis. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 1: Understanding Community Economic Development (CED) 

 TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

Trainer’s Notes, Activity 1:2, continued 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

After participants have completed the SWOT analysis:

• Look at each strength and determine at least one action to capitalize on the 

strength. 

• Look at each weakness and determine one action that could help eliminate 

the weakness. 

• Look at each opportunity and determine at least one action for the 

community to take advantage of the opportunity. 

• Look at each threat and determine at least one action to prepare the 

community to deal with the threat. 

Discuss the use of SWOT analysis as a first information-gathering step in 

designing a CED plan for a community. (This idea will be expanded on in later 

CED modules.) 

Ask participants, “Who would you want to involve in a community SWOT 

analysis?” Encourage them to be inclusive and not just involve community 

leaders.
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2 

Citizen 

Participation in 

CED
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 1 

MODULE 2 

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN CED 

A VOLUNTEER’S STORY 

Coordinating the Public, Private, 

and Community Sectors 

A business Volunteer in Slovakia is assigned to the SOTDUM 

voluntary association and microregion. The association, comprised 

of eight villages and the city of Topolcany, was brought into being in 

1996 with the assistance of the Slovak Ministry of Agriculture in a 

program intended to revitalize rural villages. The microregion’s 

villages stretch along the valley below the Povazskym mountain 

range and enjoy a clean and beautiful natural environment. 

The association’s goals are (1) to support and encourage strong 

civic life and local democracy; (2) to pursue development in the 

context of the microregion’s specific economic, cultural, historical, 

and social contexts; (3) to develop and diversify the microregion 

economically; and (4) to pursue sustainable and environmentally 

sound development. SOTDUM does this concretely by focusing on 

three areas: small business development, the development of rural 

tourism, and cultural and historical preservation and education. 

Current projects include the development of a bicycle route 

connecting much of the microregion, preservation of the Topolcany 

castle ruin, and a project where grandparents go to schools to share 

the history of the region. SOTDUM, in conjunction with the city of 

Topolcany, is developing a tourist information center that will also 

serve local residents with Internet access and business information 

services. 

From time to time SOTDUM sponsors public events, such as a trade 

show, showcasing local businesses and their products as well as 

those of local craftsmen; an “unconventional boat” competition; and 

a national history and geography bee for sixth graders. 

The participants in this extended CED program assessed their 

communities, determined their goals, decided which projects were 

important, developed action plans, and are now in the process of 

implementing the projects. 

When the Volunteer arrived at her site the association was in 

operation. A significant part of the Volunteer’s job is coordinating 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 2 

the efforts of groups in all three sectors of society in the various 

villages and sharing project information between groups. Her latest 

activity involves the publication of a project newsletter to disseminate 

information on SOTDUM projects to all stakeholders. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Citizen participation is a critical factor in successful community economic 

development (CED). The materials and experiential activities in this module 

draw your attention to the importance of individual and group participation in 

CED. A number of specific techniques are described that can increase and 

maintain citizens’ participation. Seven commandments are included to help 

define the role of Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) in promoting participation. 

After completing this module, you will have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes 

to: 

• Explain the benefits and provide examples of how citizens can become 

involved in the CED process. 

• Describe actions a Volunteer could take to move community residents to a 

higher lever of participation. 

• Identify five activities a community might undertake to improve the quality 

of life of their residents by creating new community wealth. 

• Give examples of how each of the three sectors of society, government 

(public), business (private), and community (civil society) can participate in 

CED. 

INTRODUCTION TO PARTICIPATION 

Participatory planning, participatory monitoring and evaluation, and 

participatory analysis are the development methods being promoted in the 21st

century. There are good reasons for this emphasis on participation. Participation 

by project stakeholders, including beneficiaries, increases the odds that the 

project will meet local needs, will be culturally acceptable, will be able to 

mobilize adequate resources, and will be long-lived. 

To achieve CED goals of improving the community’s economic situation and 

building community capacity requires the participation of individual residents, 

organizations, and institutions. The experience of the Peace Corps and other 

development groups suggests that there is a significant correlation between the 

level and intensity of people’s engagement in a project and the impact of the 

development activity.

The CED journey is a group tour. Are you prepared to be a tour guide? As you 

navigate through your two years of Peace Corps service, your participation in 

CED will stay on course if you obey these seven commandments. 

• Do not do things for people. 

Do help them do it themselves and learn. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 3 

• Do not assume people should do things the way we do them in the U.S. 

What works for us may not work for them. 

Do respect local values, traditions, and ingenuity. Treat them as 

building blocks, not impediments. 

• Do not try to push people beyond a pace and scale that exceeds their 

technical and managerial capability. 

Do establish realistic expectations about the type and amount of 

progress that can be achieved within a given time frame. 

• Do not establish a relationship based on your being more knowledgeable or 

otherwise superior. 

Do establish a relationship based on a partnership approach in which 

you learn from each other. 

• Do not introduce technology that the people cannot operate, maintain, 

repair, and replace using their own financial resources. 

Do emphasize use of locally available resources, materials, and supplies 

when possible. 

• Do not base your ego fulfillment on how much material and economic 

progress you personally promote and get credit for. 

Do base your ego fulfillment on the progress people make in improving 

their productive capability and other social gains. 

• Do not assume a leadership style based on an authoritative, forceful 

approach. 

Do assume a leadership style that promotes the concept that when the 

task is done the people say, “We did it ourselves.” 

(Adapted from Naomi Till, Peace Corps/Nicaragua) 

The following activity shows how your approach to participation can affect an 

individual’s creativity and level of involvement. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 4 

ACTIVITY 2:1 

CONNECT THE LINES OR COMPLETE THE PICTURES 

Translate the instructions “connect the lines” and “complete the picture” into the 

local language. Make enough photocopies of the page with line drawings for 

each member of your host family, others you would like to have participate in 

this exercise, and yourself. 

Cut the sheets in half. Give participants, including yourself, the top half of the 

page and ask them to connect the lines. When they have finished, give them the 

bottom half, and ask them to complete the pictures. Share both drawings with 

others in the group. 

Discuss how each participant felt connecting the lines and completing the 

pictures. 

• Which task did people enjoy more? 

• Which of the two tasks were participants more excited about? Why? 

• Which of the two instructions led to creative involvement from participants? 

Learnings: 

What did you learn from this exercise? Typical conclusions from this exercise: 

 Connect the lines requests a limited amount of participation and that is 

what you usually get. People commonly look for the line that is missing and 

fill it in. 

 Complete the picture encourages individuals to visualize what might be, 

what can be created starting with a few simple lines. This instruction is more 

empowering. 

Note how merely changing the instructions affected the results. 

What generalizations can be made about how participants are asked to become 

involved in an activity? 

How can you apply what you have learned when requesting citizens’ 

participation in CED activities and projects? 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 5 

Activity 2:1, continued 

CONNECT THE LINES 

Translation: 

COMPLETE THE PICTURES

Translation: 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 6 

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION 

CED success depends on active group participation. Organizing a CED activity 

on your own is not impossible—just very difficult. As individuals, we can make 

a difference, yet when we gather many individuals together, the results are 

greater than the simple sum of individual accomplishments: 

(1 + 1 + 1 + 1 > 4) 

Synergy is the term used to describe the power of a group. CED by its very 

nature includes many players, and at the core are community members working 

together for the betterment of the whole. 

A critical element of CED is 

people’s participation. It has 

emerged over the years as one of the 

key ingredients in development. 

Evidence indicates that long-term 

economic and sustainable 

environmental success comes about 

when people’s ideas and knowledge 

are valued and power is given to 

them to make decisions. 

This is the context in which 

development professionals are 

shifting focus from a macro model 

to a micro model, from working with 

large international organizations and 

governments to working with 

indigenous community-based 

organizations (CBOs) and 

nongovernmental organizations 

(NGOs). The shift is away from 

doing for others, telling others, and 

establishing projects and programs 

for other people to a participatory 

approach that builds human 

capacity. 

The participatory approach evolved 

over the past decade as a means to 

help people take greater control of 

their lives and their environment by 

developing skills in identifying 

assets, problem solving, and 

resource management. 

» 

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»

HIGHEST LEVEL OF 

PARTICIPATION

Self-Mobilization

People participate by taking 

initiatives to change systems 

independent of external 

institutions.

Interactive Participation

People participate in joint 

analysis, which leads to action 

plans and the formation of new 

local institutions or the 

strengthening of existing ones. 

Functional Participation

People participate by forming 

groups to meet predetermined 

objectives related to the project.

Participation by Consultation

People participate by providing 

resources, for example, labor in 

return for food, cash, or other 

material incentives.

Participation in Information 

Giving

People participate by providing 

information to outsiders by 

responding to questions filling 

out questionnaires and surveys, 

or similar approaches. 

Passive Participation

People participate by being told 

what is going to happen or has 

already happened. 

LOWEST LEVEL OF 

PARTICIPATION 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 7 

The term participation has different meanings for different people. One core 

activity in CED is to move citizens to higher levels of participation. To learn 

about people’s current participation comfort level, conduct the following 

activity. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 8 

ACTIVITY 2:2 

LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION 

Use this activity at your training site to gauge residents’ level of participation. 

Practice the activity with your fellow training participants, instructors, and/or 

host family members. 

Procedure: 

• Explain that the activity helps the group understand how each member feels 

about community participation. 

• Provide paper and drawing materials. Ask individuals to draw a picture 

illustrating their understanding of community participation. Allow them 

about 10 minutes to draw. Explain that if they feel they can’t draw, they can 

use stick figures. 

• Ask individuals to share their drawings and describe how they see 

community members participating. Can you identify which level of 

participation, based on the discussion above, individuals are expressing in 

their pictures? 

• Consider combining the drawings into a group mural. Be creative; make the 

mural a work of art. Display it in a common area as a reminder of the value 

of participation.

• In debriefing the activity, engage the group in a discussion of what needs to 

happen to move them to a higher level of participation. Explore cultural 

norms that may affect the participation of certain community members. Use 

these insights into participation in planning and implementing CED 

activities and projects. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 9 

TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING PARTICIPATION 

Why do people participate in CED? People join in community efforts for various 

reasons and to receive different kinds of benefits. Some participate because of 

issues that interest them. Others participate for personal or social reasons. And 

others participate for a combination of all three reasons. The leadership style and 

the “climate” of an organization also influence to what degree people participate. 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

What motivates you to participate? When you became 

involved in an organization or group, what motivated you—its 

cause, the opportunity to associate with people you enjoy, a 

chance to contribute, personal benefit, or other? Why did you 

decide to participate in the Peace Corps? Analyzing your 

motivation for participation is a first step in understanding what 

motivates others to participate. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Do not expect everyone to always participate. The important thing is to leave 

“the door wide open” for participation by asking for ideas and input. An 

organization should not be a “one woman or man show.” Recognizing and 

addressing people’s concerns—family problems, busy schedules, and financial 

worries goes a long way toward maintaining healthy participation. 

Many people first join in a CED effort because they are concerned about a 

particular community issue, such as youth’s access to drugs, unemployment, or 

lack of municipal services. If the CED group is not addressing that particular 

issue or is not addressing it actively, these people are likely to stop participating. 

Also, when meetings are scheduled, the place, and the frequency may be factors 

in low participation. 

Set realistic expectations. This cuts down on frustration and discouragement 

because of low participation. 

1. People should be comfortable with the idea that everyone does not need to 

participate in the same way and assured that their contributions are valuable. 

2. You may not need large turnouts at every meeting. Set goals for attendance 

and participation based on the work that needs to get done. 

3. Establish a membership committee whose job it is to develop plans for 

recruiting new members. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 10 

4. Be realistic about what people can do, given the other responsibilities in 

their lives. Respect all contributions, no matter how small. 

Survey participants periodically to make sure the CED group is really 

representing people’s concerns and “the door is wide open” for participation. 

1. Conduct a survey to learn (1) which issues are the highest priority, (2) the 

best location, day, and time for meetings, (3) how individuals would like to 

participate, and (4) what skills and talents they are interested in contributing. 

2. The survey should be put together by representatives of the group and 

distributed door-to-door. 

3. Publicize the results of the survey. People need to know their voices have 

been heard. 

4. Conduct a survey periodically, say once a year, because communities 

change. 

Hold effective meetings to keep people involved. The opposite will cause 

people to drop out. 

1. Every effort should be made to have meetings start and end on time—on 

time has different meanings in different cultures. 

2. Agendas should be prepared and distributed in advance. Agendas send a 

clear message—something will happen as an outcome of the meeting. Get 

Have everyone agree on the agenda at the beginning of the meeting. 

3. Be clear about who should be at the meeting. Bored people do not stay 

involved. 

4. Do not hold unnecessary meetings. 

What follows is an example of an agenda designed to assure participants 

“Something will happen as a result of this meeting and your time will not be 

wasted.” Use it for ideas when you need to draft an agenda. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 11 

AGENDA 

Group/Meeting Name ______________________________________________ 

Date __________________ Time: from ___________ to ____________ 

Location: ________________________________________________________ 

Meeting Leader: __________________________________________________ 

Purpose: ________________________________________________________ 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

Desired Outcomes: ________________________________________________ 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

Action Plan to Achieve Desired Outcomes: 

What 

will be done? 

How 

will it be done? 

Who 

will do it? 

By what time? 

 

 

 

 

 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 12 

Organize visible activities to promote the work and progress of a CED group. 

1. Publicize the group’s activities and achievements, from the biggest to the 

smallest, in the media and/or in a newsletter. 

2. Examples of concrete and visible CED activities include festivals, street 

clean-ups, and historical markers. 

Schedule social time and social activities. Socialization creates a greater sense 

of involvement and is, in fact, a key reason why people join and participate in 

community groups. All work and no play makes for a dull group. 

1. Schedule social time at some point in meetings—most groups do it at the 

beginning or the end of the meeting. 

2. Form a social committee to plan not only social time at meetings, but also 

parties and other special events. These events might incorporate fundraising 

for the organization. 

Share resources and information with participants. This is a concrete way in 

which an organization can benefit its members. 

1. Publish lists in your newsletter of important phone numbers, organizations, 

and events that will be of interest to people and/or distribute these lists at 

meetings. 

2. Invite people from different agencies and organizations to meetings to speak 

on topics of interest. 

Develop new leaders. This avoids burnout of present leaders and encourages 

people to become more involved. 

1. Use a “buddy system” where current leaders work closely with new or 

potential leaders to pass on skills, knowledge, contacts, and commitment to 

CED projects. 

2. Find out about training workshops that would be helpful to new leaders and 

urge them to attend, or develop your own leadership training. Note: The 

Program, Design, and Management (PDM) workshops given by the Peace 

Corps are excellent for leadership training. 

3. When giving out work to new leaders, assign one task at a time, evaluate at 

the completion of each task, make suggestions and criticisms in private, and 

praise an individual’s effort in public. 

Show appreciation for work well done. This encourages people to continue to 

work with the group. 

1. Devote a column in your newsletter to publicizing people’s efforts. 

2. Give out certificates or awards at meetings and/or fundraising events. 

3. Praise people in private as well as in public situations. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 13 

Delegate “real” work to people. 

1. Break a job down into specific tasks; don’t give general assignments, and 

follow up after a task is assigned. 

2. Let people perform a task their own way, even if it is not how you would do 

it. Allow for mistakes—that is part of the learning. 

3. Do not set people up to fail. Make sure they have the ability and resources 

to do the job. 

4. Remember your role as a PCV—guide, but do not interfere. 

Be open to criticism. When people are invited to participate, they need to feel 

that they can criticize their organization and its leaders without being attacked. 

“Never doubt that a small group of 

thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; 

indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.” 

— Margaret Mead 

THE THREE SECTORS’ PARTICIPATION IN CED 

Participation of public (government), private (business), and civil society (third 

sector) organizations is essential to the success of CED efforts. Broad-based 

organizational participation provides the community with a wide range of 

resources and knowledge. It depoliticizes CED projects, thus allowing for their 

long-term sustainability. The increase in resources and sustainability bolsters the 

confidence of potential investors, thereby increasing the attractiveness of the 

community to businesses. 

The public sector consists of publicly (tax) supported governmental units. This 

sector includes: 

• Municipal governments; 

• Local representatives of national governments (i.e., agricultural extension 

offices or public health clinics); and 

• Schools and universities operated by the government. 

The private sector consists of for-profit businesses and their representatives. It 

includes: 

• Individual commercial businesses (ranging from one person vendors to large 

corporations); 

• Banks; 

• Chambers of commerce and other business support organizations. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 14 

The civil society (third sector) includes all those parties not in the public or 

private sector. It includes: 

• Individuals; 

• Churches; 

• Community-based organizations (CBOs); 

• Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); and 

• Schools and universities not operated by the government.
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 15 

ACTIVITY 2:3 

ANALYZING AN ORGANIZATION’S LEVEL OF 

PARTICIPATION 

Work with your Peace Corps trainers to arrange a meeting with representatives 

of a local community organization to learn about the nature of their organization 

and about how they involve stakeholders. 

Prepare in advance a set of questions you are interested in discussing. Ask your 

language teachers for help in translating these questions. Keep the questions 

appreciative and open-ended. Organizational representatives are likely to be 

better prepared and more comfortable with a set of discussion questions. Explain 

to the representatives that you have been reading about and discussing the 

benefits of participation and would like to learn from them how they encourage 

participation in their organization. 

Possible questions: 

• Who participates in your organization? 

• How do they participate? 

• What has your organization done in the past to encourage individual 

participation? What worked and what did not work? 

• Are you satisfied with the level of individual participation? If not, what 

actions are being taken to increase participation? 

• What factors do you feel limit people’s participation in your organization? 

• Are there organizations from other sectors of society that participate in 

projects and activities that your organization sponsors? If so, what is the 

nature of this participation? 

Look at the section on “Techniques for Increasing Participation” to get ideas for 

other questions. 

At the start of the interview, provide an opportunity for the representatives to tell 

you about their organization in general. People enjoy talking about their 

organizations, and this type of information provides a context for your 

understanding participation issues. 

Do not forget to show your appreciation for the representatives’ time and effort 

in some culturally appropriate way! 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 16 

Activity 2:3, continued

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Discuss with your fellow trainees and trainers what was learned from the 

interview. Do you feel the organizational “doors were held wide open” for 

participation? If no, why not? How do you suspect culture affects participation in 

the organization? If you were asked by leaders of the organization to propose 

actions to increase participation, what would you suggest? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 17 

 Are you convinced of the importance of participation in successful CED 

activities? Can you imagine how you will apply the 10 participation techniques 

discussed in the module when you arrive at your Peace Corps site? In the last 

part of this module, you looked at the role of the three sectors of society—

government, private, and civil society—in working together to grow a 

community’s economy and build a community’s capacity. 

You are responsible for your own learning. Have you mastered the knowledge, 

skills, and attitude objectives listed at the beginning of this module? 

Before you put this module away, take a minute to look through the 

supplementary references. If one interests you, ask your trainers if a copy is 

available at the training site or how you can get a copy. The Internet contains 

almost unlimited information on a variety of topics including CED. 

Unfortunately, access is not yet available at all Peace Corps training sites. Check 

with your trainers to determine if Internet access is available. 

* * * * * * * * * 

KEY TERMS 

Key terms are defined as they are used in this module. A space is provided to 

write the translation of a word or phrase into the local language. Building a local 

language vocabulary of terms related to CED prepares you to function 

effectively in this area of development. Work with your language instructors to 

find the appropriate translation and definitions in the local language and build 

your technical vocabulary as you study this module. 

Community-based organizations (CBOs) are local organizations, with a 

democratic governance structure, which provide members certain benefits 

because of their association with the organization. 

Empowerment enables people to make choices and take responsibility for their 

own lives. 

Nongovernmental organization (NGO) is the most common international 

name for an organization formed to help others that is not a government 

organization or a for-profit business. 

Participation is to take part in a meeting, activity, event, etc.—to be actively 

involved.
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 18 

Participatory is the process by which you engage others to share and encourage 

others to become actively involved. 

Synergy is a concept that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. As it 

applies to CED, synergy explains why five people working as a group can 

accomplish more than six people working individually. 

* * * * * * * * * 

RESOURCES 

These resources are available through the Peace Corps Information Collection 

and Exchange (ICE). The citations are presented as they appear in The Whole 

ICE Catalog. 

Collaboration Handbook: Creating, Sustaining, and Enjoying the Journey. 

Michael Winer and Karen Ray. (Wilder Foundation.) 1996. 179 pp. 

(ICE No. CD053) 

 Gives expert advice on how to establish and operate a successful 

collaboration, including how to find and attract the right people, build 

trust, and change conflict into cooperation. Handbook includes 

numerous worksheets, sidebars, and tips for successful collaboration. 

Tools for Community Participation: A Manual for Training Trainers in 

Participatory Techniques. Lyra Srinivasan. (PROWWESS/UNDP.) 

1990. 179 pp. (ICE No. WD084) 

[Distributed to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 Easy-to-read manual for training trainers in participatory techniques. 

Although focused on involving women in water and sanitation projects, 

it is useful for training community workers in general. 

Power, Process and Participation: Tools for Change. Rachel Slocum and 

Lori Wichhart, Editors. (IT Publications, Ltd.) 1995. 251 pp. (ICE No. 

WD123) 

[Distributed to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 Provides participatory tools that will give voice to those excluded from 

decision-making processes and denied control of critical resources. 

Includes ways of encouraging the less powerful to translate their 

experiences and interests into action to transform needy regions. 

Discusses power relationships within a community and between local 

institutions and outsiders. Pays particular attention to gender issues, as 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED — 19 

well as how class, ethnicity, race, caste, religion, age, and status may 

lead to the “politics of exclusion.” 

Children’s Participation: From Tokenism to Citizenship. Roger A. Hart. 

(UNICEF International Child Development Center.) 1992. 44 pp. (ICE 

No. YD006) 

 Presents the case for children’s participation in decision-making. The 

different levels at which children have participated—from simply 

making an appearance to actually initiating projects and sharing 

responsibility with adults—are presented as a ladder. Describes the 

experience of British children who participated in community research 

and development through the schools. Also presents examples of 

children in developing countries, street kids and others, taking charge of 

their lives. Includes a bibliography. 

Internet 

www.pactpub.com/PMEpdf.html — Participating Agencies Collaborating 

Together 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

MODULE 2 

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN CED 

Overview: 

Training participants are presented with information and take part in experiential 

exercises that demonstrate the importance of individual and group participation 

in community economic development (CED). A number of specific techniques 

are described that can increase and maintain citizens’ participation. Seven 

commandments are included to help Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) define their 

role in promoting participation. 

Time: 

Reading 1 hour 

Activities and debriefing 4 hours 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, pens markers, colored construction paper, scissors, colored 

pencils, large poster paper, and note paper. Sheets with line drawings and 

instructions for Activity 2:1. Materials for training participants and staff listed in 

the Resources section at the end of the module. 

Preparation: 

CED modules were designed to be modified and adapted to fit the local 

community economic conditions and training structure. As a trainer with firsthand knowledge of the training plan, post’s project, and the country, your input 

is vital in adapting these CED modules. It would be helpful to read the other 

modules in this series for a comprehensive understanding and to be better 

equipped to answer training participants’ questions. 

Whether you are involved in community-based training (CBT) or center training, 

create situations where trainees can work with the community and actually listen 

to the community’s wishes and aspirations. Look for ways to integrate language, 

cross-cultural, and health and safety training with technical training. For 

example, host families are resources for technical training as well as language 

learning and cross-cultural understanding. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 2:1 

CONNECT THE LINES OR COMPLETE THE PICTURES 

Overview: 

This simple activity increases training participants’ awareness of how the way 

you ask for participation affects the level and results of that participation. 

Time: 30 minutes 

Materials: 

One photocopy of line drawings, with instructions translated into the local 

language, for each participant. 

Procedure: 

• Encourage training participants to conduct this activity with individuals or 

small groups of host family members or friends. 

• Cut the line drawing sheets in half. Give participants the top half of the page 

and ask them to “connect the lines.” When they have finished, give them the 

bottom half and ask them to “complete the pictures.” 

• Share both drawings with others in the group. 

• Discuss how each participant felt connecting the lines and completing the 

pictures. 

• Which instructions inspired more creativity and involvement? 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

• Which task did people enjoy more? Which of the two tasks were 

participants more excited about? Why? 

• What was learned about involving individuals in an activity? 

• Note how merely changing the instructions affected the results. 

• How can what was learned be applied to involving citizens in CED? 

Typical conclusions from this exercise: 

 Connect the lines requires a limited amount of participation and that is 

what you usually get. People commonly look for the line that is missing and 

fill it in. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

Trainer’s Notes, Activity 2:1, continued 

 Complete the picture encourages individuals to visualize what might be, 

what can be created with a few simple lines. This instruction is more 

empowering. 

How can what participants learned from this exercise be applied in requesting 

citizens’ participation in CED activities and projects? Some possible answers: 

1. Do not limit people’s participation by telling them how to do a task. 

2. Allow people freedom to be innovative in their participation. 

3. Encourage creative solutions. 

4. Have fun! 

5. Share your results with others. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 2:2 

LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION 

Overview: 

This activity stimulates thought on the meaning and forms of “community 

participation” by presenting participants’ different views. Making a mural of 

individuals’ drawings serves as a visual reminder of the different views people 

have of participation. 

Time: 45 minutes – 1 hour 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, colored construction paper, scissors, pens, markers, and/or 

colored pencils. 

Procedure: 

• Explain that the activity helps the group understand how each member feels 

about community participation. 

• Provide paper and drawing materials. Ask individuals to draw a picture 

illustrating their concept of community participation. Allow them about 10 

minutes to draw. Explain that if they can’t draw, they can use stick figures or 

symbols. 

• Ask individuals to share their drawings and describe how they see 

community members participating. 

• Combine the drawings into a group mural. Be creative, make the mural a 

work of art. Display it in a common area as a reminder of the value of 

participation.

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Engage the group in a discussion of what needs to happen to move them to a 

higher level of participation. Explore cultural norms that may affect the 

participation of certain community members. Use these participation insights to 

plan and implement CED activities and projects.
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 2: Citizen Participation in CED TRAINER’S NOTES — 5 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 2:3 

ANALYZING AN ORGANIZATION’S LEVEL OF 

PARTICIPATION 

Overview: 

There are two major reasons for this activity. (1) Applying materials covered in 

the module to participation in a real organization; (2) Discovering some of the 

differences between how Americans view participation and how locals view of 

participation. 

Time: 

Preparation of questions and inviting representatives 1 hour 

Actual interview 30 minutes – 1 hour 

Debriefing 30 minutes 

Materials: 

Interview questions translated into the local language. 

Preparation: 

Help training participants arrange to interview representatives of a community 

organization. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Allow training participants to take charge of the debriefing. Be prepared to add 

to the debriefing your knowledge of how people participate in community 

organizations and to ask questions to probe training participants’ understanding. 

You may want to include other Peace Corps staff or trainers in the debriefing to 

expand trainees’ perception of participation in their host country. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3 

Developing a CED 

Strategic Agenda 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 1 

MODULE 3 

DEVELOPING A CED STRATEGIC AGENDA 

A VOLUNTEER’S STORY 

A long, long time ago in the Peace Corps, back in the early 1960s, a 

Volunteer in Latin America, who later became the acting director of 

the Peace Corps, worked with a community group. The Volunteer 

discovered many community concerns. This community needed 

potable water, more educational opportunities for the children, better 

access to health care, and methods to market the agricultural 

products they produced. 

Nevertheless, all the community members talked about doing was 

building a wall around the cemetery. In spite of the Volunteer’s 

articulate arguments for the benefits to be derived from other 

projects, the community remained steadfast in its determination to 

build a cemetery wall. The Volunteer was persuaded to help the 

members to organize and carry out their project. 

In building the wall, community members gained confidence in their 

ability to work together, to plan, and to complete a project. The 

community group went on to complete other projects with the support 

of the Peace Corps Volunteer and on its own. 

The Volunteer never did figure out why building the wall was so 

important to the community. However, he recognized the value of the 

trust and community capacity that were built during the construction 

process. 

* * * * * * * * * 

In some ways, a community economic development (CED) strategic agenda is 

like a meeting agenda. The key people arranging the meeting gather information 

and decide which items are important enough to include on the agenda. In 

developing a CED strategic agenda, a core group of community residents leads 

the community in gathering information to analyze how the community is today, 

helps the community visualize how they want the community to be in the future, 

and then decides what items need to go on the CED strategic agenda for 

community action. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 2 

A community may have a clear and compelling idea for a CED project they want 

to work on now. If this is the case, they may not be interested in exploring other 

ideas. Provided the idea has widespread support, it may be practical to move 

ahead with planning and implementing a project to follow through on this idea. 

However, in most cases a community requires time, leadership, and resident 

participation to understand the present conditions affecting the economic wellbeing of community residents and the possibilities for improvement, and to 

arrive at consensus on a CED strategic agenda. By engaging in the activities and 

reading the materials in this module, you will gain the skills and techniques that 

prepare you to work in a participatory way with community groups to set a CED 

strategic agenda. By the time you complete this module, you should have 

acquired the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be able to: 

• Demonstrate practical methods for developing a CED strategic agenda. 

• Describe a Volunteer’s role in developing a CED strategic agenda. 

• Discuss the differences between the asset and problem approaches in 

exploring community concerns. 

• List five decision-making techniques and give examples of how they might 

be used in a CED setting. 

• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of small and large CED projects. 

Members of communities everywhere have at least six basic concerns: 

1. Income 

2. Housing 

3. Health 

4. Education 

5. Transportation 

6. Security/Safety 

Governments are severely strained and unable to meet the escalating demands 

for health, education, transportation, and security/safety services. Increasingly, 

communities look to their own resources or those of private business within their 

communities to provide these human services. Adequate housing for residents 

continues to be a concern for many communities. Unemployment or 

underemployment in developing and redeveloping countries is a major concern. 

In all six areas of concern there is the potential for CED to make a change—to 

build community capacity and to improve the economic well-being of a 

community. To address community concerns in ways that lead to long-term 

sustainable solutions, the whole community—young and old, men and women, 

majority and minority residents—should be involved. Participation is essential in 

building the capacity of communities (see Module 2, “Building Community 

Capacity Through Participation”). 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 3 

What is the difference between 

an obstacle and an opportunity? 

Our attitude towards it. 

Every opportunity has a difficulty and 

every difficulty has an opportunity.

— J. Sidlow Baxter 

In Module 3, “Developing a CED Strategic Agenda,” we explore: 

• The key elements in developing and implementing a CED strategic agenda. 

• Gathering and analyzing information on community concerns, resources, 

and vision for the future. 

• Decision-making tools to assist a community in developing a CED strategic 

agenda. 

• What a strategic agenda for one community might look like. 

To implement a strategic agenda, the community will need to plan and manage 

individual projects. How to design and manage projects is not covered in these 

CED training materials because the Peace Corps has excellent Project Design 

and Management (PDM) training materials. In fact, most Peace Corps posts offer 

PDM training to Volunteers and Counterparts. Check with Peace Corps staff to 

determine whether PDM training is available in your host country, and whether it 

can be arranged. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 4 

ACTIVITY 3:1 

THE ROLE OF THE VOLUNTEER IN DEVELOPING 

A CED STRATEGIC AGENDA 

Think about the role a Volunteer should play in organizing a CED strategic 

agenda. What role should you play as part of a community team? 

Individually review the following questions and then fill in the blanks. When you 

have completed the task, share your answers with others in your training group. 

Develop a consensus on the most effective role(s) a Volunteer can play. 

1. A Volunteer’s power should come from: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

2. A Volunteer’s productiveness depends on: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

3. A Volunteer’s value to the group/organization should be measured by: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

4. A Volunteer’s responsibility is to communicate: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

5. The best kinds of support a Volunteer can give a group/organization are: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

6. A Volunteer’s commitment to the group is demonstrated by: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

7. The two most important roles a Volunteer should play are: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

8. The most perplexing paradox a Volunteer must cope with is: 

 ____________________________________________________________ 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 5 

Activity 3:1, continued 

When you have come to some consensus, think about and discuss the following 

questions: 

• Were there any answers of your fellow trainees that surprised you? 

• What were some of the differences and similarities about the Volunteer’s 

role within the group and the role you would typically play if you were a 

long-time member of the community? 

• How might you use what you learned in this exercise during your Peace 

Corps assignment? 

For more ideas on a Volunteer’s role in development see the Resources section 

at the end of the module. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 6 

Before developing a CED strategic agenda, we pause for a minute to remind 

ourselves of some principles, or key elements, which help ensure the success and 

sustainability of a CED effort. These six key elements enforce the dual goals of 

CED—improving the economic well-being of a community and building a 

community’s capacity to take responsibility for its own economic future. 

KEY ELEMENTS IN COMMUNITY ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 

Key Element 1: Consensus and consensus building through the active 

partnership of the main socioeconomic and political actors at the 

community level. This means creating a process and atmosphere that: 

a. Unites the community’s socioeconomic actors and creates collaborative 

links across political barriers and differences. 

b. Ensures interaction between the private and public sector. 

Key Element 2: The bottom-up approach, which: 

a. Mobilizes to the utmost the local human resources and actors. 

b. Makes the local actors responsible for the local development process. 

c. Sensitizes the local actors to be responsible to build up consensus around 

the strategic development policies for their community. “Consensus 

building” and the “bottom-up approach” are ideal concepts; however, they 

are not always easy to introduce. 

Key Element 3: Human and organizational capacity building at the local 

level. This means upgrading the local human and technical skills to undertake 

and make sustainable the CED process. An important aspect of organizational 

capacity building is the development of financially sustainable activities. 

Key Element 4: Synergy and catalyst effect. To create trust and coresponsibility between the community actors for the development of the longterm goals of the CED process, it is important that short-term visible results are 

achieved. The creation of good local examples has a high degree of motivation 

and a “synergy effect,” and can act as a catalyst in getting a community to take 

action. 

Key Element 5: Globalization at the community level. This means a process 

whereby: 

a. Policies for community development are designed to complement and 

contribute to national and international economic policies. In this way, 

isolated initiatives and actions are folded into overall strategic development 

policies. 

b. CED organizations establish links with other communities within their 

region and with national and international organizations and agencies. 

Key Element 6: Raising public awareness. To ensure: 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 7 

a. The constant mobilization of community resources, whether human, 

financial, managerial, or political. 

b. The democratic development of the process and the relationship between 

organizations and the whole local community. 

The local press and media (if they exist) have to be mobilized. The local media 

can and should be one of the key actors in promoting a dialogue among all the 

socioeconomic actors in the community. They can facilitate democratic 

consensus building and promote the bottom-up approach. If no local media exist, 

CED organizers need to take practical actions to raise public awareness of the 

CED process by posting fliers in public places, holding “town meetings,” talking 

to people on the street, etc. 

(Adapted from ILO/COOP–UNDP/RBEC Regional Local Economic and 

Employment Development Programme Final Report, March 1996.) 

The beginning is the most important 

part of the work. 

— Plato, c. 428–348 BC

GATHERING AND ANALYZING COMMUNITY 

INFORMATION 

Think about the economic life in a community where you lived for several years. 

Which companies were the major employers? What were the economic roles of 

men, women, and children? What were the community’s economic problems and 

its economic competitive advantages? What did community members value—

maintaining a beautiful environment, local cultural events, their schools and 

universities, a convention center, or the excellence of a local agricultural 

product? How could you tell a family was “well off” in the community—by the 

neighborhood they lived in, by the cars they drove, by the schools their children 

attended? Who were the “movers and shakers” in the community? What were the 

skills of people living in the community? These are the types of questions a 

group of community members needs to be able to answer before they can decide 

on a suitable CED strategic agenda. 

By undertaking a systematic gathering of information and analysis a community 

gains a deeper understanding of its situation. At the same time, this process 

enables community members to work together and begin the process of forming 

a cohesive working group. Analyzing the community also provides the basis for 

the initiation of the CED process. Finally, this step in the CED process provides 

baseline information from which the community can monitor its progress and 

evaluate its results. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 8 

For all the reasons discussed in Module 2, “Building Community Capacity 

Through Participation,” all community members who are willing should gather 

and analyze information and together decide on a CED strategic agenda. 

Two eyes see better than one. 

— Mauritanian Proverb 

First, get together with some like-minded citizens who are interested in 

improving the economic well-being and capacity of the community. This core 

group might come from an existing community organization, a consortium of 

organizations, or it might be a new group of community members concerned 

about one issue such as education for children, drug or tobacco use, or crime. In 

addition, gather other key or strategic players such as a tribal elder, a 

councilperson, the mayor, business leaders, nongovernmental organizations 

(NGO) leaders, and/or the town’s religious leader. Often these actors will make 

the difference in the success of a CED effort. Actors vary by culture and country; 

their blessings can make a project move quickly and effectively towards success. 

Be culturally sensitive as to how actors are invited to join the process. In one 

culture, it might be a very formal letter requesting participation; in another, it 

may be one elder asking another to participate. The important thing is that 

everyone in the group is interested in promoting positive changes in the 

community. A group of about a dozen is recommended to start; smaller groups 

may have problems if anyone drops out, and a larger group may make it difficult 

for everyone to be heard. 

Whoever brings the group together might also take the responsibility for 

beginning the discussion of community concerns and community capacity. 

The core group, including other actors, determines: 

• The boundaries for the community they are planning to work with. 

• What information they already know and what information they need to 

gather about the community. Note: gather only information you really need. 

• Who will gather the information? How? 

• Who will analyze and summarize the information to illustrate the 

community’s concerns, opportunities, and vision for change? How? 

• How decisions will be made as to what is included in the CED strategic 

agenda. 

• How the CED strategic agenda will be presented to the community—how 

the community will become aware of the CED strategic agenda? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 9 

Community assessment is time well spent. It grants the community the 

opportunity to define its own priorities, to decide what will change and what will 

not. Community assessment can become a complex and time-consuming task if 

taken as a highly scientific investigation—but do not let this happen. It can be an 

informal, enjoyable, and useful analysis for all when people are involved using 

appropriate participatory methods and techniques. 

There are two basic approaches to community development. Both can be applied 

in a participatory manner. The Appreciative Inquiry approach (AI) begins with 

what is present in the community rather than what is absent. Although the 

identification of problems has its place, it can take a half-empty approach. The 

appreciative approach looks at the capacities, skills, assets, property, and 

resources of the community and its members. It focuses on creating or rebuilding 

relationships among local residents, associations, and institutions, bringing them 

together to multiply power and effectiveness. It also looks at ways to capitalize 

on what is working and expand, modify, or enhance the community’s economic 

possibilities. 

A problem-solving approach starts differently, beginning with problem 

recognition. The problem that is “seen” is often just the tip of the iceberg, and 

the real problem may be much deeper and more complex than it appears. Gather 

as much data as possible about the stated problem, including hard data, such as 

facts, history, and procedures, and soft data, such as feelings, opinions, and 

attitudes. A problem will look different from different vantage points. Defining 

the problem so that everyone can agree and accept it is a critical step in the 

problem-solving process. 

The problem-solving process then moves to uncover the root cause or causes of 

the problem. The root cause(s) can be uncovered by using a variety of tools and 

methods, such as brainstorming, force field analysis, and cause-and-effect 

diagrams. The next step is to create as many solutions as possible and then to use 

decision-making tools to decide on the best option. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 10 

Contrast Between Problem-Solving and AI 

Approaches 

Problem-Solving Approach Appreciative Inquiry Approach

Felt Need: Identification of the 

Problem 

Analysis of Causes 

Analysis of Possible Solutions 

Action Planning (Treatment) 

Basic Assumption: An organization is 

a problem to be solved. 

Appreciating and Valuing: The Best 

of “What Is” 

Envisioning “What Might Be” 

Dialoguing “What Should Be” 

Innovating “What Will Be” 

Basic Assumption: An organization is 

a mystery to be embraced.

(Reprinted with permission from Cooperrider, D. L., and Suresh Srviastva. 

Collaborating for Change: Appreciative Inquiry. Berrett–Koehler, San 

Francisco, 2000. p 23.) 

Problem or deficit approaches and appreciative, asset, or strength-based 

approaches are not exclusive of each other. They are on a continuum. During an 

assets-based resource inventory, information regarding “problems” or “deficits” 

may surface. During a problem analysis, people may talk of “opportunities.” 

This information is important to know and use in designing CED activities. The 

important lesson is that how you begin the dialogue, with assets and strengths or 

with problems, may influence the energy level and empowerment of the 

participants. Beginning with the positive is usually more stimulating and 

encouraging. In other words, your first questions are fateful. 

A Continuum of Approaches to CED 

ProblemSolving 

Approach

Deficits-Challenges-Concerns-Issues-Assets-Strengths 

Appreciative 

Inquiry 

Approach 

As you plan ways to collect community information, you should also be aware 

that culture plays a significant role is what information is given and shared in a 

society and how that information can best be collected. 

Tools to gather information can be structured using the 

appreciative/asset/strength based approaches, the problem/deficit approach, or a 

middle ground of addressing questions or issues. For example, a survey or focus 

group might frame questions either in an appreciative way or in a way that 

encourages respondents to look at the community’s problems, roots of the 

problems, and solutions to problems. Numerous books have been written on 

methods of gathering information, including observation, structured interviews, 

role-plays, drawings, etc. The Peace Corps book PACA: Participatory Analysis 

for Community Action (ICE No. M0053) contains a number of informationgathering techniques (see Resources section at the end of the module). Examples 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 11 

of three information-gathering methods are presented below: Johari’s Window, 

Focus Groups, and an Expenditure Patterns Survey. As you read the text and do 

the Johari’s Window activity, think of the implications of using each method 

with an appreciative a problem-based approach. 

Johari’s Window is a tool that helps groups understand that by gathering 

information from a variety of sources and perspectives a more complete 

understanding of the situation is possible. The concept behind Johari’s Window 

is that each community is a mystery, partly known and partly unknown. Named 

after its authors, Joe Luft and Harry Ingham, who were concerned with different 

styles and processes of interpersonal communications, Johari’s Window assists 

us in understanding that individually we do not have all the answers and through 

working with others we can learn and grow. 

JOHARI’S WINDOW 

Open Knowledge of the 

Community 

What the community knows and 

what the outsider knows. 

Known to the community and known 

to the outsider. 

Both parties know each other at least 

superficially, and the relationship 

seems friendly. 

Community’s Blindness 

What the outsider knows and what 

the community does not. 

Known to the outsider and unknown 

to the community. 

The outsider can see problems and 

their solutions clearly, but the 

community members (group) do not 

see them at all. 

Community’s Hidden Knowledge

What the community knows and 

what the outsider does not. 

Unknown to the outsider and known 

to the community. 

The community members (group) 

have certain feelings, beliefs, values, 

fears, etc., which only insiders are 

aware of. They are hidden from the 

outsider’s view. 

Knowledge That Will Be Revealed 

What the community does not know 

and what the outsider does not 

know. 

Unknown to the community and 

unknown to the outsider. 

Neither party knows the other well. 

However, they may get to know 

each other better in the future in the 

course of working together over a 

period of time. 

(Adapted with permission from: Srinivasan, L. Tools for Community 

Participation. Prowwess/UNDP–World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, 

1993.) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 12 

ACTIVITY 3:2 

JOHARI’S WINDOW 

Draw a blank diagram of the Johari’s Window box. With your training 

community make a list of what you know about the community. Invite 

community insiders, language instructors, and other host-country nationals to 

participate by making lists of what they know about the community. Once 

everyone has ample time to develop his or her own list, begin by sharing your 

list one item at a time in small groups. Place this information on your blank 

Johari’s Window in one of the four boxes. For example, if you know that the 

medium income for the community is 400 pesos, but no one else does, that 

would go in the upper right-hand corner, Community’s Blindness. Information 

that only community insiders know goes in the lower left-hand corner, 

Community’s Hidden Knowledge. Information that community outsiders and 

insiders know goes in the upper left-hand corner, Open Knowledge of the 

Community. Information in the lower right-hand box, Knowledge That Will Be 

Revealed, will be based on various pieces of information gathered together or 

through discussion or insight. 

After you have completed Johari’s Window discuss the following: 

• What were some of the differences in the types of knowledge of insiders and 

outsiders? 

• Were there cultural differences in how information was presented or 

viewed? 

• What new knowledge about the community revealed itself? 

• How might you use the Johari’s Window tool at your site? 

Note: This might be a useful activity to do with your Counterpart after you have 

been at site for a few weeks. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 13 

Activity 3:2, continued 

ACTIVITY 3:2 

A VARIATION 

It might be fun to do the exercise instructing one group of insiders and outsiders 

to list things about the community that they appreciate and another group of 

insiders and outsiders to list the community’s problems. 

Questions to discuss: 

• Did using the appreciative or problem approach affect the energy of the 

groups? 

• Was different information gathered using the two approaches? 

• Would more information be revealed about the community if both 

approaches were used and the results combined? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 14 

Johari’s Window makes the point that Volunteers usually relate to a community 

from the “blind” window, tending to believe they have the “right” answers to the 

community’s problems while the community members are considered “blind” to 

their situation. It also points to the importance of Volunteers learning about the 

community’s or group’s feelings, beliefs, and values. It is not easy to learn these 

things until a level of trust is established. Trust is the starting point. Respectful 

listening and providing the community with opportunities to share their 

concerns, successes, assets, and problems is the way to develop trust. Finally, 

Johari’s Window combines the community’s experience, knowledge, wisdom, 

customs, and beliefs with the Volunteer’s skills and different perspective to 

produce a new knowledge, revealed to everyone committed to the improvement 

of the community. 

To raise new questions, new possibilities, 

to regard old problems from a new angle, 

requires creative imagination. 

— Albert Einstein 

FOCUS GROUPS 

Focus groups are a technique for gathering qualitative information. A focus 

group usually consists of five to 10 individuals. Depending on the information to 

be gathered all members can be from one segment of the community (i.e., youth 

or business owners), or they can represent diverse members of the community. 

Focus groups can be used to: 

• Collect opinions, beliefs, and attitudes about issues of interest to the 

community. 

• Check out assumptions about people’s views on a community issue. 

• Encourage discussion about a particular topic. 

• Create energy and excitement about a topic from the comments that 

participants’ make and the ideas they share. 

Focus groups are an excellent way to gather information, but they are not the 

only way. Before deciding to use a focus group, carefully consider whether it is 

the best way to gather the information you need. Also, consider combining the 

focus group method with other data-gathering methods, such as interviews, 

surveys, or research into secondary sources. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 15 

To clarify, a focus group is about people’s feelings, beliefs, and perceptions. It is 

not: 

• A quantitative research method. A focus group provides qualitative 

information. 

• A brainstorming session. Although focus groups generate fluid discussion, 

they have a definite format and a set of structured questions. 

Focus groups have some advantages: They provide an opportunity for obtaining 

in-depth information; they can be conducted inexpensively; they are more 

personal than a survey because they bring people together; and the results can be 

gathered quickly. However, there are also disadvantages: A competent facilitator 

is needed to conduct the focus group; group dynamics can be difficult to control; 

time is limited, so the number of questions that can be asked is also fairly 

limited; it can be time-consuming and challenging to assemble a focus group; 

and because the data are verbal, it can be difficult to analyze and interpret. 

The particular questions posed in a focus group are critical. The first couple of 

questions should be warm-up questions to put the group at ease. To be effective, 

focus group questions should be open-ended, focused, and move from the 

general to the specific. 

EXAMPLES OF INEFFECTIVE AND EFFECTIVE 

QUESTIONS 

INEFFECTIVE QUESTIONS EFFECTIVE QUESTIONS 

Do you favor the community 

undertaking plans to develop a day 

care facility? (This is closed-ended 

and elicits a “yes” or “no” 

response.) 

What do you consider to be the 

advantages of the community 

undertaking plans to develop a day 

care facility? (This is open-ended; 

it encourages people to think and 

respond.) 

What do you like best about the 

proposed CED strategic plan? (This 

is too general. It should focus on a 

specific point.) 

What do you like best about how 

the CED strategic plan is being 

communicated? (This is focused; 

addresses how the plan is 

communicated.) 

Why do you refuse to support a 

farmers’ market in the Central 

Square? (This question is biased 

and may make participants 

defensive about their answers.) 

What do you think might be the 

advantages and disadvantages of 

opening a farmers’ market in the 

Central Square? (This question is 

more balanced, asking for both 

advantages and disadvantages.) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 16 

Explain to focus group participants why the information is being collected and 

how it will be used. Assign someone, not a focus group member, to keep good 

notes. Thank participants for their time and input. 

It may be necessary to conduct a series of focus groups to gather the information 

the core group needs to prepare a CED strategic agenda for the community. 

During your training look for opportunities to use focus group methodology to 

gather information about your fellow training participants’ or host country 

friends’ opinions, beliefs, and attitudes. 

AN EXPENDITURE PATTERNS SURVEY 

This is but one example of the many surveys that are used to gather quantitative 

and qualitative community economic information. Other surveys might address 

transportation needs, housing requirements, skills, education and job experience 

of community residents, or safety and security concerns. 

When designing and conducting a survey, you should: 

• Keep the questions simple and the survey short (no longer than two pages). 

• Ask only for information that is absolutely necessary. 

• Ask community residents to complete the survey. There are several ways to 

approach residents: 

– Go door to door. 

– Set up a table at the local elementary school or another public place. 

– Ask organizations if you can send a representative to one of their 

meetings to hand out surveys. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Sample Expenditure Patterns Survey 

Introduction: Include an introduction to your organization and what it hopes to 

accomplish in the community. 

My questions are about your general shopping patterns and your sense of 

what community businesses have to offer. 

1. What percent of your purchases do you make in the community? ________ 

2. If not 100 percent, why not? _____________________________________ 

3. How close should a business be located to your home in order for you to 

shop there? 

1/2 kilometer 1 kilometer > 5 kilometers 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 17 

4. How do you reach businesses in the central area of town? 

 On foot By public transportation 

 By car Other ________________ 

5. What kinds of businesses are needed but not currently located in the 

community? (Circle all that apply.) 

 Bakery Beauty salon Auto repair shop 

 Laundromat Barbershop Tailor 

 Shoe store Hardware store Cinema 

 Furniture store Bookstore Other _________ 

 Bank Restaurant 

6. Do you ever buy products or services from people who have home-based 

businesses? If so, what products or services? 

7. Do you know people in the community who could start a business to provide 

more of the things that you need? If so, who and what type of products or 

services could they provide? 

8. Would you be interested in starting a small business in this community? If 

so, what type of business? 

9. Would you be interested in a training class that teaches the basics of starting 

a small business? Yes or No? 

10. Would you consider volunteering one or two hours a week to help with a 

community project? Yes or No? 

* * * * * * * * * 

How might a CED group use the information contained in the Expenditure 

Patterns Survey to improve the economy in the community? 

• Educating local vendors about what kinds of things people want to buy. 

• Educating local consumers about using their expenditure power to 

encourage retail stores to provide the products and services they want. 

• Promoting new businesses or expanding existing businesses to fill gaps in 

the goods and services available in the community. 

• Educating local business people about starting businesses of their own. 

Gathering community information can be a fun and creative experience. 

However, it is important not to get stuck in the information-gathering phase of 

developing a CED strategic agenda. Community members need to feel that the 

process is moving at a pace that does not result in the loss of momentum and 

motivation. From time to time check with the core group to determine if they feel 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 18 

sufficient information has been gathered and it is time to move to the decisionmaking phase. 

DECISION MAKING 

Decision making must consider the culture of the community. Some of the 

methods below will be acceptable decision-making tools in one culture and not 

in another. 

There are many tools available to assist organizations in making effective 

decisions. In this module we include activities to illustrate two techniques that 

are easy to understand and use, force field analysis and a criteria matrix. 

Some of the pitfalls of decision making are abuse of political power, personal 

preference, poor leadership, or a “macho” demonstration of decisiveness. At 

times, Volunteers are either pressured into or pressure others into certain 

projects based on expertise, level of knowledge, or ease of accomplishment 

rather than the aspirations and desires of the community. Two guiding principles 

in making community decisions are: 

1. Be inclusive—make certain the diversity of the community is represented. 

2. Be transparent—make decisions in an open way. 

Decision-making tools and methods are designed to avoid some of the pitfalls 

and make the decision process more inclusive and transparent. 

The way to get good ideas is to get lots of ideas 

and throw the bad ones away.

— Linus Pauling, American chemist 

Effective decision making is a process of evaluating choices. Consider ranking, 

prioritizing, and scoring alternatives to make the right choice. By pulling 

together information, and considering different points of view, the group can 

usually make better decisions than most individuals make alone. Once again 

participation becomes a key. When people are excluded from the decisionmaking process, there’s little chance for emotional ownership or a sense of buyin. 

The group has worked hard to ensure that the community is involved. Selecting 

the key players in the decision-making process is critical. Remember, the 

primary objective is to come to a consensus on the CED project. If everyone 

supports the decision, it will be implemented and it will work. Some simple 

decision-making tools include: 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 19 

INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS 

This is a natural first step in the process: discuss a list of options, think out loud, 

bounce ideas off other people, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages. 

This method begins the “airing” process in which you discover what others are 

thinking about the various alternatives. It is also a way to get other key 

stakeholders’ opinions. 

BRAINSTORMING 

Brainstorming was not designed for decision making per se, but it is a method 

that generate thoughts and ideas on alternatives and in doing so leads to a greater 

understanding of the alternatives. After generating a list of ideas by 

brainstorming, ask some of the following questions to narrow the choices and/or 

make a decision as to how to proceed: 

• Which alternatives seem most practical? 

• Which alternative would be the easiest to accomplish? 

• Which alternative would be the most difficult? 

• Which alternative would provide the most economic benefit? 

• Which alternative do you know no one will support? 

• Which alternative do you think everyone will support? 

ELIMINATION 

Often times the list of alternatives generated by a community or group can be 

overwhelming. Through informal discussions and brainstorming the group finds 

alternatives that are unworkable, politically too difficult, or just do not have 

enough support. Begin to eliminate these from your list. To continue the 

elimination process look at other factors such as cost, risk, time, talent, and 

expertise. 

PRIORITIZING 

There are many ways to develop a list of priorities. One way is to create a list 

that identifies alternatives from the best or most workable to the worst or least 

workable: have each member of the group priority rank the alternatives. Another 

way is to rank the alternatives by individual preferences: from best to worst. Try 

prioritizing by gut feeling or intuition or individual comfort zones. These are 

creative ways that people can prioritize the alternatives. Think of other creative 

ways to prioritize: which alternative will make the greatest contribution to the 

environment; which will have the most positive impact on youth. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 20 

COMBINATION 

At some point in the decision-making process the group will discover that two or 

three alternatives can be combined. Try to sort alternatives by common themes 

or focus, such as town beautification, education, or partnerships. By sorting the 

list it is possible to think creatively about each idea and ways to combine them. 

This process can shorten the list of alternatives and minimize possible overlap. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 21 

ACTIVITY 3:3 

USING A DECISION-MAKING TOOL: CRITERIA 

MATRIX 

We evaluate certain criteria when we make decisions. When you were 

deciding on a college, you probably considered the cost, the educational 

program, reputation, and distance from home. In joining the Peace Corps, 

you may have considered your finances, health, length of service, and 

opportunity for adventure. 

Think about what kind of site you would like, where it would be, what the 

work would be like, the housing, transportation, and food. 

Then develop a thoughtful list of criteria. Criteria are accepted standards, 

common-sense benchmarks, or proven yardsticks on which your decision 

may be based. Criteria are also used to make judgments regarding your 

alternatives. 

For a rural site, some examples of evaluation criteria might be: using a 

mountain bike for transportation, being the first Volunteer assigned to the 

site, potable water, a hot climate, and full use of the local language needed. 

For an urban center, the criteria might be: close to health facilities, an 

established project, a lower level of language skills required, and a fully 

furnished apartment. 

Criteria Matrix: An Example 

Rating Scale: 1 to 5, with 5 = the best 

Alternative 

Solution

Evaluation 

Criteria

Evaluation 

Criteria

Evaluation 

Criteria

Evaluation 

Criteria

Evaluation 

Criteria

Summary 

Rating

Site 

Location 

Rural 

Site 

Mountain 

Bike 

First 

PCV 

Hot 

climate

High skill 

level in the 

local 

language 

needed 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

Hefty 4 1 5 1 1 12 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

Zambong 1 4 4 5 2 16 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

Bageo 2 3 1 5 3 14 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

Bali 5 5 2 5 4 21 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 22 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

Continued 

Activity 3:3, continued 

The summary rating in the criteria matrix indicates that Bali is the site you 

would prefer. It is important to keep in mind that the Peace Corps country 

staff probably will have a different set of criteria in matching Volunteers to 

sites. 

To assist you in communicating with the staff and thinking through your 

own criteria, you should establish your criteria and combine them with what 

the Peace Corps country staff has told you. In most countries, your site 

selection will be made in consultation with you. 

Criteria Matrix

Rating Scale: 1 to 5, with 5 = the best 

Alternative 

Solution 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Summary 

Rating 

..............................................................................................................................

 

............................................................................................................................. 

.............................................................................................................................. 

............................................................................................................................. 

.......................................................................................................................................... 

..............................................................................................................................
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 23 

Once you’ve completed the exercise, consider the following: 

• Did the matrix assist you in thinking through alternatives and interests? 

• Did you want to change the criteria? 

• Were you able to communicate your criteria and alternatives clearly? 

• What are other applications for this process? 

• How can you apply this process to your future work? Any suggestions? 

Criteria matrices are useful decision-making tools for groups as well as 

individuals. Often groups gain insights into what is important as they select 

the criteria to use in evaluating alternative activities, projects, or agenda 

items. 

Note: A copy of the criteria matrix is included in the appendix to Module 3. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 24 

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS 

Force field analysis is a tool to assist people in determining the feasibility of an 

activity, project, or agenda item. This tool helps people visualize the forces that 

are driving the item under discussion and those that are restraining it. The tool is 

simple to understand and use. At the top of a sheet of paper write the name of the 

item under discussion. In the left-hand column list those forces that are driving 

the item and in the right-hand column the forces that are restraining it. For each 

item draw an arrow toward the center line that represents the consensus of the 

group as to the power of the driving or resisting force. Evaluate the number and 

power of driving and resisting forces in deciding if the item under discussion is 

feasible or not feasible. 

Example of force field analysis: 

Offering Free Start-up Business Classes at the Secondary School 

DRIVING FORCES RESTRAINING FORCES 

Young people wanting to start 

businesses 

Local business owners not wanting 

more competition. 

Microfinance institution that wants 

to make loans to new businesses 

Teachers fearing their classrooms 

will be left in a mess 

Parents wanting job opportunities 

for their children 

Lack of a competent teacher willing 

to conduct the classes free 

 Parents worried that their sons’ and 

daughters’ grades may suffer from 

lack of study time. 

What conclusions can you draw from this short example? Perhaps “free” classes 

are not feasible. Would the force field analysis change if the plan were to charge 

a small fee for the business classes? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 25 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Choose a local CED concern in your training community. 

Propose a solution and ask some of your fellow training 

participants, language teachers, and a technical trainer to 

conduct a force field analysis to determine if the solution is 

feasible. Does the Force Field Analysis help you see ways the 

solution might be modified to increase its feasibility? 

* * * * * * * * * 

There is no right way to present a CED strategic agenda. Some communities 

present them in long, detailed reports, others on one page. Below is an example 

of one community’s CED strategic agenda. It represents a lot of work in 

gathering information and deciding which concerns the community wants to 

address. There is still much work to be done. The community has to implement 

its strategic plan (Module 4) and design specific projects to address each item on 

the CED strategic agenda (see Peace Corps project design and management 

materials), and finally it has to monitor and evaluate its efforts in following 

through with the agenda (Module 5). 

CED STRATEGIC AGENDA: AN EXAMPLE 

Village of Bradner 

CED Strategic Agenda 

September 2000 

This strategic agenda points to areas where the people of Bradner—its 

most important asset—can make a difference in determining their 

future. At a community forum on September 5 community members 

reach consensus on the following agenda for community action. 

This agenda was agreed on by Bradner’s citizens after reviewing 

information about: 

Industrial and Agricultural Diversity Household Demographics 

Transportation Youths’ Community 

Utilities and Infrastructure Health Services 

Community School Village Appearance 

Central Business District Recreation 

 (retail and services) 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 26 

CED Strategic Agenda, continued 

Priority items: 

• Health services —need to attract a doctor to the community. This 

may require the community to renovate space for a medical clinic 

and/or provide housing for a doctor. 

• Recreation—community youth need local wholesome activities 

after school and in the summer. 

• Village appearance—customers are not attracted to the central 

business district, and some properties in the village are not in good 

repair. This may require a project to encourage residents to 

renovate the outsides of their buildings, work with public officials 

to enforce existing ordinances related to littering and building code 

enforcement, and civic action to plant trees and flowers in the area. 

Additional items: 

• Fire station—replacing the fire station will improve the safety of 

citizens and their property. This may require a ballot initiative for a 

tax to build the station. Determine if any regional or national funds 

are available for this project. 

• Day care—a number of mothers need and want to work but have no 

reliable affordable day care. This may require working with 

churches and neighboring communities to develop a viable, 

sustainable day care facility. 

Items bearing on the future economic development of Bradner: 

• Continue the planning process—find an organization that will take 

on the responsibility of continue CED efforts permanently. 

• Improve the community’s housing alternatives—create an 

atmosphere for residential growth that will allow for increases in 

the population and maintain the existing “quality of life.” 

• Structure economic development and growth—work to retain and 

promote existing businesses and seek to attract new small industrial 

firms. 

Action: A community forum is planned for October 15 to identify 

individuals and organizations interested in planning projects and 

activities to implement the three priority items on the CED strategic 

agenda. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 27 

PROJECTS LARGE AND SMALL 

Often Volunteers and communities develop big, grand ideas for economic 

development. These ideas can be exciting, fun, and stimulating for the whole 

community. Big, grand ideas can be seen as a way to generate enthusiasm and 

commitment and spark interest. Big ideas are ways to open people’s 

imaginations to possibilities. Yet, big projects also come with big challenges and 

many constraints that can deflate enthusiasm quickly. If a community or a group 

has not had much experience working together or developing projects, it is best 

to think small. 

Starting out with small, meaningful projects can give the group a sense of 

accomplishment. Successful small projects can demonstrate to the group and 

others in the community that they are serious and effective. Starting with small 

projects also enables the group to develop its leadership structure both formally 

and informally. It also enables group members to understand other’s strengths 

and weaknesses, and to recognize the talent that each member brings. 

The greatest challenge in starting with small projects is ensuring that the project 

is important and meaningful to the group. Often small projects can be trivialized 

and made to seem frivolous. This can discourage a group and make the project 

seem nonessential. Work through your decision making very carefully with small 

projects, particularly the first project. 

Go to the people, live with them, learn from them, 

love them. Start with what they know, build with what 

they have. But with the best leaders, when the work is 

done, the task accomplished, the people will say, “We 

have done this ourselves.”

— Lao Tzu, China, 700 BC 

* * * * * * * * * 

KEY TERMS 

Key terms are defined as they are used in this module. Building a local language 

vocabulary of terms related to CED prepares you to function effectively in this 

area of development. Work with your language instructors to find the 

appropriate translation and definitions in the local language. Record the 

translations and definitions in the space provided. 

Agenda is a list of things to be done. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 28 

Appreciative Inquiry is an approach to building capacity and fostering 

innovation within groups, organizations, and communities. Through 

Appreciative Inquiry community members focus on their past successes and 

existing strengths to develop a common vision for the future and initiate action 

to achieve it. 

Asset-based approach (also referred to as a strength-based approach) is a 

community development strategy that starts with what is present in the 

community and the community’s strengths. Asset-based approaches focus 

internally on the community and its relationships. 

Problem-based approach focuses on identifying a community’s problems and 

discovering the roots of these problems before providing solutions for the 

problems. 

Strategic refers to the planning and conducting of large-scale operations, usually 

a long-term plan for action. 

* * * * * * * * * 

RESOURCES 

These resources are available through the Peace Corps Information Collection 

and Exchange (ICE). The citations are presented as they appear in The Whole 

ICE Catalog. 

Collaboration Handbook: Creating, Sustaining, and Enjoying the Journey. 

Michael Winer and Karen Ray. (Amherst H. Wilder Foundation.) 1996. 

179 pp. (ICE No. CD053) 

 Gives expert advice on how to establish and operate a successful 

collaboration, including how to find and attract the right people, build 

trust, and change conflict into cooperation. Handbook includes 

numerous worksheets, sidebars, and tips for a successful collaboration. 

PACA: Participatory Analysis for Community Action. (Peace Corps ICE.) 

1996. 350 pp. (ICE No. M0053) 

 Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) is an approach 

used to facilitate communities’' exploration of their own realities in 

order to make changes they desire. Based on earlier participatory 

analysis methods, such as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 29 

Rural Appraisal, PACA turns the appraisal activity into a process where 

the development agent and the community develop a partnership that 

leads to community control of their own projects. As a defining 

criterion, PACA distinguishes the role of gender in development by 

applying the participatory exercises with separate groups of women and 

men, girls and boys, which allows the community to compare and 

analyze together the roles that shape their reality. In similar ways, 

PACA can be used to understand age, ethnicity, or any other source of 

societal differentiation that has implications for development. The tools 

can be used in schools, organizations, institutions, and any other group, 

rural or urban, where different voices need to be heard. 

Roles of the Volunteer in Development: Toolkits for Capacity Building. 

(Peace Corps ICE.) 2002. 225 pp. (ICE No. T0005) 

This unique publication is a series of toolkits that can be separated into 

seven booklets. The introductory booklet provides an overview of the 

Peace Corps’ philosophy of development, introduces the capacitybuilding roles a Volunteer might play, and then provides guidance for 

Volunteers in identifying what roles they will play. The other six 

booklets each address one of the roles: Learner, Co-Trainer, CoFacilitator, Mentor, Change Agent, and Co-Planner. In each booklet, 

there is a chart delineating the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed 

for the role; background readings on the role; and activities to learn 

more about and gain skills in carrying out the role. The booklets can be 

used as self-study, or used in conjunction with training sessions. 

Strategic Planning Workbook for Nonprofit Organizations. Bryan W. Barry. 

(Amherst H. Wilder Foundation.) 1997. 72 pp. (ICE No. SB177) 

 A workbook that defines strategic planning; explains its relevance to 

nonprofit organizations; and provides a step-by-step guide for 

developing, implementing, and updating a strategic plan. Appendices 

include a summary of a situational analysis, an example of a strategic 

plan, and strategic planning worksheets. 

A Guide to Mapping Consumer Expenditures and Mobilizing Consumer 

Expenditure Capacities. John P. Kretzmann and J. L. KcKnight. 

(ACTA Publications.) 1996. 45 pp. (ICE No. SB203) 

A Guide to Mapping Local Business Assets and Mobilizing Local Business 

Capacities. John P. Kretzmann and J.L. McKnight (ACTA 

Publications.) 1996. 71 pp. (ICE No. SB207) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda — 30 

Internet: 

www.aed.org — Academy for Educational Development–International 

Development Group 

www.ncced.org — National Congress for Community Economic 

Development 

www.worldbank.org — World Bank website with links to all its programs, 

publications, and other international development organizations 

www.undp.org — United Nations Development Programme 

www.pactpub.com/PMEpdf.html — Participating Agencies Collaborating 

Together 

www.worldlearning.org — International development and training 

organization 

www.idealist.org — great information and links 

www.astd.org — American Society for Training and Development 

www.sid.org — Society for International Development 

Many of these sites have great links to other sites that will be helpful to your 

work. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

MODULE 3 

DEVELOPING A CED STRATEGIC AGENDA 

Overview: 

Activities and readings in this module prepare Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) 

to work with community groups in a participatory manner to gather information, 

analyze information, and design an effective community economic development 

(CED) strategic agenda. 

Time: 

Reading 1 hour 

Activities and debriefings 5 hours 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, markers, tape, copies of the force field analysis worksheet and 

the criteria matrix worksheet. 

Preparation: 

Discuss the role of a Volunteer in gathering information and designing effective 

CED strategies with the Peace Corps programming staff and decide on the major 

points to cover. 

For community-based, center-based, and hybrid training models, identify 

situations and opportunities for trainees to practice community informationgathering skills and decision-making techniques. Structure an opportunity for the 

trainees to explore how residents of their training community feel about their 

community’s economic development and what residents would like to see 

happen in the future to improve economic conditions. The Peace Corps has 

developed a number of community entry techniques, some of which involve 

gender analysis that may be adapted for Volunteers working in CED projects. 

See the Resources section at the end of the module. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 3:1 

THE ROLE OF THE VOLUNTEER IN DEVELOPING A 

CED STRATEGIC AGENDA 

Overview: 

This activity sensitizes training participants to their role(s) and provides them 

with an opportunity to reflect on their role(s) in the CED process. 

Time: 1 hour 

Materials: 

Flip chart, markers, tape, and the following questions, copied and ready to 

distribute: 

1. A Volunteer’s power should come from: 

2. A Volunteer’s productiveness depends on: 

3. A Volunteer’s value to the group/organization should be measured by: 

4. A Volunteer’s responsibility is to communicate: 

5. The best kinds of support a Volunteer can give a group/organization are: 

6. A Volunteer’s commitment to the group is demonstrated by: 

7. The two most important roles a Volunteer should play are: 

8. The most perplexing paradox a Volunteer must cope with is: 

Preparation: 

With the Peace Corps staff, think through key points you would like Trainees to 

understand about their role in the context of your post. Each country has its own 

unique concerns, issues, and challenges. For example, in some countries, 

forming a new group without direct permission of the local Peace Corps office is 

a concern; in others, working with certain groups in the community may have 

been problematic in the past; in others, it is gender issues, or political concerns. 

You may want to invite the country director or other Peace Corps staff to this 

session. For a general discussion of the Volunteer’s role, read The Roles of the 

Volunteer in Development: Toolkits for Capacity Building, listed in the 

Resources section at the end of the module. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

In addition to discussing the questions in this activity, take time to talk about 

specific issues that affect a Peace Corps Volunteer’s role in working with 

community groups in the context of your country’s cultural, political, and 

economic environment. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 3:2 

JOHARI’S WINDOW 

Overview: 

Often we assume what other people know, and that they possess the same 

information that we do and that they value it equally. Johari’s Window provides 

training participants with a tool that can be used to explore others people’s ideas, 

thoughts, and dreams in a respectful manner that builds trust. 

Time: 1 hour 

Materials: 

Draw the Johari’s Window box on a flip chart, and hand out individual copies of 

Johari’s Window, with lots of blank space. 

Preparation: 

Ask language instructors, some host families, and others to participate in this 

exercise. Explain that this exercise allows training participants to practice a datagathering technique, and ask them to share their knowledge of the training 

community using the Johari’s Window. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Possible responses from the group: 

• What I thought were major issues in the community, such as the road 

conditions, transportation, and sanitation, were not of major concern to the 

community. The community was more concerned with employment and 

school conditions. 

• I was amazed at how much the community members knew about each other. 

• I realize you need to gather information from many sources to gain a full 

understanding of any community and that community members need to hear 

from each other. 

• I think it would be really interesting to go through this process with a small 

group in my community that is interested in doing a CED project. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Developing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 3:3 

USING A DECISION-MAKING TOOL: CRITERIA 

MATRIX 

Overview: 

To provide training participants with experience in using the criteria matrix 

decision-making tool, which can be modified to use with their community. 

Time: l hour 

Materials/Preparation: 

Work with your Peace Corps staff in developing this session; it will work quite 

well with a discussion on site selection and site selection criteria. This session 

also will assist the staff in gathering important information from the trainees on 

site preferences. 

Make a copy of the criteria matrix worksheet for each trainee. Familiarize 

yourself with decision-making tools, particularly the criteria matrix. The 

materials listed in the Resources section at the end of this module provide 

additional information. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

This activity provides a chance to discuss the post’s method of matching 

Volunteers to sites and to explain the criteria that the Peace Corps staff used in 

the process. 

• Did you want to change the criteria after you saw the possibilities? 

• Were you able to communicate your criteria and alternatives clearly? 

• What are other applications for this process? How might this tool be used in 

helping a community reach a decision on items to include in their CED 

strategic agenda? 

• How can you apply this process to your future work? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 3: Appendix 

Criteria Matrix

Rating Scale: 1 to 5, with 5 = the best 

Alternative 

Solution 

Evaluation 

 Criteria 

Evaluation 

 Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

Criteria 

Evaluation 

 Criteria 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4 

Implementing 

a CED 

Strategic Agenda 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 1 

MODULE 4 

IMPLEMENTING A CED STRATEGIC 

AGENDA 

A VOLUNTEER’S STORY 

An education Volunteer taught English to fifth through 10th graders 

in a remote Mongolian town. Many of the men were unemployed 

since the shoe factory closed shortly after the change from a 

communist to a market-based economic system—there was no longer 

a market for the shoes they had produced and shipped to Russia. The 

community’s number-one concern was jobs. 

The community wanted the Volunteer to help them bring a new 

employer to their town or get an international business to purchase 

and reopen the shoe factory. Instead the Volunteer worked with the 

community to determine the community’s skills and resources. They 

identified five men that would like to make and sell traditional 

Mongolian boots, using leather produced from nearby herds and 

selling their boots locally. The men knew how to make boots, but had 

no business experience. 

The community’s idea was to organize a cooperative, secure sewing 

machines and boot forms from the town that now owns the former 

shoe factory, market the boot jointly, set up a record-keeping system, 

get a microloan from a local microfinance institution, and determine 

what fees the cooperative would charge members to cover expenses. 

The machines would need to be maintained and eventually replaced. 

The cooperative planned to purchase supplies and sell them to 

members. They needed to pay utilities and wanted to do some 

common marketing of the boots. Who would keep the records, make 

the purchases, and do the marketing? How would they be paid for 

their efforts? How would the group make decisions, distribute profits, 

recruit new members? There were many questions to be answered. 

The Volunteer continued to work with the group to help them design 

plans for their business. He wisely did not offer to produce a business 

plan for them. He asked questions, he got or gave information, he 

suggested possibilities, and he let them figure the plans out for 

themselves. The men learned how business works and how to work 

together as they plan. Progress was slow. It was challenging; the 

Volunteer was learning Mongolian, and the boot makers spoke no 

English. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 2 

The process of developing a community economic development (CED) strategic 

agenda (see Module 3) engages the community, begins the process of building 

trust and the capacity to work together, helps citizens visualize a better future, 

and establishes priority areas for community action. Community participation is 

important in arriving at a CED strategic agenda. Participation throughout the 

community is essential in the next phase as well. 

In the next phase we look for community partners to take responsibility for 

various activities and projects involved in implementing the CED strategic 

agenda. You will meet new and some old partners. Partners include communitybased organizations (CBOs). Some CBOs you may be familiar with, such as the 

chamber of commerce. Others may be less familiar, such as business incubators. 

Business incubators are not for chickens; they are for hatching small businesses. 

In this module we discuss why it is critical for a society as a whole (individuals, 

the government, business, and civil sector) to work together on behalf of the 

community and how to deal with unexpected change. There is always 

unexpected change, and CED activities are no exception. Finally, we review the 

benefits of both the CED process (increased community capacity) and the CED 

product (an improved local economy). By the end of this module you will have 

the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to: 

• Discuss the importance of CBOs in the implementation of a CED effort. 

• Identity five CBOs in your country of service and how they contribute to 

their community’s economic development. 

• Explain why it is important for all sectors of society to work together. 

• Demonstrate the use of contingency planning using “if–then” scenarios. 

WHY IS A HEALTHY LOCAL ECONOMY IMPORTANT? 

In the last module we spent time developing a CED strategic agenda. Perhaps 

now is a good time to address the question “Why is it so important to invest 

time, effort, and resources in CED—in building a local economy?” The short 

answer: In a healthy local economy, money circulates and recirculates, and the 

benefits produced by this money are retained within the community, making 

local people better off, and making economic growth possible. When individuals 

and families are better off economically they have the resources to deal with a 

host of other concerns: sending their children to school, improving their housing, 

accessing medical care, etc. Improving the local economy is not an end in itself; 

it is a means to the end—improving the lives of a community’s individuals and 

families. 

WHO IMPLEMENTS A CED STRATEGIC AGENDA? 

The whole society implements a strategic agenda: individuals in the community, 

their CBOs, private business, and the government. Organizations mobilize and 

multiply the efforts of individuals. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 3 

Individuals are the drivers that make a local economy grow. It is individuals, 

working independently and collectively, that form the fabric of community life. 

It is the skills, abilities, and experiences of these individuals that can be 

mobilized to develop a vibrant local economy. 

Individuals assume many roles in the local economy. They are the owners of 

large and small businesses; they are employees; they are educated consumers of 

locally produced or locally sold products; they are investors in local property 

and projects; they share their knowledge and experience with others, in terms of 

volunteer and associational activities; and they work together in communitybuilding efforts. 

Individuals can make a difference, yet when people gather together they can 

make a bigger difference. This multiplier effect of people working together is 

called synergy. Even more synergy is generated by organizations in a community 

working together. 

Implementing a CED activity on your own is not impossible—it is just very 

difficult. CED by its very nature includes many actors, and at the core is a 

community working together for the betterment of the whole. 

Community organizations by and large are formed to work on various projects 

and activities that primarily benefit the community. An organization may have 

been formed for the improvement of schools, such as a parent-teacher 

association; for the beautification of the community, such as a garden club; or for 

civic undertakings, such as the Lions, Rotary or Kiwanis clubs; or it may be a 

housing association formed to build a playground. All these organizations are 

formed to improve life in the community. These groups form because of social 

concerns. From time to time these organizations may be engaged in an activity 

that improves the local economy, such as building a historical trail, but CED is 

not their main purpose. However, building the historical trail attracts visitors to 

the community, who spend their money in local shops. 

Other organizations focus more directly on the economic aspect of the 

community. Examples of these organizations are cooperatives, chambers of 

commerce, guilds, incubators, small business groups, or a local women’s 

business association. These groups are formed to provide economic benefits to 

the group through individual membership. 

The local government is interested in the economy, especially the taxes it 

generates. The government also is usually interested in the well-being of citizens. 

The government’s cooperation is necessary in implementing a community 

agenda. In some instances, government approval is needed to undertake business 

activities, and government is a key player in improving the infrastructure of the 

community. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 4 

In implementing a CED strategic agenda, all types of organizations and 

individuals should be approached. What is critical is to find pieces of the agenda 

that fit with the organizations’ and individual’s interests. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 5 

ACTIVITY 4:1 

DIAGRAMMING LINKS BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONS 

Fill in the diagram below to show the links between community organizations 

and community members and the boot-making cooperative mentioned in the 

Volunteer’s story at the beginning of the module. 

If you were the Volunteer in this Mongolian community, how would you suggest 

the men at the boot-making cooperative approach the various parties in the 

community for assistance? 

For every pair of boots that sell for the equivalent of $20, how much do you 

estimate the community’s income will be increased? To do this you will need to 

make some assumptions. 

What nonmonetary benefits do you predict would result from the boot-making 

cooperative effort? 

Ask your trainer or a Volunteer to describe an ongoing CED effort in your host 

country. Diagram the links of this activity and determine how it may improve the 

community’s economy. 

Boot-making 

Cooperative 

(loan)

(family 

 income) 

(purchases) 

(purchases) 

(owner) 

(purchase 

 equipment) 

 (raw 

materials) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 6 

COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP 

One of the goals of CED is to expand the number of individuals in a community 

who are accepting leadership roles. Broadening community leadership has 

several advantages: (1) There is a greater chance for inclusion of different 

interests, genders, and ethnic groups. (2) The probability of community projects 

being sustainable increases since it is more likely there will be leaders to see the 

project to a successful conclusion. (3) Taking on a leadership role provides 

opportunities for building the individual’s capacity. Some leaders are more 

effective than others. Expanding community leadership to make it more inclusive 

and improving leadership skills increases the community’s ability to put the 

community members’ ideas into action. 

An anonymous, wise person once said, “A good leader inspires people to have 

confidence in the leader; a great leader inspires people to have confidence in 

themselves.” A key element in enabling people to realize their own potential and 

to have self-respect is their relationship to the group leader. If a group allows a 

leader do its work, the group is not taking responsibility for its own destiny, and 

it may not be able to stand on its own. 

There are several explanations as to why individuals emerge as leaders. One 

theory holds that leadership is based on an individual’s source of power—

personality, role in society, or knowledge. When we visualize a leader, often we 

think of a charismatic leader we have seen on TV or have read about in history 

books. Personality is the image an individual transmits to others; it is a 

composite of all physical and mental characteristics. 

Role power comes from the position a person holds. Some examples of powerful 

positions are the mayor of a town, the chief or elder in a village, the minister of a 

church, the owner of a large business. 

Knowledge power comes from understanding the skills and techniques required 

for effective behavior in a given role. As societies become increasingly technical 

and roles become more specialized, knowledge power becomes more and more 

important. 

When broadening the leadership base of a community, look for community 

members who derive power from all these sources. Many individuals derive 

power from more than just one source. 

A common model describes three styles of leadership: authoritarian, 

consultative, and enabling. (See the table that follows for more details on 

leadership styles.) Of course, different situations call for different styles of 

leadership. For example if there are rebels in your backyard and it is a question 

of survival, a more authoritarian leadership style is appropriate. There is little 

time for consensus building and consulting. Immediate action is required. 

An authoritarian style of leadership usually is not ideal in any community 

development activity with the goal of full participation. Building the capacity of 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 7 

a group to work together and implement their own ideas requires an enabling 

leader who calls on group members to identify their own resources, explore new 

ideas, and make decisions. An enabling leader acts as a group facilitator, helping 

the group to manage itself. However, when groups have not yet developed the 

capacity to act for themselves, a consultative or even authoritarian leadership 

style of leadership may be more effective. 

Effective leadership is strongly influenced by culture. For example, in the 

Kingdom of Tonga young people live with their parents until they marry. Youth 

are accustomed to authoritarian leadership style from their parents and the elders 

in their villages. In fact, they are considered to be youth in Tonga until they 

marry. Some youth are 35 or even 40 years old. Also, it is not polite in the 

Tongan culture to ask questions of older people; they might not know the answer 

and that would be embarrassing. The actions and decisions of community leaders 

are not questioned. Peace Corps Volunteers in the Kingdom of Tonga find that in 

working with youth groups, it can take years for the group to be comfortable 

with an enabling leadership style. Developing youth leaders in Tonga is hard 

work; leadership is not a role the youth expect to play. 

What is the predominant leadership style in your host community? 

A final thought on characteristics of effective leaders. Do not underestimate the 

magic of a positive attitude. Attitude is simply the way one views the world. It is 

a perceptual or mental phenomenon. It is how one focuses on life. In a sense, 

people see what they want to see. If they concentrate on negative factors (and 

there are plenty), they eventually wind up with a negative attitude. When they 

concentrate on positive factors, they are more apt to stay positive. It is easy to 

say, “look at the bright side,” but, of course, it is not easy to do. A positive 

attitude can be a priceless possession. For a leader it is an essential 

characteristic. 

Note: Peace Corps Volunteers are often valued for their “can-do attitudes.” It is 

one of the Volunteer qualities that community partners prize most. 

 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 8 

LEADERSHIP STYLES 

Leadership 

Style 

Leader 

Behavior 

Level of Individual Behavior 

Authoritarian Leader makes 

decision and 

announces it 

Leader announces his/her decision with 

no feeling of responsibility or 

accountability to share the reasons. 

Leader 

presents 

decision but 

“sells” it to 

members 

Leader announces his/her decision and 

shares the reasons behind it, which 

were prepared in advance. 

(Monologue.) 

Leader 

presents 

decision and 

invites 

questions or 

clarifications 

Leader announces his/her decision, but 

responds on an impromptu basis with a 

rationale based on the questions of 

clarification from the members. 

(Dialogue with no expressed 

willingness to change decision.) 

Consultative Leader 

presents 

tentative 

decision, 

subject to 

change 

Leader announces his/her decision and 

announces that he/she is open to 

questions of clarification and 

discussion. (Dialogue with willingness 

to change decision if necessary 

Leader 

presents 

situation, gets 

input, makes 

decision 

Leader identifies situation or problem 

and moves into a facilitating role to 

surface assumptions and suggestions, 

then moves out of facilitating role and 

makes a decision. 

Leader calls on 

members to 

make decision, 

but holds veto 

power 

Leader calls on group to identify 

situation and limitation(s), and to 

explore and make decision contingent 

on leader’s veto power. 

Enabling Leader defines 

limits, calls on 

members to 

make decisions 

Leader shares any (e.g., funds available, 

time parameters) and facilitates a 

decision by members on basis of 

limitations. 

Leader calls on 

members to 

identify limits, 

explore 

situation, make 

decision 

Leader maintains a facilitating role, 

allowing members to identify situation 

or problem, identify limits, explore, and 

make decision. 

 More Participation < < < < < amount of possible individual participation > > > > > Less participation 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 9 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Identify a time when you took a leadership role. Write down or 

think about a few of the most significant aspects of the event. 

• From where did your leadership power come? Your role in 

society? Your knowledge? Your personality? 

• Which of the three leadership styles did you use in the 

situation? Authoritarian? Consultative? Enabling? 

• If you had the opportunity to relive the situation, would you 

do anything differently? If so, why? 

• How can you improve your leadership skills during your 

Peace Corps service? 

• What do you think is the most effective leadership style at 

your Peace Corps site? Does it vary with different 

situations in which you work? If so, why? 

Discuss your conclusion about the most effective local 

leadership style with your Peace Corps trainers, host family, 

and or Volunteers who have been in country for sometime. 

* * * * * * * * * 

How do you broaden the leadership for community economic development 

activities? There is not a single answer, but there are a lot of little things CED 

groups can do to develop additional leaders. 

• Promote a welcoming and open group attitude; seek to be inclusive. Post 

announcements of meetings in public places with an invitation to attend. 

Ask group members to bring friends and associates to CED activities. The 

more people who become involved the greater the number of potential 

leaders. 

• Identify NGOs and CBOs that are active in the community. Invite their 

leaders and staff to become involved in the CED work. Some of their 

leaders and staff may take leadership roles in building cooperative/joint 

projects between the CED group and their organization. 

• Locate the special interest groups in the community: ethnic groups, youth 

groups, senior citizen groups. Who are the leaders in these groups? They 

might be interested in representing their interest group in CED efforts, and 

they might become future CED leaders. 

• Provide many opportunities for leadership roles through working groups and 

committees. Most leaders do not start as the president of an organization; 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 10 

they gain leadership experience by first organizing a few people with a 

defined task. 

• Get to know group and community members personally. Find out their 

interests and skills, and then invite them to lead an activity that matches 

their interests and/or skills. They are more likely to enjoy a leadership role 

that is a good match. 

• Offer leadership training for group members as well as current leaders. 

Some topics that might be included: facilitation skills, organizing and 

running a meeting, decision-making techniques. 

• Take notice when people take responsibility within the group and 

acknowledge their efforts. Offer members opportunities to take on more 

responsibility when they seem ready—soon you will have another leader. 

• Identify the types of knowledge and skills needed to plan, implement, or 

monitor economic development activities/projects in the community and 

seek out people within the community that have that knowledge or those 

skills. Invite them to share their knowledge or skills. 

PRIVATE BUSINESSES AS CED PARTNERS 

If individuals are the drivers that make a local economy grow, then private 

businesses are one of the engines that power the economy. The connections, or 

mobilized capacities, between a business and the other parts of a community take 

on an infinite variety of forms. Some of them are very simple; some are very 

complex and highly developed. 

The following example illustrates the role that a small business can play as a 

community partner. The business is a small market that sells groceries, meat, 

dairy products, and other basic commodities. It is located in the midst of a lowincome community and has mobilized its capacities in each of the following 

ways: 

• Offers special senior citizens discounts on meat and produce one day a 

week. 

• Offers food specialty products that are made by residents of the community. 

• Storeowner belongs to chamber of commerce and participates in projects to 

promote business in the community. 

• Hires cashier and butchers from among residents of the community. 

• Provides cookies and punch for annual craft fair. 

• Hires a local 15-year-old student to work after school and is teaching her 

how to order stock and keep inventory records. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 11 

The storeowner believes that the store benefits the community and that the 

goodwill the store generates also benefits his business. This is a win-win 

situation. 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Pick a business in your host community and brainstorm ideas 

of how the capacities of this business might be mobilized to 

achieve CED goals. Share your ideas with fellow training 

participants and see how long a list of items you can generate. 

* * * * * * * * * 

COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS (CBOs) 

There are several types of CBOs whose missions are directed toward business 

activities. The following briefly explains the nature of some businesses that 

Volunteers have found are good partners in implementing CED activities. 

Whenever possible, consider partnering with existing organizations; it is less 

risky than starting new ones. 

COOPERATIVES 

Since the early years of the Peace Corps, Volunteers have worked with 

agricultural and craft cooperatives. Cooperatives form to provide a common 

benefit to members, and members share common interests and goals (e.g., an 

agricultural cooperative, where small farmers can buy seeds, fertilizers, and feed 

collectively to reduce cost through the benefit of bulk or quantity purchasing). In 

other cooperatives, members cooperate to market and sell their products. Some 

cooperatives purchase raw materials and sell members’ products. A cooperative 

business belongs to the people who use it—people who have organized to 

provide each other with the goods and services they need or sell the products 

they make. 

Members share in the control of their cooperative. Cooperative members meet 

regularly, elect directors, and review reports themselves. Or as the cooperative 

grows, the directors hire management to manage the day-to-day tasks for the 

members. Other cooperative examples are business services, child care, health 

care, housing, legal and professional services, marketing of agricultural and 

other products, just to name a few. Cooperatives can be organized to provide just 

about any goods or services. 

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 

The U.S. Chamber of Commerce is the world’s largest business federation, with 

affiliates around the world. In several countries Volunteers have been assigned 

to or worked with local chambers to promote business activities. Chamber of 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 12 

commerce members benefit from the lobbying efforts on the local, national, and 

international levels. Members benefit from the discussion of such issues as 

taxation, litigation, government policy, and the development of a quality 

workforce. Chambers provide members benefits through advocacy, information, 

training, consulting, and lobbying efforts. The organization is usually fee-based 

and provides a forum for its members to work collectively and benefit 

economically by doing business with each other. 

GUILDS 

Guilds are made up of people who represent a significant portion of a 

commercial or industrial sector, practice the same trade, and seek to cover all 

products, services, and processes of the trade. Volunteers have worked with 

some craft guilds. Guild membership is broadly based with both large and small 

businesses and key players. Guilds are successful in generating funds from 

membership fees, as well as from sales of services to members and others. They 

promote cooperation within the sector and between sectors, customers, and 

suppliers to enhance competitiveness. Guilds provide varied benefits to their 

members: for example, lobbying for higher wages, better working conditions, 

improved benefits from employers. The association itself may provide direct 

benefit to its members through a credit union or health insurance for the selfemployed, or training to keep workers current in changes in technology. 

BUSINESS INCUBATORS 

Business incubators are a relatively new entity formed to provide an enabling 

environment for the start-up of small businesses. A few Volunteers in Central 

and Eastern Europe have been active in working with business incubators. 

Incubators perform two important tasks within the community. First, they foster 

local community development; and second, they nurture emerging businesses 

through start-up periods. 

Business incubation is a powerful process of business enterprise development. 

Incubators nurture young firms, helping them to survive and grow during the 

start-up period when they are most vulnerable. Incubators provide hands-on 

management assistance, access to financing, and exposure to critical business or 

technical support services. They may also offer low rent, shared office services, 

access to equipment, flexible leases, and expandable space all under one roof. 

The intent of an incubator program is to produce successful graduates—

businesses that are financially viable when they leave the incubator, usually in 

two to three years. Incubators can thrive in urban, suburban, and rural settings. 

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION 

A community development corporation (CDC) is a governmental or quasigovernmental agency that lends and invests in companies that locate in their 

community. They are often affiliated with a local municipality or economic 

development agency. CDCs review investments as other investors do, but 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 13 

because of their interest in community development they consider other factors, 

such as opportunities for employment, assistance for minorities and women, and 

tax revenue from the business. A business that meets a community’s needs can 

often acquire funding from a CDC when other investors might not be interested, 

and sometimes at a lower rate and for a longer term. Unfortunately in many of 

the countries where Peace Corps Volunteers serve, governments do not have the 

resources to sponsor CDCs. 

COMMUNITY ACTION AGENCIES 

Community action agencies (CAA) had their start in the United States in the 

1960s to fight America’s War on Poverty. They are nonprofit and public 

organizations (sponsored by local or regional government organizations). CAAs 

help people to help themselves achieve self-sufficiency, and work in 

collaboration with other organizations to help America’s poorest of the poor. 

Today, community action type organizations are found throughout Western 

Europe and in a few developing and redeveloping countries. 

WOMEN’S BUSINESS ASSOCIATIONS 

Partly as a result of the Peace Corps’ Women in Development efforts, 

Volunteers are active in identifying and working to promote women’s business 

associations. A women’s group establishes itself for the purpose of generating 

income and economic development for its membership. The group may decide to 

buy a stall in the town’s market or begin a craft group. It may also provide 

classes in bookkeeping, management, or entrepreneurship. The group may form 

a savings circle or other rotating savings scheme. 

CBOS AND NGOS 

At first glance the difference between a community-based organization (CBO) 

and a nongovernmental organization (NGO) may not be very clear. The major 

distinction is that a CBO focuses its efforts exclusively on the community and 

community members. A CBO is a local organization. It may or may not have 

national or international affiliations. It has a democratic governance structure, 

and members derive certain benefits. Often the lines between these two types of 

organizations can be fuzzy. In general CBOs tend to be less formally structured 

and organized. For example, they may not have boards, they may exist for one 

purpose, and when that purpose is achieved they may dissolve. In addition, they 

frequently do not have paid staff. NGOs tend to focus on a “cause,” such as 

children, the environment, or education, and CBOs tend to focus on how to best 

serve the community. 

Both CBOs and NGOs are major players in the CED process. As Volunteers, 

identifying and recognizing the roles these organizations play in the community 

is a vital step in implementing CED projects. Each organization has stakeholders 

that may be the target group or a combination of target groups for a CED 

project. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 14 

ACTIVITY 4:2 

THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANIZATIONS 

Work with other trainees, language instructors, and/or technical trainer to 

identify five or more types of CBOs that are common in your host country. You 

may want to conduct individual discussions, take field trips to CBOs, hold panel 

discussions with CBO members, or talk with Volunteers working with CBOs and 

their Counterparts; read written materials on the organizations or surf the 

Internet. Here are some questions to help you learn more about CBOs in your 

host country. 

• How many CBOs can you identify in your training community? Do any of 

them have national or international affiliations? 

• Describe the work of different organizations? 

• What kind of contributions could a Volunteer make in these organizations? 

• What is the economic focus of CBOs in your community? 

• Are there political sensitivities surrounding CBOs in the country? What are 

the issues, concerns? 

• How do most CBOs support themselves? 

• Why are CBOs important to the community’s development? Do they play a 

significant role? 

• What is/are the local language terms used to describe CBOs? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 15 

COORDINATION 

Coordination is a process by which two or more organizations work together to 

accomplish a common purpose or task. The responsibility for the coordination 

process can be held by an individual or a group, but in cooperation and 

consultation with all the people concerned. There are many reasons to work in 

coordination when planning a CED activity: 

• Coordination with other groups can minimize the constraints to the project. 

• Coordination can assist in taking corrective action when problems are 

encountered during project implementation. 

• Coordination promotes better relationships among key players in the 

project’s process. 

• Coordination can assist in the allocation of resources. 

For coordination to work, effective leadership is essential. Good leaders inspire 

confidence, articulate concerns, and create links with other organizations such as 

banks, government departments, NGOs, private businesses, and donor 

organizations. 

The concept of a society working together for the betterment of all is an ideal 

worth striving for. Many societies have three distinct sectors: business, 

government, and the civil sector, or the NGOs and CBOs. For CED to work most 

effectively these three sectors need to work together. 

For example, a community based organization wants to establish an annual craft 

fair. It needs the cooperation of the local government to provide use of the town 

square as a fair site, police assistance, and other municipal services. It also 

would be helpful if local business pitched in and provided banners, helped with 

advertising, and created sales events that support the fair. 

The key to this cooperation is that all participants benefit from their 

participation. The local government benefits through the promotion of the town 

and business efforts, which may increase the town’s economic and tax base. The 

business community benefits from the potential increase in customers for 

restaurants, shops, and other retail outlets. And, of course, the CBO benefits 

through by an outlet for its crafts and the promotion of its wares. 

PARTNERSHIPS 

Partnerships with CBOs and NGOs may provide business with returns and 

produce a wide range of benefits. The range of benefits may be difficult for 

businesses to measure, but businesses do recognize improvements in such areas 

as public image, public relations and government relations, customer loyalty, 

access to new markets, employee morale, and, in some instances, employee 

retention. Frequently, internationally recognized soft drink companies will 

provide free drinks at fundraising events, local merchants will advertise 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 16 

community events in their stores or restaurants, or companies may encourage 

employees to participate in community events. 

Benefits can be tangible and intangible; for example, a sense of community 

appreciation, charity, or philanthropy. Business may believe that the goodwill 

created in assisting a CBO is worth the expense of advertising or a banner. The 

local government may see it as its responsibility to promote local business, and 

therefore contribute time and effort willingly. 

Each organization needs to assess the community and select the best approach 

for working together. Here are a few ways to build partnerships: 

• Develop internal support for the partnership within your organization, 

whether business, government, NGO, or CBO. 

• Create a “business” strategy and a “philanthropic” strategy to assure better 

outcomes, avoid missteps, and open the way for further cooperation. 

• Leverage existing systems and internal structures to enhance the outcomes. 

For example, engage a sales force or a police force in promoting the 

communities’ efforts, use retail stores, post offices, or major transportation 

hubs. 

• Design a partnership that customers, employees, and community members 

can support. Develop the partnership in such a way that everyone clearly 

sees the benefit. 

• Create partnerships that will last. Look at the relationship in terms of a longterm investment that will grow and increase benefits to all. 

Partnerships at their best are based on the integrity of each organization. The 

integrity of the organization depends to a great extent on whether or not its 

members can hold leaders accountable and remove them if necessary. Open 

systems of sharing information, consulting members, and electing officers are 

critical, as is an effective system for the control and prevention of corruption. 

This is as true for a local food cooperative, as it is for a complex organization 

such as the World Bank. It is not enough for an organization to answer only to 

those who are inside the organization; they need to answer to a wider audience—

their stakeholders. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Now that we have discussed the various resources available in a community and 

various ways to cooperate and collaborate, let’s take a look at a case study and 

see how a CBO might help in a real situation. 

Discuss how forming a CBO could help the small traders in this story improve 

their income. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 17 

THE FISH SELLERS 

This story took place in a coastal fishing village. When fish are 

brought to the shore from the boats every day, three groups come to 

buy the fish. Women traders, who individually sell the fish from 

baskets they carry by hand to nearby village markets. Bicycle traders, 

who carry their fish by bicycle to more distant villages and also sell 

individually. And big business traders, who come in a large vehicle 

from the local food processing plant. 

The fish are sold by auction every day to the highest bidder. When all 

the fish have been sold, the buyers leave. The women spend many 

hours waiting to buy the fish and then selling the fish house-to-house 

or at small markets in their villages. They carry the fish in baskets on 

their heads. Sometimes three or four women will rent a rickshaw to 

carry the fish. There are hundreds of houses in the villages where 

they can sell their fish. If they do not sell quickly the fish will spoil. 

Many bicycle traders also come to buy the fish, traveling from 

villages many miles away. They also have very long hours. The 

traders buy more fish than the women because they can buy on credit. 

When they buy the fish, they must hurry back to their villages to sell 

before their competition does. The sooner they get to a village, the 

higher the price they can get for the fish. But some days they don’t 

sell any fish. They work long hours, and the competition is great. 

The big business people bring vehicles that keep the fish cold and 

take them to the food processing plants in a nearby town. They have 

enough money and credit to buy large quantities of fish. They are 

also able to buy the best quality fish. 

Think about and discuss with others how it might benefit the women and/or the 

bicycle traders to form a cooperative. The following questions can be used to 

facilitate your thinking and a group discussion: 

• What services might the cooperative, guild, or a CDC provide? 

• What costs would be involved in the operations? 

• How might these different types of organizations cover costs? 

• How should they be governed? 

• What are the advantages and disadvantages to starting each? 

• Should the women and/or the bicycle traders organize a cooperative? 

• Who could the women or the bicycle traders partner with in the community?
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 18 

ACTIVITY 4:3 

DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING A CED PROJECT 

As a group, Trainees and language instructors and/or technical trainers can 

identify, with the input of local residents, a small CED project within the training 

site community. The project will have a very short time span, but there are many 

possibilities. Some examples are: conduct a business seminar, develop a 

beautification project, or create a short nature path—you decide what is best 

given your environment. Then plan the project and implement it. Once the 

project is completed, ask yourselves these questions: 

• Was planning the project easy? Were you able to convince the key players 

to “buy-in”? 

• How did your project enhance the economic well-being of the community? 

• How did you go about the implementation process? Once started did the 

project have a life of its own? 

• What did you do when the unexpected arose? 

• What were your key findings in implementing a project? 

• Can you apply what you learned in the future? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 19 

The great thing in the world 

is not so much where we are 

but in what direction we are going. 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes 

THE IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGE 

The implementation phase of a project is sometimes the most challenging. You 

may believe you have the right project, the key players engaged, a great plan in 

place, and then something happens—the unexpected. Someone gets very sick 

and cannot participate, there is an election that stirs the pot, or the rains are 

particularly heavy and all activities are cancelled. You name it; a hundred 

different things could go wrong, or at least change the implementation process. 

Unexpected events happen, and community projects are no exceptions. That’s 

where the famed Peace Corps flexibility and adaptability really comes into 

play—not to mention your creative genius. 

The implementation phase can be where the plan meets the brick wall. It’s now 

time to think creatively about how to go under, over, around or at times plow 

right through the brick wall. The group may need to refine its skills as facilitators 

or negotiators, or the group may have to speed the project up or slow it down, or 

a group member may have to take a back seat, or the group may have to find a 

new leader. The possibilities are endless. Common challenges in implementing 

CED projects are turf battles; scarce resources; poor communication systems; 

power relations; differences in rules, regulations, structures, or norms; political 

indifference; lack of participation; and personal rivalries, just to name a few. 

There are no unique or definitive ways to handle changing circumstances, but 

thinking about probable events and working through how to respond can help 

mitigate the problems encountered. One way of working through these 

challenges is to use if—then scenarios. If a certain scenario occurs, then an 

appropriate response is taken. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 20 

ACTIVITY 4:4 

WHAT IF — THEN 

Individually, think of a recent situation you had in country where “Murphy’s 

Law” prevailed: anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Then, in a small 

group start the process by presenting your situation and identifying someone else 

to provide possible solutions. Keep the process going until all have had a chance 

to present and solve problems—this can be really funny and light-hearted, and 

gives a sense of how often things can and do go wrong. It also gives wonderful 

examples of what we do when Murphy has been busy. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 21 

One’s philosophy is not best expressed in words, it is 

expressed in the choices one makes...In the long run, 

we shape our lives and we shape ourselves. The 

process never ends until we die. And the choices we 

make are ultimately our responsibility. 

— Eleanor Roosevelt 

IT IS NOT JUST THE VISIBLE RESULTS OF CED 

When working with a community to implement a CED project the outcomes are 

important, but that is not all that is important. The project and the process at 

times can be of equal consequence. The “project” results are certainly important. 

The results can benefit individuals and the community as a whole; they can have 

a major impact on people’s lives. In addition, there are the “process” results; that 

is, the development of social capital, which is built in the community and within 

the group. Social capital is the ability of people to trust each other enough to 

work together toward an agreed-on goal. 

The CED project builds capacity within the community and the organization 

through the “process” of planning, implementing, and evaluating. Capacity 

building strengthens the organization’s ability to perform specific activities. It is 

a process that creates leaders, inspires, adapts, and unites the mission and the 

activities, and finally it is a means to fulfill the organization’s and community’s 

goals. 

If the group, community, or leader shortchanges the “process” of building 

capacity or the development of social capital, problems will occur. By looking 

for the quick fix, relying on limited contacts or unrepresentative leaders, 

neglecting people’s practical skills or the need for a reliable resource base, 

organizations and communities set themselves up for failure. Too often the quick 

fix is the Volunteer doing it him/herself. 

Take the time, energy, and effort necessary to ensure that the organization, 

community, and its partners have developed the necessary capacity and social 

capital. Doing so takes a long-term perspective on the development process and 

a commitment to the people in the process. Ensuring the balance between 

product and process will ultimately enable people to work together again and 

again and again to benefit the community in small and large ways. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 22 

ACTIVITY 4:5 

PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER 

While in your training community think of creative ways you could perform a 

talent show that depicts all the joys and sorrows of implementing a CED project. 

The next time all the trainees are together design a skit, create a song or rap, or 

develop a full-blown drama. Use your own experience and a little imagination—

have fun, and enjoy the show. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 23 

Experience is a hard teacher 

because she gives the test first, 

the lesson after. 

— Vernon Sanders Law, 

American baseball player 

CONCLUSION 

Implementation is perhaps the most challenging of all phases in CED. There are 

no practice runs, no pilot tests, no dress rehearsals. Implementation is the hard 

road, and at each bend in the road there are opportunities for creativity and 

ample lessons to be learned. Yet, along the way, the satisfaction of the venture, 

of implementing a plan, is exhilarating. It is a challenge to coordinate, to create 

meaningful partnerships, and to develop contingency plans while working with a 

group that is trying to move in the same direction for the same purpose at the 

same time. The process can be transforming, and it does build capacity at the 

individual, organizational, and community levels. 

As you work through your community assessment, people will emerge as 

leaders. They will facilitate groups, informally allowing everyone to voice their 

concerns and opinions; they will go out and seek the input of others who are not 

present; and they will be committed to the work of the group, encouraging others 

to do the same. You will see leaders emerging due to their care, concern, and 

commitment to the work of the group. Often these leaders have emerged in other 

ways—from church groups, schools, or community activities—and they are 

respected by the community. Keep your eyes and ears open, as the leaders are 

often silently selected. 

To lead the people, 

walk behind them.

— Lao Tzu 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 24 

KEY TERMS 

Key terms are defined as they are used in this module. A space is provided to 

write the translation of a word or phrase into the local language. Building a local 

language vocabulary of terms related to CED prepares you to function 

effectively in this area of development. Work with your language instructors to 

find the appropriate translation and definitions in the local language and build 

your technical vocabulary as you study this module. 

Civil society: organizations between the family and the state characterized by 

active, diverse, inclusive citizen participation. Political organizations and forprofit businesses are usually not civil society organizations. 

Community-based organization (CBO): a local organization (which may or 

may not have national and international affiliates) with a democratic governance 

structure that affords its members certain benefits. 

Implementation: to fulfill, accomplish, or execute and finish a task, activity, or 

project. 

Nongovernmental organization (NGO): most common international name for 

an organization formed to help others that is not a government organization or a 

for-profit business. 

* * * * * * * * * 

RESOURCES 

These resources are available through the Peace Corps Information Collection 

and Exchange (ICE). The citations are presented as they appear in The Whole 

ICE Catalog. 

Collaboration Handbook: Creating, Sustaining, and Enjoying the Journey. 

Michael Winer and Karen Ray. (Wilder Foundation.) 1996. 179 pp. 

(ICE No. CD053) 

 Gives expert advice on how to establish and operate a successful 

collaboration, including how to find and attract the right people, build 

trust, and change conflict into cooperation. Handbook includes 

numerous worksheets, sidebars, and tips for a successful collaboration. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 25 

PACA: Participatory Analysis for Community Action. (Peace Corps ICE.) 

1996. 350 pp. (ICE No. M0053) 

 Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) is an approach 

used to facilitate communities’ exploration of their own realities in 

order to take action for changes they desire. Based on earlier 

participatory analysis methods, such as Rapid Rural Appraisal and 

Participatory Rural Appraisal, PACA turns the appraisal activity into a 

process where the development agent and the community develop a 

partnership that leads to community control of their projects. As a 

defining criterion, PACA distinguishes the role of gender in 

development by applying participatory exercises with separate groups 

of women and men, girls and boys, which allows the community to 

compare and analyze together the roles that shape their reality. In 

similar ways, PACA can be used to understand age, ethnicity, or any 

other source of societal differentiation that has implications for 

development. The tools can be used in schools, organizations, 

institutions, and any other group, rural or urban, where difference 

voices need to be heard. 

Roles of the Volunteer in Development: Toolkits for Capacity Building. 

(Peace Corps ICE.) 2002. 225 pp. (ICE No. T0005) 

 This unique publication is a series of toolkits that can be separated into 

seven booklets. The introductory booklet provides an overview of the 

Peace Corps’ philosophy of development, introduces the capacitybuilding roles that a Volunteer might play, and then provides guidance 

for Volunteers in identifying what roles they will play. The other six 

booklets each address one of the roles: Learner, Co-Trainer, CoFacilitator, Mentor, Change Agent, and Co-Planner. In each booklet, 

there is a chart delineating the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed 

for the role; background readings on the role; and activities. The 

booklets can be used as self-study, or used in conjunction with training 

sessions. 

The Art of Teaching Adults: How to Become an Exceptional Instructor and 

Facilitator. Peter Renner. (Training associates, Ltd.) 1993. 138 pp. 

(ICE No. ED181) 

[Distribution to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 A revised, expanded version of the Teacher’s Survival Kit. Addresses 

the full range of techniques and concepts involved in teaching adults, 

including the physical setting, learning styles, group process, lectures, 

case studies, field projects, visual aids, tests, and evaluations. 

Growing New Ventures, Creating New Jobs: Principles and Practices of 

Successful Business Incubation. Mark P. Rice and Janna B. Matthews. 

(Quorum Books.) 1995. 152 pp. (ICE No. SB202) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda — 26 

Internet: 

www.ncesa.org/html/links.html — National Center for Economic and 

Security Alternatives 

www.uschamber.org — International US Chamber of Commerce 

www.ncba.org — National Cooperative Business Association (general 

information on cooperatives and links to sites) 

www.nbia.org — National Business Incubator Association, for North 

America 

www.nacaa.org — National Association of Community Action Agencies 

www.ncced.org — National Congress for Community Economic 

Development 

www.worldbank.org — World Bank website with links to all its programs, 

publications and other international development organizations 

www.undp.org — United Nations Development Programme 

www.pactpub.com — Participating Agencies Collaborating Together 

www.idealist.org — great information and linkages 

www.aed.org — Academy for Educational Development–International 

Development Group 

Many of these sites have links to other sites that will be helpful to your work. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

MODULE 4 

IMPLEMENTING A CED STRATEGIC AGENDA 

Overview: 

This module provides training participants with the skills and understanding to 

mobilize community organizations to implement a CED strategic agenda. The 

importance of working with community-based organizations (CBOs) and all 

sectors in a community is discussed, along with leadership and the benefits 

gained from the process as well as more tangible outcomes of a CED project. 

Time to Complete Module: 

Reading 1 hour 

Activities (vary)—approximation 5 hours 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, markers, tape, list of CBOs in country, and a list of possible 

short-term CED projects. 

Preparation: 

Read this module and adapt the materials to the local situation. 

If you are conducting community-based training (CBT), create situations where 

training participants can practice planning and implementing a variety of 

activities. Provide an opportunity for the training participants to implement a 

small project at the training location or in their community. This approach also 

supports the other modules in terms of building participatory approaches to the 

Volunteers’ work in CED. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 4:1 

DIAGRAMMING LINKS BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONS 

Overview: 

Assist trainees and Volunteers in understanding the relationships between 

community organizations and the cooperation that is needed to implement CED 

activities. 

Time: 30 minutes 

Materials: 

None. 

Preparation: 

Identify one or more CED efforts in your country and provide descriptions for 

training participants to diagram. They may even be CED efforts that Volunteers 

have previously been involved in. Be prepared to discuss what would motivate 

the various parties in the community to participate in the CED activity and how a 

Peace Corps Volunteer might facilitate the effort. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

In the discussion, explore how the community members interested in starting a 

boot-making cooperative should approach each of the other community players. 

What are the advantages to each of these players in actively supporting the bootmaking cooperative? 

Possible answers: 

Local government is able to sell some of the equipment that is not being used 

and also benefits from potential increase in taxes. 

Microfinance institution makes a loan to a group (more security than to one 

individual) that has experience in boot making. 

Herdsmen gain a market for some of their animal skins; their families gain 

income. 

Boot makers’ families have more income. 

Local stores will benefit in sales to boot makers’ families and herdsmen’s 

families. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

Trainer’s Notes, Activity 4:1, continued 

Local residents will have access to quality boots at a reasonable price. 

Certainly the community’s income will increase by considerably more than the 

equivalent of $20. Assuming the skins cost $5, the herdsmen’s income would 

increase by $5—the cost of producing the skin. Assuming the herdsmen and the 

boot makers spend some of their income in the local stores, the store owner’s 

income would increase by that amount—their cost. Assume also that the 

municipal government spending the money for the equipment and boot forms on 

local employees salaries, the shopkeeper having an employee, and so on. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 4:2 

THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANIZATIONS 

Overview: 

Assist trainees and Volunteers in understanding the various types of CBOs in 

their host country. 

Time: 

Depends on activities selected by training participants and trainers. 

Materials: 

Gather brochures or written information from CBOs visited, presenters, and 

other sources. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

After the information is gathered, hold discussions with training participants to 

ensure that the information they collected is accurate. Discuss any 

misconceptions. Answer these three questions: 

• What are your key findings? 

• What are the implications when working with CBOs in your country? 

• How can you use this information in future CED efforts? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 5 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 4:3 

DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING A CED PROJECT 

Overview: 

Provide the trainee with an opportunity to implement a small CED project. It is 

not usually possible during a training to develop a CED strategic agenda, 

identify partners, and plan and implement projects to implement the agenda. A 

small project will provide the opportunity to practice many of the skills 

discussed. 

Time: depends on the project 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, markers, ideas for a CED project that is appropriate for the site 

and community. 

Preparation: 

Note: Two or three training participants can conduct a project or they can work 

in larger groups—it will depend on the size and scope of the project(s). 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Once the projects are completed, ask the trainees the following questions. 

• What was your first reaction to some of the ideas generated? 

• Was planning the project easy? Were you able to persuade key players to 

“buy-in”? 

• How did your project enhance the economic well-being of the community? 

• How did you go about the implementation process? What might you have 

done differently? 

• What did you do when the unexpected happened? 

• What are your key findings? 

• How might you use this knowledge in your future activities? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 6 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 4:4 

PRACTICING WHAT IF — THEN? 

Overview: 

Provide the trainee with the experience in using contingency plans in a fun, 

creative way. 

Time: 15–25 minutes 

Materials/Preparation: 

Nerfball or other soft ball. 

Procedure: 

Tell the trainees they will now have some practice in handling other people’s 

problems. Ask the trainees to think about a recent situation in-country where 

they either experienced or observed that “Murphy’s Law” prevailed—anything 

that can go wrong will go wrong. In pairs, select one real-world problem or story 

and present the problem or scenario. Once they have presented, the pair throws 

the nerfball to another pair. Whoever catches it has to offer possible solutions. 

Then that pair presents their scenario and throws the nerfball to another pair to 

offer possible solutions. Continue until all the pairs have presented and creative 

solutions have been offered. This can be truly humorous, so be prepared. You 

will also hear some very interesting stories! 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

• What creative solutions did you hear? 

• Did you want to add any thoughts? 

• Were you able to communicate your scenario effectively? 

• How busy was Murphy in your group? Do you think he will be as busy at 

your site? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 4: Implementing a CED Strategic Agenda TRAINER’S NOTES — 7 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 4:5 

PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER 

Overview: 

Provide trainees with an opportunity to pull all the information together on CED 

implementation in a fun and creative way. 

Time: 

Performance is 1 hour with lots of practice 

Materials/Preparation: 

Lots of creativity, a semblance of a stage, some talent, and a cast of good sports. 

Procedure: 

The next time all the trainees are scheduled to gather together, have the group 

create, plan, and conduct a talent show that highlights all the challenges, hazards, 

pitfalls, and learning that takes place when implementing a CED project. 

Trainees can create songs, raps, skits, and full dramas of the process of 

implementing a project and the learning and transformations that takes place in a 

group. There is plenty of material, from the CBO to the “if–thens.” Have fun and 

let the trainees’ imaginations and experiences run free. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

• Did you have fun? 

• Did you learn something? 

• What did you learn? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5 

Monitoring and 

Evaluating a CED 

Strategic Agenda 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 1 

MODULE 5 

MONITORING AND EVALUATING 

CED PROJECTS 

A PEACE CORPS TRAINEE’S STORY 

Peace Corps trainees in the Dominican Republic learn about 

monitoring and evaluation and perform a valuable service for the 

Water Sanitation Project at the same time. 

As part of their Pre-Service Training, trainees visit a village where a 

previous Volunteer worked with a village water committee to design 

and install a potable water system. Using a set of predetermined 

questions the trainees gather monitoring and evaluation information. 

Examples of the questions: Is the water system still functioning? Is 

the water committee active in maintaining the system? What 

problems, if any, has the village experienced with the water system? 

What changes has the potable water system made in the lives of 

villagers? 

This is a creative way one Peace Corps post systematically gathers 

information on the impact of Volunteer’s projects, collects learnings 

to improve future water systems, and trains future Volunteers in 

monitoring and evaluation techniques. 

* * * * * * * * * 

Monitoring and evaluation have changed over the years. In the past, outside 

experts were called in to make judgments on the success of projects. Today, 

participatory monitoring and evaluation (PME) is the preferred methodology—

PME involves project stakeholders in the monitoring and evaluation processes. 

This module gives an overview of monitoring and evaluation, and explores your 

role in monitoring and evaluating community economic development (CED) 

projects. The word project will be used to refer to “programs” and “activities” as 

well. 

By the time you complete the module you should have the knowledge, skills, and 

attitudes to: 

• Distinguish between monitoring and evaluation by giving examples of each. 

• Describe the principles, characteristics, and objectives of PME. 

• Discuss why PME is important for a project and to a community. 

• Discuss and demonstrate the use of three information-gathering methods. 

• Explain the role(s) that Peace Corps Volunteers can play in PME. 

• Demonstrate how to plan and/or conduct an evaluation. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 2 

HOW ARE MONITORING AND EVALUATION 

DIFFERENT? 

The words monitoring and evaluation mean different things to different 

people—the words can be loaded with memories. Some view them as adversarial 

processes: thumbs-up or thumbs-down judgments. Throughout life we are 

monitored and evaluated: in school we receive grades, at work we are given 

performance appraisals, and we evaluate relationships and monitor our health. 

Although there are more formal definitions of monitoring and evaluation, in the 

Peace Corps we tend to use no-nonsense definitions: 

Evaluation asks the question “Are we doing the right thing” or “Do we have 

the right plan?” and 

Monitoring checks to see if we are following our plan. 

Monitoring is either ongoing or periodic observation of a project’s 

implementation to ensure that inputs, activities, outputs, and external factors are 

proceeding according to plan. It focuses on regular collection of information to 

track the project. Monitoring provides information to alert the stakeholders as to 

whether or not results are being achieved. It also identifies challenges and 

successes and helps in identifying the source of an implementation problem. 

In a CED project the group decides what to monitor. By collecting data regularly 

on activity inputs and outputs, processes, and results, the community can monitor 

the progress toward the group’s goals and objectives (e.g., income generated by 

the sale of a cookbook, how many people sold how many books over what 

period of time). In managing a CED project indicators are indispensable 

management tools. They define the data needed to compare the actual verses the 

planned results. Monitoring is useful because it tends to highlight little problems 

before they become big ones.

An evaluation is a systematic examination of a project to determine its 

efficiency, effectiveness, impact, sustainability, and the relevance of its 

objectives. The dictionary defines evaluation as a systematic investigation of the 

worth or merit of an activity. Traditionally, evaluation has been the last step in 

the project life cycle and in the project development process. However, it does 

not make sense to wait until the project is finished to ask the question “Did we 

do the right thing?” Indeed, you could evaluate the effectiveness at each stage of 

the project life cycle. 

Evaluation is different from monitoring. Monitoring checks whether the project 

is on track; evaluation questions whether the project is on the right track. 

Monitoring is concerned with the short-term performances of the project, and 

evaluation looks more at long-term effects of project goals. 

Frequently, evaluation is perceived as an activity, carried out by an expert or a 

group of experts, designed to assess the results of a particular project. This is a 

common misconception. It is vital that evaluation is carried out with the 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 3 

participation of all project stakeholders, including beneficiaries. The results of a 

periodic evaluation are fed into the project planning process as quickly as 

possible to enhance the project’s effectiveness. 

* * * * * * * * * 

A LEARNING MOMENT 

Think about a time when you were involved in an evaluation 

process. What kind of evaluation was it? What was the 

evaluation trying to find out? Was the evaluation participatory? 

Did the information gathered and reported get used? 

* * * * * * * * * 

EVALUATION MODELS AND APPROACHES 

The monitoring and evaluation process has gone through various stages of 

development. In the early 1900s, evaluation was measurement oriented, and its 

approach was scientific. Tests were used to measure progress, time and motion 

studies were conducted, and the role of the evaluator was technical, as the 

provider of instruments for measurement. As evaluation progressed it centered 

on describing the achievement of objectives and the analysis of a project’s 

strengths and weaknesses. The evaluator then moved into the role of judge and 

added judgment to the process of evaluation. Today, there is a major shift away 

from the evaluator as a technical expert, judge, measurer, and describer to that of 

the evaluator as a facilitator. The shift includes the stakeholders as key 

participants in the process and the evaluator as orchestrator of the process. 

Stakeholders, then, are the judges, measurers, and describers; they participate in 

the design, implementation, and interpretation of the results. Stakeholders are 

viewed as participants rather than objects of a study. 

CED leadership often presumes that there is only one proper way to carry out an 

evaluation. However, there is no single, correct approach to evaluation. Indeed, 

several different models and approaches exist, each with its own strengths and 

weaknesses. We first look at a goal-oriented evaluation and then a learning 

process approach. For both of these we recommend the PME approach to 

evaluation, which is gaining recognition as a means of counteracting negative 

perceptions of the evaluation process. 

GOAL-ORIENTED EVALUATION 

In this model, the evaluator assesses progress toward the specified goals and 

objectives of a project and the effectiveness of the process used. In this instance, 

the evaluator asks the following question: “To what extent have project goals 

and objectives been achieved?” Primarily it is quantitative information that is 

collected to verify the number of activities and objectives accomplished. This 

approach is frequently carried out by program managers and/or outside 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 4 

consultants who are considered experts in the field of evaluation. This is the 

most common type of project evaluation. The success of this type of evaluation 

depends on a clearly written project plan. When the plan is unclear it is difficult 

to determine to what extent the goals and objectives were achieved. 

LEARNING PROCESS APPROACH 

In this model, the evaluation activities are concerned not only with the extent to 

which the planned activities are carried out but also with how they are being 

carried out. In this approach, mechanisms are developed to help program staff 

learn from both the successes and challenges of implementing the activities to 

improve the program in the future. Both quantitative and qualitative information 

are gathered. Based on the information gathered, lessons learned are formulated 

and then fed into the project planning process. The evaluators act as facilitators 

of the process, and the stakeholders provide the knowledge. 

PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION (PME) 

The concept of participatory evaluation has gained recognition in recent years, 

primarily to counter the idea of dispassionate, external critiques of projects, 

which are perceived as overlooking the ideas and feelings of project 

stakeholders. It should be recognized, however, that no evaluation that alienates 

and ignores project stakeholders is likely to succeed. Thus, in a sense, all 

evaluations must be participatory, or at least inclusive, to be successful. 

PME values and recognizes the contribution of the community and empowers it 

to become more involved in CED. In monitoring, consider these questions: Is the 

project on time? Within budget? Is the number of people served on target? In 

evaluation, consider: Is this the best plan? Should we change the plan? 

Monitoring and evaluation do not happen after the project is underway or 

finished; the process begins in the project-planning phase. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 5 

When planning a PME consider the following: 

• Why are we monitoring and evaluating? 

• What specifically will we monitor and evaluate? 

• When should the project be evaluated? 

• When—how frequently will we gather information and feedback? 

• What are our indicators? Objectives written in measurable terms help define 

indicators. 

• How will we gather monitoring and evaluation information? What methods 

will we use? 

• Who will be responsible for the monitoring and evaluation tasks? 

• What questions are we seeking to answer? 

Some principles of PME are: 

• Involve project stakeholders; 

• Involvement is vital to participation; 

• Keep the process and approach simple; 

• Learn from the process; 

• Include key findings, insights, and understanding in future projects. 

The characteristics of PME are: 

• Draws on local resources and capacities; 

• Recognizes the innate wisdom and knowledge of the community; 

• Demonstrates that the community is creative and knowledgeable about its 

environment; 

• Ensures that stakeholders are part of the decision-making process; 

• Uses facilitators who act as catalysts and who assist stakeholders in asking 

the right questions; 

• Contributes to improved communications between project participants and 

key stakeholders at different levels in the project implementation process. 

The goals of PME are to: 

• Analyze the successes and challenges of the project; 

• Measure the progress in meeting the project goals, objectives; 

• Review the strategies and timelines; 

• Assess the impact of the project on the individuals and community; 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 6 

• Develop recommendations for improvement based on lessons learned; 

• Create a common understanding of the project objectives, timelines, and 

deliverables for all stakeholders. 

Two alternatives exist for conducting a participatory evaluation: 

1. An external evaluation facilitator may be employed to drive the evaluation 

process. In this instance, the evaluation team is made up of a combination of 

external and internal evaluators. Sometimes a Volunteer serves as the 

external evaluation facilitator and organizes the evaluation process. 

2. The entire evaluation can be steered and carried out by the project staff and 

beneficiaries. 

Participatory evaluation has certain strengths as well as weaknesses. Strengths 

include: It is less threatening; it is possible to get to the deeply held thoughts of 

staff and beneficiaries and it gives staff a clearer picture of the work they do. 

Weaknesses include: It is disruptive and time-consuming; it is difficult for staff 

and beneficiaries to be objective about their project; and, if the project is 

experiencing major tensions and problems, it will be difficult to extract useful 

insights and information from staff members. 

From the view of the Peace Corps, a major strength of PME is its potential for 

building the capacity of staff and beneficiaries. PME promotes self-confidence, 

self-esteem, and independence within the community and it helps build project 

ownership. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 7 

ACTIVITY 5:1 

THE ROLE OF THE VOLUNTEER IN MONITORING AND 

EVALUATION 

What role can a PCV play as a member of a core group in monitoring and 

evaluating a CED project? Reflect on the following questions. 

• What impact could your involvement in monitoring and evaluation have on 

a community group? What skills can you bring to the group? 

• How could the monitoring and evaluation process help the group? What 

value can it provide? 

• Who might play the lead role in the process? Why? 

• What are the advantages of having the community involved in the 

process? Are there disadvantages? 

• What can the participants learn from the experience? 

Once you’ve reflected on your role, discuss these questions with other training 

participants, language instructors, technical trainers, and Peace Corps staff. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 8 

EVALUATION TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS 

If you have a well-written project plan with clear goals and objectives, if you 

have implemented the project, and if you have decided what type of evaluation 

to use and what types of questions the evaluation needs to answer, it is time to 

identify indicators that will help the evaluation team answer the evaluation 

questions. The next steps are to gather the information, analyze information 

collected, and, finally, report the results. This section of the module provides 

some tools and techniques to help you through the evaluation steps. We start 

with identifying indicators. 

INDICATORS 

In a successful CED project, clearly defined indicators are essential for 

accurately and realistically measuring progress toward the group’s goals and 

objectives. Remember that projects include both process and product results, and 

therefore indicators are needed for both. 

Indicators vary from project to project. They include many tangible factors: 

signs posted, trails blazed, seminars held, knowledge gained. They also include 

indicators of the capacity-building process: developing new leadership, 

enhancing the group’s public speaking skills, developing more group facilitators, 

etc. The indicators are determined by the objectives established in the project. 

The key is that all process indicators have elements of participation and capacity 

building.

Examples of Product Indicators Examples of Process Indicators 

Town market erected and open. A market association established and 

new leadership formed. 

Computer center open eight hours a 

day and five computers busy and 

working. 

Training available and technicians 

able to troubleshoot easily. 

A business newspaper is published 

four times a year—advertising has 

increased by 10 percent. 

Increase in the awareness of what 

CED is and the impact on the 

community. 

Attendance at community fair or 

festival. 

Number of people who volunteer 

has increased from last year. 

Organized and conducted five 

business seminars. 

Number of participants who return 

to other seminars and bring friends 

or colleagues. 

Indicators organize your thinking in terms of what type of information is 

important to whom and why. Indicators also organize thinking in terms of 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 9 

capacity building, project accomplishments, and lessons learned. It is important 

to keep the number of indicators to a minimum, keep the indicators simple and 

relevant to the project objectives, and focus only on the information needed to 

solve problems and identify successes. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 10 

ACTIVITY 5:2 

DEVELOPING INDICATORS 

Choose five of the CED projects listed on the below and develop two indicators 

for each. Try to develop both product and process indicators. When you’ve 

completed the task, share your indicators with other training participants and 

discuss the following questions: 

• Which product or process indicators were the easiest to write? 

• Did you repeat an indicator in any of the projects? 

• What information was missing? 

• What process would you use to develop indicators in a participative way? 

• How would you go about ensuring that the group was involved? 

• What information-gathering methods might you use for the indicators you 

selected? 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 11 

Activity 5:2, continued 

CED PROJECT IDEAS 

..............................................................................................................................

Start a business 

newspaper. 

Develop a market area. Design new signs for 

your town or community. 

..............................................................................................................................

Provide job training for 

local business employers. 

Create a program to attract 

new businesses to your 

community. 

Establish a trade fair to 

showcase local products 

and produce. 

..............................................................................................................................

Start a computer learning 

center. 

Establish a computer 

resource center. 

Organize a village bank 

or credit union. 

..............................................................................................................................

Create an art exhibit 

featuring local artisans. 

Begin a career day for 

businesses and schools. 

Renovate Main Street. 

..............................................................................................................................

Create a CED 

educational program for 

the community. 

Conduct a “gap” analysis 

for retail stores in your 

community. 

Begin a farming 

cooperative. 

..............................................................................................................................

Establish a continuing 

education center. 

Promote and create awards 

for the best business 

practices. 

Start a recycling program 

in your community. 

..............................................................................................................................

Build a community 

historical trail. 

Start a natural trail, 

walkway, and exercise 

path. 

Organize a 5K race for 

your village or town. 

..............................................................................................................................

Begin a community 

housing project. 

Organize an apprenticeship 

program between students 

and artisans. 

Build sidewalks in the 

town shopping area. 

..............................................................................................................................

Establish a town business 

association. 

Organize monthly business 

seminars. 

Conduct a consumer 

expenditure survey. 

..............................................................................................................................

Form a block watch 

group. 

Develop an annual “sales” 

event for local businesses. 

Develop a local cookbook 

to be sold as a fundraiser for 

a CED project. 

..............................................................................................................................

Start a community 

beautification project. 

Begin a local junior 

achievement program. 

Open a senior center 

and/or daycare center. 

..............................................................................................................................

Sponsor a progressive 

business dinner. 

Assist schools in setting up 

canteens. 

Build a sports field. 

Organize sports leagues. 

..............................................................................................................................

Create a community 

business directory. 

Start a food cooperative 

for the community’s needs. 

Begin to “bulk” buy 

products, such as 

fertilizers, seeds, etc. 

..............................................................................................................................

Hold block parties. Start a community festival. Begin a community 

alumni association. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 12 

INFORMATION-GATHERING METHODS 

Evaluation information gathering needs to be efficient and cost-effective. The 

list that follows is not all-inclusive. At times, you will need to think of creative 

ways to gather information. One Volunteer was able to determine the results of a 

nutrition project to encourage families to grow and eat spinach by asking 

schoolchildren how many of their mothers had served spinach to the family in 

the last week. She incorporated the spinach question into health classes she 

taught at the school. 

COMMUNITY MEETINGS 

Equipped with well-thought-out questions the CED project team conducts the 

first community meeting. Provide the participants with a brief presentation on 

the scope and purpose of the meeting. Take a few questions from the group to 

clarify the meeting. Decide how many small groups you will need and who will 

facilitate them. Then break the community into small groups for discussions, 

using the questions as a guide. After a specified period of time, reconvene the 

large group. Ask each small group to present their findings using flip charts. 

Decide how to end the meeting. It is important to explain what will be done with 

the data gathered. Also, let the stakeholders know how they can involve 

themselves further and how they can get a copy of the final report or action plan 

and/or a list of the lessons learned. Here is a list of the pros and cons of using 

this method. 

Pros: 

• Inclusive, interested community members can attend. 

• Community ownership of the project is broadened. 

• When a wide variety of people are involved, it provides a “reality check” for 

views and recommendations. 

Cons: 

• Community conflicts may develop and go unresolved. 

• It may be difficult to bring closure to the meeting. 

OBSERVATION 

Seeing and listening are the key words in defining observation. As a monitoring 

and evaluation tool, observation means viewing the results of a project or 

participating in some project activities. Observation can be obtrusive or 

unobtrusive. Because observation is fairly simple and a natural part of field 

experiences, it is often overlooked as a monitoring and evaluation method. 

Pros: 

• Easy to do, requires minimal preparation. 

• Tends to be holistic; many factors and influences are taken into account. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 13 

• Aids in identifying unintended as well as intended project outcomes. 

Cons: 

• Depends heavily on perceptiveness of observers and their biases. 

• People may change their behavior if they know they are being observed. 

QUESTIONNAIRES 

A questionnaire is a set of printed questions organized in a systematic way for 

the purpose of eliciting information from the respondents. A CED questionnaire 

may be developed to gauge the community’s response to a new market; another 

might to measure the interest of farmers in starting a cooperative. Questionnaires 

are often seen as a self-report mechanism, although questionnaires are used in 

personal or telephone interviews. 

Pros: 

• Questionnaires are relatively inexpensive to administer since they can be 

completed without an interviewer. 

• The questions are standardized so each person is asked the same questions 

in the same way. 

• Questionnaires allow for more privacy, particularly if distributed by mail. 

• Well-designed questionnaires are easily tabulated. 

Cons: 

• Questionnaires are overused; people are tired of filling them out. 

• Illiterate people cannot use questionnaires without assistance. 

• The response rate is low. 

• There is little opportunity to verify people’s responses. 

SECONDARY OR PREEXISTING DATA SOURCES 

Varying widely, this information can take the form of quantitative data (e.g., a 

group’s earning history, the number of meetings held, or projects completed), or 

it can be past evaluations or project plans. Review this information and the 

documentation that is available for history patterns, changes, and trends. 

INTERVIEWING 

Interviewing, or conversation, is the oldest and most respected method of 

gathering information. Interviewing styles range from informal and 

conversational to closed and quantitative. The objective in all cases is to provide 

a framework for interviewees to express themselves. There are various types of 

interviews with different styles and purposes. Interviewing provides the richest 

source of data in the shortest time. The interview is more reliable than any other 

form of information gathering from individuals because of the face-to-face 

communication. Interviewing is a skill, therefore basic training is important. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 14 

In interviewing, the primary tool for collecting data or information is the 

question. There are different types of questions that elicit different types of 

responses. Certain types of questions are more appropriate for in-depth 

interviewing than others. 

Closed questions provide finite responses, either yes or no or quantitative 

information (use should be limited). For example: 

How many participants did you have at the seminar? 

Leading questions lead interviewees to the answer you would like to have 

(avoid these types of questions). For example: 

Would you agree that everyone thinks the CED project was a great success? 

Would you say that all community members appreciate the historical trail? 

Double-barreled questions ask two questions at one time (should also be 

avoided). For example: 

Did the community group successfully organize a business newspaper and 

involve students in the process? 

Open-ended, probing, and follow-up questions elicit the most information 

from the interviewee and allow the free flow of information (use this type of 

question extensively). 

What are your impressions of the CED project? 

Why do you think it was effective or ineffective? 

What do the others in the group think about the project? 

Take time to develop good questions that lead the interviewee to relate the 

challenges and success of the CED project. Unlike a questionnaire, which is 

fairly rigid, interviews are more flexible. For example, during an interview, if a 

stakeholder does not understand one of the questions, the interviewer can 

reformulate the question until the meaning of the question is clear. Many times 

the interviewer will ask additional probing and follow-up questions to assure that 

precise and detailed information is gathered. The aim of the interview is to 

collect information that answers the monitoring or evaluation questions. The 

interview is a tool in the PME process that the interviewer can use in flexible and 

creative ways. 

DATA ANALYSIS 

The value or strengths of a project are often revealed through analysis. Analysis 

is the process by which you divide the whole into component parts—who, what, 

where, when, how, why—to determine the nature and function of, and 

relationship between, the parts. The collection and analysis of information is 

necessary to improve the planning and implementation of a project, improve 

decision making, learn from experience, and provide accountability and 

transparency in a project.
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 15 

The central questions in analysis are: 

 What happened? Who did it happen to? 

 Why did it happen? When did it happen? 

 How did it happen? Where did it happen? 

In PME there are lessons learned on at least two levels. The project participants 

learn lessons as they evaluate their own progress; and the monitoring and 

evaluation team learns lessons about the project as well as the evaluation 

process. For example, the monitoring and evaluation team may learn how to 

reduce facilitator dominance in sessions, and which kinds of questions evoke a 

participatory response and which ones do not, as well as how to improve the 

project. 

ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA 

There are many approaches to the analysis of information, from quantitative to 

qualitative and from simple to complex. In most cases simple is the best option. 

The simple option relies on the straightforward arrangements of numbers and 

other indicators along a timeline using simple mathematical operations. It also 

uses the common sense and experience of the people involved in the evaluation. 

Most quantitative indicators will generate numbers that can be analyzed in a few 

ways: 

• By noting their direction up or down over time. 

• By using simple statistics, such as means or averages. 

• By determining what percentage of a whole certain factors represent. 

For example, sales went up in the months of November and December this year, 

the average attendance at the monthly meetings has increased over the past six 

months, and the number of participants in the seminars has increased by 15 

percent this year. 

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA 

The main technique for analyzing qualitative data is content analysis. Through 

content analysis of the information collected, conclusions are formed for each of 

the evaluation questions. Analysis involves identifying the categories of 

responses in the data. 

For example, information was gathered through an interviewing process on a 

project that started a business newspaper. The categories of responses may be 

the length of the paper, the advertising, the quality of the articles, or the topics of 

the editorials. By developing the categories and recording responses you begin to 

develop an understanding of what is important to the stakeholders, what is 

working, and where some change needs to take place. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 16 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

While analyzing and interpreting quantitative and qualitative data, be careful to 

avoid the following pitfalls: 

• Do not assume that the project is the only cause of positive or negative 

changes. Several factors, some of which are unrelated to the project 

activities, may be responsible for changes in the project’s participants or in a 

community. It is usually not possible to isolate impacts. The evaluation 

report should at least acknowledge other factors that may have contributed 

to change. 

• Do not forget that the same evaluation method may give different results 

when used by different people, or with different groups, or that respondents 

may tell the evaluator what they believe he or she wants to hear. For 

example, two interviewers may ask the same questions but receive different 

answers because one was friendlier or had more patience than the other. 

Real problems or difficulties may be ignored or hidden because people want 

the project to succeed or appear to be succeeding. 

• Do not choose the wrong groups to compare, or try to compare groups that 

are different in too many ways. For example, gender, age, race, economic 

status, and many other factors can all have an impact on project outcomes. If 

comparisons between groups are important, try to compare those with 

similar characteristics. 

• Do not claim that the results of a small-scale evaluation also apply to a wide 

group or geographic area. The evaluation report should reflect only the data 

analyzed. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 17 

ACTIVITY 5:3 

CONDUCTING AN EVALUATION 

Use the following case study: 

As a Volunteer you are working with a group of craftspeople who produce 

baskets, linen, dresses and many other items. One of the challenges the 

craftspeople face is that the local and regional communities are unfamiliar with 

their work and their products. The group decides to hold a craft fair. The local 

government has given its blessing and is providing assistance, the local business 

merchants are participating, and even the schools are pitching in with volunteer 

assistance. There is an advertising plan, and all craftspeople are busy working 

on different committees. You are assigned to the monitoring and evaluation 

committee. Along with your group members, design a plan to monitor the fair’s 

preparation and evaluate the fair once it is completed. 

In pairs, design a monitoring and evaluation plan for the craft fair. Use your 

imagination and the tools you have learned in this module. Once you have 

developed the plan, present it to the rest of the group and ask them to provide 

feedback. As you are developing your plan think through the following 

questions: 

• Is the monitoring plan simple? Does it cover all aspects of the project? 

• Does the evaluation plan ask key questions? 

• Are there relevant indicators? 

• Is it appropriately timed? 

• Is the process participatory, does it engage people?
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 18 

REPORTING EVALUATION RESULTS 

For years, project accountability most often was centered on how funds were 

spent; financial reporting was considered adequate. The next generation of 

reporting included reporting on programmatic aspects: who received services, 

how many people got services, and what activities beneficiaries participated in. 

These indicators measured implementation and outcomes. 

Financial and programmatic reporting provided a clear picture of what was done, 

but did not answer questions such as what difference the project made in the 

lives of participants and the community. Today, many CED stakeholders, 

including municipal managers and funders, want to know “what happened, what 

changed because the activity took place.” This higher level of reporting, impact 

reporting, is more ambiguous and difficult to measure, and therefore more costly 

in time and money. 

 Impacts 

 (So what?) 

Outputs 

 (What got done?) 

 Inputs 

 (Resources) 

Concept Planning 

(Opportunities/needs and proposed interventions) 

You may ask, “Why bother with impact reporting?” Because policymakers, 

agency boards, foundations, and citizens want to know, “What difference did a 

project make?” But more important, impact reporting leads to better project 

management because it focuses organizations on “what difference the projects 

make.” And, with impact data, you can demonstrate the credibility and 

effectiveness of your projects and therefore your organization. The focus is on 

the purpose of the project—on the desired changes resulting from the project. 

WHY MONITOR AND EVALUATE? 

Experience in the development community over the past 10 to 15 years has 

shown that participatory evaluation improves project results. Listening to those 

most closely involved in the project and learning why the project is or is not 

working is critical in making improvements. In addition, the more involved 

people are in all aspects of the project, including the monitoring and evaluation 

process, the more ownership they have in the project and the more committed 

they are. The involvement of the group in such activities as formulating key 

questions, collecting data, analyzing the data, providing recommendations, and 

planning activities will improve the project and its outcome. It also provides a 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 19 

common framework and opportunity to act on the knowledge gained in the 

evaluation process. 

* * * * * * * * * 

KEY TERMS 

Key terms are defined as they are used in this module. A space is provided to 

write the translation of a word or phrase into the local language. Building a local 

language vocabulary of terms related to CED prepares you to function 

effectively in this area of development. Work with your language instructor to 

find the appropriate translation and definitions in the local language and build 

your technical vocabulary as you study this module. 

Criteria are standards on which a judgment or decision may be based. 

Empowerment is to enable people to make choices. 

Evaluation is a systematic examination of a project to determine its efficiency, 

effectiveness, impact, sustainability, and the relevance of its goals and 

objectives. 

Goal refers to the target of a project or program, the aim of which is economic, 

social, and/or political. It may be identified trough qualitative and behavioral 

criteria. 

Impact, in evaluation, refers to the changes that result in people’s lives as a 

result of projects. 

Indicators are an explicit and objectively verifiable measure of the project or 

program’s results. 

Input includes the resources, funds, personnel, and materials of a project that are 

necessary to produce the intended output. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 20 

Monitoring is ongoing or periodic observation of the implementation of a 

project to ensure that inputs, activities, outputs, and external factors are 

proceeding according to plan. 

Objective refers to the predetermined aim or target of a project or program. 

Objectives should be observable, measurable, and time bound. 

Participatory refers to the processes in which people are encouraged to share 

and cooperate. 

Reliability is the degree to which a measurement or instrument can be depended 

on to give consistent results. 

* * * * * * * * * 

RESOURCES 

These resources are available through the Peace Corps Information Collection 

and Exchange (ICE). The citations are presented as they appear in The Whole 

ICE Catalog. 

PACA: Participatory Analysis for Community Action. (Peace Corps ICE.) 

1996. 350 pp. (ICE No. M0053) 

 Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) is an approach 

used to facilitate communities’ exploration of their own realities in 

order to take action for changes they desire. Based on earlier 

participatory analysis methods, such as Rapid Rural Appraisal and 

Participatory Rural Appraisal, PACA turns the appraisal activity into a 

process where the development agent and the community develop a 

partnership that leads to community control of their own projects. As a 

defining criterion, PACA distinguishes the role of gender in 

development by applying the participatory exercises with separate 

groups of women and men, girls and boys, which allows the community 

to compare and analyze together the roles that shape their reality. In 

similar ways, PACA can be used to understand age, ethnicity, or any 

other source of societal differentiation that has implications for 

development. The tools can be used in schools, organizations, 

institutions, and any other group, rural or urban, where different voices 

need to be heard. 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 21 

Roles of the Volunteer in Development: Toolkits for Capacity Building. 

(Peace Corps ICE.) 2002. 225 pp. (ICE No. T0005) 

 This unique publication is a series of toolkits that can be separated into 

seven booklets. The introductory booklet provides an overview of the 

Peace Corps’ philosophy of development, introduces the capacitybuilding roles that a Volunteer might play, and then provides guidance 

for Volunteers in identifying what roles they will play. The other six 

booklets each address one of the roles: Learner, Co-Trainer, CoFacilitator, Mentor, Change Agent, and Co-Planner. In each booklet, 

there is a chart delineating the knowledge, skills, and attitudes need for 

the role; background readings on the role; and activities to learn more 

about and gain skills in carrying out the role. The booklets can be used 

as self-study, or used in conjunction with training sessions. 

Participatory Program Evaluation: A Manual for Involving Stakeholders in 

the Evaluation Process. Judi Aubel. (Catholic Relief Services/Peace 

Corps ICE.) 1995. 70 pp. (ICE No. R0094) 

[Distribution to Peace Corps In-Country Resource Centers Only] 

 A manual originally produced for Catholic Relief Services staff to 

improve its maternal and child health programs, but useful in evaluating 

any project. In an easily understood format, outlines all the steps that 

need to be followed in planning and conducting a participatory program 

evaluation. Includes a list of references. 

Participatory Evaluation: A Users Guide. Jacob Pfohl. (PACT.) 1986. 81 

pp. (ICE No. SB146) 

 Based on a USAID/Sri Lanka-sponsored workshop for private agencies 

collaborating to improve monitoring and evaluating capabilities. 

Perspectives provided by the participants are presented with the aid of 

illustrations, pie charts, evaluation design worksheets, etc. Discusses 

how to establish a purpose for evaluation; think through a plan to gather 

information; and learn how to analyze, interpret, and use information. 

Concludes with a detailed training outline based on methods described. 

Designed to give sufficient and flexible guidance so that individual 

organizations can adapt these guidelines to meet their specific 

evaluation needs. 

Partners in Evaluation: Evaluating Development and Community 

Programmes with Participants. Marie-Therese Feuerstein (Macmillian 

Publishers Ltd.) 1986. 196 pp. (ICE No. TR055) 

 A hands-on evaluation guide for laypersons or community organizers 

who are not experts in research and evaluation. Written in a 

straightforward manner, using common terms to explain complicated 

concepts. Topics addressed include understanding evaluation, planning 

and organizing resources, using records and existing data, employing 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects — 22 

methods, and using results. Illustrated with line drawings and 

photographs. Layout is in outline form for easy reference. A valuable 

working manual for field workers and Counterparts alike. 

Self-Evaluation: Ideas for Participatory Evaluation of Rural Community 

Development Projects. Jim Rugh. (World Neighbors.) 1986. 42 pp. 

(ICE No. TR059) 

Intended to help administrators of rural community development 

projects evaluate their projects more effectively. Explores why, when, 

what, and how to evaluate. Defines and explains the use of such tools as 

recording keeping (especially for farmers), survey forms, and 

community meetings. 

Internet: 

www.mande.co.uk/news.html — A news service focusing on developments 

in PME methods relevant to development projects. 

www.info.usaid.gov/pub/r4workshop/MONITOR8/ — USAID’s website for 

monitoring and evaluation—lots of good information. 

www.worldbank.org — World Bank website with links to all its programs 

and publications and other international development organizations 

www.undp.org — United Nations Development Programme 

www.idealist.org — great information and linkages 

Many of these sites have links to other sites that will be helpful to your work. 

* * * * * * * * * 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 1 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

MODULE 5 

MONITORING AND EVALUATING CED PROJECTS 

Overview: 

To provide trainees/Volunteers with the knowledge and skills to carry out an 

effective participatory monitoring and evaluation (PME) process for CED 

projects. 

Time to Complete Module: 

Reading 1 hour 

Activities and debriefing vary 10 hours (max.) 

Materials: 

Flip chart paper, markers, and tape. 

Preparation: 

Read this module and adapt materials and activities to the local situation. 

If you are conducting community-based training (CBT), create situations where 

trainees can practice monitoring activities. If the trainees planned a small project 

in and with their community, ensure that monitoring and evaluation are a part of 

the process. (This approach supports the other modules in terms of building 

participatory approaches to the Volunteers’ work in CED.) 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 2 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 5:1 

THE ROLE OF THE VOLUNTEER IN MONITORING AND 

EVALUATION 

Overview: 

To provide trainees with an opportunity to reflect on their role in monitoring and 

evaluating CED projects. 

Time: 1 hour 

Materials: 

Ensure that trainees and Volunteers have a copy of the questions listed below, 

flip chart, markers, and tape. 

Preparation: 

With the Peace Corps programming and training staff, think through key points 

trainees need to understand their role(s) in PME in a CED project. Each country 

has its own unique concerns, issues, and challenges. Some examples might be: 

• Gathering information and doing an evaluation without direct permission 

from a central or local authority. 

• The skill level of the target group. 

• The level at which Volunteers work and/or the political ramifications. 

Discuss with the Peace Corps staff their concerns so that they are brought out in 

the discussions with trainees. You may want to invite the country director and 

other Peace Corps staff to this session. 

Activity for center-based training: 

Ask the trainees to think about the role(s) they play in the PME process of a 

CED project. Ask them to focus specifically on the evaluation process. Ask each 

trainee to write responses to the following questions: 

• What impact could your involvement in monitoring and evaluation have on 

a community group? 

• How could the monitoring and evaluation process help the group? 

• What skills can you bring to the group? 

• Who might play the lead role in the process? Why? 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 3 

Trainer’s Notes, Activity 5:1, continued 

• What are the benefits of having the community involved in the process? 

• What is the value? 

• Are there disadvantages to the community’s involvement? 

• What can the participants in the process learn from the experience? 

Once the trainees have answered the questions, break into small groups and 

come to a consensus on the role a Volunteer should play in evaluating CED 

projects. Ask each small group to write down their findings on flip chart paper 

and report to the larger group. See if the larger group can also come to a 

consensus. 

Note: If you conducted the role activity in other modules, make those flip charts 

available. The trainees will see their roles emerging in many aspects of a CED 

project. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

• What was said in this exercise that particularly struck you? 

• What were some of the differences and similarities about the Volunteer’s 

role within your group? 

• What did you discover? 

• How might you apply the information at your site? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 4 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 5:2 

DEVELOPING INDICATORS 

Overview: 

Provide trainees with an opportunity to practice using evaluation indicators. 

Time: 1 hour 

Materials: 

Paper and pens for trainees and the list of CED projects. Flip chart paper, 

markers, and tape. 

Preparation: 

Ask each trainee to develop two indicators for five of the CED projects listed in 

the table. When the trainees have completed the task, ask them to form small 

groups. In small groups share the indicators and discuss the questions below. 

Ask the trainees to write their responses on a flip chart and present them to the 

larger group. 

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

Discuss the following in the debriefing: 

• Were the indicators easy to develop? 

• Did you repeat any indicators? 

• What information was missing? 

• List ways or methods to develop indicators in a group process? 

• List information-gathering methods you could use? 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 5 

TRAINER’S NOTES 

ACTIVITY 5:3 

CONDUCTING AN EVALUATION 

Overview: 

Provide trainees with the opportunity to plan a PME process. 

Time: 1 1/2 hours 

Materials: 

Copies of the case study, paper, pens, flip charts, markers. 

Preparation: 

As a trainer go through the case study yourself in preparation for the presentation 

to the trainees. 

Use the following case study: 

As a PCV you are working with a group of craftspeople who produce baskets, 

linen, dresses and many other items. One of the challenges the craftspeople face 

is that the local and regional communities are unfamiliar with their work and 

their products. The group decides to hold a craft fair. They have the blessing 

and assistance of The local government has given its blessing and is providing 

assistance, the local business merchants are participating, and even the schools 

are pitching in with volunteer assistance. There is an advertising plan, and all 

craftspeople are busy working on different committees. You are assigned to the 

monitoring and evaluation committee. Along with your group members, design a 

plan to monitor the fair’s preparation and evaluate the fair once it is completed. 

Ask the trainees to form small groups and design a monitoring and evaluation 

plan for the craft fair. Ask them to use their imaginations and the tools they have 

learned in this module. Once they have developed the plan, ask them to present it 

to the rest of the group and provide feedback. Remind the group of the 

guidelines for feedback. 

Continued 
A CED Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers 

Module 5: Monitoring and Evaluating CED Projects TRAINER’S NOTES — 6 

Trainer’s Notes, Activity 5:3, continued

Debriefing the experience and processing the learnings: 

When critiquing the plans think through the following questions: 

• Is the monitoring plan simple? Does it cover all aspects of the project? 

• Does the evaluation plan ask key questions? 

• Are there relevant indicators? 

• Is it appropriately timed? 

• Is the process participatory; does it engage people? 

• What were the common threads in each group’s presentation? 

• What were the keys to participation? 

• Were you easily able to distinguish between monitoring and evaluation? 

• How might you use this exercise in the future?