i

U.S. Doctorates

in the

20th Century

Division of Science Resources Statistics

Directorate for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences

National Science Foundation June 2006

Special Report

Lori Thurgood, Mary J. Golladay, and Susan T. Hill
ii

National Science Foundation

Arden L. Bement, Jr.

Director

Directorate for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences

David W. Lightfoot

Assistant Director

Division of Science Resources Statistics

Lynda T. Carlson Mary J. Frase

Division Director Deputy Director

Ronald S. Fecso

Chief Statistician

Human Resources Statistics Program

Nancy L. Leach

Program Director

Division of Science Resources Statistics

The Division of Science Resources Statistics (SRS) fulfills the legislative mandate of the National Science

Foundation Act to

provide a central clearinghouse for the collection, interpretation, and analysis of data on scientific and engineering resources and to provide a source of information for policy formulation by

other agencies of the federal government

To carry out this mandate, SRS designs, supports, and directs periodic surveys as well as a variety of other data

collections and research projects. These surveys yield the materials for SRS staff to compile, analyze, and

disseminate quantitative information about domestic and international resources devoted to science, engineering,

and technology.

If you have any comments or suggestions about this or any other SRS product or report, we would like to hear

from you. Please direct your comments to

National Science Foundation

Division of Science Resources Statistics

4201 Wilson Blvd., Suite 965

Arlington, VA 22230

Telephone: (703) 292-8780

Fax: (703) 292-9092

E-mail: srsweb@nsf.gov

Suggested Citation

National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, U.S. Doctorates in the 20th Century,

NSF 06-319, Lori Thurgood, Mary J. Golladay, and Susan T. Hill (Arlington, VA 2006).

June 2006

Information and data from the Division of Science Resources Statistics are available on the Web at http://

www.nsf.gov/statistics/. To request a printed copy of this report go to http://nsf.gov/publications/orderpub.jsp or

call (703) 292-PUBS (7827). For NSF’s Telephonic Device for the Deaf, dial toll-free (800) 281-8749 or (703)

292-5090.
iii

CONTENTS

 Page

FOREWORD ..................................................................................................................................................... ix

PREFACE........................................................................................................................................................... x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1

Data Sources.............................................................................................................................................. 1

Data Notes and Further Information .......................................................................................................... 1

References ................................................................................................................................................. 2

CHAPTER 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 3

The U.S. Model of Doctoral Education ..................................................................................................... 3

Beginnings of Doctoral Education in the United States ............................................................................. 3

Growth in Doctorate-Granting Institutions ................................................................................................ 5

Growth in Doctoral Awards and R&D Spending .......................................................................................6

References ..................................................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER 3. FIELD CHOICES AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DOCTORATE

 RECIPIENTS ................................................................................................................................................. 11

Highlights.................................................................................................................................................. 11

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 11

Fields of Study .......................................................................................................................................... 12

Science and Engineering .................................................................................................................... 12

Non-Science and Engineering............................................................................................................ 15

Demographic Characteristics of Ph.D.s .................................................................................................. 15

Sex ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

Citizenship Status ............................................................................................................................... 16

Race/Ethnicity.................................................................................................................................... 19

Age .................................................................................................................................................... 21

Disability Status ................................................................................................................................. 23

Marital Status and Dependents .......................................................................................................... 23

Parents’ Education ............................................................................................................................. 24

References ............................................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 4. PATH TO THE DOCTORATE ................................................................................................ 27

Highlights.................................................................................................................................................. 27

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 27

Attendance at 2-Year Colleges ................................................................................................................ 27

Baccalaureates, Master’s Degrees, and Professional Degrees............................................................... 29

Fields of Baccalaureate, Master’s Degree, and Doctorate ..................................................................... 30

Top Fields........................................................................................................................................... 30

Field Switching ................................................................................................................................... 31

Top Baccalaureate Fields Associated with Major Doctoral Fields .................................................... 32
iv

Page

Financial Support ...................................................................................................................................... 33

Activities in Year before Receiving Doctorate ......................................................................................... 35

Indebtedness............................................................................................................................................. 35

Time to Doctorate .................................................................................................................................... 35

Field of Doctorate .............................................................................................................................. 36

Demographic Groups ......................................................................................................................... 37

References ............................................................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 5. BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS ......................................................... 41

Highlights.................................................................................................................................................. 41

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 42

U.S. Baccalaureate Institutions................................................................................................................ 42

Leading Baccalaureate Institutions.................................................................................................... 42

Top Institutions of S&E and Non-S&E Ph.D.s ................................................................................. 43

Top Institutions of Men and Women .................................................................................................. 43

Top Institutions of Racial and Ethnic Groups ..................................................................................... 45

U.S. Doctoral Institutions ......................................................................................................................... 47

Regions and States ............................................................................................................................ 47

Year of First Conferred Doctorate .................................................................................................... 48

Institutional Control ............................................................................................................................ 49

Carnegie Classifications..................................................................................................................... 51

Leading Doctoral Institutions ............................................................................................................. 52

Top Institutions of S&E and Non-S&E Ph.D.s ................................................................................. 52

Doctoral Institutions of Men and Women .......................................................................................... 55

Top Institutions of Racial and Ethnic Groups ..................................................................................... 56

References ............................................................................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER 6. AFTER THE DOCTORATE ..................................................................................................... 59

Highlights.................................................................................................................................................. 59

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 59

Postgraduation Status ............................................................................................................................... 60

Location of Postgraduation Commitments ............................................................................................... 61

Kinds of Postgraduation Commitments in the United States ................................................................... 64

Postgraduation Study Commitments .................................................................................................. 64

Postgraduation Employment Commitments ....................................................................................... 66

APPENDIX A. DETAILED DOCTORAL FIELDS AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

 OF PH.D.S .................................................................................................................................................. 77

APPENDIX B. TOP 50 BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS AND

 DOCTORATE PRODUCTION BY STATE ..................................................................................................... 89

APPENDIX C. TECHNICAL NOTES .......................................................................................................... 115

Definitions and Explanations .................................................................................................................. 115

Data Sources.......................................................................................................................................... 119

U.S. Office of Education Reports ................................................................................................... 119

Doctorate Records File and Survey of Earned Doctorates ............................................................. 119

References ............................................................................................................................................. 123

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................ 125
v

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2-1. Founding institutions of the Association of American Universities........................................................ 5

2-2. Funding of U.S. research and development: 1953–99 ........................................................................... 8

2-3. Number and distribution of doctoral awards, by decade: 1900–99........................................................ 9

2-4. Doctorates awarded, by region and top 10 state producers: 1920–99 .................................................. 9

3-1. Major fields of study and doctorates awarded: 1920–99..................................................................... 12

3-2. Doctorates awarded, by broad field of doctorate: 1920–99 ................................................................ 13

3-3. Leading major fields of study in order of doctorates awarded: 1920–24 and 1995–99 ....................... 13

3-4. Doctorates awarded, by major field: 1995–99, 1999, and peak year................................................... 13

3-5. Major field distribution of U.S. citizen Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1995–99 ......................................... 21

4-1. Top 3 baccalaureate fields associated with major field of doctorate: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ............. 34

4-2. Activities of Ph.D.s in year before receiving doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ................................. 35

4-3. Education-related debt of doctorate recipients: 1988–89 and 1998–99 ............................................... 36

4-4. Total time to doctorate, registered time to doctorate, and time from first postbaccalaureate

attendance at Ph.D.-granting institution to doctorate, by major field: 1995–99 ................................... 37

5-1. Top 10 baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99 .................................. 43

5-2. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of male and female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 ......................... 45

5-3. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen

Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ............................................................................................................ 46

5-4. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 46

5-5. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ....................... 47

5-6. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ................. 48

5-7. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ...................... 48

5-8. Top 5 state producers of Ph.D.s, by percentage of all Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99 ...... 50

5-9. Share of doctorates awarded by public and private institutions, by sex and citizenship

status of recipient: 1920–24 and 1995–99 ........................................................................................... 51

5-10. Share of doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens by public and private institutions, by

race/ethnicity of recipient: 1975–79 and 1995–99 ............................................................................... 52

5-11. Carnegie classifications of academic institutions................................................................................. 52

5-12. Carnegie classifications of doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by major field of doctorate:

1990–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 53

5-13. Top 10 doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99 ............................................ 55

5-14. Top 5 doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s in order of doctorates awarded, by broad field:

1920–99 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 55

5-15. Ph.D.s with doctorates from historically black colleges and universities, by citizenship

status and race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 ................................................................................. 57

6-1. Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans, by sex and citizenship status: 1970–74

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 60

6-2. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s staying in the United States after graduation, by region of origin

and visa status: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ................................................................................................ 63

6-3. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by major

field of doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ............................................................................................ 70

6-4. Ph.D.s with postgraduation work commitments in same state as the doctoral institution,

by state: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................... 73

6-5. Top 5 destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by major

field of doctorate: 1995–99 .................................................................................................................. 75
vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2-1. Doctorate-granting institutions, by control of institution: 1920–99 ......................................................... 5

2-2. Decade of first doctoral award in the 50 U.S. states, District of Columbia, and

Puerto Rico: pre-1920 to 1960s ............................................................................................................. 6

2-3. Distribution of doctorate-granting institutions, by region: 1920–99 ........................................................ 6

2-4. Doctorates awarded: 1900–99 .............................................................................................................. 7

2-5. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by region: 1920–99 ....................................................................... 9

2-6. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by control of institution: 1920–99.................................................. 9

3-1. Doctorates awarded, by major field: 1920–99 ..................................................................................... 14

3-2. Doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient: 1900–99 ............................................................................. 15

3-3. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient and broad field of doctorate:

1920–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 16

3-4. Doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient and broad field of doctorate: 1920–99 ................................ 17

3-5. Women’s share of doctorates awarded, by major field: 1920–99 ....................................................... 17

3-6. Non-U.S. citizens’ share of doctorates awarded, by major field: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ................... 18

3-7. Citizenship status of Ph.D.s: 1960–99 ................................................................................................. 18

3-8. Regional origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1960–99 ........................................................................ 18

3-9. Leading Asian origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1960–99 ............................................................... 19

3-10. Leading Eastern European origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1960–99 ............................................ 19

3-11. Women’s share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, by major field: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ........... 19

3-12. Ethnicity of U.S. citizen Hispanic Ph.D.s: 1980–99 ............................................................................ 20

3-13. Minorities’ share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99 .......................... 20

3-14. U.S. citizen minority Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99 .................................................................... 21

3-15. Minorities’ share of non-science and engineering doctorates earned by U.S.

citizens, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99 ..................................................................................................... 21

3-16. Minorities’ share of non-science and engineering doctorates earned by U.S. citizens,

by major field and race/ethnicity: 1975–99 .......................................................................................... 22

3-17. Women’s share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 22

3-18. Age of Ph.D.s at graduation, by broad field of doctorate: 1960–99 .................................................... 23

3-19. Age of Ph.D.s at graduation, by sex: 1960–99.................................................................................... 23

3-20. Disabilities of Ph.D.s: 1993–99, aggregate.......................................................................................... 23

3-21. Married Ph.D.s, by broad field of doctorate: 1960–99 ........................................................................ 24

3-22. Married Ph.D.s, by sex and citizenship status: 1960–99 ..................................................................... 24

3-23. Marital status of Ph.D.s with dependents, by sex: 1960–64 and 1995–99 .......................................... 25

3-24. Married U.S. citizen Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99 .................................................................... 25

3-25. Ph.D.s whose parents both have a college degree, by selected characteristics of the

Ph.D.: 1995–99.................................................................................................................................... 25

3-26. Educational attainment of Ph.D.s’ parents compared with the U.S. national population: 1999 .......... 25

3-27. Educational attainment of Ph.D.s’ parents: 1965–99 .......................................................................... 26

4-1. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by broad field of doctorate: 1971–99 ............................ 28

4-2. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by major field of doctorate: 1995–99 ............................ 28

4-3. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by sex and citizenship status: 1971–74 and

1995–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 28

4-4. U.S. citizen Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and

1995–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 29

4-5. Ph.D.s with baccalaureates from foreign institutions, by citizenship status: 1960–64

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 29
vii

Figure Page

4-6. Ph.D.s with baccalaureates from foreign institutions, by broad field of doctorate: 1920–99 .............. 30

4-7. Ph.D.s without master’s degrees, by major field of doctorate: 1995–99 ............................................ 30

4-8. Major field of Ph.D.s’ bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees: 1960–64 ..................................... 31

4-9. Major field of Ph.D.s’ bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees: 1995–99 ..................................... 31

4-10. Ph.D.s whose bachelor’s and doctoral degrees are in the same major field and whose

master’s and doctoral degrees are in the same major field: 1960–99 ................................................. 32

4-11. Ph.D.s with bachelor’s and doctoral degrees in the same major field, by field of

degree: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ............................................................................................................. 32

4-12. Ph.D.s with bachelor’s and doctoral degrees in the same major field, by sex and

citizenship status: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ............................................................................................. 33

4-13. U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with bachelor’s and doctoral degrees in the same major field, by

race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 .................................................................................................. 33

4-14. Total time to doctorate, by broad field of study: 1920–99 ................................................................... 36

4-15. Registered time to doctorate, by broad field of study: 1960–99 .......................................................... 37

4-16. Total time to doctorate and registered time to doctorate, by sex: 1960–64 and 1995–99 ................... 38

4-17. Total time to doctorate and registered time to doctorate, by citizenship status: 1960–64

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 38

4-18. U.S. citizens’ total time to doctorate and registered time to doctorate, by race/ethnicity:

1975–79 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 38

5-1. Baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s, distributed by control of institution: 1920–99 ............................ 43

5-2. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99 ................................................................ 44

5-3. Black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with baccalaureates, master’s degrees, or doctorates awarded

by an HBCU: 1975–79 and 1995–99 .................................................................................................. 47

5-4. Doctorates awarded, by region of doctoral institution: 1920–99 ......................................................... 48

5-5. Doctorates awarded, by location of doctoral institution: 1920–99 ....................................................... 49

5-6. Institutions that ever awarded a doctorate, by period of first doctoral award: pre-1920

and 5-year periods from 1920 to 1999 ................................................................................................. 49

5-7. Doctorates awarded by institutions that began granting doctorates before 1920: 1920–99 ................ 50

5-8. Doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, distributed by control of institution: 1920–99 ..................................... 51

5-9. Control of doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by broad field of doctorate: 1920–99................................. 51

5-10. Control of baccalaureate and doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–24 and 1995–99 ......................... 51

5-11. Doctorates awarded, by Carnegie classification of institution: 1990 and 1999.................................... 52

5-12. Carnegie classifications of Ph.D.s’ doctoral institutions, by sex and citizenship status

of Ph.D.: 1990–99 ............................................................................................................................... 53

5-13. Carnegie classifications of U.S. citizen Ph.D.s’ doctoral institutions, by race/ethnicity

of Ph.D.: 1990–99 ............................................................................................................................... 53

5-14. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by number of doctorates awarded: 1920–99.................. 54

5-15. Doctorates awarded to black U.S. citizens by HBCUs: 1975–99 ...................................................... 56

6-1. Postgraduation plans of Ph.D.s: 1970–99 ........................................................................................... 60

6-2. Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans, by major field of doctorate: 1970–74 and

1995–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 61

6-3. U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans, by

race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 .................................................................................................. 61

6-4. Location and kinds of postgraduation plans of Ph.D.s with definite plans: 1970–74

and 1995–99 ........................................................................................................................................ 62

6-5. Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after graduation, by major field

of doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99 .................................................................................................... 62

6-6. Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after graduation, by citizenship

status: 1970–99 .................................................................................................................................... 63
viii

Figure Page

6-7. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after graduation,

by visa status: 1970–99........................................................................................................................ 63

6-8. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after graduation,

by region of origin: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ........................................................................................... 63

6-9. Top 10 origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States

after graduation, by visa status: 1995–99 ............................................................................................ 64

6-10. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation employment and study: 1970–99 ......................... 64

6-11. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation study, by major field of doctorate:

1970–74 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 65

6-12. U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation

study, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 ................................................................................... 65

6-13. Financial support mechanisms of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study commitments:

1970–74 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 66

6-14. Financial support mechanisms of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study commitments,

by sex and citizenship status: 1995–99 ................................................................................................ 66

6-15. Sources of support for Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study commitments:

1975–79 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 67

6-16. U.S. government as main support for Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study commitments,

by major field of doctorate: 1975–79 and 1995–99 ............................................................................. 67

6-17. Study settings of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study commitments: 1970–74 and

1995–96 ............................................................................................................................................... 68

6-18. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation employment, by citizenship status:

1970–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 68

6-19. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments: 1970–99 .................... 69

6-20. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by sex

and citizenship status: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ...................................................................................... 69

6-21. Employment sectors of U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation

work commitments, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 ............................................................. 71

6-22. Primary work activities of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments:

1970–74 and 1995–99 ......................................................................................................................... 72

6-23. Ph.D.s with postgraduation work commitments in same state as doctoral institution,

by major field of doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ............................................................................. 72

6-24. Top 20 destinations of Ph.D.s who left the state where the doctorate was received for

postgraduation work commitments in another state: 1995–99 ............................................................. 73

6-25. Top 20 destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments: 1970–74 ...................... 74

6-26. Destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments: 1995–99................................. 74

6-27. Employment destinations of U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with U.S.

high school diplomas and U.S. postgraduation work commitments: 1970–74 and 1995–99 ................ 75
ix

FOREWORD

Any report on education and education systems is, at

its heart, a story about people, places, and the times in

which they exist. U.S. Doctorates in the 20th Century

is about doctoral students, the institutions that provided

their education, and the factors—intellectual, scientific, social, political, and economic—that effected

change during the most significant and tumultuous

period in American graduate education. It is a story

told primarily with numbers, in this case, the most extensive and reliable data about those who earned the

doctoral degree during this period. The thoughtful narrative adds a human dimension to the tables, charts,

and graphs.

The number and kinds of students seeking doctoral

degrees during the last 25 years of the 20th century

changed dramatically and included more women, minorities, and international students. As knowledge in

many fields strained traditional discipline boundaries,

new interdisciplinary programs as well as entire new

fields developed. The costs associated with graduate

education, and the way students paid for their education, became more complex. Career options available

to doctoral graduates broadened, and traditional patterns of postgraduate employment changed. These and

other changes, shifts, and trends are documented in this

publication.

U.S. Doctorates in the 20th Century continues the work

begun in its companion volume, A Century of Doctorates, published in 1978, and extends the story of American doctoral education to the end of the 20th century.

It is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in

the nature and scope of doctoral education in the United

States.

Jules B. LaPidus, Ph.D.

President Emeritus

Council of Graduate Schools
x

The availability of new types of data on doctorates,

the significant changes in doctoral education known

to have occurred in the past 25 years, and the close of

the 20th century make this a good time to reexamine

the long-term trends in U.S. doctoral education. NSF’s

Division of Science Resources Statistics commissioned

this report to explore these trends and to make the

results available to the public. Cosponsors of the report

are the National Institutes of Health, the National

Endowment for Humanities, the U.S. Department of

Education, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

The volume is organized into chapters, beginning with

an introduction. Chapter 2 traces the development of

doctoral education in the United States from its

beginnings in the last half of the 19th century and

presents general trends on numbers of institutions and

doctorate recipients from the early 1900s to 1999.

The third chapter addresses the fields of study in which

Ph.D.s receive their doctorates, as well as Ph.D.s’

demographic characteristics, including sex, citizenship

status, race/ethnicity, age, disability status, marital

status and dependents, and the educational attainment

of their parents. The data presented in chapter 3 provide

the background for the topics presented in chapters 4

through 6. Each of these four chapters begins with a

summary of data highlights.

PREFACE

Chapter 4 begins the exploration of the educational

path followed by Ph.D.s after they leave secondary

school. It considers attendance at 2-year colleges;

attainment of bachelor’s, master’s and professional

degrees, including foreign bachelor’s degrees; fields

of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees, including

field switching between the baccalaureate and the

doctorate; the primary source of support in graduate

school and in doctoral study; activity in the year before

receipt of the doctorate; education-related debt; and

the time required to earn the doctorate after receiving

the baccalaureate. Chapter 5 continues this exploration

by providing information on the leading undergraduate

and graduate institutions involved in the education of

Ph.D.s.

The last chapter, “After the Doctorate,” examines the

immediate plans of Ph.D.s for employment or further

study after graduation, including how definite those

plans are and whether the new graduates plan to stay

in the United States. For those Ph.D.s with definite

employment plans in the United States, the chapter

describes their sector of employment, primary work

activity, and geographic destination (state). For those

Ph.D.s planning to pursue a postdoctoral appointment

or other additional study, the chapter examines their

financial support mechanisms (such as fellowships and

research associateships), settings or sectors for the

postdoctoral study, and sources of support.
xi

Six federal agencies provided funding for this project:

the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National

Institutes of Health (NIH), the U.S. Department of

Education (USED), the National Endowment for the

Humanities (NEH), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). These same agencies sponsor the annual administration of the Survey of Earned

Doctorates (SED) and the maintenance of the Doctorate Records File (DRF), a data bank of doctoral records

dating to 1920. The DRF is the source of most data in

this report. Until 1997 the National Academy of

Sciences/National Research Council (NAS/NRC)

conducted the SED; it is currently conducted by the

National Opinion Research Center, Chicago, Illinois.

Susan T. Hill, Human Resources Statistics Program

(HRS), Division of Science Resources Statistics (SRS),

NSF, conceived this report and guided its development.

Lori Thurgood (SRI International) prepared the initial

report with assistance from Charles Dickens, consultant to SRI, and Michael McGeary, formerly of SRI.

Mary J. Golladay, former HRS director, contributed

substantially to this report, as did Mary J. Frase, SRS

Deputy Division Director, who was acting director of

HRS as the report was nearing its final form. Lynda T.

Carlson, Division Director, SRS, provided overall guidance for the project; Nancy L. Leach, director, HRS,

provided additional guidance. Prudy Brown, Michael

Canavan, and Steven Perakis (all of SRI) provided

support in completing the figures, tables, and citations.

Barbara DePaul (QRC Division of Macro International,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Inc.) generated the many detailed tabulations from the

DRF that were the basis of the report’s analyses.

Maurya Green (SRS) conducted historical research and

assisted in the preparation of figures and tables. Kevin

Mitchell (Aspen Systems, Inc.) edited an early draft of

the report. Mary Golladay, Mary Frase, and Cheryl S.

Roesel (SRS) designed the final report and directed its

production.

Walter Schaffer and Charles Sherman (NIH), Nancy

Borkow (USED), Jeff Thomas and Frank Shaw (NEH),

and S. Sureshwaran (USDA) provided constructive

reviews of the design of the SED and its analysis in

reports such as this one. Beatrice Clewell (Urban

Institute), Lindsey Harmon, Jules LaPidus, James Maxwell (American Mathematical Society), Peter Syverson

(Council of Graduate Schools), and NSF reviewers

Robert Bell, Joan Burrelli, James Lightbourne, Joan

Lorden, and Judith Sunley reviewed and provided valuable comments on the report.

This report would not have been possible without the

legion of people who have been involved with the SED

over the years, particularly the doctorate recipients,

now more than 40,000 each year, who have completed

the SED. The authors extend special thanks to Lindsey

Harmon, the author of A Century of Doctorates: Data

Analyses of Growth and Change, published in 1978 by

NAS/NRC. This work provided the authors with much

of the historical context for doctoral education in the

first three-quarters of the 20th century.
xii
1

The 20th century was a remarkable era in the history of

the United States. This nation, which had been an emerging power on the international scene in 1900, had by

century’s end become the world’s leading power. One

of the many factors contributing to this strength was the

growth of U.S. doctoral education.

This report describes the history and growth of doctoral

education in the United States from 1900 to 1999 and

shows changes in the characteristics of persons who

complete a doctoral education. It builds on a publication that examined trends in doctoral education in the

first three-quarters of the 20th century: A Century of

Doctorates: Data Analyses of Growth and Change, published in 1978 by the National Academy of Sciences and

funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the

National Endowment for the Humanities, and the U.S.

Office of Education (NAS/NRC 1978).

A vast majority of Ph.D.s, however, graduated in the

last 25 years of the century and are not represented in A

Century of Doctorates. Moreover, the characteristics of

recent doctorate recipients differ in many ways from

those of Ph.D.s a generation earlier. The early 1970s

marked the end of a long period of expansion in U.S.

doctoral education that began after World War II. By

1974, the last year examined in A Century of Doctorates, major changes in doctoral education were just

becoming established or would soon become evident:

increased representation of women, minorities, and foreign nationals; interruption in the growth of doctoral

awards in science and engineering fields; emergence of

new fields, such as computer sciences; lengthening of

the time it takes to complete doctoral study; expansion

of the postdoctoral pool; and reduced academic employment opportunities after graduation.

Some of these trends could not be identified in the earlier report because the relevant data had not yet been

collected. Data on race and ethnicity, for instance, were

not collected until the mid-1970s. Other useful information began to be collected during the 1980s and 90s. And

data available to describe characteristics of doctorate

recipients and the graduate education enterprise continued to increase in scope as additional questions were

added to the federally sponsored Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), which was the data collection instrument

for this report. Now, for example, it is possible to examine the disabilities of recent Ph.D.s, their debt status at

graduation, their primary sources of support in graduate

school and doctoral study, and their parents’ levels of

education.

DATA SOURCES

The primary source of data for this report was the Doctorate Records File, a data bank containing information

collected on nearly all of the more than 1.35 million doctorate recipients who received degrees since 1920. For

those who earned doctorates between 1920 and June

1957, the data bank contains limited information about

their doctoral institution, field of study, graduation year,

and sex; this information was gathered from public

sources, such as institutional lists and commencement

programs. Since July 1957, more detailed data have been

collected annually through the SED, which is administered to all new Ph.D.s shortly before they graduate.

The SED data are especially important because the doctorate recipients themselves provide the information. The

result is unusually rich data on the demographic characteristics of doctorate recipients, their educational paths,

the financial support they received during graduate

school, levels of debt related to their education, and their

immediate postgraduation plans.

Three important secondary sources were used to supplement the information obtained from the Doctorate

Records File. Data on doctoral graduates from 1900 to

1919 came from early annual and biennial reports of the

U.S. Office of Education (1869–1916, 1917–56) and from

120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (USED/NCES 1993). The aforementioned A Century of Doctorates provided much of the historical context for the findings through 1974.

DATA NOTES AND FURTHER

INFORMATION

This report examines data on research doctorates. The

specific kind of research doctorate awarded was first

tracked in the SED in 1973. Since then, 85–89 percent of

the doctorates awarded each year have been Doctor of

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
2

Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees.1

 This report focuses on the

Ph.D. degree, but it includes data collected for about

50 kinds of research doctorates. The terms “Ph.D.” and

“doctorate” are used in this report to refer to all such

degrees. Data on nonresearch and professional degrees,

such as the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

(D.V.M.), Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), and Juris Doctor (J.D.), are not included. See appendix C for definitions and further explanation of key terms.

Data in chapters 3 through 6 are taken from the Doctorate Records File and thus date from 1920. Although Survey of Earned Doctorates data were collected first in

the 1957–58 academic year (referred to as 1958 in published reports), the trends based exclusively on SED data

are discussed in 5-year cohorts beginning with 1960, and

data for much of the report are grouped in 5-year intervals for ease of discussion. Percentages cited in the text

are rounded to the nearest whole number if 1 percent or

greater and are rounded to the nearest tenth if less than

1 percent. See appendix C, “Technical Notes,” for detailed information on data used in this report.

The content of the printed report is available in electronic

form on the NSF website at http://www.nsf.gov/

statistics/nsf06319/. Also on the website are tables containing supporting data for the figures presented in the

1

 The remainder are distributed among Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)

degrees (7–11 percent), Doctor of Musical Arts/Doctor of Music

(D.M.A./D.M.) degrees (0.6–1.3 percent), and Doctor of Science

(D.Sc./Sc.D.) and Doctor of Arts/Doctor of Arts in Teaching (D.A./

D.A.T.) degrees (0.4 percent or less). There are several other kinds of

doctorates for specific fields and professions, such as the Doctor of

Engineering (D.Eng./Eng.D.), Doctor of Public Health (D.P.H.), and

Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.) degrees; these account for very small

percentages of the total number of doctorates awarded each year.

report and detailed supplemental tables showing doctoral

awards from 1920 through 1999 by field of doctorate

and by state and institution, baccalaureate institutions of

Ph.D.s from 1920 through 1999, and country of citizenship of non-U.S. citizen doctorate recipients, by visa status, from 1960 through 1999.

Questions or comments about this report may be directed

to Susan T. Hill, NSF (sthill@nsf.gov; 703-292-7790), or

Lori Thurgood, SRI International (lori.thurgood@sri.com;

703-247-8528).

REFERENCES

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council (NAS/

NRC). 1978. A Century of Doctorates: Data Analyses of

Growth and Change. Prepared by L.R. Harmon. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (USED/NCES). 1993. 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait. Washington, DC.

U.S. Office of Education. 1869–1916. Annual Report of the United

States Commissioner of Education. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

U.S. Office of Education. 1917–56. Biennial Survey of Education in

the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
3

At the threshold of the 20th century the United States

had a small but vigorous graduate education enterprise

rooted in a new kind of institution, the research university. The distinctive feature of the research university

was the doctoral program. In 1900 most of the approximately 250 research doctorates conferred were from the

dozen or so new research universities in the Northeast

and Midwest.1

The next 100 years of doctoral education were marked

by growth and diversification. Doctoral education

became available in all 50 U.S. states, the District of

Columbia, and Puerto Rico as the number of institutions

offering doctoral programs grew. The number of disciplinary fields in which scholarly study was offered at

the doctoral level; the number of doctorates awarded

annually; and the number of women, minorities, and foreign nationals earning doctorates also grew over the

course of the century. By 1999 the number of research

doctorates conferred annually had reached more than

41,000, with these representing nearly 400 institutions

across the United States.

Between 1900 and 1999 the U.S. graduate education

system developed into an integral part of the social and

economic structure of the country, contributing to the

nation’s economic standing and also constituting a significant component of the U.S. economy. By the end of

the 20th century, a total of 426 institutions had awarded

more than 1.36 million doctorates.

THE U.S. MODEL OF DOCTORAL

EDUCATION

The United States is unique in the extent to which fundamental research is conducted at universities, typically

with the assistance of graduate students. Doctoral education is organized around an intensive, real-world research

experience that prepares students to be scholars capable

of discovering, integrating, and applying knowledge

(CGS 1990). The American system, in which universities conduct research and train doctoral students, has

become a model for the world (NAS/NRC 1995). It has

played a major role in the United States’ strong record of

innovation and economic growth and has helped this nation become the global leader in science and engineering (NSB 1998).

American doctoral education produces cutting-edge

knowledge and highly trained personnel who go on to

fill specialized positions as teachers, researchers, and professionals in academe, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations. In 1999 just over half of new U.S.

citizen Ph.D.s with job commitments went into higher

education after graduation—48 percent to 4-year institutions and 4 percent to 2-year colleges. About 22 percent of new Ph.D.s found jobs in industry or planned to

be self-employed. Eleven percent planned to take jobs in

elementary or secondary schools, 9 percent in government (mainly within the federal government), and 6 percent in nonprofit organizations.

A look at Nobel Prize winners during the 20th century

illustrates the value of the U.S. doctoral system and the

lasting influences of its graduates. Between 1901 and

1999, 162 Americans with doctorates from U.S. universities received 164 Nobel Prizes: 57 prizes for physics,

41 for chemistry, 34 for physiology or medicine, 25 for

economics, and 7 for peace (Sherby 2002).

BEGINNINGS OF DOCTORAL

EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

For the greater part of the 19th century, most institutions

of higher learning were small and church affiliated and

provided a classical education in the liberal arts, producing ministers and other professionals. By the middle of

the 19th century, new fields—especially in sciences and

engineering—had been added to the curriculum or were

being taught in separate institutions, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (founded in 1865), or in

separate schools within institutions, such as Harvard’s

Lawrence Scientific School (1847) and Yale’s Sheffield

Scientific School (1854). These were not set up to be

graduate programs, however. Of necessity, Americans

went to Europe, especially Germany, for advanced education, including the doctorate. It has been estimated that

10,000 Americans traveled to Europe in the 19th century

to study, more than half in departments of philosophy,

the forerunner of arts and sciences (Walters 1965); the

others pursued professional studies, such as theology, law,

CHAPTER 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1

 The U.S. Office of Education reported that 382 doctorates were

awarded in 1900, but scholars who examined the data found that approximately one-third of these were awarded for off-campus work,

or for no work, by universities lacking legitimate doctoral programs

or adequate facilities, and that another 8–10 percent were honorary

(Kohler 1990; Berelson 1960; Cattell 1927).
4

and medicine. Some of these students earned doctorates

and then returned to the United States, where most

became college professors and many became leaders in

the effort to create American universities.

In the mid-19th century, there were numerous proposals

and some efforts to develop American universities with

graduate programs. The year 1861 is significant not only

as the beginning of the Civil War but also as the first

year in which doctorates were conferred in the United

States. In 1861, three earlier bachelor’s graduates of Yale

College received the Doctor of Philosophy degree from

Yale’s Sheffield Scientific School after completing 2 years

of graduate study, passing final examinations in several

fields, and submitting written dissertations (Storr 1953).

Although Yale awarded four more doctorates in the next

2 years, graduate programs did not begin in earnest until

the 1870s (Goldin and Katz 1999). The growth in graduate education was driven by institutional developments

and fueled by increasing demand for advanced education at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of

the 20th century. The University of Pennsylvania was

the second American college to award a doctorate, in

1871, followed by Harvard, which conferred two Ph.D.s

and one Sc.D. in 1873 (Bruce 1987). In 1876 an African

American was the first racial/ethnic minority to earn a

doctorate in the United States, receiving a doctorate in

physics from Yale. In 1877 the first woman received a

doctorate in the United States.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, a small group of

research universities offering doctoral programs emerged

in response to a growing demand for knowledge in an

industrializing society. The First Morrill Land Grant Act

of 1862 gave each state a large grant of public lands to

sell for the purpose of founding a college that taught

agriculture and the mechanic arts as well as classical

studies, leading to an expansion of public universities in

the 1870s (NASULGC 1999). Some of these land-grant

institutions became early awarders of doctorates, defined

in this report as having awarded doctorates before 1920.

Chapter 5 discusses the contributions of these early

awarders in terms of the number of doctorates they conferred throughout the 20th century.

The Second Morrill Land Grant Act of 1890 led to the

establishment of public colleges in southern and border

states that did not already have colleges for blacks

(USDA 2003). In addition, many of the schools that had

been established between 1866 and 1890 to train black

teachers were incorporated into the land-grant system

under the Second Morrill Land Grant Act. These 18

colleges, known as the 1890 institutions, addressed barriers to higher education that resulted from segregation.

Five of these institutions eventually granted doctorates:

Alabama A&M University, Florida A&M University,

North Carolina A&T State University, South Carolina

State University, and Tennessee State University. The

1890 institutions make up nearly one-fifth of the group

of institutions known as historically black colleges and

universities, or HBCUs (White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities 2002).

About the same time, there was an increase in the number of new private colleges with graduate programs

(Clark, founded in 1889; Stanford, in 1891; Chicago, in

1892) and reorganization of older ones (Harvard and

Columbia). Johns Hopkins University, a private institution founded in 1876, focused primarily on graduate education and emphasized original research by faculty and

research-based doctoral dissertations (Storr 1973:41;

Geiger 1986:8). Other colleges adapted their graduate

programs to the Johns Hopkins model, although they

placed more emphasis on teaching. This process was

reinforced as Johns Hopkins graduates became professors in other universities.

By the end of the 19th century, the American model of

doctoral education had been established. It was based in

a research university with undergraduate and graduate

programs taught by the same faculty. The faculty members were organized by discipline in departments that

were closely linked to the disciplinary scientific societies and specialized scholarly journals that were founded

between 1890 and 1905.

The American doctoral program generally included

several years of coursework, final examinations, a year

or two of research, a language requirement, and a

dissertation (Walters 1965). Most recipients became

faculty members in colleges and universities whose

enrollments were expanding substantially. They were

recruited to teach in their specialized area of scholarship.

Despite these advancements, U.S. doctoral education was

in disarray at the turn of the century. American students

were still flocking to European universities for graduate

study, and American universities were viewed with little

respect by European universities.

The problem was that, unlike in Europe, higher education

in America was decentralized and largely unregulated;

diploma mills proliferated, and even shaky institutions

could call themselves “universities” and award Ph.D.s.

Some institutions, for example, allowed Ph.D. candidates

to pursue courses without showing up on campus and to
5

take exams at home under supervision of a proctor. The

lack of standards and consistency was hurting the reputations of the more demanding U.S. universities. (Speicher

2000)

In an effort to improve the situation, in January 1900 the

presidents of the University of Chicago, Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, and the University of California–

Berkeley invited 14 of the leading doctorate-granting

institutions to send representatives to a conference to

consider “matters of common interest relating to graduate study.” According to the letter of invitation, the

conference’s goals were to

1) result in a greater uniformity of the conditions under

which students may become candidates for higher

degrees in different American Universities, thereby

solving the question of migration, which has become

an important issue with the Federation of Graduate

Clubs;

2) raise the opinion entertained abroad of our own

Doctor’s Degree;

3) raise the standard of our weaker institutions. (AAU

2003)

Thus was founded the Association of American Universities (AAU) (table 2-1). Over the years the number of

AAU members has grown, by invitation, from the

14 founders to 59 U.S. universities and 2 Canadian

universities.2

 More than two-thirds (110) of the American Nobel Prize winners in the 20th century who earned

doctorates in the United States graduated from AAU’s

founding institutions (Sherby 2002). Harvard (24),

Columbia (22), Chicago (17), and the University of California–Berkeley (14) had the most Nobel Prize winners

among their doctoral graduates.

GROWTH IN DOCTORATE-GRANTING

INSTITUTIONS

Although by 1900 research-based graduate training was

a permanent component of American higher education,

it was still concentrated in a small set of institutions. The

14 universities that founded the AAU were the leading

doctorate producers at that time and accounted for nearly

90 percent of all doctorates awarded in 1900 (Berelson

1960). The number of doctorate-granting institutions increased steadily throughout the 20th century, from fewer

than 50 institutions before 1920 to 392 in 1999 (figure 2-

1). In 1999 the 59 AAU members awarded 51 percent

of the doctorates. The top 10 institutions (based on the

number of doctorates conferred), which awarded 86 percent of all doctorates in 1900, awarded less than 16 percent in 1999.

The greatest growth in doctoral programs at U.S. institutions of higher education was in the 1960s and 1970s,

after the Soviet Union launched the satellite Sputnik.

That 1957 event triggered new national policies focused

on increasing the number of research universities (PSAC

1960). The number of doctorate-granting institutions

grew by 73 in the 1960s and by another 87 in the 1970s.

By the mid-1960s, institutions with doctoral programs

were in all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and

Puerto Rico (figure 2-2). The rate of growth in the number of new doctorate-granting institutions slowed in the

1980s and 1990s, although the number of doctorates

awarded continued to rise.

In the last half of the 1940s the regional concentrations

of doctorate-granting institutions began to shift away

from the Northeast and Midwest into the South and West

(figure 2-3). In 1920, 75 percent of all doctorate-granting institutions were located in the Northeast or Midwest. By 1999, 44 percent were in these regions.

Catholic University of America Stanford University

Clark University University of California-Berkeley

Columbia University University of Chicago

Cornell University University of Michigan

Harvard University University of Pennsylvania

Johns Hopkins University University of Wisconsin-Madison

Princeton University Yale University

SOURCE: http://www.aau.edu./aau/begin.html, accessed April 2005.

TABLE 2-1. Founding institutions of the Association of American 

Universities

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Public institutions

Private institutions

All institutions

FIGURE 2-1. Doctorate-granting institutions, by control of institution: 1920–99

Institutions

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

2

 See http://www.aau.edu for more information on AAU and its centennial celebration.
6

The substantial growth of the general population in the

South since the 1970s and in the West since the 1940s

also contributed to the establishment of new institutions

and new doctoral programs within existing institutions.

According to the U.S. decennial censuses, the South’s

population represented about 31 percent of the total U.S.

population until 1970 then rose to nearly 36 percent in

2000 (U.S. Census Bureau 1975, 1998, 2001). The West

increased its share of the U.S. population every decade—

from less than 6 percent in 1900 to 22 percent in 2000.

3 Seven percent annual increases resulted in a near doubling of the

annual production of doctorates every 10 years from 1870 to 1970.

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999

0

FIGURE 2-3. Distribution of doctorate-granting institutions, by region: 1920–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

 Puerto Rico

At the same time, the populations in both the Northeast

and the Midwest declined as percentages of the total U.S.

population—in the Northeast, from about 28 percent in

1900 to 19 percent in 2000, and in the Midwest, from

about 35 percent in 1900 to 23 percent in 2000.

GROWTH IN DOCTORAL AWARDS AND

R&D SPENDING

The annual number of research doctorates awarded in

the first two decades of the century ranged from a low of

293 in 1902 to a high of 667 in 1916. The number of

doctorates surpassed 1,000 in 1923, grew to a peak of

33,755 in 1973, and then peaked for a second time at

42,683 in 1998 (figure 2-4). This growth represents an

average increase of almost 7 percent per year through

the early 1970s.3

 These long-term trends were affected

in the short term by such major events as the two world

wars and the Great Depression.

Growth was slow at the beginning of the century and

declined sharply during World War I. A spurt marked

the 1920s, followed by another period of slow growth

(but not a decline) during the Depression years of the

1930s. A large decline during World War II was followed

 

LA 

OK 

SC 

OR 

CA 

AZ 

TX 

VA 

DE 

NJ 

CT 

MA 

NH

RI 

1960 (3 states + PR) 

1950s (6 states) 

1930s (6 states) 

1940s (4 states) 

1920s (6 states) 

Pre-1920 (25 states + DC) 

MT 

SD 

AK 

HI 

AR 

WV 

KY 

MS AL GA 

FL 

VT ME 

ID 

NV 

WY 

UT 

NM 

CO 

PR 

DC 

WA 

ND 

MN 

WI 

IL 

MO 

IA 

IN OH 

PA 

NY 

NE 

KS 

TN NC 

MI 

MD 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File. 

FIGURE 2-2. Decade of first doctoral award in the 50 U.S. states, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: pre-1920 to 1960s 
7

by sharp increases from 1946 to 1950 and continued

growth until 1955. By the mid-1950s, however, the pentup demand for doctorates following World War II had

been spent (NAS/NRC 1978).

The 1960s were characterized by a high rate of growth

in annual production of doctorates, fueled by public and

government reaction to the launching of the Soviet satellite Sputnik in 1957. This achievement prompted a

buildup of the graduate education system in the United

States through a variety of programs, including graduate

fellowships funded under the National Defense Education Act of 1957 and fellowship and traineeship programs

of the National Science Foundation, the National

Institutes of Health, and the Public Health Service.

National expenditures for research and development

(R&D), both federal and nonfederal, increased at an annual rate of about 8 percent in real terms between 1953

and 1969 (table 2-2).4

 Total funding for R&D in colleges and universities also increased rapidly during this

period, as did federal support for academic R&D. Many

graduate students were supported as research assistants

on research grants and contracts. The annual number of

doctorates awarded rose from 8,611 in 1957 to 33,755

in 1973, an increase of nearly 9 percent per year.

Cutbacks in R&D funding began in 1969. With the moon

landing achieved, energy programs reduced, and costs

of the Vietnam War beginning to have an impact on the

federal budget, R&D spending was reduced significantly

during the 1969–75 period. Federal dollars for academic

R&D declined in 1969 and stayed low through 1975.

Federal research fellowship and training programs were

reduced. The government’s share of total academic R&D

funding also declined and continued to do so to the end

of the century, sliding from a high of 73 percent of all

academic R&D funding in 1965–68 to about 58 percent

in 1999.

During the 1970s the academic labor market in most

fields became saturated, and there was concern about

overproduction of Ph.D.s. In addition, the end of draft

deferments for graduate students during the Vietnam War

(effective 1968) had a negative effect on graduate

enrollments of men.5

 Together these conditions resulted

in a significant reduction in doctoral awards in the 1970s.

By the late 1970s the number of doctorates awarded

annually had declined to about 31,000. This number

remained almost flat from 1978 to 1985.6

With the defense buildup and gains in R&D spending of

the 1980s, increases in doctoral awards resumed in all

major fields except education. The number of doctorates conferred rose from 31,297 in 1985 to 42,683 in

1998, although the average rate of growth—about 2 percent per year—was much slower than the rate of growth

during the first three-quarters of the century.

The relatively high rate of growth in doctorate production during the century means that most of the 1.36 million doctorates awarded between 1900 and 1999 were

conferred in the last few decades of the century. More

than half of all doctorates were awarded between 1980

5

 The Selective Service Act of 1967 and Executive Order 11360 ended

2-S deferments for all graduate students except those enrolled in certain programs (mainly medicine and related fields). Graduate students

who had been enrolled in fall 1967 were allowed to complete that

academic year, after which their deferments ceased. Individuals

receiving a bachelor’s degree in 1968 were not eligible for further

student deferments unless they enrolled in the graduate programs specified (Bowen and Rudenstine 1992).

4

 The discussion of total R&D and academic R&D is based on NSB

2002, 1:4-3–4-10, 5-3–5-13; 2:A4-5, A4-6, A5-2.

6 Institutions reacted in different ways to the retrenchment of the 1970s.

The result was a redistribution of students among institutions. Many

of the long-established, top-rated doctoral programs reduced or froze

graduate enrollments. Institutions in lower tiers with newly created

programs chose to continue their programs rather than dissolve them,

which would have meant losing their substantial investment in developing the programs. Consequently, large numbers of graduate students shifted to institutions in the lower tiers (Bowen and Rudenstine

1992).

FIGURE 2-4. Doctorates awarded: 1900–99 

Doctorates 

SOURCES: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates 

and Doctorate Records File (1920–99); U.S. Office of Education annual reports 

(1900–19).

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

Year of doctorate

1960 1970 1980 1990 1999

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000
8

and 1999, and three-fourths were conferred between 1970

and 1999 (table 2-3).

Between 1920 and 1999 there was a notable change in

the geographical distribution of doctorates conferred.

The concentration of degree production in the Northeast

and Midwest ended with the relatively greater development of doctorate-granting institutions in the South and

West and the greater population growth in these regions

after 1920 (figure 2-5). These regional shifts were also

TABLE 2-2. Funding of U.S. research and development: 1953–99

(Millions of constant 1996 dollars)

Other Other

Year Total Federal Industry nonfederal Total Federal Industry nonfederal

1953 26,805 14,455 11,670 681 1,416 774 106 535

1954 28,912 15,957 12,215 741 1,548 846 121 581

1955 31,756 18,217 12,750 789 1,729 966 137 627

1956 41,565 24,342 16,359 863 1,912 1,081 154 677

1957 46,892 29,497 16,420 975 2,049 1,143 173 733

1958 50,439 32,228 17,130 1,081 2,269 1,294 180 795

1959 57,082 37,327 18,576 1,179 2,678 1,625 181 873

1960 61,790 40,176 20,352 1,262 3,175 2,039 180 956

1961 64,903 42,265 21,199 1,440 3,714 2,480 178 1,056

1962 68,761 44,583 22,531 1,647 4,365 3,019 178 1,168

1963 76,169 50,632 23,720 1,817 5,122 3,646 176 1,299

1964 81,846 54,688 25,225 1,932 5,889 4,263 174 1,452

1965 85,165 55,482 27,538 2,145 6,705 4,907 175 1,624

1966 90,236 57,910 29,971 2,355 7,433 5,458 184 1,791

1967 92,608 57,766 32,311 2,530 8,072 5,912 204 1,955

1968 93,788 56,898 34,249 2,641 8,316 6,030 219 2,067

1969 94,222 55,195 36,283 2,744 8,264 5,884 219 2,161

1970 90,404 51,563 35,955 2,886 8,319 5,800 225 2,294

1971 88,308 49,837 35,465 3,006 8,404 5,765 236 2,403

1972 90,321 50,406 36,816 3,099 8,664 5,940 248 2,476

1973 92,118 49,366 39,579 3,172 8,789 5,978 266 2,544

1974 91,095 47,206 40,648 3,241 8,781 5,898 284 2,599

1975 89,112 46,299 39,531 3,282 8,917 5,996 295 2,626

1976 93,227 47,971 41,849 3,406 9,216 6,191 310 2,715

1977 96,449 49,211 43,629 3,610 9,653 6,425 343 2,885

1978 101,127 50,732 46,561 3,834 10,358 6,901 376 3,081

1979 106,137 52,254 49,946 3,937 10,937 7,365 411 3,162

1980 110,927 52,656 54,223 4,048 11,317 7,599 462 3,256

1981 115,868 54,054 57,637 4,178 11,360 7,487 503 3,370

1982 122,034 56,200 61,422 4,411 11,475 7,364 548 3,563

1983 130,770 60,359 65,714 4,696 11,979 7,564 627 3,787

1984 143,259 65,188 73,050 5,020 12,813 8,045 724 4,043

1985 155,757 71,581 78,656 5,519 13,988 8,669 855 4,464

1986 159,789 72,648 80,987 6,155 15,323 9,331 989 5,003

1987 162,798 75,468 80,660 6,671 16,508 10,013 1,071 5,424

1988 166,974 75,028 84,749 7,197 17,728 10,712 1,163 5,852

1989 170,427 72,642 90,028 7,757 18,773 11,186 1,274 6,313

1990 175,761 71,285 96,183 8,293 19,577 11,485 1,347 6,744

1991 179,471 67,836 102,945 8,690 20,301 11,893 1,385 7,024

1992 180,050 66,336 104,779 8,935 21,106 12,548 1,437 7,121

1993 176,198 64,343 102,657 9,197 21,780 13,078 1,479 7,223

1994 176,246 63,316 103,326 9,604 22,488 13,525 1,515 7,448

1995 187,167 64,180 113,017 9,970 23,036 13,843 1,576 7,617

1996 197,330 63,392 123,412 10,526 23,686 14,067 1,667 7,953

1997 208,316 63,544 133,626 11,147 24,608 14,434 1,777 8,397

1998 219,794 64,743 143,254 11,797 25,832 15,103 1,910 8,820

1999 233,027 64,628 155,958 12,441 27,072 15,766 2,036 9,269

SOURCE: National Science Board, appendix tables 4-6 and 5-2, Science and Engineering Indicators 2002, NSB-02-1A.

NOTE: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.

All R&D Academic R&D
9

Decade Number % distribution

All decades 1,364,069 100.0

1900–09 3,654 0.3

1910–19 5,542 0.4

1920–29 11,935 0.9

1930–39 25,674 1.9

1940–49 30,629 2.2

1950–59 82,689 6.1

1960–69 162,071 11.9

1970–79 320,936 23.5

1980–89 319,501 23.4

1990–99 403,861 29.6

SOURCES: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/ USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates 

and Doctorate Records File (1920–99); U.S. Office of Education annual and 

biennial reports(1900–19).

NOTES: The Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) was collected by calendar year 

in 1920–1957 and by academic year from 1958 on. Because the second half of 

calendar year 1957 is part of the 1958 SED, detail does not add to total. The sum 

of doctorates awarded in 1900–99 is actual and is the number percentages are 

based on. Percentages do not add to 100 because of rounding.

TABLE 2-3. Number and distribution of doctoral awards, by decade: 

1900–99

states for doctoral awards during the 1920 to 1999 period were in these two regions.

REFERENCES

Association of American Universities (AAU). 2003. The Letter of

Invitation to the Founding Conference of AAU. http://

www.aau.edu/aau/Invit.html. Accessed April 2005.

Berelson, B. 1960. Graduate Education in the United States. New

York: McGraw-Hill.

Bowen, W.G., and N.L. Rudenstine. 1992. In Pursuit of the PhD.

Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Bruce, R.V. 1987. The Launching of Modern American Science:

1846–1876. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

due in part to the presence of larger, public universities

among the newer doctorate-granting institutions. In 1952

the number of public doctoral institutions surpassed the

number of private doctoral institutions. One year later

the number of doctorates produced by public institutions

surpassed the number produced by private institutions

(figure 2-6). By the 1970s public universities accounted

for about two-thirds of the doctorates conferred each year,

a proportion that held steady to the end of the century.

Total doctorate production from 1920 to 1999, however,

reflects the early concentration of degrees in the Northeast and Midwest (table 2-4). All but 3 of the top 10

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Year of doctorate

1970 1980 1990 1999

FIGURE 2-5. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by region: 1920–99 

Percent 

NOTE: The first doctoral degree awarded in Puerto Rico was in 1965; in 1999, 

Puerto Rico represented 0.3 percent of doctoral awards.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

South

West

Northeast

Midwest

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Year of doctorate

1970 1980 1990 1999

FIGURE 2-6. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by control of institution: 

1920–99 

Percent 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Public

Private

State Region Number Percent

All states 1,354,873 100.0

Top 10 states 808,050 59.6

New York Northeast 151,545 11.2

California West 150,447 11.1

Illinois Midwest 86,648 6.4

Massachusetts Northeast 81,086 6.0

Pennsylvania Northeast 72,138 5.3

Texas South 67,140 5.0

Michigan Midwest 57,823 4.3

Ohio Midwest 57,299 4.2

Indiana Midwest 44,640 3.3

Florida South 39,284 2.9

NOTE: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 2-4. Doctorates awarded, by region and top 10 state producers:

1920–99
10

Cattell, J.M. 1927. The origin and distribution of scientific men.

Science 66 (November 25):513–6.

Council of Graduate Schools (CGS). 1990. The Doctor of Philosophy Degree: A Policy Statement. Washington, DC.

Geiger, R.L. 1986. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American

Research Universities, 1900–1940. New York: Oxford University Press.

Goldin, C., and L.F. Katz. 1999. The shaping of higher education:

The formative years in the United States, 1890 to 1940. Journal of Economic Perspectives 13 (winter):37–62.

Kohler, R.E. 1990. The Ph.D. machine: Building on the collegiate

base. Isis 81:638–62.

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council (NAS/

NRC). 1978. A Century of Doctorates: Data Analyses of Growth

and Change. Prepared by L. R. Harmon. Washington, DC.

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council (NAS/

NRC). 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists

and Engineers. Washington, DC.

National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges

(NASULGC). 1999. The land-grant tradition. http://www.

nasulgc.org/publications/Land_Grant/Land_Grant_Main.htm.

Accessed April 2005.

National Science Board (NSB). 1998. The Federal Role in Science

and Engineering Graduate and Postdoctoral Education. NSB

97-235. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

National Science Board (NSB). 2002. Science and Engineering Indicators 2002. 2 vols. NSB-02-1. Arlington, VA: National Science

Foundation.

President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC). 1960. Scientific

Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Government. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Sherby, L.S., ed. 2002. The Who’s Who of Nobel Prize Winners 1901–

2000. 4th ed. Westport, CT: Oryx Press.

Speicher, A.L. 2000. The Association of American Universities: A

century of service to higher education. http://www.aau.edu/aau/

Begin.html. Accessed April 2005.

Storr, R.J. 1953. The Beginnings of Graduate Education in America.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Storr, R.J. 1973. The Beginning of the Future. New York: McGrawHill.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1975. Historical Statistics of the United States,

Colonial Times to 1970. Bicentennial ed. Washington, DC.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1998. Statistical Abstract of the United States.

118th ed. Annual series. Washington, DC.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2001. Statistical Abstract of the United States.

121st ed. Annual series. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2003. 1890 land grant

universities. http://www.reeusda.gov/1890. Accessed March

2003.

Walters, E. 1965. The rise of graduate education. In E. Walters, ed.,

Graduate Education Today, pp. 1–29. Washington DC: American Council on Education.

White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. 2002. http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edliteindex.html. Accessed April 2005.
11

• Fields of Study. More than 1.35 million research

doctorates were awarded in the United States during the last eight decades of the 20th century—

62 percent in science and engineering (S&E) and

38 percent in non-S&E.

Although the number of S&E doctorates exceeded

the number of non-S&E doctorates in every year,

education was the largest major field from 1962 to

1999.

• Sex. Men received about 73 percent of all doctorates awarded between 1920 and 1999. The rapid

increase in the numbers of women earning doctorates, beginning in the 1960s, increased their share of

doctorates from 15 percent in the early 1920s to

41 percent in the late 1990s.

• Citizenship Status. In the late 1980s about one in

four Ph.D.s was a foreign national; by the 1990s this

proportion had increased to almost one in three. Most

foreign doctorate recipients were on temporary visas,

most were men, and most studied S&E fields.

• Race/Ethnicity. Minorities accounted for nearly

14 percent of all S&E doctorates awarded to U.S.

citizens in 1995–99, compared with about 6 percent

in 1975–79, when data on race/ethnicity were first

collected in the SED. Among U.S. citizens, minorities also increased their share of non-S&E

CHAPTER 3. FIELD CHOICES AND DEMOGRAPHIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF DOCTORATE RECIPIENTS

Highlights

doctorates from less than 10 percent in 1975–79 to

more than 14 percent in 1995–99.

• Age. Since 1960, the median age of doctorate recipients has increased about 2 years. The median age

of Ph.D.s in 1995–99 was 33.7 years; in 1960–64 it

was 31.8 years. In 1995–99 the recipients of doctorates in S&E fields were much younger (31.9 years

old) than those who received doctorates in non-S&E

fields (39.5 years old).

• Disability Status. Nearly 4,700 Ph.D.s (almost 2

percent of all doctorate recipients in 1993–99) reported having one or more disabilities, with orthopedic (mobility) disabilities being the most common.

• Marital Status and Dependents. Throughout the

century, a majority of doctorate recipients were

married at the time of graduation. The proportion of

married graduates, however, declined from 75 to

60 percent between the early 1960s and 1995–99.

The percentage of doctorate recipients with children

or adult dependents (regardless of marital status) also

declined in this period. Men were more likely than

women to be married and have dependents.

• Parents’ Education. On the whole, the level of

educational attainment for families of doctorate

recipients is higher than the national average.

1

 The NSF classification scheme used for this report groups health

sciences with humanities, education, and other professional fields in

the broad area of non-S&E. A detailed listing of doctoral degrees

awarded by field can be found in appendix A and with the supplemental tables for this report, available on the NSF website at http://

www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/. Other agencies and organizations

include health sciences with biological and agricultural sciences in a

“life sciences” cluster or combine health sciences with biological sciences to create a “biomedical sciences” cluster.

INTRODUCTION

Research doctorates are differentiated by the field studied. Field of study has been a characteristic of doctorates awarded in the United States since 1861, when the

first three U.S. doctorates were awarded. Those

degrees, conferred by Yale, were in the fields of philosophy and languages, classics, and physics. The number of

major fields and field specialties has grown to 363 since

then. In this report, 12 major fields of study are used;

these are categorized as either science and engineering

(S&E) fields or non-S&E fields. Groupings within these

two categories are shown in table 3-1. 1
12

list of field specialties annually and update it periodically.

Appendix table A-1 shows the complete list of field specialties used in the SED, grouped by major field.

The distribution of doctorates across S&E and nonS&E fields reveals a stable picture. In every year from

1920 to 1999, the number of doctoral awards in S&E

fields was greater than the number in non-S&E fields

(table 3-2). Of the 1,354,873 doctorates granted by

U.S. institutions between 1920 and 1999, 62 percent were

in major fields considered S&E and 38 percent were in

fields considered non-S&E. The S&E share of degrees

dropped below 60 percent only in the 1945–46 academic

year, the 1970s, and the early 1980s. In 1999 U.S. institutions awarded 41,140 doctorates, 25,953 in S&E fields

and 15,187 in non-S&E fields.3

Four of the top five major fields in 1995–99 were also in

the top five in 1920–24, but only biological sciences held

the same rank in both periods. Table 3-3 shows the top

five major fields in 1920–24 and in 1995–99. The number of doctorates awarded in each major field from 1920

to 1999 is shown in figure 3-1. Table 3-4 shows the number of doctorates awarded in each major field in 1995–

99 and in 1999, as well as the peak year for each field.

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Agricultural Sciences

Doctorate production in the field of agricultural sciences

grew throughout the century except for small dips in the

mid-1970s and the 1990s. Nonetheless, it remained the

smallest S&E major field after earth, atmospheric, and

ocean sciences.

Biological Sciences

Before World War II, biological sciences was one of the

more rapidly growing fields in terms of the number of

doctorates awarded, and it resumed its growth after the

war. Subsequently, after some years of fluctuation, the

field began another period of dramatic growth in the late

1980s. Biological sciences was one of the largest doctoral fields throughout the 20th century, with 167,179

doctorates awarded between 1920 and 1999.

3

 In 1999 European universities conferred 54,000 S&E doctorates,

and Asian universities conferred 21,000 S&E doctorates. European

universities awarded more doctorates than either the United States or

Asia in each of the broad areas of S&E. U.S. universities conferred

more doctorates in all science fields in 1999 than did Asian universities but conferred fewer in engineering (NSB 2002, 1:2-41–2-42).

2

 Data in chapters 3 through 6 are taken from the Doctorate Records

File and thus date from 1920. Although Survey of Earned Doctorates

(SED) data were collected first in the 1957–58 academic year (referred to as 1958 in published reports), the trends based exclusively

on SED data are discussed in 5-year cohorts beginning with 1960.

Data are grouped in 5-year intervals for ease of discussion and to

permit “smoothing” of data for small groups.

The demographic characteristics of doctorate recipients

also changed substantially over the course of the

century. Except in certain fields, the participation of

women in doctoral education increased significantly relative to that of men. Racial and ethnic minorities also made

substantial percentage gains in doctoral awards, although

the absolute numbers of doctorates received by minorities remained low compared with whites. The number

and percentage of doctorates awarded to non-U.S. citizens increased sharply in the 1980s and 1990s.2

 Other

characteristics of doctorate recipients—their ages at

graduation, disability status, likelihood of being married

and having dependents, and the educational attainment

of their parents—are also examined here.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Fields of study are not static; they change as research

advances the frontiers of knowledge, as shown by the

influence of quantum mechanics on physics and the influence of plate tectonics on geology. New fields emerge,

as computer sciences did in the last quarter of the 20th

century. Many research programs have become multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary in recent decades. The

federal agencies that sponsor the SED review the survey’s

TABLE 3-1. Major fields of study and doctorates awarded: 1920–99

Field Doctorates awarded

Science and engineering 835,221

Agricultural sciences 39,456

Biological sciences 167,179

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 27,066

Mathematics and computer sciences 52,466

Physical sciences 152,857

Psychology 112,623

Social sciences 136,698

Engineering 146,876

Non-science and engineering 519,652

Education 256,014

Health sciences 28,098

Humanities 171,870

Professional fields/other 63,670

NOTES: Field data are available from the Doctorate Records File beginning in 

1920. Appendix table A-1 shows the number of doctoral awards for the complete 

list of detailed fields, grouped by these major fields.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.
13

TABLE 3-2. Doctorates awarded, by broad field of doctorate: 1920–99 

Science Non-science Science Non-science

5-year period All fields and engineering and engineering Total and engineering and engineering

All periods 1,354,873 835,221 519,652 100 61.6 38.4

1920–24 4,199 2,724 1,475 100 64.9 35.1

1925–29 7,736 4,907 2,829 100 63.4 36.6

1930–34 11,977 7,455 4,522 100 62.2 37.8

1935–39 13,697 8,487 5,210 100 62.0 38.0

1940–44 14,725 9,267 5,458 100 62.9 37.1

1945–49 15,904 10,014 5,890 100 63.0 37.0

1950–54 38,670 25,277 13,393 100 65.4 34.6

1955–59 44,019 28,308 15,711 100 64.3 35.7

1960–64 58,699 38,267 20,432 100 65.2 34.8

1965–69 103,372 66,183 37,189 100 64.0 36.0

1970–74 161,208 94,862 66,346 100 58.8 41.2

1975–79 159,728 90,804 68,924 100 56.8 43.2

1980–84 156,105 91,690 64,415 100 58.7 41.3

1985–89 163,396 100,930 62,466 100 61.8 38.2

1990–94 193,326 123,214 70,112 100 63.7 36.3

1995–99 210,535 134,271 76,264 100 63.8 36.2

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Doctorates awarded % distribution

NOTES: The Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) was collected by calendar year from 1920 through 1957 and by 

academic year from 1958 on. Because the second half of calendar year 1957 is part of the 1958 SED, detail does not add

to total. The sum of doctorates awarded in 1920–99 is actual and is the number percentages are based on. 

1920–24 1995–99

Physical sciences Education

Humanities Engineering

Biological sciences Biological sciences

Social sciences Humanities

Education Social sciences

TABLE 3-3. Leading major fields of study in order of doctorates awarded: 

1920–24 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Field 1995–99 1999

All fields 210,535 41,140 1998 (42,683)

Education 33,126 6,557 1976 (7,725)

Engineering 29,694 5,337 1996 (6,305)

Biological sciences 28,339 5,600 1998 (5,854)

Humanities 24,599 5,045 1973 (5,155)

Social sciences 20,106 4,060 1997 (4,111)

Physical sciences 18,857 3,582 1994 (3,977)

Psychology 17,843 3,667 1998 (3,685)

Professional fields/other 11,549 2,175 1995 (2,539)

Mathematics and computer 

 sciences 10,302 1,935 1995 (2,187)

Health sciences 6,990 1,410 1998 (1,503)

Agricultural sciences 5,057 965 1990 (1,174)

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean 

 sciences 4,073 807 1997 (878)

TABLE 3-4. Doctorates awarded, by major field: 1995–99, 1999, and peak 

year

Peak year

(doctorates)

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File. 

Until 1978 the SED had no code for computer sciences;

data from 1920 to 1977 are for degrees in the field of

mathematics only. 4 Results for computer sciences show

4

 The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), U.S. Department of Education, began collecting data from institutions on the field

of computer science a decade earlier than the SED did. NCES data

show 196 doctorates in computer science in 1978, numbers considerably higher than the 1978 SED number of 121 (NSF 2002, table 46).

Earth, Atmospheric, and Ocean Sciences

Lower numbers of doctorates were awarded in earth,

atmospheric, and ocean sciences from 1920 to 1999 than

in any other major field. Growth in doctoral awards,

however, was dramatic within its detailed fields: atmospheric sciences, geosciences, and oceanography. Geosciences nearly doubled between 1960–64 and 1995–

99, whereas atmospheric sciences increased sixfold and

oceanography increased about ninefold (appendix

table A-1).

Mathematics and Computer Sciences

Nearly all doctorates in the first two-thirds of the century in the major field of mathematics and computer

sciences were awarded in mathematics. The pace of

doctorate production in mathematics quickened during

the 1960s, with the number peaking at 1,281 in 1972 then

decreasing to fewer than 1,000 by 1977.
14

an increase in doctorates from about 200 in 1979 to

almost 1,000 in 1995, after which they declined.

Physical Sciences

From 1920 until the early 1960s physical sciences led all

other major fields in doctoral awards. The field’s greatest growth occurred after the Soviet Union’s launch of

Sputnik, in 1957, and growth continued through the 1960s.

Then, with deep cuts in U.S. space and energy programs

in the 1970s, awards of physical sciences doctorates

began to drop. Most of this decline can be attributed to

chemistry, a specialty (detailed field) of physical sciences.

Chemistry’s share of all doctorates fell from 18 percent

in 1920–24 to 5 percent in 1975–79, where it has remained. The other detailed field of physical sciences,

physics and astronomy combined, also accounted for a

smaller share of doctorates in the last three decades of

the century, but its decline was not as severe as that of

chemistry. Growth in doctorate production in physical

sciences resumed in the 1980s, and a new peak was

reached in 1994, after which the number of physical sciences doctorates awarded annually decreased. Between

1920 and 1999, 93,746 doctorates were awarded in chemistry, and 58,737 doctorates were awarded in physics

and astronomy. Physical sciences ranked fourth in overall doctorate production during the 20th century.

Psychology

Psychology grew in doctorate production throughout the

century except for a slight downturn in the late 1980s.

The number of doctoral awards in psychology rose

sharply after World War II and again in the 1960s and

early 1970s. Unlike many of the other S&E fields, psychology did not experience declines in doctorate production during the 1970s.

Social Sciences

Social sciences remained among the top five major fields

for doctorate production throughout the century. For most

of the 1920–99 period, social sciences accounted for a

relatively stable 9 to 11 percent of all doctorates.

Engineering

By 1995–99 engineering had replaced physical sciences

among the top five major fields. From 1920–24 to 1995–

99 doctoral awards in engineering rose from 60 to 29,694,

or from less than 2 percent to 14 percent of all doctorates

awarded. Drops in the last 3 years of the century were

directly related to a decline in the number of non-U.S.

FIGURE 3-1. Doctorates awarded, by major field: 1920–99

Doctorates 

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

Year of doctorate

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

Science and engineering

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

Health

sciences

Humanities

Education

Professional fields/other

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

Biological sciences

Psychology Social sciences

Agricultural sciences

Engineering

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric, 

and ocean sciences
15

citizens who received doctorates in the final years of the

century.

NON-SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Education

The field of education produced more doctorates every

year from 1962 to 1999 than any other major field.

Education’s share of doctorates was nearly 16 percent

by 1995–99 but was greatest in the 1970s and 1980s,

when it ranged from 20 to 23 percent. The number of

awards remained level from the late 1980s through the

end of the century.

Health Sciences

Doctorates awarded in health sciences, the smallest of

the non-S&E major fields, grew from 100 in 1920–24 to

6,990 in 1995–99, and the field’s share of all doctorates

increased from 2 to 3 percent over that period.

Humanities

Humanities was the second largest of the major fields

for production of doctorates in 1920–24 and was the

fourth largest in 1995–99.

Professional and Other Fields

The number of doctorates awarded in professional and

other fields grew slowly but continuously through the

mid-1960s and then more rapidly through the early

1970s.5

 Doctoral awards in these fields had another period of rapid growth in the 1980s, then began to stabilize in the 1990s.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

PH.D.S

Overall growth of the U.S. population naturally contributed to increases in doctorates earned over the course of

the century. The demographic composition of doctorate

recipients changed substantially as well. Long-term

trends in the demographic characteristics of doctorate

recipients—sex, citizenship status, and race/ethnicity—

are examined here.6

SEX

Throughout the 20th century men earned the majority of

doctorates and accounted for much of the substantial

increase in total doctorate production (figure 3-2). For

the period 1920–99 men received 73 percent of all doctorates awarded and women received 27 percent. Most

of the growth in doctorate production among men in the

late 1980s and the 1990s resulted from the large increases

in the numbers of foreign men seeking graduate education in the United States, not from greater numbers of

U.S. men receiving doctorates. The percentage of male

doctorate recipients who were foreign nationals rose from

22 percent in 1980–84 to 38 percent in 1990–94.

Changes in public policies after World War II created a

more favorable climate for growth in doctorate production, noted first among men, than existed in the prewar

years. In the 1950s the number of men earning doctorates surged (figure 3-2). This trend can be largely attributed to the G.I. Bill, enacted in 1944, which afforded

returning World War II veterans the opportunity and

financial support to begin or continue their education. A

second period of substantial growth in doctorate production by men occurred in the post-Sputnik era, from

the 1960s to the early 1970s. Among the contributing

factors were new or expanded federal programs for

graduate fellowships and traineeships as well as student

deferments during part of the Vietnam War. In the 1970s

concerns about a possible oversupply of Ph.D.s led to

modification or curtailment of some federal and private

programs that supported graduate students, and the

5

 This major field includes doctorates in business management and

administrative services, communications, and other professional fields,

such as architecture and environmental design, library science, public administration, and social work.

6 A listing of the country of citizenship of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s by

visa status can be found with the supplemental tables for this report

on the NSF website at http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/.

FIGURE 3-2. Doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient: 1900–99

Doctorates

SOURCES: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File (1920–99); U.S. Office of Education annual and biennial 

reports (1900–19).

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

Female

Male

All Ph.D. recipients

Year of doctorate
16

number of men earning doctorates declined. The end of

draft deferments for graduate students in 1968 was another major factor in the sharp decline in doctoral awards

to men starting in the early 1970s.

Trends in doctorate production for women were distinctly

different from those for men. The period of dramatic

growth in doctorates earned by women began in the 1960s

and continued to the end of the century. Almost 43 percent of all doctorates awarded to women between 1920

and 1999 were awarded in the 1990s. The proportionate

gains for women were truly remarkable: women’s share

of all doctorates conferred rose from 15 percent in 1920–

24 to 41 percent in 1995–99 (figure 3-3). Yet at the close

of the century, women were still underrepresented relative to their presence in the college-educated population. In 1999 women constituted 43 percent of all Ph.D.s,

compared with 48 percent of the U.S. population 25 and

older with 4 years of college (U.S. Census Bureau 2000,

table 251).

In 1960 women earned 1,042 doctorates; in 1999 they

earned 17,493 doctorates. A convergence of influences

accounts for this growth: the general increase in the

young adult population as the baby boomers came of

age, the women’s movement, affirmative action policies,

and targeted federal and private investments to increase

the number of women with advanced degrees. Foreign

women entering the United States for graduate education also contributed to growth in doctorate production

by women. In the early 1960s 11 percent of all female

Ph.D.s were foreign nationals; by the late 1990s the figure was about 21 percent.

From 1920 to 1999 more than twice as many men received S&E doctorates as received non-S&E doctorates

(figure 3-4). It was only during the last period in the

century, 1995–99, that women earned more doctorates

in S&E fields than in non-S&E fields. From 1920–24 to

1995–99, women’s share of all S&E doctorates awarded

increased from 13 to 33 percent, and women’s share of

all non-S&E doctorates awarded increased from 19 to

55 percent (figure 3-3). From 1960 to 1999 the greatest

percentage increase in doctorates earned by women in

non-S&E fields was in health sciences, and in S&E fields

it was in psychology (figure 3-5).

CITIZENSHIP STATUS

During the last four decades of the century, non-U.S.

citizens earned increasing shares of doctoral awards in

each of the major fields. From 1920 to 1959 doctoral

awards to non-U.S. citizens rose from 6 to 12 percent of

Percent 

FIGURE 3-3. Distribution of doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient and 

broad field of doctorate: 1920–99 

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

All fields

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Male

Female

Non-science and engineering

Science and engineering

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Male

Male

Female

Female

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Year of doctorate

all doctorates awarded. From 1960–64 to 1995–99, the

share of doctorates awarded to foreign nationals rose

from 16 to 39 percent in all S&E fields combined and

from 7 to 17 percent in non-S&E fields (figure 3-6). Most

foreign nationals, both men and women, received their

degrees in S&E fields.
17

FIGURE 3-4. Doctorates awarded, by sex of recipient and broad field 

of doctorate: 1920–99

Doctorates

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

Male, all fields

Female, all fields

Male, science and 

engineering

Female, science and 

engineering

Male, non-science 

and engineering

Female, non-science 

and engineering

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

From the mid-1980s to the end of the century, major

political events were reflected in the tremendous growth

in the overall number of foreign students earning doctorates in the United States. By the late 1980s about one

in four Ph.D. recipients was a foreign national. This proportion rose to almost one in three in the early 1990s

(figure 3-7). Most foreign nationals who earned doctorates held temporary visas, and four in five were men.

Origins of Non-U.S. Citizens

A large majority of foreign nationals who earned U.S.

doctorates between 1960 and 1999 were from Asia (figure 3-8). During this period, China, India, Taiwan, and

Korea were the top four places of origin for non-U.S.

citizen Ph.D.s. Students from the People’s Republic of

China received more than 24,000 of the doctorates

awarded by U.S. universities in the 1990s (figure 3-9).

As was true for foreign nationals overall, Asian citizens

were awarded doctorates primarily in S&E fields. They

received 44 percent of all engineering doctorates and 22

percent of all science doctorates conferred in 1995–99.

Trends in doctorate awards to non-U.S. citizens reflect

consequences of the 1989 uprising at Tiananmen Square

in Beijing, China, an event that led to the adoption of

the Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992. This act

made thousands of Chinese students who were enrolled

in U.S. institutions in 1989 eligible for permanent residency on 1 July 1993. As a result, the percentage of

Chinese Ph.D.s with temporary visas, which had been

more than 95 percent in 1990, fell to a low of about 21

FIGURE 3-5. Women's share of doctorates awarded, by major field: 1920–99

Percent

Science and engineering

Science and engineering

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Biological

sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Psychology

Social sciences

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Engineering

Physical sciences

Earth, atmospheric, 

and ocean sciences

Mathematics and computer sciences

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Health sciences

Humanities

Education

Professional fields/other

Non-science and engineering

Year of doctorate

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

percent in 1995. It started to rise again in 1996, reaching

74 percent by 1999, as the pool of Chinese students eligible for permanent residency and still in graduate school
18

Permanent resident Temporary resident

Professional fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences 

Mathematics and computer sciences 

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 

Biological sciences 

Agricultural sciences 

Science and engineering

All fields

60 50 40 30 20 10 20 0 10 0 30 40 50 60

7.9 22.9

9.7 29.0

8.5 44.3

11.8 22.4

10.1 27.3

11.1 39.3

11.7 30.3

2.7 4.8

7.8 26.9

11.3 44.1

4.9 12.2

2.9 7.6

6.3 20.5

6.4 11.3

6.4 22.0

10.2 2.8

12.9 3.4

22.6 3.0

14.0 3.0

13.3 2.9

14.4 2.7

10.6 2.8

3.5 1.8

14.3 3.9

16.3 6.1

5.2 1.7

4.7 0.8

20.4 3.8

3.6 2.5

12.3 2.5

1960–64 1995–99

FIGURE 3-6. Non-U.S. citizens’ share of doctorates awarded, by major field: 1960–64 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Percent Percent

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79

Year of doctorate

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

U.S. citizen Permanent resident Temporary resident

87.0

2.8

10.2

85.5

4.3

10.2

84.7

6.0

9.3

84.1

4.6

11.2

81.8

4.2

14.0

76.1

5.0

19.0

69.1

6.1

24.8

69.2

7.9

22.9

FIGURE 3-7. Citizenship status of Ph.D.s: 1960–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

FIGURE 3-8. Regional origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1960–99

Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1960–64 1970–74 1975–79 1965–69 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

Americas

Europe

Africa

Asia

Australasia/Pacific

diminished. Because China was the leading country of

origin of non-U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s throughout the 1990s,

the shift in the visa status of Chinese doctorate recipients caused a shift in the statistics for Asia as a whole.

The percentage of Asian-citizen Ph.D.s with temporary

visas fell from 88 percent at the beginning of the 1990s

to a low of 64 percent in 1995, then rose to more than 81

percent in 1999.

With the end of the cold war came rapid growth in the

number of doctorates granted to citizens of eastern European countries and the republics of the former Soviet

Union (figure 3-10). In 1995–99, 1,030 doctorates were

awarded to citizens of the former Soviet Union (mostly

to citizens of Russia), compared with 47 doctorates in

1990–94 and 12 doctorates in the 1980s. Citizens of

Romania, Bulgaria, and the former Czechoslovakia also
19

increased their numbers of doctorates in the late 1990s,

although by a smaller amount.

Women

Between the periods 1960–64 and 1995–99, female Ph.D.s

increased their presence in every citizenship group, with

women’s share of doctorates rising from 10 to 36 percent among permanent residents and from 9 to 24 percent among temporary residents, but rising most noticeably among U.S. citizens. Women made up 47 percent

of all U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s in 1995–99, a greater than fourfold increase from 1960–64 (11 percent). U.S. women

made notable gains in both S&E and non-S&E major

fields during the same period, increasing their share of

all S&E doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens from 7 to

39 percent and their share of non-S&E doctorates from

17 to 57 percent (figure 3-11).

RACE/ETHNICITY

From 1975, when data on race/ethnicity were first

collected in the SED, to 1999, three groups accounted

for almost 90 percent of all doctorates awarded in the

United States: white U.S. citizens (68 percent), Asian

FIGURE 3-9. Leading Asian origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1960–99 

Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

China (PRC)

Taiwan

India

Korea

Other Asia

FIGURE 3-10. Leading Eastern European origins of non-U.S. citizen 

Ph.D.s: 1960–99 

Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

1,100

Bulgaria

Former Czechoslovakia

Hungary

Poland

Romania

Former USSR

Former Yugoslavia

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health

sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social

sciences

Psychology

Physical

sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological

sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1995–99

1960–64

FIGURE 3-11. Women’s share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, 

by major field: 1960–64 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.
20

FIGURE 3-12. Ethnicity of U.S. citizen Hispanic Ph.D.s: 1980–99

Number

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

All U.S. Hispanics

Puerto Rican

Mexican

American

Other Hispanic

Year of doctorate

FIGURE 3-13. Minorities’ share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, 

by race/ethnicity: 1975–99

Percent

NOTE: Underrepresented minorities are American Indians/Alaskan Natives, blacks, 

and Hispanics.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89

Year of doctorate

1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

All minorities

Underrepresented minorities

Asian/Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaskan Native

foreign nationals (14 percent), and white foreign nationals (8 percent). Minority U.S. citizens accounted for most

of the remainder: blacks (3 percent), Asians/Pacific

Islanders (2 percent), Hispanics (2 percent), and American Indians/Alaskan Natives (0.3 percent).7

 The largest

Hispanic subgroup among Hispanic Ph.D.s was Other

Hispanic, followed by Mexican American and Puerto

Rican (figure 3-12). According to a study of Hispanic

Ph.D.s from 1983 to 1997, the subgroup Other Hispanic

also ranked first in shares of S&E doctorates, followed

by Puerto Rican and Mexican American (Quintana-Baker

2002).

Of doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens, the share earned

by members of minority groups increased from 8 percent in 1975–79 to 14 percent in 1995–99 (figure 3-13).

The number of awards to minorities remained relatively

low despite high proportionate gains. Between 1975–79

and 1995–99 the number of doctorates earned by Asians/

Pacific Islanders who were U.S. citizens increased over

threefold, from 1,777 to 6,039 degrees, and the number

of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens who were members of underrepresented minorities (American Indians/

Alaskan Natives, blacks, and Hispanics) nearly doubled,

from 7,644 to 13,176 (figure 3-14).

Minorities received almost 14 percent of all S&E doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens in 1995–99, up from 6

percent in 1975–79. Between 1975–79 and 1995–99 the

percentage growth in S&E doctoral awards to U.S. citizens was greater for minorities than for whites, and

growth in awards to minority citizens in S&E fields was

somewhat greater than growth in awards to minorities

in all fields combined. By 1995–99 a majority of Ph.D.s

in every racial/ethnic group except blacks were in S&E

fields, with Asians/Pacific Islanders having the largest

proportion of Ph.D.s in S&E fields (table 3-5).

Minority citizens earned more than 14 percent of the

non-S&E doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens in 1995–

99, up from about 10 percent 20 years earlier (figure 3-

15). In 1995–99 blacks accounted for more than half of

the non-S&E doctorates earned by minorities and more

than 7 percent of all non-S&E doctorates awarded to U.S.

citizens. Blacks received more than one-tenth of all education doctorates in 1995–99 and also received larger

shares of degrees in health sciences and professional and

other fields than were received by members of other minority groups (figure 3-16). Hispanics earned the largest

share of humanities doctorates (nearly 4 percent) among

minorities.

Over the last quarter of the century, the share of Ph.D.s

earned by women increased in every racial/ethnic group

among U.S. citizens (figure 3-17). Women’s share of

doctorates earned in 1995–99 was largest among blacks

(nearly 62 percent) and smallest among Asians/Pacific

Islanders and whites (43 percent and 46 percent, respectively). Women earned slightly over half of all doctorates awarded to Hispanics and slightly under half of

all doctorates awarded to American Indians/Alaskan

Natives.

7

 Discussions of race/ethnicity in this report refer to U.S. citizens only

unless stated otherwise.
21

FIGURE 3-14. U.S. citizen minority Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99

U.S. minority Ph.D.s

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

American Indian/Alaskan Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

FIGURE 3-15. Minorities’ share of non-science and engineering doctorates 

earned by U.S. citizens, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99

Percent

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

NOTE: Underrepresented minorities are American Indians/Alaskan Natives, blacks, 

and Hispanics.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

All minorities

Underrepresented minorities

Asian/Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaskan Native

AGE

Variations in the age at which persons receive the doctorate reflect many factors, including field of study, sex,

age at baccalaureate graduation, the time it takes to complete requirements for the doctorate, and educational and

career choices made at different stages, which may postpone or interrupt the path to the doctorate.

When students pursue their undergraduate education on a

part-time basis, they are likely to take longer than 4 years to

earn the bachelor’s degree. If a substantial number of students follow this pattern, the average age of baccalaureate recipients, and hence doctorate recipients, will rise.

Moreover, many students who eventually pursue a doctorate do not enter graduate school immediately after

receiving a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Many graduates enter the workforce and only later decide to undertake doctoral studies. In some fields, such as education,

specific kinds of work experience may be required before the doctorate is awarded. These factors, among others, contribute to the total elapsed time between receipt

of the baccalaureate and receipt of the doctorate.

TABLE 3-5. Major field distribution of U.S. citizen Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1995–99

American Indian/ Asian/Pacific 

Field Alaskan Native Islander Black Hispanic White

All fields 910 6,039 7,048 5,218 117,392

All fields 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Science and engineering 50.2 76.6 38.5 55.0 56.9

Agricultural sciences 2.6 1.1 0.9 1.3 1.8

Biological sciences 8.1 21.1 6.8 12.1 13.1

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 1.4 0.9 0.4 1.3 1.9

Mathematics and computer sciences 1.9 5.7 1.3 2.5 3.6

Physical sciences 4.7 10.8 3.3 5.2 7.7

Psychology 12.9 7.7 10.7 16.3 11.2

Social sciences 11.3 7.3 10.0 8.6 9.0

Engineering 7.3 22.0 5.1 7.6 8.7

Non-science and engineering 49.8 23.4 61.5 45.0 43.1

Education 28.8 8.0 41.7 23.2 19.4

Health sciences 3.2 2.9 3.7 3.2 3.5

Humanities 10.7 8.2 8.7 14.2 14.5

Professional fields/other 1.8 4.3 7.3 4.4 5.7

NOTE: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File. 

Percent distribution
22

All U.S.

citizens

American

Indian/Alaskan

Native

Black Hispanic White

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1975–79 1995–99

Asian/

Pacific

Islander

FIGURE 3-17. Women’s share of doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, 

by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99

Percent women

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

Year of doctorate Year of doctorate

Year of doctorate

Education Health sciences

Humanities Professional fields/other

FIGURE 3-16. Minorities’ share of non-science and engineering doctorates earned by U.S. citizens, by major field and race/ethnicity: 1975–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

0.7

9.5

2.1

0.4

1.1

8.8

2.6

0.6

1.1

7.5

3.2

0.6

1.4

8.3

3.5

0.8

1.7

10.6

4.4

0.9

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

2.1

4.1

1.2

0.1

2.4

3.2

1.4

0.5

2.5

3.6

1.9

0.6

3.3

4.6

1.9

0.6

3.7

5.4

3.5

0.6

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

0.9

2.4

2.5

0.1

1.0

2.8

3.2

0.2

1.3

2.5

3.3

0.3

1.5

2.6

3.6

0.4

2.6

3.2

3.9

0.5

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1.1

3.8

1.4

0.2

1.8

4.6

1.6

0.1

1.8

4.4

1.7

0.5

2.2

4.9

2.3

0.6

3.4

6.6

2.9

0.8

Asian/Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaskan Native

Percent

Percent Percent

Percent

During the 1950s and 1960s, concerted efforts were made

to reduce the time required to earn a doctorate, and the

data indicate that there were declines in the age of new

Ph.D.s during that era. Between 1970 and 1999, however, the age of Ph.D.s at graduation rose (figure 3-18).

Doctoral students graduating in 1995–99 were, on average, nearly 34 years old, almost 2 years older than those

graduating in 1960–64. Reflecting variations by field,

recipients of doctorates in S&E fields were substantially

younger than their non-S&E colleagues throughout this

period, and the differences in their ages increased beginning in 1975–79.

Over the 40-year period from 1960 to 1999, the difference between the ages of men and women at graduation

narrowed. In 1960–64 female Ph.D.s were almost 5 years

older than male Ph.D.s, but by 1995–99 the gap between

the average ages of male and female Ph.D.s was less

than 2 years (figure 3-19).
23

DISABILITY STATUS

Statistics on the disabilities of Ph.D. recipients began being

collected in the SED in 1993. Nearly 4,700 individuals

with self-reported disabilities were awarded doctorates

between 1993 and 1999—accounting for close to 2 percent of all doctorates awarded in that period, substantially below the percentage of disabled persons in the

U.S. population. In 1997 about 13 percent of the U.S.

population 22 to 44 years old had some kind of disability, and nearly 8 percent were severely disabled (U.S.

Census Bureau 2000, table 222).

Among Ph.D.s graduating in 1993–99, orthopedic

(mobility) disabilities were the most common, reported

by 28 percent of those with disabilities, followed by

visual (19 percent) and auditory (14 percent) disabilities. Very few of these new graduates had vocal disabilities (figure 3-20).

MARITAL STATUS AND DEPENDENTS

Overall, individuals who earned doctorates at the end of

the century were less likely to be married or to have dependents (children or adult dependents) than were those

who graduated 40 years earlier. In every 5-year period

from 1960–64 to 1995–99, a majority of Ph.D.s were

married at the time of their graduation; however, the

proportion of married graduates fell from about 75 to

60 percent between the early 1960s and late 1990s.

(figure 3-21). Men were more likely than women to be

married, but this gap began to narrow in the 1980s.

FIGURE 3-18. Age of Ph.D.s at graduation, by broad field of doctorate: 

1960–99

Median age

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79

Year of doctorate

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

FIGURE 3-19. Age of Ph.D.s at graduation, by sex: 1960–99

Median age

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79

Year of doctorate

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

Male

Female

Although the percentage of graduates who were married has decreased both overall and among U.S. citizens

since 1960–64, particularly among men, it has increased

slightly among permanent and temporary residents (figure 3-22).

The percentage of Ph.D.s (regardless of marital status)

who had dependents at the time the doctorate was received declined from 76 percent in 1960–64 to 48 percent in 1995–99, with men in both periods being more

likely than women to have dependents (figure 3-23).

Women who received doctorates in 1995–99 were more

Visual

18.7%

Orthopedic

27.9%

Auditory

14.0%

Vocal

1.8%

Other/multiple

29.5%

Unspecified

8.3%

FIGURE 3-20. Disabilities of Ph.D.s: 1993–99, aggregate 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.
24

FIGURE 3-21. Married Ph.D.s, by broad field of doctorate: 1960–99

Percent married

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79

Year of doctorate

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

FIGURE 3-22. Married Ph.D.s, by sex and citizenship status: 1960–99

Percent married

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79

Year of doctorate

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Male

Female

U.S. citizen

Permanent resident

Temporary resident

Citizenship status

Sex

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

likely to be married and to have children or other dependents than were women who graduated in 1960–64 (figures 3-22, 3-23). Declines in both married graduates and

graduates with dependents were greater among recipients of doctorates in S&E fields than among those who

received doctorates in non-S&E fields.

The percentage of Ph.D.s who were married at the time

of their graduation declined in every U.S. racial/ethnic

group after 1975–79 (figure 3-24). The percentages of

whites and American Indians/Alaskan Natives who were

married stabilized in the 1980s, but the percentages of

married Asians/Pacific Islanders, blacks, and Hispanics

were still falling at the end of the century.

PARENTS’ EDUCATION

Rising educational attainment in the U.S. population as

a whole is reflected in the Ph.D. population. Data on the

educational attainment of the parents of Ph.D.s became

available in 1965. On the whole, the level of educational

attainment for families of doctorate recipients is higher

than the national average. By 1995–99 more than

one-third (nearly 35 percent) of new Ph.D.s came from

families in which both the mother and the father had a

college degree (figure 3-25). Nearly half of doctorate

recipients in 1999 had a parent who held a bachelor’s or

advanced degree, compared with less than one-fifth of

parent equivalents (those 55 or older, the assumed age

of Ph.D.s’ parents) in the U.S. population (figure 3-26).

In contrast, 30 years earlier, almost half of new Ph.D.s

came from families in which neither parent had attended

college. Among doctorate recipients in general, the

father’s educational level was higher than the mother’s

(figure 3-27).
25

Percent

FIGURE 3-23. Marital status of Ph.D.s with dependents, by sex: 1960–64 

and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Unmarried with

dependents

Married with

dependents

Female

Unmarried with

dependents

Married with

dependents

Male

Unmarried with

dependents

Married with

dependents

All Ph.D.s

1995–99

1960–64

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

FIGURE 3-24. Married U.S. citizen Ph.D.s, by race/ethnicity: 1975–99

Percent married

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

White

Asian/Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

American Indian/Alaskan Native

Percent

FIGURE 3-25. Ph.D.s whose parents both have a college degree, by 

selected characteristics of the Ph.D.: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/

Pacific Islander

American

Indian/Alaskan Native

Temporary resident

Permanent resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

Non-science and

engineering field

Science and

engineering field

All Ph.D.s

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

FIGURE 3-26. Educational attainment of Ph.D.s’ parents compared with the 

U.S. national population: 1999 

Advanced

degree

Bachelor’s

degree

Some college

High school

diploma

Less than high

school diploma

0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 15 10

Percent

U.S. population age 55 or older

Ph.D.s’ parents

NOTES: To be most comparable to national data collected by the U.S. Census 

Bureau, educational attainment is counted for both parents of Ph.D.s who received 

their degree in 1999. A generation is traditionally defined as 30 years; thus, parents 

are assumed to be 30 years old when their child is born. Ph.D.s are assumed to be 

age 25 or older at graduation; the parent of a 25-year old Ph.D. is assumed to be 55 

or older when the child receives the doctorate.

SOURCES: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File (Ph.D.s’ parents); U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of 

the United States: 2000 (120th edition), table 251.
26

FIGURE 3-27. Educational attainment of Ph.D.s’ parents: 1965–99

Percent

NOTES: For both parents, the parent with the higher educational attainment is 

counted; thus, If the mother has a bachelor's degree and the father has a master's 

degree, only the father's educational attainment is counted. If both parents have the 

same level of educational attainment, one count is made for that level.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84

Both parents

Mother

Father

1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84

Year of doctorate

1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Less than high

school diploma

High school diploma

Some college

Bachelor’s degree

Master's/professional degree

Master's/professional degree

Master's/professional degree

Doctorate

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

High school diploma

Less than high school diploma

Some college

Some college

Doctorate

Doctorate

Bachelor’s degree

Bachelor’s degree

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Less than high school diploma

High school diploma

REFERENCES

National Science Board (NSB). 2002. Science and Engineering Indicators 2002. 2 vols. NSB-02-1. Arlington, VA: National Science

Foundation.

National Science Foundation (NSF). 2002. Science & Engineering

Degrees, 1966–2000, table 46. NSF 02-327. Arlington, VA.

Quintana-Baker, M. 2002. A profile of Mexican American, Puerto

Rican, and other Hispanic STEM doctorates: 1983–1997. Journal of Women and Minorities 8:99–121.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2000. Statistical Abstract of the United States:

2000. 120th ed., tables 222, 251. Washington, DC.
27

• Attendance at 2-Year Colleges. About 9 percent

of all Ph.D.s who received doctorates in 1975–84

had attended a 2-year college. By the late 1990s this

proportion was 8 percent, perhaps because of an increase in the number of foreign nationals, mostly

men, seeking doctorates from U.S. institutions. In

the 1995–99 cohort of doctorate recipients, women

were more likely than men to have attended 2-year

colleges. The opposite was true in the 1970s.

• Baccalaureates, Master’s Degrees, and Professional Degrees. Most Ph.D.s earned both a

baccalaureate and a master’s degree before the doctorate, and most of those degrees were earned in

the United States.

As the number of foreign nationals earning doctorates

in the United States increased, so did the numbers

of doctoral students holding degrees from foreign

institutions. By 1995–99, 28 percent of Ph.D.s held

baccalaureates from foreign institutions.

• Fields of Baccalaureate, Master’s Degree, and

Doctorate. Between 1960 and 1999, two in three

Ph.D.s earned a doctorate in the same major field as

their baccalaureate, and four in five stayed in the

same field as their master’s degree.

• Financial Support. About 57 percent of Ph.D.s

graduating in 1980–81 and about 58 percent of those

graduating in 1996–97 received most of their financial support from research and teaching assistantships,

fellowships, traineeships, internships, and dissertation

grants provided by federal agencies, associations, academic institutions, and other organizations.

• Activities in Year before Receiving Doctorate. The

proportion of doctoral students employed full time

in the year before graduation decreased from 44

to 35 percent between 1970–74 and 1995–99,

whereas part-time employment increased from 5

to 12 percent.

As the numbers of foreign Ph.D.s grew, assistantships became more common and fellowships less

common in the year before graduation.

• Indebtedness. In 1999, for the first time, more than

50 percent of graduating Ph.D.s reported having debt

related to their undergraduate and graduate education. At the end of the century, the percentage of

Ph.D.s who owed more than $20,000 in educationrelated debt at graduation was about 20 percent, compared with less than 7 percent in the late 1980s.

• Time to Doctorate. Between 1920–24 and 1995–

99 the median total time between receipt of the baccalaureate and receipt of the doctorate (TTD) rose

from 7 to almost 11 years. The gap between men’s

and women’s TTD narrowed. Men’s TTD increased

2 years between 1960–64 and 1995–99, to 10 years,

whereas women’s TTD remained at about 12 years.

CHAPTER 4. PATH TO THE DOCTORATE

Highlights

INTRODUCTION

For students whose ultimate goal was to earn the doctorate, opportunities and options expanded in the second half of the 20th century. Many doctorate recipients

still went directly from secondary schools to full-time

study at 4-year colleges or universities for the baccalaureate, then immediately to universities with long-established graduate programs for full-time doctoral study.

That pattern began to change, however, in the years following World War II. Some of the factors that influenced

the path to the doctorate were structural changes in U.S.

higher education, draft deferments during the Vietnam

War, more postbaccalaureate options, consequences of

the changed mix of U.S. graduate students, and growing

internationalization of U.S. doctoral education. This

chapter reviews the undergraduate and graduate experiences of Ph.D.s.

ATTENDANCE AT 2-YEAR COLLEGES

The rapid expansion of 2-year colleges during the second half of the 20th century brought opportunity for

higher education closer to most high school graduates.

Low tuition costs and flexible schedules, designed to

accommodate both part-time and full-time students,
28

FIGURE 4-1. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by broad field 

of doctorate: 1971–99

Percent

NOTE: Two-year college attendance was not recorded in all years. The 1971–74, 

1980–82, and 1987–89 periods include less than 5 years.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1971–74 1975–79 1980–82

Year of doctorate

1987–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

FIGURE 4-2. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by major field of 

doctorate: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and 

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Percent

FIGURE 4-3. Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, by sex and 

citizenship status: 1971–74 and 1995–99

NOTE: Two-year college attendance was not recorded in 1970. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Temporary resident

Permanent resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

All Ph.D.s

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Percent

1971–74

1995–99

drew large numbers of students. By 1972 these institutions were enrolling the majority of first-time college freshmen, and they did not relinquish that lead

until 1986 (USED/NCES 2002, table 182). In fall 1999,

45 percent of first-time college freshmen were attending 2-year colleges.

About 9 percent of all Ph.D.s who graduated in the late

1970s and early 1980s reported that they had attended

2-year colleges, a slightly higher percentage than in the

early 1970s (figure 4-1). The percentage of S&E Ph.D.s

reporting attendance at 2-year colleges decreased in the

late 1980s and the 1990s, whereas the percentage of nonS&E Ph.D.s increased except for a brief period during

the 1980s. In 1995–99 non-S&E Ph.D.s were almost

twice as likely as their colleagues in S&E fields to have

attended 2-year colleges (12 percent compared with

6 percent, respectively); for Ph.D.s in all fields the figure was 8 percent. By major field, percentages ranged

from a high of 15 percent in education to a low of 4

percent in engineering (figure 4-2).

Trends in the proportions of Ph.D.s reporting attendance

at 2-year colleges were affected by the growing presence of foreign nationals receiving doctorates from U.S.

institutions. The surge in male foreign students during

the 1980s and 1990s was undoubtedly a factor in the

percentage of male Ph.D.s who attended a 2-year college (figure 4-3). By 1995–99 attendance at a 2-year

college among those who received doctorates was more

common for women than for men (9 percent compared
29

FIGURE 4-4. U.S. citizen Ph.D.s who ever attended a 2-year college, 

by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. citizens

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Percent

1975–79

1995–99

with 7 percent, respectively), whereas the opposite was

true in the early 1970s.

More than 11 percent of all U.S. citizens awarded doctorates in 1995–99 had attended 2-year colleges, up from

about 10 percent in the late 1970s (figure 4-4). Reports

of attendance at 2-year colleges increased for American

Indians/Alaskan Natives, blacks, and whites. These

colleges played an especially prominent role in the

education of American Indians/Alaskan Natives and

Hispanics who eventually earned doctorates. More than

one-fifth (22 percent) of American Indians/Alaskan

Natives and about one-sixth (16 percent) of Hispanics

who received doctorates in 1995–99 reported attendance

at 2-year colleges (for Hispanics who received doctorates in 1975–79, the proportion was even higher, 21 percent). The percentages for blacks and whites were lower;

the figure was lowest for Asians/Pacific Islanders (about

6 percent of those graduating in 1995–99, down from

8 percent in 1975–79).

BACCALAUREATES, MASTER’S

DEGREES, AND PROFESSIONAL

DEGREES

Throughout the 20th century, most Ph.D.s earned both a

baccalaureate and a master’s degree before earning the

doctorate, and most of those degrees were conferred in

the United States. As the number of foreign nationals

earning U.S. doctorates increased, so did the number of

U.S. doctoral students holding baccalaureates and

master’s degrees from foreign institutions. Some U.S.

citizens, mostly naturalized citizens, also received baccalaureates and master’s degrees from foreign institutions. More than one-fourth (28 percent) of Ph.D.s graduating in 1995–99, mainly foreign nationals, held

baccalaureates from institutions outside the United States

(figure 4-5). About 90 percent of temporary resident

Ph.D.s had earned their baccalaureates at foreign

institutions.

Because non-U.S. citizens tend to be concentrated in S&E

fields, Ph.D.s who hold baccalaureates from

foreign institutions are generally more common in S&E

fields than in non-S&E fields. In 1995–99, 35 percent of

S&E Ph.D.s had foreign baccalaureates, compared with

15 percent of non-S&E Ph.D.s (figure 4-6).

About 90 percent of Ph.D.s graduating in 1995–99 earned

a master’s degree before the doctorate; however, in many

institutions a master’s degree is not a prerequisite.

Requirements for a master’s degree also vary by field of

study. For example, in 1995–99, 38 percent of Ph.D.s in

chemistry, a specialty within the major field of physical

sciences, and 37 percent of those in biological sciences

did not hold master’s degrees, compared with less than

1 percent of those in education (figure 4-7).

Some doctorate recipients participate in programs that

lead to dual degrees—the Ph.D. and a professional

degree, such as the M.D. Others obtain professional

degrees before receiving the doctorate. The percentage

of Ph.D.s who earned professional degrees either

FIGURE 4-5. Ph.D.s with baccalaureates from foreign institutions, by 

citizenship status: 1960–64 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Temporary resident

Permanent resident

U.S. citizen

All Ph.D.s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1960–64

1995–99
30

FIGURE 4-7. Ph.D.s without master’s degrees, by major field of doctorate:

1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health

sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical

sciences

Mathematics and 

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological

sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and 

engineering

All fields

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Percent

Physics

and astronomy

Chemistry

1

 Some Ph.D.s in dual-degree programs may have received the professional degree after the doctorate, and other Ph.D.s may have later

independently pursued a professional degree. Only professional

degrees that were received by the time the doctorate was conferred

are recorded in the Doctorate Records File, and thus only those professional degrees are included in the data presented in this report.

FIGURE 4-6. Ph.D.s with baccalaureates from foreign institutions, by broad 

field of doctorate: 1920–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

before or concurrently with the doctorate, although

remaining small, doubled from 1 percent of Ph.D.s in

1960–64 to 2 percent in 1995–99.1

FIELDS OF BACCALAUREATE,

MASTER’S DEGREE, AND

DOCTORATE

A retrospective view of the educational background of

Ph.D.s provides insights into differing traditions across

fields of study. The top fields at the doctoral level (in

terms of number of Ph.D.s) are not the top baccalaureate

and master’s degree fields of Ph.D.s. Historically, humanities has been the leading baccalaureate field of

Ph.D.s, whereas education has been the leading doctoral

field. Although two in three Ph.D.s earn their baccalaureate and doctorate in the same field, no doctoral field is

built solely on baccalaureates from that same field.

Field switching between master’s degree and doctoral

fields occurs less often than it does between baccalaureate and doctoral fields. About four in five Ph.D.s

with master’s degrees stay in the same field for the

doctorate.

TOP FIELDS

The top fields of study of doctorate recipients at each

degree level were the same at the end of the century as

they had been in the early 1960s. Humanities has been

the largest baccalaureate field of Ph.D.s: 20 percent of

the 1960–64 cohort and 16 percent of the 1995–99 cohort held bachelor’s degrees in humanities (figures 4-8,

4-9). The top three master’s degree fields of Ph.D.s in

both 1960–64 and 1995–99 were humanities, education,

and engineering.

Education was the top doctoral field of Ph.D.s in 1960–

64 and remained the top field in 1995–99, accounting

for about 16 percent of doctorates in both periods. Other

fields that accounted for more than one-tenth of doctorates in both periods were humanities, biological sciences,

and engineering. The field of social sciences accounted

for nearly one-tenth (10 percent) of doctorates in both

periods.
31

FIGURE 4-8. Major field of Ph.D.s’ bachelor’s, master's, and doctoral 

degrees: 1960–64

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

0 5 10 15 20 25

Bachelor’s degree

Master’s degree

Doctoral degree

FIGURE 4-9. Major field of Ph.D.s' bachelor's, master's, and doctoral 

degrees: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

0 5 10 15 20 25

Bachelor’s degree

Master’s degree

Doctoral degree

FIELD SWITCHING

Even though some fields are larger at the baccalaureate

and master’s degree levels and others are larger at the

doctorate level of study, in every year since 1960, about

two-thirds of Ph.D.s earned their bachelor’s degree and

doctorate in the same major field (figure 4-10). Even

less field switching occurred between the master’s degree and the doctorate.

Reasons for field switching may include the emergence

of new fields, such as computer sciences, and the relation of a baccalaureate to a doctoral field. In the cases of

education and professional and other fields, the doctorate adds competencies to complement degrees in subject-area fields. In 1995–99 more than one-half of the

doctorates in computer sciences, education, and professional and other fields were awarded to individuals
32

FIGURE 4-10. Ph.D.s whose bachelor’s and doctoral degrees are in the 

same major field and whose master’s and doctoral degrees are in the same 

major field: 1960–99

Percent

NOTE: Percentages are based on number of Ph.D.s in doctoral field. Subfields of 

physical sciences and subfields of mathematics and computer sciences were not 

broken out from their respective major field.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Same field for bachelor’s and doctorate

Same field for master’s and doctorate

FIGURE 4-11. Ph.D.s with bachelor's and doctoral degrees in the same 

major field, by field of degree: 1960–64 and 1995–99

NOTES: Percentages are based on number of Ph.D.s in doctoral field or in subfields 

of mathematics and computer sciences or subfields of physical sciences. Computer 

sciences did not become a separate field in the SED until the late 1970s.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Computer sciences

 Mathematics

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1960–64

1995–99

whose bachelor’s degrees were not in those fields (figure 4-11). The pattern was similar in the 1960–64

cohort.

Men switched fields between the baccalaureate and the

doctorate less often than women did. The amount of field

switching by men and women changed little between

the early 1960s and the late 1990s (figure 4-12). In each

of the three citizenship groups, however, changes did

occur. In the 1960–64 Ph.D. cohort, temporary residents

were more likely than U.S. citizens and permanent

residents to have switched fields between the bachelor’s

degree and the doctorate, but by 1995–99, temporary

residents exhibited the least field switching.

Among U.S. citizens, Asians/Pacific Islanders switched

fields the least and blacks the most; about 70 percent of

Asians/Pacific Islanders in the 1995–99 Ph.D. cohort

earned their bachelor’s degree and doctorate in the same

field, compared with 56 percent of blacks (figure 4-13).

Corresponding figures for the other U.S. racial/ethnic

groups ranged from 63 to 65 percent. There was more

field switching among Asians/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, and whites in 1975–79 than in 1995–99.

TOP BACCALAUREATE FIELDS ASSOCIATED WITH

MAJOR DOCTORAL FIELDS

The top three baccalaureate fields associated with each

major doctoral field are shown in table 4-1. The firstranked baccalaureate field associated with a doctoral field

is consistently that same field. The baccalaureate field

ranked second is usually one closely related to the doctoral field. These patterns have changed little since 1960–

64. Among the few changes in 1995–99 are the appearance of biological sciences in the lists of top three

baccalaureate fields for the field of chemistry and the

field of earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences.

Although there is less field switching between the

master’s degree and the doctorate, engineering provides

a good illustration of the kind of switching that can take

place during graduate studies. Engineering master’s degrees were common among S&E Ph.D.s in the 1995–99

cohort. In addition to being the primary master’s degree
33

FIGURE 4-12. Ph.D.s with bachelor’s and doctoral degrees in the same 

major field, by sex and citizenship status: 1960–64 and 1995–99

NOTES: Percentages are based on number of Ph.D.s in doctoral field. Subfields of 

physical sciences and subfields of mathematics and computer sciences were not 

broken out from their respective major field. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Temporary resident

Permanent resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

All Ph.D.s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1960–64

1995–99

FIGURE 4-13. U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with bachelor's and doctoral degrees in 

the same major field, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99

NOTES: Percentages are based on number of Ph.D.s in doctoral field. Subfields of 

physical sciences and subfields of mathematics and computer sciences were not 

broken out from their respective major field.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. 

citizen Ph.D.s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1975–79

1995–99

2

 Information on all modes of support can be found in the annual

summary reports of SED survey results (NORC 1998–2002, NAS/NRC 1968–

98).

field of engineering Ph.D.s (91 percent), engineering was

the second largest master’s degree field of Ph.D.s in the

fields of physics and astronomy (6 percent); chemistry

(6 percent); earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences

(6 percent); mathematics (3 percent); and computer sciences (12 percent).

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

The availability of financial support influences students’

decisions about whether to pursue degrees beyond the

baccalaureate. The kind of support available to students

also affects the time it takes to complete additional

degrees. Most doctoral students rely on several kinds of

support for their graduate education. A study of S&E

Ph.D.s who graduated in 1995 found that doctorate

recipients used an average of 2.5 modes of support during graduate school (NSF 2000). More than 40 percent

of these S&E Ph.D.s relied on three or more different

sources of support, whereas 16 percent received support

from only one source. The number of sources and the

kinds of support used by these Ph.D.s varied by field of

doctorate, sex, citizenship status, and race/ethnicity.

Research assistantships, teaching assistantships, and personal resources mixed in a variety of ways to form the

most common combinations of support for S&E Ph.D.s

graduating in 1995.

Source-of-support questions in the SED have been

changed several times, resulting in multiple code

schemes that prevent the use of all source-of-support

data in examining long-term trends. Information about

the primary source of support, however, comes from a

separate item and is coded consistently in the database,

allowing a limited analysis of primary sources over time

(because of survey changes, this analysis must be

restricted to the 1980–81, 1996–97, and 1998–99 Ph.D.

cohorts2

).

The majority of Ph.D.s receive their primary support

from federal agencies, associations, academic institutions, and other organizations through such mechanisms

as research and teaching assistantships, fellowships,

traineeships, internships, and dissertation grants. The

number of students supported by each of these mechanisms has varied over the years, but the cumulative percentage of students supported by all such mechanisms

has remained close to 60 percent among the cohorts
34

Doctorate field Baccalaureate field Percent Baccalaureate field Percent

Science and engineering

Agricultural sciences Agricultural sciences 76.7 Agricultural sciences 62.7

Biological sciences 12.4 Biological sciences 19.0

Education 4.6 Engineering 3.8

Biological sciences Biological sciences 54.6 Biological sciences 68.5

Chemistry 16.7 Chemistry 8.5

Agricultural sciences 11.7 Health sciences 5.8

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 75.7 Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 56.2

Physics and astronomy 5.4 Physics and astronomy 11.4

Engineering 3.7 Biological sciences 8.7

Mathematics and computer sciences Mathematics and computer sciences 71.6 Mathematics and computer sciences 72.9

Engineering 10.4 Engineering 14.0

Physics and astronomy 7.7 Physics and astronomy 3.5

Mathematics Not distinguishable from computer sciences na Mathematics 81.1

Engineering 6.1

Physics and astronomy 3.5

Computer sciences Not distinguishable from mathematics na Computer sciences 45.5

Engineering 23.7

Mathematics 14.5

Physical sciences

Chemistry Chemistry 86.5 Chemistry 83.8

Engineering 4.6 Biological sciences 4.6

Health sciences 2.9 Engineering 4.6

Physics and astronomy Physics and astronomy 76.4 Physics and astronomy 81.6

Engineering 13.0 Engineering 10.6

Mathematics and computer sciences 4.6 Mathematics and computer sciences 3.6

Psychology Psychology 65.8 Psychology 70.0

Humanities 12.7 Humanities 8.5

Social sciences 6.3 Social sciences 5.2

Social sciences Social sciences 57.7 Social sciences 58.8

Humanities 16.6 Humanities 15.8

Professional fields/other 9.2 Professional fields/other 8.1

Engineering Engineering 89.3 Engineering 86.3

Physics and astronomy 3.7 Physics and astronomy 5.5

Chemistry 2.5 Mathematics and computer sciences 2.9

Non-science and engineering

Education Education 44.1 Education 41.1

Humanities 24.6 Humanities 17.4

Social sciences 8.9 Professional fields/other 9.4

Health sciences Health sciences 52.9 Health sciences 54.4

Biological sciences 14.5 Biological sciences 14.9

Chemistry 10.9 Psychology 5.2

Humanities Humanities 84.7 Humanities 80.4

Education 4.5 Social sciences 6.2

Social sciences 4.2 Education 4.3

Professional fields/other Professional fields/other 51.2 Professional fields/other 41.3

Social sciences 15.9 Humanities 15.5

Humanities 14.4 Social sciences 13.8

na = not applicable.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File. 

TABLE 4-1. Top 3 baccalaureate fields associated with major field of doctorate: 1960–64 and 1995–99

NOTE: Percentages are based on number of Ph.D.s in doctoral field. 

Doctorate received 1960–64 Doctorate received 1995–99
35

examined (57 percent in 1980–81, 58 percent in 1996–

97, 61 percent in 1998–99). Another third or more of

doctorate recipients in 1980–81 (38 percent), 1996–97

(36 percent), and 1998–99 (32 percent) relied on personal resources—loans, support from family members,

and their own earnings and savings—as the primary

source of support for their graduate education, but with

variation by field. Personal resources were the principal

mode of support for more about half (53 percent) of

Ph.D.s in non-S&E fields compared with about one-fifth

(20 percent) of those in S&E fields. The remaining percentage of doctorate recipients in each of the cohorts

discussed above relied on other sources of support, such

as state and foreign support (5 percent in 1980–81, 6 percent in 1996–97, 7 percent in 1998–99).

ACTIVITIES IN YEAR BEFORE

RECEIVING DOCTORATE

The activities of doctoral students in the year before

graduation are consistent with the patterns of support

reported for doctoral study, which show heavy reliance

on personal resources and such mechanisms as assistantships and fellowships. Full-time employment in the year

before the doctorate was received declined substantially

after the early 1970s, when 44 percent of Ph.D.s were

employed full time, to 35 percent in 1995–99. Part-time

employment, in contrast, more than doubled between the

1970–74 and 1995–99 periods, from 5 to 12 percent

(table 4-2).

Reliance on assistantships in the year before receiving

the doctorate became more common and reliance on

fellowships less common between the early 1960s and

late 1990s. The shift may reflect the increased proportions of foreign nationals among Ph.D.s. Foreign nationals are not eligible for many of the fellowships available

to U.S. citizens.

INDEBTEDNESS

Information on the debt status of Ph.D.s at graduation

has been collected since the late 1980s. In 1999, for the

first time, about half of graduating Ph.D.s reported having debt stemming from their undergraduate and graduate educations. The proportion of non-S&E Ph.D.s

reporting indebtedness increased from 44 percent in the

late 1980s to 52 percent in 1999. Among S&E Ph.D.s,

the proportion reporting debt fluctuated, but the percentage was about the same (49 percent) in 1999 as it had

been 10 years earlier.

Not only did more Ph.D.s have debt at the close of the

century, they also had larger amounts of debt (table 4-

3). Although there were increases during the 1990s in

the proportion in all debt-level categories above $10,000,

the greatest increase was in the category for debt above

$30,000, which rose from 2 to 12 percent. About onefifth of all Ph.D.s in 1998–99 owed more than $20,000,

whereas about 7 percent owed that amount in 1988–89.

The pattern of rising debt was most notable in nonS&E fields. The percentage of non-S&E Ph.D.s with education-related debt above $20,000 more than quadrupled

between 1988–89 and 1998–99, from about 5 to 22 percent. During the same time interval, the percentage of

S&E Ph.D.s with debt above $20,000 more than doubled,

from 7 to 18 percent.

TIME TO DOCTORATE

Financial support through government programs and academic institutions, reliance on personal resources and

loans, the extent of family responsibilities and dependents, and employment options during graduate study

or between degrees all can influence the time it takes to

attain the doctorate. Some of these factors are matters of

personal choice or necessity. Others are related to characteristics of doctoral programs in specific fields and in

particular institutions or to eligibility requirements for

certain types of financial support funded by the federal

government. Whether or not a master’s degree is required

can also affect the pace of graduate study. In addition,

external events, such as wars, can postpone or interrupt

a person’s education, thereby increasing the time it takes

to earn the doctorate.

(Percent)

Activity 1970–74 1995–99

Assistantship 24.7 29.8

Fellowship 18.6 13.9

Full-time employed 43.9 34.8

College/university teaching 24.3 11.4

College/university non-teaching 4.5 5.8

Elementary/secondary teaching 2.4 2.0

Elementary/secondary non-teaching 2.8 3.0

Industry/business 3.4 6.4

Other/unknown 6.5 6.2

Part-time employed 5.2 12.5

Not employed 5.2 8.5

Other 2.3 0.4

TABLE 4-2. Activities of Ph.D.s in year before receiving doctorate: 

1970–74 and 1995–99 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.
36

FIGURE 4-14. Total time to doctorate, by broad field of study: 1920–99

Median years

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

3

 Before 1969, the calculation of RTD and TTD was based on whole

years; from 1969 on it was based on months and years. The calculation of PTD is based on whole years.

(Percent)

Debt level 1988–89 1998–99 1988–89 1998–99 1988–89 1998–99

No debt 52.9 50.4 51.2 51.6 55.7 48.2

Total with debt 47.1 49.6 48.8 48.4 44.3 51.8

$5,000 or less 16.5 9.8 16.6 10.1 16.3 9.3

$5,001–$10,000 12.5 8.1 13.0 8.2 11.6 8.0

$10,001–$20,000 11.2 11.8 11.6 11.7 10.6 12.0

$20,001–$30,000 4.6 7.5 4.9 6.9 4.0 8.5

$30,001 or more 2.0 12.4 2.3 11.5 1.4 14.0

Debt level unknown 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0

TABLE 4-3. Education-related debt of doctorate recipients: 1988–89 and 1998–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

All fields Science and engineering Non-science and engineering

Over the course of the 20th century, there was a gradual

increase in the time it took students to earn their doctorates. This upward trend is evident in all three ways that

time can be measured from available data: (1) total time

to doctorate (TTD), the total elapsed calendar time

between receipt of the baccalaureate and receipt of the

doctorate, including time not enrolled in school; (2) registered time to doctorate (RTD), the time in attendance

at all colleges and universities between receipt of the

baccalaureate and receipt of the doctorate, including

enrollment not related to the doctoral program; and

(3) postbaccalaureate time to doctorate (PTD), total

elasped calendar years between the first postbaccalaureate attendance at the institution that awarded the doctorate and receipt of the doctorate.3 PTD includes time

spent in a master’s degree program if these studies were

at the same institution that granted the doctorate.

FIELD OF DOCTORATE

Between 1920–24 and 1995–99 the median overall TTD

rose from 7 years to 11 years (figure 4-14). The computation of RTD requires additional data elements collected

only in the Survey of Earned Doctorates, so RTD is available only for the last four decades of the century. Between the periods 1960–64 and 1995–99, the median

overall RTD grew from 5 years to 7 years (figure 4-15).

The fact that TTD rose more sharply than RTD in recent

decades means that Ph.D.s were spending more time out

of school before completing their doctorates. Both TTD

and RTD were substantially shorter for S&E Ph.D.s than

for non-S&E Ph.D.s. The increases for both measures

were greater in non-S&E than in S&E fields.

The third measure, PTD, can be computed only for doctorate recipients who graduated in 1993–99. Although

data from this measure cover just 7 years, it appears that

the time spent in graduate work at the doctorate-granting institution (median PTD of 6 years), is changing little

despite changes in the other measures. Moreover, the

results for 1993–99 show little difference in PTD among

the major fields.

For the 1995–99 cohort, the median PTD was the same

(6 years) for S&E fields and non-S&E fields in the

aggregate (table 4-4). There was some variation by subfield, but only humanities Ph.D.s, at a median of 7 years,

exceeded the overall median PTD.

There was greater variation by field in TTD and RTD.

Historically, chemistry Ph.D.s have had the shortest times

to completion of the doctorate. In 1995–99, their median TTD was 7 years and their median RTD was 6 years.

Master’s degrees were least common among chemistry

Ph.D.s, so their shorter times to completion may be partly

explained by a greater tendency to move directly into a
37

FIGURE 4-15. Registered time to doctorate, by broad field of study: 1960–99

Median years

NOTE: Before 1969 registered time to doctorate (RTD) was based on whole years 

to degree; from 1969 on, RTD was based on years and months to degree.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

All fields

Science and engineering

Non-science and engineering

doctoral program soon after receiving the baccalaureate. In contrast, the field of education typically requires

students to have several years of work experience in

elementary or secondary schools before receiving the

doctorate, with the result that the time between baccalaureate and doctorate is relatively long compared with

other fields. Doctorate recipients in education have taken

the most elapsed time to complete their degrees: a

median TTD of 20 years in 1995–99.

DEMOGRAPHIC GROUPS

Many factors, including domestic and international conditions, influence the time it takes graduate students to

earn the doctorate. Furthermore, fields differ in terms of

the availability of financial support for full-time graduate study, and members of the various demographic

groups tend to favor some fields over others. The interactions of all these elements are ultimately reflected in

measures of the elapsed time it takes to complete the

doctorate.

Generally, time-to-doctorate, as measured by both TTD

and RTD, has been considerably shorter for men than

for women, shorter for temporary residents than for permanent residents and U.S. citizens, and among U.S. citizens, shorter for Asians/Pacific Islanders than for other

racial/ethnic groups.

The gaps between women and men in TTD and RTD

have narrowed over the years (figure 4-16). Men’s TTD

and RTD increased 2 years between the periods 1960–

64 and 1995–99, to 10 years for TTD and to 7 years for

RTD, whereas women’s TTD remained about the same

and their RTD increased from 6 to 8 years. The differences in time-to-doctorate for men and women correspond to the differences in the median times for S&E

and non-S&E fields. Compared with men, women were

more concentrated in non-S&E fields than in S&E fields.

Consequently, women’s time-to-doctorate measures are

more similar than men’s to the pattern for non-S&E fields.

TTD and RTD increased for each citizenship group between 1960–64 and 1995–99, with the increases largest

for permanent residents (figure 4-17). Temporary residents, with their heavy concentration in S&E fields, took

less time in 1995–99 to complete their doctorates than

permanent residents and U.S. citizens did. An analysis

of time-to-degree for various demographic groups, which

incorporated information for students who did not complete degrees, showed that foreign Ph.D. students have

higher completion rates as well as lower average times

to degree completion (Espenshade and Rodriguez 1997).

Reliable race/ethnicity data first became available in 1975.

Since then, among U.S. citizens the median RTD has

increased for every racial/ethnic group, and the median

TTD has increased for every group but Asians/

(Median years)

Field TTD RTD PTD

All fields 10.6 7.3 6.0

Science and engineering 9.0 7.0 6.0

Agricultural sciences 11.1 6.8 5.0

Biological sciences 8.4 6.9 6.0

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 10.8 7.6 6.0

Mathematics and computer sciences 9.0 7.0 6.0

Mathematics 8.3 6.9 5.0

Computer sciences 10.0 7.4 6.0

Physical sciences 7.4 6.4 6.0

Chemistry 7.0 6.0 5.0

Physics and astronomy 7.8 6.9 6.0

Psychology 9.3 7.2 6.0

Social sciences 11.0 8.0 6.0

Engineering 9.0 6.5 5.0

Non-science and engineering 15.1 8.3 6.0

Education 20.0 8.3 6.0

Health sciences 14.2 7.8 6.0

Humanities 11.8 8.6 7.0

Professional fields/other 13.6 7.8 6.0

TABLE 4-4. Total time to doctorate, registered time to doctorate, and time

from first postbaccalaureate attendance at Ph.D.-granting institution to 

doctorate, by major field: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: TTD is total time to doctorate, based on years and months to degree. 

RTD is registered time to doctorate, based on years and months to degree. PTD is

postbaccalaureate time to doctorate, based on whole years from year of graduateschool entry.
38

FIGURE 4-16. Total time to doctorate and registered time to doctorate, by 

sex: 1960–64 and 1995–99

NOTES: Before 1969 registered time to doctorate (RTD) was based on whole years 

to degree; from 1969 on, RTD was based on years and months to degree. TTD is 

total time to doctorate. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Median years

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

1960–64

1995–99

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

All Ph.D.s

Male

Female

FIGURE 4-17. Total time to doctorate and registered time to doctorate, by 

citizenship status: 1960–64 and 1995–99

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

NOTES: Before 1969 registered time to doctorate (RTD) was based on whole years 

to degree; from 1969 on, RTD was based on years and months to degree. TTD is 

total time to doctorate. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Median years

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

U.S. citizen

Permanent resident

Temporary resident

1960–64

1995–99

FIGURE 4-18. U.S. citizens’ total time to doctorate and registered 

time to doctorate, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99

NOTE: RTD is registered time to doctorate; TTD is total time to doctorate. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

RTD

TTD

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Median years

1995–99

1975–79

All U.S. citizens

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Black

Hispanic

White

Pacific Islanders (figure 4-18). Among racial/ethnic

groups in 1995–99, Asians/Pacific Islanders—highly

concentrated in S&E fields—had the shortest median

TTD (9 years) and the shortest median RTD (7 years).

Blacks, with their heavy concentration in the field of

education, had the longest times to degree completion.

REFERENCES

Espenshade, T.J., and G. Rodriguez. 1997. Completing the Ph.D.:

Comparative performances of U.S. and foreign students. University of Texas/Social Science Quarterly 72(2):593–605.

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council (NAS/

NRC). 1968–98. Summary Report 1967...1996: Doctorate

Recipients from United States Universities. Annual series of survey results from the Survey of Earned Doctorates, conducted by
39

NAS–NRC under sponsorship of the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, National Endowment for the

Humanities, U.S. Department of Education, and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, DC.

National Opinion Research Center (NORC). 1998–2002. Doctorate

Recipients from United States Universities: Summary Report

1997...2001. Annual series of survey results from the Survey of

Earned Doctorates, conducted by NORC for the National

Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, National

Endowment for the Humanities, U.S. Department of Education,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, and National Aeronautics and

Space Administration. Chicago.

National Science Foundation (NSF). 2000. Modes of Financial Support in the Graduate Education of Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients. NSF 00-319. Arlington, VA.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (USED/NCES). 2002. Digest of Education Statistics, 2001,

table 182. Washington, DC.
40
41

CHAPTER 5. BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS

U.S. BACCALAUREATE INSTITUTIONS

 • Leading Baccalaureate Institutions. Fifty

institutions, mostly those with large enrollments,

accounted for more than one-third of the baccalaureate degrees earned by individuals who later

earned doctorates. Oberlin College was the only

small, nondoctorate-granting institution ranked in

the top 50 baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s

who graduated between 1920 and 1999.

• Top Institutions of Men and Women. The

lists of top 50 institutions of men and women

who received doctorates between 1920 and 1999

had 34 institutions in common.

• Research-Intensive Universities. Researchintensive institutions were less prominent in

women’s than in men’s undergraduate educations; among racial and ethnic groups, researchintensive universities figured prominently in the

undergraduate educations of Asians/Pacific

Islanders.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen American

Indians/Alaskan Natives. Many of the top

baccalaureate institutions of U.S. American

Indian/Alaskan Native Ph.D.s were in the southwestern, southeastern, and midwestern regions

of the United States.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Asians/Pacific Islanders. Among U.S. Asians/Pacific Islanders who earned doctorates between 1975 and

1999, 62 percent received baccalaureates from

the top 50 institutions for this demographic group.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Blacks. More

than 42 percent of all U.S. blacks who received

doctorates between 1975 and 1999 earned

bachelor’s degrees at historically black colleges and

universities (HBCUs).

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Hispanics.

Forty-three of the top 50 institutions of U.S.

Hispanics who earned doctorates between 1975

and 1999 were in states or territories with large

Hispanic populations—Arizona, California,

Florida, New Mexico, New York, Puerto Rico,

and Texas.

U.S. DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS

• Regions and States. Doctoral education was

transformed during the 20th century from a

regional to a national activity. In the early

1920s, only 26 states awarded doctorates; by

the mid-1960s, institutions in all 50 states, the

District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico awarded

doctorates.

• Year of First Conferred Doctorate. The 50

institutions that were awarding doctorates at the

beginning of the 20th century remained prominent through the end of the century, awarding

40 percent of all doctorates in 1995–99.

• Leading Doctoral Institutions. Ph.D.s were

more highly concentrated in their top doctoral

institutions than in their top baccalaureate institutions. Although 426 institutions awarded doctorates between 1920 and 1999, the top 50

of these awarded more than three-fifths of the

doctorates earned.

Only 15 of the top 50 institutions of Ph.D.s who

graduated in 1995–99 were privately controlled,

compared with 29 in the early 1920s.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen American

Indians/Alaskan Natives. U.S. American Indians/Alaskan Natives received doctorates

from 274 institutions in the 1975–99 period.

Their top 50 institutions were dispersed across

30 states.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Asians/

Pacific Islanders. About 65 percent of U.S.

Asians/Pacific Islanders received doctorates from

this demographic group’s top 50 institutions between 1975 and 1999, and nearly 18 percent received doctorates from the top 5 institutions.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Blacks. Three

of the top 50 doctoral institutions of U.S. blacks

were HBCUs—Howard University, Clark Atlanta

University, and Texas Southern University.

• Top Institutions of U.S. Citizen Hispanics.

Between 1975 and 1999, more than three in five

U.S. Hispanic Ph.D.s earned doctorates at their

top 50 institutions.

Highlights
42

INTRODUCTION

The path to the doctorate begins with undergraduate

institutions. Almost all doctorate recipients earn a

bachelor’s degree before the doctorate. Their baccalaureate institutions range from large doctorate-granting

universities to small liberal arts colleges. By tracing the

flow of students from baccalaureate to doctorate, one

can see both breadth and concentration in U.S. higher

education. Breadth is evident in the wide range of baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s and in the presence of

doctorate-granting institutions in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Concentration is evident in the large proportion of Ph.D.s with baccalaureates and doctorates from a relatively small set of

institutions. The information about student flows documents the expansion of doctoral education to all demographic groups.

This chapter continues the discussion of the path to the

doctorate begun in chapter 4. U.S. institutions where

Ph.D.s received their bachelor’s and doctoral degrees

are examined in the context of doctoral fields and demographic characteristics of Ph.D.s. More than 1,600 U.S.

institutions awarded baccalaureates to the Ph.D.s of the

20th century, and 426 institutions granted their doctorates. The leading colleges and universities, in terms of

the number of Ph.D.s who received baccalaureates or

doctorates from these institutions, are presented within

this chapter and in appendix tables.1

U.S. BACCALAUREATE INSTITUTIONS

About 1.1 million of the 1.35 million individuals who

received doctorates between 1920 and 1999 earned

baccalaureates in the United States.2 More than

1,600 U.S. institutions are represented among the

baccalaureate institutions of these Ph.D.s. The majority

of Ph.D.s who graduated in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s

earned baccalaureates at private colleges and universities, but the share of degrees earned at private institutions generally declined throughout the century

(figure 5-1). Beginning in the 1950s, public institutions

accounted for the majority of bachelor’s degrees awarded

to doctorate recipients.

LEADING BACCALAUREATE INSTITUTIONS

Ph.D.s completed their bachelor’s degrees in a relatively

small number of institutions. Of the more than 1,600 U.S.

institutions that awarded bachelor’s degrees to individuals who earned doctorates between 1920 and 1999, the

top 50 (based on the number of Ph.D.s who received

baccalaureates from these institutions) accounted for

more than 33 percent of these degrees (figure 5-2). Thirtytwo of the top 50 institutions were publicly controlled

and 18 were privately controlled.3

 Oberlin

College was the single small, nondoctorate-granting

institution ranked in the top 50 baccalaureate institutions

of Ph.D.s.

Large institutions have dominated the baccalaureate

institutions of Ph.D.s because of the sheer volume of

their student enrollments and graduates. When, however,

institutional size is controlled for by enrollments or total output of baccalaureates to arrive at a measure of

doctoral productivity, several liberal arts colleges rank

with research-intensive universities (those classified as

Research I and Research II institutions by the Carnegie

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching; see table

5-11) as leading baccalaureate institutions. In terms of

the proportion of its baccalaureate recipients who eventually earn a doctorate, Harvey Mudd College is one of

the most productive small institutions. Harvey Mudd has

an annual enrollment of fewer than 700 students, yet it

awarded baccalaureates to 757 individuals who received

doctorates between 1920 and 1999.

Ph.D.s who graduated in 1920–24 were much more concentrated in their leading baccalaureate institutions than

were Ph.D.s who graduated in 1995–99 (table 5-1,

appendix table B-1). During the eight decades between

1920 and 1999, many universities, particularly in the

public sector, experienced major growth in student

enrollments and degree programs. As a result, some

institutions ranked much higher as baccalaureate institutions among recent Ph.D.s than among all Ph.D.s in

1

 Tables in the text compare the top 5 institutions of Ph.D.s across all

years with the top 5 institutions of Ph.D.s who graduated in 1995–99.

The discussion covers the top 50 institutions; those lists are included

in appendix B for reference. Tables listing all institutions can be found

with the detailed supplemental tables for this report on the NSF website

at http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/.

2

 The discussion in this section is limited to institutions located in the

United States. Foreign nationals who earned baccalaureates at U.S.

institutions are included. All Ph.D.s (foreign citizens and U.S. citizens) who received baccalaureates from foreign institutions are excluded. For the top 26 baccalaureate institutions of foreign citizens,

see table 33 at http://www.norc.uchicago.edu/issues/sed-2003.pdf

(accessed 11 April 2005).

3

 Cornell University is listed in this report as a private school, as it is

by the National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of

Education. The report includes doctorates from both the private and

public sides of Cornell.
43

Year of doctorate

FIGURE 5-1. Baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s, distributed by control of institution: 1920–99

Percent of doctorate recipients

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Public Private

1920–24 1925–29 1930–34 1935–39 1940–44 1945–49 1950–54 1955–59 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

37.1

62.9

41.6

58.4

42.8

57.2

44.3

55.7

45.4

54.6

48.7

51.3

52.6

47.4

51.8

48.2

51.8

48.2

52.1

47.9

54.1

45.9

55.9

44.1

57.9

42.1

59.2

40.8

60.0

40.0

59.0

41.0

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 1,068,144 All U.S. institutions 3,801 All U.S. institutions 140,286

U. California-Berkeley 18,055 U. Chicago* 128 U. California-Berkeley 2,330

U. Illinois 13,704 U. Wisconsin 123 U. Michigan 1,562

U. Michigan 13,440 Cornell U.* 112 Cornell U.* 1,545

U. Wisconsin 12,627 Harvard U.* 107 U. Illinois 1,524

Cornell U.* 11,598 U. Michigan 92 U. Wisconsin 1,390

Harvard U.* 10,772 U. Illinois 91 U. Texas-Austin 1,328

U. California-Los Angeles 10,682 U. California-Berkeley 87 Pennsylvania State U. 1,274

U. Minnesota 10,449 Columbia U.* 77 Harvard U.* 1,209

Massachusetts Institute of Technology* 9,739 Yale U.* 74 U. California-Los Angeles 1,171

Pennsylvania State U. 9,669 Indiana U. 65 U. Minnesota 1,105

Top 5 as percent of total 6.5 Top 5 as percent of total 14.8 Top 5 as percent of total 6.0

Top 10 as percent of total 11.3 Top 10 as percent of total 25.2 Top 10 as percent of total 10.3

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-1. Top 10 baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99

1920–99 1920–24 1995–99

the full period from 1920 to 1999. The University of TexasAustin, for example, placed higher on the list for Ph.D.s

graduating in 1995–99 than on the 1920–99 list, and

Harvard University ranked lower in 1995–99 than in the

full period.

TOP INSTITUTIONS OF S&E AND NON-S&E

PH.D.S

The top 50 baccalaureate institutions of S&E Ph.D.s in

the period 1920 to 1999 accounted for about 39 percent

of bachelor’s degrees awarded to this group (appendix

table B-2). The corresponding percentage for the 1995–

99 Ph.D. cohort was slightly less, at 37 percent.

Non-S&E Ph.D.s were less highly concentrated than

S&E Ph.D.s in their top 50 baccalaureate institutions

(appendix table B-3). Overall about 28 percent of nonS&E Ph.D.s graduating between 1920 and 1999 had

received bachelor’s degrees from those 50 institutions.

Oberlin College was the only small, nondoctorate-granting college to place among the top 50 baccalaureate

institutions of both S&E and non-S&E Ph.D.s. It ranked

32nd among non-S&E Ph.D.s and 44th among S&E

Ph.D.s between 1920 and 1999. Placing lower but in the

top 100 were Wellesley, Barnard, and Wheaton (Illinois)

among non-S&E Ph.D.s, and Swarthmore, Carleton, and

Reed among S&E Ph.D.s.

TOP INSTITUTIONS OF MEN AND WOMEN

Research-intensive institutions figured prominently

among the top 50 baccalaureate institutions of both men
44

* Case Western Reserve U.

* Duke U.

Texas A&M U.-College Station

U. California-Davis

* U. Rochester

Wayne State U.

* Boston U.

U. Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh

U. Massachusetts-Amherst

State U. New York at Buffalo

U. Nebraska-Lincoln

* Brown U.

U. North Carolina-Chapel Hill

U. Kansas-Lawrence

U. Utah

* Oberlin College

U. Iowa

U. Missouri-Columbia

U. Colorado-Boulder

* Northwestern U.

Iowa State U.

U. Maryland-College Park

U. Florida

* Princeton U.

* Brigham Young U.

Indiana U.-Bloomington

* U. Pennsylvania

City U. New York-Brooklyn College

* New York U.

Rutgers State U. New Jersey-New Brunswick

* Yale U.

* Columbia U. City of New York

Purdue U.-West Lafayette

U. Washington-Seattle

* U. Chicago

* Stanford U.

Michigan State U.

U. Texas-Austin

Ohio State U.-Columbus

City U. New York-City College

Pennsylvania State U.-U. Park

* Massachusetts Institute of Technology

U. Minnesota-Twin Cities

U. California-Los Angeles

* Harvard U.

* Cornell U.

U. Wisconsin-Madison

U. Michigan-Ann Arbor

U. Illinois-Urbana-Champaign

U. California-Berkeley

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000

Doctorate recipients

12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000

FIGURE 5-2. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99

* Privately controlled

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.
45

and women who went on for doctorates, but less so for

women. Among Ph.D.s graduating between 1920 and

1999, men’s top 50 baccalaureate institutions accounted

for about 35 percent of their undergraduate degrees, and

women’s top 50 baccalaureate institutions accounted for

32 percent of their undergraduate degrees (appendix

tables B-4, B-5). The top 5 baccalaureate institutions

for male and female Ph.D.s had considerable overlap

(table 5-2).

The top 50 baccalaureate institutions of male Ph.D.s and

of female Ph.D.s between 1920 and 1999 had 34 institutions in common, although they ranked differently on

the two lists. Several of the institutions on the top 50 list

for women but not on the top 50 list for men enrolled

only women during many of the years when future Ph.D.s

were receiving their undergraduate education (Kane,

Anzovin, and Podell 1997:174).4

 The institutions appearing only on the 1920–99 list of men’s top baccalaureate

institutions include some technical institutions and some

schools that changed to coeducational status in the later

decades of the century.

By the end of the 20th century, the lists of the 50 top

baccalaureate institutions for male and for female Ph.D.s

were converging, with 40 institutions appearing on both

lists in 1995–99 (compare appendix tables B-4, B-5).

TOP INSTITUTIONS OF RACIAL AND ETHNIC

GROUPS

The collection of data on race/ethnicity did not begin

until 1975, but data since then have shown that the characteristics of baccalaureate institutions differ among U.S.

citizen racial/ethnic groups (tables 5-3 through 5-7).

TABLE 5-2. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of male and female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 757,823 All U.S. institutions 75,103 All U.S. institutions 310,193 All U.S. institutions 65,106

U. California-Berkeley 13,458 U. California-Berkeley 1,387 U. California-Berkeley 4,593 U. California-Berkeley 940

U. Illinois 10,720 U. Illinois 945 U. Michigan 4,052 U. Michigan 714

Harvard U.* 9,642 Cornell U.* 908 U. California-Los Angeles 3,238 Cornell U.* 636

U. Wisconsin 9,448 U. Michigan 848 U. Wisconsin 3,179 U. California-Los Angeles 591

U. Michigan 9,388 U. Wisconsin 815 Cornell U.* 3,155 U. Texas-Austin 588

Top 5 as percent of total 6.9 Top 5 as percent of total 6.5 Top 5 as percent of total 5.9 Top 5 as percent of total 5.3

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Male Ph.D.s Female Ph.D.s

1920–99 1995–99 1920–99 1995–99

Research-intensive institutions played a less prominent

role in the undergraduate education of blacks, Hispanics,

and American Indians/Alaskan Natives than in the undergraduate education of whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders. Location, on the other hand, seems to have played a

significant role for underrepresented minorities.

American Indians/Alaskan Natives

The baccalaureate institutions of American Indian/

Alaskan Native Ph.D.s reflect the geographic distributions of these populations, especially the American

Indian population, in the United States (appendix table

B-6). Institutions located in the southwestern, southeastern, and midwestern regions of the United States figured prominently among the top 50 baccalaureate institutions of this group. The top 5 institutions awarded

nearly one-tenth of the baccalaureates received by American Indian/Alaskan Native Ph.D.s in both 1975–99 and

1995–99 (table 5-3).

Asians/Pacific Islanders

Large, research-intensive universities ranked high among

the baccalaureate institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander

Ph.D.s. The population centers of Asians/Pacific Islanders are reflected in their top baccalaureate institutions;

15 of the top 50 institutions on the 1975–99 list were in

California, as were 2 of the top 5 institutions (table 5-4,

appendix table B-7). The composition of the leading

baccalaureate institutions of Asians/Pacific Islanders also

reflects the group’s greater concentration in S&E fields,

as shown by the prevalence of technical institutions, such

as Massachusetts Institute of Technology and California

Institute of Technology, among their top institutions.

Small, nondoctorate-granting colleges, such as Pomona

College, San Jose State University, and Wellesley College, were also prominent among the baccalaureate institutions of Asians/Pacific Islanders.

4

 Mount Holyoke College, for example, was the first women’s college in the

United States, opening in 1837 as Mount Holyoke Female Seminary. Mount

Holyoke ranked 26th among the baccalaureate institutions of women who

received doctorates between 1920 and 1999.
46

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 2,635 All U.S. institutions 842

Oklahoma State U. 62 U. Oklahoma 20

U. Oklahoma 58 U. California-Berkeley 18

Northeastern State U. 50 Northeastern State U. 17

U. California-Berkeley 40 Oklahoma State U. 17

U. North Carolina-Pembroke 33 Auburn U. 10

Top 5 as percentage of total 9.2 Top 5 as percentage of total 9.7

NOTE: Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-3. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

1975–99 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 12,475 All U.S. institutions 4,657

U. California-Berkeley 1,126 U. California-Berkeley 448

U. Hawaii-Manoa 611 Massachusetts Institute of Technology* 151

U. California-Los Angeles 524 Harvard U.* 146

Massachusetts Institute of Technology* 387 U. California-Los Angeles 146

Harvard U.* 290 Cornell U.* 111

Top 5 as percent of total 23.6 Top 5 as percent of total 21.5

* Privately controlled.

NOTE: Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-4. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

1975–99 1995–99

Asians/Pacific Islanders were more heavily concentrated

in their leading baccalaureate institutions than whites were

in theirs. For the entire 1975–99 period, the concentration of Asians/Pacific Islanders in their top 50 baccalaureate institutions was 62 percent (double that of whites).

Blacks

Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs),

most of them in southern states, have been among

the leading baccalaureate institutions of black Ph.D.s.

These schools constituted the top 5 baccalaureate institutions of black Ph.D.s in both 1975–99 and 1995–99

(table 5-5). The 105 accredited HBCUs, ranging from

2-year colleges to doctorate-granting universities, were

established during the period of reconstruction following the American Civil War and subsequent periods of

racial segregation through 1963 for the express purpose

of educating blacks (White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities 2002; USED/

NCES 1985, 1996; NSF 1975–2000, 1990).

HBCUs occupied 33 of the top 50 positions on the list of

baccalaureate institutions of U.S. black Ph.D.s who

graduated between 1975 and 1999 (appendix table B-8).

Howard University, an HBCU, occupied the first

position, by a wide margin, for both the periods 1975–

99 and 1995–99. Howard was the first university established for blacks under legal segregation to have undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools (Kane,

Anzovin, and Podell 1997:174). Forty-one percent of

blacks who earned doctorates in the period 1975–99

received their bachelor’s degrees from among the 50 toplisted institutions.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, 25,872 blacks

earned doctorates. More than 42 percent of those who

had a baccalaureate received that degree from an HBCU,

although the percentage of black Ph.D.s whose baccalaureate institution was an HBCU was lower in the late

1990s (31 percent) than it was in the late 1970s (56 percent) (figure 5-3). HBCUs also played a significant role

in the undergraduate education of black foreign nationals who earned bachelor’s degrees in the United States

on their way to the doctorate. About one-fifth (21 percent)

of foreign black Ph.D.s graduating in the last quartercentury earned their baccalaureates at HBCUs.

Although this chapter focuses on the baccalaureate and

doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, the role of HBCUs at the
47

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 25,872 All U.S. institutions 6,631

Howard U. * † 752 Howard U. * † 174

Southern U. † 419 Spelman College * † 100

Hampton U. * † 386 Hampton U. * † 82

Florida A&M U. † 382 Florida A&M U. † 78

Tuskegee U. * † 361 Jackson State U. † 71

Southern U. † 71

Top 5 as percentage of total 8.9 Top 6 as percent of total 8.7

* Privately controlled.

† Historically black college or university.

NOTE: Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-5. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

1975–99 1995–99

master’s degree level is worth noting. For the overall

period from 1975 to 1999, more than 17 percent of black

Ph.D.s with master’s degrees earned those degrees at

HBCUs. A downward trend, however, similar to that noted

for baccalaureate origins is evident: 15 percent of black

Ph.D.s graduating in the 1995–99 period received

master’s degrees from HBCUs compared with 19 percent of Ph.D.s 20 years earlier, in 1975–79 (figure 5-3).

Hispanics

Location has played a major role in the undergraduate

education of Hispanic Ph.D.s. Of the 50 institutions

awarding the largest number of bachelor’s degrees to

Hispanics who earned doctorates between 1975 and

1999, 43 were in states or territories with large Hispanic

populations—Arizona, California, Florida, New Mexico,

FIGURE 5-3. Black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with baccalaureates, master’s 

degrees, or doctorates awarded by an HBCU: 1975–79 and 1995–99

Percent

HBCU = historically black college or university.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

HBCU baccalaureate HBCU master’ s degree HBCU doctorate

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1975–79 1995–99

New York, Puerto Rico, and Texas. These institutions

accounted for more than half (53 percent) of the

bachelor’s degrees awarded to Hispanic Ph.D.s who

graduated in the periods 1975–99 and 1995–99 (appendix table B-9). The top 5 institutions awarded 20 percent

of the baccalaureates received by Hispanic Ph.D.s

(table 5-6).

Whites

Most of the leading baccalaureate institutions of white

Ph.D.s in the 20th century were large, public, researchintensive universities (table 5-7, appendix table B-10).

The top 50 institutions awarded bachelor’s degrees to

almost one-third (31 percent) of all whites who received

doctorates between 1975 and 1999.

U.S. DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS

By a wide majority, most students in the 20th century

decided to pursue the doctorate at an institution other

than their baccalaureate institution. Of the 1,068,144

Ph.D.s who graduated in 1920–99 and who earned

bachelor’s degrees in the United States, only 15 percent

received their doctorate and their baccalaureate from the

same institution. This proportion was even less (12 percent) at the close of the century.

REGIONS AND STATES

In the early 1920s, institutions in only 26 states and the

District of Columbia awarded doctorates, and the institutions were largely concentrated in the northeastern and

midwestern regions of the country (figure 5-4). After

World War II, doctoral education in the South and West

grew substantially, and by the mid-1960s, all 50 states,
48

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 15,574 All U.S. institutions 4,745

U. Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras 1,835 U. Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras 478

U. Puerto Rico-Mayaguez 440 U. Puerto Rico-Mayaguez 182

U. Texas-Austin 333 U. Texas-Austin 115

U. California-Berkeley 289 U. California-Berkeley 110

U. California-Los Angeles 252 U. California-Los Angeles 90

Top 5 as percentage of total 20.2 Top 5 as percentage of total 20.5

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-6. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

1975–99 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 550,345 All U.S. institutions 113,543

U. California-Berkeley 7,373 U. California-Berkeley 1,491

U. Michigan 6,469 U. Illinois 1,314

U. Illinois 6,260 U. Michigan 1,285

U. Wisconsin 5,862 Cornell U.* 1,257

Cornell U.* 5,704 U. Wisconsin 1,210

Top 5 as percent of total 5.8 Top 5 as percent of total 5.8

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-7. Top 5 baccalaureate institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

1975–99 1995–99

Year of doctorate

FIGURE 5-4. Doctorates awarded, by region of doctoral institution: 1920–99

Percent

NOTE: Doctorates were not awarded in Puerto Rico until 1965; in the 1995–99 

cohort, awards in Puerto Rico were 0.2 percent of total doctorates awarded.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico had at least

one institution that granted doctorates (figure 5-5).

A comparison of the leading doctorate-producing states

in 1920–24 and 1995–99 reveals both stability and

change. New York and Illinois stayed in the select group

of leading states over time, yet the share of doctorates

awarded in the top 5 states declined considerably

(table 5-8, appendix table B-11). In 1995–99 California

ranked first in production of both S&E and non-S&E

doctorates (appendix table B-12).

YEAR OF FIRST CONFERRED DOCTORATE

The first institutions to confer doctorates have remained

prominent in terms of the number of doctorates they

awarded in subsequent time periods. The year in which

an institution conferred its first doctorate provides one

measure of the dynamics of the doctoral enterprise.

Yale University conferred the first three U.S. doctorates

in 1861. From that beginning, the number of doctoral

institutions grew to 50 during the first two decades of

the 20th century (figure 5-6). A total of 426 institutions

awarded doctorates between 1861 and 1999. Over the

years, a few of these institutions closed, and some merged

with other institutions or discontinued their doctoral programs. A few institutions with small doctoral programs

did not confer doctorates every year. In the period 1995–

99, 401 institutions awarded doctorates; 392 institutions

awarded doctorates in 1999. The greatest 5-year period

of growth was from 1970 to 1974, when 62 institutions

granted doctorates for the first time.
49

Percent of all doctorates

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

FIGURE 5-5. Doctorates awarded, by location of doctoral institution: 1920–99

NOTES: States that were tied are listed alphabetically. Doctorates awarded in 

Alaska = <0.1% (369 doctorates).

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Alaska

Puerto Rico

Vermont

South Dakota

Nevada

Maine

Wyoming

North Dakota

New Hampshire

Montana

Idaho

West Virginia

Hawaii

Delaware

Arkansas

New Mexico

South Carolina

Rhode Island

Kentucky

Nebraska

Mississippi

Alabama

Utah

Louisiana

Oklahoma

Kansas

Oregon

Arizona

Tennessee

Washington

Virginia

Georgia

District of Columbia

Missouri

Connecticut

Colorado

Minnesota

New Jersey

Maryland

Iowa

North Carolina

Wisconsin

Florida

Indiana

Ohio

Michigan

Texas

Pennsylvania

Massachusetts

Illinois

California

New York

FIGURE 5-6. Institutions that ever awarded a doctorate, by period of first 

doctoral award: pre-1920 and 5-year periods from 1920 to 1999

Period of first award

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1995–99

1990–94

1985–89

1980–84

1975–79

1970–74

1965–69

1960–64

1955–59

1950–54

1945–49

1940–44

1935–39

1930–34

1925–29

1920–24

Pre-1920

Number of institutions

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Because it usually takes many years before new

doctoral institutions award a large number of doctorates,

the institutions with older, established doctoral programs

remained prominent, and newer institutions only gradually increased their share of doctorates. Thus, even as

new institutions joined the doctoral pool, the 50 institutions that granted doctorates before 1920 continued to

award the majority of doctorates up to the final quartercentury. Their share of doctorates slowly diminished over

the course of the century but was still about 40 percent

in 1995–99 (figure 5-7). In contrast, the 119 institutions

that awarded their first doctorates during the last quarter-century accounted for about 5 percent of all doctorates in 1995–99.

INSTITUTIONAL CONTROL

The first institutions of higher education in Colonial

America were privately controlled. Following independence from England, the states began to establish state
50

TABLE 5-8. Top 5 state producers of Ph.D.s, by percentage of all Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99

State Percent State Percent State Percent 

Top 5 states 40.0 Top 5 states 61.9 Top 5 states 37.3

New York 11.2 New York 20.9 California 11.5

California 11.1 Illinois 16.1 New York 8.8

Illinois 6.4 Massachusetts 11.7 Texas 6.4

Massachusetts 6.0 Maryland 6.7 Illinois 5.4

Pennsylvania 5.3 Wisconsin 6.5 Pennsylvania a 5.2

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

1920–99 1920–24 1995–99

a

1995–99 percentage for Massachusetts also rounds to 5.2%, but exact figure is 5.159% of all Ph.D.s, compared with Pennsylvania’s 

5.243%. 

1920–24 1925–29 1930–34 1935–39 1940–44 1945–49 1950–54 1955–59 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

FIGURE 5-7. Doctorates awarded by institutions that began granting doctorates before 1920: 1920–99

Percent

Year of doctorate

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

universities, which became the first public institutions of

higher education in the United States.

The First and Second Morrill Acts gave a strong impetus

to the expansion of public colleges in the 19th century.

The First Morrill Act of 1862 led to the establishment of

what became known as land-grant universities

(NASULGC 1999). The Second Morrill Act of 1890

expanded the 1862 system of land-grant universities to

include black colleges in 17 southern and border states

(USDA 2003). After World War II there was further rapid

growth of public higher education, particularly at the

doctoral level.

The majority of doctoral institutions in the first half of

the century were privately controlled; in the last half of

the century, public institutions were in the majority and

by the 1990s represented 54 percent of all doctorategranting institutions. There was a corresponding shift in

the share of doctorates awarded by public and private

institutions, and this shift occurred in both S&E and nonS&E fields (figures 5-8, 5-9). Among the top 50 institutions of Ph.D.s graduating in 1995–99, 15 were privately

controlled, compared with 29 in the early 1920s (appendix table B-13). With the growth in public institutions

and their share of degrees at all levels, increasing percentages of Ph.D.s earned both their baccalaureate and

their doctorate at public institutions (figure 5-10).

The percentage of doctoral degrees awarded by public

institutions was similar among men, women, U.S.

citizens, and foreign nationals (table 5-9). Among U.S.
51

Year of doctorate

FIGURE 5-8. Doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, distributed by control of institution: 1920–99

Percent of doctorates awarded

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Public Private

1920–24 1925–29 1930–34 1935–39 1940–44 1945–49 1950–54 1955–59 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

30.3

69.7

35.8

64.2

39.5

60.5

42.2

57.8

44.7

55.3

43.8

56.2

50.1

49.9

53.7

46.3

56.7

43.3

61.2

38.8

65.3

34.7

65.8

34.2

65.9

34.1

66.5

33.5

67.6

32.4

68.2

31.8

FIGURE 5-9. Control of doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by broad field of 

doctorate: 1920–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Science and engineering, 

public institution

Science and 

engineering, private 

Non-science and institution

engineering,

public institution

Non-science and 

engineering, private institution

1935–

39

1945–

49

1955–

59

1965–

69

1975–

79

1985–

89

1995–

99

1920–

24

FIGURE 5-10. Control of baccalaureate and doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 

1920–24 and 1995–99

NOTE: Percentages are based on number of doctorate holders with U.S. 

baccalaureates.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Doctorate private,

bachelor's public

Doctorate and

bachelor's private

Doctorate public,

bachelor's private

Doctorate and

bachelor's public

Percent

1920–24

1995–99

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

(Percent)

Demographic characteristic Public Private Public Private

All Ph.D.s 30.3 69.7 68.2 31.8

Male 31.5 68.5 68.9 31.1

Female 24.0 76.0 67.2 32.8

U.S. citizen 31.5 68.5 68.1 31.9

Non-U.S. citizen 23.2 76.8 70.0 30.0

1920–24

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-9. Share of doctorates awarded by public and private 

institutions, by sex and citizenship status of recipient: 1920–24 and 

1995–99 

1995–99

citizens, the small increase in the percentage of Ph.D.s

graduating from public institutions from the late 1970s

to the late 1990s can be attributed solely to white Ph.D.s

(table 5-10). For each of the U.S. minority groups, there

was a small increase in the percentage of Ph.D.s earning

doctorates at private institutions.

CARNEGIE CLASSIFICATIONS

Institutions that award doctorates have been described

in terms of their programs, purposes, and research

activity. The 1994 version of the widely used system
52

(Percent)

Race/ethnicity Public Private Public Private

All U.S. citizens 66.4 33.6 68.1 31.9

American Indian/Alaskan

 Native 76.6 23.4 76.2 23.8

Asian/Pacific Islander 62.7 37.3 60.3 39.7

Black 65.4 34.6 64.2 35.8

Hispanic 67.0 33.0 66.5 33.5

White 67.1 32.9 69.1 30.9

1975–79 1995–99

TABLE 5-10. Share of doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens by public and 

private institutions, by race/ethnicity of recipient: 1975–79 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Research Universities I (89)

Research Universities II (38)

Doctoral Universities I (50)

Doctoral Universities II (58)

NOTE: Number of institutions is in parentheses.

SOURCE: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994.

TABLE 5-11. Carnegie classifications of academic institutions

Like Research Universities I, but receive $15.5–$40 million in federal research 

support annually 

Award 20 or more doctoral degrees annually in at least one discipline or 10 or 

more doctoral degrees in three disciplines

Offer a full range of baccalaureate programs, are committed to graduate 

education through the doctorate, and award 40 or more doctoral degrees 

annually in at least five academic disciplines

Offer full range of baccalaureate programs, are committed to graduate education 

through the doctorate, award 50 or more doctoral degrees, and receive $40 

million or more in federal research support annually

FIGURE 5-11. Doctorates awarded, by Carnegie classification of 

institution: 1990 and 1999

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Other

Doctoral II

Doctoral I

Research II

Research I

Percent

1990

1999

established by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching was used in this report to classify institutions of Ph.D.s who graduated in 1990–99 (table 5-

11). Thus, the data reflect the classification of institutions

in 1994.

Most Ph.D.s in the 20th century earned their doctorates

at Research I and Research II institutions. There was a

slight shift from Research I and II institutions to Doctoral

II and other institutions during the 1990s (figure 5-11).

S&E Ph.D.s (72 percent) were more likely than non-S&E

Ph.D.s (61 percent) to receive their degrees from Research I institutions (table 5-12).

Because of men’s greater concentration in S&E fields, it

is not surprising that men (71 percent) were more likely

than women (64 percent) to earn doctorates at Research

I institutions in the 1990s (figure 5-12). Research I

institutions were also prominent in the education of foreign students, awarding doctorates to nearly three-fourths

of non-U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s, compared with two-thirds of

U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s. Of the U.S. racial/ethnic groups,

Asians/Pacific Islanders were the most likely to hold

doctorates from Research I institutions (76 percent), and

blacks (56 percent) and American Indians/Alaskan

Natives (54 percent) were the least likely (figure 5-13).

LEADING DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS

Although 426 institutions awarded doctorates in the 20th

century, Ph.D.s were highly concentrated in a relatively

small number of institutions. The top 50 doctoral institutions, based on the number of degrees conferred, accounted for about three-fifths of all doctorates awarded

between 1920 and 1999 (figure 5-14). Differential growth

in doctoral programs during this 80-year span caused

shifts in the institutions constituting the top 10 doctoral

institutions and significantly lessened the concentration

of awards in a few institutions (table 5-13).

TOP INSTITUTIONS OF S&E AND NON-S&E

PH.D.S

During the 20th century more institutions awarded

doctorates in non-S&E fields (402, or 94 percent of

doctorate-granting institutions) than in S&E fields (372,

or 87 percent of doctorate-granting institutions). Furthermore, the leading institutions, based on number of

doctorates awarded, were different for S&E and non-
53

FIGURE 5-12. Carnegie classifications of Ph.D.s’ doctoral institutions, 

by sex and citizenship status of Ph.D.: 1990–99 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Non-U.S.

citizen

U.S.

citizen

Female

Male

All Ph.D.s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

Research I

Research II

Doctoral I

Doctoral II

Other

TABLE 5-12. Carnegie classifications of doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by major field of doctorate: 1990–99

Field Research I Research II Doctoral I Doctoral II Other

All fields 68.3 11.5 10.6 4.4 5.3

Science and engineering 72.1 11.2 7.5 4.3 4.9

Agricultural sciences 78.5 16.6 0.2 3.7 1.1

Biological sciences 73.2 9.1 3.7 3.7 10.3

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 73.2 13.4 4.9 6.0 2.6

Mathematics and computer sciences 74.8 11.6 8.0 4.9 0.7

Physical sciences 76.3 11.6 6.2 4.8 1.1

Psychology 47.0 12.9 19.5 5.7 14.8

Social sciences 77.4 10.7 8.2 2.5 1.2

Engineering 77.8 10.7 5.5 4.5 1.5

Non-science and engineering 61.4 12.0 16.0 4.5 6.1

 Education 49.7 14.5 23.2 7.4 5.3

 Health sciences 73.7 7.4 7.0 3.1 8.9

 Humanities 75.7 9.0 9.6 1.7 4.1

 Professional fields/other 61.2 13.0 12.9 2.3 10.7

(Percent of Ph.D.s)

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

FIGURE 5-13. Carnegie classifications of U.S. citizen Ph.D.s’ doctoral 

institutions, by race/ethnicity of Ph.D.: 1990–99 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

 Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

Percent

Research I

Research II

Doctoral I

Doctoral II

Other
54

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 40,000

FIGURE 5-14. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s, by number of doctorates awarded: 1920–99

Temple U.

* Vanderbilt U.

* Nova Southeastern U.

U. Nebraska-Lincoln

U. California-Davis

U. Virginia-Charlottesville

U. Kansas-Lawrence

State U. New York at Buffalo

U. Arizona

U. Georgia

U. Massachusetts-Amherst

U. Missouri-Columbia

Florida State U.

* Boston U.

U. Colorado-Boulder

* Teachers College-Columbia U.

* Princeton U.

* Johns Hopkins U.

Texas A&M U.-College Station

Iowa State U.

Rutgers State U. New Jersey-New Brunswick

U. Florida

U. North Carolina-Chapel Hill

* Northwestern U.

U. Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh

U. Maryland-College Park

U. Iowa

U. Washington-Seattle

* U. Southern California

* U. Pennsylvania

* Yale U.

Pennsylvania State U.-U. Park

Indiana U.-Bloomington

Purdue U.-West Lafayette

Michigan State U.

* Massachusetts Institute of Technology

* U. Chicago

U. California-Los Angeles

U. Texas-Austin

* New York U.

* Cornell U.

* Stanford U.

U. Minnesota-Twin Cities

* Columbia U. City of New York

Ohio State U.-Columbus

* Harvard U.

U. Michigan-Ann Arbor

U. Illinois-Urbana-Champaign

U. Wisconsin-Madison

U. California-Berkeley

Doctorates awarded

* Privately controlled

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.
55

Doctoral institution Ph.D.s Doctoral institution Ph.D.s Doctoral institution Ph.D.s

All institutions 1,354,873 All institutions 4,199 All institutions 210,535

U. California-Berkeley 34,018 U. Chicago* 473 U. Texas-Austin 3,842

U. Wisconsin 33,834 Columbia U.-City NY* 450 U. California-Berkeley 3,819

U. Illinois 30,881 Harvard U.* 371 U. Wisconsin 3,740

U. Michigan 28,662 Johns Hopkins U.* 280 U. Illinois 3,543

Harvard U.* 28,117 U. Wisconsin 272 U. Minnesota 3,495

Ohio State U. 26,962 Cornell U.* 258 U. Michigan 3,381

Columbia U.-City NY* 25,715 Yale U.* 228 Ohio State U. 3,317

U. Minnesota 24,988 U. California-Berkeley 184 U. California-Los Angeles 3,083

Stanford U.* 22,461 U. Illinois 176 Stanford U.* 2,885

Cornell U.* 22,377 U. Pennsylvania* 124 Pennsylvania State U. 2,830

Top 5 as percent of total 11.5 Top 5 as percent of total 44.0 Top 5 as percent of total 8.8

Top 10 as percent of total 20.5 Top 10 as percent of total 67.1 Top 10 as percent of total 16.1

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 5-13. Top 10 doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99

1920–99 1920–24 1995–99

S&E Ph.D.s (table 5-14, appendix tables B-14, B-15).

There was no overlap in the top 5 institutions of S&E

and of non-S&E Ph.D.s in the overall period from 1920

to 1999.

Although the number of S&E doctorates awarded by the

top 5 institutions for S&E Ph.D.s in 1920–99 was much

larger than the number of non-S&E doctorates awarded

by the top 5 institutions for non-S&E Ph.D.s, the cumulative shares of doctorates for these institutions were similar. The top 5 institutions on the S&E list conferred 13 percent of all S&E doctorates in 1920–99, a figure only

slightly higher than the 11 percent of non-S&E doctorates awarded by the top 5 institutions on the non-S&E

list. When these lists are extended to the top 50 institutions for each field, the difference between the shares is

miniscule. The percentage of S&E doctorates granted

by the top 50 institutions for S&E Ph.D.s was about the

same as that granted by the top 50 institutions for nonS&E Ph.D.s (63 percent).

DOCTORAL INSTITUTIONS OF MEN AND WOMEN

Opportunities for graduate education, particularly for

women, expanded substantially during the 20th century. Most doctoral institutions have from their beginnings awarded degrees to men. For example, in 1920–

24, 97 percent of the 60 doctorate institutions awarded

doctorates to men, whereas 70 percent awarded doctorates to women. With the large increase over the

TABLE 5-14. Top 5 doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s in order of doctorates awarded, by broad field: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Field and doctoral institution Doctorates Field and doctoral institution Doctorates

Science and engineering Science and engineering

All institutions 835,221 All institutions 134,271

U. California-Berkeley 25,167 U. California-Berkeley 2,785

U. Wisconsin 22,682 U. Wisconsin 2,617

U. Illinois 21,705 U. Illinois 2,540

Massachusetts Institute of Technology* 18,669 Massachusetts Institute of Technology* 2,380

U. Michigan 18,183 U. Michigan 2,320

Top 5 as percent of total 12.7 Top 5 as percent of total 9.4

Non-science and engineering Non-science and engineering

All institutions 519,652 All institutions 76,264

Harvard U. * 12,807 Nova Southeastern U. * 1,977

New York U. * 12,071 U. Texas-Austin 1,556

Indiana U. 11,546 U. Minnesota 1,331

Columbia U.-City of NY * 11,376 Ohio State U. 1,264

Teachers College-Columbia * 11,279 Harvard U. * 1,216

Top 5 as percent of total 11.4 Top 5 as percent of total 9.6

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

1920–99 1995–99
56

FIGURE 5-15. Doctorates awarded to black U.S. citizens by HBCUs: 

1975–99

HBCU = historically black college or university.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Hampton U.

U. MarylandEastern Shore

Southern U. A&M 

College-Baton Rouge

North Carolina

A&T State U.

Alabama A&M U.

Florida A&M U.

Grambling State U.

Tennessee State U.

Morgan State U.

Jackson State U.

Meharry

Medical College

South Carolina

State U.

Texas Southern U.

Clark Atlanta U.

Howard U.

Number of doctorates

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

decades in the number of doctorate-granting institutions

and the removal of many barriers to the entry of women

into doctoral programs, nearly all institutions were awarding doctorates to women by the end of the century. In

1995–99, 394 (about 98 percent) of the 401 doctorategranting institutions of that period awarded doctorates to

women, and all of them awarded doctorates to men.

Women were somewhat less concentrated in their top

institutions than men were in theirs (appendix tables B16, B-17).

TOP INSTITUTIONS OF RACIAL AND ETHNICAL

GROUPS

During the last quarter-century, nearly all doctoral institutions awarded doctorates to whites; three-fourths

granted doctorates to Asians/Pacific Islanders, blacks,

and Hispanics; and more than half granted doctorates to

American Indians/Alaskan Natives.

American Indians/Alaskan Natives

Persons who identified themselves as American Indian/

Alaskan Native earned 2,722 doctorates from 274 institutions during the period 1975–99 (appendix table B18). Consequently, for the entire period, the number of

doctorates per top 50 institution for American Indians/

Alaskan Natives was small, ranging from a high of 93 to

a low of 16. Moreover, although many of the top institutions were located in American Indian population centers, they were spread across 30 states—11 in the Midwest, 9 in the South, 7 in the West, and 3 in the Northeast.

Asians/Pacific Islanders

Asians/Pacific Islanders were markedly more concentrated than other minority groups and whites in their

respective top doctoral institutions (appendix table B19). Almost two-thirds (65 percent) of Asians/Pacific Islanders who earned doctorates between 1975 and 1999

received their degrees from their top 50 institutions. The

top 5 doctoral institutions of Asians/Pacific Islanders

accounted for nearly one-fifth (just under 18 percent) of

all doctorates awarded to the group in 1975–99.

Blacks

The top 50 institutions of blacks conferred 61 percent of

their doctorates from 1975 to 1999 (appendix table B20). Three of the top 50 institutions were HBCUs. In the

periods 1975–99 and 1995–99, blacks’ concentration in

their top 50 institutions was greater than that for whites,

about the same as that for American Indians/Alaskan

Natives, and less than that for Asians/Pacific Islanders

and Hispanics.

Over the years, HBCUs increased their role in the

doctoral education of black Ph.D.s. The only doctorategranting HBCUs in 1975 were Howard University and

Clark Atlanta University. By the end of the century an

additional 13 HBCUs were awarding doctorates (figure

5-15). In 1995–99, 9 percent (631) of all black Ph.D.s

earned their doctorates at HBCUs, more than three times

the percentage (3 percent) and more than four times the

number (147) in 1975–79.

Although HBCUs primarily serve the black U.S. citizen

population, the focus is shifting (table 5-15). In 1975–

79, black foreign citizens constituted the second largest

group to receive doctorates from HBCUs (24 percent),

following black U.S. citizens (56 percent). There was
57

(Percent)

Citizenship status and race/ethnicity 1975–79 1995–99

U.S. citizen 64.6 80.7

American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.0 0.6

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.5 1.1

Black 56.3 59.8

Hispanic 0.0 1.5

White 6.5 17.8

Non-U.S. citizen 35.4 19.3

American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.0 0.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 7.3 5.2

Black 23.8 12.5

Hispanic 1.1 0.3

White 3.4 1.2

TABLE 5-15. Ph.D.s with doctorates from historically black colleges and

universities, by citizenship status and race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 

1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

greater diversity in the citizenship status and race/

ethnicity of HBCU graduates at the end of the century.

By 1995–99, black U.S. citizens earned 60 percent, and

black foreign citizens 12 percent, of the doctorates earned

at HBCUs. White U.S. citizens were the second largest

group in 1995–99, receiving about one-sixth (18 percent)

of all HBCU doctorates.

Hispanics

After Asians/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics were the most

highly concentrated group with respect to their top

50 institutions. More than three of every five Hispanic

Ph.D.s received doctorates from the top 50 institutions

on their list, both in the overall 1975–99 period and in

the 1995–99 period (appendix table B-21).

Many of the institutions that awarded the largest numbers of doctorates to Hispanics were in places that have

large Hispanic populations—Arizona, California,

Florida, New Mexico, New York, Puerto Rico, and Texas.

Whites

More than half (54 percent) of all whites who received

doctorates between 1975 and 1999 graduated from the

top 50 institutions on their list, and 9 percent graduated

from the top 5 institutions (appendix table B-22).

REFERENCES

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 1994. A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Princeton, NJ.

Kane, J.N., S. Anzovin, and J. Podell. 1997. Famous First Facts: A

Record of First Happenings, Discoveries, and Inventions in

American History. 5th ed. New York: H.W. Wilson Company.

National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges

(NASULGC). 1999. The land-grant tradition. http://www.

nasulgc.org/publications/Land_Grant/Land_Grant_Main.htm.

Accessed April 2005.

National Science Foundation (NSF). 1975–2000. Women, Minorities,

and Persons With Disabilities in Science and Engineering:

1973...2000. Biennial series. Arlington, VA.

National Science Foundation (NSF). 1990. Selected Data on Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Academic Year 1988.

Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2003. 1890 land grant

universities. http://www.reeusda.gov/1890. Accessed March

2003.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics (USED/NCES). 1985. The traditionally black institutions of higher education, 1860 to 1982. Washington, DC.

http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=84308.

Accessed April 2005.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (USED/NCES). 1996. Historically Black Colleges and

Universities, 1976–1994. Washington, DC.

White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. 2002. http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edliteindex.html. Accessed April 2005.
58
59

• Postgraduation Status. The percentage of new

Ph.D.s with definite plans (commitments) following graduation declined from about 77 percent in

1970–74 to 68 percent in 1995–99.

• Location of Postgraduation Commitments.

Historically, about 9 in 10 Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans have remained in the United

States, a stay rate that has changed little over the

years. Differences in stay rates among major fields

of study reflect the constituent proportion of foreign nationals, particularly temporary residents, in

major fields.

• Postgraduation Study Commitments in the

United States. The percentage of Ph.D.s with definite plans to remain in the United States to pursue

further study nearly doubled between the early 1970s

and the late 1990s, reaching about 27 percent in the

latter period.

The percentage of Ph.D.s with study commitments

who planned to be in academic settings dropped from

about 82 percent in the early 1970s to less than 78

percent by 1995–96.

• Postgraduation Employment Commitments in

the United States. In 1995–99 about 70 percent

of new Ph.D.s reported having a postgraduate commitment to employment in the United States, a proportion down from 85 percent in 1970–74.

Employment Sectors. Academic job commitments

among new Ph.D.s declined from about 67 percent

in the early 1970s to about 50 percent by the end of

that decade, a mark that remained steady for the

remainder of the century.

The percentage of Ph.D.s going into industry more

than doubled, from 12 percent in the early 1970s to

27 percent in the late 1990s.

Primary Work Activities. Only 38 percent of Ph.D.s

in 1995–99, compared with 57 percent in 1970–74,

expected to spend most of their time teaching. Nearly

31 percent of Ph.D.s in the late 1990s planned to be

engaged mostly in R&D, up from 23 percent in the

early 1970s.

Interstate Migration. Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation commitments increasingly stayed in the

same state as their doctoral institution, 47 percent in

1995–99, up from 37 percent in 1970–74.

CHAPTER 6. AFTER THE DOCTORATE

Highlights

INTRODUCTION

At graduation, Ph.D.s are on the threshold of a new

phase in their careers. Some continue their studies as

postdoctoral fellows or research associates. Others enter employment in academe, industry, government, or other

sector or continue in or return to jobs they held before

graduation. Some foreign nationals stay in the United

States, whereas others return to their native country or

have other destinations abroad. All of these plans and

intentions vary greatly in their degree of certainty, ranging from signed contracts to pending negotiations.

Since the late 1960s the SED has requested data on

Ph.D.s’ plans for the period immediately following graduation. This information reveals how many new Ph.D.s

have firm commitments for jobs or postdoctoral study

appointments. From those who plan to work, information

is requested about the employment sector—academe,

industry, nonprofit, government, or other. Information is

also requested about how these Ph.D.s plan to spend

most of their time on the job—in research and development, teaching, administration, or professional services.

Ph.D.s who are pursuing further study are asked about

their major source of financial support (e.g., government,

university), their financial support mechanism (e.g.,

postdoctoral fellowship or research associateship), and

their study setting (e.g., university, government, or industrial laboratory). From information about new Ph.D.s’

reported destinations after receipt of the doctorate, it is

possible also to examine their migration patterns.

This chapter examines reports from Ph.D.s who had definite plans for work or study at the time they completed
60

the SED, usually during the final weeks of their doctoral

education. The percentages of foreign citizens from the

five world regions (Africa, Americas, Asia, Australasia/

Pacific, Europe) and various countries who planned to

stay in the United States after earning the doctorate (stay

rate) are also examined. Concentrating on Ph.D.s with

definite plans allows more reliable comparisons across

time. Ph.D.s who had signed a contract or otherwise made

a firm commitment for work or study by the time they

completed the survey were considered to have definite

plans at the time of graduation. Those negotiating with

one or more organizations and those still seeking a position with no specific prospects at the time they completed the survey were considered not to have definite

plans. The terms “definite plans” and “commitments”

are used interchangeably in this chapter. The data on

postgraduation plans are presented for 5-year periods

from 1970 to 1999.

Past trends may not necessarily be good predictors of

the future. The first years of the 21st century differ in

many ways from the 1990s, for example, in terms of U.S.

and global economic conditions. Of potentially great importance is the influence that the war on terrorism may

have on doctoral education in the United States in the

years to come and on career options for Ph.D.s both here

and abroad.

POSTGRADUATION STATUS

During the last three decades of the 20th century, there

was a gradual decline in the proportion of new Ph.D.s

with definite plans at graduation (figure 6-1). About

three-fourths (77 percent) of all new Ph.D.s in 1970–74

reported commitments. By 1995–99, that proportion had

dropped to about two-thirds (68 percent).

Overall, the level of postgraduation commitments was

about the same for S&E and non-S&E Ph.D.s—76 percent in 1970–74 and 68 percent in 1995–99 (figure 6-2).

Major fields of study with the highest commitment levels in 1995–99 were education (74 percent), professional

and other fields (74 percent), biological sciences (73 percent), health sciences (71 percent), and physical sciences

(70 percent). Humanities Ph.D.s were the least likely to

have definite plans at graduation in 1995–99 (58 percent),

followed by agricultural sciences Ph.D.s (62 percent).

The gap between men and women in terms of definite postgraduation plans closed between 1970–74 and

1995–99. The percentage of men who had definite postgraduation plans declined 10 percentage points in that

period, whereas the percentage of women with definite

plans remained virtually unchanged. By century’s end,

about 68 percent of each group had definite plans at graduation (table 6-1).

The decline among men accounted for the overall change

in postgraduation commitments between 1970–74 and

1995–99, a trend influenced by the large number of

foreign nationals receiving doctorates in the 1980s and

1990s. About four in five non-U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s were

men, and foreign nationals are less likely than U.S. citizens to have definite plans at graduation, contributing to

the decrease in postgraduate commitments among men

overall. About 63 percent of temporary residents and

59 percent of permanent residents who received doctorates in 1995–99 reported commitments for work or study

after graduation, compared with 71 percent of U.S.

citizens.

Year of doctorate

FIGURE 6-1. Postgraduation plans of Ph.D.s: 1970–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Definite plans

No definite plans

(Percent)

Demographic characteristic 1970–74 1995–99

All Ph.D.s 76.5 68.1

Male 78.3 68.4

Female 67.4 67.5

U.S. citizen 78.2 70.6

Permanent resident 61.2 59.3

Temporary resident 70.7 63.3

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 6-1. Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans, by sex and 

citizenship status: 1970–74 and 1995–99
61

FIGURE 6-2. Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation plans, by major field of 

doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological

sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1995–99

1970–74

FIGURE 6-3. U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with definite 

postgraduation plans, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. citizens and

permanent residents

1975–79

1995–99

1

 Data on race/ethnicity are available for the period 1975–99.

Because permanent residents are likely to become longterm members of the U.S. labor force, they are grouped

with U.S. citizens in the racial/ethnic analyses presented

in this chapter. Most analyses of race/ethnicity in the

earlier chapters focused only on U.S. citizens.1

 Within

the combined group of U.S. citizens and permanent residents, every racial/ethnic group experienced decreases

in postgraduation commitments during the last quarter

century (figure 6-3). White Ph.D.s had the highest level

of commitments (more than 70 percent in both 1975–79

and 1995–99), followed by Hispanics, American Indians/Alaskan Natives, blacks, and Asians/Pacific Islanders. The last group was the only one in which less than

two-thirds of Ph.D.s reported commitments—a reflection of the large concentration of permanent residents

(the citizenship group with the lowest commitment rates)

among Asians/Pacific Islanders.

LOCATION OF POSTGRADUATION

COMMITMENTS

About 90 percent of Ph.D.s with definite postgraduation

plans indicated they would remain in the United States

after graduation, a stay rate that has changed little over

the years (figure 6-4). What has changed is the distribution of postgraduation plans between work and study.

Increasingly, new Ph.D.s plan to continue their studies

with postdoctoral appointments. In 1970–74, 77 percent

of all Ph.D.s with commitments intended to stay in the

United States for a job, compared with about 14 percent

who planned to pursue further study in U.S. institutions;

the remainder had commitments abroad. By 1995–99 the

percentage of Ph.D.s with study commitments in the

United States had nearly doubled, to about 27 percent,

whereas the percentage with job commitments had

decreased to about 63 percent.
62

The stay rates by field show relatively little variation over

the years. The rate for social sciences Ph.D.s declined

about 6 percentage points between 1970–74 and 1995–

99, the largest decrease of any field (figure 6-5). The

largest increase, nearly 3 percentage points, was among

biological sciences Ph.D.s.

The differences among fields reflect the varying concentrations of U.S. and non-U.S. citizens. Citizenship

status is the primary factor related to whether a doctorate recipient remains in the United States after graduation. From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, nearly all

U.S. citizens had definite plans to stay in this country, as

did about 90 percent of permanent residents who had

commitments at graduation (figure 6-6). Most had plans

for work rather than for further study.

The stay rate of temporary resident Ph.D.s is lower

but has increased during the last 30 years of the century, from less than one-third in 1970–74 to nearly twothirds in 1995–99. During this time, the number of temporary resident Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in

the United States after graduation increased nearly

sixfold—from 3,068 to 17,150 (figure 6-7). These

Ph.D.s were about evenly divided between work and

study commitments.

FIGURE 6-4. Location and kinds of postgraduation plans of Ph.D.s with 

definite plans: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

U.S. employment

76.8%

U.S. study

13.8%

Foreign employment 7.3% Foreign study 2.1%

U.S. employment

63.1%

U.S. study

26.5%

Foreign employment

7.6%

Foreign study 2.8%

1970–74

1995–99

FIGURE 6-5. Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after 

graduation, by major field of doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

 Professional

fields/other

 Humanities

 Health sciences

 Education

Non-science and

engineering

 Engineering

 Social sciences

 Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

 Biological

sciences

 Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

1995–99

1970–74
63

FIGURE 6-6. Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the United States after 

graduation, by citizenship status: 1970–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

U.S. citizen

Permanent resident

Temporary resident

FIGURE 6-7. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the 

United States after graduation, by visa status: 1970–99

Number

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

All non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s

Permanent resident

Temporary resident

All Permanent Temporary

Region non-U.S. citizens residents residents

Africa

1970–74 406 194 212

1995–99 653 211 442

Americas

1970–74 1,120 606 514

1995–99 2,263 778 1,485

Asia

1970–74 4,078 2,426 1,652

1995–99 17,233 5,491 11,742

Australasia/Pacific

1970–74 189 87 102

1995–99 237 75 162

Europe

1970–74 1,357 887 470

1995–99 4,241 1,399 2,842

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 6-2. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s staying in the United States after 

graduation, by region of origin and visa status: 1970–74 and 1995–99

FIGURE 6-8. Non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans to stay in the 

United States after graduation, by region of origin: 1970–74 and 1995–99

Percent of those with definite plans 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Africa Americas Asia

Region of origin

Australasia/Pacific Europe

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 1970–74 1995–99

The stay rate of foreign national Ph.D.s from each of

the five world regions rose substantially between the

1970–74 and 1995–99 periods (figure 6-8). In 1970–

74 Asia and Europe were the only regions that had a

majority of citizens with definite plans to stay in the

United States after earning a U.S. doctorate. By the

late 1990s, a majority of Ph.D.s from every region

planned to remain in the United States—about 75 percent of Asians and Europeans and 51 to 58 percent of

citizens of other regions. Between 1970–74 and 1995–

99 the number of Asian-citizen Ph.D.s with

postgraduation plans to stay in the United States quadrupled, from 4,078 to 17,233 (table 6-2).

A striking change has occurred over the years in the visa

status of non-U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s with commitments in

the United States. Permanent residents made up nearly

59 percent of all non-U.S. citizens in 1970–74 who had

definite plans to stay after graduation. By the late 1990s,

temporary residents with U.S. commitments outnumbered

permanent residents 2 to 1, both overall and among

Ph.D.s from each world region.

In recent years more Ph.D.s from China and India than

from any other country remained in the United States

after graduation (figure 6-9). During the 1995–99
64

Turkey

Japan

Russia

Great Britain

Germany

Canada

Korea

Taiwan

India

China (PRC)

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Number staying in the United States and stay rate (%)

6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000

Permanent resident Temporary resident

FIGURE 6-9. Top 10 origins of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with definite plans 

to stay in the United States after graduation, by visa status: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

(96.5%)

(93.0%)

(58.8%)

(57.1%)

(60.3%)

(68.7%)

(82.0%)

(90.9%)

(46.4%)

(57.6%)

KINDS OF POSTGRADUATION

COMMITMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES

The postgraduation commitments of Ph.D.s who had

definite plans to remain in the United States show a

gradual shift toward further study. By the late 1990s about

27 percent of new Ph.D.s who intended to remain in the

United States had study commitments, nearly double the

percentage in the early 1970s. In contrast, the percentage of Ph.D.s with employment commitments in the

United States dropped throughout the last quarter of the

century, even though the number with employment commitments rose in the 1990s (figure 6-10). This reversal

reflects both the growth in doctorate production during

this period and the abundance of technology-related jobs

in the 1990s.

POSTGRADUATION STUDY COMMITMENTS

Although the trend toward further study is evident in all

major fields, Ph.D.s in S&E fields are more likely than

2

 Appendix table C-1 compares 1995–99 aggregate data for non-U.S.

citizens who reported definite postgraduation plans in the United States

(the population shown in table 6-2 and figures 6-8 and 6-9) with the

corresponding data for all non-U.S. citizens who reported location,

including those who did not report definite plans. The table provides

comparisons for each of the 5 world regions and for the 10 leading

country origins of Ph.D.s.

period, 7,548 Chinese citizens intended to stay (96 percent of all Chinese Ph.D.s with definite plans). Russia is

noteworthy because 91 percent of its citizens planned to

remain in the United States after receiving their

doctorates.

Because these numbers and percentages represent only

those non-U.S. citizens who reported definite plans to

stay in the United States after graduation, estimates may

be conservative. The restriction to definite plans is necessary when examining long-term trends because until

1990, location was captured in the survey item on

postdoctoral affiliation, which was generally completed

by only those Ph.D.s with definite plans.

Beginning in the 1990s doctorate recipients were asked

to report location separately, resulting in more complete

data on the intended locations of new Ph.D.s. Data from

the 1990s show that a substantial number of non-U.S.

citizens who did not report commitments did report

intentions to remain in the United States.2

Number

Percent of those with definite plans

FIGURE 6-10. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation 

employment and study: 1970–99 

Year of doctorate

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

100,000

Study

Study

Employment

Employment

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.
65

FIGURE 6-11. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation study, by 

major field of doctorate: 1970–74 and 1995–99

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physics and

astronomy

Chemistry

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1995–99

1970–74

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

those in non-S&E fields to undertake such study (figure 6-11). About 43 percent (31,240) of all S&E Ph.D.s

graduating in 1995–99 with U.S. commitments reported

plans for further study, up from 25 percent (14,659) in

1970–74. Further study is most prevalent in biological

sciences. Of the biological sciences Ph.D.s graduating

in 1995–99 with U.S. postgraduation commitments,

79 percent (13,903) had plans for postdoctoral study,

up from 54 percent (6,100) in the 1970–74 period. The

proportions of new Ph.D.s undertaking postdoctoral

study in the combined field of physics and astronomy

and in chemistry were also high, each being about 60

percent in 1995–99.

The proportions of U.S. citizens and permanent residents reporting postgraduation study commitments in

the United States rose for each racial/ethnic group

between 1975–79 and 1995–99. Demographic differences among Ph.D.s with postgraduation study commitments generally reflect the field concentrations of

individual groups. The largest proportions of Ph.D.s

planning postdoctoral study are in those demographic

groups that have the highest concentrations in biological and physical sciences, with the proportion for

Asians and Pacific Islanders greatest in both time

periods (figure 6-12).

Financial Support Mechanisms

Fellowships are the main support mechanism for Ph.D.s

undertaking postdoctoral study (figure 6-13). The proportion of Ph.D.s supported by fellowships rose from 48 percent in 1970–74 to 53 percent in 1995–99. The citizenship

status of Ph.D.s affects their eligibility for the kinds of financial support available for postdoctoral study. Temporary

FIGURE 6-12. U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s with definite 

plans for U.S. postgraduation study, by race/ethnicity: 1975–79 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. citizens

and permanent

residents

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Percent

1975–79

1995–99
66

FIGURE 6-13. Financial support mechanisms of Ph.D.s with U.S. 

postgraduation study commitments: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1970–74

1995–99

Fellowship

48.4%

Research

associateship

40.1%

Traineeship 4.0%

Other study 7.5%

Fellowship

53.1%

Research

associateship

36.8%

Traineeship 2.8%

Other study 7.3%

3

 The most recent data covering all possible study settings are for

1995 and 1996.

Temporary

resident

Permanent

resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

44.9 49.2

3.3

2.6

53.9 37.9

3.0

5.2

56.0 32.0

2.6

9.4

60.5 28.9

3.3

7.3

48.7 41.4

2.5

7.3

All Ph.D.s 53.1 36.8

2.8

7.3

Fellowship Research

associateship Traineeship Other study

FIGURE 6-14. Financial support mechanisms of Ph.D.s with U.S. 

postgraduation study commitments, by sex and citizenship status: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

residents, who are ineligible for many postdoctoral fellowships funded by the U.S. government, are more likely to

receive their support from research associateships than from

other forms of support (figure 6-14).

Sources of Financial Support

Most funding for postdoctoral study comes from the U.S.

government and from academic institutions. Although

government sources were reported most often as a source

of support, the share of postgraduation study commitments supported by government sources declined

13 percentage points between 1975–79 and 1995–99.

The share supported by academic institutions increased

10 percentage points in the same period (figure 6-15). In

both 1975–79 and 1995–99, private foundations and nonprofit organizations were the main sources of support

for about 10 percent and 3 percent of new Ph.D.s, respectively.

Although government support was the primary mechanism for more than half of postgraduation study commitments for several fields in 1975–79, the only field in which

the government supported a majority of new Ph.D.s entering postdoctoral study in 1995–99 was earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (figure 6-16).

Study Settings

In both 1970–74 and 1995–96, more than three-fourths

of new Ph.D.s with postdoctoral appointments found

those positions at universities or colleges (figure 6-17).3

The percentage of new Ph.D.s with study commitments

who planned to be in academic settings declined, however, from 82 percent of the 1970–74 cohort to 78 percent of the 1995–96 cohort. This decline reflects a shift

over this period, as Ph.D.s increasingly accepted

postdoctoral appointments at U.S. government facilities,

industries, and nonprofit organizations.

POSTGRADUATION EMPLOYMENT COMMITMENTS

Although the percentage of new Ph.D.s with study commitments increased during the last three decades of the

century, the great majority of Ph.D.s with definite

postgraduation plans in the United States had employ-
67

ment commitments. Even after steady declines since

1970–74, when this information was first collected, 70 percent of Ph.D.s who graduated in 1995–99 with employment commitments in the United States either had

new jobs or returned to jobs held before graduation

(figure 6-18).

The increase in the proportion of Ph.D.s reporting

postgraduation study commitments during the last 30

years accompanied a decline in the proportion of both

U.S. citizen and permanent resident Ph.D.s who reported

work plans. In 1970–74, 86 percent of U.S. citizens and

72 percent of permanent residents had job commitments

after graduation. At the end of the century, 75 percent of

U.S. citizens and 59 percent of permanent residents

reported work commitments. Work commitments among

FIGURE 6-15. Sources of support for Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study 

commitments: 1975–79 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1975–79

1995–99

U.S.

government

53.8%

College/university

22.1%

Private

foundation

9.7%

Nonprofit

organization 2.7%

Other/unknown 11.8%

Other/unknown 14.7%

Nonprofit

organization 2.8%

Private

foundation

9.5%

College/university

31.8%

U.S.

government

41.2%

FIGURE 6-16. U.S. government as main support for Ph.D.s with U.S. 

postgraduation study commitments, by major field of doctorate: 1975–79 

and 1995–99

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological

sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1995–99

1975–79

temporary residents, however, changed little except for

a spike in the early 1980s. In most periods about 50 percent of temporary residents with definite plans to stay in

the United States had jobs. Work commitments also

spiked among permanent residents in the early 1980s,

after which the proportion reporting job commitments declined. Among U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s, the proportion

reporting work commitments decreased steadily through

the end of the century.
68

FIGURE 6-17. Study settings of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation study 

commitments: 1970–74 and 1995–96

NOTE: Nonacademic settings were not coded in 1997–99.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1970–74

1995–96

College/university 82.3%

U.S. government

8.0%

Industry/business 1.0%

Nonprofit organization 5.8% Other 2.9%

College/university 77.7%

Industry/business 3.7%

Nonprofit organization 7.3% Other 0.9%

U.S. government

10.4%

FIGURE 6-18. Ph.D.s with definite plans for U.S. postgraduation employment, 

by citizenship status: 1970–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89

Year of doctorate

1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

All Ph.D.s

U.S. citizen

Permanent resident

Temporary resident

Employment Sectors

Earning a doctorate during the first 70 years of the 20th

century typically assured the graduate of a position in

academe. By the early 1970s, however, the academic

labor market was becoming saturated with Ph.D.

faculty. Moreover, growth in enrollments did not continue at the rates of the 1960s, when the entry of the

baby boomers caused enrollments of undergraduate students to increase rapidly. Nearly 67 percent of new Ph.D.s

who graduated with work commitments in 1970–74 were

hired into academic positions. By the early 1980s, academic job commitments among new Ph.D.s had declined

to about 50 percent, and the percentage remained close

to this mark to the end of the century (46 percent in 4-

year institutions and 4 percent in 2-year institutions in

the 1995–99 period). The number of new Ph.D.s with

academic positions also fell, from 57,802 in 1970–74 to

38,807 in 1995–99, although the numbers were higher in

the 1990s than in the 1980s (figure 6-19).

The decrease in the proportion of new Ph.D.s with job

commitments in academe was evident in all major fields

(table 6-3). In 1995–99 about 37 percent of Ph.D.s with

degrees in S&E fields and work commitments in the

United States found jobs in academe, a substantial

decrease from the almost 58 percent who did so in 1970–

74. Compared with S&E Ph.D.s, percentages of nonS&E Ph.D.s who found work in academe were higher,

although there was a decline for this group as well. About

63 percent of non-S&E Ph.D.s in the late 1990s had

academic commitments, down from approximately

76 percent in the early 1970s.

Humanities Ph.D.s had the highest rate of academic

employment—83 percent in 1995–99—but lower than

the 94 percent level in 1970–74. Three-fourths of Ph.D.s

in professional and other fields and two-thirds of Ph.D.s

in social sciences also obtained academic positions in the

late 1990s. Historically, engineering and physical science

Ph.D.s have been the least likely to take jobs in academe after graduation. About 36 percent of physical scientists took academic jobs in the early 1970s; by

the late 1990s, the figure was down to about 21 percent.

Academic commitments were even less common among

engineering Ph.D.s—27 percent in 1970–74 and 14 percent in 1995–99.
69

FIGURE 6-19. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work 

commitments: 1970–99

Number of Ph.D.s

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Year of doctorate

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percent of Ph.D.s with work commitments

Academe

Industry/business

Self-employment

Government

Elementary/secondary school

Nonprofit organization

During the last 25 years of the century, there was a dramatic change in academic commitments among Ph.D.s

in mathematics and computer sciences. (These two fields

are combined for comparison of the 1970–74 and 1995–

99 periods; computer sciences did not become a separate field on the SED until the late 1970s.) This combined field ranked fourth in academic job commitments

among Ph.D.s graduating in 1970–74, about 80 percent

of whom took jobs in academe. By 1995–99 only 47

percent of Ph.D.s in the combined field were hired into

academe. This change reflects the growth of computer technology industries in the last decade of the 20th

century.

Academe Industry/selfemployment Government Other

FIGURE 6-20. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work 

commitments, by sex and citizenship status: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

1970–74

1995–99

Temporary

resident

Permanent

resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

All Ph.D.s

Temporary

resident

Permanent

resident

U.S. citizen

Female

Male

All Ph.D.s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

66.7 12.2 10.3 10.7

64.7 13.9 11.0 10.4

78.1

2.8

6.7 12.4

67.0 11.2 10.8 11.0

61.0 30.5

3.8

4.7

65.0 23.8

2.8

8.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

49.4 26.6 7.8 16.2

43.5 35.3 8.7 12.6

57.0 15.6 6.6 20.9

52.1 20.6 8.9 18.4

38.7 50.3

3.8

7.2

34.4 60.0

1.6

4.1

Government was the only sector other than academe to

show decreasing employment of new Ph.D.s, both in

percentage and in number. A trend away from the academic and government sectors and toward employment

commitments in industries and businesses (including selfemployment) and “other” sectors (elementary and secondary schools, nonprofit organizations) characterized

all demographic groups (figure 6-20). In 1995–99 female

Ph.D.s (57 percent) were still more likely than male

Ph.D.s (44 percent) to go into academe, but the level of

academic commitments was about 21 percentage points

lower for both groups than it was in 1970–74.

The relatively small differences in the proportions of academic appointments among the three citizenship groups

in the early 1970s had widened by the late 1990s. In the

period 1970–74 about two-thirds of U.S. citizens were

hired into academe, with hires of temporary residents
70

and permanent residents trailing by only 2 and 6 percentage points, respectively. In 1995–99 a slim majority of

U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s obtained academic appointments,

compared with about two-fifths of permanent residents

and about one-third of temporary residents. The size of

the disparity between U.S. citizens and foreign nationals

is fairly recent. Academic commitment levels for the

three citizenship groups remained relatively close—above

50 percent—into the mid-1990s. In fact, in the three 5-

year periods from 1980 to 1994, the percentages of temporary residents going into academe were larger than

those of other citizenship groups of new Ph.D.s.

The percentage of new Ph.D.s who reported having commitments to jobs in industries and businesses (including

self-employment) immediately after graduation more than

doubled, from about 12 to 27 percent, between the periods 1970–74 and 1995–99 (table 6-3, figure 6-20). The

number of Ph.D.s hired by industry also increased, from

10,139 to 18,762. None of the other sectors accounted

for more than one-tenth of Ph.D.s’ job commitments in

either period.

By 1995–99, industry (including self-employment) was

the largest employer of S&E Ph.D.s overall (44 percent

of those with U.S. work commitments) and of Ph.D.s in

four S&E subfields: engineering (73 percent); physical

sciences (68 percent); agricultural sciences (42 percent);

and earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences (38 percent).

Although job commitments in academe were more

numerous among Ph.D.s in other S&E fields, the role of

industry is still noteworthy. Industry’s share of Ph.D.s’

(Percent)

Industry and

Field Academe self-employment Government Other

1970–74

All fields 66.7 12.2 10.3 10.7

Science and engineering 57.6 22.1 14.4 5.8

 Agricultural sciences 56.9 23.5 17.7 1.9

 Biological sciences 69.7 10.5 14.2 5.6

 Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 51.9 23.1 22.3 2.7

 Mathematics and computer sciences 80.1 12.2 5.8 1.9

 Physical sciences 36.3 43.5 16.0 4.2

 Psychology 56.6 5.7 21.6 16.1

 Social sciences 83.6 3.6 8.1 4.7

 Engineering 26.9 51.8 17.4 3.8

Non-science and engineering 76.1 2.0 6.1 15.8

 Education 64.0 1.5 8.7 25.8

 Health 65.5 10.8 15.1 8.6

 Humanities 93.5 0.8 1.4 4.3

 Professional fields/other 82.9 6.1 6.2 4.8

1995–99

All fields 49.4 26.6 7.8 16.2

Science and engineering 36.5 44.4 10.9 8.2

 Agricultural sciences 37.5 41.8 15.8 4.8

 Biological sciences 46.8 31.5 13.6 8.0

 Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 33.9 38.4 22.4 5.3

 Mathematics and computer sciences 47.4 44.9 4.9 2.7

 Physical sciences 21.1 67.9 7.6 3.4

 Psychology 37.2 24.3 13.4 25.2

 Social sciences 65.7 14.0 10.8 9.4

 Engineering 14.3 72.7 10.6 2.4

Non-science and engineering 62.8 8.2 4.5 24.5

 Education 48.0 6.5 5.4 40.1

 Health sciences 59.3 17.5 11.1 12.1

 Humanities 82.8 5.8 1.7 9.7

 Professional fields/other 74.7 13.2 3.4 8.7

TABLE 6-3. Employment sectors of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by major field of doctorate: 1970–74 

and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.
71

work commitments in these other fields ranged from

14 percent (social sciences) to 45 percent (the combined

field of mathematics and computer sciences).

The mid-1990s brought a surge of industrial employment

among both permanent and temporary residents. This

sudden change may reflect the concentrations of nonU.S.-citizen Ph.D.s in engineering and computer sciences, fields that were particularly linked to the very

large number of new technology jobs that were created during the 1990s. Although U.S.-citizen Ph.D.s

were increasingly drawn into industry (including selfemployment), job commitments in this sector were proportionally higher among non-U.S. citizens. In 1995–

99 the share of postgraduation work commitments to

industry was 50 percent among permanent residents and

60 percent among temporary residents, compared with

21 percent among U.S. citizens.

Decreasing academic employment and increasing

employment in other sectors appeared as a pattern also

among racial/ethnic groups of U.S. citizens and permanent residents (figure 6-21). The distribution across

employment sectors for racial/ethnic groups reflects the

different field concentrations of these groups. In both

the 1970–74 and 1995–99 periods, S&E Ph.D.s were

more likely than non-S&E Ph.D.s to obtain jobs in

industry (table 6-3). Historically, Asians/Pacific Islanders and whites have had the greatest concentrations

in S&E fields and also have had the largest percentages of new Ph.D.s with postgraduation commitments

in industry. Black and American Indian/Alaskan Native Ph.D.s have been more concentrated in social sciences, education, and other non-S&E fields, which is reflected in their substantial percentages in the cluster of

other sectors, namely elementary and secondary schools

and nonprofit organizations.

Primary Work Activities

At the end of the 20th century, teaching was still the

most common postgraduation work activity of Ph.D.s

with job commitments in the United States, but the

percentage was far smaller than it had been 30 years

earlier (figure 6-22). Nearly 57 percent of new Ph.D.s

with work commitments in 1970–74 intended to spend

most of their time teaching, compared with about 38 percent in 1995–99. At the same time, research and development (R&D) increased as a primary work activity. In

1995–99, 31 percent of Ph.D.s with job commitments

reported R&D as their primary work activity, up from

23 percent in 1970–74. This trend parallels the trend in

academic and industrial employment. Teaching declined

as commitments in academe fell, and R&D rose along

Academe Industry/selfemployment Government Other

FIGURE 6-21. Employment sectors of U.S. citizen and permanent resident 

Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by race/ethnicity: 

1975–79 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1995–99

1975–79

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. citizens and 

permanent residents

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

All U.S. citizens and 

permanent residents

58.6 13.5 12.7 15.2

60.0 6.9 15.0 18.1

36.4 48.0 9.9 5.7

65.7 4.5 11.7 18.1

70.0 7.4 12.1 10.5

58.8 12.8 12.9 15.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

51.3 22.5 8.5 17.7

53.8 15.6 9.9 20.8

32.6 53.8 6.2 7.5

55.9 11.0 8.3 24.7

60.0 16.0 8.2 15.8

52.1 20.9 8.7 18.2

with commitments in industry. In addition, Ph.D.s who

graduated in 1995–99 were more likely to work in administration and professional services than Ph.D.s who

graduated in 1970–74.

Interstate Migration after Graduation

Increasing proportions of Ph.D.s with definite work

commitments had postgraduation employment commitments in the state where the doctorate was granted:

47 percent in 1995–99, up from 37 percent in 1970–74

(figure 6-23).4

 In 1970–74 education was the only doctoral field in which a majority of Ph.D.s remained to work

4 In this section, “state” includes the District of Columbia and Puerto

Rico.
72

FIGURE 6-22. Primary work activities of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation 

work commitments: 1970–74 and 1995–99

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Administration Professional

services

R&D

Primary work activity

Teaching Other

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1970–74 1995–99

FIGURE 6-23. Ph.D.s with postgraduation work commitments in same 

state as doctoral institution, by major field of doctorate: 1970–74 and 

1995–99

Professional

fields/other

Humanities

Health sciences

Education

Non-science

and engineering

Engineering

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics and 

computer sciences

Earth, atmospheric,

and ocean sciences

Biological sciences

Agricultural

sciences

Science and

engineering

All fields

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

1995–99

1970–74

in the state where they received their doctorates. In-state

job commitments in the other major fields ranged from

one-fourth of Ph.D.s in agricultural sciences to two-fifths

of Ph.D.s in psychology. By 1995–99, however, a majority of Ph.D.s in four fields had work commitments in

their doctoral state: a slim majority in the fields of psychology, biological sciences, and health sciences, and more

than a two-thirds majority in education. Many of the

graduates in these fields, especially in education, planned

to continue in positions they held while studying for the

doctorate.

States make substantial investments in their colleges and

universities, so it benefits states to retain as many of their

graduates as can be absorbed into the workforce. During

the last three decades of the 20th century, in nearly all

states, increasing percentages of Ph.D.s who had definite

work commitments reported that they were remaining in

the state where they received their doctorate (table 6-

4). In 1995–99, 17 states retained 50 percent or more of

their Ph.D. graduates, and 25 states retained 40 to

49 percent. In contrast, only Puerto Rico (93 percent)

and California (55 percent) retained a majority of their

doctoral graduates in the 1970–74 period.

Between 1970–74 and 1995–99, only in Puerto Rico,

the District of Columbia, and Pennsylvania did the proportions of Ph.D.s who remained after earning a doctorate decline. Although the stay rate was higher for

Puerto Rico than for any other state in both 1970–74

and 1995–99, the rate declined 17 percentage points

between the two periods. Ph.D. retention in most other

states increased dramatically. Rates of retention among

Ph.D.s with definite commitments about doubled between 1970–74 and 1995–99 in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Rhode Island, and Vermont, and

more than tripled in New Hampshire.
73

(Percent)

State 1970–74 1995–99 % change

All Ph.D.s 37.0 46.7 9.7

Alabama 45.8 48.4 2.6

Alaska 46.2 63.2 17.0

Arizona 32.8 42.7 9.9

Arkansas 27.7 50.4 22.7

California 55.5 61.2 5.7

Colorado 29.3 50.5 21.2

Connecticut 20.7 30.6 9.9

Delaware 24.4 32.8 8.4

District of Columbia 33.9 27.4 -6.5

Florida 36.6 41.2 4.6

Georgia 38.7 46.9 8.2

Hawaii 46.6 63.1 16.5

Idaho 27.6 55.4 27.8

Illinois 31.9 41.8 9.9

Indiana 18.7 26.3 7.6

Iowa 21.3 35.6 14.3

Kansas 23.0 43.6 20.6

Kentucky 33.1 45.1 12.0

Louisiana 33.1 47.2 14.1

Maine 35.5 62.5 27.0

Maryland 32.8 39.8 7.0

Massachusetts 38.4 44.2 5.8

Michigan 33.3 43.3 10.0

Minnesota 33.3 44.2 10.9

Mississippi 33.3 46.0 12.7

Missouri 33.5 49.4 15.9

Montana 28.9 56.2 27.3

Nebraska 37.1 52.2 15.1

Nevada 31.1 63.3 32.2

New Hampshire 9.0 31.1 22.1

New Jersey 36.0 42.1 6.1

New Mexico 32.9 48.0 15.1

New York 46.7 50.1 3.4

North Carolina 31.4 40.4 9.0

North Dakota 24.5 46.2 21.7

Ohio 40.1 46.9 6.8

Oklahoma 34.7 50.7 16.0

Oregon 26.0 46.9 20.9

Pennsylvania 45.3 43.8 -1.5

Rhode Island 12.5 23.1 10.6

South Carolina 37.8 48.6 10.8

South Dakota 28.3 47.4 19.1

Tennessee 36.7 51.5 14.8

Texas 49.2 58.6 9.4

Utah 34.7 50.7 16.0

Vermont 26.9 58.6 31.7

Virginia 40.6 46.1 5.5

Washington 30.0 46.3 16.3

West Virginia 36.2 49.0 12.8

Wisconsin 24.0 34.7 10.7

Wyoming 19.4 27.8 8.4

Puerto Rico 93.3 76.7 -16.6

TABLE 6-4. Ph.D.s with postgraduation work commitments in same state

as the doctoral institution, by state: 1970–74 and 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

Percent

FIGURE 6-24. Top 20 destinations of Ph.D.s who left the state where the 

doctorate was received for postgraduation work commitments in another 

state: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Connecticut

Washington

Missouri

Minnesota

Indiana

Florida

Michigan

North Carolina

Maryland

District of Columbia

Georgia

Virginia

Ohio

Massachusetts

Illinois

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

Texas

New York

California

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Another way of viewing Ph.D. migration is to consider

states that are destinations of Ph.D.s who migrate. In

the 1995–99 period the top four destinations of Ph.D.s

with definite job commitments outside the state where

the doctorate was received were the same as the top

four destinations overall (that is, including Ph.D.s who

stayed in their doctoral state) (figures 6-24, 6-26).

California and New York, which have long been the leading

producers of Ph.D.s, also have long been the most popular

destinations of Ph.D.s with job commitments (figures 6-25,

6-26). In both 1970–74 and 1995–99 nearly one-fifth of all

Ph.D.s with U.S. work commitments reported job locations

in California or New York. Some earned their degrees in

those states; some intended to cross state lines to accept

employment in those states. The 11 top destinations of Ph.D.s

with work commitments were the same in 1970–74 and

1995–99, although with some differences in rank.
74

FIGURE 6-25. Top 20 destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work 

commitments: 1970–74

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Minnesota

Tennessee

Missouri

Georgia

North Carolina

Wisconsin

Maryland

Indiana

District of Columbia

Florida

Virginia

New Jersey

Michigan

Massachusetts

Ohio

Texas

Illinois

Pennsylvania

New York

California

Percent

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The top destinations of Ph.D.s in each major doctoral

field vary somewhat across states. In table 6-5 the overall ranking across all fields is given for each state that

placed among the top five in one or more fields. These

rankings include all Ph.D.s with work commitments in

the United States—those who remained in the state where

they earned their doctorate as well as those who left.

The three states ranking highest as destinations of Ph.D.s

—California, New York, and Texas—drew high percentages of Ph.D.s in most fields. Eleven other states ranked

in the top five destinations for at least one major field.

Three key locations in a Ph.D.’s educational career are

the states where the Ph.D.’s high school education took

place, where the Ph.D.’s doctoral education took place,

and where the Ph.D. is employed after graduation. Comparisons of these states for the two-thirds of Ph.D.s with

U.S. work commitments provide a more complete picture

of migration patterns than can be gleaned from comparisons that consider only the state where the doctorate

Percent

FIGURE 6-26. Destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work 

commitments: 1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

Guam

Wyoming

Alaska

Vermont

South Dakota

North Dakota

Nevada

Montana

Hawaii

Puerto Rico

Rhode Island

New Hampshire

Maine

Idaho

West Virginia

Delaware

Arkansas

Utah

New Mexico

Nebraska

Mississippi

Oklahoma

Kentucky

Kansas

South Carolina

Oregon

Iowa

Alabama

Louisiana

Connecticut

Arizona

Wisconsin

Washington

Tennessee

Colorado

Missouri

District of Columbia

Indiana

Minnesota

Maryland

North Carolina

Georgia

Virginia

Michigan

Florida

New Jersey

Ohio

Massachusetts

Illinois

Pennsylvania

Texas

New York

California

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
75

FIGURE 6-27. Employment destinations of U.S. citizen and permanent 

resident Ph.D.s with U.S. high school diplomas and U.S. postgraduation 

work commitments: 1970–74 and 1995–99

 Going elsewhere (different high

school and doctorate states)

Doctorate state is

high school state

 Returning to

high school state

Leaving doctorate state

Doctorate state is

not high school state

 Doctorate state is

high school state

Staying in

doctorate state

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

1970–74

1995–99

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and 

Doctorate Records File.

was received and the state where the Ph.D. is employed

postgraduation (figure 6-27). Among Ph.D.s graduating

in 1995–99, nearly half (49 percent) of U.S. citizens and

permanent residents who received high school diplomas

in the United States and who also reported postdoctoral

work commitments in the United States planned to stay

in the state where they received the doctorate, compared

with 37 percent in 1970–74. About half of these individuals received their high school education in the same state.

This means that about one-fourth of all U.S.-citizen and

permanent resident Ph.D.s with U.S. work commitments

in the 1995–99 period reported the same state for their

high school, doctoral institution, and first postgraduation

job. In the 1970–74 period, 18 percent of Ph.D.s reported

the same state for these three milestones.

The expansion of doctoral education into every state during the 20th century could explain the increasing geographic stability among Ph.D.s. Many students no longer

have to travel out of state to pursue a graduate education, including doctoral study, in their chosen field. Moreover, as state economies become more diverse, it is likely

that new Ph.D.s find more job opportunities in the state

where they were raised and where they received most,

and perhaps all, of their education.

Field Employed a

All fields 78,703 1 (11.0) 2 (7.4) 3 (6.6) 4 (5.0) 5 (4.6) 6 (4.2) 7 (4.0) 8 (3.2) 10 (3.0) 14 (2.4) 15 (2.1) 17 (1.9) 19 (1.8) 19 (1.8)

Science and engineering 40,162 1 (14.0) 2 (7.9) 3 (6.6) 5 (4.5) 4 (4.9)

Agricultural sciences 1,174 2 (5.2) 4 (4.8) 3 (4.9) 1 (5.4) 5 (4.0)

Biological sciences 3,539 1 (12.8) 2 (6.8) 3 (5.5) 5 (5.2) 4 (5.4)

Earth, atmospheric, 

 and ocean sciences 1,059 2 (12.2) 1 (16.1) 5 (3.9) 3 (4.7) 4 (4.6)

Mathematics and 

 computer sciences 4,190 1 (15.8) 2 (9.1) 4 (5.3) 5 (5.2) 3 (5.4)

Physical sciences 4,292 1 (15.2) 2 (7.3) 5 (5.4) 4 (5.8) 3 (6.8)

Psychology 6,432 2 (10.2) 1 (11.0) 3 (6.4) 4 (5.0) 5 (4.5)

Social sciences 8,094 3 (8.4) 1 (8.9) 5 (4.4) 4 (6.2) 2 (8.8)

Engineering 11,382 1 (20.4) 3 (6.4) 2 (8.7) 5 (4.9) 5 (4.9) 4 (5.0)

Non-science and 

 engineering 38,541 1 (7.9) 2 (6.9) 3 (6.5) 4 (5.5) 5 (5.0)

Education 18,726 1 (7.6) 4 (5.5) 2 (6.5) 3 (5.7) 5 (5.1)

Health sciences 2,985 1 (9.0) 3 (5.5) 2 (6.5) 4 (5.2) 5 (4.8)

Humanities 10,645 2 (8.7) 1 (9.1) 3 (5.9) 4 (5.4) 5 (4.7)

Professional fields/

 other 6,185 3 (6.9) 1 (8.4) 2 (7.9) 4 (5.3) 4 (5.3) a Number of employed Ph.D.s for whom state is known.

NOTE: Numbers in parentheses are percentages based on the total number of Ph.D.s with U.S. work commitments in each field.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

TABLE 6-5. Top 5 destinations of Ph.D.s with U.S. postgraduation work commitments, by major field of doctorate: 1995–99 

Ranking (% of all Ph.D.s in field)Virginia

MarylandMinnesotaDistrict of Columbia CaliforniaNew YorkTexasPennsylvaniaIllinoisMassachusettsOhioNew JerseyColoradoWashington
76
77

APPENDIX A. DETAILED DOCTORAL FIELDS AND

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PH.D.S

Appendix A consists of two tables that provide detailed

data on doctoral fields and three basic demographic characteristics of Ph.D.s—citizenship status, race/ethnicity,

and sex.

Table A-1 displays the number of doctorates awarded in

each of the field specialties that make up the major fields

analyzed in this report. The field data are presented for

each of the 5-year Ph.D. cohorts from 1960–64 to 1995–

99, for the aggregate 1960–99 period (results of the Survey of Earned Doctorates), and for the entire 1920–99

period covered in the Doctorate Records File. Consistent data on field specialties became available in 1958,

when the first Survey of Earned Doctorates was administered. The earlier data were obtained from public

sources, such as commencement programs, so the fields

tend to be broader.

Fields in table A-1 are grouped according to the classification scheme used by the National Science Foundation (NSF) in its reports. Science and engineering,

as defined by NSF, includes the following major fields:

agricultural sciences; biological sciences; earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences; mathematics and computer sciences; physical sciences (astronomy, chemistry, physics, and miscellaneous related fields); psychology; social sciences; and engineering. The major fields

in non-science and engineering, as defined by NSF,

are education, health sciences, humanities, and professional fields/other. Other agencies and organizations

often classify the fields differently. The most prominent difference between the NSF scheme and the

schemes used by others is the treatment of health

fields. These fields, considered to be non-S&E by NSF,

are commonly grouped by other agencies with biological and agricultural sciences under the “life sciences”

rubric, or with biological sciences under the “biomedical sciences” rubric.

Table A-2 displays the number of Ph.D.s within demographic groups defined by the various combinations of

citizenship status, race/ethnicity, and sex—for example,

U.S. black women. Valid data on race/ethnicity became

available in 1975. The data in this table are shown for the

5-year Ph.D. cohorts from 1975–79 to 1995–99 and also

for the aggregate period 1975–99. See appendix C for

technical notes pertaining to citizenship status, race/

ethnicity, and sex.
78

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

All fields 1,354,873 1,206,369 58,699 103,372 161,208 159,728 156,105 163,396 193,326 210,535 Science and engineering 835,221 740,221 38,267 66,183 94,862 90,804 91,690 100,930 123,214 134,271 Science 688,345 601,617 32,296 53,061 77,858 77,388 78,343 81,946 96,148 104,577

Biological and agricultural sciences 206,635 180,479 9,404 15,542 21,983 21,899 23,977 24,850 29,428 33,396

Agricultural sciences 39,456 34,343 2,305 3,165 4,236 4,183 4,857 5,184 5,356 5,057

Agronomy/crop science 7,417 5,708 712 854 816 678 773 741 630 504

Animal breeding/genetics 371 371 0 0 0 0 53 126 98 94

Animal husbandry 2,690 1,738 574 650 338 110 66000

Animal nutrition 2,267 2,267 0 1 317 563 528 346 262 250

Animal sciences nec 1,432 1,432 0 0 0 0 182 443 439 368

Conservation/renewable natural resources 201 201 0 0 0 0 0 19 78 104

Dairy science 162 162 0 0 0 0 0 28 75 59

Fish/wildlife science 1,119 1,000 98 128 259 311 204 0 0 0

Fisheries science/management 657 657 0 0 0 0 81 175 193 208

Food distribution 1 1 0 0000010

Food engineering 123 123 0 0 0 0 0 17 61 45

Food sciences 1,935 1,935 0 39 388 533 570 405 0 0

Food sciences nec 1,730 1,730 0 0 0 0 0 266 722 742

Forest biology 253 253 0 0 0 0 0 43 111 99

Forest engineering 33 33 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 20

Forest management 232 232 0 0 0 0 0 39 86 107

Forestry and related sciences nec 670 670 0 0 0 0 0 92 283 295

Forestry science 2,339 2,003 164 302 386 406 437 308 0 0

General agricultural sciences 339 220 9 36 20 36 21 30 31 37

Horticulture science 3,451 2,641 249 340 323 322 384 342 371 310

Plant breeding/genetics 1,234 1,234 0 0 0 0 149 383 387 315

Plant pathology 4,095 3,322 389 482 501 442 480 359 330 339

Plant protection/pest management 13 13 0 0000760

Plant sciences nec 404 404 0 0 0 0 36 101 121 146

Poultry science 161 161 0 0 0 0 0 21 89 51

Soil chemistry/microbiology 327 327 0 0 0 0 0 61 122 144

Soil sciences 1,549 1,549 0 40 375 406 436 292 0 0

Soil sciences nec 844 844 0 0 0 0 0 137 360 347

Wildlife/range management 630 630 0 0 0 0 0 88 278 264

Wildlife science 146 146 0 0 0 0 62 84 0 0

Wood science and pulp/paper technology 237 237 0 0 0 0 0 23 99 115

Other agricultural sciences 2,394 2,099 110 293 513 376 395 204 114 94

Biological sciences 167,179 146,136 7,099 12,377 17,747 17,716 19,120 19,666 24,072 28,339

Anatomy 4,438 3,778 233 446 686 663 676 481 364 229

Bacteriology 221 221 0 0 0 0 22 60 71 68

Biochemistry 27,689 24,141 1,491 2,485 3,060 3,056 3,220 3,011 3,808 4,010

Biological immunology 1,440 1,440 0 0 0 0 0 0 330 1,110

Biomedical sciences 752 752 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 752

Biometrics/biostatistics 1,766 1,724 64 113 182 224 243 200 315 383

Biophysics 4,209 4,004 157 445 559 619 476 411 554 783

Biotechnology research 74 74 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 52

Botany nec 8,518 5,401 573 811 961 784 679 576 538 479

Cell biology 3,103 3,103 0 0 0 0 241 608 950 1,304

Cytology 802 798 66 178 226 196 132 0 0 0

Developmental biology/embryology 1,337 1,328 48 169 164 88 76 47 226 510

Ecology 5,979 5,875 184 293 647 788 925 857 913 1,268

Endocrinology 389 389 0 0 0 0 58 95 126 110

Entomology 7,184 5,752 483 740 950 776 771 738 661 633

General biological sciences 7,206 6,825 36 194 807 931 972 1,119 1,519 1,247

Genetics 3,884 2,974 422 638 717 707 490000

Genetics, human/animal 2,591 2,591 0 0 0 0 177 539 830 1,045

Genetics, plant 495 495 0 0 0 0 39 121 158 177

Hydrobiology 292 250 34 61 107 48 0 0 0 0

Immunology 2,589 2,589 0 0 137 493 711 737 511 0

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
79

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Microbiology 6,230 6,230 0 0 0 0 655 1,589 1,940 2,046

Microbiology/bacteriology 10,155 7,348 963 1,638 1,968 1,735 1,044 0 0 0

Molecular biology 10,305 10,305 0 91 618 747 1,093 1,655 2,601 3,500

Neuroscience 4,397 4,397 0 0 0 0 396 773 1,228 2,000

Nutritional science 3,349 2,833 27 0 0 364 529 631 637 645

Parasitology 498 498 0 0 45 88 93 102 89 81

Pathology 1,599 1,428 108 216 358 435 311 0 0 0

Pathology, human/animal 1,886 1,886 0 0 0 0 185 545 595 561

Pathology, plant 567 567 0 0 0 0 59 151 200 157

Pharmacology, human/animal 8,787 8,016 337 621 849 1,003 1,272 1,208 1,322 1,404

Physiology, animal/plant 2,349 307 307 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Physiology, human/animal 10,261 10,244 399 1,229 1,719 1,567 1,459 1,230 1,376 1,265

Physiology, plant 2,514 2,454 158 396 430 272 313 293 302 290

Toxicology 1,911 1,911 0 0 0 0 157 537 502 715

Zoology nec 12,126 8,052 922 1,320 1,643 1,263 973 740 612 579

Other biological sciences 5,287 5,156 87 293 914 869 673 612 772 936

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 27,066 23,886 1,380 2,124 2,871 3,218 3,100 3,178 3,942 4,073

Atmospheric sciences 3,195 3,027 107 203 307 375 408 435 539 653

Atmospheric dynamics 514 514 0 0 0 93 110 95 114 102

Atmospheric physics/chemistry 536 536 0 0 0 69 83 95 114 175

General atmospheric sciences/meteorology 385 385 0 0 0 0 21 61 135 168

Meteorology 1,306 1,139 107 203 307 68 45 129 145 135

Other atmospheric sciences/meteorology 454 453 0 0 0 145 149 55 31 73

Earth sciences 18,719 15,767 1,212 1,714 2,068 2,008 1,899 1,986 2,528 2,352

Applied geology 389 389 0 27 138 99 88 30 7 0

Applied geology/geological engineering 277 233 110 123000000

General geological and related sciences 3,083 915 27 94 181 191 156 68 112 86

Geochemistry 1,508 1,508 0 41 218 263 241 201 291 253

Geology 3,147 3,121 64 131 100 116 301 652 915 842

Geomorphology/glacial geology 664 631 47 68 109 119 68 61 73 86

Geophysics, solid earth 971 799 126 190 358 1250000

Geophysics, seismology 2,078 2,078 0 0 0 254 367 426 523 508

Hydrology/water resources 768 767 14 51 108 107 110 99 113 165

Mineralogy/petrology 1,026 1,026 0 50 254 218 170 124 121 89

Mineralogy/petrology/geological chemistry 929 755 376 379000000

Paleontology 1,181 1,128 132 207 192 177 116 101 108 95

Stratigraphy/sedimentation 1,727 1,564 296 276 277 208 170 113 132 92

Other geological and related sciences 971 853 20 77 133 131 112 111 133 136

Ocean sciences 3,554 3,494 61 207 366 545 551 525 604 635

Marine sciences 641 641 0 0 0 68 139 138 159 137

Oceanography 2,913 2,853 61 207 366 477 412 387 445 498

Other environmental sciences 1,598 1,598 0 0 130 290 242 232 271 433 Mathematics and computer sciences 52,466 48,252 2,082 4,325 6,188 5,052 4,842 6,051 9,410 10,302

Mathematics 39,806 35,592 2,082 4,325 6,187 4,690 3,591 3,765 5,253 5,699

Algebra 3,692 3,594 270 679 825 505 314 262 342 397

Analysis/functional analysis 5,723 5,445 556 1,060 1,198 703 441 429 539 519

Applied mathematics 5,645 5,440 258 573 643 538 561 682 985 1,200

Computing theory 1,883 1,883 48 207 850 495 65 63 77 78

General mathematics 5,363 4,439 61 215 531 468 408 658 1,125 973

Geometry 1,487 1,416 86 129 180 122 167 194 232 306

Logic 931 915 53 130 159 134 105 103 118 113

Mathematical statistics 6,074 5,882 367 527 638 831 811 753 1,013 942

Number theory 1,078 1,058 83 98 150 120 126 102 160 219

Operations research 775 775 0 0 27 219 160 124 130 115

Topology 2,858 2,737 259 531 622 353 243 174 257 298

Other mathematics 4,297 2,008 41 176 364 202 190 221 275 539

Computer sciences 12,660 12,660 0 0 1 362 1,251 2,286 4,157 4,603

Computer science 11,416 11,416 0 0 1 362 1,190 1,949 3,781 4,133

Information science/systems 1,244 1,244 0 0 0 0 61 337 376 470

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
80

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Physical sciences 152,857 123,314 9,525 14,897 18,075 13,943 13,507 15,903 18,607 18,857

Astronomy 4,899 4,513 134 404 617 654 545 552 676 931

Astronomy 1,846 1,846 0 36 291 323 246 256 299 395

Astronomy/astrophysics 821 435 134 301 0 0 0 0 0 0

Astrophysics 2,232 2,232 0 67 326 331 299 296 377 536

Chemistry 93,746 72,551 6,005 8,581 10,120 8,081 8,353 9,699 10,902 10,810

Agricultural/food chemistry 994 639 188 240 164 47 0 0 0 0

Analytical chemistry 8,806 8,445 420 623 756 853 1,096 1,446 1,521 1,730

General chemistry 11,066 7,864 107 198 659 746 885 1,421 2,251 1,597

Inorganic chemistry 9,325 8,905 561 1,014 1,352 1,049 1,051 1,257 1,269 1,352

Medicinal/pharmaceutical chemistry 2,853 2,580 203 267 287 265 293 320 401 544

Nuclear chemistry 730 730 135 137 147 97 77 51 52 34

Organic chemistry 25,209 22,480 2,496 3,490 3,627 2,504 2,525 2,558 2,564 2,716

Physical chemistry 16,236 14,447 1,716 2,264 2,378 1,723 1,521 1,527 1,757 1,561

Polymer chemistry 2,083 2,083 0 0 49 261 298 411 499 565

Theoretical chemistry 1,757 1,756 102 192 300 228 197 231 264 242

Other chemistry 14,687 2,622 77 156 401 308 410 477 324 469

Physics 53,838 45,876 3,386 5,912 7,338 5,208 4,590 5,528 6,901 7,013

Acoustics 618 588 47 47 90 60 82 73 99 90

Chemical and atomic/molecular physics 4,182 3,984 402 627 670 521 379 358 483 544

Electromagnetism 412 347 106 126 68 47 0 0 0 0

Electron physics 24 24 0 0 0 0 3 18 3 0

Elementary particle physics 6,553 6,422 535 1,026 1,099 650 629 769 844 870

Fluids 813 811 89 188 118 83 68 74 79 112

General physics 8,910 7,199 136 462 864 866 816 1,176 1,550 1,329

Mechanics 116 100 23 40 30 7 0 0 0 0

Nuclear physics 5,041 4,703 686 900 999 500 351 418 397 452

Optics 2,004 1,989 37 66 143 193 242 302 455 551

Plasma/high-temperature physics 1,982 1,982 0 63 394 330 338 314 306 237

Polymer physics 312 312 0 0 0 0 18 64 103 127

Solid state/low-temperature physics 12,193 11,890 807 1,723 1,987 1,347 1,169 1,363 1,810 1,684

Theoretical physics 559 260 260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thermal physics 257 257 31 92 84 38 12 0 0 0

Other physics 9,862 5,008 227 552 792 566 483 599 772 1,017

Other physical sciences 374 374 0 0 0 0 19 124 128 103 Psychology 112,623 103,463 4,351 6,618 11,370 14,770 16,219 15,699 16,593 17,843

Clinical psychology 38,240 36,983 1,536 2,138 3,367 4,759 5,969 5,922 6,609 6,683

Cognitive psychology/psycholinguistics 1,688 1,688 0 0 0 0 142 388 504 654

Comparative psychology 497 497 45 70 105 113 55 49 30 30

Counseling 12,061 11,878 287 392 811 1,360 1,894 2,349 2,455 2,330

Developmental/child psychology 6,046 5,795 107 252 644 1,003 1,026 883 865 1,015

Educational psychology 4,728 3,964 262 288 548 702 821 530 459 354

Experimental, comparative psychology/

 physiology 3,076 457 450 7 0 0 0 0 0 0

Experimental psychology 8,751 8,734 532 1,384 1,802 1,638 1,208 739 721 710

Family/marriage counseling 279 279 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 279

General psychology 11,696 8,367 96 299 787 1,230 1,290 1,650 1,576 1,439

Human engineering 34 17 14 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

Human/individual and family development 804 804 0 0 0 0 0 0 129 675

Industrial/organizational psychology 3,835 3,694 188 248 354 378 432 541 702 851

Personality 1,319 1,304 121 164 258 270 185 108 91 107

Physiological psychology/psychobiology 3,332 3,328 113 404 607 617 467 368 324 428

Psychometrics 705 629 91 97 127 103 72 47 36 56

Quantitative psychology 249 249 0 0 0 0 31 75 65 78

School psychology 3,359 3,353 70 115 402 644 685 523 431 483

Social psychology 6,609 6,203 409 620 928 1,064 897 709 709 867

Other psychology 5,315 5,240 30 137 630 889 1,045 818 887 804

Social sciences 136,698 122,223 5,554 9,555 17,371 18,506 16,698 16,265 18,168 20,106

Economics 42,517 36,550 2,160 3,425 5,169 5,003 4,783 5,008 5,279 5,723

Agricultural economics 4,813 4,810 0 92 810 784 825 767 753 779

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
81

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Econometrics 1,056 968 76 131 137 131 111 130 125 127

Economics 36,648 30,772 2,084 3,202 4,222 4,088 3,847 4,111 4,401 4,817

Political science 31,311 27,847 1,397 2,438 4,185 4,247 3,468 3,306 4,032 4,774

International relations/affairs 4,047 3,612 276 436 621 505 415 407 475 477

Political science/government 12,347 12,347 0 0 1 2,368 2,225 2,046 2,505 3,202

Political science/public administration 10,503 7,474 1,121 2,002 3,563 788 0 0 0 0

Public administration 2,864 2,864 0 0 0 586 705 467 555 551

Public policy analysis 1,550 1,550 0 0 0 0 123 386 497 544

Sociology 22,284 19,490 925 1,613 2,975 3,381 2,858 2,367 2,536 2,835

Demography/population studies 371 371 0 0 0 0 45 107 110 109

Sociology 21,913 19,119 925 1,613 2,975 3,381 2,813 2,260 2,426 2,726

Other social sciences 40,586 38,336 1,072 2,079 5,042 5,875 5,589 5,584 6,321 6,774

American studies 2,118 2,118 0 0 0 410 407 376 434 491

Anthropology 12,508 11,735 370 645 1,421 1,981 1,780 1,736 1,711 2,091

Archaeology 1,069 899 38 62 85 135 136 132 160 151

Area studies 986 921 19 82 246 134 104 97 149 90

Criminology 810 810 0 0 0 0 191 166 194 259

General social sciences 973 911 25 40 136 164 122 137 145 142

Geography 5,729 4,922 292 403 882 784 581 585 633 762

History/philosophy of science and technology 860 860 0 0 137 145 113 114 145 206

Linguistics 6,777 6,484 246 492 848 867 873 918 1,095 1,145

Statistics 1,757 1,757 0 134 441 182 202 290 223 285

Urban affairs/studies 2,325 2,324 0 0 208 415 422 345 498 436

Social sciences nec 4,674 4,595 82 221 638 658 658 688 934 716 Engineering 146,876 138,604 5,971 13,122 17,004 13,416 13,347 18,984 27,066 29,694

Aerospace/aeronautical/astronautical engineering 6,260 5,962 252 696 898 562 489 712 1,091 1,262

Chemical engineering 20,604 18,791 1,127 1,865 2,097 1,657 1,767 3,016 3,536 3,726

Chemical engineering 18,862 17,049 1,127 1,842 2,017 1,538 1,597 2,692 3,043 3,193

Fuel technology/petroleum engineering 105 105 0 23 58 24 0000

Petroleum engineering 831 831 0 0 22 95 118 127 225 244

Polymer/plastics engineering 806 806 0 0 0 0 52 197 268 289

Civil engineering 17,057 16,512 713 1,576 2,055 1,690 1,837 2,366 3,030 3,245

Civil engineering 14,757 14,292 598 1,326 1,733 1,345 1,540 2,172 2,719 2,859

Environmental health 2,300 2,220 115 250 322 345 297 194 311 386

Electrical engineering 36,603 35,202 1,566 3,312 3,999 3,242 2,990 4,448 7,380 8,265

Communications 477 477 0 0 0 0 36 128 141 172

Computer engineering 3,146 3,146 0 0 0 498 344 411 853 1,040

Electrical/electronics engineering 32,980 31,579 1,566 3,312 3,999 2,744 2,610 3,909 6,386 7,053

Industrial/manufacturing engineering 4,682 4,610 106 348 594 365 392 602 976 1,227

Materials/metallurgical engineering 13,897 12,816 583 1,177 1,482 1,255 1,301 1,754 2,488 2,776

Ceramic science 1,397 1,261 96 200 173 124 117 151 224 176

Materials science 7,105 7,105 0 22 423 624 728 1,122 1,882 2,304

Metallurgical engineering 5,395 4,450 487 955 886 507 456 481 382 296

Mechanical engineering 24,657 23,691 1,129 2,663 2,947 2,019 1,987 3,181 4,791 4,974

Engineering mechanics 5,251 5,076 446 1,055 1,000 557 431 511 616 460

Mechanical engineering 19,406 18,615 683 1,608 1,947 1,462 1,556 2,670 4,175 4,514

Other engineering 23,116 21,020 495 1,485 2,932 2,626 2,584 2,905 3,774 4,219

Agricultural engineering 2,422 2,331 101 182 311 235 312 358 443 389

Bioengineering/biomedical engineering 3,350 3,350 0 37 326 372 335 440 769 1,071

Engineering physics 1,472 1,403 232 548 177 90 70 63 102 121

Engineering science 689 689 0 0 0 0 58 146 231 254

General engineering 1,520 1,462 17 107 196 188 166 245 303 240

Mining/mineral engineering 535 535 0 10 55 26 57 115 150 122

Naval architecture/marine engineering 64 64 0 0 0 0 9 42 13 0

Nuclear engineering 3,327 3,327 0 120 595 530 586 468 534 494

Ocean engineering 365 365 0 0 0 0 23 104 112 126

Operations research 1,865 1,865 0 0 295 398 295 271 281 325

Systems engineering 1,352 1,352 0 0 0 357 287 211 244 253

Engineering nec 6,155 4,277 145 481 977 430 386 442 592 824

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
82

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Non-science and engineering 519,652 466,148 20,432 37,189 66,346 68,924 64,415 62,466 70,112 76,264

Education 256,014 233,488 9,609 17,945 33,856 37,119 36,316 32,479 33,038 33,126

Adult/continuing education 5,674 5,674 0 0 521 880 1,164 1,098 1,077 934

Agricultural education 1,455 1,454 150 176 189 139 211 185 236 168

Art education 1,611 1,609 63 134 273 266 262 219 189 203

Business education 1,979 1,967 106 288 453 361 260 222 134 143

Counseling education/counseling and guidance

 services 16,361 16,351 636 2,126 3,446 3,261 2,580 1,617 1,402 1,283

Curriculum/instruction 23,082 23,082 1 0 1,989 4,051 4,194 4,037 4,221 4,589

Educational administration/supervision 51,369 51,280 2,850 5,027 7,492 7,662 7,870 8,330 6,928 5,121

Educational assessment/testing/measurement 655 655 0 0 0 0 107 225 168 155

Educational evaluation and research, higher

 education 15,003 15,003 0 0 1,598 3,288 3,301 2,543 1,934 2,339

Educational/instructional media design 2,981 2,981 56 228 528 448 399 391 397 534

Educational leadership 7,932 7,932 0 0 0 0 0 2 2,755 5,175

Educational measurement/statistics 1,709 1,707 60 270 564 540 273 0 0 0

Educational statistics/research methods 1,148 1,148 0 0 0 0 191 315 332 310

Elementary education 6,163 6,159 607 1,131 1,509 1,024 699 513 392 284

English education 2,416 2,414 87 221 441 407 355 327 280 296

Foreign languages education 1,243 1,243 12 53 162 165 146 190 229 286

General education 34,977 12,851 1,778 299 1,278 1,941 1,911 1,789 2,301 1,554

Health education 1,465 1,465 0 0 0 0 192 447 451 375

Home economics education 833 833 46 105 177 151 136 91 68 59

Junior high school education 4 4 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0

Mathematics education 3,084 3,082 82 413 651 444 312 336 343 501

Music education 3,469 3,458 171 373 598 467 493 457 439 460

Nursing education 500 500 0 0 0 0 127 160 114 99

Physical education/coaching 2,816 2,816 0 0 0 0 454 982 843 537

Physical education/health and recreation 6,339 6,193 546 1,039 1,854 1,670 1,084 0 0 0

Pre-elementary/early childhood education 1,439 1,439 0 0 0 0 359 371 413 296

Psychology, educational 13,152 13,085 451 1,291 2,310 2,304 1,882 1,662 1,593 1,592

Psychology, school 1,640 1,640 0 0 0 0 198 472 448 522

Reading education 2,730 2,730 0 0 1 539 817 510 497 366

Science education 3,981 3,972 377 606 893 533 444 331 375 413

Secondary education 4,722 4,710 684 860 1,120 799 557 339 181 170

Social/philosophical foundations of education 6,858 6,854 312 1,188 1,430 1,197 930 605 545 647

Social science education 1,329 1,324 92 184 348 266 191 99 68 76

Special education 9,566 9,563 220 892 1,386 1,551 1,666 1,307 1,229 1,312

Speech education 166 166 0 0 0 91 46 23 6 0

Teacher education nec 2,342 2,336 104 241 687 372 181 229 237 285

Technical education 288 288 0 0 0 0 0 41 126 121

Technical/industrial arts education 1,255 1,252 65 226 357 207 139 85 77 96

Trade/industrial education 3,144 3,141 35 162 584 959 888 350 94 69

Other education 9,134 9,127 18 412 1,017 1,136 1,296 1,576 1,916 1,756

Health sciences 28,098 26,493 527 989 2,384 2,556 3,290 4,155 5,602 6,990

Dentistry 24 8 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Environmental health 1,090 1,090 0 0 51 144 201 186 209 299

Epidemiology 2,037 2,037 0 0 0 0 179 446 613 799

Exercise physiology/science, kinesiology 648 648 0 0 0 0 0 0 87 561

General health sciences 712 712 7 20 89 84 88 100 173 151

Health systems/service administration 401 401 0 0 0 0 0 0 88 313

Hospital administration 95 90 14 17 43 16 0 0 0 0

Medicine science/surgery 662 164 56 62 31 15 0 0 0 0

Nursing 5,372 5,372 0 0 0 117 565 1,172 1,633 1,885

Optometry/ophthalmology 35 17 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pharmacy 3,669 3,355 141 224 307 322 403 549 685 724

Public health 2,150 2,150 0 0 0 1 115 552 707 775

Public health/epidemiology 2,369 1,848 134 281 436 554 443 0 0 0

Rehabilitation/therapeutic services 262 262 0 0 0 0 0 0 121 141

Speech/language pathology, audiology 3,494 3,494 1 64 727 694 609 472 458 469

Veterinary medicine 1,720 1,634 97 184 195 154 214 219 306 265

Health sciences nec 3,358 3,211 63 126 505 455 473 459 522 608

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
83

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Humanities 171,870 145,508 8,676 15,029 23,495 21,304 16,691 15,957 19,757 24,599

Art, applied 43 43 0 2 33 8 0 0 0 0

Art, fine/applied 865 430 213 217 0 0 0 0 0 0

Art history/criticism/conservation 4,465 4,465 0 76 510 754 731 685 754 955

Classics 3,965 2,719 280 419 466 355 277 257 316 349

Comparative literature 3,369 3,369 0 0 0 567 614 597 726 865

Drama/theater arts 2,192 2,192 0 0 0 284 500 433 485 490

General humanities 1,071 755 11 34 99 116 102 117 140 136

History, American 9,837 9,837 0 339 2,271 1,778 1,248 986 1,318 1,897

History, Asian 289 289 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 289

History, European 6,686 6,686 0 258 1,754 1,339 838 619 796 1,082

History, general 13,122 6,462 2,024 2,771 0 0 134 450 590 493

History, other 6,599 6,597 0 244 1,581 1,658 1,029 664 677 744

Language/literature, Arabic 134 134 0 0 0 0 16 42 37 39

Language/literature, Chinese 309 309 0 0 0 0 29 61 101 118

Language/literature, English 13,665 13,665 0 797 5,342 4,389 2,118 211 252 556

Language/literature, French 5,664 5,662 196 666 1,213 1,070 677 498 613 729

Language/literature, German 3,869 3,867 150 519 836 701 418 367 417 459

Language/literature, Hebrew 191 191 0 0 0 0 24 55 70 42

Language/literature, Italian 696 696 12 42 107 106 82 84 128 135

Language/literature, Japanese 175 175 0 0 0 0 17 50 51 57

Language/literature, Russian 1,209 1,209 21 118 256 261 141 101 138 173

Language/literature, Slavic (other than Russian) 183 183 0 0 0 0 21 35 59 68

Language/literature, Spanish 6,309 6,307 145 599 1,078 1,024 811 671 916 1,063

Language/literature nec 7,036 2,934 506 337 501 510 361 222 212 285

Letters, general 332 332 0 0 0 0 17 86 94 135

Letters nec 772 772 0 0 0 0 51 205 196 320

Literature, American 7,458 7,458 0 150 1,153 1,125 871 987 1,362 1,810

Literature, English 9,105 9,105 0 0 0 0 1,001 2,355 2,828 2,921

Literature, English/American 11,782 5,389 2,242 3,147 0 0 0 0 0 0

Music 16,309 15,588 518 689 1,301 1,925 2,008 2,447 3,098 3,602

Philosophy 13,364 11,141 685 1,159 1,898 1,655 1,239 1,211 1,383 1,911

Religion 5,770 5,770 0 0 338 928 849 977 1,146 1,532

Religion/theology 5,339 2,720 779 1,068 873 0 0000

Speech/rhetorical studies 6,777 5,268 848 1,228 1,177 383 229 177 475 751

Humanities nec 2,919 2,789 46 150 708 368 238 307 379 593 Professional fields/other 63,670 60,659 1,620 3,226 6,611 7,945 8,118 9,875 11,715 11,549

Accounting 2,822 2,822 0 0 0 0 327 828 886 781

Agricultural business/management 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 10

Architectural/environmental design 871 841 8 18 0 0 59 170 289 297

Banking/financial support services 2,188 2,188 0 0 0 0 217 685 782 504

Business administration/management 4,667 4,667 0 0 0 0 354 1,131 1,365 1,817

Business management/administrative 

 services, general 1,148 1,148 0 0 0 0 84 312 479 273

Business management/administrative 

 services nec 15,068 13,668 957 2,040 3,603 3,625 2,110 458 528 347

Business/managerial economics 539 539 0 0 0 0 55 128 134 222

Business statistics 71 71 0 0 0 0 15 41 15 0

Communication theory 383 383 0 0 0 0 0 0 158 225

Communications, general 1,275 1,275 0 0 0 0 128 415 369 363

Communications research 1,028 1,028 0 0 0 0 117 381 277 253

Communications nec 4,011 4,011 0 0 610 1,346 899 418 396 342

General professional fields 30 30 0 0 0 0 2 3 9 16

Home economics 2,340 2,148 145 227 219 355 459 358 249 136

International business 187 187 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 165

Journalism 740 654 69 162 130 92 90 83 28 0

Law 2,047 1,112 151 128 164 115 113 144 139 158

Library science 1,968 1,837 73 87 275 313 330 293 257 209

Management information systems/business

 data processing 868 868 0 0 0 0 0 0 394 474

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
84

Field 1920–99 1960–99 1960–64 1965–69 1970–74 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99

Marketing management/research 2,227 2,227 0 0 0 0 199 573 726 729

Mass communications 1,096 1,096 0 0 0 0 0 0 426 670

Operations research 906 906 0 0 0 0 84 257 288 277

Organizational behavior 1,407 1,407 0 0 0 0 123 360 392 532

Parks/recreation/leisure/fitness 255 255 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 174

Radio/television 159 159 0 0 0 0 47 89 23 0

Social work 6,559 6,485 168 321 551 784 1,031 1,116 1,243 1,271

Theology/religious education 5,955 5,953 1 46 364 943 1,049 1,217 1,341 992

Professional fields nec 1,064 1,064 0 10 159 244 108 196 169 178

Other/unknown fields 1,775 1,614 48 187 536 128 118 217 246 134

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Totals for 1920–99 and 1960–99 are the same for fields in which doctorates were not awarded before 1960. Field taxonomy in the Survey of Earned Doctorates is 

revised periodically to incorporate new fields and to separate fields that were previously combined. Occasionally fields that produce very few doctorates are eliminated. 

TABLE A-1. Doctorates awarded, by detailed field: 1920–99 total, 1960–99 total, and 5-year cohorts from 1960
85

TABLE A-2. Citizenship status, race/ethnicity, and sex of Ph.D.s, by field of doctorate: 1975–99 total and 5-year cohorts from 1975

Characteristic 1975–99 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 

All fields 883,090 159,728 156,105 163,396 193,326 210,535

U.S. citizen 640,434 131,319 123,163 116,137 130,085 139,730

American Indian/Alaskan Native 2,722 282 392 498 640 910

Male 1,520 207 250 261 339 463

Female 1,202 75 142 237 301 447

Asian/Pacific Islander 17,156 1,777 2,381 2,840 4,119 6,039

Male 10,815 1,315 1,561 1,907 2,582 3,450

Female 6,336 462 820 933 1,534 2,587

Black 26,574 5,301 4,978 4,153 5,094 7,048

Male 11,822 3,120 2,328 1,667 2,020 2,687

Female 14,752 2,181 2,650 2,486 3,074 4,361

Hispanic 16,651 2,061 2,496 2,927 3,949 5,218

Male 9,102 1,470 1,484 1,562 2,022 2,564

Female 7,548 591 1,012 1,365 1,927 2,653

White 559,930 115,575 108,807 103,570 114,586 117,392

Male 343,719 84,886 70,138 61,634 64,137 62,924

Female 216,204 30,689 38,669 41,936 50,445 54,465

Permanent resident 48,679 7,239 6,297 7,583 11,541 16,019

American Indian/Alaskan Native 5 1 1 0 2 1

Male 1 0 1 0 0 0

Female 4 1 0 0 2 1

Asian/Pacific Islander 25,476 3,267 2,864 2,962 6,045 10,338

Male 18,282 2,772 2,278 2,224 4,183 6,825

Female 7,181 495 586 738 1,857 3,505

Black 2,961 321 451 689 797 703

Male 2,437 287 377 592 662 519

Female 523 34 74 97 135 183

Hispanic 2,450 253 355 481 668 693

Male 1,520 188 239 304 403 386

Female 930 65 116 177 265 307

White 16,158 2,776 2,480 3,135 3,751 4,016

Male 10,554 2,023 1,697 2,111 2,360 2,363

Female 5,603 753 783 1,024 1,391 1,652

Temporary resident 160,560 17,521 21,118 28,959 46,696 46,266

American Indian/Alaskan Native 19 8 0 2 7 2

Male 15 8 0 2 4 1

Female 4 0 0 0 3 1

Asian/Pacific Islander 89,299 6,146 9,171 15,534 29,790 28,658

Male 72,330 5,299 7,908 13,105 24,065 21,953

Female 16,912 847 1,263 2,429 5,692 6,681

Black 7,751 1,142 1,861 1,576 1,606 1,566

Male 6,606 1,061 1,708 1,362 1,301 1,174

Female 1,142 81 153 214 303 391

Hispanic 9,321 1,041 1,655 1,782 2,270 2,573

Male 7,347 927 1,389 1,442 1,726 1,863

Female 1,972 114 266 340 543 709

White 45,137 6,920 7,256 8,076 11,001 11,884

Male 35,822 6,017 6,113 6,465 8,493 8,734

Female 9,305 903 1,143 1,611 2,505 3,143

Science and engineering 540,909 90,804 91,690 100,930 123,214 134,271

U.S. citizen 356,531 69,862 67,987 65,962 73,453 79,267

American Indian/Alaskan Native 1,235 105 155 243 275 457

Male 782 84 117 148 169 264

Female 453 21 38 95 106 193
86

TABLE A-2. Citizenship status, race/ethnicity, and sex of Ph.D.s, by field of doctorate: 1975–99 total and 5-year cohorts from 1975

Characteristic 1975–99 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 

Asian/Pacific Islander 12,987 1,281 1,723 2,172 3,186 4,625

Male 8,888 1,021 1,222 1,577 2,185 2,883

Female 4,096 260 501 595 999 1,741

Black 8,817 1,463 1,502 1,387 1,750 2,715

Male 4,648 970 813 715 877 1,273

Female 4,169 493 689 672 873 1,442

Hispanic 8,414 820 1,102 1,481 2,141 2,870

Male 5,150 662 750 892 1,260 1,586

Female 3,264 158 352 589 881 1,284

White 314,440 62,547 60,954 59,245 64,954 66,740

Male 216,935 50,074 44,222 40,167 41,549 40,923

Female 97,503 12,473 16,732 19,078 23,404 25,816

Permanent resident 36,037 5,327 4,450 5,268 8,527 12,465

American Indian/Alaskan Native 3 1 1 0 0 1

Male 1 0 1 0 0 0

Female 2 1 0 0 0 1

Asian/Pacific Islander 21,102 2,799 2,299 2,280 4,947 8,777

Male 15,689 2,424 1,895 1,797 3,548 6,025

Female 5,404 375 404 483 1,396 2,746

Black 1,662 173 246 373 465 405

Male 1,440 161 226 335 401 317

Female 222 12 20 38 64 88

Hispanic 1,480 143 212 296 423 406

Male 1,019 115 157 208 283 256

Female 461 28 55 88 140 150

White 10,614 1,752 1,591 2,092 2,494 2,685

Male 7,689 1,418 1,211 1,559 1,764 1,737

Female 2,924 334 380 533 730 947

Temporary resident 127,843 13,507 16,000 23,003 37,939 37,394

American Indian/Alaskan Native 12 4 0 2 4 2

Male 10 4 0 2 3 1

Female 2 0 0 0 1 1

Asian/Pacific Islander 74,639 5,163 7,587 12,915 25,041 23,933

Male 62,697 4,581 6,785 11,257 20,886 19,188

Female 11,901 582 802 1,658 4,129 4,730

Black 4,810 670 1,073 964 1,057 1,046

Male 4,261 643 1,016 866 897 839

Female 547 27 57 98 158 207

Hispanic 7,388 835 1,313 1,466 1,774 2,000

Male 6,148 778 1,162 1,234 1,435 1,539

Female 1,238 57 151 232 338 460

White 33,973 5,033 5,166 6,124 8,454 9,196

Male 28,408 4,549 4,570 5,187 6,962 7,140

Female 5,558 484 596 937 1,490 2,051

Non-science and engineering 342,181 68,924 64,415 62,466 70,112 76,264

U.S. citizen 283,903 61,457 55,176 50,175 56,632 60,463

American Indian/Alaskan Native 1,487 177 237 255 365 453

Male 738 123 133 113 170 199

Female 749 54 104 142 195 254

Asian/Pacific Islander 4,169 496 658 668 933 1,414

Male 1,927 294 339 330 397 567

Female 2,240 202 319 338 535 846

Black 17,757 3,838 3,476 2,766 3,344 4,333

Male 7,174 2,150 1,515 952 1,143 1,414

Female 10,583 1,688 1,961 1,814 2,201 2,919
87

TABLE A-2. Citizenship status, race/ethnicity, and sex of Ph.D.s, by field of doctorate: 1975–99 total and 5-year cohorts from 1975

Characteristic 1975–99 1975–79 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 

Hispanic 8,237 1,241 1,394 1,446 1,808 2,348

Male 3,952 808 734 670 762 978

Female 4,284 433 660 776 1,046 1,369

White 245,490 53,028 47,853 44,325 49,632 50,652

Male 126,784 34,812 25,916 21,467 22,588 22,001

Female 118,701 18,216 21,937 22,858 27,041 28,649

Permanent resident 12,642 1,912 1,847 2,315 3,014 3,554

American Indian/Alaskan Native 2 0 0 0 2 0

Male 0 0 0 0 0 0

Female 2 0 0 0 2 0

Asian/Pacific Islander 4,374 468 565 682 1,098 1,561

Male 2,593 348 383 427 635 800

Female 1,777 120 182 255 461 759

Black 1,299 148 205 316 332 298

Male 997 126 151 257 261 202

Female 301 22 54 59 71 95

Hispanic 970 110 143 185 245 287

Male 501 73 82 96 120 130

Female 469 37 61 89 125 157

White 5,544 1,024 889 1,043 1,257 1,331

Male 2,865 605 486 552 596 626

Female 2,679 419 403 491 661 705

Temporary resident 32,717 4,014 5,118 5,956 8,757 8,872

American Indian/Alaskan Native 7 4 0 0 3 0

Male 5 4 0 0 1 0

Female 2 0 0 0 2 0

Asian/Pacific Islander 14,660 983 1,584 2,619 4,749 4,725

Male 9,633 718 1,123 1,848 3,179 2,765

Female 5,011 265 461 771 1,563 1,951

Black 2,941 472 788 612 549 520

Male 2,345 418 692 496 404 335

Female 595 54 96 116 145 184

Hispanic 1,933 206 342 316 496 573

Male 1,199 149 227 208 291 324

Female 734 57 115 108 205 249

White 11,164 1,887 2,090 1,952 2,547 2,688

Male 7,414 1,468 1,543 1,278 1,531 1,594

Female 3,747 419 547 674 1,015 1,092

NOTE: Detail does not sum to total because citizenship, sex, and/or race/ethnicity are unknown for some Ph.D.s.

SOURCES: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File. 
88
89

Appendix B provides information on where recipients

of U.S. doctorates received their baccalaureates and

doctorates. Tables B-1 through B-10 list the 50 top

baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s; tables B-13

through B-22 list their 50 top doctoral institutions

(ranking is by number of degrees awarded). Foreign

students who earned baccalaureates in the United

States are included in the baccalaureate tables. Tables

B-11 and B-12 show the total number of doctorates

APPENDIX B. TOP 50 BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL

INSTITUTIONS AND DOCTORATE PRODUCTION BY STATE

awarded in each of the 50 U.S. states, the District of

Columbia, and Puerto Rico, in all fields combined and

by broad field of doctorate.

The tables provide information for all Ph.D.s. and for

several different groups of Ph.D.s—those with S&E

doctorates, those with non-S&E doctorates, male and

female Ph.D.s, and U.S. citizen Ph.D.s among the five

racial/ethnic groups discussed in this report.
90

Table Page

B-1 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–24 and 1995–99 ................................................ 92

B-2 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99......... 93

B-3 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of non-science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and

1995–99...................................................................................................................................................... 94

B-4 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of male Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 ....................................... 95

B-5 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 .................................... 96

B-6 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s:

1975–99 and 1995–99 ................................................................................................................................ 97

B-7 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99

and 1995–99 ............................................................................................................................................... 98

B-8 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 .................. 99

B-9 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ............ 100

B-10 Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ................. 101

B-11 Doctorate production in the 50 U.S. states, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 1920–99,

1920–24, and 1995–99 ............................................................................................................................... 102

B-12 Science and engineering and non-science and engineering doctorate production in the

50 U.S. states, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 1995–99 .............................................................. 103

B-13 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–24 and 1995–99 ......................................................... 104

B-14 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 .................. 105

B-15 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of non-science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 ........... 106

B-16 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of male Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 ................................................. 107

B-17 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 ............................................. 108

B-18 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s:

1975–99 and 1995–99................................................................................................................................ 109

B-19 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99

and 1995–99............................................................................................................................................... 110

LIST OF TABLES
91

B-20 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ........................... 111

B-21 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ...................... 112

B-22 Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 ........................... 113

Table Page
92

TABLE B-1. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–24 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1920–24) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 3,801 All U.S. institutions 140,286

University of Chicago * 128 University of California Berkeley 2,330

University of Wisconsin Madison 123 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,562

Cornell University * 112 Cornell University * 1,545

Harvard University * 107 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,524

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 92 University of Wisconsin Madison 1,390

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 91 University of Texas Austin 1,328

University of California Berkeley 87 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,274

Columbia University in City of New York * 77 Harvard University * 1,209

Yale University * 74 University of California Los Angeles 1,171

Indiana University Bloomington 65 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 1,105

University of Pennsylvania * 58 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 1,053

Ohio State University Columbus 55 Ohio State University Columbus 1,038

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 55 Brigham Young University * 1,011

City University of New York City College 51 Michigan State University 1,004

Johns Hopkins University * 51 Yale University * 973

University of Missouri Columbia 47 Stanford University * 937

Brown University * 46 Texas A&M University College Station 902

Oberlin College * 45 University of California Davis 890

Princeton University * 44 University of Pennsylvania * 888

University of Kansas Lawrence 44 University of Florida 882

Stanford University * 42 Purdue University West Lafayette 866

University of Iowa 37 Indiana University Bloomington 829

University of Nebraska Lincoln 36 University of Washington Seattle 814

Catholic University of America * 35 Princeton University * 807

Vassar College * 34 University of Virginia Charlottesville 806

Dartmouth College * 30 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 794

Mount Holyoke College * 30 Brown University * 774

New York University * 27 University of Colorado Boulder 770

University of Washington Seattle 27 University of Maryland College Park 752

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 26 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 698

University of Texas Austin 26 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 697

Northwestern University * 25 Duke University * 688

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 24 University of Massachusetts Amherst 671

Wellesley College * 23 University of California San Diego 661

West Virginia University Charleston 23 Northwestern University * 651

Barnard College * 22 Iowa State University 644

Ohio Wesleyan University * 22 State University of New York at Buffalo 643

Syracuse University * 22 University of Chicago * 642

University of Virginia Charlottesville 22 University of Arizona 635

Amherst College * 21 University of Iowa 620

George Washington University * 21 University of California Santa Barbara 604

Wesleyan University (Connecticut) * 21 Oberlin College * 582

Goucher College * 20 University of California Santa Cruz 575

Smith College * 20 Boston University * 569

University of Rochester * 20 University of Missouri Columbia 547

Clark University * 18 Arizona State University Tempe 535

Boston University * 17 Florida State University 532

Bryn Mawr College * 17 Columbia University in City of New York * 531

University of Oregon 17 University of Tennessee Knoxville 523

Valparaiso University * 17 University of California Irvine 511

Top 50 as percentage of total 57.7 Top 50 as percentage of total 31.4

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution; see also chapter 5. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
93

TABLE B-2. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 617,194 All U.S. institutions 80,596

University of California Berkeley 13,316 University of California Berkeley 1,704

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 9,792 Cornell University * 1,223

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 9,254 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,085

Cornell University * 9,136 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,070

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 9,038 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 985

University of Wisconsin Madison 8,394 University of Wisconsin Madison 936

Harvard University * 7,065 Pennsylvania State University University Park 870

University of California Los Angeles 6,979 University of Texas Austin 828

Pennsylvania State University University Park 6,868 Harvard University * 799

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 6,751 University of California Los Angeles 756

City University of New York City College 6,535 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 739

University of Texas Austin 5,880 University of California Davis 722

Ohio State University Columbus 5,781 Texas A&M University College Station 680

Purdue University West Lafayette 5,682 Stanford University * 654

Michigan State University 5,239 Purdue University West Lafayette 653

University of Chicago * 5,178 Michigan State University 629

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 4,975 Ohio State University Columbus 618

Stanford University * 4,951 Brigham Young University * 582

University of Washington Seattle 4,932 Princeton University * 582

Iowa State University 4,491 University of Pennsylvania * 581

Yale University * 4,362 University of Washington Seattle 568

Columbia University in City of New York * 4,247 University of Florida 564

University of Pennsylvania * 4,099 Yale University * 561

City University of New York Brooklyn College 4,037 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 555

Princeton University * 3,964 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 555

New York University * 3,806 University of California San Diego 547

University of Maryland College Park 3,796 University of Virginia Charlottesville 536

University of Colorado Boulder 3,563 University of Colorado Boulder 532

University of Florida 3,563 Brown University * 511

University of California Davis 3,560 Duke University * 492

California Institute of Technology * 3,396 University of Maryland College Park 490

Brown University * 3,353 Iowa State University 474

Brigham Young University * 3,352 University of Chicago * 463

Texas A&M University College Station 3,283 University of Massachusetts Amherst 435

Northwestern University * 3,248 University of California Santa Cruz 420

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 3,247 Northwestern University * 410

University of Missouri Columbia 3,163 University of California Irvine 402

Indiana University Bloomington 2,989 University of California Santa Barbara 401

University of Massachusetts Amherst 2,983 California Institute of Technology * 394

Case Western Reserve University * 2,947 North Carolina State University Raleigh 389

University of Kansas Lawrence 2,928 University of Arizona 388

University of Utah 2,912 State University of New York at Buffalo 386

University of Rochester * 2,830 Indiana University Bloomington 378

Oberlin College * 2,793 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 375

State University of New York at Buffalo 2,750 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 366

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 2,706 Washington University Saint Louis * 355

University of Nebraska Lincoln 2,694 Georgia Institute of Technology 350

Duke University * 2,682 Rice University * 342

Johns Hopkins University * 2,645 University of Iowa 336

University of Iowa 2,638 University of Notre Dame * 336

Top 50 as percentage of total 38.7 Top 50 as percentage of total 37.2

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of Ph.D.s in science and engineering who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
94

TABLE B-3. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of non-science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 450,950 All U.S. institutions 59,690

University of California Berkeley 4,739 University of California Berkeley 626

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 4,402 University of Texas Austin 500

University of Wisconsin Madison 4,233 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 492

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 3,912 University of Wisconsin Madison 454

Ohio State University Columbus 3,781 Indiana University Bloomington 451

Harvard University * 3,707 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 439

University of California Los Angeles 3,703 Brigham Young University * 429

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 3,698 Ohio State University Columbus 420

University of Texas Austin 3,581 University of California Los Angeles 415

Indiana University Bloomington 3,294 Yale University * 412

City University of New York City College 3,090 Harvard University * 410

Michigan State University 3,004 Pennsylvania State University University Park 404

Columbia University in City of New York * 2,998 Michigan State University 375

New York University * 2,984 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 366

Yale University * 2,876 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 323

Brigham Young University * 2,839 Cornell University * 322

Pennsylvania State University University Park 2,801 University of Florida 318

City University of New York Brooklyn College 2,680 Florida State University 315

Cornell University * 2,462 University of Pennsylvania * 307

Stanford University * 2,452 University of Iowa 284

University of Washington Seattle 2,433 Stanford University * 283

Wayne State University 2,298 Oberlin College * 277

Boston University * 2,278 University of Georgia 273

University of Pennsylvania * 2,264 University of Virginia Charlottesville 270

University of Iowa 2,255 University of Missouri Columbia 266

Florida State University 2,233 Arizona State University Tempe 263

Northwestern University * 2,227 Brown University * 263

University of Florida 2,217 University of Maryland College Park 262

University of Chicago * 2,206 Baylor University * 257

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 2,146 State University of New York at Buffalo 257

University of Missouri Columbia 2,124 Boston University * 250

Oberlin College * 2,082 University of Arizona 247

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 2,067 University of Washington Seattle 246

City University of New York Hunter College 1,975 University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 243

University of Maryland College Park 1,975 Northwestern University * 241

University of Nebraska Lincoln 1,961 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 239

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 1,944 University of Colorado Boulder 238

University of Utah 1,922 University of Massachusetts Amherst 236

Princeton University * 1,903 Columbia University in City of New York * 231

University of Kansas Lawrence 1,881 University of Tennessee Knoxville 230

Temple University 1,873 San Diego State University 229

Southern Illinois University Carbondale 1,858 Southern Illinois University Carbondale 228

State University of New York at Buffalo 1,820 Princeton University * 225

University of Colorado Boulder 1,770 Texas A&M University College Station 222

Baylor University * 1,740 University of Nebraska Lincoln 221

City University of New York Queens College 1,711 Purdue University West Lafayette 213

University of North Texas 1,695 Illinois State University Normal 212

University of Georgia 1,657 University of Kansas Lawrence 208

Syracuse University * 1,635 New York University * 204

University of Alabama Tuscaloosa 1,596 University of California Santa Barbara 203

Top 50 as percentage of total 28.2 Top 50 as percentage of total 25.6

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of non–science and engineering Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are 

listed alphabetically. 
95

TABLE B-4. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of male Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 

Baccalaureate institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 757,823 All U.S. institutions 75,103

University of California Berkeley 13,458 University of California Berkeley 1,387

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 10,720 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 945

Harvard University * 9,642 Cornell University * 908

University of Wisconsin Madison 9,448 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 848

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 9,388 University of Wisconsin Madison 815

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 8,917 Pennsylvania State University University Park 810

Cornell University * 8,442 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 805

City University of New York City College 8,317 Brigham Young University * 772

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 7,871 University of Texas Austin 740

Pennsylvania State University University Park 7,451 Harvard University * 727

University of California Los Angeles 7,443 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 657

Ohio State University Columbus 6,948 Texas A&M University College Station 579

University of Texas Austin 6,632 University of California Los Angeles 579

Columbia University in City of New York * 6,147 Purdue University West Lafayette 565

Yale University * 6,147 Ohio State University Columbus 549

Michigan State University 5,918 Yale University * 548

Purdue University West Lafayette 5,894 Michigan State University 545

University of Chicago * 5,594 Stanford University * 543

University of Washington Seattle 5,501 Princeton University * 523

Brigham Young University * 5,399 University of California Davis 510

Stanford University * 5,298 University of Pennsylvania * 503

Princeton University * 5,091 University of Florida 492

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 5,070 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 477

New York University * 4,759 University of Washington Seattle 474

City University of New York Brooklyn College 4,589 University of Virginia Charlottesville 440

Iowa State University 4,538 University of Colorado Boulder 432

University of Pennsylvania * 4,285 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 429

University of Florida 4,208 University of Maryland College Park 416

Indiana University Bloomington 4,173 Iowa State University 413

University of Maryland College Park 3,979 University of Chicago * 400

University of Missouri Columbia 3,961 Indiana University Bloomington 399

University of Utah 3,928 University of California San Diego 397

Northwestern University * 3,748 Brown University * 392

University of Colorado Boulder 3,712 University of Massachusetts Amherst 377

University of Nebraska Lincoln 3,508 State University of New York at Buffalo 374

Texas A&M University College Station 3,484 Columbia University in City of New York * 368

University of Kansas Lawrence 3,484 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 356

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 3,440 Duke University * 347

University of Iowa 3,433 University of California Santa Barbara 345

University of Notre Dame * 3,364 Northwestern University * 344

Oberlin College * 3,312 University of Arizona 340

California Institute of Technology * 3,288 University of California Santa Cruz 334

Brown University * 3,248 University of Notre Dame * 332

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 3,219 California Institute of Technology * 328

University of Massachusetts Amherst 3,160 North Carolina State University Raleigh 324

State University of New York at Buffalo 3,144 University of Iowa 320

Dartmouth College * 3,133 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 319

Case Western Reserve University * 3,024 Georgia Institute of Technology 313

Oklahoma State University Stillwater 3,014 University of Tennessee Knoxville 306

University of Rochester * 2,953 University of Nebraska Lincoln 288

Top 50 as percentage of total 35.5 Top 50 as percentage of total 34.3

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of male Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
96

TABLE B-5. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 310,193 All U.S. institutions 65,106

University of California Berkeley 4,593 University of California Berkeley 940

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 4,052 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 714

University of California Los Angeles 3,238 Cornell University * 636

University of Wisconsin Madison 3,179 University of California Los Angeles 591

Cornell University * 3,155 University of Texas Austin 588

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 2,984 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 579

University of Texas Austin 2,829 University of Wisconsin Madison 575

City University of New York Hunter College 2,619 Ohio State University Columbus 487

Ohio State University Columbus 2,611 Harvard University * 480

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 2,577 Pennsylvania State University University Park 464

Barnard College * 2,364 Michigan State University 459

Michigan State University 2,322 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 447

Wellesley College * 2,301 Indiana University Bloomington 429

Pennsylvania State University University Park 2,217 Yale University * 424

Smith College * 2,177 Stanford University * 393

City University of New York Brooklyn College 2,127 University of Florida 389

Indiana University Bloomington 2,109 University of Pennsylvania * 384

Stanford University * 2,104 Brown University * 382

University of Pennsylvania * 2,075 University of California Davis 379

New York University * 2,031 University of Virginia Charlottesville 366

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 1,970 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 364

University of Washington Seattle 1,862 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 342

Boston University * 1,854 Duke University * 341

University of Maryland College Park 1,792 University of Washington Seattle 339

University of Chicago * 1,789 University of Colorado Boulder 337

Mount Holyoke College * 1,743 University of Maryland College Park 336

Northwestern University * 1,727 University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 323

University of Colorado Boulder 1,620 Texas A&M University College Station 322

Florida State University 1,611 Smith College * 309

University of Florida 1,570 Northwestern University * 307

Oberlin College * 1,563 University of Iowa 300

City University of New York Queens College 1,553 Oberlin College * 299

Vassar College * 1,544 Purdue University West Lafayette 299

Radcliffe College * 1,505 University of Arizona 295

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 1,494 Wellesley College * 295

Brown University * 1,476 University of Massachusetts Amherst 294

Duke University * 1,468 Boston University * 285

University of Iowa 1,459 Princeton University * 283

Bryn Mawr College * 1,458 Florida State University 277

State University of New York at Buffalo 1,426 University of Missouri Columbia 271

Purdue University West Lafayette 1,363 State University of New York at Buffalo 269

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 1,331 University of California San Diego 264

Wayne State University 1,331 Arizona State University Tempe 259

University of Missouri Columbia 1,326 University of California Santa Barbara 258

University of Kansas Lawrence 1,324 New York University * 252

City University of New York City College 1,308 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 246

University of Rochester * 1,306 College of William and Mary 242

University of Massachusetts Amherst 1,285 University of Chicago * 242

University of California Davis 1,260 University of California Santa Cruz 240

Syracuse University * 1,227 Brigham Young University * 239

Top 50 as percentage of total 32.0 Top 50 as percentage of total 28.9

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of female Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
97

TABLE B-6. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 

Baccalaureate institutution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institutution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 2,635 All U.S. institutions 842

Oklahoma State University Stillwater 62 University of Oklahoma Norman 20

University of Oklahoma Norman 58 University of California Berkeley 18

Northeastern State University (Oklahoma) 50 Northeastern State University (Oklahoma) 17

University of California Berkeley 40 Oklahoma State University Stillwater 17

University of North Carolina Pembroke 33 Auburn University Auburn 10

University of Wisconsin Madison 25 Northern Arizona University 9

University of California Los Angeles 24 University of Texas Austin 9

University of Washington Seattle 24 Michigan State University 8

University of California Davis 23 University of Florida 8

University of New Mexico Albuquerque 23 University of North Carolina Pembroke 8

University of Texas Austin 23 California State University Fresno 7

University of Arizona 22 San Jose State University 7

Michigan State University 21 Southeastern Oklahoma State University 7

University of Central Oklahoma 21 Southwest Missouri State University Springfield 7

Northern Arizona University 20 University of California Davis 7

University of Montana Missoula 19 University of Wisconsin Madison 7

University of Arkansas Fayetteville 18 Portland State University 6

Auburn University Auburn 17 Purdue University West Lafayette 6

Arizona State University Tempe 16 San Diego State University 6

Brigham Young University * 16 University of Arizona 6

University of California Santa Barbara 16 University of California Los Angeles 6

University of Florida 16 University of Central Oklahoma 6

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 16 University of New Mexico Albuquerque 6

California State University Long Beach 15 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 6

Cornell University * 15 University of Washington Seattle 6

University of South Dakota 15 Arizona State University Tempe 5

Texas A&M University College Station 14 Cornell University * 5

Ohio State University Columbus 13 New Mexico State University Las Cruces 5

Purdue University West Lafayette 13 Texas A&M University College Station 5

Southeastern Oklahoma State University 13 University of California Irvine 5

University of North Dakota Grand Forks 13 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 5

California State University Fresno 12 University of Missouri Columbia 5

California State University Fullerton 12 University of North Dakota Grand Forks 5

California State University Sacramento 12 University of Oregon 5

Indiana University Bloomington 12 University of South Florida 5

Oklahoma Baptist University * 12 Bemidji State University 4

San Diego State University 12 Brigham Young University * 4

University of Colorado Boulder 12 Indiana University Bloomington 4

Southwest Missouri State University Springfield 11 Iowa State University 4

Texas Tech University 11 Jacksonville State University (Alabama) 4

University of Maryland College Park 11 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 4

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 11 Miami University Oxford (Ohio) 4

University of South Florida 11 Tufts University * 4

University of Alaska Fairbanks 4

University of Arkansas Fayetteville 4

University of Massachusetts Amherst 4

University of Montana Missoula 4

University of Pennsylvania 4

University of Tennessee Knoxville 4

Top 57 as percentage of totala 37.8 Top 49 as percentage of totalb 38.7

* Privately controlled.

a

 Because 14 institutions tied for 44th place (each with a count of 10), 57 institutions are included in percentage of total. 

b

 Because 14 institutions tied for 36th place and 34 institutions tied for 50th place (each with a count of 3), the list contains only 49 institutions. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. American Indian/Alaskan Native Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied 

are listed alphabetically. 
98

TABLE B-7. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 12,475 All U.S. institutions 4,657

University of California Berkeley 1,126 University of California Berkeley 448

University of Hawaii Manoa 611 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 151

University of California Los Angeles 524 Harvard University * 146

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 387 University of California Los Angeles 146

Harvard University * 290 Cornell University * 111

Stanford University * 260 University of Hawaii Manoa 105

University of California Davis 260 Stanford University * 93

Cornell University * 256 University of California Davis 92

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 202 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 90

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 200 University of California Irvine 78

University of Washington Seattle 193 California Institute of Technology * 75

California Institute of Technology * 189 Princeton University * 72

University of California Irvine 162 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 72

Yale University * 159 University of California San Diego 67

University of California San Diego 148 Yale University * 66

Princeton University * 137 University of Pennsylvania * 64

University of Maryland College Park 127 University of Washington Seattle 59

University of Southern California * 127 Johns Hopkins University * 50

Columbia University in City of New York * 119 University of Chicago * 49

University of Chicago * 118 University of Maryland College Park 43

University of Pennsylvania * 116 University of Texas Austin 43

Johns Hopkins University * 105 Northwestern University * 41

Northwestern University * 102 University of Southern California * 41

San Francisco State University 99 Brown University * 37

University of California Santa Barbara 99 Columbia University in City of New York * 37

University of Wisconsin Madison 98 University of Wisconsin Madison 34

University of Texas Austin 88 Purdue University West Lafayette 31

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 85 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 31

California State University Los Angeles 84 University of Virginia Charlottesville 31

Purdue University West Lafayette 82 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 30

San Jose State University 79 Washington University Saint Louis * 30

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 78 University of California Santa Barbara 28

Brown University * 72 University of Rochester * 28

Pomona College * 68 San Francisco State University 26

Harvey Mudd College * 64 Carnegie Mellon University * 25

State University of New York at Stony Brook 61 University of Colorado Boulder 24

University of Utah 59 California State University Los Angeles 23

University of Colorado Boulder 58 University of Florida 23

New York University * 57 Pennsylvania State University University Park 22

California State University Long Beach 56 Rice University * 22

Washington University Saint Louis * 56 Texas A&M University College Station 22

City University of New York City College 54 California State University Long Beach 21

State University of New York at Buffalo 54 Pomona College * 21

University of Illinois Chicago 52 San Jose State University 21

University of Rochester * 52 Wellesley College * 21

University of California Santa Cruz 51 Duke University * 20

Wellesley College * 50 State University of New York at Buffalo 20

Barnard College * 49 State University of New York at Stony Brook 20

Pennsylvania State University University Park 49 Georgia Institute of Technology 19

Rice University * 47 Harvey Mudd College * 19

New York University * 19

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 19

Top 50 as percentage of total 61.9 Top 52 as percentage of totala 62.8

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. Asian/Pacific Islander Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are 

listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

a

Because four institutions tied for 49th place, 52 institutions are listed and are included in percentage of total.
99

TABLE B-8. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 25,872 All U.S. institutions 6,631

Howard University *,† 752 Howard University *,† 174

Southern University A&M College Baton Rouge † 419 Spelman College *† 100

Hampton University *,† 386 Hampton University *,† 82

Florida A&M University † 382 Florida A&M University † 78

Tuskegee University *,† 361 Jackson State University † 71

North Carolina A&T State University † 337 Southern University A&M College Baton Rouge † 71

Spelman College *,† 336 Wayne State University 69

Morgan State University † 324 North Carolina A&T State University † 67

Wayne State University 323 Tuskegee University *,† 62

Tennessee State University † 320 Morgan State University † 59

North Carolina Central University † 307 Chicago State University 55

Jackson State University † 295 North Carolina Central University † 54

Fisk University *,† 278 Grambling State University † 50

Virginia State University † 256 Tennessee State University † 50

Morehouse College *,† 231 Morehouse College *,† 46

South Carolina State University † 227 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 46

City University of New York City College 194 Temple University 44

Grambling State University † 190 University of Maryland College Park 44

Alabama State University † 186 University of California Berkeley 43

California State University Los Angeles 184 City University of New York City College 42

Chicago State University 183 North Carolina State University Raleigh 42

University of the District of Columbia † 181 University of Virginia Charlottesville 42

Prairie View A&M University † 178 Brown University * 41

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 171 Northwestern University * 41

Michigan State University 170 Michigan State University 40

Ohio State University Columbus 164 Fisk University *,† 39

Temple University 163 University of California Los Angeles 39

Alabama A&M University † 160 Prairie View A&M University † 38

Clark Atlanta University *,† 160 Ohio State University Columbus 37

Alcorn State University † 159 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 36

Tougaloo College *,† 158 Norfolk State University † 35

City University of New York Hunter College 157 South Carolina State University † 35

University of California Berkeley 157 Harvard University * 34

University of Arkansas Pine Bluff † 156 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 34

Xavier University of Louisiana *,† 155 Yale University * 34

Texas Southern University † 152 Stanford University * 33

Central State University (Ohio) † 144 Texas Southern University † 33

Southern Illinois University Carbondale 144 Alabama A&M University † 32

Cheyney University of Pennsylvania † 143 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 32

University of California Los Angeles 142 Xavier University of Louisiana *,† 32

University of Maryland College Park 138 California State University Los Angeles 31

Fort Valley State University † 137 Clark Atlanta University *,† 31

Dillard University *,† 131 Dillard University *,† 31

New York University * 131 City University of New York Hunter College 30

Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) † 122 Florida State University 30

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 122 Southern Illinois University Carbondale 30

Norfolk State University † 114 Tougaloo College *,† 30

Harvard University * 113 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 29

Virginia Union University *,† 112 University of South Carolina Columbia 29

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 109 Alabama State University † 28

Top 50 as percentage of total 41.4 Top 50 as percentage of total 35.2

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

†

 Historically black college or university.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. black Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
100

TABLE B-9. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 

Baccalaureate institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All U.S. institutions 15,574 All U.S. institutions 4,745

University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 1,835 University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 478

University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez 440 University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez 182

University of Texas Austin 333 University of Texas Austin 115

University of California Berkeley 289 University of California Berkeley 110

University of California Los Angeles 252 University of California Los Angeles 90

University of New Mexico Albuquerque 237 Florida International University 75

University of Miami * 226 University of Miami * 64

University of Texas El Paso 226 University of Florida 63

University of Florida 182 University of New Mexico Albuquerque 61

California State University Los Angeles 178 University of Texas El Paso 60

University of Arizona 170 Stanford University * 51

Texas A&M University Kingsville 145 Texas A&M University College Station 47

University of Texas Pan American 144 University of Arizona 47

University of California Santa Barbara 142 Cornell University * 46

Florida International University 137 University of California Davis 42

City University of New York City College 136 San Diego State University 41

Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico Ponce * 136 University of California Santa Barbara 41

San Diego State University 120 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 40

New York University * 114 University of California Irvine 39

New Mexico State University Las Cruces 113 New Mexico State University Las Cruces 38

Inter American University Puerto Rico San German * 112 California State University Los Angeles 35

Stanford University * 112 Arizona State University Tempe 33

City University of New York Hunter College 109 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 32

Texas A&M University College Station 108 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 30

Cornell University * 105 Yale University * 30

California State University Long Beach 104 Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico Ponce * 29

San Jose State University 103 University of Texas Pan American 29

University of California Irvine 100 California State University Northridge 28

Arizona State University Tempe 98 Harvard University * 28

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 94 New York University * 28

St. Mary's University (Texas) * 94 Texas A&M University Kingsville 28

University of California Davis 92 California State University Long Beach 27

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 91 University of California San Diego 25

University of California San Diego 87 University of California Santa Cruz 25

University of South Florida 87 University of South Florida 25

Harvard University * 86 University of Houston University Park 24

Florida State University 84 University of Puerto Rico Central Admin 24

San Francisco State University 84 St. Mary's University (Texas) * 23

California State University Fresno 83 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 23

City University of New York Queens College 83 University of Maryland College Park 23

University of Southern California * 83 California State University Sacramento 22

California State University Northridge 81 Inter American University of Puerto Rico San German * 22

University of Houston University Park 80 University of Puerto Rico Cayey University College 22

University of Maryland College Park 79 University of Washington Seattle 22

New Mexico Highlands University 78 California State University Fresno 21

Yale University * 78 Florida State University 21

California State University Fullerton 77 San Jose State University 21

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 75 Princeton University * 20

University of California Santa Cruz 74 Brown University * 19

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 73 Columbia University in City of New York * 19

Top 50 as percentage of total 53.0 Top 50 as percentage of total 52.4

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. Hispanic Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
101

TABLE B-10. Top 50 U.S. baccalaureate institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Baccalaureate institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Baccalaureate institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s

All U.S. institutions 550,345 All U.S. institutions 113,543

University of California Berkeley 7,373 University of California Berkeley 1,491

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 6,469 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,314

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 6,260 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,285

University of Wisconsin Madison 5,862 Cornell University * 1,257

Cornell University * 5,704 University of Wisconsin Madison 1,210

Pennsylvania State University University Park 5,509 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,160

Michigan State University 4,841 University of Texas Austin 1,013

Ohio State University Columbus 4,635 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 932

University of California Los Angeles 4,592 Ohio State University Columbus 911

University of Texas Austin 4,545 Brigham Young University * 904

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 4,431 Harvard University * 884

Harvard University * 3,942 Michigan State University 864

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 3,763 University of California Los Angeles 799

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 3,705 Yale University * 776

Purdue University West Lafayette 3,683 Texas A&M University College Station 764

Brigham Young University * 3,615 Purdue University West Lafayette 740

Indiana University Bloomington 3,430 University of Florida 721

Stanford University * 3,381 Indiana University Bloomington 719

University of Maryland College Park 3,381 University of Pennsylvania * 704

University of Washington Seattle 3,370 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 692

University of Florida 3,245 University of Virginia Charlottesville 691

University of Pennsylvania * 3,218 Stanford University * 682

Yale University * 3,104 University of California Davis 673

University of Colorado Boulder 2,988 University of Colorado Boulder 668

University of California Davis 2,875 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 653

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 2,867 Brown University * 621

State University of New York at Buffalo 2,864 Princeton University * 621

University of Massachusetts Amherst 2,745 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 619

Brown University * 2,603 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 617

University of Missouri Columbia 2,601 University of Washington Seattle 613

Princeton University * 2,600 Duke University * 612

Iowa State University 2,574 University of Maryland College Park 581

Duke University * 2,560 University of Massachusetts Amherst 581

Northwestern University * 2,529 University of Iowa 553

University of California Santa Barbara 2,510 Iowa State University 551

Florida State University 2,501 State University of New York at Buffalo 550

Texas A&M University College Station 2,441 University of Chicago * 521

Boston University * 2,370 University of California San Diego 515

University of Iowa 2,359 Northwestern University * 511

University of Kansas Lawrence 2,358 Oberlin College * 511

City University of New York Brooklyn College 2,348 University of Arizona 499

University of Virginia Charlottesville 2,324 University of California Santa Barbara 499

Columbia University in City of New York * 2,317 University of California Santa Cruz 492

University of Rochester * 2,289 University of Missouri Columbia 481

University of Chicago * 2,281 University of Nebraska Lincoln 462

Oberlin College * 2,256 Florida State University 447

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 2,214 University of Georgia 447

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 2,210 College of William and Mary 446

University of Nebraska Lincoln 2,148 Boston University * 445

City University of New York City College 2,133 University of Notre Dame * 444

Top 50 as percentage of total 30.7 Top 50 as percentage of total 31.5

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. white Ph.D.s who received a baccalaureate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
102

TABLE B-11. Doctorate production in the 50 U.S. states, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 1920–99, 1920–24, and 1995–99 

Location Ph.D.s Location Ph.D.s Location Ph.D.s 

All locations 1,354,873 All locations 4,199 All locations 210,535

New York 151,545 New York 879 California 24,153

California 150,447 Illinois 674 New York 18,624

Illinois 86,648 Massachusetts 490 Texas 13,552

Massachusetts 81,086 Maryland 283 Illinois 11,321

Pennsylvania 72,138 Wisconsin 275 Pennsylvania 11,039

Texas 67,140 California 262 Massachusetts 10,861

Michigan 57,823 Connecticut 228 Ohio 9,059

Ohio 57,299 Pennsylvania 188 Florida 8,969

Indiana 44,640 Iowa 145 Michigan 7,470

Florida 39,284 District of Columbia 141 Indiana 5,441

Wisconsin 37,515 New Jersey 115 North Carolina 5,316

North Carolina 31,148 Michigan 113 Virginia 5,084

Maryland 28,495 Minnesota 105 Maryland 4,832

Iowa 27,926 Ohio 92 Wisconsin 4,602

New Jersey 27,888 Indiana 37 Georgia 4,563

Minnesota 26,344 Missouri 37 New Jersey 4,352

Connecticut 24,863 Rhode Island 23 Minnesota 4,267

Colorado 24,858 Virginia 21 Colorado 3,817

Missouri 24,476 Tennessee 20 Arizona 3,815

Virginia 22,099 Nebraska 17 Missouri 3,541

Washington 21,967 North Carolina 13 Washington 3,512

Georgia 21,669 Washington 12 Tennessee 3,361

District of Columbia 21,445 Kansas 10 Iowa 3,261

Tennessee 20,568 Colorado 8 Connecticut 3,085

Arizona 17,077 Texas 8 Louisiana 2,666

Oregon 15,881 Arizona 2 Alabama 2,594

Oklahoma 15,216 Louisiana 1 District of Columbia 2,457

Kansas 14,887 Alabama 0 Kansas 2,303

Louisiana 14,201 Alaska 0 Oregon 2,132

Utah 13,771 Arkansas 0 Oklahoma 2,036

Alabama 10,944 Delaware 0 South Carolina 1,984

Nebraska 8,997 Florida 0 Utah 1,871

Mississippi 8,848 Georgia 0 Mississippi 1,760

Rhode Island 8,164 Hawaii 0 Kentucky 1,667

Kentucky 8,149 Idaho 0 Nebraska 1,459

South Carolina 8,064 Kentucky 0 New Mexico 1,440

New Mexico 6,940 Maine 0 Rhode Island 1,205

Arkansas 4,330 Mississippi 0 Hawaii 835

West Virginia 4,131 Montana 0 Delaware 832

Hawaii 4,017 Nevada 0 Arkansas 728

Delaware 3,712 New Hampshire 0 West Virginia 714

North Dakota 2,567 New Mexico 0 New Hampshire 514

Wyoming 2,387 North Dakota 0 Puerto Rico 454

New Hampshire 2,376 Oklahoma 0 Idaho 430

Montana 2,223 Oregon 0 Montana 403

Idaho 2,081 South Carolina 0 Nevada 398

South Dakota 1,739 South Dakota 0 North Dakota 386

Vermont 1,349 Utah 0 South Dakota 378

Nevada 1,158 Vermont 0 Wyoming 347

Maine 1,074 West Virginia 0 Vermont 282

Puerto Rico 910 Wyoming 0 Maine 235

Alaska 369 Puerto Rico 0 Alaska 128

NOTE: Locations that were tied are listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

1920–99 1920–24 1995–99
103

TABLE B-12. Science and engineering and non-science and engineering doctorate production in the 50 U.S.

states, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 1995–99

Location Ph.D.s Location Ph.D.s 

All locations 134,271 All locations 76,264

California 17,284 California 6,869

New York 11,974 New York 6,650

Texas 8,411 Texas 5,141

Massachusetts 7,551 Florida 4,768

Illinois 7,039 Pennsylvania 4,347

Pennsylvania 6,692 Illinois 4,282

Ohio 5,477 Ohio 3,582

Michigan 5,040 Massachusetts 3,310

Florida 4,201 Michigan 2,430

North Carolina 3,629 Indiana 1,950

Indiana 3,491 Minnesota 1,918

Maryland 3,311 Virginia 1,848

Virginia 3,236 Georgia 1,708

Wisconsin 3,104 North Carolina 1,687

New Jersey 3,032 Tennessee 1,588

Georgia 2,855 Maryland 1,521

Colorado 2,739 Wisconsin 1,498

Minnesota 2,349 Arizona 1,483

Arizona 2,332 Missouri 1,337

Washington 2,297 New Jersey 1,320

Missouri 2,204 Washington 1,215

Iowa 2,100 Iowa 1,161

Connecticut 1,999 Louisiana 1,135

Tennessee 1,773 Connecticut 1,086

Alabama 1,543 Colorado 1,078

Louisiana 1,531 Alabama 1,051

District of Columbia 1,507 Mississippi 961

Oregon 1,467 District of Columbia 950

Utah 1,388 Kansas 931

Kansas 1,372 Oklahoma 905

Oklahoma 1,131 South Carolina 869

South Carolina 1,115 Kentucky 690

Kentucky 977 Oregon 665

New Mexico 905 Nebraska 606

Rhode Island 887 New Mexico 535

Nebraska 853 Utah 483

Mississippi 799 Arkansas 394

Hawaii 635 Rhode Island 318

Delaware 599 West Virginia 314

New Hampshire 439 South Dakota 246

West Virginia 400 Delaware 233

Arkansas 334 Hawaii 200

Puerto Rico 282 Puerto Rico 172

Montana 280 Idaho 162

Wyoming 276 Nevada 125

Nevada 273 Montana 123

Idaho 268 North Dakota 123

North Dakota 263 New Hampshire 75

Vermont 207 Vermont 75

Maine 166 Wyoming 71

South Dakota 132 Maine 69

Alaska 122 Alaska 6

NOTE: Locations that were tied are listed alphabetically.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Science and engineering Non-science and engineering
104

TABLE B-13. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Ph.D.s: 1920–24 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1920–24) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 4,199 All institutions 210,535

University of Chicago * 473 University of Texas Austin 3,842

Columbia University in City of New York * 450 University of California Berkeley 3,819

Harvard University * 371 University of Wisconsin Madison 3,740

Johns Hopkins University * 280 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 3,543

University of Wisconsin Madison 272 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 3,495

Cornell University * 258 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 3,381

Yale University * 228 Ohio State University Columbus 3,317

University of California Berkeley 184 University of California Los Angeles 3,083

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 176 Stanford University * 2,885

University of Pennsylvania * 124 Pennsylvania State University University Park 2,830

University of Iowa 122 Harvard University * 2,807

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 113 Texas A&M University College Station 2,705

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 105 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 2,535

Princeton University * 94 University of Washington Seattle 2,501

Ohio State University Columbus 88 Cornell University * 2,487

Fordham University * 81 Nova Southeastern University * 2,474

New York University * 80 Purdue University West Lafayette 2,454

Catholic University of America * 75 University of Maryland College Park 2,426

Stanford University * 66 University of Southern California * 2,242

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 57 University of Pennsylvania * 2,209

Clark University * 45 Columbia University in City of New York * 2,208

George Washington University * 42 University of Florida 2,147

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 29 Michigan State University 2,133

Indiana University Bloomington 28 University of Arizona 2,047

Northwestern University * 25 Indiana University Bloomington 1,979

Bryn Mawr College * 24 New York University * 1,940

Brown University * 23 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 1,886

Iowa State University 23 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 1,878

University of Virginia Charlottesville 21 University of Chicago * 1,862

Washington University Saint Louis * 21 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 1,829

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 20 University of Colorado Boulder 1,783

Vanderbilt University * 20 Northwestern University * 1,767

American University * 17 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 1,766

University of Nebraska Lincoln 17 Yale University * 1,752

University of Missouri Columbia 16 University of Georgia 1,747

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 13 University of California Davis 1,732

California Institute of Technology * 12 University of Iowa 1,717

University of Washington Seattle 12 University of Virginia Charlottesville 1,633

Boston University * 11 Johns Hopkins University * 1,621

University of Kansas Lawrence 10 North Carolina State University Raleigh 1,621

University of Notre Dame * 9 State University of New York at Buffalo 1,547

Georgetown University * 7 City University of New York Graduate Center 1,515

Annenberg Research Institute * 6 University of Massachusetts Amherst 1,492

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute * 6 Florida State University 1,469

Carnegie Mellon University * 5 Arizona State University Tempe 1,454

University of Colorado Boulder 5 Temple University 1,453

Rice University * 4 Boston University * 1,429

University of Cincinnati 4 Iowa State University 1,416

University of Massachusetts Amherst 4 Princeton University * 1,398

University of Texas Austin 4 University of Kansas Lawrence 1,352

Top 50 as percentage of total 99.5 Top 50 as percentage of total 52.4

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution; see also chapter 5. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
105

TABLE B-14. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 835,221 All institutions 134,271

University of California Berkeley 25,167 University of California Berkeley 2,785

University of Wisconsin Madison 22,682 University of Wisconsin Madison 2,617

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 21,705 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 2,540

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 18,669 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 2,380

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 18,183 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 2,320

Cornell University * 17,984 University of Texas Austin 2,286

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 16,397 Stanford University * 2,250

Ohio State University Columbus 16,060 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 2,164

Stanford University * 15,695 Texas A&M University College Station 2,103

Purdue University West Lafayette 15,506 Ohio State University Columbus 2,053

Harvard University * 15,310 Cornell University * 2,022

Columbia University in City of New York * 14,339 Purdue University West Lafayette 1,969

University of California Los Angeles 13,179 University of California Los Angeles 1,916

University of Chicago * 12,955 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,862

University of Texas Austin 12,643 University of Washington Seattle 1,683

Michigan State University 11,732 University of Maryland College Park 1,671

Pennsylvania State University University Park 11,334 University of Florida 1,635

University of Pennsylvania * 10,920 Harvard University * 1,591

Iowa State University 10,628 University of California Davis 1,495

University of Washington Seattle 10,456 Michigan State University 1,492

Yale University * 10,121 University of Arizona 1,432

New York University * 9,835 University of Pennsylvania * 1,406

University of Maryland College Park 9,541 Columbia University in City of New York * 1,369

Northwestern University * 9,219 University of Colorado Boulder 1,354

Texas A&M University College Station 9,113 University of Southern California * 1,321

University of Florida 8,401 North Carolina State University Raleigh 1,309

Princeton University * 8,228 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 1,301

University of California Davis 8,077 Northwestern University * 1,267

Johns Hopkins University * 7,989 University of Chicago * 1,194

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 7,809 Iowa State University 1,183

University of Southern California * 7,702 University of California San Diego 1,178

University of Iowa 7,176 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 1,150

University of Colorado Boulder 7,172 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 1,145

Indiana University Bloomington 7,107 Georgia Institute of Technology 1,117

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 7,101 Yale University * 1,108

University of Arizona 6,985 Johns Hopkins University * 1,102

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 6,954 City University of New York Graduate Center 1,034

North Carolina State University Raleigh 6,663 Princeton University * 1,002

California Institute of Technology * 6,271 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 966

Duke University * 5,769 State University of New York at Stony Brook 964

Case Western Reserve University * 5,715 University of Virginia Charlottesville 956

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 5,704 State University of New York at Buffalo 944

University of Missouri Columbia 5,696 University of Georgia 925

State University of New York at Buffalo 5,630 Indiana University Bloomington 911

University of Massachusetts Amherst 5,552 Duke University * 908

University of Kansas Lawrence 5,550 University of Massachusetts Amherst 906

University of Rochester * 5,399 University of Iowa 875

University of Tennessee Knoxville 5,258 Colorado State University 869

Oregon State University 5,170 California Institute of Technology * 849

University of Virginia Charlottesville 5,126 Boston University * 836

Top 50 as percentage of total 62.7 Top 50 as percentage of total 54.9

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTE: Institutions are ranked by the number of science and engineering Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. 

* Privately controlled.
106

TABLE B-15. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of non-science and engineering Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99 

Doctoral institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 519,652 All institutions 76,264

Harvard University * 12,807 Nova Southeastern University * 1,977

New York University * 12,071 University of Texas Austin 1,556

Indiana University Bloomington 11,546 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 1,331

Columbia University in City of New York * 11,376 Ohio State University Columbus 1,264

Teachers College Columbia University * 11,279 Harvard University * 1,216

University of Wisconsin Madison 11,152 University of California Los Angeles 1,167

Ohio State University Columbus 10,902 New York University * 1,153

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 10,479 University of Wisconsin Madison 1,123

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 9,176 Indiana University Bloomington 1,068

University of Southern California * 9,004 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,061

University of Texas Austin 8,965 University of California Berkeley 1,034

University of California Berkeley 8,851 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,003

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 8,591 Pennsylvania State University University Park 968

University of Iowa 8,062 University of Southern California * 921

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 7,659 Florida State University 898

University of Chicago * 7,644 Temple University 877

University of California Los Angeles 7,421 Teachers College Columbia University * 871

Nova Southeastern University * 7,376 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 863

Michigan State University 7,108 University of Iowa 842

Yale University * 7,081 Columbia University in City of New York * 839

Stanford University * 6,766 University of Georgia 822

Florida State University 6,380 University of Washington Seattle 818

University of Pennsylvania * 6,276 University of Pennsylvania * 803

Boston University * 6,266 University of Maryland College Park 755

Pennsylvania State University University Park 6,070 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 741

Temple University 5,532 University of South Carolina Columbia 735

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 5,411 University of Virginia Charlottesville 677

Northwestern University * 5,362 University of Chicago * 668

University of Maryland College Park 5,273 University of Kansas Lawrence 660

University of Washington Seattle 5,137 Yale University * 644

Vanderbilt University * 4,840 Michigan State University 641

University of Georgia 4,832 Stanford University * 635

Catholic University of America * 4,566 Arizona State University Tempe 623

University of Oregon 4,550 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 616

University of Missouri Columbia 4,428 University of Arizona 615

Cornell University * 4,393 State University of New York at Buffalo 603

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 4,390 Texas A&M University College Station 602

University of Massachusetts Amherst 4,390 Boston University * 593

University of Virginia Charlottesville 4,106 University of Massachusetts Amherst 586

University of Nebraska Lincoln 4,080 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 577

State University of New York at Buffalo 4,039 University of Nebraska Lincoln 571

University of Northern Colorado 3,978 University of Alabama Tuscaloosa 558

University of Florida 3,816 University of North Texas 551

University of Kansas Lawrence 3,805 Johns Hopkins University * 519

University of Colorado Boulder 3,650 University of Tennessee Knoxville 517

Johns Hopkins University * 3,613 University of Florida 512

Wayne State University 3,485 University of Cincinnati 503

Southern Illinois University Carbondale 3,401 Northwestern University * 500

University of North Texas 3,382 Oklahoma State University Stillwater 486

Oklahoma State University Stillwater 3,312 Purdue University West Lafayette 485

University of Missouri Columbia 485

Top 50 as percentage of total 63.1 Top 51 as percentage of totala 53.9

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

a

 Because two institutions tied for 50th place, 51 institutions are included in percentage of total.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of non–science and engineering Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
107

TABLE B-16. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of male Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 983,168 All institutions 123,496

University of Wisconsin Madison 26,680 University of California Berkeley 2,429

University of California Berkeley 26,669 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 2,373

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 25,062 University of Texas Austin 2,365

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 21,795 University of Wisconsin Madison 2,279

Harvard University * 21,652 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 2,099

Ohio State University Columbus 20,372 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 2,049

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 18,936 Ohio State University Columbus 2,034

Columbia University in City of New York * 18,355 Stanford University * 2,014

Stanford University * 18,027 Texas A&M University College Station 1,961

Cornell University * 17,816 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 1,870

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 16,972 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,785

University of Chicago * 16,130 University of California Los Angeles 1,774

Purdue University West Lafayette 15,545 Purdue University West Lafayette 1,687

University of Texas Austin 15,503 Cornell University * 1,575

Michigan State University 14,780 Harvard University * 1,570

University of California Los Angeles 14,656 University of Washington Seattle 1,475

New York University * 14,605 University of Florida 1,399

Indiana University Bloomington 13,632 University of Maryland College Park 1,391

Pennsylvania State University University Park 13,467 University of Southern California * 1,323

Yale University * 13,114 University of Arizona 1,314

University of Pennsylvania * 12,335 Columbia University in City of New York * 1,306

University of Southern California * 11,987 Michigan State University 1,297

University of Iowa 11,717 University of Pennsylvania * 1,266

University of Washington Seattle 11,562 University of Chicago * 1,212

Northwestern University * 10,846 University of Colorado Boulder 1,111

Iowa State University 10,276 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 1,098

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 10,018 University of California Davis 1,090

University of Maryland College Park 9,920 Indiana University Bloomington 1,067

Princeton University * 9,625 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 1,063

Texas A&M University College Station 9,585 North Carolina State University Raleigh 1,056

University of Florida 9,156 Northwestern University * 1,043

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 8,513 Yale University * 1,042

Johns Hopkins University * 8,496 Nova Southeastern University * 1,036

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 8,365 University of Iowa 1,023

University of Missouri Columbia 7,963 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 1,007

University of Colorado Boulder 7,837 Iowa State University 974

University of Arizona 7,225 Princeton University * 962

Florida State University 7,019 University of Virginia Charlottesville 961

State University of New York at Buffalo 6,910 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 953

University of California Davis 6,785 Georgia Institute of Technology 951

University of Kansas Lawrence 6,678 Johns Hopkins University * 925

University of Virginia Charlottesville 6,625 University of Georgia 914

University of Nebraska Lincoln 6,616 University of California San Diego 911

University of Georgia 6,466 State University of New York at Buffalo 908

University of Massachusetts Amherst 6,463 New York University * 877

Duke University * 6,454 Arizona State University Tempe 868

Boston University * 6,361 Florida State University 861

North Carolina State University Raleigh 6,261 University of Massachusetts Amherst 801

University of Tennessee Knoxville 6,151 State University of New York at Stony Brook 784

Teachers College Columbia University * 6,139 Boston University * 782

Top 50 as percentage of total 62.5 Top 50 as percentage of total 54.2

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTE: Institutions are ranked by the number of male Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. 

* Privately controlled. 
108

TABLE B-17. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of female Ph.D.s: 1920–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1920–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 369,819 All institutions 85,960

Columbia University in City of New York * 7,353 University of Texas Austin 1,476

University of California Berkeley 7,345 University of Wisconsin Madison 1,445

New York University * 7,289 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 1,417

University of Wisconsin Madison 7,119 Nova Southeastern University * 1,409

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 6,852 University of California Berkeley 1,390

Ohio State University Columbus 6,579 University of California Los Angeles 1,277

Harvard University * 6,360 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,277

University of Texas Austin 6,103 Ohio State University Columbus 1,272

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 6,017 Harvard University * 1,171

University of California Los Angeles 5,903 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,124

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 5,713 New York University * 1,060

Teachers College Columbia University * 5,154 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,041

Indiana University Bloomington 5,016 University of Maryland College Park 1,030

University of Maryland College Park 4,885 University of Washington Seattle 1,019

University of Pennsylvania * 4,858 University of Pennsylvania * 942

University of Southern California * 4,689 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 933

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 4,574 Cornell University * 912

Cornell University * 4,561 Indiana University Bloomington 907

University of Chicago * 4,447 University of Southern California * 906

Stanford University * 4,420 Columbia University in City of New York * 900

Boston University * 4,108 Stanford University * 858

Yale University * 4,083 University of Georgia 831

Michigan State University 4,041 Michigan State University 824

University of Washington Seattle 4,016 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 815

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 3,997 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 802

Pennsylvania State University University Park 3,933 Purdue University West Lafayette 764

Nova Southeastern University * 3,899 University of Florida 748

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 3,834 Texas A&M University College Station 738

Northwestern University * 3,727 Temple University 734

University of Massachusetts Amherst 3,479 University of Arizona 730

University of Iowa 3,476 Northwestern University * 719

Florida State University 3,363 City University of New York Graduate Center 716

University of Georgia 3,361 Yale University * 706

Temple University 3,212 University of Massachusetts Amherst 691

Purdue University West Lafayette 3,132 Johns Hopkins University * 673

City University of New York Graduate Center 3,083 University of Virginia Charlottesville 671

University of Florida 3,060 University of Iowa 670

Johns Hopkins University * 3,055 University of Colorado Boulder 667

University of Colorado Boulder 2,975 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 651

State University of New York at Buffalo 2,757 University of California Davis 639

University of Kansas Lawrence 2,674 University of Chicago * 639

Vanderbilt University * 2,646 University of Kansas Lawrence 639

University of Virginia Charlottesville 2,606 State University of New York at Buffalo 637

University of Arizona 2,542 University of South Carolina Columbia 629

Fordham University * 2,472 Boston University * 628

Texas A&M University College Station 2,407 Teachers College Columbia University * 618

Catholic University of America * 2,398 Florida State University 607

Wayne State University 2,384 Arizona State University Tempe 582

University of Tennessee Knoxville 2,342 North Carolina State University Raleigh 564

University of Connecticut 2,290 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 557

Top 50 as percentage of total 56.9 Top 50 as percentage of total 50.8

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of female Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
109

TABLE B-18. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of American Indian/Alaskan Native, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 

Doctoral institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 2,722 All institutions 910

Oklahoma State University Stillwater 93 Oklahoma State University Stillwater 29

University of Oklahoma Norman 85 University of Oklahoma Norman 26

Pennsylvania State University University Park 64 Pennsylvania State University University Park 18

University of Washington Seattle 57 University of California Los Angeles 18

University of Wisconsin Madison 46 University of Washington Seattle 18

University of Arizona 44 University of Arkansas Fayetteville 17

University of Texas Austin 43 Stanford University * 15

University of California Berkeley 41 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 15

Stanford University * 40 University of Arizona 14

University of California Los Angeles 39 North Carolina State University Raleigh 13

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 39 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 13

University of Arkansas Fayetteville 38 University of Texas Austin 13

University of New Mexico Albuquerque 37 University of Georgia 12

University of South Dakota 37 Nova Southeastern University * 11

Nova Southeastern University * 36 University of Maryland College Park 11

Texas A&M University College Station 35 University of New Mexico Albuquerque 11

Michigan State University 33 University of North Dakota Grand Forks 11

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 33 University of Wisconsin Madison 11

Harvard University * 32 Arizona State University Tempe 10

North Carolina State University Raleigh 32 Michigan State University 10

Ohio State University Columbus 32 Ohio State University Columbus 10

University of North Dakota Grand Forks 29 Purdue University West Lafayette 10

University of Missouri Columbia 27 University of California Berkeley 10

University of Tennessee Knoxville 27 University of California Santa Barbara 10

Arizona State University Tempe 26 Northern Arizona University 9

Northern Arizona University 26 Texas A&M University College Station 9

University of California Davis 25 University of California Davis 9

University of Georgia 25 University of North Texas 9

University of Oregon 25 California School of Professional Psychology Los Angeles * 8

Florida State University 24 Harvard University * 8

Indiana University Bloomington 24 University of Missouri Columbia 8

Purdue University West Lafayette 24 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 8

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 24 University of Pennsylvania * 8

University of North Texas 24 University of Sarasota * 8

University of Southern California * 24 Auburn University Auburn 7

Cornell University * 23 Cornell University * 7

University of Florida 23 Florida State University 7

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 23 Montana State University Bozeman 7

University of Nebraska Lincoln 22 University of Florida 7

University of Maryland College Park 21 University of Kansas Lawrence 7

University of Utah 21 University of Nebraska Lincoln 7

University of Kansas Lawrence 19 Walden University * 7

New York University * 18 Colorado State University 6

University of California Santa Barbara 18 University of California Riverside 6

Columbia University in City of New York * 17 University of Kentucky 6

Louisiana State University and A&M College 17 University of Mississippi University 6

Washington State University 17 University of Missouri Saint Louis 6

Southern Illinois University Carbondale 16 University of San Francisco * 6

University of Colorado Boulder 16 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 6

Vanderbilt University * 16

Top 50 as percent of total 57.9 Top 49 as percentage of totala 56.9

* Privately controlled.

a

 Because 13 institutions tied for 50th place (each with a count of 5), only 49 institutions are listed and are included in the total. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. American Indian/Alaskan Native Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are

listed alphabetically.
110

TABLE B-19. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Asian/Pacific Islander, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 17,156 All institutions 6,039

University of California Berkeley 900 University of California Berkeley 317

University of California Los Angeles 824 University of California Los Angeles 285

Stanford University * 559 Stanford University * 203

University of Southern California * 390 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 145

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 379 Harvard University * 141

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 372 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 132

Harvard University * 350 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 123

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 349 University of California Davis 120

University of Hawaii Manoa 317 Columbia University in City of New York * 117

University of Washington Seattle 317 University of Southern California * 111

Columbia University in City of New York * 314 University of Washington Seattle 94

University of California Davis 297 Purdue University West Lafayette 92

University of Wisconsin Madison 253 Northwestern University * 81

Cornell University * 223 University of California Irvine 81

New York University * 218 University of Pennsylvania * 81

Purdue University West Lafayette 211 New York University * 79

University of Maryland College Park 210 University of Maryland College Park 79

University of Pennsylvania * 206 University of Wisconsin Madison 79

Northwestern University * 205 University of Texas Austin 77

University of California San Diego 198 Johns Hopkins University * 74

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 198 University of California San Diego 74

University of Texas Austin 197 Yale University * 74

Yale University * 188 University of Hawaii Manoa 72

University of Chicago * 187 University of Chicago * 71

Ohio State University Columbus 185 University of California Santa Barbara 65

University of California Irvine 185 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 62

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 167 Cornell University * 61

Johns Hopkins University * 163 Princeton University * 58

Princeton University * 158 University of California San Francisco 54

University of California Santa Barbara 150 California Institute of Technology * 52

California Institute of Technology * 143 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 49

City University of New York Graduate Center 131 Boston University * 45

University of Illinois Chicago 131 Pennsylvania State University University Park 45

Michigan State University 126 Georgia Institute of Technology 43

University of California San Francisco 125 Texas A&M University College Station 43

Boston University * 119 University of Colorado Boulder 43

Pennsylvania State University University Park 119 Ohio State University Columbus 42

Texas A&M University College Station 118 University of Arizona 42

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 118 University of Virginia Charlottesville 42

State University of New York at Buffalo 114 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 40

University of Colorado Boulder 113 State University of New York at Stony Brook 39

University of San Francisco * 109 University of Illinois Chicago 38

Indiana University Bloomington 105 University of San Francisco * 38

University of Massachusetts Amherst 105 Washington University Saint Louis * 38

University of Arizona 102 Nova Southeastern University * 36

Teachers College Columbia University * 100 North Carolina State University Raleigh 34

State University of New York at Stony Brook 99 State University of New York at Buffalo 34

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 97 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 34

Nova Southeastern University * 96 Michigan State University 33

University of California Riverside 96 University of Massachusetts Amherst 33

Top 50 as percentage of total 64.9 Top 50 as percentage of total 65.3

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

* Privately controlled.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. Asian/Pacific Islander Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed 

alphabetically.
111

TABLE B-20. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of black, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 26,574 All institutions 7,048

Nova Southeastern University * 939 Nova Southeastern University * 290

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 720 Howard University *,† 239

Howard University *,† 716 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 143

Ohio State University Columbus 616 Ohio State University Columbus 131

University of Maryland College Park 521 University of Maryland College Park 122

Clark Atlanta University *,† 508 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 122

Teachers College Columbia University * 504 Wayne State University 114

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 469 Teachers College Columbia University * 101

Wayne State University 460 Florida State University 100

Florida State University 457 Temple University 96

Michigan State University 419 North Carolina State University Raleigh 95

University of Massachusetts Amherst 407 Clark Atlanta University *,† 92

Temple University 395 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 92

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 347 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 85

University of California Berkeley 346 Michigan State University 83

George Washington University * 342 University of Texas Austin 78

Vanderbilt University * 336 University of Pennsylvania * 77

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 335 Walden University * 77

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 319 University of California Los Angeles 76

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 297 University of South Carolina Columbia 76

Harvard University * 291 University of California Berkeley 73

University of California Los Angeles 289 Pennsylvania State University University Park 72

Southern Illinois University Carbondale 285 Texas Southern University† 71

New York University * 281 Harvard University * 69

Indiana University Bloomington 274 Stanford University * 67

Stanford University * 261 University of Cincinnati 66

University of South Carolina Columbia 259 University of Florida 66

University of Florida 255 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 66

University of Texas Austin 237 New York University * 65

University of Southern California * 234 George Washington University * 60

North Carolina State University Raleigh 229 University of Virginia Charlottesville 60

Northwestern University * 229 University of Alabama Tuscaloosa 59

University of Alabama Tuscaloosa 229 Northwestern University * 57

Pennsylvania State University University Park 224 Loyola University of Chicago * 56

University of Cincinnati 222 Georgia State University 53

Georgia State University 217 Saint Louis University Saint Louis * 52

University of Pennsylvania * 216 University of Southern California * 52

University of Wisconsin Madison 210 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 50

Columbia University in City of New York * 208 University of San Francisco * 50

Saint Louis University Saint Louis * 208 Emory University * 49

Kansas State University Manhattan 207 University of Alabama Birmingham 49

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 202 City University of New York Graduate Center 48

University of Georgia 199 Purdue University West Lafayette 48

City University of New York Graduate Center 192 State University of New York at Buffalo 48

Texas Southern University † 187 Texas A&M University College Station 48

University of Virginia Charlottesville 186 University of Massachusetts Amherst 47

State University of New York at Buffalo 183 University of Missouri Columbia 46

Cornell University * 182 University of Iowa 45

University of Tennessee Knoxville 179 University of Georgia 44

University of Houston University Park 178 Cornell University * 43

University of Southern Mississippi 43

Vanderbilt University * 43

Top 50 as percentage of total 61.0 Top 52 as percentage of totala 57.5

* Privately controlled.

†

 Historically black college or university. 

a

 Because three institutions tied for 50th place, 52 institutions are listed and are included in percentage of total.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. black Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically. 

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.
112

TABLE B-21. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of Hispanic, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99

Doctoral institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 16,651 All institutions 5,218

University of Texas Austin 626 University of Texas Austin 189

University of California Los Angeles 437 University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 162

University of California Berkeley 423 University of California Berkeley 152

University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras 374 Carlos Albizu University (Puerto Rico) * 143

New York University * 318 University of California Los Angeles 118

Texas A&M University College Station 312 Texas A&M University College Station 105

Stanford University * 293 Arizona State University Tempe 84

University of New Mexico Albuquerque 286 Harvard University * 84

University of Southern California * 277 Stanford University * 79

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 273 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 79

Harvard University * 262 University of New Mexico Albuquerque 77

University of Massachusetts Amherst 247 University of Arizona 76

University of Arizona 242 University of Miami 72

City University of New York Graduate Center 233 University of Southern California * 72

University of Florida 231 Pennsylvania State University University Park 70

University of Miami * 228 University of Wisconsin Madison 67

Pennsylvania State University University Park 218 University of California Davis 66

University of Wisconsin Madison 215 Nova Southeastern University * 63

Nova Southeastern University * 208 New York University * 62

University of Colorado Boulder 208 University of California Santa Barbara 58

Florida State University 189 University of Florida 58

Carlos Albizu University (Puerto Rico) * 184 University of Colorado Boulder 56

Cornell University * 180 City University of New York Graduate Center 53

Teachers College Columbia University * 178 Ohio State University Columbus 53

Columbia University in City of New York * 175 University of Massachusetts Amherst 51

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 174 Cornell University * 50

University of Houston University Park 172 Florida International University 47

University of California Santa Barbara 170 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 47

University of California Davis 169 Teachers College Columbia University * 46

Ohio State University Columbus 164 University of California San Diego 45

Arizona State University Tempe 159 Columbia University in City of New York * 44

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 155 University of Houston University Park 43

Michigan State University 154 Florida State University 42

Fordham University * 153 Michigan State University 42

University of Washington Seattle 146 New Mexico State University Las Cruces 40

University of California San Diego 143 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 40

University of Maryland College Park 136 Temple University 39

Yale University * 133 University of Washington Seattle 39

University of San Francisco * 126 University of Maryland College Park 38

New Mexico State University Las Cruces 125 University of San Francisco * 38

University of California Riverside 121 Purdue University West Lafayette 37

Boston University * 118 University of Chicago * 37

Purdue University West Lafayette 113 Inter American University of Puerto Rico Metro Campus * 36

Temple University 113 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 36

University of Chicago * 113 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 36

University of California Irvine 112 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 35

Indiana University Bloomington 107 University of California Irvine 35

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 105 Northern Arizona University 33

University of Pennsylvania * 105 Princeton University * 33

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 104 University of California Riverside 33

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 104

Top 51 as percentage of totala 61.9 Top 50 as percentage of total 60.2

* Privately controlled.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

a

 Because two institutions tied for 50th place, 51 institutions are listed and are included in percentage of total.

NOTES: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. Hispanic Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. Institutions that were tied are listed alphabetically.
113

TABLE B-22. Top 50 U.S. doctoral institutions of white, U.S. citizen Ph.D.s: 1975–99 and 1995–99 

Doctoral institution (1975–99) Ph.D.s Doctoral institution (1995–99) Ph.D.s 

All institutions 559,930 All institutions 117,392

University of Wisconsin Madison 11,376 University of California Berkeley 2,288

University of California Berkeley 11,343 University of Wisconsin Madison 2,182

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 9,272 University of Texas Austin 2,041

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 9,256 University of Minnesota Twin Cities 1,983

University of Minnesota Twin Cities 9,217 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1,858

University of Texas Austin 9,088 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 1,651

Ohio State University Columbus 9,066 Ohio State University Columbus 1,606

University of California Los Angeles 7,712 University of Washington Seattle 1,557

Indiana University Bloomington 7,548 Pennsylvania State University University Park 1,542

Stanford University * 7,521 University of California Los Angeles 1,508

Harvard University * 7,123 Stanford University * 1,444

Pennsylvania State University University Park 6,981 Harvard University * 1,410

University of Washington Seattle 6,855 Nova Southeastern University * 1,374

Cornell University * 6,724 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 1,334

University of Maryland College Park 6,659 Indiana University Bloomington 1,323

Michigan State University 6,541 Texas A&M University College Station 1,311

New York University * 6,540 Cornell University * 1,278

University of Pennsylvania * 6,350 University of Pennsylvania * 1,276

Columbia University in City of New York * 6,305 University of Maryland College Park 1,255

University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 6,263 University of Virginia Charlottesville 1,238

Purdue University West Lafayette 6,056 University of Arizona 1,184

Texas A&M University College Station 5,935 University of Colorado Boulder 1,183

University of Georgia 5,696 Purdue University West Lafayette 1,144

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 5,623 University of Georgia 1,135

University of Southern California * 5,548 University of Florida 1,119

University of Chicago * 5,468 New York University * 1,100

Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 5,427 University of Chicago * 1,092

Nova Southeastern University * 5,423 Columbia University in City of New York * 1,086

University of Florida 5,409 Northwestern University * 1,037

University of Colorado Boulder 5,366 University of California Davis 1,034

University of Massachusetts Amherst 5,253 Michigan State University 1,016

Northwestern University * 5,221 Rutgers State University of New Jersey New Brunswick 982

Yale University * 5,202 University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 978

University of Virginia Charlottesville 5,201 University of Southern California * 957

Florida State University 5,129 Florida State University 952

University of Iowa 5,071 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 946

University of Arizona 4,922 Yale University * 927

Temple University 4,696 Temple University 912

Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 4,570 University of Iowa 902

Boston University * 4,528 University of South Carolina Columbia 896

University of Kansas Lawrence 4,390 University of Kansas Lawrence 875

University of Tennessee Knoxville 4,291 North Carolina State University Raleigh 871

State University of New York at Buffalo 4,258 Massachusetts Institute of Technology * 854

University of California Davis 4,060 Arizona State University Tempe 835

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 4,044 University of Massachusetts Amherst 825

University of Nebraska Lincoln 4,032 University of Nebraska Lincoln 818

Vanderbilt University * 4,005 University of Tennessee Knoxville 815

University of Missouri Columbia 3,986 Johns Hopkins University * 796

Duke University * 3,747 Duke University * 790

Teachers College Columbia University * 3,739 State University of New York at Buffalo 771

Top 50 as percentage of total 54.3 Top 50 as percentage of total 51.4

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

NOTE: Institutions are ranked by the number of U.S. white Ph.D.s who received a doctorate from the institution. 

* Privately controlled.
114
115

DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS

This section provides definitions of key terms used in

this report and explanatory information on the treatment

of certain variables. For convenience, the Doctorate

Records File is referred to as the DRF throughout the

section, and the Survey of Earned Doctorates is referred

to as the SED.

The degree information in the DRF reflects the first degree earned by the individual at each level, as applicable:

first baccalaureate, first master’s degree, first professional doctorate, and first research doctorate. Survey

forms for any subsequent research doctorates are

retained but are not entered into the DRF.

Doctorate recipients report their immediate postgraduation plans for employment or additional study. This

report focuses on Ph.D.s who reported definite plans at

the time they completed the SED, which is usually shortly

before graduation. Ph.D.s with definite plans include those

who reported they had signed a contract or had otherwise made a commitment for a new position as well as

those who reported they were returning to or continuing

in a position held before graduation. Most analyses in

this report are further restricted to commitments in the

United States.

Age. The age of a doctorate recipient at graduation.

In this report the standard practice is to use the median

to report the age of doctorate recipients. Half of the

Ph.D.s are older than the median age, and half are

younger. The year of birth is required for this computation. The month of birth is used when available.

Carnegie Classification. A system of classification of

postsecondary institutions established by the Carnegie

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Carnegie classifications are based on highest degree

conferred, fields in which degrees are conferred, number of programs, enrollment, research support, and

selectivity of admissions criteria. The classifications are

updated periodically by the Carnegie Foundation to

reflect changes in the characteristics of institutions. This

report used the 1994 Carnegie update to describe the

institutions that awarded doctorates in the 1990s. The

Carnegie categories are as follows: Research I and

II, Doctoral I and II, Master’s I and II, Baccalaureate I

and II, Associate of Arts (not applicable to this report),

Religion and Theology, Medical, Other Health, Engineering, Business, Fine Arts, Law, Teachers College, Other

Specialized (e.g., maritime academy, military institute),

and Tribal College (not applicable to this report). A

majority of the doctorate-granting institutions are classified as Research (126) or Doctoral (109) institutions, and

they account for the vast majority of doctorates awarded

in the United States. In 1990–99, Research I institutions

conferred 68.3 percent of all doctorates; Research II

institutions, 11.5 percent; Doctoral I institutions, 10.6 percent; and Doctoral II institutions, 4.4 percent. Although a

substantial number of doctorate-granting institutions fall

into the “other” Carnegie categories, together they

awarded 5.3 percent of all doctorates in the 1990s; these

institutions were aggregated and presented as the “other”

Carnegie group in this report.

Citizenship status. Most citizenship data are presented

as reported by the doctorate recipients or as provided by

the institutions that granted the doctorates. The following

logical assumptions were made in certain situations:

• Ph.D.s who graduated in 1920–57 were assumed

to be U.S. citizens if their baccalaureate institution was not foreign. This procedure was also

used to impute citizenship status in this report’s

predecessor, A Century of Doctorates: Data

Analyses of Growth and Change (NAS/NRC

1978).

• All Puerto Ricans were counted as U.S. citizens,

as they legally hold U.S. citizenship.

• American Indians/Alaskan Natives who did not

report their citizenship status were assumed to

be U.S. citizens. Over the years, only a handful

of American Indian Ph.D.s have reported themselves as citizens of Canada, Central America,

or South America.

• Temporary visa status was assumed if citizenship status was missing but a foreign country of

citizenship was reported.

Debt status and level. Included is debt that is directly

related to the doctorate recipient’s undergraduate and

graduate education and is still owed at graduation.

Education-related expenses include tuition and fees,

APPENDIX C. TECHNICAL NOTES
116

living expenses and supplies, and transportation to and

from school.

Doctorate-granting institution. Any postsecondary

institution in the United States that awards research doctorates (as defined below) and is accredited by an agency

recognized by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of

Education is a doctorate-granting institution.

Currently there are about 400 doctorate-granting institutions. The number can fluctuate from year to year for

various reasons: (1) additional institutions become doctorate-granting, (2) some institutions with small programs

do not award doctorates every year, and (3) a few institutions eliminate their doctoral programs altogether.

The institutions that awarded doctorates before 1920 (the

first year of data in the DRF) were determined from

annual reports of the U.S. Office of Education (USEO

1869–1916). The 1909 report, which provided summary

data on earlier years, was used to definitively identify

doctorate-granting institutions for the years up to 1909.

The 1909 report excluded some institutions that had been

included in earlier reports, presumably to correct for

invalid information in prior years. Because some of the

reported institutions had awarded very few doctorates

and had done so sporadically, the list of pre-1920 awarding institutions was declared final only after a comparison with the early 1920s data in the DRF. Institutions

that awarded doctorates in 1900–19 (according to

Office of Education reports) and also in 1920–24

(according to the DRF) make up the pre-1920 list of doctorate-granting institutions. This group of institutions is

discussed in chapter 5.

Employment commitment. Definite plans for any kind

of employment other than a postdoctoral appointment for

study or training are considered employment commitments. Military service counts as employment.

Field of doctorate. Field is the specialty field of doctoral degree as reported by the doctorate recipient or

obtained from the institution’s commencement program

or graduation list.

There are about 280 fields on the SED Specialties List

grouped under the following headings: agricultural

sciences, biological sciences, computer and information

sciences, education, engineering, health sciences, humanities (subdivided into history, letters, foreign languages and

literature, and other humanities), mathematics, physical

sciences (subdivided into astronomy, atmospheric science

and meteorology, chemistry, geological and related

sciences, physics, and miscellaneous physical sciences),

professional fields (subdivided into business management

and administrative services, communications, and other

professional fields), psychology, and social sciences. The

same list is used for reporting baccalaureate and master’s

degree fields as well as postdoctoral study and employment fields. The SED survey form and Specialties List

can be found in appendix D of the annual Doctorate

Recipients from United States Universities: Summary

Report (NORC 1998–2002), which is available at http://

www.norc.uchicago.edu/issues/docdata.htm.

This report categorizes the fields as science and engineering (S&E) or non-science and engineering (non-S&E)

according to the scheme that NSF uses in its publications. Other agencies may classify the fields differently.

The major difference between NSF’s classification and

those of other agencies is the exclusion of health fields

from the S&E rubric; NSF places health fields within the

non-S&E group, along with education, humanities, and

professional fields. Other agencies include health fields

with biological and agricultural sciences under the heading “life sciences” or with biological sciences alone under the heading “biomedical sciences.”

Appendix A, table A-1, presents the number of doctorates awarded in each of the specialties, including those

now obsolete, according to the NSF classification scheme.

The table shows how fields have evolved over the years.

Readers should be careful when interpreting time-series

field data at the most disaggregated level. Specialties

added over the years were reported in the general “other”

category (e.g., other biological sciences) in earlier surveys or in a category that previously combined the new

specialty with other specialties in the same general area

(e.g., experimental/comparative/physiological psychology). The historical changes to the Specialties List are

documented in Science and Engineering Doctorates:

1960–91 (NSF 1993) and in the subsequent series Science and Engineering Doctorate Awards (NSF 1997–

2002). The 1960–91 report is out of print, but information will be provided upon request (contact Susan Hill,

director, Doctorate Data Project, at sthill@nsf.gov or

703-292-7790).

Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(HBCUs). HBCUs are the 105 institutions founded

between the post-Civil War Reconstruction period and

1963 for the express purpose of educating blacks.

Fifteen HBCUs, led by Howard University, awarded

doctorates during the 20th century. For a list of HBCUs,

see http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edliteindex.html.
117

Primary source of support. For the periods 1980–81

and 1996–97, primary source of support pertains to the

entire time a student was in graduate school. For the

period 1998–99, this item covers doctoral study only. The

SED questions on sources of support have undergone

several changes in recent years. For example, in 1998

the number of source categories was reduced from 35 to

13. Sources are no longer identified by specific provider

(e.g., agency, foundation, kind of loan), because students

do not always know the actual provider of their funding.

Only the mechanism of support (e.g., fellowship, research

assistantship, loan) is now captured. Most of the current

categories are aggregates of multiple categories that were

on previous questionnaires. For example, the new category “research assistantship” (RA) combines five

earlier categories—university-related RA, National Institutes of Health RA, NSF RA, U.S. Department of

Agriculture RA, and other RA. Three new categories

were added in 1998: “dissertation grant,” “internship or

residency,” and “personal savings.”

For this report, the mapping scheme developed by the

current SED contractor was used to tie earlier data to

the new categories in the 1998–99 surveys. Pre-1998

federal support categories that do not specify a mechanism (e.g., Veterans Administration, National Endowment

for the Humanities, other U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services, other Education, other federal) are now

included with the new fellowship/scholarship category.

Race/ethnicity. The SED race/ethnicity question has

undergone several revisions. In 1977 it was modified to

correspond to a standard question format recommended

by the Federal Interagency Committee on Education and

adopted by the Office of Management and Budget for

use in federally sponsored surveys. In 1980 the item was

further revised in two ways: (1) the Hispanic category

was subdivided into “Puerto Rican,” “Mexican,” and

“other Hispanic” to provide more detail for users of the

racial/ethnic data; and (2) respondents were asked to

check only one race/ethnicity category. In 1982 the item

was recast as two questions to capture ethnicity and race

separately. Since then, respondents have been asked to

indicate whether or not they are Hispanic and then check

one of four race categories (American Indian/Alaskan

Native, Asian/Pacific Islander, black, or white). In

accordance with the standard practice for reporting SED

results, doctorate recipients who reported being Hispanic,

regardless of racial designation, were counted as Hispanic in this report. The remaining survey respondents

were counted in their respective racial groups.

Regions in the United States. The 50 U.S. states and

the District of Columbia are grouped into four major

regions, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, for the

purpose of reporting doctorate production by region.

Northeast Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New

Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont

Midwest Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan,

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North

Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin

South Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of

Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,

Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia

West Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado,

Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New

Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming

Puerto Rico is reported separately.

Research doctorate. A research doctorate is any doctoral degree that (1) requires the completion of a dissertation or equivalent project of original work (e.g., musical

composition) and (2) is not exclusively intended as a

degree for the practice of a profession.

Although the most typical research doctorate is the

Ph.D., more than 50 other kinds of degrees are covered in the SED. Not included in this definition are

professional doctorates: Doctor of Medicine (M.D.),

Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), Doctor of Osteopathy (O.D.),

Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), Doctor of Psychology

(Psy.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and other similar degrees.

For a complete listing of the kinds of research doctorates

captured by the SED, see the inside of the back cover of

the latest report in the annual Doctorate Recipients from

United States Universities: Summary Report, which

can be found at http://www.norc.uchicago.edu/issues/

docdata.htm.

Sex. For most years since 1920, the doctorate recipient’s

sex was assumed to be male if not reported by the recipient or provided by the institution. The procedure was

changed in 1991 to leave sex as missing if the information could not be obtained from the doctorate recipient or
118

the institution and if the recipient could not be assumed

with great certainty to be male or female based on his or

her name. There are 1,886 Ph.D.s of undetermined sex

in the DRF, all but two of them graduates in the 1990s.

These individuals are excluded from all percentages

based on recipients’ sex shown in this report.

The number of male and female Ph.D.s graduating in

the period 1900 to 1919 was obtained from table 28 in

120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (USED/NCES 1993). These data originally came

from a series of annual reports published by the U.S.

Office of Education (USEO 1869–1916) and a chapter

in the Biennial Survey of Education in the United States

(USEO 1918). Figures are not available for 1917 and

1919; data for those years were interpolated for the 1900

to 1999 trends shown in chapter 2.

Stay rate. Stay rate is the percentage of Ph.D.s with

definite postgraduation plans who plan to stay in the United

States.

The restriction on definite plans is necessary when

examining long-term trends because, up to 1990, location

was captured as part of “postdoctoral affiliation,” which

was generally completed by only those Ph.D.s with definite plans. In the 1990s the SED asked for location separately, resulting in more complete data on the intended

locations of new Ph.D.s, whether or not they had commitments at graduation. The data from the 1990s show

that a substantial number of non-U.S. citizens did not

report commitments but did report intentions or aspirations to remain in the United States. Although there is no

way to determine how many actually stayed on after

graduation, it is fair to assume that a goodly number did.

Table C-1 compares the 1995–99 aggregate data for nonU.S. citizens who reported definite postgraduation plans

to stay in the United States (the population analyzed in

chapter 6 and shown in table 6-2 and figures 6-8 and

6-9) with the corresponding data for all non-U.S. citizens who reported location, including those who did not

have commitments at the time they completed the SED.

Study commitment. Definite plans involving a postdoctoral fellowship, research associateship, traineeship,

or any other postdoctoral study or training supported by

an organization or the doctorate recipient are considered

study commitments.

Time to doctorate. This report includes three different measures of time to receipt of the doctorate, which

are reported as medians. Half of all Ph.D.s take more

time than the median to complete their doctorate, and

half take less.

• Total time to doctorate (TTD) measures the

total elapsed calendar time between receipt of

the baccalaureate and receipt of the doctorate,

including time not enrolled in school. TTD can

be computed only if the baccalaureate year is

known. Months are included in the calculation

when available.

• Registered time to doctorate (RTD) measures

the time in attendance at all colleges and universities between receipt of the baccalaureate and

receipt of the doctorate, including enrollment

not related to the doctoral program. RTD can

be computed only if the doctorate recipient provides all years of attendance after receipt of the

baccalaureate.

• Postbaccalaureate time to doctorate (PTD)

measures the total elapsed calendar time between

the first postbaccalaureate attendance at the

Area Number Percent Number Percent

Region

Americas 2,263 51.5 3,355 52.7

Europe 4,241 74.0 6,171 71.4

Africa 653 52.6 1,473 60.2

Asia 17,233 75.8 28,192 72.2

Australasia/Pacific 237 57.7 341 57.7

Selected country

China (PRC) 7,548 96.5 12,459 95.5

India 4,018 93.0 5,762 90.7

Taiwan 1,734 58.8 3,245 54.2

Korea 1,405 57.1 2,402 44.4

Canada 983 60.3 1,402 60.7

Germany 607 68.7 882 67.5

Great Britain 542 82.0 760 79.2

Russia 491 90.9 669 89.8

Japan a 339 46.4 530 47.5

Turkey a 318 57.6 518 57.9

Iran a 289 90.6 550 88.1

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and

Doctorate Records File.

TABLE C-1. Non-U.S. citizens staying in the United States after 

graduation, by postgraduation status and region or selected country of 

citizenship: 1995–99, aggregate

Definite plans Any status

a Iran ranks higher numerically than Japan and Turkey when both definite and 

indefinite plans are included, but it ranks lower when only definite plans are 

counted.

NOTE: Percentages are based on the total number of non-U.S. citizen Ph.D.s with 

known postgraduation location. 
119

institution that awarded the doctorate and receipt

of the doctorate. PTD includes time spent in a

master’s degree program if these studies were at

the same institution that granted the doctorate.

Year of doctorate. The SED collects data for the

academic year, which begins on 1 July of one calendar

year and ends on 30 June of the next year. Academic

years are identified in reports by the calendar year in

which they end. For example, data reported as 1999

include all graduations from 1 July 1998 through 30 June

1999. Graduations that took place in the last six months

of calendar year 1999 were part of the 2000 SED and

are not included in this report.

The data for graduations from 1920 through 1957 were

obtained from public sources, such as commencement

programs, and were recorded in the DRF by calendar

year. Because the second half of calendar year 1957 is

part of the 1958 SED, an adjustment is required to make

both years represent a full 12 months in tabulations. The

standard procedure is to double-count the number of doctorates awarded in the last half of calendar year 1957.

This six-month period was counted once in calendar year

1957 and once in academic year 1958 (the SED data

collection period) for this report, but only for trends

showing the 1950s as one or more data points. The total

number of doctorates awarded in 1900–99 or 1920–99

reflects the actual number of doctorates awarded in those

years, that is, with no double-counting of the number of

doctorates awarded in the last six months of calendar

year 1957.

DATA SOURCES

The doctoral data in this report came from two original

sources: U.S. Office of Education annual and biennial

reports for the years 1900 to 1919, and the Doctorate

Records File for the years 1920 to 1999 (including the

results of the Survey of Earned Doctorates for the years

1958 to 1999).

U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION REPORTS

Data on the number of doctorates awarded from 1900 to

1919, in total and by sex, were obtained from 120 Years

of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (USED/

NCES 1993). These data came originally from a series

of annual reports published by the U.S. Office of Education (USEO 1869–1916) and a chapter in the Biennial

Survey of Education in the United States (USEO 1918).

Figures are not available for 1917 and 1919.

Chapter 5 examines the role of institutions that awarded

doctorates before 1920. The pre-1920 group of institutions was determined from the Office of Education reports. The 1909 report presented summary data for the

years 1878–1909, excluding some institutions that had

appeared in earlier reports. The assumption is that it was

correcting for invalid data published previously. The 1909

report was used as the definitive source of doctorategranting institutions up to 1909.

DOCTORATE RECORDS FILE AND SURVEY OF

EARNED DOCTORATES

The Doctorate Records File (DRF) is a virtually complete data bank on more than 1.35 million doctorate

recipients. For the years 1920–57, public sources, such

as commencement programs and institution lists, provided

limited information, mainly baccalaureate institution and

year; doctoral institution, field, and year; and sex of recipient (which, if not obtained from the institution, was coded

based on the recipient’s name).

The DRF also houses the results of the Survey of Earned

Doctorates (SED), an annual census of new doctorate

recipients that has been conducted since the 1957–58

academic year (referred to as 1958 in published reports).

The SED is sponsored by six federal agencies: the

National Science Foundation (lead sponsor), the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National

Endowment for the Humanities, the National Institutes

of Health, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the

U.S. Department of Education. The DRF also serves as

the sampling frame for the biennial Survey of Doctorate

Recipients, a longitudinal survey of science, engineering,

and (in some years) humanities Ph.D.s who are employed

in the United States.

Every year, the SED is distributed to all accredited colleges and universities that grant research doctorates

(about 400). A few institutions refuse to participate,

but it is known from the National Center for Education

Statistics/U.S. Department of Education’s Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) Completions Survey that these institutions contribute minimally

to the overall population of doctorates. The Completions

Survey collects basic information on doctoral degrees from

the institutions rather than from individual doctorate

recipients.

Since 1994 more than 40,000 doctorates have been

awarded annually. The annual numbers of doctorates

reported in the results of the IPEDS Completions Survey
120

are slightly higher than those in the SED. Differences

can be attributed largely to the inclusion of nonresearch

doctorates, primarily in the fields of theology and education, in the Completions Survey. The differences between

the two surveys were fairly consistent from 1960 to 1999,

with ratios of IPEDS-to-SED counts ranging from 1.01

to 1.06. Because a respondent to the SED may not classify his or her specialty exactly as reported by the institution in the Completions Survey, the difference in the

number of doctorates for a given field reported by the

two surveys may be greater than the difference for all

fields combined.

The SED covers about 50 kinds of research doctorates.

Most recipients earn the Ph.D. degree (85–89 percent

annually since 1973, when kind of degree was first

tracked). The Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) is the second

most common degree, received by 7–11 percent of doctorate recipients each year from 1973 to 1999. Professional doctorates, including those in medicine, law, dentistry, veterinary medicine, osteopathy, and psychology,

are not covered in the SED. The kind of professional

doctorate and year of receipt, however, are captured for

recipients of research doctorates who earned professional doctorates either before the research doctorate or

concurrently.

Because the DRF is a census of individuals rather than

degrees, only the first doctorate is entered into the database. Every year, the names and social security numbers

of new doctorate recipients are compared with the same

information on all earlier DRF records to ensure that there

are no duplications in the database. Any records of second (or third) doctorates earned by a recipient are

removed from the DRF, but hard copies of the survey

forms for additional doctorates are retained. Data on

predoctoral degrees of doctorate recipients also reflect

the first degree at each level.

The SED cycle includes all graduations during the

academic year (1 July to 30 June) and is identified by the

year in which the cycle ends. Thus the 1999 SED

collected data from doctorate recipients who graduated

between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999. The graduate

schools distribute the SED forms to students, who then

complete the surveys and return them to the SED coordinator at their institution for transmittal to the survey

contractor. Since 1997 the National Opinion Research

Center of the University of Chicago has administered

the SED for the sponsoring federal agencies. The

National Research Council of the National Academy of

Sciences administered the SED from its inception, in 1958,

through the 1996 cycle.

Doctorate recipients provide information about their

demographic characteristics, educational history from high

school to doctorate, sources of financial support in graduate school (or in the doctoral program), debt status at

graduation, and immediate postgraduation plans. Thanks

to the cooperation of the graduate schools and the

extremely high participation rates of doctoral graduates,

the DRF is the richest source of doctoral data in the

nation. Government agencies, academic institutions, and

industry use the SED results to address a wide range of

policy, education, and human resource issues. The

authors of this report have strived to showcase the wealth

of available data by presenting long-term trends when

possible, and recent data when not, for nearly every variable in the DRF. More than 500 tables were generated,

reviewed, and analyzed for this project, and data from

many are displayed in figures and tables within the

report. As a supplement to the printed volume, detailed

trend tables showing doctoral awards by field of doctorate and by state and institution, baccalaureate institutions

of Ph.D.s, and country of citizenship of non-U.S. citizen

doctorate recipients, by visa status, are available on the

NSF website at http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/.

Response Rates

The SED has enjoyed excellent response rates throughout its more than 40-year history. Both unit and item

response rates have been very high and relatively stable

since the first survey, in 1958.

Basic information on nonrespondents can be obtained

from institutions or commencement programs, so records

exist for all doctorate recipients. However, response to

the SED is measured by the percentage of doctorate

recipients who complete the surveys themselves (selfreport rate), thereby providing details that are not available from any other source. The SED’s goal is a stable

self-report rate of 94–95 percent. This rate was achieved

or surpassed in all but 9 of the 42 surveys processed

between 1958 and 1999. The self-report rate dropped

below target for the first time in 1986 and stayed below

target through 1990. The 1991–95 surveys achieved the

target level, but the self-report rate declined again in 1996–

99. A little less than 92 percent of all doctorate recipients

completed the survey in the last three surveys of the

century, 1997–99.

Because records are constructed from public information

for Ph.D.s who do not complete the SED questionnaire,

certain items are available for all doctorate recipients:

name, doctoral institution, field of doctorate, month and

year of graduation, and kind of doctorate. The institution
121

provides this information in its commencement program

or graduation list.

A 95 percent item-response-rate target is set for eight

critical items: date of birth, sex, citizenship, country of

citizenship (for non-U.S. citizens), race/ethnicity, baccalaureate institution, baccalaureate year, and postdoctoral

location. If missing, these items are followed up through

letters to self-reporting respondents or, for Ph.D.s who

did not complete questionnaires, through requests to

institutions. The response rates for these items often

exceed the overall self-report rate for the survey because

of institutional responses and information on baccalaureate degrees available from commencement programs.

Rigorous follow-up on critical items has been conducted

since 1990. Follow-up requests for race/ethnicity,

postdoctoral location, and country of citizenship (if foreign) were made for the first time in the 1990 SED,

increasing the completeness of these items from that time

forward. From 1990 to 1996, all critical items except

postdoctoral location surpassed the 95 percent target.

Response for every critical item except sex and foreign

country of citizenship fell below target during subsequent

years with transfer of the administration of the SED to a

new contractor.

The target item response rate for all noncritical survey

items is 90 percent. During much of the 1990s, most

noncritical items either met or were within 2 percentage

points of the target response rate. Fewer items attained

a 90 percent response rate during the contractor transition period. Five noncritical items, if missing, are added

to the follow-up requests for Ph.D.s missing critical items:

birthplace, high school graduation year, high school location, master’s degree institution, and year of master’s

degree. Throughout the SED’s history, a few items have

had, and will continue to have, lower response rates because they are not applicable to all individuals (e.g.,

master’s degree information), or because they seem complex or confusing to some doctorate recipients (e.g.,

timelines from college entrance to doctoral graduation,

sources of support).

Some items with below-target response rates in the first

half of the 1990s surpassed the target in 1996, when the

questionnaire was reformatted to be more respondentfriendly. Two items are particularly relevant to this

report: (1) primary source of support, in which the 1996

response rate was 13.0 percentage points higher than in

the previous survey, and (2) primary work activity after

graduation, in which the response rate rose 6.5 percentage points. Moreover, response to these items held steady

or increased during the transfer of the SED to a new

contractor, despite a decrease in the overall self-report

rate for the SED and decreases in response rates for

many other items.

Although both unit and item response rates in the SED

have been relatively stable through the years, fluctuations can affect data comparability. This is especially true

for the items on citizenship and race/ethnicity, for which

very small fluctuations in response may result in increases

or decreases in counts that do not reflect actual trends.

The percentages shown in the figures and tables in this

report are based only on the number of doctorate recipients who responded to the applicable survey items

(including some logical assumptions based on other items,

as explained in the section “Definitions and Explanations”) or for whom information was obtained from a

public source. The overall response rate for any crosstabulation of data is no greater than the lowest response

rate for the items involved in the tabulation.

Table C-2 shows the nonresponse rates for the items

analyzed in this report and displayed in figures and tables.

For items covering a long time span, the overall

nonresponse rate for the entire period is given, even though

the data may be displayed annually or in 5-year periods

in figures and tables. For items that are analyzed for only

two or three select time periods, the nonresponse rate

for each period is given.

Availability of SED Data

Results of the SED are published annually in Doctorate

Recipients from United States Universities: Summary

Report (NAS/NRC 1968–98, NORC 1998–2002), which

covers doctorates in all specialty fields, and in Science

and Engineering Doctorate Awards, which focuses

primarily on science and engineering doctorates. Recent

Summary Reports are available at http://www.norc.

uchicago.edu/issues/docdata.htm. The Science and

Engineering Doctorate Awards series (NSF 1997–2002)

is available on the NSF website at http://www.nsf.gov/

statistics/nsf06319/.

Information from the survey is included in several other

report series published by NSF: Science and Engineering Degrees; Science and Engineering Indicators; Women, Minorities, and Persons With

Disabilities in Science and Engineering, and in special

reports published periodically, such as Undergraduate

Origins of Recent Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients.
122

TABLE C-2. Item nonresponse rates in Doctorate Records File

Item

Relevant

chapter

Period 

covered

Nonresponse 

rate Comment

Demographic characteristics

Age 3 1960–99 3.1 Computed variable. Nonresponse indicates missing birth year.

Citizenship status All 1920–99 3.0 1920–57 are imputed based on location of BA institution (0.7% missing BA

location in those years); 1958–99 are SED results.

Country of citizenship for foreign Ph.D.s 3, 6 1960–99 7.6

Disability status 3 1993–99 8.2

Father's education 3 1965–99 9.0

Sex All 1920–99 0.1 1,886 cases (mostly in 1991–99) are missing sex.

1960–99 3.3 SED results only.

Marital status 3 1960–99 6.2

Marital status and dependents 3 1960–64 13.7 Missing either item.

1995–99 12.2 Missing either item.

Parents' education 3 1965–99 8.6 Missing for both parents.

Mother's education 3 1965–99 9.3

Race/ethnicity, all Ph.D.s 3 1975–99 6.6

Race/ethnicity, U.S. citizens 2–5 1975–99 2.7

Race/ethnicity, U.S citizens and

 permanent residents 6 1975–99 2.8

Education 

Attendance at 2-year college 4 1971–74 3.1

1995–99 8.4

Baccalaureate field 4 1960–99 7.6 Excludes 8,742 cases in 1969–99 known to have no BA (0.7% of 1960–99

total). 

Baccalaureate institution and location 4, 5 1920–99 2.5 Excludes 8,742 cases in 1969–99 known to have no BA (0.7% of 1960–99

total). 

Carnegie Classification of doctoral 

 institution

5, 6 1990–99 0.0 93 cases in 1990–99 are missing Carnegie classifications because they 

were not assigned a Carnegie code.

Control of U.S. baccalaureate institution 5 1920–24 1.8 Excludes 114 cases in 1900–24 with no BA information.

1995–99 1.2 Excludes 2,003 cases in 1995–99 known to have no BA.

Control of U.S. doctoral institution 2, 5 1920–99 0.0

Debt status and debt level 4 1988–89 8.7 Another 0.3% reported status but not level.

Doctoral field All 1920–99 0.0 13 cases in 1997–98 are missing field. They are grouped with "professional 

fields/other" in this report.

Doctoral institution and location 2, 5, 6 1920–99 0.0

Master's institution and location 4 1960–99 19.5 Excludes 23,183 cases in 1993–99 known to have no MA (1.9% of 

1960–99 total; 8.0% of 1993–99 total). If "no MA" had been captured in 

earlier years, actual nonresponse for this item each year would probably 

have been 10%–14%.

Master's field 4 1960–99 23.7 Excludes 23,183 cases in 1993–99 known to have no MA (1.9% of 

1960–99 total; 8.0% of 1993–99 total). If "no MA" had been captured in 

earlier years, actual nonresponse for this item each year would probably 

have been 11%–17%.

Postbaccalaureate time to doctorate 4 1995–99 16.6 Computed variable. Nonresponse indicates missing year of first post-BA 

entrance in Ph.D.-granting institution.

Primary source of support, all graduate study 4 1980–81 11.0

1996–97 13.7

Primary source of support, doctoral study 4 1998–99 10.8

1993–99 8.8

1995–99 9.4

Registered time to doctorate 4 1960–99 13.6 Computed variable. Enrollment dates are required for all institutions 

attended. Nonresponse indicates one or more missing enrollment dates.
123

TABLE C-2. Item nonresponse rates in Doctorate Records File

Item

Relevant

chapter

Period 

covered

Nonresponse 

rate Comment

Status in year before doctorate 4 1970–74 5.3

Total time to doctorate 4 1920–99 3.7 Computed variable. Nonresponse indicates missing BA year.

Year of doctorate All 1920–99 0.0

Postgraduation plans

Commitment status 6 1970–99 7.4

U.S. or foreign commitment location 6 1970–99 3.3

Study or employment U.S. commitment 6 1970–99 0.6

Study commitments

Mechanism 6 1970–74 0.0 Must be present to count as study commitment.

1995–99 0.0 Must be present to count as study commitment.

Source of support 6 1975–79 6.1 Another 6.5% marked the survey category for "unknown source."

1995–99 3.2 Another 8.1% marked the survey category for "unknown source."

Setting 6 1970–74 1.0

1995–96 13.4

Employment commitments

Sector 6 1970–99 0.7

Primary work activity 6 1970–74 3.3

1995–99 4.7

Interstate migration 6 1970–74 < 0.1

1995–99 1.9

BA = bachelor's degree; MA = master's degree; Ph.D. = doctoral degree; SED = Survey of Earned Doctorates.

SOURCE: NSF/NIH/USED/NEH/USDA/NASA, Survey of Earned Doctorates and Doctorate Records File.

Selected summary data from this survey are available on

the NSF website noted above, and in the WebCASPAR

database, which can also be accessed through the NSF

website. Researchers interested in analyzing microdata

may request access to restricted data through a licensing agreement with NSF. For more information about

this survey, contact Susan Hill at sthill@nsf.gov or

703-292-7790.

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