AGE AND ARTS PARTICIPATION 

With a Focus on the Baby Boom Cohort
 

Richard A. Peterson and Darren E. Sherkat 

Judith Huggins Balfe and Rolf Meyersohn 

Edited by Erin V. Lehman 

Research Division Report #34 

NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS
 
Age and Arts Participation 

with a Focus on the Baby Boom Cohort 

Richard A. Peterson and Darren E. Sherkat 

Judith Huggins Balfe and Rolf Meyersohn 

Edited by Erin V. Lehman 

Research Division Report #34 

National Endowment for the Arts
 

Seven Locks Press
 

Santa Ana, California
 
Age and Arts Participation 

with a Focus on the Baby Boom Cohort 
 

 

 

Age and Arts Participation with a Focus on the Baby Boom Cohort is Report #34 in a 

series on matters of interest to the arts community commissioned by the Research 

Division of the National Endowment for the Arts. 

Cover: Line of people outside the National Gallery of Art waiting to see the Johannes Vermeer exhibit, January 30, 1996. AP Photo by J. Scott Applewhite. 

First printed 1996 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Peterson, Richard A., 1932-

Age and arts participation with a focus on the baby boom cohort / 

Richard A. Peterson . . . (et al.). 

p. cm. -- (Research Division report: 34)
 

Includes bibliographical references.
 

ISBN 0-929765-45-1 (paperback)
 

1. Arts audiences--United States. 2. Arts surveys--United States. I. 

Peterson, Richard A., 1932- II. Series: Research Division report (National 

Endowment for the Arts. Research Division) ; 34. 

NX220.A36 1996 

700’. 1’030973--dc20 96-7841 

CIP 

Manufactured in the United States of America 

Seven Locks Press 

Santa Aria, California 

1-800-354-5348 
Table of Contents 

List of Tables	 vi 

List of Figures	 vii 

Executive	 Summary 1 

The Report in Brief 1 

The Cohorts 1 

Highlights of Change in Cohort Attendance 2 

From 1982 to 1992 

Life Course, Demographics, and Alternatives 4 

Education, Income, Children, and the Baby Boomers 4 

The Ultimate Question 5 

Introduction	 7 

Background on the SPPA	 11 

PART I: Effects of Age on Arts Participation 13 

Introduction to Age Cohorts 13 

Comparisons of Arts Participation Across Cohorts 16 

by Art Form 

Arts Participation of Specific Cohorts Over Time 24 

Implications of Life Course and Demographics 39 

Alternatives to Active Arts Participation: 46 

Consumption via Media 

PART I1:	 Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers 68 

Introduction and Methodology 68 

Arts Participation by Cohort in the 1982 and 1992 SPPAs 72 

Effect of Education on Arts Participation 82 

Effect of Income on Arts Participation 89 

Effect of Households with Children on Arts Participation 96 

Alternative Forms of Arts Participation: The Case of Music 97 

Implications of Baby Boomer Analysis 114 

V 
vi I Age and Arts Participation 

Summary 117 

Appendix A: 1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts 119 

Appendix B: Additional Tables 126 

Notes 134 

Bibliography 136 

About the Authors 138 

Other Reports on Arts Participation 140 

Tables 

Table 1. Age Group Comparisons for Participation in Classical Music 

and Opera, 1982 and 1992: Unadjusted, Controlling for 

Demographics, and Controlling for Demographics and Period17 

Table 2. Age Group Comparisons for Participation in Ballet 

and Musicals, 1982 and 1992: Unadjusted, Controlling 

for Demographics, and Controlling for Demographics 

and Period 18 

Table 3. Cohort Comparisons of Participation Rates for Jazz, Plays, 

Art Museums, and Novels, 1982 and 1992: 

Unadjusted, Adjusted for Demographics, and Adjusted 

for Demographics and Period 22 

Table 4. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in Participation of 

Classical Music and Opera by Age and Cohort 26-27 

Table 5. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in Participation of 

Ballet and Musicals by Age and Cohort 29-30 

Table 6. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in Participation 

of Jazz and Plays by Age and Cohort 34-35 

Table 7. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in Participation 

of Art Museums and Novels by Age and Cohort 37-38 

Table 8. OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course Factors on 

Arts Participation: 17- to 46-Year-Olds 42 
44 

Table of Contents I vii 

Table 9.
 

Table 10.
 

Table 11.
 

Table 12.
 

Table 13.
 

Table 14. 

Table 15. 

Table 16. 

Table 17. 

Table 18. 

Table 19. 

Table 20. 

Table 21. 

Table 22. 

Table 23. 

Table B-1. 

Table B-2. 

Table B-3. 

Table B-4. 

Table B-5. 

Table B-6. 

OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course Factors on 

Arts Participation: 47- to 66-¥ear-Olds 

OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course Factors on 

Arts Participation: Age 67 and Over 45 

Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Classical 

Music and Opera 48-49 

Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Ballet and 

Musicals 51-52 

Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Jazz and Plays55-56 

Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Visual Arts 58 

Percentage of Radio Consumption of Classical Music 

and Opera 61-62 

Percentage of Consumption of Classical Music and 

Opera Recordings 65-66 

Education and Cohorts by Size, in Millions (1992 Data Only)71 

Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation Rates 

in 1982 and 1992 77 

Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation Rates 

(Average of 1982 and 1992) by Education 87 

Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation Rates by 

Income (1992 Data Only) 94 

Percentage of the 1941-45 and 1961-65 Cohorts Liking 

Various Types of Music 102 

Music Liking and Projected Audience Size for 1941-45 

and 1961-65 Cohorts 115 

Classical Music Attendance and Nonattendance for 1941-45 

and 1961-65 Cohorts with One or More Years of College 116 

Arts Participation by Age Cohort and Survey Year 126 

Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 1992) 

by Age Cohort and Educational Level 127 

Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 1992) 

by Age Cohort and Annual Family Income 128 

Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 1992) 

by Age Cohort and Number of Children 129 

Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by 

Age Cohort 130 

Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by 

Age Cohort and Extent of Arts Participation 131-133 
viii I Age and Arts Participation 

Figures 

Figure 1.
 

Figure 2.
 

Figure 3. 

Figure 4. 

Figure 5. 

Figure 6. 

Figure 7. 

Figure 8. 

Figure 9. 

Figure 10. 

Figure 11. 

Figure 12. 

Figure 13. 

Figure 14. 

Figure 15. 

Figure 16. 

Figure 17. 

Figure 18. 

Figure 19. 

Figure 20. 

Figure 21. 

Figure 22. 

Figure 23. 

Figure 24. 

Figure 25. 

Figure 26. 

Figure 27. 

Educational Level by Age Cohort
 71 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Classical
 

Music Concerts by Age Cohort
 73 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Jazz Concerts
 

by Age Cohort
 73 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Operas by
 

Age Cohort 74
 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Theater by
 

Age Cohort
 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Musicals by
 

Age Cohort 74
 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Ballet
 

Performances by Age Cohort 75
 

75 

Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Museums
 

by Age Cohort 76
 

1982 and 1992
 

Age Cohort
 

1982 and 1992
 

1982 and 1992
 

1982 and 1992
 

1982 and 1992
 

1982 and 1992
 

1982 and 1992
 

ClassicalMusic
 

and Education
 

Classical Music Concert Attendance by 

79 

Jazz Concert Attendance by Age Cohort 79 

Opera Attendance by Age Cohort 80 

Musicals Attendance by Age Cohort 80 

Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort 81 

Theater Attendance by Age Cohort 81 

Museum Visits by Age Cohort 82 

Concert Attendance by Age Cohort 

83 

Jazz Concert Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 83
 

Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 84
 

Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort and Education 84
 

Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 85
 

Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 85
 

Museum Visits by Age Cohort and Education 86
 

Family Income by Age Cohort 89
 

Attendance at Classical Concerts by Age Cohort and Income 90
 

Attendance at Jazz Concerts by Age Cohort and Income 90
 

Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 91
 

Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort and Income 91
 
Figure 28. 

Figure 29. 

Figure 30. 

Figure 31. 

Figure 32. 

Figure 33. 

Figure 34. 

Figure 35. 

Figure 36. 

Figure 37. 

Figure 38. 

Figure 39. 

Figure 40. 

Figure 41. 

Figure 42. 

Figure 43. 

Figure 44. 

Figure 45. 

Figure 46. 

Figure 47. 

Figure 48. 

Table of Contents I ix 

Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 92 

Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 92 

Museum Visits by Age Cohort and Income 93 

Number with Children under 12 by Cohort (1992 Data Only)97 

Classical Music Concert Attendance by Age Cohort 

and Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 98 

Jazz Concert Attendance by Age Cohort and Number 

of Children, 1982 and 1992 98 

Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and Number of Children, 

1982 and 1992 99 

Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort and Number 

of Children, 1982 and 1992 99 

Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and Number of Children, 

1982 and 1992 100 

Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and Number of Children, 

1982 and 1992 100 

Museum Visits by Age Cohort and Number of Children, 

1982 and 1992 101 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Country-Western Music" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 104 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Mood/Easy Listening" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 105 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Hymns/Gospel Music" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 105 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Big Band Music" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 106 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Blues/Rhythm and Blues" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 106
 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Rock"
 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 107
 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Classical Music"
 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 107
 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Musicals"
 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 108
 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Bluegrass"
 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 108
 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Contemporary Folk Music"
 

by Extent of Arts Partici3auon and Age Cohort 109
 
x I Age and Arts Participation 

Figure 49. 

Figure 50. 

Figure 51. 

Figure 52. 

Figure 53. 

Figure 54. 

Figure 55. 

Figure 56. 

Figure 57. 

Figure 58. 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Jazz" 

by Extent of Arts Participauon and Age Cohort 109 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Soul Music" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 110 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Ethnic Music" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 110 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Latin/Spanish/Salsa" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 111 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Marching Band Music" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~atlon and Age Cohort 111 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Choral/Glee Club" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~atlon and Age Cohort 112 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Reggae" 

by Extent of Arts Participat,on and Age Cohort 112 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Opera" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 113 

Percent That "Like to Listen to New Age Music" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 113 

Percent That "Like to Listen to Rap" 

by Extent of Arts Partici ~auon and Age Cohort 114 
Executive Summary 

The Report in Brief 

This report presents two sets of analyses of the effect of age on adult arts 

participation in seven benchmark or core art forms. The data which are 

analyzed herein are taken from the National Endowment for the Arts’ Surveys 

of Public Participation in the Arts (SPPA) which were conducted in 1982 and 

1992. The SPPA provides important statistics on adult participation over this 

10-year period. These data document the changing composition of arts audiences in America; they provide a snapshot in time of audiences for classical 

music, opera, ballet, musicals, jazz, plays, and art museums. 

Based on over 12,000 telephone and in-person interviews of adult Americans, each survey reveals a pattern of participation by age and other demographics. Of special importance is the participation of "cohorts," a group of 

individuals born at roughly the same time and thereby sharing a variety of sociohistorical experiences. Insofar as the socializing experiences of a cohort are 

unique, they will influence the rates of participation in some or all of the arts. 

Moreover, the influences will persist as the cohort moves through the life 

cycle. While aging effects take place over the life span for all individuals no 

matter when they were born, cohort effects, when present, yield unique attendance patterns. 

This report examines the participation of different cohorts between 1982 

and 1992, with a special look at the baby boomers generation. The results are 

important for all those concerned with the arts in America today, especially 

the cultural institutions, their supporters, and policy makers. 

The Cohorts 

The collective experience of an age group is of such importance that they 

have been broken down into seven cohorts for this report’s analysis and named 

according to the era in which they were born: 

Progressives: those born before 1916, aged 77 and older in 1992 

Roaring ’20s: those born between 1916 and 1925, aged 67-76 

Depression: those born between 1926 and 1935, aged 57-66 
2 I Age and Arts Participation 

World War II: those born between 1936 and 194:5, aged 47-56 

Early Boomers: those born between 1946 and 1955, aged 37-46 

Late Boomers: those born between 1956 and 1965, aged 27-36 

Baby Busters: those born between 1966 and 1976, aged 17-26, 

also known as Generation X. 

Highlights of Change in Cohort Attendance 

From 1982 to 1992 

Classical Music. The raw data show that attendance at classical music performances is highest among those born between 1936-1945 (the 47- to 56-yearolds in 1992) and lowest in the oldest and youngest cohorts. When the data 

are adjusted for demographic and life course events, the lower participation 

rates of the oldest cohort (born pre-1916) are, as might be expected, a function of aging, whereas the decreased participation of younger cohorts shows a 

clear cohort effect. This could signal problems for the future of live classical 

music if these younger adults fail to mature into attendance. The truism that 

more educated people attend the arts more often is no longer as valid. While 

the post-WXV£ II cohorts are more educated than those adults that came before them, the link between high levels of education and classical music attendance is not as strong as it is in the earlier cohorts. 

Opera. Looking at results adjusted for demographic and life course factors, 

members of older cohorts comprise an even higher proportion of the opera 

audiences than was true for classical music concertgoers. For example, the 

1916-1925 cohort has higher rates of participation than even the 1936-1945 

cohort. As observed for classical music, operagoers are underrepresented 

among the youngest adults. These results suggest that opera is a discipline 

with a graying audience. In fact, there is a dramatic drop between the WW II 

cohort (1936-1945) and the Early Boomers (1946-1955). Given this, it is 

unlikely that aging alone will induce these later cohorts to mature into opera 

participation; more needs to be done to build a younger audience. 

Ballet. The data reveal that younger cohorts are more likely to be found in the 

audience for ballet performances than at the opera or at classical music concerts. Indeed, in the unadjusted results, even the youngest cohorts attend the 

ballet at rates slightly above the most active arts participants, the 47-to 56­

year-olds. While younger adults are not attending as much as expected--given 

their high levels of education, life course stage, income and other predictors-­

they are attending at a rate comparable to older cohorts. If audiences mature 
Executive Summary I 3 

into balletgoers, the younger cohorts may eventually match their elders in 

terms of attendance. 

Musicals. The overall rates of attendance at musicals are high compared to 

rates of participation in the other art forms examined above, and yet cohort 

differences follow a pattern much like that observed for classical music, with 

participation lower in the younger cohorts. There seems to be a genuine cohort effect depressing attendance at musicals starting with the older baby 

boom cohort and continuing through the youngest cohorts. 

Jazz. The adjusted results show that attendance at jazz performances was 

much higher among the younger cohorts, those aged 46 and younger, and that 

controls for demographic and life stage factors have little impact on these cohort differences. This pattern of higher rates of attendance at jazz concerts for 

adults born after WW II is very different from the patterns seen for the other 

art forms examined thus far. The findings for jazz suggest that, as these young 

cohorts replace older ones, it is expected that overall participation at jazz 

events will grow. 

Plays. As was the case for the first four art forms, attendance at theatrical plays 

is highest for the 1936-1945 cohort, which has significantly higher attendance rates compared to all other cohorts in the raw data. The lowest reported 

participation, as expected, is found among the oldest Americans, those born 

before 1916. The next cohort, 1916-1925, is also found to attend fewer plays 

than do the 1926-1935, 1936-1945, and 1946-1955 cohorts. For plays, all 

of the cohorts born before 1946 have significantly higher rates of attendance 

than the youngest adult Americans. This "baby boom dividing line" suggests 

that cohort effects are responsible for the difference. However, as was the case 

for musicals, overall adult participation is fairly high and younger cohorts do 

not appear from this survey to be abandoning the discipline. 

Art Museums. In contrast to the results obtained for other core art forms discussed so far, the youngest cohort (1966-1975) ranks second in its high level 

of attendance at art museums. Its rate is only exceeded fractionally by the 

Early Boomers, (1946-1955). The baby boom dividing line noticeable in 

other art forms does not hold in the case of art museums. Overall, the findings for art museums suggest that cohort differences have little to do with rates 

of participation. Most of the unadjusted differences between cohorts are actually a function of life course and demographic factors. 

Novels. Data in this add-on category of the survey reveal that, as was the case 
4 I Age and Arts Participation 

with art museums, the younger cohorts are the more active, but that this is a 

function of causes other than age alone. The younger baby boomers reported 

reading more often than other cohorts except the older boomers, thus making 

these two cohorts the most active consumers of this particular form of artistic 

expression. Among the three pre-WW II cohorts, the data show that the older 

the cohort, the less reading they do. 

Life Course, Demographics, and Alternatives 

Other analyses in this report show how specific cohorts have increased or 

decreased their attendance at the benchmark art activities over this 10-year period and how life course and demographic factors affect their participation. 

Life course influences have a direct and tangible bearing on how often individuals are able to attend live artistic performances or exhibits, and these effects vary with age. The report also shows that many are substituting alternative forms of arts participation, such as television, cable and radio broadcasts, 

or through various recorded media such as videotapes and compact discs 

(CDs) for live arts participation. 

Education, Income, Children, and the Baby Boomers 

As has been true historically, education and income are strong predictors 

of arts participation. In every cohort, in every art form, those with more education and higher incomes participate at higher rates than those with less. 

Nonetheless, there is an overall decline in adult arts participation after the cohort born during World War II. The baby boomers are a surprise. Although 

better educated than their predecessors, they have not kept up in terms of active participation in the arts as would be expected. What accounts for this? 

Was the education the younger generation received the same as that of their 

elders? Findings confirm that not only was it different, it did not produce the 

same income. 

Proportionately fewer baby boomers have advanced into top professional 

and high-salaried positions, despite their advanced degrees. And basic costs, 

especially for housing, have increased to the point that home ownership is difficult for middle-income adults, even with two wage earners in a household. 

It may not be the lack of caring for culture nor lower incomes that keep baby 

boomers--especially the younger ones--away from active participation in the 

arts. They may not have the time nor money to attend, even if they have the 

inclination. They might be at home with the children, in what little free time 
Executive Summary I 5 

their work affords them for family life. Nonetheless, the data show that, regardless of the presence or absence of children in the home, it is the 

1936-1945 cohort which attends the core art forms at the highest rates 

among all adult Americans. Those in the younger cohorts have reduced their 

attendance below the high levels attained by their elders at the same age and 

presumably at the same stage of "full nest" family life. 

The Ultimate Question 

If the baby boomers and their successors, Generation X, tend to participate in most of the seven core art forms at lower rates than their elders as examined in this report, what are they doing instead? Without question, many 

of the baby boomers are participating in the core art forms and popular arts, 

especially music, in ways that are not accounted for in these data. On that assumption, it is no accident that their rates of participation are highest in 

jazz--the art form closest to popular music--and in art museums, with which 

popular music competes least. If the nature and location of that "other" participation could be determined with greater assurance, it might aid the core 

arts organizations in developing strategies to lure nonparticipants away from 

their present activities to those that might be considered more enriching of 

adults. 

This report suggests that something should be done to ensure future audiences for the benchmark art disciplines, the backbone of traditional American culture. The problem of nonattendance is serious for a number of reasons, 

especially in its effect on earned income. This is compounded by the fact that 

"unearned" support from public agencies and foundations, as well as from private patrons, is becoming ever more competitive to obtain. In an increasingly 

hostile environment for cultural endeavors, if the largest segment of the adult 

population--the baby boomers--turns away from providing support and 

from participating actively in core art forms, the future of the arts is indeed 

grim. 
Introduction 

The active support of the arts by audiences makes a difference to the vitality of American culture and its future. Artists, arts administrators, policy 

makers, funders, and all those who care about the arts should pay close attention to the changing age composition of audiences in America, because it provides not only a snapshot of the present demand for various art forms but also 

in the years to come. About this subject, it was Robinson (1993) who first reported in Arts Participation in America: 1982-1992 that since 1982 audiences for many art forms have been getting older, and the pattern of adult attendance across various arts disciplines is mixed. Although there are art forms 

such as jazz and ballet that have attracted younger audiences, the question is 

this: Will the next generation of adults show the same level of dedication, the 

same pattern of active arts participation as their elders? 

This report seeks to unveil the specific factors that affect audience participation and how those factors have changed over the 10-year period spanning 

1982 to 1992. What are the trends for various age groups and the differences 

between them? Are differences in attendance due primarily to age dynamics, 

or are they due to demographic and life course factors that are only loosely related to age? Answers to these and other questions are found through the 

analysis of data taken from the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts. This 

nationwide survey, conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census for the National Endowment for the Arts, was part of a larger national census administered in 1982, 1985, and 1992. The survey data allow participation comparisons to be made between different art forms and among age cohorts over this 

10-year period. The seven benchmark art forms in this report are classical 

music, opera, ballet, musicals, jazz, plays, and art museums. Literature is also 

examined. 

In general, as Robinson summarizes the data, "Across a decade in which 

participation in certain leisure activities declined and in which the arts became 

involved in increased public controversy, Americans’ participation in the arts 

had remained steady, and for some arts activities, increased" (1993, 54). As in 

1982 and 1985, the major predictor of arts participation in 1992 was the respondent’s level of education. In every cohort, in every art form, those with 

more education participate at higher rates than do those with less. Income was 

also a key predictor, although most of the differences by income could be explained by the respondent’s education level. Some groups showed greater increases in live arts participation than others. Blacks, for example, showed more 
8 I Age and Arts Participation 

gains than whites over the decade. People in the "empty nest" years (ages 45 

through 74) showed more gain in participation than did the "full nest" baby 

boomer generation. 

This report, however, explores the general failure of adult arts participation to keep up with expectations, especially given the increased levels of education among younger cohorts. The fact that young college-educated adults 

in 1992 were less likely to attend live arts performances and events than their 

counterparts in 1982 is extremely worrisome. These individuals should be the 

vanguard of adult arts audiences. 

At the same time it is important to remember that adult participation 

takes many forms; far more people are reached by mass media presentations 

of the various art disciplines (television, radio, recordings, and other new technology) than by any other means. In fact, twice as many respondents reported 

"participating in the arts" via these media than by attending a live performance (Robinson, 1993, 55). Americans are participating but on their own 

terms--by enjoying their own customized world of artistic activity at home. 

The possible causes for this frequently reduced live participation are examined 

in the following pages. 

Of special concern are those art forms that are presented in real time and, 

therefore, needa live audience not only for today’s performances or events but 

also in the future. How can adults be encouraged to attend the performing 

arts, to say nothing of committing to them on an ongoing basis? As Andreasen 

suggests, this is a thorny marketing problem. Those organizations that wish to 

build their audience must understand its composition and the reasons why it 

attends events. Equally important, they must understand their "non-audience" and the reasons for nonattendance. As Andreasen recalls, "Becoming involved in the arts is not a one-step process but a progression through several 

stages" (1990). Arts organizations need to encourage people to move from disinterest or passive interest to active attendance. This requires education and 

intervention on the part of arts presenters. It also requires taking a closer look 

at exactly where on the continuum of participation most adult Americans can 

be found. 

In Part I of this report, authors Peterson and Sherkat focus their analysis 

on the effect of age factors in determining adult attendance at live arts performances or events. This analysis takes into consideration the influence of 

"period": what was happening in society (economic, social, political, artistic) 

when the survey was conducted; the effects of aging in general; and what differences in participation are attributable to changes taking place in an individual’s life course. A third element of understanding is to look at the participation of cohorts. Age cohorts are important because an age group shares 

formative experiences that impact the choices its members make throughout 
Introduction I 9 

later life. To further define the causal relationship between age and arts participation, Peterson and Sherkat control for the effects of life course factors 

and demographics. Their analysis is rich in statistical detail. It stands in stylistic contrast to the analysis presented in Part II of this report where graphs 

instead of numerical tables are used to present similar findings in a different 

way. 

In Part II, authors Balfe and Meyersohn provide an analysis of the 1982 

and 1992 SPPA data. The focus of this section, however, is to highlight the 

arts participation of the baby boomers, those born between 1946 and 1965 

who make up nearly half of all adult Americans today or some 80 million 

people aged 30 to 49. With baby boomers as the focal point of their cohort 

analysis, the pattern of arts attendance that characterizes this unique cohort as 

it passes through life’s stages begins to emerge. Baby boomers are a surprise. 

They are more educated than the previous generation and yet their level of 

participation in the arts is lower. The underlying question is, Will this change 

and if so, how and when? Balfe and Meyersohn explore the pattern of participation in all of the benchmark art forms except literature and offer possible 

explanations for the change in participation, as evidenced in the 1982 and 

1992 data. 

In short, the two sections of the report are complementary, examining and 

analyzing the same data in somewhat different ways yet often coming to similar conclusions (which help validate the data). Taken together, they enrich 

our understanding of the issues at stake. 
Background on the SPPA
 

/~the most comprehensive inquiry into adult arts participation in the United States, the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts (SPPA) provides an indication of who participates in which of the core art forms, and 

how often. The 1992 SPPA builds on the findings from two previous national 

surveys on the same topic: the 1982 SPPA and the 1985 SPPA. Each SPPA 

survey queried respondents about ways in which they participate in the arts-­

as audience members at live events, as performers themselves, or alternatively, 

via broadcasts or various recorded media. 

Prior to 1982, the incompatibility of question wording and of procedures 

employed in data collection across the various studies limited their use in 

identifying trends in arts participation over time. As a result of modifications 

and new procedures, the surveys now yield a more systematic and definitive 

collection of arts participation data--one that can be both generalized to the 

overall American population with suitable confidence and also replicated regularly to track the latest trends in arts audiences. In addition, the 1982, 1985, 

and 1992 SPPA have achieved much higher response rates than were obtained 

in earlier surveys. 

As in the 1982 and 1985 surveys, the 1992 SPPA data were collected by 

the U.S. Bureau of the Census as part of a larger national panel survey of 

households. The Census Bureau conducted interviews each month throughout the year, interviewing approximately 1,000 people per month. Each 

month’s interview began with questions about general attendance at arts performances during the previous 12 months. A second set of items examined the 

extent to which the respondents used broadcast or recorded media to "participate" in the arts. During the second half of 1992, additional questions were 

asked of interviewees including their music preferences, personal arts participation and other leisure activities, their socialization experiences, and desire 

for more arts participation. In all, there were 12,736 respondents of which 

three-quarters were contacted by telephone, and the rest were interviewed in 

person. (The 1982 SPPA data were collected in the same manner from a total 

of 17,254 respondents.) The final data were weighted slightly to ensure that 

the final sample was completely representative of the 1992 U.S. population in 

terms of age, race, and gender. 

11
 
Effects of Age on 

Arts Participation 

Authored by Richard A. Peterson and Darren E. Sherkat 

Introduction to Age Cohorts 

n order to best analyze the data, it was at first decided that respondents of 

approximately the same age should be grouped together. One conventional 

way of doing this is to form decade-long age groups, the pattern followed by 

Robinson (1993). However, this basis of division does not satisfy the need in 

this monograph to identify and isolate socially meaningful groups, such as the 

baby boomers, who have many common experiences, having grown up in a 

definable time in American history. In creating and comparing age cohorts, results confirm that the commonality of early socializing experiences leads age 

groups to make distinctive social, cultural, and political choices throughout 

the rest of their lives. The collective experience of an age group is of such importance that they have been divided into seven age cohorts and given the following nicknames: 

Progressives: those born before 1916, aged 77 and older in 1992 

Roaring ’20s: those bornbetween 1916 and 1925, aged 67-76 

Depression: those born between 1926 and 1935, aged 57-66 

World War II: those bornbetween 1936 and 1945, aged 47-56 

Early Boomers: those bornbetween 1946 and 1955, aged 37~,6 

Late Boomers: those born between 1956 and 1965, aged 27-36 

Baby Busters:	 those born between 1966 and 1975, aged 17-26, 

also known as Generation X. 

The names given the cohorts typify the times in which these adults were 

born. The Progressives, for example, were born when there was a widespread 

social movement focused on checking the power of big business which had become unwieldy in the final decades of the 19th century. Public support for 

artistic expression was not a hallmark of this era, and arts policy was primarily dictated by the reformist progressives who helped to enact numerous laws 

and regulations to censor and control artistic expression; the goal was to protect workers, women, and children from the apparent "excesses of European 

culture." 

13 
14 I Age and Arts Participation 

The Roaring ’20s actually had its origins in 1916 and the upwelling of 

naive optimism that accompanied the outbreak of World War I, known as 

"the Great Crusade to make the world safe for democracy." Disenchantment 

ensued as a result of the disastrous outcome of that war. This led directly to 

the narcissistic excesses of the 1920s, the years in which those born between 

1916 and 1935 experienced their youth. 

Young adults in the 1930s, on the other hand, were profoundly affected 

by the Great Depression which began for most following the stock market 

crash of 1929. Material deprivation afflicted almost all Americans during the 

Depression, whereas self-sacrifice was the norm during the World War II years 

when women went to work in factories and rationing was common. Those 

born between 1936 and 1945, whether during the World War II years or not, 

had their early experiences shaped by it. Their world was much different than 

the one in which the Early Boomers grew up. 

The "baby boom" began in 1946 and lasted for a period of 20 years. It coincided with the end of World War II, the return of military forces from overseas, the reduction of wage work for women, and the general wave of optimism of the time. The conditions for children born during each decade of the 

20-year period from 1946 to 1965 were not, however, identical. Those born 

in the first decade of the boom (1946-1955) grew up in a world of circumstances unlike that of their parents. For example, this was the first genera.tion 

to grow up with television. That fact in itself is significant because the entire 

world was transformed by this medium. This cohort was the first to head off 

to college by the millions and the first to experience the agony of being drafted 

to take part in an unpopular war--the Vietnam War. Those born in the second decade of the baby boomers (1956-1965) had more advantages; they’ enjoyed all the benefits their older brothers and sisters had gained for them in 

their efforts to change the world. They inherited the culture of the Early 

Boomers with its "sex, drugs, and rock-n-roll," as well as a nation that was increasing in affluence. 

The Baby Busters, born after 1965, on the other hand, came into a nation 

disillusioned by the debacle of the Vietnam War and bereft of the national optimism of the prior two decades. They went on to college in unprecedented 

numbers but in a decelerating economy. In an economic sense, this cohort experienced a period of "bust" relative to the boom of the preceding decades. 

Their world was less constrained but more uncertain. They were accustomed 

to having a wide range of entertainment choices offered up by live performances and the latest in technology such as CDs and MTV. What they grew 

up with in terms of the arts was very unlike that of the eldest cohorts who were 

acculturated to the core art forms. 

Of all the means by which the data from the 1982 and 1992 SPPA could 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 15 

be analyzed, cohort analysis--following one age group or cohort over time 

and comparing its arts participation with cohorts before and after--makes the 

most sense. Although this report did look at the effects of aging across art 

form participation, tracking cohorts provided the most useful analytic strategy for sorting out aging effects. For example, observed changes in adults’ attendance between 1982 and 1992 may not be due to differences in age per se 

but may be caused by a host of other factors. No doubt, aging has an effect on 

one’s active participation in the arts. But more precision was desired--which 

specific age groups are participating in the arts and why? 

The analysis also looked at the effect of "period," the time period that data 

were collected. It may well be that for most art forms, if not all, rates of participation are higher at one point in time or in one particular year. For example, a survey fielded in a period of recession or during a period of economic 

expansion could be a cause of differing rates of adult participation in arts 

events. Period effects may also influence a specific art form, as when a particular set of events draws an unusual amount of popular attention to the art 

form at precisely the time the survey was being taken. For example, the popularity of the Broadway musical Cats may partly account for the popularity of 

musicals in the 1982 SPPA. Moreover, period effects may affect some age 

groups but not others. For example, the counterculture movement of the late 

1960s profoundly affected those under 30 years of age at the time but had little effect on those over 40. In short, to fully understand adult arts participation over the past ten years as recorded in the SPPAs, a number of factors 

needs to be considered. 

One other note should be made at the outset of Part I: two other variables 

not considered in the 1992 SPPA were included to enhance the analysis and 

understanding of adult arts participation. The first is marital status. Those 

who never married have higher rates of arts participation than do those "ever 

married," (those currently married, divorced, or widowed). Children in the 

household is another important variable. Adults with children under the age 

of 12 at home, for example, are limited in their ability to attend live arts presentations. This is especially true for single parent households, a growing segment of the American population. Often it is simply neither easy nor inexpensive to bring children to live arts performances. 

The issue of "life course" or life stage variables and the influence of other 

demographic factors on arts participation is also examined. By statistically 

controlling for these variables, the degree to which age actually determines attendance at arts events can be seen. Throughout the analysis, terms such as 

"significant" and "significance" are used.2 Following is a discussion of the data 

itself and a comparison of arts participation across cohorts. 
16 I Age and Arts Participation 

Comparisons of Arts Participation Across 

Cohorts by Art Form 

As suggested earlier, one of the most important concepts for understanding age-related patterning of arts participation is that of the cohort--a group 

of individuals born at roughly the same time and thereby sharing a variety of 

sociohistorical experiences. The defining experiences of a cohort’s socialization 

may persist over time and be relatively impervious to later life course influences. Insofar as the socializing experiences of a cohort are unique, they will 

influence the rates of their participation in some or all of the arts. Moreover, 

these influences will persist as the cohort moves through the life cycle. Thus, 

cohort effects differ from aging effects, because while aging effects take place 

over the life span for all individuals no matter when they were born, cohort 

effects yield unique influence only on the attendance patterns exhibited by 

each cohort. 

Cohorts are focal in this section and the one following. In this section, 

data are taken from the 1982 and 1992 SPPA to examine differences in arts 

participation for the seven different birth cohorts identified. As previously 

mentioned, they are: pre-1916, 1916-1925, 1926-1935, 1936-1945, 

1946-1955, 1956-1965 (all consistent with the 1982 SPPA), and 

1966-1975 (added in the 1992 SPPA). In order to remove life cycle and aging 

effects on participation, controls were established for demographic and life 

course factors and also for the year of the study. The following, then, is a snapshot of the average of 1982 and 1992 cohort participation data by art form. 

In the section following, in order to identify the role that a decade of aging 

played in the changing rates of arts participation, an analysis will be made of 

how each cohort’s participation changed between 1982 and 1992. 

Classical Music, Opera, Ballet, and Musicals 

Data in Tables 1 and 2 show the rates of participation at classical music, 

opera, ballet, and musical performances for the seven birth cohorts. The results are presented in three ways: first, the unadjusted proportions are shown; 

second, the proportions are adjusted to take into account the distorting effects 

of the demographic and life course variables. (This adjustment eliminates the 

influence of these variables and provides a better picture of the effect of age 

per se on attendance.) Third, the proportions are adjusted by these factors and 

also by the year in which the data were collected (1982 or 1992). This final 

control emphasizes the differences between cohorts with the effect of aging 

within cohorts taken out. 
 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 17 

TABLE 1.	 Age Group Comparisons for Participation in Classical 

Music and Opera, 1982 and 1992: Unadjusted, 

Controlling for Demographics, and Controlling for 

Demographics and Period 

Classical Music Age Group Comparisons 1982 and 1992 

20 

i~l Unadjusted  ̄ Adjusted*  ̄ Adjusted** 

15 

10 

5 

0 

77-UP 67-76 57-66 47-56 

Age Groups 

37-46 27-36 17-26 

Opera Age Group Comparisons 1982 and 1992 

[--] Unadjusted ~ Adjusted* ~ Adjusted** 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

77-UP 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

*Controlling for demographics 

**Controlling for demographics and period 
 

18 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 2. Age Group Comparisons for Participation in Ballet and 

Musicals, 1982 and 1992: Unadjusted, Controlling for 

Demographics, and Controlling for Demographics and 

Period 

Ballet Age Group Comparisons 1982 and 1992 

1--’] Unadjusted [] Adjusted* [] Adjusted** 

6 

77-UP 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Musical Age Group Comparisons 1982 and 1992 

~] Unadjusted ~ Adjusted* ~ Adjusted** 

25 

~ 20 

~­ © 15 

~_ 10 

5 

0 

77-UP 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

*Controlling for demographics 

**Controlling for demographics and period 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 19 

Classical Music. The unadjusted results in Table 1 show that attendance at 

classical music performances is highest among those born between 

1936-1945 (the 47- to 56-year-olds in 1992) and lowest in the oldest and 

youngest cohorts. The pattern of attendance across cohorts appears curvilinear. In the unadjusted results, the rank order of cohort participation from 

most frequent to least is as follows: 1936-1945, 1926-1935, 1946-1955, 

1916-1925, 1956-1965, 1966-1975, and finally and perhaps not so surprisingly, the oldest cohort, pre- 1916. 

Turning to the results adjusted for demographic and life course factors, 

findings confirm that the effect of these controls is to eliminate the curvilinear pattern observed in the unadjusted figures just discussed. The figures for 

the four oldest cohorts are all equally high, forming a plateau, and the proportions fall from this plateau with each succeeding younger cohort. Beginning with the Early Boomers (those born 1946-1955) adjusted participation 

rates for each cohort are significantly lower than the rates for every other cohort. The Late Boomers are significantly lower in their participation than the 

Early Boomers, and the youngest cohort, Baby Busters, in turn, shows significantly fewer classical music patrons than the Late Boomers. 

The first important finding that emerges when demographic factors are 

taken into account is that lower participation rates among the oldest cohort 

(pre-1916) are, as suspected, a function of demographic and life stage factors, 

rather than being a genuine cohort difference in participation. The second 

finding is that all of the younger cohorts show a clear cohort effect. 

The low adjusted participation rates for cohorts born since WW II could 

signal problems for the future of live classical music if these groups fail to age 

into attendance at such performances. The sharp break between the pre-WW 

II cohorts and the baby boomers suggests a cohort effect that continues to operate in subsequent cohorts. Further, the dramatic differences in reported arts 

participation which are evident when controls are introduced suggest that the 

influences of these factors on classical music participation are not as strong as 

they were for earlier cohorts. While the post-WW II cohorts are much more 

educated than those that came before them, the link between high levels of 

education and classical music attendance is not as strong as it is in the earlier 

cohorts. 

Opera. Because of the relatively low rates of opera attendance across the 

board, differences between cohorts are more difficult to discern. Generally, the 

picture looks much more stable across cohorts than was found for classical 

music. What is similar is the steep decline in participation among the younger 

cohorts. As was the case with classical music, the unadjusted results show that 

attendance at operas peaks with the 47- to 56-year-olds and is the lowest in 
20 I Age and Arts Participation 

the oldest and youngest two cohorts. The 1916-1925, 1926-1935, and 

1936-1945 cohorts have significantly higher rates of attendance than those 

aged 36 and younger or those adults over 77. Perhaps the elderly are less physically mobile and therefore less able to attend live performances. But what 

about the Late Boomers and Baby Busters? Why aren’t they attending opera? 

The adjusted results show that members of older cohorts comprise an 

even higher proportion of the opera audiences than was true for classical 

music concertgoers. For example, once demographic and life course factors are 

taken into account, the 1916-1925 cohort has higher rates of participation 

than the 1936-1945 cohort. As observed for classical music attendance, operagoers are not the youngest adults. 

These results suggest that opera is a discipline with a graying audience. 

Given the dramatic drop between the WW II cohort (1936-1945) and the 

Early Boomers (1946-1955), it is unlikely that aging alone will induce these 

later cohorts to mature into opera participation; more needs to be done to 

build a younger audience. 

Ballet. Younger cohorts are substantially more likely to be found in the audience for ballet performances than at the opera or at classical music concerts. 

Indeed, in the unadjusted results, even the youngest cohorts attend the ballet 

at rates slightly above those of the 1936-1945 cohort, that is, the 47- to 56­

year-olds who are the most active arts participants. The pre-1916 cohort has 

the lowest attendance rate for ballet, significantly lower than every other cohort in the unadjusted results (see Table 2). 

Once controls are introduced for demographic and life course factors, the 

picture changes. Starting with the Early Boomers, the younger cohorts have 

significantly lower rates of reported participation compared to the cohorts 

born before 1946. Those aged 36 and younger are not participating as often 

as those aged 37 and older. The youngest cohort, the 17- to 26-year-olds, is 

found to have significantly lower attendance at ballet performances than the 

Early Boomers. 

After controls for demographic and life course factors are introduced, the 

results for ballet attendance look rather like those for opera and classical 

music. However, it is clear from the unadjusted results that the picture is not 

nearly as grim for ballet. While younger cohorts are not attending as often as 

expected--given their high levels of education, life course stage, income and 

the like--they are attending at a rate comparable to the older cohorts. If audiences mature into ballet participation, the younger cohorts may eventually 

match their elders in terms of attendance at ballet performances. 

Finally, the adjusted results reveal that the lower rate of participation 

among the older cohorts (as was true with other art forms discussed thus far) 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 21 

is a function of life course and demographic factors rather than the result of 

unique cohort effects on participation. 

Musicals. The unadjusted figures for musicals indicate that attendance at musicals, as with the other art forms described thus far, is curvilinear. The unadjusted participation is lowest for the oldest cohort, peaks with the 1936-1945 

cohort, and declines further with each succeeding younger cohort (see Table 

2). 

Turning to the results adjusted for the effects of demographic and life 

stage variables, findings indicate that the adjusted participation rate for the 

oldest cohorts is still significantly lower than that of the next two cohorts. As 

with the art forms discussed above, however, all three of the older cohorts have 

participation rates significantly higher than those of the Early Boomers and 

subsequent cohorts. Thus, the pattern of low attendance among the younger 

cohorts is once again revealed, with those aged 36 and younger having significantly lower participation than the oldest four cohorts (the only exception 

being the significance of the difference between the Early Boomers and the 

pre- 1916 cohort when controls for year of the study are introduced). Also, the 

Late Boomers are found to have significantly lower participation compared to 

the Early Boomers. 

In conclusion, the overall rates of attendance at musicals are high compared to rates of participation in the other arts disciplines examined (see Tables 1 and 2). And yet, cohort differences follow a pattern much like that observed for classical music attendance, with participation lower in the younger 

cohorts. There seems to be a genuine cohort effect depressing attendance at 

musicals starting with the older baby boom cohort and continuing through 

the younger cohorts. 

Jazz, Plays, Art Museums, and Novels 

Cohort comparisons for attendance at jazz performances, plays, art museums, and for literature reading are examined. As above, results are presented 

unadjusted, adjusted for demographic and life course factors, and adjusted for 

the year of the study as well (see Table 3). 

Jazz. The unadjusted results show that jazz attendance is greatest among the 

younger cohorts, with the highest level of attendance registered by the 

1956-1965 cohort. The rank order of participation at live jazz events is, from 

most frequent to least, as follows: 1956-1965, 1966-1975, 1946-1955, 

1936-1945, 1926-1935, 1916-1925, and pre-1916. 
 

22 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 3.	 Cohort Comparisons of Participation Rates for Jazz,
 

Plays, Art Museums, and Novels, 1982 and 1992:
 

Unadjusted, Adjusted for Demographics, and
 

Adjusted for Demographics and Period
 

Pre-1916 1916-25 1926-35 1936-45 1946-55 1956-65 1966-75 

/azz1 1.8 4.4aa 7.1 aabb 8.4aabbc 12.2aabbccdd 15.5aabbccddee 12.8aabbccddff 

Jazz2 5.8 6.8 8.0aa 8.4aab 11.6aabbccdd 13.5aabbccddee 8.7aabeeff 

11.6aabbccdd 13.5aabbccddee 9.5aabbeff Jazz3 5.4 6.6 8.0aa 8.3aab 

13.8aabbd Playt 7.2 11.6aa 14~6aabb 15.1 aabb 11.8aaccddee 12.4aacdd 

Play2 13.5 15.4a 16.2aa 14.1cc 11.1aabbccdd 9.6aabbccdde 8.7aabbccdde 

Play3 13.5 15.4a 16.2aa 14.1cc 11.1aabbccdd 9.6aabbccdde 8.9aabbccdde 

Art Museum1 10.9 18.5aa 22.1aabb 26.7aabbcc 28.6aabbccd 25.9aabbccee 28.saabbccf 

Art Museum2 21.4 24.0a 23.8a 24.5aa 24.3aa 22.9 23.7 

Art Museum3 21.5 24.1a 23.8a 24.5aa 24.3a 22.9d 23.4 

59.7aabbcc Novelst 43.1 52.7aa 56.2aabb 64.1aabbccdd 62.5aabbccdd 59.9aabbcce~f 

Novels2 54.1 58.4aa 58.3aa 57.0a 58.9aad 60.3aadd 57.5af 

60.2aadd Novels3 54.3 58.5aa 58.3aa 57.0a 59.0aad 57.1i 

1. Unadjusted Mean 2. Adjusted for Demographics 3. Adjusted for Demographics and Period. 

a = difference from pre-1916 significant at .05 level d difference from 1936-I 945 significant at .05 level
 

aa = difference from pre-1916 significant at .01 level dd = difference from 1936-1945 significant at ,01 level
 

b = difference from 1916-1925 significant at .05 level e = difference from 1946-1955 significant at ,05 level
 

bb = difference from 1916-1925 significant at .01 level ee = difference from 194~-1955 significant at .01 level
 

c = difference from 1926-1935 significant at .05 level f = difference from 195~-1965 significant at .05 level
 

cc = difference from 1926-1935 significant at .01 level ff = difference from 1956-1965 significant at .01 level 

Turning to the adjusted results, there is little change from one cohort to 

the next. While life course and demographic factors account for some of the 

difference between the oldest cohort and subsequent ones, controls do not 

eradicate these cohort effects; that is, the 1956-1965 cohort (the 27- to 36­

year-olds) is found to have significantly higher rates of jazz attendance compared to all other cohorts even after controls are introduced. 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 23 

Again, the adjusted results show that attendance at jazz performances is 

much higher among the younger cohorts, those aged 46 and younger, and that 

the controls for demographic and life course factors have little impact on these 

cohort differences. At the same time, however, the youngest cohort now has 

significantly lower participation than the Early Boomers. This pattern of 

higher rates of attendance at jazz concerts for the cohorts born after WW II is 

very different from the patterns found for the other arts disciplines examined 

thus far. The findings for jazz suggest that, as these young cohorts replace 

older ones, overall attendance at jazz events will grow. 

Plays. As was the case with the first four arts forms, attendance at theatrical 

plays is highest for the 1936-1945 cohort, which has significantly higher attendance rates compared to all other cohorts in the unadjusted results. The 

lowest reported attendance rate, as now expected, is found among the oldest 

adult Americans, those born before 1916. The next cohort, 1916-1925, is 

also found to attend fewer plays than do the 1926-1935, 1936-1945, and 

1946-1955 cohorts. And those aged 37 to 46 and 57 to 66 were more likely 

to attend plays than the 17- to 36-year-olds. 

The adjusted proportions show that controlling for demographic and life 

course factors eliminates most of the differences between the oldest cohort 

and other groups. For example, the adjusted results find the pre-1916 cohort 

participating at a significantly higher rate than the three youngest cohorts. Indeed, all cohorts born prior to 1946 have significantly higher rates of attendance than the youngest adult Americans. This consistent baby boom dividing line suggests that cohort effects are responsible for these differences. 

Possible reasons for this effect wilt be explored in more detail in Part II of this 

report. 

The results for attendance at plays are very much like those for musicals, 

in that the pattern of low participation among the young is evident in the unadjusted results and is magnified by the adjusted proportions. However, as was 

the case for musicals, overall adult participation is fairly high, and the younger 

cohorts do not appear from this survey to be abandoning the discipline. As 

with most other art forms, findings indicate that the withdrawal of the oldest 

cohort is largely a function of life stage and demographic profile. 

Art Museums. In contrast to the results obtained for other core art forms previously discussed, the youngest cohort (1966-1975) ranks second in its high 

level of attendance at art museums. Its rate is exceeded only fractionally by the 

Early Boomers. The rank order of attendance from the most frequent to least 

in the unadjusted results is: 1946-1955, 1966-1975, 1936-1945, 

1956-1965, 1926-1935, 1916-1925, and pre-1916. 
24 I Age and Arts Participation 

Adjusted results reveal few significant differences among cohorts. Thus 

most of the differences found in the unadjusted figures are attributable to life 

course factors and demographic composition differences between the cohorts 

rather than to genuine cohort differences. The baby boom dividing line evident in other art forms does not hold in the case of art museums, because the 

47- to 66-year-olds are attending more often than the 27- to 36-year-olds. 

Overall, the findings for art museums suggest that cohort differences have 

little to do with the rates of attendance. Most of the unadjusted differences between cohorts are actually a function of life course and demographic factors. As 

already noted, the low participation rate which is still in evidence among the 

oldest Americans is probably an aging effect which cannot be controlled away. 

Novels. The unadjusted proportion of novel readers is greatest in the older 

baby boom cohort (1946-1955) which has significantly higher readership 

rates than all other cohorts, with the exception of the younger baby boom cohort (1956-1965) (see Table 3). Indeed, the younger boomers surveyed reported having significantly higher rates of reading among all the cohorts except the older boomers, thus making these two cohorts the most active 

consumers of this particular form of artistic expression. Among the three preWXv¢ II cohorts, the older the cohort, the less they read. 

However, most of the cohort differences are eliminated by introducing 

statistical controls, which means that most of the variation was a function of 

life stage factors and the demographic characteristics of the cohorts in the 

SPPA samples. So even though the younger cohorts are the more active, as in 

the case of art museum attendance, this is a function of causes other than age 

alone. 

Arts Participation of Specific Cohorts Over Time 

So far analyses have focused on the overall differences between cohorts’ activities and have controlled for differences between 1982 and 1992 participation levels. The following compares the arts participation of each cohort in 

1982 with its participation in 1992. First, the unadjusted results will show 

how cohorts’ pattern of participation changed over time in response to a variety of life course influences, as well as to aging effects. Second, controls for 

these life course events and demographic factors will be introduced to examine how cohort aging per se influences participation levels. (Note: Only the 

six oldest cohorts will be reviewed here, since members of the 1966-1975 

Baby Busters cohort were too young at the time of the 1982 SPPA survey and 

therefore were not included in it.) 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 25 

Classical Music, Opera, and Ballet 

Tables 4 through 7 present data from the 1982 and 1992 SPPAs for attendance at the seven benchmark activities and for reading literature as well. 

Unadjusted and adjusted proportions are presented for each cohort for both 

survey years. It is possible to compare participation rates of adjacent cohorts 

when they were the same age. This can be done by comparing the rates of classical music attendance for the Early Boomers in 1982 with those of the Late 

Boomers in 1992. Likewise, it is possible to compare the change in participation rates of each cohort over the decade to see whether the observed differences are statistically significant. For example, to compare the significance of 

the changes in the level of classical music attendance for the pre-1916 cohort, 

the significance tests for differences between the unadjusted proportions and 

adjusted proportions are compared (0.068 and 0.097 in the unadjusted results 

and 0.114 and 0.168 in the adjusted results). The test of significance of the 

difference between the adjusted scores is 0.0525, and this is not quite significant at the conventional 0.0500 level of significance. Similarly, the test of significance of the difference between the adjusted scores is 0.0002 and is thus 

clearly statistically significant. 

Classical Music. The unadjusted results for classical music shown in the data 

indicate that none of the cohorts altered their participation significantly between 1982 and 1992 (see Table 4). There is no evidence that younger cohorts, as hoped, increased their rates of participation as they matured. In fact, 

the two youngest cohorts actually have lower reported rates of active attendance in 1992 than in 1982. Controlling for life course influences and the demographic composition of the cohorts, findings confirm fairly sizable reductions in participation between 1982 and 1992. Further, every cohort, with the 

exception of the 1916-1925 and the 1936-1945 cohorts, significantly decreased their attendance at live classical music performances between 1982 

and 1992, and the drop in participation for the 1936-1945 cohort comes 

close to conventional levels of statistical significance (0.056). 

Another way to analyze the data in these tables is to compare how two cohorts differ in their level of participation at the same point in their life course. 

For example, comparing survey results for the 1956-1965 cohort in 1992 and 

the 1946-1955 cohort in 1982 reveals how the younger boomers compared 

with the older boomers when they were the same age. To illustrate, comparing 1992 SPPA data from the Late Boomers with the 1982 data from the 

Early Boomers, it appears that the younger cohort (1956-1965) in 1992 lags 

significantly behind the participation rates of the older cohort (1946-1955) 

at the same point in the life course. In turn, these older boomers fail to match 
 

 

 

26 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 4. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Classical Music and Opera by Age 

and Cohort 

Classical Music-Age, 1982 and 1992
 

D Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

~ 4­

~- 2 I*
 

-8 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 37~6 27-36 17-26
 

Age Groups 

Classical Music-Cohort, 1982 and 1992
 

D Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted
 

2
 

-6 I I I I
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 leveE.
 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level.
 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level.
 
 

 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 27 

TABLE 4. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Classical Music and Opera by Age and 

Cohort (Continued) 

Opera-Age, 1982 and 1992 

[~ Adjusted  ̄ U nadjusted 

-2 I I I I I I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 3746 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Opera-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

[--I Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

1 

-2.5 -. I I I I 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level. 

** = Change is significant at the .01 bevel. 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level. 
28 Age and Arts Participation 

the participation rate of the 1936-1945 cohort when they were the same age. 

These results are significant in both the adjusted and unadjusted data and are 

not explained by demographic or life course differences between these cohorts. 

In the unadjusted results, the 1936-1945 cohort participates at a higher 

rate than the 1926-1935 cohort when they were at the same point in the life 

course, however, controls for these factors reverse the relationship. Similarly, 

the 1926-1935 cohort attended classical music performances more often in 

1992 compared to the 1916-1925 cohort in 1982 (though the relationship is 

not significant at conventional levels). Controls for demographic composition 

and life course elevates the participation of the 1916-1925 cohort over that 

of the 1926-1935 cohort (and this difference is statistically significant). In 

contrast, controls erase the difference between rates of classical music attendance between the 1916-1925 cohort in 1992 and the pre-1916 cohort in 

1982. 

Generally, the findings for cohorts over time show that true aging effects 

on classical music attendance are only evident in the oldest cohort, which significantly decreases its participation even after controls are introduced in the 

analysis. Also, younger cohorts, as reported here, seem not to be maturing into 

classical music participants, and there is substantial evidence that successive 

cohorts, especially the baby boom cohorts, are less and less likely to attend 

such performances. 

Opera. The results over time for opera are less vivid. Changes across cohorts 

between 1982 and 1992 are minimal in both the unadjusted and adjusted results. The only clear changes are a significant increase in the participation 

among the young boomers (1956-1965) in the unadjusted results and a significant decrease in attendance in the oldest cohort (pre-1916). Results from 

the youngest cohort are suggestive of a maturation effect into opera attendance, but the effect is small and uncertain in the adjusted results. Aging is a 

likely factor in the declining participation rates of the oldest cohort. 

In the comparisons of cohorts at similar points in the life course, the unadjusted results show no difference between the cohorts. In the adjusted proportions, the 1946-1955 cohort in 1992 is found to have significantly lower 

rates of opera patronage compared to the 1936-1945 cohort in 1982, when 

they were the same age. The adjusted differences between the 1936-1945 cohort in 1992 and the 1926-1935 cohort in 1982 also approaches conventional significance, with the older cohort having a higher rate of opera at:tendance when the two groups are compared at the same point in their life span. 

Generally, the results suggest that the difference between cohorts as opera 

audiences are rather stable and are not being influenced by aging effects. How­
 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 29 

TABLE 5. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Ballet and Musicals by Age and Cohort 

Ballet-Age, 1982 and 1992 

[--] Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

1.5 

0.5 

0 i I I s


o’~,~ 4.5 

t~ 

~­ -1 

 ̄ -~ -1.5 

~­ -2 

I I I I I I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 3746 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Ballet-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

i~1 Adj usted  ̄ U nadj usted 

1.5­

1 

0.5 

-0.5 

-2 I I I ~ I 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level.
 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level.
 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level.
 
 

 

 

30 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 5. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Ballet and Musicals by Age and Cohort 

(Continued) 

Musicals-Age, 1982 and 1992 

D Adjusted I Unadjusted 

4 

.~ .4 -~;**-­ *** 

~ -6 

-8 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 3746 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Musicals-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

D Adjusted I Unadjusted 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level.
 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level.
 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level.
 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 31 

ever, findings indicate that aging is taking a toll on the participation of the 

most elderly adults, and younger audiences do not seem to be maturing into 

opera (once controls for demographic and life course influences are introduced into the analysis). Unlike classical music, opera enjoys a state of relative 

parity across cohorts when they are compared at the same age. This suggests 

that while the opera audience is small, it may be more stable over time as successive cohorts match their elders’ levels of participation. However, the failure 

of the two baby boom cohorts to match the attendance levels of the 

1936-1945 cohort may have an effect on audience size over the years. 

Ballet. As in opera attendance, individual cohorts did not alter their ballet attendance very much between 1982 and 1992. Unadjusted results show that 

only the youngest cohort significantly increased its participation (see Table 5). 

When controls for life course and demographic influences are introduced, the 

findings show that the 1936-1945 and the 1946-!.955 cohorts significantly 

decreased their attendance. Since there is no reason to suspect that as cohorts 

reach middle age they decrease their participation, these shifts seem more 

likely attributable to a cohort-specific period effect than to aging per se. It may 

be that the early 1980s athleticism of Baryshnikov, for example, was especially 

attractive to many of the older baby boom and World War II cohorts. The remaining shifts over time for the cohorts are insignificant. 

Comparing cohorts at similar ages reveals that unadjusted rates of ballet 

attendance are approximately equal for adjacent cohorts. The 1916-1925 cohort in 1992 is found to have somewhat higher ballet patronage than the pre1916 cohort in 1982. However, this is the only difference between cohorts 

when they were the same age that approaches statistical significance in the unadjusted results. Controlling for life course events and demographic composition shows that the Early Boomers (1946-1955) in 1992 are not keeping pace 

with the participation of the 1936-1945 generation as reported in 1982. 

Moreover, the 1936-1945 generation in 1992 is outmatched by the rates of 

ballet attendance set by the 1926-1935 cohort in 1982. (At 0.0527, this difference approaches conventional levels of statistical significance.) 

In general, changes in attendance at the ballet are slight. Cohort comparisons at similar ages reveal that the 37- to 46-year-olds and the 47- to 56-yearolds had lower participation in 1992. And these two cohorts failed to match 

the 1982 participation of their adjacent older cohorts when compared at the 

same age. As noted above, these changes in cohort activity are more likely attributable to period effects rather than to the aging of cohorts. So it is difficult to predict at this time whether and when the attendance of these cohorts 

at ballet performances will rebound. 
32 Age and Arts Participation 

Musicals, Jazz, Plays, Art Museums, and Novels 

Musicals. The unadjusted results for musicals show that attendance is significantly down for the 1916-1925 cohort and the pre-1916 cohort. In fact, 

every cohort shows a decline in attendance in the unadjusted results. In the 

adjusted proportions, controls for life course events and demographic composition reveal significant declines in attendance, which appears to be attributable to period effects rather than to aging. 

Comparing cohorts at similar points in the life course reveals several instances where the participation rates of younger cohorts in 1992 do not match 

those of the next older cohort in 1982. In the unadjusted results, the Late 

Boomers (1956-1965) do not attain the rate of the Early Boomers 

(1946-1955), and neither do the Early Boomers attain the 1982 rate of the 

WW II cohort (1936-1945). These results for the younger cohorts hold up 

after controls for life course and demographic influences are introduced into 

the analysis. In the adjusted results, the 1936-1945 cohort’s participation in 

1992 is found to be significantly lower than the participation of the 

1926-1935 cohort in 1982. Further, in 1992 the 1926-1935 cohort does not 

equal the attendance of the 1916-1925 cohort in 1982. 

It is very clear that reported attendance at musicals is down. The consistent direction of changes in participation across all cohorts suggests that, 

rather than age-related shifts, there is a strong period effect driving these 

changes. In other words, it is difficult to say how much cohort comparisons 

at similar points in the life course are affected by period effects which inflate 

rates of participation in the 1982 SPPA data. Given the patterns of association 

and the magnitude of the differences within cohorts between these two periods, it is reasonable to conclude that most of these differences are period effects; that is, they have to do with what was going on at the time the survey 

was conducted. 

Jazz. The data in Table 6 show that significant changes over time occur for 

only the younger cohorts (1946-1955 and 1956-1965). The initially high attendance at jazz concerts reported by the Late Boomers declined significantly 

between 1982 and 1992, and this result remains when controls for demographic composition and life course events are taken into account. Taking the 

position that the very high attendance rates at jazz concerts of the Late 

Boomers were a function of age, this decline could be seen as an expected effect of aging, with the cohort maturing out of jazz. The Early Boomers are also 

found to decrease their attendance significantly at jazz performances once statistical controls are introduced. These changes in attendance rates may be in­
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 33 

terpreted as aging effects; however, they may be the result of a period effect 

which impacts primarily on the 1946-1955 and 1956-1965 cohorts. 

The cohort comparisons at similar ages when unadjusted reveal that each 

younger cohort has higher participation levels than its adjacent older cohort 

at the same age. For example, the data reveal that the older boomers were significantly more likely to attend jazz shows in 1992 than were members of the 

1936-1945 cohort in 1982. In the unadjusted results, the 1936-1945 cohort 

in 1992 is shown to have significantly more jazz patrons than the 1926-1935 

cohort in 1982, when they were of comparable age. Before controls are introduced, the 1926-1935 cohort is found to exceed the participation of the 

1916-1925 cohort when they were the same age, and the 1916-1925 cohort 

is found to have been more active than the pre-1916 cohort at the same age. 

This linear patterning of differences reflects the cohort effect on jazz participation: each succeeding younger cohort reported more participation at jazz 

performances than its predecessor cohort. 

On the other hand, it is likely that some combination of aging and period 

effects are at work for jazz participation among the baby boomers. Jazz may 

have been particularly attractive to these two cohorts in the early 1980s, or 

specific shows may have brought in large numbers at that time. The growth 

of jazz-rock fusion, for example, may have influenced participation rates for 

those 27- to 46-years-old. By 1992, however, the rates had fallen. The decline 

between 1982 and 1992 may also be seen as an aging effect, with the baby 

boomers maturing out of jazz. Yet, due to the general trend for each successive younger cohort to exceed the rates of active attendance their elders exhibited at the same age, the future prospects for this art form are good. 

Plays. In the unadjusted proportions, data results in Table 6 show that attendance at theatrical plays increased significantly for the 1946-19’55 cohort. No 

significant changes occurred for other cohorts in the unadjusted results. In the 

adjusted results, when controls are introduced, findings reveal a significant decline in participation by the oldest cohort (pre-1916). This decline is most 

likely due to aging. But the controls also eliminate the statistical significance 

of the increased participation of the 1946-1955 cohort as well. 

Turning to the comparison of cohorts matched in age, findings reveal that 

the 1946-1955 cohort examined in 1992 is significantly less likely to attend 

theatrical plays when compared to the 1936-1945 cohort in 1982 (once controls for demographic and life course factors are taken into account). The 

1936-1945 cohort is also found to have lower attendance at theatrical plays 

in 1992 than the 1926-1935 cohort in 1982. (The unstandarized difference 

approaches but does not attain conventional levels of statistical significance 
 

 

 

34 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 6. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Jazz and Plays by Age and Cohort 

Jazz-Age, 1982 and 1992 

[---] Adjusted I Unadjusted 

6 

I [ I [ I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 3746 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

2 

Jazz-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

[] Adjusted I Unadjusted 

.j -3 

-5 I 

Pre-1916 

I 

1916-1925 

I i 

1926-1935 1936-1945 

Cohort Years 

i 

1946-1955 

I 

1956-1965 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level. 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level. 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level. 
 

 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 35 

TABLE 6. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Jazz and Plays by Age and Cohort 

(Continued) 

Plays-Age, 1982 and 1992 

1--1 Adjusted m Unadjusted 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

-1 

-2 

-3 I I I I I I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Plays-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

i~1Adj usted m U nadj usted 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Corhort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level. 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level. 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level. 
36 I Age and Arts Participation 

and shows the oldest cohort having less participation, while the standarized result is significant and reverses the relationship. The unstandardized results also 

show the 1926-1935 cohort having significantly higher levels of attendance 

at plays compared to the 1916-1925 cohort, but controls explain the difference. The same pattern is true when comparing the 1916-1925 and pre- 1916 

cohorts, with the significant unstandardized difference being attributable to 

life course and demographic factors.) 

Data analysis reveals that, across the 10-year span from 1982 to 1992, the 

oldest cohort’s attendance is lower. A number of other cohort influences are 

also evident, most having to do with the older baby boom and World War II 

cohorts that did not match the participation rates of cohorts at similar ages 

that preceded them. This suggests a potential long-term decline in attendance. 

Art Museums. The unadjusted and adjusted proportions for each cohort with 

respect to their attendance at art museums are presented in the data in Table 7. 

The results for art museums show that before controls are introduced, the two 

baby boom cohorts’ attendance increased significantly between 1982 and 

1992, and the finding remains significant for the 1956-1965 cohort after controls are introduced. These results could reflect either an aging effect in the 

younger cohorts, with young people maturing into active support of museums, 

or a period effect that influences only the younger cohorts. The unadjusted results also show that the 1926-1935 cohort had significantly higher attendance 

at art museums in 1992 than in 1982, though controls for demographic and 

life course variables removes the significance of this difference. In the adjusted 

proportions, an aging effect on participation is evident for the oldest cohort 

which reduced its participation significantly between 1982 and 1992. 

Comparing cohorts matched in age reveals that before controls for demographic and life course events are introduced, the 1956-1965 cohort in 1992 

significantly exceeds the museum attendance of their elder cohort 

(1946-1955) in 1982. In turn, the 1946-1955 cohort shows significantly 

more museum attendance than the 1936-1945 cohort when compared at the 

same age. In fact, every cohort significantly exceeds the participation of the 

next oldest cohort over this 10-year period. Although these unadjusted differences are strong, controls eliminate the cohort differences. Hence, museum attendance differences between the cohorts are a function of the demographic 

composition of the cohorts. 

Attendance at art museums is down among the oldest cohort, and as before with other art forms, this is largely explained by aging effects. In contrast, 

there is some evidence that younger cohorts may be maturing into museumgoers. Not to be ruled out, however, is the possibility that period effects are 

motivating the increases in museum participation among younger adults. 
 

 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 37 

TABLE 7.	 Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in 

Participation of Art Museums and Novels by Age and 

Cohort 

Art Museum-Age, 1982 and 1992 

E~ Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

-2 

-6 t I I I I I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Art Museum-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

[--] Adjusted  ̄ U nadj usted 

6 

2 -	 1
 4	 

. a ̄ 0 

-2 

-6 

-8 I I I I I I 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level. 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level. 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level. 
 

 

 

38 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 7. Period Comparisons: Percentage Change in Participation 

of Art Museums and Novels by Age and Cohort 

(Continued) 

Novels-Age, 1982 and 1992 

~-] Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

-2 

-6 I I I I I I I 

77+ 67-76 57-66 47-56 37-46 27-36 17-26 

Age Groups 

Novels-Cohort, 1982 and 1992 

[] Adjusted  ̄ Unadjusted 

6 

-8 I I I I I I 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

* = Change is significant at the .05 level. 

** = Change is significant at the .01 level. 

*** = Change is significant at the .001 level. 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 39 

Finally, differences between cohorts compared at the same age were found to 

result from life stage and demographic factors rather than from enduring differences between adjacent cohorts. 

Novels. Lastly, the change from 1982 to 1992 of reading novels by various cohorts is taken up (see Table 7 for the unadjusted and adjusted cohort comparisons over time for reading literary novels). The results are similar to those 

for attendance at art museums, charting significant increases in readership for 

the youngest adults (1946-1955 and 1956-1965) between 1982 and 1992. 

Indeed, between 1982 and 1992 all cohorts born after 1926 significantly increased their proportion of reading activity. Controls for demographic composition and life course factors, however, reduce most of the increases to statistical insignificance. The 1926-1935 cohort is the only age group (the 57­

to 66-year-olds) to show increases in readership which remain significant in 

the presence of controls. 

Comparing the cohorts at similar ages reveals that the Late Boomers 

(1956-1965) have higher readership rates than the Early Boomers (1946-1955) 

and they, in turn, were found to read more than the 1936-1945 cohort. In 

the unadjusted results, findings confirm that the 1916-1925, 1926-1935, 

and 1936-1945 cohorts outread their respective adjacent elder cohort when 

compared at the same age. However, these cohort differences are mostly a 

function of life stage and demographic differences between the cohorts. 

Overall, the data show that novel reading is on the increase, primarily because of life course changes in the earlier cohorts which increase the proportion of readers. And, large increases in readership reported among the two 

baby boom cohorts reveal significantly higher levels of readership than were 

present in the preceding cohorts at an equivalent age. This is good news for 

the art form. 

Implications of Life Course and Demographics 

In the previous sections, reference was made to life course as a primary reason for people not participating or participating less in various arts activities. 

What impact do life course and demographic factors of survey respondents 

have on their attendance at the core art forms? 

Often when people speak of the influence of age on arts participation, 

what they are really talking about are life course influences, events, or transitions that happen during the life span--most prominently, transitions into 

marriage, parenthood, the end of active parenting, retirement, and so on. 

These changes have a direct and tangible bearing on how often individuals 
40 I Age and Arts Participation 

are able to attend live artistic performances or exhibits. These life transitions 

will likely have variable influences on participation depending on the age at 

which they occur. For example, younger respondents with children in the 

home may have less money or fewer resources and, therefore, will likely have 

to forgo attendance at art performances. Older respondents with children in 

the home may not be as constrained, because they have access to other resources (e.g., more money to pay for baby-sitters) which help their ability to 

attend live arts events. On the other hand, there is also the latest trend to consider--adults becoming first-time parents much later in life, that is, in their 

40s and 50s, and consequently reducing participation in live arts events. This 

is in stark contrast to previous cohorts who, by this age in life, exhibited more 

arts participation. 

The influence of life course factors on arts participation is examined using 

a form of statistical analysis called the ordinary least squares regression model 

(OLS regression). First, a summary scale of participation in the performing 

arts under study here--classical music, ballet, opera, musicals, and theatrical 

plays--is created. The range of arts participation thus formed is from 0 to 5; 

a one-point increase in the scale means that one more art form has been attended during the year. 

Second, since the effects of life course factors on arts participation are hypothesized to vary by age, the sample is split into three groups: (1) ages 17­

46, (2) ages 47-66, and (3) aged 67 and older. Unlike the classification of age 

cohorts used earlier in this report, these age groups are uneven in size, but the 

span of years that each grouping covers corresponds with a life stage that is 

likely to be of consequence for one’s active arts participation. The young 

group is of prime age for childrearing, marriage, and divorce. The middle 

group is notably more stable, experiencing fewer transitions, and is less likely 

to have young children in the household. Childrearing is not a factor for the 

oldest group, but widowhood is much more common. 

Third, regression models are estimated separately for each group with controls for race, gender, age (within the age group), city size, income, education, 

and year the survey was administered. After considering the impact of these 

demographic factors on participation, the focus is on how life course events 

influence participation by looking specifically at two key factors: marital status and the presence of children in the respondent’s household. 

Life Course Influences on Arts Participation: The 17- to 46-Year Olds 

Data in Table 8 show the parameter estimates from the OLS regression 

model of participation for the youngest age group. The parameter estimates 

indicate the influence of a one-unit change of an independent variable (the 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 41 

demographic and life course predictors) on the participation scale) In these 

multiple regression models, the coefficients represent the effects of independent variables on arts attendance, controlling for the influence of all other 

variables in the model. This allows analysts to identify the unique influence of 

a specific life course variable on participation with the effects of demographic 

composition and other life span factors removed. 

In the 17- to 46-year-old adult age group, the predictors of participation 

explain roughly 17 percent of the variance in arts participation, as can be seen 

by the R2 of. 167. Examining the demographic predictors of participation as 

shown in the data in Table 8, findings reveal the following key results: blacks 

and nonwhites are significantly lower on the participation scale when compared to their white counterparts.4 Women have significantly higher arts participation scores than men. The youngest (aged 17-36) are significantly less 

frequent attenders of arts events than are the 37- to 46-year-olds. Individuals 

ftom larger cities attend events significantly more often, when controlling for 

other factors. And finally, overall participation was down significantly among 

adults in this age group in 1992 (ftom 1982) when controls for other influences are taken into account. 

Looking at the two social status measures, education and income, reveals 

that both have strong significant positive influences on arts participation. 

Each year of education, on average, increases arts participation by .4 art forms, 

therefore the difference between the participation of a high school graduate 

and a college graduate is nearly 1.5 art forms. The influence of income on participation is not nearly as strong but is still significant and positive, independent of the effects of education and other factors. 

The omitted category for marital status is "never married," hence all coefficients shown reflect differences ftom this age group. Married respondents are 

significantly lower in their active arts participation compared to those who 

never married, even when controls for other influences are taken into account. 

Divorced respondents are also significantly less active participants compared 

to those never married. However, a comparison between divorced and married 

respondents reveals that divorced respondents in this age group have significantly higher participation than married respondents. Widowed respondents 

are not significantly different ftom any other group, in part because there are 

so few widowed adults in the age range 17-46. 

Finally, having children under 5 years of age in the home significantly decreases active arts participation, net of the other variables in the model. In 

contrast, children ages 6-11 at home do not have as great an impact on their 

parents’ attendance at arts performances or events. 
42 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 8. OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course Factors 

on Arts Participation: 17- to 46-Year-Olds 

Parameter Standardized 

Estimate Estimate Significance 

Black -.161 -.052 .0001 

Nonwhite -.201 -.038 .0001 

Female .192 .100 .0001 

Age 17-26 -.216 -.105 .0001 

Age 27-36 -.121 -.061 .0001 

City size .005 .055 .0001 

Survey year (1992) -.016 -.084 .0001 

Education .359 .352 .0001 

Income .056 .057 .0001 

Married -.213 -.111 .0001 

Divorced -.109 -.033 .0001 

Widowed -.097 -.007 .2975 

Children < 5 -.033 -.024 .0023 

Children 6-11 .005 .004 .6431 

Intercept 2.033 

R2 .167 

Life Course Influences on Arts Participation: The 47- to 66-Year-Olds 

Data in Table 9 present the OLS regression model for arts participation in 

the 47- to 66-year-old age group. In this model, the 57- to 66-year-old respondents are the omitted category for age and are compared to the 47- to 56­

year-olds. The demographic and life course variables included in the model 

account for 21 percent of the variance in reported arts participation, as can be 

seen by the R2 of.213. 

Looking at the demographic predictors of arts participation, it becomes 

clear that this age group differs from their younger counterparts discussed 

above. While younger African Americans, for example, have significantly 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 43 

lower arts participation than whites in the 17-46 age grouping, their participation in this older grouping is indistinguishable from whites. Other nonwhites, however, are still significantly less active than whites in this older age 

group. As before, females have higher arts attendance scores than do males. 

The effects of age and city size are not significant. As with the younger adults, 

overall participation was significantly lower as reported in 1992 than a decade 

earlier, when all the other variables are taken into account. 

Both education and income have strong positive effects on arts participation. The magnitude of the effect of education is nearly the same for the older 

group as for the younger. Individuals with high incomes have significantly 

higher arts participation scores, and this factor was a more powerful predictor 

for the 47- to 66-year-olds than the 17- to 46-year-olds. 

Regarding life course factors, once again, married respondents score significantly lower in arts participation compared to those who never married. 

Divorced respondents in this age grouping are identical to respondents who 

never married; this contrasts with the significant difference found in the 

younger age group. The parameter estimate indicates that divorced respondents are actually higher on the arts participation scale than those never married, although the coefficient is not statistically significant. A comparison of 

coefficients finds that divorced respondents have significantly higher arts participation than married respondents. Widowed respondents do not significantly differ from any of the other adults in this group. In the middle of three 

age groupings, all of whom are above the age of 46, the effect of children on 

participation is inconsequential. 

Overall, the effect of life course factors on arts participation is found to be 

lower in this age grouping. Marital status differences are less significant than 

in the younger age grouping, and the difference between married and nevermarried respondents declined. Respondents who are divorced in mid-life are 

found to have relatively high scores on the arts participation scale. Life course 

factors, such as children at home, have less bearing on this group’s attendance 

at live arts events than do education and income factors. Education and income have more influence on and are stronger predictors of the active participation of the 47- to 66-year-olds. 

Life Course Influences on Arts Participation: The 67 and Older Group 

Data in Table 10 present the OLS regression model for SPPA respondents 

aged 67 and older. Those over 76 years of age are the comparison category for 

the age variable. This set of independent variables explains about 16 percent 

of the variance in the arts participation scale, which is somewhat less than the 

percentage of variance explaining the other two group’s participation. 
44 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 9. OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course Factors 

on Arts Participation: 47- to 66-Year-Olds 

Parameter Standardized 

Estimate Estimate Significance 

Black -.033 -.009 .3690 

Nonwhite -.331 -.043 .0001 

Female .221 .109 .0001 

Age 47-56 -.038 -.019 .0715 

City size .001 .014 .2025 

Survey year (1992) -.007 -.032 .0040 

Education .364 .355 .0001 

Income .202 .192 .0001 

Married -.1 72 -.074 .0001 

Divorced .050 .016 .3154 

Widowed .023 .006 .6710 

Children < 5 -.083 -.011 .2706 

Children 6-11 -.028 -.007 .4995 

Intercept 1.186 

R2 .213 

Unlike the other two age groupings, there is no significant impact of survey year on participation scores once other factors are taken into account. 

Also, unlike the other age groups, there are no significant race differences on 

the arts scale in this oldest age cluster. As in other age groups, women are significantly more active than men. City size has a significant impact on arts participation with those from larger cities having higher scores. Finally, the influence of aging is clearly evident: as discussed above, active arts participation 

has diminished by the time one reaches the oldest age group. 

In this older age grouping, both education and income have a significant 

positive impact on arts attendance rates, however, the impact is clearly weaker 

than in the case of the 47- to 66-year-olds. While the effect of income on participation is substantially weaker among the oldest respondents compared to 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 45 

TABLE 10. OLS Regression of the Influence of Life Course 

Factors on Arts Participation: Age 67 and Over 

Parameter Standardized 

Estimate Estimate Significance 

Black -.048 -.015 .3108 

Nonwhite -.174 -.022 .1379 

Female .118 .069 .0001 

Age 67-76 .167 .095 .0001 

City size .003 .039 .0163 

Survey year (1992) -.004 -.023 .1469 

Education .265 .305 .0001 

Income .103 .125 .0001 

Married .021 .013 .6889 

Divorced .071 .018 .3411 

Widowed .071 .041 .1846 

Children < 5 -.014 -.001 .9552 

Children 6-11 .256 .014 .3426 

Intercept .684 

R2 .159 

those in the middle age grouping, it is still higher than it was for the youngest 

respondents. 

None of the life course variables have a significant impact on arts participation rates in this age group. Most surprisingly, widowhood, common 

among those aged 67 and older, does not adversely affect arts attendance. The 

major change from the findings for the 47- to 66-year-olds is that married respondents have caught up in their participation relative to those who never 

married or were divorced. This could result from declining participation from 

the never-married category of respondents, and it is possible that older couples sustain active participation in the arts better than those who live alone. 

Aging is clearly the cause of lower rates of participation among those over 76 

years of age. 
46 I Age and Arts Participation 

Alternatives to Active Arts Participation: 

Consumption via Media 

If, as shown, life course factors and demographics have a significant bearing on the ability of adult Americans to actively attend arts events or performances, how then do adults enjoy the arts? Do nonattenders consume art via 

other means? To examine the possibility of media substitution and especially 

cohort differences in art consumption by alternative forms, cohorts over time 

are compared as before: first, by examining consumption of the seven core art 

forms--classical music, opera, ballet, musicals, jazz, plays, and visual arts--via 

the medium of television and video productions; next, by looking at consumption via radio for classical music and opera; and finally, by analyzing the 

listening to recordings as a substitute for attendance at live performances of 

classical music and opera. 

Arts Consumption via Television and Video 

Those with too little time or money or with concerns for safety or even 

for health reasons may elect to participate in the arts by viewing them on television or by video rather than going out in public. The advent ofvideocassette 

recorders (VCRs) and cable television have certainly increased the possibility 

of viewing a variety of art offerings at home. Certainly, the younger cohorts 

who have grown up in the television era are more likely to use these media to 

consume entertainment in general. They have mastered the technologies 

which allow them to view what they want, when they want. Is this true for the 

older generation as well? Are they likely, perhaps for other reasons, to utilize 

TVs and VCRs as their way to participate in the arts? 

Assessing the extent to which arts are consumed via the media, testing for 

substitution effects in the older cohorts, and looking at the video arts preferences of the younger cohorts begins with a discussion of cohort differences. 

This is followed by tracking the cohorts over time to observe changes in video 

consumption for each of the seven core art forms. 

Classical Music. Data in Table 11 show adjusted and unadjusted results for 

each cohort for "video consumption’’ of classical music and opera. Looking 

first at classical music reveals that the unadjusted means show a curvilinear 

pattern. However, the adjusted means find video consumption of classical 

music to be more a linear function of age, with the older cohorts being rnuch 

more likely to consume classical music by television or video, when compared 

to the post-1936 cohorts. The 1956-1965 cohort in particular has signifi­
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 47 

cantly lower viewing rates than prior cohorts, and this finding holds for both 

the adjusted and unadjusted proportions. 

Media substitution analysis shows that the unadjusted rates of video consumption of classical music reveal a substantial increase for the oldest cohort 

between the 1982 and 1992 SPPAs, although confidence in this difference is 

relatively weak (p = 0.06). In fact, the significance of this finding disappears 

with controls. It should be remembered that the adjusted consumption of the 

pre-1916 cohort was very high. The 1936-1945 cohort also significantly increased its consumption of classical music via video between 1982 and 1992, 

and this finding remains significant after controls for demographic and life 

course factors are introduced. Finally, findings reveal that the 1956-1965 cohort, the lowest in terms of consumption, made significant increases in its 

consumption between 1982 and 1992, although the significance of this finding waned when controls were introduced. 

The results seem to indicate that video consumption (TV, cable TV, 

and/or VCR) of classical music is very high for the cohorts which show some 

declines in attendance at live performances. This seems especially true for the 

oldest cohorts. Younger cohorts are also increasing their consumption of classical music by video according to these data. Whether or not this finding will 

yield increases in attendance at live performances by younger adults remains 

to be seen, but it appears that video may help the younger cohorts mature into 

classical music appreciation. 

Opera. Data in Table 11 reveal that cohort variations in opera consumption 

via video are fairly linear, peaking in the 1926-1935 cohort and then leveling 

off. While the audience for live opera performances comes close to fitting the 

graying thesis, the audience via video is very gray indeed. The pre-1916 cohort, for example, was nearly two-and-one-half times more likely to have 

viewed an opera on video compared to the Late Boomers in 1982 and almost 

twice as likely to do so in 1992. The baby boom cohorts also have low opera 

viewership, having significantly lower rates of viewing compared to all of the 

older cohorts. In general, controls for demographic and life course factors exacerbate the differences between young and old for this type of consumption. 

Data results of changes in video consumption of opera over time reveal 

some evidence that the youngest cohorts are maturing into video consumption. Both the 1946-1955 cohort and the 1956-1965 cohort reported increasing their consumption of opera by video means significantly between 

1982 and 1992. However, controls for demographic and life course factors remove the significance of this change. On the other hand, the middle-aged cohorts are relatively stable in their video consumption of this art form, and the 
 

 

 

48 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 11. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Classical 

Music and Opera 

Classical Music, Unadjusted 

| I


I I
 I I i
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 !946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years 

Classical Music, Adjusted 

[~ 1982 ~ 1992
 

40
 

~ 30
 r’~ 

= 25
 

©

 ̄ -= 20
 

.~ 15
 

=~- 10
 

c:_ 5
 ! 1


0
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years 
 

 

--

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 49 

TABLE 11. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Classical 

Music and Opera (Continued) 

Opera, Unadjusted 

2O 

0 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

Opera, Adjusted 

25 

20 

~­ 15 © 

~- ~o 

5 

0 

I I I 

I I I ~ 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936 1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 
50 I Age and Arts Participation 

oldest cohort’s increase in unadjusted video consumption nearly reaches significance (p = 0.115). Thus, many fewer people view opera than classical 

music via video, and the increase in viewership between 1982 and 1992 is less 

evident for opera than it is for classical music. 

Ballet. Data in Table 12 show the 1982 and 1992 proportions by cohort for 

viewing ballet via media. Looking first at the unadjusted differences between 

cohorts reveals that the data for ballet fit a curvilinear pattern. As with classical music, the highest rates of ballet video viewership are in the 1926-1935 

cohort (57- to 66-year-olds). Also, the eldest cohort has significantly higher 

rates of watching ballet by TV or VCR compared to the youngest cohort (at 

least in 1982). Generally, cohort differences are not as large for ballet as they 

are for both classical music and opera. Controls for demographic and life 

course factors produce a much more linear pattern for ballet. Statistical controls widen the gulf between the two baby boom cohorts and those that preceded them. Indeed, adjusting for the influence of demographic and life 

course factors, the two baby boom cohorts view ballet by video significantly 

less often than do older cohorts. 

Looking at changes in consumption via these media between 1982 and 

1992 reveals that while the oldest cohort increased its consumption, the 

change is not significant. The unadjusted results show significant increases in 

video consumption of ballet by the 1926-1935, 1936-1945, 1946-1955, and 

1956-1965 cohorts (aged 27 to 66). This consistent pattern of increasing consumption across these cohorts is positive, especially given the slight declines 

evident in live attendance. However, the introduction of controls for demographic and life course factors mitigates the significance of these findings, although the increases found for the young baby boomers remain significant at 

conventional levels, and the increases among the older boomers approach statistical significance (p = 0.064). 

Video consumption of ballet is somewhat higher than consumption of 

opera, although not as high as the reported classical music viewership. What 

is remarkable is that, compared to opera viewership, the video audience for 

ballet is much younger overall, and there is evidence of significant increases by 

the youngest cohorts; ballet, however, did not suffer from disengagement by 

the oldest cohorts. 

Musicals. Data in Table 12 also present the unadjusted and adjusted results 

for viewing musicals by video between 1982 and 1992. Overall, the pattern of 

video consumption of musicals is much more flat than the core art forms previously considered. The results show some curvilinearity in that fewer people 

in the oldest and the youngest cohorts view musicals via video than do those 
 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 51
 

TABLE 12. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Ballet and 

Musicals 

Ballet, Unadjusted 

1982 I 1992
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936M945 1946-1955 ]956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 

Ballet, Adjusted 

30
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-]965
 

Cohort Years
 
 

 

 

52 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 12. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Ballet and 

Musicals (Continued) 

Musicals, Unadjusted 

[~ 1982  ̄ 1992 

30­

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

Musicals, Adjusted 

[~ 1982  ̄ 1992 

30 

~ 25 

©

 ̄ ~ 15 

"~ 

0 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 53 

in the middle-aged cohorts. But only the cohorts with the highest 

(1926-1935) and lowest (1956-1965) rates of reported viewership differ significantly and substantially from other cohorts, whereas in 1982 the difference 

between the oldest and youngest cohorts is very small and insignificant. Statistical controls reveal an increase in cohort differences but do not produce a 

different pattern of results. Clearly, the video consumption of musicals is 

much higher in the older cohorts. 

For almost every cohort, viewership is down in 1992. This is hardly evidence for substitution. If anything, the substantial declines in live attendance 

at musicals noted earlier in this report are being matched by declines in video 

consumption of musicals. Controls for life course and demographic factors do 

not improve the picture. For example, the 1926-1935 cohort, which reportedly likes musicals the most, shows a significant decline in video consumption 

between 1982 and 1992, and this substantial decline is even stronger after statistical controls are introduced. This is also the case for the two baby boom 

cohorts, with significant declines both before and after the introduction of 

controls. The pre-1916 cohort shows a decrease in video consumption as well. 

Comparing these results with those reported earlier in this report, it becomes evident that adult Americans are less interested in musicals than they 

were in 1982. Not only is attendance down at live musical performances, but 

video consumption has decreased as well. Given the availablility of video cassettes of musicals, findings for this core art form are disturbing, as are the implications for its future. 

Jazz. Data in Table 13 show the unadjusted and adjusted proportions for 

viewing jazz performances by video (TV or VCR). Cohort variations in video 

consumption of jazz reveal a pattern unlike that found for the other art disciplines considered so far. First, in the unadjusted proportions, the older baby 

boom cohort (37- to 46-year-olds) is found to have the highest rate of consumption of jazz by video, and this is significantly higher than all other cohorts with the exception of the pre-WW II cohorts (adults over 56). However, when controls for demographic composition and life course factors are 

introduced, the differences are leveled, revealing almost identical rates of video 

consumption of jazz across all cohorts, ranging from a difference of 1.4 in 

1982 and 1.0 in 1992. 

Looking at changes in jazz viewership on video between 1982 and 1992 

reveals that, unlike musicals, video consumption of jazz is generally stable or 

increasing. Indeed, the unadjusted results find that the 1936-1945, 

1946-1955, and 1956-1965 cohorts (the 27- to 56-year-olds) reported significant increases in consumption of jazz by video. Increases in other cohorts 

are not statistically significant, but they are considerable. Controls for demo­
54 I Age and Arts Participation 

graphic and life course factors eliminate the statistical significance of the increases for the two baby boom cohorts; the increase for those in the 

1936-1945 cohort remains significant. 

Like ballet, jazz did not see disengagement of participation by the oldest 

cohort (whose participation at live jazz performances was quite low to begin 

with). However, younger cohorts significantly decreased attendance over the 

10-year span, 1982 to 1992, although this drop-offin attendance did not coincide with decreases in video consumption, as was the case with musicals. 

Hence, it appears that younger cohorts are substituting video consumption of 

jazz for live attendance. Unlike musicals, jazz seems to be retaining its interest 

across cohorts, and the range of cohorts which consume jazz, especially by 

video, is quite large. While attendance at jazz concerts is much higher for 

younger cohorts, video consumption of this art form is very high even in the 

1916-1925 cohort. Jazz music seems to be the music of all ages and is enjoyed 

in its live form most often by the young. 

Plays. Data in Table 13 also show the adjusted and unadjusted proportions for 

viewing theatrical plays by video for the years 1982 and 1992. Looking first 

at cohort comparisons reveals that the curvilinear pattern found for classical 

music and ballet is evident for this art form as well. Peak viewership is reported by the 1926-1935 cohort, which has significantly higher consumption 

compared to any other cohort in both the adjusted and unadjusted results. In 

1982 the youngest cohort has significantly higher rates of video consumption 

of plays compared to the preo1916 cohort, although substantial declines in 

video consumption in the youngest cohort obliterate this difference in 1992. 

Controls for demographic and life course variables fail to change the overall 

pattern of cohort viewership, although the older cohort’s deficits are mitigated 

somewhat by the controls. 

Looking at changes between 1982 and 1992 reveals much the same pattern for theatrical plays that was found for musicals--an alarmingly consistent 

decrease in video consumption. While the concomitant decline in attendance 

at live theatrical plays was not as severe as in the case of live musicals, decreases 

in the use of video to watch plays was greater. In the unadjusted results, the 

1926-1935, 1946-1955, and 1956-1965 cohorts (aged 27-46 and 57-66) 

are all found to have significantly decreased their consumption of plays by 

video means. Controls for demographic and life course factors not only fail to 

wipe out these declines but add the 1936-1945 and the pre-1916 cohorts to 

the list of cohorts exhibiting significant decreases. 

The magnitude of the declines is impressive. In the adjusted results, the 

1926-1935, 1946-1955, and 1956-1965 cohorts all chart declines of more 

than 10 percent in consumption of plays by this means. As with musicals, the 
 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 55
 

TABLE 13. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Jazz and 

Plays 

Jazz, Unadjusted 

30­

20­ , i i I

I | |

OPre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 

Jazz, Adjusted 

[--] 1982  ̄ 1992
 

25
 

15
 

20 I I I I I
 

5
 

10 

0
 i i i i i i


Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 
 

 

56 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 13. i~ercentage of Video Media Consumption of Jazz and 

Plays (Continued) 

Plays, Unadjusted 

35 

~ 3o 

~ 25 

o 20 

o 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 

Cohort Years 

1956-1965 

35 

Plays, Adjusted 

l 

5 

0 I I I I I 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 

Cohort Years 

I 

1956-1965 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 57 

loss of so many consumers in the cohort with the highest rate of consumption 

(1926-1935) is particularly notable. And not only are the eldest adults not 

substituting video means for actual attendance, they are decreasing in their 

viewership as well. 

Much like the results for musicals, the findings for theatrical plays suggest 

a general decline in interest. There is no evidence that the slight decreases in 

active attendance are being offset by participation via video. Quite the contrary, video consumption of theatrical plays is down markedly. These drastic 

declines are evident in virtually every cohort, and they hold up after controls 

for other factors are introduced which might have explained them. It would 

be worth exploring whether these general declines are indeed due to a change 

in audience desires or perhaps to a decreased supply of plays on television over 

the 1982 to 1992 decade. 

Visual Arts. Finally, data in Table 14 present the unadjusted and adjusted proportions for adults who view visual arts via television, cable television, or 

video. In the cohort comparisons, some curvilinearity is apparent. In the unadjusted proportions, viewership of visual arts by video is highest among the 

1936-1945 and 1946-1955 cohorts as reported in the 1992 SPPA data, 

whereas in 1982 it peaks in the 1926-1935 cohort. Strong increases in video 

consumption among the younger cohorts between 1982 and 1992 change the 

overall comparisons substantially. What is clear is that overall rates of video 

viewing of the visual arts are consistently high across all cohorts, and there is 

no great decline among either the oldest or youngest cohorts (although the 

oldest cohort has the lowest unadjusted proportion for both 1982 and 1992). 

Controls for demographic factors and life course events help to further level 

the different rates of viewing across cohorts. 

Changes in video viewing of the visual arts between 1982 and 1992 are in 

stark contrast to those found for theatrical plays and musicals. Viewership is 

uniformly increasing in every cohort, with gains exceeding 10 percent for the 

1936-1945, 1946-1955, and 1956-1965 cohorts (aged 27 to 56) in the unadjusted proportions. Even after statistical controls are introduced, the increases in video consumption of visual art forms among the baby boom cohorts approaches 10 percent (1946-1955) or exceeds that amount 

(1956-1965). The unadjusted results reveal statistically significant increases in 

the four cohorts representing the 27- to 66-year-olds. Controls for demographic and life course factors have little effect on the significance of these 

findings, although the increase for the 1926-1935 cohort is reduced slightly 

over conventional statistical significance levels (p = 0.055). There is no real evidence of substitution for the oldest cohort which also increased viewership of 

visual arts by video, but this increase is not statistically significant. 
 

58 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 14. Percentage of Video Media Consumption of Visual Arts 

Visual Arts, Unadjusted 

[] 1982 I 1992 

4O 

~ 30 n  ̄ 

.~_

N 20 

~ 10 

0 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

Visual Arts, Adjusted 

[] 1982 1 1992 

35 

~_ 15 

0 

| 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 59 

Attendance at art museums shows uniform increases across all cohorts, 

(only the pre-1916 cohort, the oldest adults, is found to have decreased attendance), thus there is little reason to consider increases in video viewing as 

participatory substitution. However, the very strong increases in viewership 

suggest a uniformly increasing interest in the visual arts, and there may be a 

crossover effect--those that view the visual arts by video may be more inclined 

to become active museumgoers. What is notable is that actual attendance at 

art museums is nearly as high as viewership by video means (in contrast to the 

larger audiences via video vs. actual attendance for all other art forms). With 

increasing interest in the visual arts, it seems likely that the more programs offered by video for this art form, the more viewers there will be. 

Consumption of Classical Music and Opera via Radio5 

Like television, radio can whet the appetite for the arts in general and provide a substitute for active participation in the performing arts in particular. 

In this section an analysis is made of cohort differences in consumption of 

classical music and opera via radio and the changes in that consumption between 1982 and 1992. _As before, the analysis looks at the unadjusted proportion of individuals in each cohort who reported listening to classical music or 

opera on the radio in the last year for both SPPAs, 1982 and 1992, and the 

proportion of listeners when adjusted for demographic composition and life 

course factors. 

Classical Music. Data in Table 15 present the unadjusted and adjusted results 

for the listenership of classical music via radio by cohort in 1982 and 1992. 

In the unadjusted results, a curvilinear pattern of radio listening by age appears. Radio consumption of classical music peaks with the 47- to 56-yearolds (1936-1945), although both the 1926-1935 and 1946-1955 cohorts 

have nearly as many listeners (the 1926-1935 cohort matches the 1936-1945 

cohort in 1982). In 1982 the 27- to 36-year-olds (1956-1965) are the least 

frequent listeners of classical music by radio, significantly less often than all 

other cohorts except the preol 916 cohort. However, incredible gains by the 

young baby boom cohort between 1982 and 1992 leave the pre-1916 cohort 

with the lowest listenership, differing significantly from all other cohorts in 

1992 in the unadjusted results. 

When controls for demographic composition and life course factors are 

taken into account, findings reveal that radio consumption of classical music 

in the oldest cohort matches that of most of the younger cohorts; indeed, in 

1982 the pre- 1916 cohort has the highest radio listenership rate. In 1992 the 

adjusted participation peaks in the 1926-1935 cohort (the 57- to 66-year­
60 I Age and Arts Participation 

olds). Thus, taking demographic and life course variables into account creates 

a significant divide between the low listenership of the two baby boom cohorts and the high rates of the older cohorts. 

Looking at changes between 1982 and 1992 reveals that listening to classical music on radio has become more popular in every cohort. The unadjusted results show that radio consumption of classical music has increased 

significantly across all cohorts. Indeed, the proportion of the 1956-1965 cohort which listened to classical music more than doubled between 1982 and 

1992. Enormous increases in radio listening for both baby boom cohorts 

erased much of the deficit between them and the older groups. The older baby 

boomers (the 37- to 46-year-olds) are significantly higher in listenership than 

the 1916-1925 and pre-1916 cohorts in 1992 and do not have significantly 

lower radio consumption rates than any other cohort. The smallest increase 

was for the pre-1916 cohort at 5.3 percent. Controls for demographic composition and life course factors do not erase the significance of these gains. 

Given the declines in reported attendance at classical music concerts between 1982 and 1992, the finding that cohorts are increasing consumption of 

classical music via radio seems to indicate a substitution of radio for particio 

pation. The extremely strong increases in the younger cohorts could be interpreted as evidence that these baby boomers are maturing into classical music, 

however, their consumption via radio is not yet translating into attendance at 

live performances. That older cohorts are also increasing their consumption of 

classical music via radio is heartening. However, the pre-1916 cohort is not 

making up for its significantly abated attendance at live performances by substituting radio listening. (Note: Since radio listening is more popular than actual attendance, substitution can occur without observed increases in radio 

consumption.) 

Opera. Data in Table 15 also show the unadjusted and adjusted proportions 

for radio listening of opera performances for each cohort in 1982 and 1992. 

As was the case with other findings for opera, radio consumption of opera is 

more prevalent in the older cohorts. Opera radio consumption is highest in 

the 1926-1935 cohort (aged 57 to 66) in both survey years. The two baby 

boom cohorts and the 1936-1945 cohort have the lowest rates of opera listening in 1982, significantly lower than the 1926-1935 cohort in both the 

unadjusted and adjusted results. Because of the lower overall rates of listening 

to opera, significant differences are more difficult to detect. However, it is 

clear that the oldest cohort has significantly higher rates of listening compared 

to the younger baby boomer group (in both 1982 and 1992). Controls for demographic and life course factors accentuate the age of opera radio listeners 

even more. Opera radio listening increases almost linearly across cohorts when 
 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 61 

TABLE 15. Percentage of Radio Consumption of Classical Music 

and Opera 

Classical Music on Radio, Unadjusted 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

Classical Music on Radio, Adjusted 

3O 

2O 

10 

0 

. I ’ i III 

Pre-!916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 
 

 

62 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 15. Percentage of Radio Consumption of Classical Music 

and Opera (Continued) 

Opera on Radio, Unadjusted 

15
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 

Opera on Radio, Adjusted 

D 1982 m 1992
 

16
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 63 

statistical controls are taken into account. The gulf between baby boomers 

and other cohorts is apparent, although the WW II cohort (the 47- to 56­

year-olds) also has few opera listeners. 

Findings confirm increases in opera radio listening between 1982 and 

1992, but they are not nearly as large for opera as they are for classical music. 

There are significant increases for the 1916-1925, 1936-1945, and 

1946-1955 cohorts in the unadjusted results. Controls for demographic and 

life course variables, however, erase the significance of the increase for the 

1946-1955 cohort, though the other findings remain significant. The 

1936-1945 cohort has the largest increase in opera listening via radio, which 

more than doubled over the 10-year period. Increases in opera listening by 

radio are also apparent in the other cohorts, but these changes are substantively small and not statistically significant. 

According to the surveys, listening to opera on radio is not only much 

more popular than actual attendance, but there is some evidence that its popularity is growing. Opera did not see the overall declines in participation that 

other art forms experienced, however, there was a significant drop in participation by the oldest cohort, the pre-1916. The oldest Americans do not seem 

to be substituting radio listening for actual attendance at operas. Generally 

speaking, however, more adults are listening to opera by radio. 

Consumption of Classical Music and Opera via Recorded Music 

The consumption of recorded music is yet another possible medium 

which could be subtituted for live attendance at performances. To round out 

the examination of cohort differences and changes in consumption of art 

forms via other media, a review is made of cohort variations and changes in 

listening to classical music and opera via records, tapes, or CDs. Once again 

the data show unadjusted and adjusted proportions of listeners in each cohort 

for both the 1982 and 1992 SPPA. 

Classical Music. Data in Table 16 show that reported consumption of classical music recordings is actually highest in the Early Boomers cohort 

(1946-1955) in both 1982 and 1992. This cohort has significantly higher 

rates of listening than the pre-1916 and 1956-1965 cohorts in 1982. They 

outdistance these two cohorts as well as the 1916-1925 and 1926-1935 

cohorts in 1992. The 1936-1945 cohort also has very high rates of listening 

to classical music recordings. Audiences for classical music recordings are lowest in the pre-1916 cohort, which has significantly lower rates of listening 

compared to all other cohorts with the exception of the Late Boomers, until 

controls for demographic composition and life course factors are taken into 
64 I Age and Arts Participation 

account. The adjusted results help to even disparities between the oldest cohorts and the middle cohorts. Findings also reveal that much of the difference 

between the Early Boomers and the older cohorts is accounted for by demographic and life course factors. 

Looking at changes in consumption of classical music recordings between 

1982 and 1992 reveals that many of the older cohorts decreased consumption. 

The decline in listening was significant for the 1926-1935 cohort, although 

controls for demographic and life course factors minimize the significance of 

the finding (p = 0.103). In contrast, classical recordings became more popular with members of the Late Boomers (the 27- to 36-year-olds), and this increase is significant even after controls are introduced. 

The strong levels of reported consumption of classical music recordings 

among the older baby boomers is encouraging and suggests that they may substitute recordings for live participation (which is down between 1982 and 

1992). The younger baby boomers are also maturing into consumption of 

classical music through recordings, although this has yet to result in substantial changes in their attendance at live performances. However, according to 

the SPPA, strong declines in classical music attendance among members of 

the pre-1916 cohort are not being made up for with increases in listening to 

recordings. The absolute declines in classical music recording listenership 

among the older cohorts, compared to the increases found among the younger 

cohorts, suggest that recordings may not be the preferred medium of substitution for older Americans. 

Opera. The unadjusted proportions presented in the data in Table 16 show 

that the audience for opera recordings is highest in the 1926-1935 cohort, 

followed closely by the 1916-1925 cohort (aged 57-66 and 67-76, respectively). As with television and radio, the audience for opera recordings is older 

than for other art forms. Controls for demographic and life course factors only 

accentuate the age of the opera recording music audience, creating a gulf between the 1926-1935 cohort and the younger cohorts which follow. Indeed, 

the adjusted results show a significant difference between the baby boom cohorts and the intermediate 1935-1946 cohort. Although by 1992 many of 

the baby boomers have become avid listeners of classical music recordings, 

they are less likely to listen to opera recordings than all but the oldest two cohorts, those aged 67 and above. (The oldest cohort has the second lowest listenership rate in 1992.) 

Changes in consumption of opera via recordings between 1982 and 1992 

follow a somewhat similar pattern of change as that found for classical music: 

fewer members of the older cohorts are listening to recordings, whereas more 

members of the younger cohorts are listening. The increase is significant for 
 

 

 

Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 65
 

TABLE 16. Percentage of Consumption of Classical Music and 

Opera Recordings 

Classical Music Recordings, Unadjusted 

ill

| | | 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 

Classical Music Recordings, Adjusted 

[[] 1982 I 1992
 

30
 

L

i i [ i1
 

I I I I
 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965
 

Cohort Years
 
 

 

 

66 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 16. Percentage of Consumption of Classical Music and 

Opera Recordings (Continued) 

Opera Recordings, Unadjusted 

[] 1982 I 1992 

12 

lO 

6 

4 

13­ 2 

o 

Pre-1916 1916-1925 1926-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 

Opera Recordings, Adjusted 

[] 1982 I 1992 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Pre-1916 191 6-1925 192 6-1935 1936-1945 1946-1955 1956-1965 

Cohort Years 
Effects of Age on Arts Participation I 67 

the 1946-1955 cohort (Early Boomers) and approaches significance for the 

1956-1966 cohort (Late Boomers) (p = 0.089) until controls for demographic composition and life course variables are taken into account. The decline in opera listening on recordings found for the 1916-1925 cohort is significant and remains so after statistical controls are introduced. Further, in 

controlling for demographic and life course variables, the decrease in opera listening rates for the pre-1916 cohort and for the 1926-1935 cohort approach 

conventional levels of significance (p = 0.053 and p = 0.70, respectively). 

The pattern of increasing consumption of recordings for younger cohorts 

and decreasing consumption in older cohorts merits special attention, since 

this was also found to be the case for both classical music and opera. How is 

this to be explained? Changes in recording technology have led to changes in 

availability. With the advent of cassette tapes, for example, and now compact 

discs, there is less production and availability of vinyl records. Older Americans may not be purchasing updated equipment to use CDs and may instead 

be switching to high fidelity FM radio listening. Younger cohorts, on the 

other hand, are more likely to have and use the newer technology. Again, substitution could be taking place for the older cohorts, but the pattern of results 

suggests that older Americans are more likely to choose radio or video rather 

than recorded music as a substitute for active participation. 
Arts Participation of the 

Baby Boomers 

Authored by Judith Huggins Balfe and Rolf Meyersohn 

Introduction and Methodology 

Baby boomers--those born between 1946 and 1965--make up nearly half 

of all adult Americans, totalling nearly 80 million people. They are now in 

their 30s and 40s, the same decades of the life cycle in which their elders fueled the arts boom of the 1970s (when the boomers themselves were in their 

teens and early 20s). During that period the number of artists and arts organizations, the support for public art, as well as corporate and foundation philanthropy toward the arts all expanded enormously.6 Given their sheer numbers and the greater proportion who have higher education, much had been 

expected of the baby boomers: it was assumed that they would carry on the 

activism of their elders. The pattern of their arts participation is of concern 

because it has serious implications for the future structure of and support for 

the arts in the United States. 

The 1982 SPPA survey data suggested that the baby boomers were participating less than their elders in most of the seven core art forms examined. 

However, in the absence of longitudinal data, it was unclear whether baby 

boomer rates of involvement would increase as they got older to resemble the 

rates of elder cohorts at the same age. In 1992 the NEA repeated the survey. 

By examining both sets of data, it can now be determined not only how the 

baby boomers differ from the older Depression era and WW II cohorts (born 

1930s and early 1940s, respectively) and from the younger Generation X 

(born after 1966) but also how they differ among themselves. 

The dimensions and dilemmas of the public and private lives of the baby 

boomers have been discussed by many analysts. Esterlin (1987), for example, 

has argued that in general, because of the greater amount of competition engendered by their sheer numbers, large birth cohorts experience greater social, 

economic, and psychological stress, and hence a lower sense of personal wellbeing. This, in turn, results in a lower level of identification with the cultural 

values and institutions of the older generations.7 Cohorts of large numbers 

have proportionately fewer only and oldest children--both of whom are 

68 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 69 

known to identify more with established adult culture--and proportionately 

more later-borns, who are known to be more rebellious.8 

Supporting evidence regarding the economic woes of the American baby 

boomers has come from studies such as Declining Fortunes (Newman, 1993) 

and a wide variety of press reports that demonstrate the prevalence of a "withering of the American Dream" among this large cohort, who for the first time 

in American history has failed to experience the upward mobility of their parents. Indeed, even the fabled yuppies feel downwardly mobile. Like their less 

educated peers, they need two incomes to maintain the standard of living once 

provided by a single breadwinner. At the same time, they are in the prime "full 

nest" period of their lives, yet many depend upon a second income in order 

to raise their children. With more married women in the work force, evening 

and weekend hours that were previously available for entertainment are now 

spent performing necessary household tasks. For those who are single, 

whether they are supporting children or not, time pressures are even greater. 

In sum: the reality (and not merely the argument) is that baby boomers are 

working harder while losing ground; the "shrinking of the middle class" and 

downward mobility affect them more than their elders. Already prone to feelings of detachment and cynicism about the culture they have inherited, baby 

boomers tend to blame society rather than themselves for their lack of success. 

Such a pattern of relative deprivation would predict lower rates of arts participation by baby boomers. Indeed, with less money and time to spend on 

leisure pursuits compared to their elders, they have less attachment to established cultural institutions. Yet a large proportion of baby boomers went to 

college (see Figure 1). It is well known that higher education is the single best 

predictor of arts participation. Accordingly, one might expect that despite 

their economic difficulties, boomers would attend the arts in even greater proportions than their elders. However, that is not the case for most of the art 

forms that have been examined here. 

One possible explanation for the fact that higher education does not appear to have the same predictive capacity about arts participation for the baby 

boomers as for earlier generations is that it was not the same kind of education. To be sure, more boomers report having taken art and music appreciation courses in college than did their elders and indeed, more of them had art 

and music lessons while in school. However, such socializing influences appear 

to have been sporadic and without cumulative effect. In part this might be due 

not only to the decline in actual numbers of college degrees in the liberal arts 

between 1970 and 1980 but in the proportion of all degrees awarded to this 

much enlarged cohort. For example, undergraduate degrees in music and art 

fell 12 percent in this decade, and the much greater number in the social sci­
70 I Age and Arts Participation 

ences and humanities fell by 35 percent, while degrees in business, engineering, and health professions soared both in proportion and in number.9 Accordingly, the trend awayfram studying the arts affected students’ chances of 

acquiring a more complete understanding of the sociohistorical contexts and 

interrelations of past and present art forms. 

Another common explanation for lower baby boomer arts participation is 

television. Television entered American life just as the boomers started to arrive, reaching approximately 90 percent of American households by 1950. 

Unlike earlier cohorts, the vast majority of baby boomers have never experienced life without TV. With its highly polished and professional entertainment always available in their homes at the flick of a switch, they had less reason to acquire the habit of reading for pleasure or of going out to live events, 

especially those of potentially less professionalism. It seems that, contrary to 

their elders, participating in the arts is less ingrained in the value system of this 

generation of adults. 

Yet another explanation is the effect of rock-n-roll music. Like their parents, baby boomers defined themselves by popular music. However, given the 

sheer size of the cohort, they constituted a highly particularized audience of 

significant mass, one to whom both political activists and the music industry 

could appeal without any need for broader popularity across generations.1° 

Rock-n-roll achieved this; it had a political as well as a musical message. Thus 

as the boomers (and presumably their taste) matured, they were less drawn toward the more traditional forms of music that their parents enjoyed. The sophistication and attractiveness of rock music performers and performances fueled the original separation from their elders, further influencing a large 

proportion of this cohort to disregard the culture of older cohorts (contrary to 

what one might expect). In this section of this report, more light is shed on 

the baby boomers’ participation in the arts. 

Methodological Notes 

Baby boomers were born between 1946 and 1965, with the peak birth 

year being 1957. As of this writing (Spring 1995), they are between 31 and 

50 years old, with the greatest number aged 39. In order to focus on this 

group particularly, it is necessary to use slightly different age categories from 

those employed in the other NEA monographs examining the 1982 and 1992 

SPPA data. The standard age brackets used are 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 

etc., for the year of the survey. But baby boomers don’t fit those brackets exactly in the two survey years. Therefore, different age categories for all cohorts 

have been employed, usually in 5-year segments, based upon the specific birth 

years of the baby boomers rather than upon their actual age. (In Part I, the 
 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 71 

TABLE 17. Education and Cohorts by Size, in Millions 

(1992 Data Only) 

Age in 1992 High School 

or Less 

College 

or More 

% College + 

< 1915 77+ 7.702M 2.086M 21.3 

1916-20 72-76 6.462 2.202 25.4 

1921-25 67-71 7.367 2.918 28.4 

1926-30 62-66 7.527 3.749 33.2 

1931-35 57-61 7.367 4.420 37.5 

1936-40 52-56 7.411 4.785 39.2 

1941-45 47-51 7.600 6.842 47.4 

1946-50 42-46 7.717 9.161 54.3 

1951-55 37-41 9.643 10.970 53.2 

1956-60 32-36 10.474 11.933 53.3 

1961-65 27-31 9.643 10.241 51.5 

1966-70 22-26 7.1 77 8.505 54.2 

1971 +* 18-21 6.404 4.551 41.5 

*4-year cohort only 

FIGURE 1. Educational Level by Age Cohort 

Education  ̄ High school or less [] College or more 

25,000,000 

20,000,000 

15,000,000 

10,000,000 

5,000,000 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
72 I Age and Arts Participation 

baby boom cohort was examined based upon 10-year segments in age categories.) Data in Table 17 detail the cohorts’ age range at the time of the 1992 

survey, along with data on their size and the proportion of those having attended college. (Note: In Table 17, figures for baby boom cohorts are printed 

in bold, to make their differences in size easier to discern.) 

In examining the ways in which baby boomers differ from other cohorts 

in arts participation, the focus is on the seven benchmark art forms--classical 

music, jazz, opera, musicals, ballet, plays, and art museums. Novel reading is 

not included. Participants considered are those who took part in one activity 

at least once. Thus box office (total admissions per year) are not counted, nor 

are frequent attenders distinguished from occasional ones. Excluded also are 

personal arts participation (through amateur or professional creation and performance), although such data were collected in the SPPA surveys. Participation always means attendance at live events. 

For each set of factors under analysis, the comparative percentage rates of 

attendance by cohort are examined. In several cases, graphs are presented to 

show how these rates translate into real numbers in the various cohorts, differing as they do in size. Relevant numerical tables are included as appendices. 

Because higher education is the best predictor of arts participation, even 

among the baby boomers, it is particularly important to see what this means 

numerically, from the beginning. As is obvious from the data in Figure 1 and 

Table 17, the four baby boom cohorts are not merely the largest in size; they 

also constitute the largest number of college-educated people in the total population. 

It is useful to keep this graphic image and the numerical data in mind 

while turning to the analysis of cohort participation in the seven core art 

forms. From time to time, when examining comparative rates of attendance, 

the reader can refer back to Figure 1 and Table 17 and speculate on what the 

numerical attendance might have been had earlier rates held. 

Arts Participation by Cohort in the 1982 and 1992 SPPAs 

Taking first the matter of attendance rates, consider the set of graphs in 

Figures 2-8. Participation in each art form is graphed to the same scale of 0 

to 35 percent to facilitate comparison of their relative popularity and rounded 

off to whole percents. Each graph shows how a single cohort changed in its 

rate of participation between the surveys. 

Comparing each cohort between 1982 and 1992 reveals that, with the exception of jazz and art museums, the general pattern is one of decline: successive cohorts of baby boomers report lower attendance rates in 1992 than 
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers [ 73 

FIGURE 2. Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at 

Classical Music Concerts by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1982 [] 1992
 

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

20 ­

15 ­

=~ lO
 

< 5
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 

FIGURE 3. Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Jazz 

Concerts by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1 982 [] 1 992
 

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 
 

 

 

 

74 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 4.	 Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at 

Operas by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1982 [] 1992
 

35 ­

30­

25 ­

20 ­

15 ­

10 ­

5 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 5.	 Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at 

Musicals by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1982 [] 1992
 

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

20
 

15
 

10
 

5 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 75 

FIGURE 6. Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at Ballet 

Performances by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1 982 [] 1 992
 

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

20 ­

=~ 10­

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 7.	 Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at 

Theater by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1 982 [] 1 992
 

35
 

30
 

25
 

20
 

15
 

< 5 

o 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

76 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 8. Percentage of 1982 and 1992 Attendance at 

Museums by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1982 [] 1992
 

35 ­

30
 

< 5 

~ o 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

their immediate elders in 1982 at the same age. This occurs despite the greater 

proportion of their members with a college education. Although they did increase their own participation over the decade in such performing arts as 

opera, ballet, theater, and especially in art museums, typically they have not 

caught up. With continuing declines among the succeeding Generation X 

adults, it seems unlikely that the younger cohorts will in fact catch up without major and successful efforts to recruit them. 

One way to summarize this complex picture (including as it does seven art 

forms over two surveys and 13 five-year cohorts) is to use the data to single 

out the cohort segments that attended at the highest rates and at the louaest 

(hereafter respectively in bold and italics) for that art form in that survey year. 

The other cohorts fall between the two extremes for each art form. This 

method is used to summarize the data in Table 18 and later when examining 

specific factors such as education and income. In each case, full numerical 

data are provided in the respective appendix tables. 

The conclusion is obvious: those in the youngest baby boom cohort (born 

1961-65, aged 27-31 in 1992) participated at the louaest rates in five of the 

seven art forms in 1982 and four of seven in 1992. Taking the four baby boom 

cohorts together, in 1982 when baby boomers were between 17 and 36, their 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 77 

TABLE 18.	 Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation Rates
 

in 1982 and 1992
 

1982	 1992 

Classical music 1941-45 1961-65 1941-45 1961-65 

1 7.4% 11.1 % 18.4% 9.9% 

Opera 1936-40 1961-65 1941-45 1961-65 

4.6 1.8	 4.5 2.5 

Musicals 1941-45 1961-65 1941--45 1961-65 

24.4 15.7 22.2 14.5 

Jazz 1961-65 1926-30 1951-55/56-60 1931-35 

18.0 5.3 13.1 7.5 

Ballet 1941-45 1961-65 1956-60 1926-30 

6.2 3.7	 6.1 4.1 

Theater 1941-45 1951-55/61-65 1941-45 1961-65 

15.8 10.9 18.0 12.4 

Art m useu ms 1946-50 1926-30 1946-50 1926-30 

28.4 20.3 31.3 22.8 

participation was greatest in only two forms, jazz and art museums; in 1992 

when they were in their late 20s to mid-40s, they were top participants at ballet performances as well. However, even here their actual rate of attendance 

declined over the decade for ballet and jazz, and increased only for attendance 

at art museums (see Figures 2-8). 

In contrast, the WW II babies born between 1941-45 have the highest 

participation rate in four of the seven art forms in both 1982 and 1992 when 

they were respectively in their early 40s and early 50s, with their rates increasing over the decade as well for classical music, opera, and theater (though 

declining for musicals and ballet). While the 1941-45 cohort does not rank 

highest in jazz and art museums in either survey, their rates of attendance at 

these art forms increase during the period. They are never lowest in participation rates, even as those 20 years younger--the youngest baby boomers-- hit 

bottom in 9 of the 14 possible cases. 

Comparing the art forms to each other over the 10-year period between 

surveys makes clear that while ballet and especially art museums have seen increased rates of attendance from the baby boomers, other art forms did not see 
78 I Age and Arts Participation 

such an increase and indeed, for classical music, jazz, and theater, there is a 

consistent decline over the rates attained by older cohorts. Ballet’s popularity 

in 1992 was greatest for those born between 1956-60, nearly reaching the 

1982 level of the then five-year older 1941-45 cohort; it also went up considerably in 1992 for the 1931-35 cohort, then aged 56-61. Such a mixed 

pattern is hard to interpret; perhaps the elders are going to Su~an Lake while 

those younger are going to a Twyla Tharpe performance, and both consider it 

ballet when interviewed. 

Art museums differ from the other core art forms in a number of ways 

which are likely to have contributed to their comparatively greater success in 

attracting baby boomers. In contrast to performance-based arts events that almost inevitably involve planning ahead to make ticket reservations, museums 

are more like shopping malls in ease, cost, and timing of access, with unscheduled visits possible even with a child or two in a stroller. Moreover, museums have long provided on-site educational programs for school classes and 

individual children.ll Clearly, the venue makes a difference. There is a payoff 

in the general comfort with which people, with or without children, experience museums. 

It may also be argued that museums are further advantaged in holding a 

certain monopoly on the presentation of the visual arts, in contrast to the situation of the established performing arts which must compete with the complex institutions that have grown up around rock music, for example. Baby 

boomers have created no distinct "age-graded" institutions to flame their 

tastes in visual art to rival museums and galleries. If they wish to see the latest, or even the oldest, in the visual arts, they find the best examples at art museums, and often all under one roof.12 Another noteworthy difference between museums and other art forms is that museum audiences are composed 

not only of local people but also in considerable measure of tourists, while audiences for the performing arts are far more largely composed of local residents.13 

In sum, looking only at the comparative rates of attendance across these 

art forms between 1982 and 1992, it appears that the hope that the baby 

boomers would grow into active participation in these fine arts as they matured has so far not materialized. Despite their greater education, they attend 

less rather than more often than their elders. 

Data in Figures 9-15 present the picture as it looks numerically rather 

than proportionately in order to visualize and compare the respective sizes of 

audiences for the seven art forms, as well as to demonstrate the effect of the 

enlarged size of the baby boom cohorts (see also Appendix Table B-l). Thus, 

lower attendance rates may still mean greater actual numbers of attenders compared to other cohorts (the collective audience for any art form may not ap­
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 79
 

FIGURE 9. 1982 and 1992 Classical Music Concert Attendance 

by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1982 [] 1992
 

8 ­

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

]916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 

FIGURE 10. 1982 and 1992 Jazz Concert Attendance by Age 

Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1982 [] 1992
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941o45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956 60 1966-70
 
 

 

 

 

80 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 11. 1982 and 1992 Opera Attendance by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1 982 [] 1 992
 

7
 

6
 

~ 4
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 

FIGURE 12. 1982 and 1992 Musical Attendance by Age Cohort 

Survey Year [] 1 982 [] 1 992
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961~65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 81
 

FIGURE 13. 1982 and 1992 Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1982 [] 1992
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 

FIGURE 14. 1982 and 1992 Theater Attendance by Age Cohort 

Survey Year  ̄ 1982 [] 1992
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+
 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70
 
 

 

82 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 15. 1982 and 1992 Museum Visits by Age Cohort 

Survey Year ~ 1982 [] 1992 i 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

pear to be grayer than it used to be). However, remember that the total number of artists and arts institutions has also expanded enormously during this 

decade, following upon a similar expansion in the previous ten years.14 There 

is simply more art available to be attended to, thus diluting the effects of an 

enlarged total audience upon any single arts presenter. 

Effect of Education on Arts Participation 

As noted, higher education differed among the baby boomers. The effect 

of education on the various cohorts’ arts participation as measured by attendance at the seven core art forms is examined (see Figures 16-22). Survey respondents are divided into two categories: those who completed high school 

only, or less, and those with some college or more. Initial runs of the data indicate that using more categories for education makes little difference. 

In every cohort, in every art form (including jazz), those with more education participate at higher rates than those with less. Nonetheless, the basic 

pattern remains: there is an overall decline after the cohort born between 

1941-45. Note here that both 1982 and 1992 SPPA data are included, so that 
 

 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 83 

FIGURE 16. Classical Music Concert Attendance by Age 

Cohort and Education 

Education  ̄ High school or less [] College or more 

50 ­

45 ­

40 ­

35 ­

3O
 

25 

15 -­

10 

o! 

Pre-1916 1921 25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 17. Jazz Concert Attendance by Age Cohort and 

Education 

Education  ̄ High school or less [] College or more 

50 ­

45 ­

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

84 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 18. Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 

Educati°n []Highsch°°l°rless DC°llege°rm°re [ 

50 ­

45
 

40 ­

35 

30 ­

25 ­

20
 

15 ­

10 ­

5 ­

0 _ 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941~45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 19. Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort and 

Education 

Education [] High school or less [] College or more 

50 ­

45 ­

40 ­

35
 

3O
 

25 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 85 

FIGURE 20. Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 

Education  ̄ High school or less [] College or more 

50 ­

45 ­

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

20 ­

15 ­

~ 10 r-n 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 21. Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and Education 

Education  ̄ High school or less [] College or more 

50 ­

45 ­

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 

2O 

15 -­

~ lO 

o 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

86 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 22. Museum Visits by Age Cohort and Education 

Education ~ High school or less [] College or more 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961465 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

differences in cohort attendance between those two surveys--whether up or 

down--are averaged out. As has already been suggested by the data in Table 

17, a lower rate of attendance among college-educated baby boomers could 

still mean higher numbers of baby boomers attending than their elders, simply because of the sheer size of that large cohort. At the same time, the declining attendance rates among the better-educated baby boomers supports 

the hypothesis that it was not "the same" higher education (or had the same 

impact) as that obtained by their elders.15 

Following the analysis above in which the data is summarized by concentrating on those who participate at the highest rates and those whose rate of 

participation is lowest, data in Table 19 compares cohorts in terms of their 

level of education rather than comparing the two surveys (for full figures, see 

Appendix Table B-2). 

Among those with high school or less education, those born before 1940 

show the highest rates of participation in most of the art forms (6 out of 7). 

This is not surprising since these cohorts have comparatively low rates of college attendance, so that those with less formal education were not necessarily 

as self-selected as were later cohorts with more opportunities. 

Among the less educated baby boomers, only in jazz do they rank highest 
 

 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 87 

TABLE 19. Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation Rates
 

(Average of 1982 and 1992) by Education
 

High School One or More 

or Less Years of College 

Classical music 1926-30 1956-60 1936-40 1961-65
 

7.4% 4.3% 32.0% 18.0%
 

Jazz 1961-65 1941-45 1961-65 1926-30 

9.5 3.1 23.3 12.4 

Opera 1926-30 1951-55 1931-35 1961-65 

1.8 .8 8.8 3.5 

Musicals 1926-30 1961-65 1936-40 1961-65 

13.3 7.5 37.8 24.8 

Ballet 1926-30/36-40 1961-65 1941-45 1951-55 

2.2 1.3 10.2 7.6 

Theater 1926-30 1951-55 1931-35 1956-60 

8.5 3.9 29.5 19.9 

Art museums 1936-40 1931-35 1941-45 1926-30 

14.3 12.2 45.4 40.0 

in attendance, while they are lowest in 5 of the core arts activities. Among 

those with a college education (which considerably more baby boomers were 

able to attain), baby boomers are again highest only in jazz, and lowest in 6 of 

the 7 art forms. Indeed, it is particularly those born between 1961-65 who 

are most frequently low in attendance: among the less educated, they are lowest in 2 forms; among the more educated, in 3, for 5 of the 14 lowest ranks. 

Together, the four baby boom cohorts hold 10 of the 14 ranks as lowest for 

their education category. 

Thus, whether one looks at cohort differences over the ten years between 

the two surveys (Appendix Table B-l) or between less or more educated people, 

averaging out the rates of the combined surveys (Appendix Table B-2), the cohort of adults that is most frequently lowe~ in participation are those born between 1961-65. Combining these two tables (which represent different ways 

of measuring respective participation by cohorts) yields 28 slots of highest and 

lowest. The 1961-65 cohort occupies 14 out of the combined total of 28 lowest ranks; it is highest in only 3 of 28 (all in jazz). Together, the four baby 

boomer cohorts account for 19 of the lowest slots and only 5 of the highest. 
88 I Age and Arts Participation 

In contrast, the 1941-45 cohort ranks lowest only in the category of the less 

educated attending jazz; it is highest in 10. 

Of particular interest here are art museums, where the ratio of less to more 

educated attenders--especially among the baby boomers--is lower than that 

for other art forms (jazz is a close second among the younger cohorts). In other 

words, museums have attracted, and held, their less educated audiences without losing those with more education. Yet even here among the better-educated, it is those adults born between 1941-45 who attend at the highest rate. 

What might account for the differences between the baby boomers and 

their most immediately older cohort, the WW II babies, who are highest in 

arts participation, while the baby boomers fail to continue their trend of involvement? In contrast to younger age groups, the childhood of the WW II 

babies was filled with the stuff of patriotism. If they attended college, they 

typically graduated in the mid-1960s and emerged into adult culture to join 

the optimism and institutions of their elders who had survived the Depression 

and World War I! (especially those born 1931-40 who for some art forms still 

rank highest in participation). They graduated from college at the advent of 

the Beatles and before rock music became as prolific and commercialized as it 

is today. Despite the antiestablishment activity of some of the younger members at this time, for most the civil rights movement was seen in a positive 

light. The WW II babies may have been in college when President Kennedy 

was assassinated, but the general sense of disillusionment and anger that followed the later assassinations lay ahead. The minority who took art and music 

appreciation classes and became more fully socialized members of established 

elite culture may have been incipiently radical, but they were typically willing 

to follow the rules even in resistance, as, for example, in the heated controveries over the Vietnam War. 

Perhaps because of their smaller cohort size and their typical lack of"troublemaking," the WW II babies have attracted little attention among the pundits and analysts compared to that showered upon the baby boomer generation. Thus explanations for their high participation rates are based more on 

personal experience and less on other data than is the understanding of their 

successors, the baby boomers. Nonetheless, it is clear that in both 1982 and 

1992 those born between 1941-45 attended the fine arts at rates that are usually higher than those of the other cohorts. Evidently, for many of the WW II 

babies, the established masterpieces of human creativity--past and present-­

are felt to be accessible to inspire and console. Perhaps some willingness to suspend disbelief may be necessary for the arts to work, but for those immediately younger--especially those 10 to 20 years younger--cynicism is all too 

typical, at least according to many analysts. 
 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 89 

Effect of Income on Arts Participation 

Cynicism among the baby boomers is often thought to be linked to the 

"declining fortunes" that affect so many of them. Although they have more (if 

somewhat different) higher education than their elders, they have not experienced a higher payoff. Proportionately fewer baby boomers have advanced 

into top professional and high-salaried positions, despite their advanced degrees. And rising costs, especially housing, have made home ownership difficult for middle-income adults, even with two wage earners.16 How has this 

situation possibly affected their arts participation? The following analysis considers the rates of attendance by income rather than education. (Note: Given 

the complexities of correcting for inflation, only 1992 data are used.) 

The data in Table 20 show the respective proportions of cohorts in income 

brackets below and above $30,000, selected as benchmark because, out of the 

available 1992 SPPA income categories, this range is closest to the national 

median family income. The data are given in real numbers, comparable to 

Table 17 which similarly examined education. 

Proportionately more of the 1936-40 and 1941-45 cohorts earn above 

the $30,000 median family income than is true of the baby boomers. This is 

consistent with what is expected: older workers tend to earn more than 

FIGURE 23. Family Income by Age Cohort 

Family Income [] < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

25,000,000 

20,000,000 

15,000,000 

10,000,000 

5,000,000 

0 

Pre-1915 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

90 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 24. Attendance at Classical Music Concerts by Age 

Cohort and Income 

Family income [] < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 

20 

15 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 I956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 25. Attendance at Jazz Concerts by Age Cohort and 

Income 

[ Familyincome ~< $30,000 ~$30,000+ ] 

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

20 ­

15
 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers [ 91 

FIGURE 26. Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 

Family income  ̄ < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 27.	 Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort and 

Income 

Family income  ̄ < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

 

92 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 28. Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 

Family income [] < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

4O 

35 

3O 

25 

2O 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 29. Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and Income 

Family income [] < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

40 ­

35 ­

30 ­

25 ­

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 93 

FIGURE 30. Museum Visits by Age Cohort and Income 

Family income [] < $30,000 [] $30,000 + 

4O 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

Pre-1916 1921-25 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1916-20 1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

younger ones. Still, the proportion, let alone the real numbers, of baby 

boomers whose family incomes are in the top half is sizeable indeed. (This obviously has not reduced their financial worries, since two incomes are typically 

required to push families into the upper bracket which was not the case for 

their elders, as indicated.) 

How does family income, whether the product of single or dual wage 

earners, affect arts participation by cohort? Comparable to the models used 

above, Figures 24-30 show the results for the seven core art forms (see also 

Appendix Table B-3). 

As expected, those with higher incomes attend the arts more than do 

those with less money: higher education is the best predictor of more income 

just as it is of more arts participation. However, in this case the picture is considerably more mixed, as becomes apparent when summarizing the highest 

and lowest cohort rates of participation in Table 20, following the model of 

analysis found in Tables 17 and 18 (the oldest cohorts, those born before 

1926, are combined in this summary table). 

Compared to the figures on participation generally and participation by 

education, when considering income, the youngest cohorts do not come in 

last so consistently. Indeed, among those with lower incomes, those in Generation X (including both those born between 1966-70 and in 1971 and 

after) attend at the highest rates in five categories, although they did not appear in any such slot when lower education was the variable being considered. 
 

 

 

 

94 I Age and Arts Participation 

Lower-income, older baby boomers appear as highest in only one core art 

form, classical music; their younger boomer peers are lowest in only one, musicals, yet collectively the less educated boomers held five of the lowest slots 

and only one of the highest, for jazz. Instead, among those with lower incomes, it is the Depression era cohort of 1936-40 who attend at lowest rates 

for four art forms and the 1941-45 cohort for a fifth. 

Among those with higher incomes, two baby boom cohorts are lowest in 

attendance rates, one for musicals, the other for ballet, with Generation X lowest for four of the seven art forms. However, among the wealthier, that same 

younger cohort attends at higher rates for two art forms, jazz and art museums (where they tie with the 1951-55 baby boomers). The 1941-45 WW II 

babies attend highest for two art forms as well. Thus, looking at income rather 

than education, baby boomers fill only two of the lowest ranks rather than ten 

(both for musicals), and the 1941-45 cohort does not shine so consistently at 

the top. Instead, it is the better-off, post-baby boomers, Generation X, who 

fill four of the lowest slots--in each case, among those with more income; yet 

TABLE 20.	 Highest and Lowest Cohort Arts Participation
 

Rates by Income (1992 Data Only)
 

< $30,000	 $30,000+ 

Classical music 1951-55 1936-40 1941-45 1971 +
 

10.2% 5.6% 24.1% 12.1%
 

Jazz 1966-70 1936-40 1966-70 <1926 

12.7 2.6 20.3 6.6 

Opera 1966-70 1936-40 1926-30 1966-70 

3.0 .7 7.5 2.5

Musicals 1926-30 1961-65 1936-40 1961-65 

14.0 8.9 30.3 20.8 

Ballet 1971+ 1941-45 1931-35 	 1946-50

4.3 .9 9.4 6.1

Theater 1966-70 1936-40 1941-45 1966-70 

12.0 5.9 24.5 13.6 

Art museums 1966-70 <1926 1951-55/66-70 1971+ 

25.8 10.8 39.0 28.8 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 95 

they are at a time in their lives when presumably they have less family and professional responsibilities than they will later acquire. At the same time, looking at the top ranks reveals that members of Generation X with lower incomes 

occupy five of the seven highest ranks, in total reversal of their more affluent 

peers. 

How is it possible to make sense of this picture, contradicting as it does 

the patterns already established regarding education, which correlates generally with income? Differences in income are probably less significant for arts 

participation among the youngest cohorts at this particular stage of the life 

cycle; later when career and place of residence are more established, the link 

between income and life style may be more significant. This process seems to 

be the case among the baby boomers as well. 

This conclusion is supported when the connections between income and 

arts participation are examined by calculating the mean ratios of attendance 

rates between the two income brackets (see figures in Appendix Table B-3). 

This ratio is about 1.5 for Generation X (i.e., those with higher incomes attend about one-and-a-half times more often than those with lower incomes), 

and it is about 2 for the baby boomers (those with higher incomes attend 

twice as often as those with less). Among the senior cohorts, however, the ratio 

is over 4 (those with higher incomes attend four times more often than those 

with less). 

However, when considering more or less education rather than income for 

all cohorts born after 1941, the average ratios of attendance are higher (nearly 

4 in all cases) while it is 2 for income. For older cohorts (whose education 

ratio is only slightly higher at 4.5), this correlates with the ratio regarding income, but for the younger ones it does not. In sum, "internal" differences in 

arts participation among members of the baby boom cohorts are less related to 

their comparative incomes than is the case for their eiders, but they are more 

related to educational differences. Seen another way, here is further support 

for the thesis that for baby boomers, their higher level of education has produced less financial payoff to distinguish them from their less educated peers. 

Following the argument about "cultural capital" developed by Pierre Bourdieu 

and others,17 this finding should make participation in the arts all the more 

important as a status marker, when income itself does not serve. Compared to 

their elders, baby boomers and their younger siblings are more likely to have 

champagne tastes on beer budgets, with the greater need to demonstrate their 

tastes accordingly. Yet even this additional factor (it would seem from this 

data) is insufficient to induce greater proportions of the better-educated to be 

more active in the arts. 
96 I Age and Arts Participation 

Effect of Households with Children on Arts Participation 

It can be argued that it is neither lack of caring for culture nor lower incomes that keep baby boomers--especially the younger ones--away from active participation in the arts. One of the reasons they may have neither the 

time nor money to attend (even if they have the inclination) is that they are 

home with the children, in what little free time their work affords them for 

family life. The impact of having children in the household under the age of 

12 upon arts participation is examined by comparing the rates of attendance 

for those surveyed who had children and those who did not. 

The data in Figure 31 show the proportional numbers of the different cohorts in 1992 with no children under 12, one such child, or two or more. 

Here the oldest cohorts (those born before 1926) are combined, so that their 

proportional numbers appear greater than in previous graphs. Both in rates 

and in numbers, baby boomers make up fewer of the childless than the older 

and the youngest cohorts, and more of them have two children under 12 than 

have only one. 

The data in Figures 32-38 (which combine the 1982 and 1992 surveys) 

compare attendance rates of cohorts according to the number of children 

under 12 for each of the seven art forms (see also Appendix Table B-4). To be 

sure, as the data in Figure 31 reveal, the proportions and numbers of the older 

cohorts with such children (presumably people raising grandchildren) are very 

small. Similarly, the number of Generation X members with two or more children is also very small. 

Turning to the baby boomers (where the proportions of those with children are higher and thus the numbers more reliable), findings reveal that having children induces quite different effects across the art forms. In particular, 

classical music loses the young parents in greater proportions than it loses 

their peers without children. Still, it appears that if baby boomer parents want 

to attend--especially in the less popular art forms like ballet and opera--they 

find ways of doing so. In fact, frequently the rate of attendance is higher for 

baby boomers with two or more children than it is for those with one child. 

Not surprisingly, given the findings above, art museums remain highest in attendance among the childless baby boomers, but they also seem to hold that 

allegiance once the children arrive. 

Nonetheless, as the figures reveal, the basic shape of the curve doesn’t 

change from what has been learned so far: regardless of presence or absence of 

children, those in the 1941-45 cohort attend the core art forms at the highest rates, and those in the younger cohorts reduce their attendance below that 

attained by their elders at the same age and presumably at the same stage of 

full-nest family life. 
 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 97 

FIGURE 31. Number with Children under 12 by Cohort
 

(1992 Data Only)
 

Children under 12 [] Two or more [] One [] None ] 

30,000,000 

25,000,000 

20,000,000 

15,000,000 

10,000,000 

5,000,000 I[I] Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

Alternate Forms of Arts Participation: The Case of Music 

The foregoing raises a final question: if the baby boomers and their successors, Generation X, tend to participate at lower rates in most of the seven 

core art forms examined here, what are they doing instead? Presumably, they 

are not just watching television, going to sporting events, or working out--or 

simply working to make an inadequate living. Without question, like their elders, many of the baby boomers are participating in the core art forms and in 

the popular arts, especially music, in ways that are not accounted for here. On 

that assumption, it is no accident that their rates of participation are highest 

in jazz--the art form closest to popular music--and in art museums where 

popular music competes least. In this section, arts participation in music is examined in order to explore adult participation in art forms other than the 

benchmark activities discussed thus far. 

If the nature and location of that "other" participation could be determined with greater assurance, it would help the core arts organizations in developing strategies to lure the nonparticipants away from their present activities to those that might be considered more enriching for adults. While the 
 

98 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 32. Classical Music Concert Attendance by Age 

Cohort and Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

Children under 12 -- None ..... One .......... Two or more 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15
 

10
 

5
 

0
 I I I I I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 33. Jazz Concert Attendance by Age Cohort 

and Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

One ..........
 [ Childrenunder 12 --None ..... Twoormore ] 

35 

30 

25 

2O 

15
 

10
 

5
 

0
 I" I I I I I I I I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

 

 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 99 

FIGURE 34. Opera Attendance by Age Cohort and 

Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

Children under 12 ~ None ..... One ..........Two or more 

35 

3O 

25 

2O 

15 

10 

5 

0 I I I I I I I I I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 35. Attendance at Musicals by Age Cohort 

and Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

I Childrenunderl2 --None ..... One .......... TwoormoreI
 

35
 

3O
 

25 ~ ~ - ~ -"~’.~-..
 

15 ," ; " "-" ....  ̄ 

~ ~0 

~: 5 . 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
100 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 36. Ballet Attendance by Age Cohort and 

Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

Children under 12 --None ..... One .......... Two or more 

35 

3O 

25 

2O 

15 

10 

5 

---~,...._..,~......_...o--" ....~:--...2:;"-- ":::222 .........
 

0 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 37. Theater Attendance by Age Cohort and 

Number of Children, 1982 and 1992 

under 12 ~ None ..... One .......... Two or more ]
 Children ] 

35
 

3O
 

25
 

2O
 

,/’,
 

15
 

’ I " "" ~,
 

"-. / .,." ~.~. ~>	., -~
 

5
 

0 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 197] + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

10 
 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 101 

FIGURE 38. Museum Visits by Age Cohort and
 

Number of Children, 1982 and 1992
 

Children under 12 None One ..........Two or more
 

40 .... 

3o .,,,./ 

~ 15 ........
 

2 5o ..... . .... ______ _ 

I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961 65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

principle of "the more, the more" holds across all fields of leisure activity--so 

that those who attend live sporting events are more likely to attend live arts 

events, and vice versa, than those who attend neither--it is probably easier to 

attract new participants from related fields of activity. Thus those who like to 

listen to and attend any kind of live music will presumably be more attracted 

to another form of it. What is the evidence? 

The 1982 SPPA included a general question about music tastes: respondents were asked whether or not they "liked to listen" to a number of different types of music. Thirteen types of music were included; the 1992 survey 

extended this list to 20 types. In both instances, the survey included classical, 

jazz, opera, and musicals in which actuallistening and live attendance by participants were explored in depth and whose patterns have already been analyzed here. But in neither survey were respondents queried about media or live 

participation for the other "liked" forms of music, from marching band to 

gospel to reggae to country and western. (Given the discrepancies between the 

two surveys, data reported here are from the more inclusive 1992 SPPA only.) 

How can one make sensible projections of participation in such popular 

forms of music? It is assumed that those who say they like to listen to any of 
102 I Age and Arts Participation 

these alternative forms have probably attended live performances as well in 

somewhat comparable proportions to those for whom there is data to calculate these ratios; that is, those who say they not only like to listen to classical 

music, jazz, opera, and musicals but have attended such events in the last year. 

On that basis, however tentatively, the liking/attendance data that is already 

available are projected to the forms of music the majority of Americans say 

they lilee and therefore presumably attend. What might be learned about the 

arts participation of the baby boomers and the other cohorts by this exercise? 

First, a picture is drawn of what Americans like to listen to followed by 

the next step, projecting their actual attendance at live events for a particular 

form of music (see Table 21 and, for detail, Appendix Table B-5). Following 

the 1992 SPPA, 20 types of music are listed here in their order and rates of 

popularity among the WW II baby boom cohort (those now in their early 

50s) which have been shown above to be the most active participants in the 

seven core art forms. Also listed are the order and rates of liking by the 

younger baby boomers (those born between 1961-65 and now in their early 

30s) who are least active in the seven core arts disciplines. This pairing of lists 

TABLE 21.	 Percentage of the 1941-45 and 1961-65 Cohorts
 

Liking Various Types of Music
 

1941-45	 1961-65 

1. Country & Western 61.7% 1. Rock	 60.8% 

2. Easy Listening 55.3 2. Country & Western 50.0 

3. Gospel 45.4 3. Easy Listening 48.2 

4. Big Band 43.3 4. Blues 43.7 

5. Blues 41.7 5. Jazz	 38.6 

6. Rock	 38.1 6. Gospel 31.2 

7. Classical 38.1 7. Soul	 29.9 

8. Musicals 37.6 8. Classical 24.4 

9. Bluegrass 36.1 9. Reggae 24.4 

10. Folk	 33.8 10. Bluegrass 23.2 

11. Jazz	 32.9 11. Big Band 21.9 

12. Soul	 24.9 12. Latin/Salsa 19.8 

13. Ethnic 24.0 13. New Age 19.6 

14. Latin/Salsa 22.7 14. Musicals 19.5 

15. Marching Band 22.4 15. Folk	 16.9 

16. Choral/GleeClub 18.1 16. Ethnic 16.2 

17. Reggae 17.7 17. Rap	 15.9 

18. Opera 17.0 18. Marching Band 7.9 

19. New Age 15.6 19. Opera	 6.4 

20. Rap	 5.7 20. Choral/GleeClub 5.9 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 103 

highlights the changes in taste in popular music and the relative position of 

classical, jazz, opera, and musicals. 

With this comparison, it is possible to chart what was perceived respectively by the two cohorts to be "our music" (what a large proportion of the cohort likes) as well as "their music" (what a large proportion of the other cohort likes that this cohort does not). Thus rock, jazz, soul, reggae, new age, 

and rap are identifiable as "younger people’s music," while gospel, big band, 

musicals, folk, ethnic, and choral/glee club are seen more as "older people’s 

music." In general, the older cohort tends to have a higher rate of liking across 

the 20 types of music than the younger cohort. 

Assuming that people attend in comparable proportions to what they say 

they like to listen to, given lower rates of liking the baby boomers are likely to 

attend the various types of popular music events in louaer proportions than 

their elders, just as they attend classical, opera, and musicals in lower numbers. 

The principle of "the more, the more" shows up repeatedly when looking 

at the rates of liking among those who participate in at least one of the seven 

core art forms in contrast to those who do not participate in them at all (see 

Figures 39-58 for details). With the exception of country and western music 

(for most cohorts, at least), in every case, those who participate in one of the 

core art forms prefer that type of music at higher rates than do nonparticipants (see Appendix Table B-6). Most forms of popular music are liked by 

more of the better-educated and more affluent audiences, those already participating in at least one of the "fine art" forms, than they are liked by the less 

educated and nonparticipating. 

How do these rates of liking translate into numbers of those who listen, 

let alone actually attend? The rates of actual listening to classical, jazz, musicals, and opera (or watching on television, especially the latter two) are also 

available from the SPPA data: they tend to be only a few percentage points 

lower than the figures reported for liking, and it is assumed that this pattern 

prevails for the 16 alternative forms of popular music about which respondents were not asked if they actually listened to or attended. 

How might these be projected? Taking the 1941--45 and 1961-65 cohorts, as above, consider the rates of liking and attending for classical, jazz, 

musicals, and opera, for which there are actual attendance figures (see Table 

22). Using the figures for cohort size presented earlier, cohorts are compared 

in terms of the size of the liking as well as the a~tending audience, in millions. 

(Note: This is a very conservative projection of attendance, as it is based only 

on those who say they "like to listen," not on those who report actual listening or wanting to be more active.) 

The respective average ratios of cohorts’ rates of liking is then projected to 

attendance of these four types of music--country and western, easy listening, 
104 I Age and Arts Participation 

gospel, and rock. The ratio is .405 percent for the 1941-45 cohort; .462 percent for the 1961-65. That is, for the older cohort, approximately 40 percent 

of those who like to listen report attending; for the younger cohort, the ratio 

is about 46 percent. Since fewer in the younger cohort actually like these four 

core types of music performance, their higher ratio here is understandable in 

terms of attendance. These projections, therefore, must be seen as very tentative indeed. 

Again, given the much enlarged size of the younger cohort, its apparent 

audience for these various types of music is often larger than that of the older 

cohort, even when there is a lower rate of liking. In any event, assuming that 

those who like new age, big band, salsa, or reggae attend no less frequently, 

following the specific cohort ratio, the audiences for popular music are vast indeed, even if not counted in the SPPA. This exercise could be continued for 

all of the 13 other types of music about which respondents were queried in 

the 1992 SPPA, comparing types of music and the probable sizes of their live 

audiences to each other, as well as comparing cohorts to each other. 

While baby boomer tastes in popular music are not as wide-ranging as 

those of their elders, it is quite possible that they are reducing their participation in core art forms that compete most directly with the popular arts, given 

FIGURE 39. Percent That "Like to Listen to Country-Western
 

Music" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age
 

Cohort
 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 

50 

40 

30 ;;

~ 2o 1111 ;;I


~ lO III[

~ o I I I I I

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 105 

FIGURE 40. Percent That "Like to Listen to Mood/Easy 

Listening" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age 

Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

6o
 

5o
 

4o 

~ 20 II;

III 

3o IIII 

~ lO 

~ o IIII

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 41.	 Percent That "Like to Listen to Hymns/Gospel 

Music" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age 

Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

5O
 

40
 f IIii II

3O 

~ lO 

~ 20 

~ o ,I I,,,

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
106 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 42. Percent That "Like to Listen to Big Band Music" by 

Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 

6o 

5O 

4O 

30 ~ 

~ 

51o

~ 

~- 0 l l l i i -] 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 43. Percent That "Like to Listen to Blues/Rhythm and 

Blues" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age 

Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40
 

3O
 

~ 2O 

i l I ! I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 107 

FIGURE 44. Percent That "Like to Listen to Rock" by Extent of 

Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation  ̄ none [] l/more 

80 

70 

60 

50 

30 

40 

~ 20 IIII

o  ̄ ,,,I IIII

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 45. Percent That "Like to Listen to Classical Music" by 

Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation  ̄ none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ~ ~ 

so ] F1 -~ 

40 I I ~ 

30 

~,o

~- o I I I I I 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

108 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 46. Percent That "Like to Listen to Musicals" by Extent 

of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

~ o_ liini [] _ 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 47. Percent That "Like to Listen to Bluegrass" by 

Extend of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

3O
 

~ 2o 

o 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 109 

FIGURE 48. Percent That "Like to Listen to Contemporary Folk 

Music" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age 

Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

3o
 

2o
 

10 

0 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 49. Percent That "Like to Listen to Jazz" by Extent of 

Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

4O
 

3O 

~ 10 

~ 20 

~ o i lll III

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
110 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 50.	 Percent That "Like to Listen to Soul Music" by 

Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 

30 

~ lO 

~ o i . i 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 51. Percent That "Like to Listen to Ethnic Music" by 

Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

3O 

~ lO 

o	 | 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 111 

FIGURE 52.	 Percent That "Like to Listen to 

Latin/Spanish/Salsa" by Extent of Arts 

Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation	  ̄ none [] l/more

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

3o
 

~ 20 

~ 10 

o 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961 65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 53. Percent That "Like to Listen to Marching Band 

Music" by Extent of Arts Participation and Age 

Cohort 

Arts participation  ̄ none [] l/more ] 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

5O
 

3O j ~0 m m m i m n~m~,~.~ ~ o 

Pre-1976 1931-35 1941-45 lg~1-$$ 1001-05 1~71+ 
112 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 54. Percent That "Like to Listen to Choral/Glee Club" 

by Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

30 ­

20 ­

lO0_ | | ~ | ~ ~ ~ i ~ 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 55. Percent That "Like to Listen to Reggae" by Extent 

of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

=~ 20 ­ | 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
 

Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 113 

FIGURE 56. Percent That "Like to Listen to Opera" by Extent 

of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 _
 

r-~
 30 

~ 20 

~0 i 

~ 0 I . i . [] ,ll .~m


Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971+ 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

FIGURE 57. Percent That "Like to Listen to New Age Music" 

by Extent of Arts Participation and Age Cohort 

Arts participation [] none [] 1/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 ­

40 ­

~ ­

30 -­

~

~0 ­

~ 0 .(-I  ̄ -I ~[] m m Ilii

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 
114 I Age and Arts Participation 

FIGURE 58. Percent That "Like to Listen to Rap" by Extent of
 

Arts Participation and Age Cohort
 

Arts participation [] none [] l/more 

80 ­

70 ­

60 ­

50 -

40 i---I

30 

~ 2o 

Pre-1926 1931-35 1941-45 1951-55 1961-65 1971 + 

1926-30 1936-40 1946-50 1956-60 1966-70 

what is known of the constraints on their time and economic pressures. With 

increased sophistication of performances of most forms of popular music, as 

well as the general informality of their venues, it is no wonder that it is classical music, jazz, opera, musicals, and theater that have suffered the largest declines among baby boomers and the younger Generation X, while ballet and 

art museums--both art forms and venues having less competition from those 

of popular music--have enjoyed increases instead. 

Implications of Baby Boomer Analysis 

For most of the seven core art forms analyzed here, baby boomers participate less than their elders. Furthermore, comparing the rates of attendance in 

1982 with those in 1992, it appears that they are not catching up. For some 

art forms the baby boomers have increased their own attendance rate over the 

decade, but in general they do not match the rates of their elders at the same 

age. Indeed, even the younger baby boomers are not catching up with the 

older baby boomers. Instead, they largely continue the patterns of decline set 

by the older ones. Because Generation X is examined only in the 1992 SPPA, 

there are no longitudinal comparisons, but for some art forms, they do show 
Arts Participation of the Baby Boomers I 115 

TABLE 22. Music Liking and Projected Audience Size for 

1941-45 and 1961-65 Cohorts 

1941-45 1961-65 

Classical music 39.0% 5.67M 24.8% 4.73M 

18.4 2.62 9.9 1.89 

Musicals 38.5 5.59 19.7 3.75 

22.2 3.23 14.5 2.76 

Jazz 33.6 4.88 39.2 7.47 

10.6 1.54 12.9 2.46 

Opera 17.0 2.47 6.5 1.24 

4.5 .65 2.5 .48 

Ratio of Liking/Attending: 

.405 .462 

Projecting these ratios to four types of popular music reveals: 

Country & Western 63.1% 9.17M 50.7% 9.66M 

25.6 3.72 23.4 4.46 

Easy Listening 56.6 8.22 48.9 9.32 

22.9 3.33 22.6 4.31 

Gospel 46.4 6.74 31.6 6.02 

18.8 2.73 14.6 2.78 

Rock 39.0 5.66 61.7 11.76 

15.8 2.29 28.5 5.43 

higher rates of attendance than did their predecessors, the youngest baby 

boomers, at the same age. But given the smaller size of the Generation X cohorts, even if this pattern holds as they mature, it is unlikely to be a sufficient 

reversal to arrest the audience declines that have been observed. 

To be sure, the decline in real numbers has yet to become apparent for 

some art forms: because of the larger numbers in the baby boomer cohorts, 

decreased rates of attendance may still result in more actual attenders. The 

total national box office for some art forms may, in fact, have increased over 

the decade. Since this surge is divided among more arts providers, the effect 

of an enlarged total audience on each art form may be slight. 

More importantly, in a time of general economic stress and budget cuts, 
116 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE 23.	 Classical Music Attendance and Nonattendance for 

1941-45 and 1961-65 Cohorts with One or More 

Years of College 

1941-45 1961-65 

Cohort size 6.93Mil 10.32Mil 

Attendance rate 31.30% 1 7.60% 

Audience size 2.17Mil 1.82Mil 

Non-attenders 4.76Mil 8.50Mil 

1945-45 rate: 31.30% 

Projected audience size at 1941-45 rate: 3.23Mil 

Projected non-attenders at 1941-45 rate: 7.09Mil 

the arts are not necessarily protected because the size of their total audience 

may have increased; the numbers of nonparticipants have also increased. To illustrate, consider classical music attendance, taking only the better-educated 

subset of the 1941-45 and 1961-65 cohorts, using data from 1992 (see Table 

23). 

For classical music, even if the high attendance rates of the older cohort 

had held firm in the younger one, the numbers of nonattenders would have 

increased 2.33 million, more than the total attenders in the 1941-45 cohort. 

As it is, the increase in nonattenders nearly equals the combined audience 

total of both cohort segments. Multiply this example across the cohorts and 

one sees dimensions of the problem that are not illuminated by a comparison 

of rates of attenders (and their concomitant real numbers). 

The problem of nonattendance is serious for a number of reasons, especially because it affects the earned income of arts organizations. Moreover, 

since most arts organizations are nonprofits, they depend on "unearned" support from public agencies and foundations as well as from private patrons to 

survive. These patrons are subject to increasing pressure to use their limited 

funds to address social problems such as poverty, drugs, homelessness, AIDS, 

and a host of others. 

Clearly, if the largest segment of the adult population, the baby boomers, 

turns away from providing support, the future for the arts is indeed grim.18 
Summary 

The data presented and analyzed in Parts I and II of this report disclose a 

mixed pattern of participation: some art forms are faring well, while others are in real decline; some cohorts are active participants, others are tapering 

off. This poses a major challenge, not only to American culture as we have 

known it but also to specific sectors of it. What is to be done? How can increased numbers of nonparticipants be encouraged, educated, and drawn into 

active participation as arts audiences, especially those from the huge ranks of 

the baby boomers? 

There are no simple solutions, it seems. The benchmark art forms must 

compete more fiercely than ever before for adults’ attention, to say nothing of 

the need to increase participation. This calls for innovation and a rethinking 

of reality. Adult Americans are already pressed for what limited leisure time 

they do have by demands from other media and popular culture and from 

life’s daily pressures, which may include working longer hours, holding a second job, or having to spend time with children in the household. With baby 

boomers facing so much responsibility and so many distractions, the trend is 

clear: it will not get easier for the arts. As one leading cultural economist described it: "The future of the high arts...depends critically upon their ability 

to compete for attention with a popular culture that is powerfully propagated 

by the mass media of radio, television, the movies, and the culture of advertising and promotion in which they are enmeshed. The weak position of the 

high arts in competition with popular culture is the result of very powerful 

cultural trends that will be difficult to alter.’’19 

One way to address the issue of adult participation in the arts, now and in 

the future, is to continue to both track and inventory attendance figures as 

was done with the 1982, 1985, and 1992 Surveys of Public Participation in 

the Arts. But more can be done to build on the information collected in these 

and future SPPAs so that presenters, practitioners, and concerned lay public 

fully understand why certain core art forms are increasing in appeal while others are not. To be sure, the aggregated data analyzed herein are vitally important. However, the longitudinal research of the NEA and Bureau of the Census could have more impact if augmented by specific surveys about each of the 

core art forms and through local investigations. Tracking audience demographics at the community level, as well as conducting qualitative interviews, 

could provide a better handle on the trends and reveal the exact reasons why 

people do or do not participate in particular art forms. Showcasing new 

117 
118 I Age and Arts Participation 

approaches that seem to reverse the negative trends would also be helpful. Indeed, continued introspection, "keeping our fingers on the pulse" of adult 

participation in the arts, in addition to the already ongoing education and active and innovative solicitation of audiences by arts providers, can serve to 

focus attention and energies on finding solutions to the changing composition 

of arts audiences in America. 
 

Appendix A 

1992 Survey of Public Participation 

in the Arts 

INTRODUCTION - Now I have some questions about your leisure activities. The Bureau of the 

Census is collecting this information for the National Endowment for the Arts. The survey is

authorized by Title 20, United States Code, section 954 and Title 13, United States Code, section 

8. Your participation in this interview is voluntary and there are no penalties for not answering 

some or all of the questions. (If PERSONAL INTERVIEW, hand respondent the Privacy Act Statement, 

SPPA- 13.) 	 ~ 

The following questions are about YOUR

activities during the LAST 12 months-­

between 1, 19 __, and

____, 19__, 

With the exception of elementary or high

school performances, did YOU go to a live

jazz performance during the LAST 12

MONTHS? 

o~]No 

Yes - About how many times did you do 

this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

[~ Number of times 

2.	 (With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,) Did you go to a live

classical music performance such as 

symphony, chamber, or choral music

during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ 0[]No 

Yes - About how many times did you do 

this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of times 

3. (With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,} Did you go to a live 

opera during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ oE~No 

Yes - About how many times did you do 

this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of times 

4. (With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,) Did you go to a live 

musical stage play or an operetta during

the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ o~No 

Yes - About how many times did you do 

this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~] Number of times 

5. (With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,) Did you go to a live 

performance of a non-musical stage play

during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

Yes - About how many times did you do this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~]~ Number of times 

6. (With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,) Did you go to a live 

ballet performance during the LAST 12

MONTHS? 

~ o~No 

Yes - About how many times did you do this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~]~ Number of times 

(With the exception of elementary or high

school performances,) Did you go to a live

dance performance other than ballet, such

as modern, folk, or tap during the LAST 12

MONTHS? 

Yes - About how many times did you do this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

[~ Number of times 

(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

visit an ART museum or gallery? 

Yes - About how many times did you do this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of times 

9.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

visit an ART fair or festival, or a CRAFT fair

or festival? 

Yes - About how many times did you do this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of times 

119 
120 I Age and Arts Participation 

10.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you


visit an historic park or monument, or


tour buildings, or neighborhoods for their


historic or design value?
 

Yes - About how many times did you do 

this during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of times 

With the exception of books required for

work or school, did you read any books

during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

oFqNo 

Yes - About how many books did you 

read during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ Number of books 

12.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you read any -

Read answer categories 

a. Plays? [~ ~[]N0 ~FqYes 

b. Poetry? ~ ~r~No ~[~Yes 

c. Novels or short stories? ~ ~[~No 2~lYes 

13.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
 

listen to ­

a. A reading of poetry, either live or recorded? [~ ~rqN0 2[]Yes 

b. A reading of novels or 

books either live or 

recorded? ~’~ llaNo 2 [~]Yes 

14a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
 watch a jazz performance on television or
 

a video (VCR) tape?
 

~[~]No - Skip to item 14c 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

2F-]TV 

3r-]VCR 

4 [] Both 

b. About how many times did you do this in 

the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ ~ Number of times 

c.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you 

listen to jazz on radio? 

~ , ~]No 

2[~Yes 

(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to jazz records, tapes, or compact

discs? 

2[]Yes 

Page 2 

15a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
 watch a classical music performance on


television or a video (VCR) tape?
 

~[~N0 - Skip to item 15c 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

2[~TV 

3[~VCR 

41~ 80th 

b. About how many times did you do this (in

the LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

~ Number of times 

c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to classical music on radio? 

2[~Yes 

d.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you listen to classical music records, tapes or

compact discs? 

271Yes 

16a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
 watch an opera on television or a video
 

(VCR) tape?
 

B ~E~]No - Skip to item 16c 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

2r-]TV 

3r-lVCR 

4 [] Both 

b. About how many times did you do this (in 

the LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

~ Number of times 

c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to opera music on radio? 

~ ~[~No 

2r~Yes 

d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to opera music records, tapes, or

compact discs? 

21-]Yes 

17a.With the exception of movies, did you watch a musical stage play or an operetta 

on television or a video (VCR) tape during

the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ ~[~N0 - Skip to item 17c 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

2DTV 

31-qVCR 

.~Both 

b. About how many times did you do this (in 

the LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

~ Number of times 

c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to a musical stage play or an operetta 

on radio? 

~ ~l~No 

2[~Yes 

d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you

listen to a musical stage play or an operetta

on records, tapes, or compact discs? 

~r~Yes 
1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts I 121 

18a.With the exception of movies, situation comedies, or TV series, did you watch a 

non-musical stage play on television or a video

(VCR) tape during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~[]No - Skip to item 18c 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

2[]TV


31-qVCR
 

4I--] Both
 

b.About how many times did you do this (in the

LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

Number of times 

c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you listen

to a radio performance of a non-musical stage

play? 

~ ~[]No 

2[~Yes 

19a.With the exception of music videos, did you watch on television or a video (VCR) tape 

dance such as ballet, modern, folk, or tap

during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~rqNo - Skip to item 20a 

Yes - Wea thet on 1~/, VCR, or both? 

2[]TV 

3{~VCR 

4 [] Bot h 

b. About how many times did you do this (in 

the LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

Number of times 

20a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you watch a program about artists, art works, or art 

museums on television or a video (VCR) tape? 

~[]No - Skip to item 2ta 

Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both? 

3[]VCR
 

4[]Both
 

b. About how many times did you do this (in

the LAST 12 MONTHS)? 

~[~ Number of times 

21a.l’m going to read a list of events that some
 people like to attend. If you could go to any of


these events as often as you wanted, which


ones would you go to MORE OFTEN than you
 

do now? I’ll read the list. Go to -

Mark (X) all that apply. 

1[]Jazz music performances
 

2[~Classical music performances
 

3[~Operas
 

4 [] Musical plays or operettas
 

s [] Non-musical plays
 

g [] Ballet performances 

~[] Dance performances other than ballet 

g[]Art museums or galleries 

~[]None of these - Skip to item 22a 

If only one is chosen, skip to item 22a.


If more than one is chosen, ask ­

b. Which of these would you like to do most? 

o5~ ~Category number 

oo[]No one thing most 

22a.The following questions are about your
 participation in other leisure activities.
 

Approximately how many hours of television 

do you watch on an average day? 

Number of hours 

boDuring the LAST 12 MONTHS, did YOU go out to the movies? 

~[]No
 

=[]Yes
 

c.	 With the exception of youth sports, did you
 

go to any amateur or professional sports
 events during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ ~[]No 

2[]Yes 

d. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you go to

an amusement or theme park, a carnival, or

a similar place of entertainment? 

~[]Yes 

e.	 During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you jog,

lift weights, walk, or participate in any other

exercise program? 

~ ,r~No 

2[]Yes 

f.	 During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you

participate in any sports activity, such as

softball, basketball, golf, bowling, skiing, or 

tennis? 

~ ,[]No
 

2[]Yes
 

g. Did you participate in any outdoor activities,

such as camping, hiking, or canoeing during

the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ ~[]No
 

2~Yes
 

h.Did you do volunteer or charity work during 

the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~ I[]No
 

2[]Yes
 

Did you make repairs or improvements on

your own home during the LAST 12

MONTHS? 

Did you work with indoor plants or do any

gardening for pleasure during the LAST 12

MONTHS? 

~[]No 

z~Yes 

23a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you work
 with pottery, ceramics, jewelry, or do any
 

leatherwork or metalwork?
 

~(-INo - Skip to item 24a
 

2[]Yes
 

b. Did you publicly display any of your works? 

~ d~]No 

~[]Yes 
122 I Age and Arts Participation 

24a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do
 

any weaving, crocheting, quilting,
 needlepoint, or sewing?
 

06~-] ~E~No - Skl~o to item 25a 

2rqYes 

b. Did you publicly display any of your works? 

z[~Yes 

25a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
 make photographs, movies, or video tapes


as an artistic activity? 

~	 ~ [~No - Skip to item 26a 

2rqYes 

b. Did you publicly display any of your works? 

2[]Yes 

26a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do
 any painting, drawing, sculpture, or


printmaking activities?
 

1 [No - Skip to item 27a 

2[]Yes 

b. Did you publicly display any of your works? 

~ ~FqNo 

21"qYes 

27a.With the exception of work or school, did you do any creative writing such as stories, poems,

or plays during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

~	 1 [] No - Skip to item 28a
 

2[~Yes
 

b. Were any of your writings published? 

~[]Yes 

28aoDid you write or compose any music during
 

the LAST 12 MONTHS?
 

~ [] No - Skip to item 29a 

2rqYes 

b. Was your musical composition played in a

public performance or rehearsed for a public

performance? 

,I-]No 

2[]Yes 

29a.Do you own any original pieces of art, such
 as paintings, drawings, sculpture, prints, or


lithographs?
 

~	 ~r’qNo - Skip to item 30a 

21-qYes 

b. Did you purchase or acquire any of these 

pieces during the LAST 12 MONTHS? 

2[]Yes 

30a.Durlng the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you
 perform or rehearse any jazz music?
 

~	 1 ~]No - Skip to item 31a 

2[]Yes 

Page 4 

30b.Did you play any jazz in a public performance
 or rehearse for a public performance?
 

o8~] ~No
 2[qYes
 

31a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you play
 any classical music?
 

~	 ~ rqNo - Skip to item 32a
 

2E3Yes
 

b. Did you play classical music in a public

performance or rehearse for a public 

performance? 

~ ~]No
 

~[]Yes
 

32a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you sing any 

music from an opera? 

ll’qNo - Skip to item 33a
 

2[~Yes
 

b. Did you sing in a public opera performance or rehearse for a public performance? 

33a.During the LAST 12 MONTHS did you aing
 music from  ̄ musical play or operetta?
 

~ [] No - Skip to item 33c
 

2[]Yes
 

b. Did you sing in a public performance of a musical play or operetta or rehearse for a

public performance? 

2[~Yes 

c.	 During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you sing in a public performance with a chorale, choir, or glee club or other type of vocal group, or

rehearse for a public performance? 

~ ~I~No 

2[]Yes 

34.	 (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you act in a 

public performance of a non-musical play or

rehearse for e public performance? 

~ ~[No 

2 E~]Yes 

35a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you dance any ballet? 

~ [] NO - Skip to item 36a
 

2[Yes
 

b. Did you dance ballet in a public performance

or rehearse for a public performance? 

~ ~[]No 

2r~ Yes 

36a.(During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do any 

dancing other than ballet such as modern, folk,

or tap? 

1[]No - Skip to item 37a
 

21~Yes
 

b. Did you dance modern, folk, or tap in a
 

public performance?
 

2[~Yes 
1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts I 123 

37a. l’m going to read a list of some types of

music. As I read the list, tell me which of

these types of music you like to listen to? 

Mark (X) all that apply 

~	 ~ ~ Classical/Chamber music 

2[]Opera 

~ [] Operetta/Broadway musicals/Show tunes 

~[]Jazz 

5 ~ Reggae (Reg
 

~Rap music
 

~ ,~Soul
 

8[~Blues/Rhythm and blues
 

9 [] Latin/Spanish/Salsa
 

~ ~0~Big band
 

~[]Parade/Marching band
 

~2 [] Country-western
 

~ ~3[] Bluegrass 

 ̄ :i:~Rock 

~s[]The music of a particular Ethnic/
 

National tradition
 ~’~16[]Contemporary folk music 

~[]Mood/Easy listening 

~[~New age music 

~ ~9[]Choral/Glee club


20 ~] Hymns/Gospel
 

2~ [] All 

z~[~None/Don’t like to listen to music - Skip to item 38a 

b.If only one category is marked in 37a, enter code in

37b without asking. Which of these do you like 

best? 

~ [~ Category number 

00[~] No one type best 

38a. Have you EVER taken lessons or classes in 

music - either voice training or playing an

instrument? 

~ []No - Skip to item 39a
 

2[]Yes
 

b. Did you take these lessons when you were -

Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if 

respondent is under 25 years old.)

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 ~[]Less than 12 years old 

~[~ 12-17 years old 

3~]18--24 years old 

4[]25 or older 

Refer to item 38b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 38b? 

[] No - Skip to Check Item B 

[]Yes - Ask item 38c 

38c.Were these lessons or classes offered by the elementary or high school you were

attending or did you take these lessons

elsewhere? 

[]Elementary/high school
 

[] Elsewhere
 

3[]Both
 

Refer to item 38b
 

If box 4 is marked in item 38b, ASK item 38d.
 

If not- Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 38b AND
 

the respondent is under 25 years old? -­

[]No - Skip to item 39a
 

[]Yes - Ask item 38d
 

38d.Did you take any of these lessons or 

classes in the past year? 

~[]No
 

~l-]Yes
 

39a.(Have you EVER taken lessons or 

classes) in visual arts such as sculpture, 

painting, print making, photography, or 

film making? 

~	 ~ [] NO - Skip to item 40a 

~[~Yes 

b. Did you take these lessons when you were -

Read categories, (Do not read category 4 if 

respondent is under 25 years old.) 

Mark (X) all that apply 

~	 ~ [] Less than 12 years old 

2[]12-t7 years old
 

~ 18-24 years old
 

4~25 or older
 

Refer to item 39b 

Is box I or 2 marked in item 39b? 

[] NO - Skip to Check Item D 

[~] Yes - Ask item 39c 

39c.Were these lessons or classes offered by the 

elementary or high school you were

attending or did you take these lessons 

elsewhere? 

~	 ~[]Elementary/high school 

~ [] Elsewhere 

3 [] Both 

Refer to item 39b 

If box 4 is marl(ed in item 39b, ASK item 39d. 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 39b AND the respondent is under 25 years old~ 

[]No - Skip to item 40a 

[] Yes - Ask item 39d 

39d. Did you take any of these lessons or classes


in the past year?
 

40a.(Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in
 

acting or theater?
 

~	 I~]No- Sklptoitem41a 

~C~Yes 

b.Did you take these lessons when you were - Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if respondent is under 25 years old.)

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 ~Less than 12 years old 

2[]12-17 years old 

3[] 18-24 years old 

4[]25 or older 

Refer to item 40b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 40b? 

[] No - Skip to Check Item F 

~]Yes - Ask item 40c 

40c.Were these lessons or classes offered by the
 

elementary or high school you were


attending or did you take these lessons


elsewhere?
 

[]Elementary/high school
 

[] Elsewhere
 

3[]Both
 
124 Age and Arts Participation 

Refer to item 40b 

If box 4 is marked in item 40b, ASK item 40d, 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 40b AND 

the respondent is under 25 years old? 

rqNo - Skip to item 41a 

[]Yes - Ask item 40d 

40d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
 

in the past year?
 

41a.(Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in
 

ballet?
 

~	 ~ [] No - Skip to item 42a 

2[]Yes 

b. Did you take these lessons when you were -

Read categories, (Do not read category 4 if 

respondent is under 25 years old,)

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 1 [] Less than 12 years old 

2[]12-17 years old 

3[] 18-24 years old 

41-125 or older 

Refer to item 41b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 41b? 

r~No - Skip to Check Item H 

r~ Yes - Ask item 41c 

41c.Were these lessons or classes offered by the
 

elementary or high school you were


attending or did you take these lessons


elsewhere?
 

~	 ~ [] EtementanJ/high school 

21~ Elsewhere 

3 [] Both 

Refer to item 41b 

If box 4 is marked in item 41b, ASK item 41d. 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 41b AND 

the respondent is under 25 years old? 

[]No - Skip to item 42a 

[]Yes - Ask item 41d 

41d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
 in the past year?
 

42a.(Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in 

dance, other than ballet such as modern, folk or tap? 

1 [] No - Skip to item 43a
 

2[]Yes
 

b. Did you take these lessons when you were -

Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if respondent is under 25 years old.) 

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 ~[~Less than 12 years old 

2[]12-17 years old 

3[] 18-24 years old 

4]-]25 or older 

Refer to item 42b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 42b? 

[]No - Skip to Check Item J 

[]Yes - Ask item 42c 

42c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the

elementary or high school you were

attending or did you take these lessons 

elsewhere? 

~	 ~[]E~ementary/high school 

2 [] Elsewhere 

3 [] Both 

Refer to item 42b
 

If box 4 is marked in item 42b, ASK item 42d,
 

If not- Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 42b AND
 

the respondent is under 25 years old?
 

I~No - Skip to item 43a
 

[]Yes - Ask item 42d
 

42d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
 

in the past year?
 

2F]Yes 

43a. Have you EVER taken lessons or classes in
 

creative writing?
 

~	 ~ []No - Skip to item 44a
 

2[]Yes
 

b. Did you take these lessons when you were -

Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if respondent is under 25 years old.)

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 ~ [] Less than 12 years old
 

2[]12-17 years old
 

3[] 18-24 years old
 

4[]25 or older
 

Refer to item 43b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 43b? 

[] No - Skate to Check Item L 

~]Yes - Ask item 43c 

43c.Were these lessons or classes offered by the
 

elementary or high school you were


attending or did you take these lessons


elsewhere?
 

~ [] Elementary/high school
 

2 [] Elsewhere
 

3[]Both
 

Refer to item 43b 

If box 4 is marked in item 43b, ASK item 43d. 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 43b AND 

the respondent is under 25 years old? 

[] No - Skip to item 44a 

{~] Yes - Ask item 43d 

43d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
 in the past year?
 

~ ~[]No 

2[]Yes 

44a.(Have you EVER taken a class) in art
 

appreciation or art history?
 

~	 ~ [] No - Skip to item 45a 

2[]Yes 

b. Did you take this class when you were -

Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if

respondent is under 25 years old.)

Mark (X) all that apply. 

~	 :E~Less than 12 years old
 

~[]12-17 years old
 

~[] 18-24 years old
 

~[]25 or older
 
1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts I 125 

Refer to item 44b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 44b? 

[] No - Skip to Check Item N 

DYes - Ask item 44e 

44c.Was this class offered by the elementary or 

high school you were attending or did you 

take this class elsewhere? 

~	 ~ [] Elementary/high school 

2[] Elsewhere 

3[]Both 

Refer to item 44b
 

If box 4 is marked in item 44b, ASK item 44d,
 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 44b AND
 

the respondent is under 25 years old?
 

[] NO - Skip to item 45a
 

[]Yes - Ask item 44d
 

44d. Did you take any of these lessons or classes
 

in the past year?
 

45a.(Have you EVER taken a class) in music
 appreciation?
 

~	 ~ [] NO - Skip to item 46a 

2[]Yes 

b. Did you take this class when you were -

Read categories. (Do not read category ,~ if respondent is under 25 years old.)
 

Mark (X) all that apply.
 

~	 ~ [] Less than 12 years old 

2[]12-17 years old 

3~]18-24 years old 

4[]25 or older 

Refer to item 45b 

Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 45b? 

[]No - Skip to Check Item P 

[]Yes - Ask item 45c 

Notes 

45c.Was this class offered by the elementary or
 

high school you were attending or did you


take this class elsewhere?
 

~ [] Elementary/high school
 

2[] Elsewhere
 

3 [] Both
 

Refer to item 45b
 

If box 4 is marked in item 45b, ASK item 45d.
 

If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 45b AND
 

the respondent is under 25 years old?
 

[] No - Skip to item 46a
 

[]Yes - Ask item 45d
 

45d. Did you take this class in the past year? 

2[]Yes 

46a. What is the highest grade (or year) of regular
 

school your FATHER completed?
 

~ 0~ []7th grade or less 

o2[]8lh grade
 

o3(~]9th-1 lth grades
 

c~[] 12th grade
 

os[]Col]ege (did not complete)
 

c~[]Completed college (4+ years)
 

o71-’lPost graduate degree (M.A., Ph,D., M.D., J.D., etc.)
 

o~3 Don’t know
 

b.What is the highest grade (or year) of regular

school your MOTHER completed? 

~’-~-] 0~ []7th grade or less 

o2[]8th grade 

o3[~]9th-1 Ith grades 

o,~ [] 12th grade 

os~]College (did not complete) 

o~[~Completed college (4+ years)
 

oT[~Post graduate degree (MA., Ph.D.. M.D., J.D., etc.)
 

oe [] Don’t know
 

Is this the LAST household member to be interviewed? 

[]No - Go back to the NCS-t and interview the 

next eligible NCS household member 

[] Yes - END INTERVIEW 
 

 

Appendix B 

Additional Tables 

TABLE B-1. Arts Participation by Age Cohort and Survey Year 

Age 

Cohort SPPA Total Classical Jazz Opera Musicals Ballet Theater Museum 

Percent Participating 

Pre-1916	 ’82 21,772,920 9.7 1.8 2.8 11.5 2.4 7.8 11.7 

’92 9,817,724 6.8 1.6 1.8 7.9 2.1 5.2 8.3 

1916-20	 ’82 9,625,404 11.4 3.5 2.8 16.5 3.3 10.6 16.0 

’92 8,694,448 14.9 3.7 4.2 13.4 3.5 10.6 17.8 

1921-25 ’82 12,403,668 13.3 4.9 4.2 20.0 4.1 11.3 19.9 

’92 10,357,480 13.9 5.2 3.2 17.7 4.8 14.9 20.4 

1926-30 ’82 12,393,816 13.7 5.3 3.7 19.6 4.0 13.9 20.3 

’92 11,305,700 13.4 8.4 4.1 20.1 4.1 15.0 22.8 

1931-35 ’82 12,216,480 15.5 7.8 4.2 22.6 3.9 14.6 21.4 

’92 11,845,456 14.9 7.5 4.4 18.5 5.7 15.6 25.7 

1936-40 ’82 12,433,224 16.5 7.7 4.6 20.9 5.0 12.7 25.5 

’92 12,283,096 15.4 8.2 4.3 22.1 5.2 14.3 26.7 

1941-45 ’82 14,600,664 17.4 7.6 3.2 24.4 6.2 15.8 26.9 

’92 14,529,648 18.4 10.6 4.5 22.2 4.6 18.0 28.1 

1946-50 ’82 18,580,872 14.8 10.3 3.0 21.6 6.0 15.1 28.4 

’92 16,965,844 15.6 11.7 4.2 22.1 5.3 16.1 31.3 

1951-55 ’82 19,112,880 12.7 13.7 2.8 19.6 4.8 10.9 25.5 

’92 20,700,372 12.5 13.1 3.0 18.0 5.1 14.3 31.0 

1956-60 ’82 21,171,948 11.9 17.2 2.4 17.9 4.5 11.5 25.1 

’92 22,450,932 10.9 13.1 3.6 18.9 6.1 12.7 28.8 

1961-65 ’82 15,536,604 11.1 18.0 1.8 15.7 3.7 10.9 21.6 

’92 19,956,384 9.9 12.9 2.5 14.5 4.8 12.4 29.2 

1966-70 ’92 15,740,452 10.7 15.1 2.8 16.5 4.4 12.5 30.0 

1971+ ’92 11,028,528 8.6 9.5 2.4 15.1 5.3 12.3 26.5 

126 
Appendix B I 127 

TABLE B-2. Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 

1992) by Age Cohort and Educational Level 

Age Educational 

Cohort Level Classical Jazz Opera Musicals Ballet Theater Museum 

Pre-1916	 High school/less 5.3 1.1 1.6 6.9 1.6 4.2 6.3 

College/more 23.0 4.2 6.1 24.0 4.9 18.0 28.0 

1916-20	 High school/less 6.7 1.5 1.8 10.0 1.2 6.3 9.6 

College/more 33.0 10.0 8.7 31.0 11.0 24.0 40.0 

1921-25	 High school/less 7.0 3.1 1.9 13.0 2.7 8.3 12.0 

College/more 30.0 10.0 8.6 33.0 8.7 25.0 41.0 

1926-30	 High school/less 7.4 4.0 1.8 13.0 2.1 8.6 13.0 

College/more 28.0 13.0 8.8 34.0 8.4 28.0 40.0 

1931 35	 High school/less 6.5 4.1 1.5 12.0 1.9 7.4 12.0 

College/more 31.0 14.0 9.4 36.0 9.8 29.0 43.0 

1936-40	 High school/less 6.0 3.8 1.6 11.0 2.3 5.4 14.0 

College/more 32.0 15.0 9.0 38.0 9.7 26.0 45.0 

194145	 High school/less 6.6 3.3 1.5 12.0 1.5 7.6 12.0 

College/more 31.0 16.0 6.7 37.0 10.0 28.0 46.0 

1946-50	 High school/less 6.0 4.8 1.2 10.0 2.2 6.6 13.0 

College/more 24.0 17.0 5.7 32.0 8.9 24.0 45.0 

1951-55	 High school/less 4.7 6.2 0.8 8.6 2.2 4.1 13.0 

College/more 20.0 20.0 4.8 28.0 7.5 20.0 42.0 

1956-60	 High school/less 4.3 8.0 0.9 8.6 1.9 4.2 13.0 

College/more 18.0 22.0 5.1 28.0 8.7 20.0 41.0 

1961-65	 High school/less 4.5 8.7 1.0 7.4 1.3 4.8 13.0 

College/more 18.0 23.0 3.5 24.0 7.9 20.0 41.0 

1966-70 High school/less 2.2 6.1 1.0 8.1 1.8 3.7 13.0 

College/more 18.0 23.0 4.3 24.0 6.6 20.0 44.0 

1971+	 High school/less 3.4 6.2 2.1 10.0 2.3 6.2 18.0 

College/more 16.0 14.0 2.8 22.0 9.4 21.0 38.0 
 

128 I Age and Arts Participation 

TABLE B-3. Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 

1992) by Age Cohort and Annual Family Income 

Age 

Cohort Income Classical Jazz Opera Musicals Ballet Theater Museum 

Pre-1916	 < $30,000 6.0 1.0 1.0 6.6 1.8 3.5 5.6 

$30,000+ 8.7 5.4 6.5 15.2 3.3 13.0 21.7 

1916-20	 < $30,000 11.3 2.4 3.5 11.8 2.1 8.3 12.5 

$30,000+ 28.7 7.4 7.4 18.9 9.0 19.7 36.1 

1921-25	 < $30,000 10.1 5.1 2.1 14.0 4.3 13.1 14.8 

$30,000+ 25.7 6.6 5.9 27.6 7.2 19.1 37.5 

1926-30	 < $30,000 8.4 5.3 1.9 14.0 1.6 10.2 14.9 

$30,000+ 19.6 13.6 7.5 29.1 6.8 20.8 36.2 

1931-35	 < $30,000 7.8 4.5 2.8 11.2 2.5 8.7 16.8 

$30,000+ 22.5 11.5 7.0 27.3 9.4 22.7 34.2 

1936-40	 < $30,000 5.6 2.6 0.7 10.8 1.6 5.9 12.8 

$30,000+ 23.1 11.9 6.6 30.3 7.3 19.1 36.7 

1941-45	 < $30,000 8.0 6.0 0.9 9.2 0.9 6.9 14.6 

$30,000+ 24.1 13.0 7.1 29.7 6.9 24.5 34.2 

1946-50	 < $30,000 9.9 6.7 2.4 11.2 3.5 8.5 19.5 

$30,000+ 19.0 14.4 4.9 27.7 6.1 20.0 38.1 

1951-55	 < $30,000 10.2 9.6 2.0 10.0 2.7 9.0 19.0 

$30,000+ 14.3 15.5 3.7 22.9 6.9 17.9 39.0 

1956-60	 < $30,000 6.0 11.0 1.0 11.7 4.0 7.8 21.0 

$30,000+ 15.2 14.7 5.6 24.9 8.1 16.3 35.5 

1961-65	 < $30,000 6.5 9.9 1.5 8.9 3.0 9.6 21.2 

$30,000+ 13.5 16.0 3.2 20.8 6.8 15.3 37.8 

1966-70 < $30,000 10.1 12.7 3.0 13.6 3.0 12.0 25.8 

$30,000+ 12.5 20.3 2.5 21.2 6.4 13.6 39.0 

1971+	 < $30,000 6.7 7.8 1.9 12.8 4.3 11.6 25.2 

$30,000+ 12.1 12.8 3.9 18.7 7.0 15.2 28.8 
Appendix B I 129 

TABLE B-4. Arts Participation Rates (Average of 1982 and 

1992) by Age Cohort and Number of Children 

Age Number of 

Cohort Children Classical Jazz Opera Musicals Ballet Theater Museum 

Pre-1916 0 8.9 1.7 2.4 10.0 2.2 6.8 11.0 

1 

2 

1916-20 0 13.0 3.6 3.3 15.0 3.4 11.0 16.0 

1 33.0 33.0 

2 33.0 

1921-25 0 14.0 4.9 3.8 19.0 4.3 13.0 20.0 

1 9.0 7.3 3.6 15.0 5.4 5.4 24.0 

2 17.0 17.0 

1926-30 0 13.0 6.6 3.8 20.0 4.0 14.0 21.0 

1 7.5 7.5 1.7 12.0 1.7 6.7 22.0 

2 6.5 6.5 

1931-35 0 15.0 7.8 4.0 21.0 4.9 15.0 23.0 

1 15.0 4.9 6.3 16.0 1.4 15.0 18.0 

2 6.2 6.2 4.1 4.1 4.1 12.0 

1936-4-0 0 16.0 8.1 4.6 21.0 4.7 13.0 25.0 

1 14.0 7.3 2.9 22.0 4.6 12.0 28.0 

2 12.0 3.7 2.8 12.0 7.5 12.0 20.0 

1941~-5 0 18.0 11.0 4.1 22.0 4.6 17.0 27.0 

1 18.0 6.1 3.2 25.0 7.9 18.0 26.0 

2 17.0 6.1 3.5 24.0 5.7 16.0 26.0 

1946-50 0 16.0 13.0 4.0 23.0 6.1 18.0 31.0 

1 11.0 7.9 2.7 19.0 4.2 12.0 26.0 

2 16.0 8.7 2.9 21.0 6.3 14.0 29.0 

1951-55 0 16.0 18.0 3.8 22.0 5.4 15.0 33.0 

1 11.0 11.0 2.1 16.0 4.5 11.0 26.0 

2 9.2 7.8 2.2 15.0 4.1 9.8 21.0 

1956-60 0 14.0 21.0 3.9 22.0 6.4 16.0 32.0 

1 8.4 8.5 1.6 12.0 2.7 6.0 21.0 

2 7.7 9.2 2.2 17.0 4.9 9.6 21.0 

1961-65 0 13.0 19.0 2.7 18.0 4.9 14.0 29.0 

1 6.3 8.9 2.0 10.0 3.3 8.1 20.0 

2 4.2 6.7 0.7 6.7 2.6 7.1 20.0 

1966-70 0 14.0 19.0 3.2 20.0 5.0 15.0 36.0 

1 2.5 8.7 1.2 12.0 2.5 5.6 20.0 

2 2.6 5.2 5.8 3.9 9.7 

1971+ 0 9.7 11.0 2.2 16.0 5.6 14.0 28.0 

1 1.7 6.7 1.7 5.0 12.0 

2 4.8 9.5 
 

TABLE B-5. Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by Age Cohort 

Like to Listen? 

Pre-1916 1916-20 1921-25 1926-30 1931-35 

Age Cohort 

1936-40 1941-45 1946-50 1951-55 1956-60 1961-65 1966-70 1971+ 

Country/Western 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Easy Listening 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Gospel 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Big Band 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Blues 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Rock 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Classical 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Musicals 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Bluegrass 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Folk Music 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

SPPA92 

40.0 

2,582,076 

1,721,384 

32.9 

2,888,424 

1,415,036 

51.5 

2,086,084 

2,217,376 

40.3 

2,567,488 

1,735,972 

16.9 

3,574,060 

729,400 

5.1 

4,084,640 

218,820 

23.7 

3,282,300 

1,021,160 

24.7 

3,238,536 

1,064,924 

18.3 

3,515,708 

787,752 

12.9 

3,749,116 

554,344 

54.8 

1,706,796 

2,071,496 

48.3 

1,954,792 

1,823,500 

47.9 

1,969,380 

1,808,912 

52.9 

1,779,736 

1,998,556 

29.7 

2,655,016 

1,123,276 

5.4 

3,574,060 

204,232 

39.0 

2,304,904 

1,473,388 

35.9 

2,421,608 

1,356,684 

28.6 

2,698,780 

1,079,512 

19.3 

3,048,892 

729,400 

52.6 54.4 60.7 

2,290,316 2,319,492 2,013,144 

2,538,312 2,771,720 3,107,244 

56.8 59.0 54.7 

2,086,084 2,086,084 2,319,492 

2,742,544 3,005,128 2,800,896 

55.9 50.1 52.7 

2,129,848 2,538,312 2,421,608 

2,698,780 2,552,900 2,698,780 

62.5 63.3 53.3 

1,808,912 1,867,264 2,392,432 

3,019,716 3,223,948 2,727,956 

34.7 39.8 33.9 

3,151,008 3,063,480 3,384,416 

1,677,620 2,027,732 1,735,972 

8.5 14.6 14.5 

4,420,164 4,347,224 4,376,400 

408,464 743,988 743,988 

42.6 43.8 45.9 

2,771,720 2,859,248 2,771,720 

2,056,908 2,231,964 2,348,668 

42.0 43.0 37.9 

2,800,896 2,903,012 3,180,184 

2,027,732 2,188,200 1,940,204 

37.5 34.7 35.9 

3,019,716 3,326,064 3,282,300 

1,808,912 1,765,148 1,838,088 

27.5 29.5 28.2 

3,501,120 3,588,648 3,676,176 

1,327,508 1,502,564 1,444,212 

63.1 61.7 54.7 54.0 51.5 50.0 

1,998,556 2,465,372 3,413,592 4,347,224 5,091,212 4,536,868 

3,413,592 3,967,936 4,128,404 5,105,800 5,412,148 4,536,868 

52.0 55.3 55.5 52.2 50.6 48.2 

2,596,664 2,873,836 3,355,240 4,522,280 5,193,328 4,697,336 

2,815,484 3,559,472 4,186,756 4,930,744 5,310,032 4,376,400 

47.4 45.4 39.5 37.3 34.0 31.2 

2,844,660 3,515,708 4,566,044 5,922,728 6,929,300 6,243,664 

2,567,488 2,917,600 2,975,952 3,530,296 3,574,060 2,830,072 

45.3 43.3 38.5 29.5 28.6 21.9 

2,961,364 3,647,000 4,638,984 6,666,716 7,498,232 7,089,768 

2,450,784 2,786,308 2,903,012 2,786,308 3,005,128 1,983,968 

34.0 41.7 41.8 44.1 48.9 43.7 

3,574,060 3,749,116 4,390,988 5,280,856 5,368,384 5,105,800 

1,838,088 2,684,192 3,151,008 4,172,168 5,134,976 3,967,936

22.9 38.1 54.5 56.5 57.1 60.8 

4,172,168 3,982,524 3,428,180 4,113,816 4,507,692 3,559,472 

1,239,980 2,450,784 4,113,816 5,339,208 5,995,668 5,514,264

35.6 38.1 39.3 35.5 33.5 24.4 

3,486,532 3,982,524 4,580,632 6,097,784 6,987,652 6,856,360 

1,925,616 2,450,784 2,961,364 3,355,240 3,515,708 2,217,376 

36.9 37.6 31.3 26.1 23.3 19.5 

3,413,592 4,011,700 5,178,740 6,987,652 8,052,576 7,308,588 

1,998,556 2,421,608 2,363,256 2,465,372 2,450,784 1,765,148 

36.7 36.1 35.8 35.2 34.9 23.2 

3,428,180 4,113,816 4,843,216 6,126,960 6,841,772 6,973,064 

1,983,968 2,319,492 2,698,780 3,326,064 3,661,588 2,100,672

25.9 33.8 31.1 26.5 26.3 16.9 

4,011,700 4,259,696 5,193,328 6,943,888 7,746,228 7,541,996 

1,400,448 2,173,612 2,348,668 2,509,136 2,757,132 1,531,740 

46.1 

3,647,000 

3,121,832 

43.8 

3,807,468 

2,961,364 

25.4 

5,047,448 

1,721,384 

17.2 

5,601,792 

1,167,040 

42.0 

3,924,172 

2,844,660 

67.0 

2,231,964 

4,536,868 

26.3 

4,989,096 

1,779,736 

19.0 

5,485,088 

1,283,744 

17.2 

5,601,792 

1,167,040 

12.9 

5,893,552 

875,280 

36.6 

3,107,244 

1,794,324 

34.5 

3,209,360 

1,692,208 

21.4 

3,851,232 

1,050,336 

9.8 

4,420,164 

481,404 

37.8 

3,048,892 

1,852,676 

69.3 

1,502,564 

3,399,004 

22.3 

3,807,468 

1,094,100 

12.5 

4,288,872 

612,696 

13.1 

4,259,696 

641,872 

7.4 

4,536,868 

364,700 
 

TABLE B-6. Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by Age Cohort and Extent of Arts Participation 

Pre-1916 1916-20 1921-25 1926-30 

None One or More None One or More None One or More None One or More 

49.0% Country/ Don’t listen 2,159,024 60.2% 423,052 59.2% 1,196,216 48.5"/,, 510,580 38.9% 1,444,212 49.5% 846,104 44.3% 1,283,744 43.1% 1,035,748 

Western Like to listen 1,429,624 39.8 291,760 40.8 1,269,156 51.5 802,340 61.1 1,473,388 50.5 1,064,924 55.7 1,692,208 56.9 1,079,512 51.0 

Easy Don’t listen 2,611,252 72.8 277,172 38.8 1,517,152 61.5 437,640 33.3 1,531,740 52.5 554,344 29.0 1,458,800 49.0 627,284 29.7 

Listening Like to listen 977,396 27.2 437,640 61.2 948,220 38.5 875,280 66.7 1,385,860 47.5 1,356,684 71.0 1,517,152 51.0 1,487,976 70.3 

55.6 598,108 45.6 1,356,684 46.5 773,164 40.5 1,590,092 53.4 948 220 44.8 

Music Like to listen 1,852,676 51.6 364,700 51.0 1,094,100 44.4 714,812 54.4 1,560,916 Gospel	 Don’t listen 1,735,972 48.4 350,112 49.0 1,371,272 53.5 1,137,864 59.5 1,385,860 46.6 1,167,040 55.2 

Big Don’t listen 2,392,432 66.7 175,056 24.5 1,429,624 58.0 350,112 26.7 1,429,624 49.0 379,288 19.8 1,429,624 48.0 437 640 20.7 

Band Like to listen 1,196,216 33.3 539,756 75.5 1,035,748 42.0 962,808 73.3 1,487,976 51.0 1,531,740 80.2 1,546,328 52.0 1,677,620 79.3 

Blues Don’tlisten 3,180,184 88.6 393,876 55.1 1,867,264 75.7 787,752 60./) 2,217,376 76.0 933,632 48.9 2,100,672 70.6 962 808 45.5 

Like to listen 408,464 11.4 320,936 44.9 598,108 24.3 525,168 40./I 700,224 24.0 977,396 51.1 875,280 29.4 1,152,452 54.5 

Don’t listen 3,428,180 95.5 656,461/ 91.8 2,377,844 96.4 1,196,216 91.1 2,771,720 95.0 1,648,444 86.3 2,655,016 89.2 1,692 208 80.0 Rock Like to listen 160,468 4.5 58,352 8.2 87,528 3.6 116,704 8.9 145,880 5.1/ 262,584 13.7 320,936 10.8 423,052 20.0 

Classical	 Don’t listen 2,990,54/) 83.3 291,760 40.8 1,750,560 71.0 554,344 42.2 2,100,672 72.0 671,048 15.1 2,100,672 7/).6 758 576 35.9 

Like to listen 598,108 16.7 423,1152 59.2 714,812 29.11 758,576 57.8 816,928 28.0 1,239,980 64.9 875,280 29.4 1,356,684 64.1 

Musicals	 Don’t listen 2,990,540 83.3 247,996 34.7 1,852,676 75.1 568,932 43.3 2,042,320 70.0 758,576 39.7 2,173,612 73.0 729 400 34.5 

Like to listen 598,108 16.7 466,816 65.3 612,696 24.9 743,988 56.7 875,280 30.0 1,152,452 60.3 802,340 27.0 1,385,860 65.5 

75.5 1,823,500 74.0 875,280 66.7 1,881,852 64.5 1,137,864 59.5 1,983,968 66.7 1,342,096 63.4 

Like to listen 612,696 17.1 175,056 24.5 641,872 26.0 437,640 33.3 1,035,748 35.5 773,164 40.5 991,984 33.3 773,164 36.6 

Folk	 Don’t listen 3,180,184 88.6 568,932 79.6 2,071,496 84.0 977,396 74.4 2,334,080 80.0 1,167,040 

Bluegrass	 Don’t listen 2,975,952 82.9 539,756 

61.1 2,304,904 77.5 1,283,744 60.7 

Music Like to listen 408,464 11.4 145,880 20.4 393,876 16.0 335,524 25.6 583,520 20.0 743,988 38.9 671,048 22.5 831,516 39.3 

Jazz	 Don’t listen 3,165,596 88.2 393,876 55.1 2,056,908 83.4 860,692 65.6 2,479,960 85.0 1,210,804 63.4 2,334,080 78.4 1,050,336 49.7 

Like to listen 423,052 11.8 320,936 44.9 408,464 16.6 452,228 34.4 437,640 15.0 700,224 36.6 641,872 21.6 1,064,924 50.3 

Soul	 Don’t listen 3,544,884 98.8 685,636 95.9 2,290,316 92.9 1,225,392 93.3 2,669,604 91.5 1,648,444 86.3 2,698,780 90.7 1,779,736 84.1 

Like to listen 43,764 1.2 29,176 4.1 175,056 7.1 87,528 6.7 247,996 8.5 262,584 13.7 277,172 9.3 335,524 15.9 

Ethnic Don’t listen 3,180,184 88.6 481,404 67.3 1,911,028 77.5 962,808 73.3 2,436,196 83.5 1,137,864 59.5 2,304,904 77.5 1,444,212 68.3 

Music Like to listen 408,464 11.4 233,408 32.7 554,344 22.5 350,112 26.7 481,404 16.5 773,164 40.5 671,048 22.5 671,048 31.7 

Latin/ Don’t listen 3,223,948 89.8 481,404 67.3 2,159,024 87.6 1,050,336 80.0 2,582,076 88.5 1,196,216 62.6 2,509,136 84.3 1,385,860 65.5 

Salsa Like to listen 364,700 10.2 233,408 32.7 306,348 12.4 262,584 20.0 335,524 ll.5 714,812 37.4 466,816 15.7 729,400 34.5 

Marching Don’t listen 2,975,952 82.9 408,464 57.1 1,823,500 74.0 641,872 48.9 2,027,732 69.5 933,632 48.9 2,071,496 69.6 1,181,628 55.9 ;> 

Band Like to listen 612,696 17.1 306,348 42.9 641,872 26.0 671,048 51.1 889,868 30.5 977,396 51.1 904,456 30.4 933,632 44.1 

Choral/ Don’t listen 3,253,124 90.7 481,404 67.3 2,027,732 82.2 846,104 64.4 2,290,316 78.5 1,035,748 54.2 2,392,432 80.4 1,181,628 55.9 

Glee Like to listen 335,524 9.3 23L408 32.7 417,640 17.8 466,816 35.6 627,284 21.5 875,2811 45.8 583,520 19.6 933,632 44.1 

Reggae Don’t listen 3,544,884 98.8 685,636 95.9 2,163,256 95.9 1,269,156 96.7 2,844,660 97.5 1,677,620 87.8 2,873,836 96.6 1,852,676 87.6 

Like to listen 43,764 1.2 29,176 4.1 102,116 4.1 43,764 3.3 72,940 2.5 233,4(/8 12.2 102,116 3.4 262,584 12.4 

Opera Don’t listen 3,180,184 88.6 481,41/4 67.3 2,202,788 89.3 889,868 67.8 2,567,488 88.0 1,312,920 68.7 2,552,900 85.8 1,298,332 61.4 

Like to listen 408,464 11.4 233,408 32.7 262,584 10.7 423,052 32.2 350,112 12.0 598,108 31.3 423,052 14.2 816,928 38.6 

New Don’t listen 3,559,472 99.2 671,048 9t.9 2,392,432 97.0 1,298,~32 98.9 2,830,072 97.0 1,794,324 93.9 2,873,836 96.6 1,823,500 86.2 

Age Like to listen 29,176 0.8 43,764 6.1 72,941/ 3.0 14,588 1.1 87,528 3.0 116,704 6.1 102,116 3.4 291,760 13.8 

Rap	 Don’t listen 3,559,472 99.2 714,812 1011.0 2,450,784 99.4 1,269,156 96.7 2,873,836 118.5 1,881,852 98.5 2,844,660 95.6 1,983,968 93.8 

Like to listen 29,176 0.8 14,588 0.6 43,764 3.3 43,764 1.5 29,176 1.5 131,292 4.4 131,292 6.2 
 

TABLE B-6. Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by Age Cohort and Extent of Arts Participation (Continued) 

1931-35 1936-40 1941-45 1946-50 

None One or More None One or More None One or More None One or More 

Country/ 

Western 

Easy 

Listening 

Gospel 

Music 

Big

Band 

Blues 

Rock 

Classical 

Musicals 

Bluegrass 

Folk 

Music 

Jazz 

Soul 

Ethnic 

Music 

Latin/ 

Salsa 

Marching

Band 

Choral/ 

Glee 

Reggae 

Opera 

New 

Age 

Rap 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlistell 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Liketo listen 

Doll’tlisten 

Liketo listen 

1,021,160 35.2% 

1,881,852 64.8 

1,677,620 57.8 

1,225,392 42.2 

1,415,036 48.7 

1,487,976 51.3 

1,808,912 62.3 

1,094,100 37.7 

2,246,552 77.4 

656,460 22.6 

2,582,076 88.9 

320,936 11.1 

2,042,320 70.4 

860,692 29.6 

2,217,376 76.4 

685,636 23.6 

1,954,792 67.3 

948,220 32.7 

2,304,904 79.4 

598,108 20.6 

2,304,904 79.4 

598,108 20.6 

2,582,076 88.9 

320,936 11.1 

2,348,668 80.9 

554,344 19.1 

2,479,960 85.4 

423,052 14.6 

2,217,376 76.4 

685,636 23.6 

2,450,784 84.4 

452,228 15.6 

2,684,192 92.5 

218,820 7.5 

2,611,252 89.9 

291,760 10.1 

2,786,308 96.0 

116,704 4.0 

2,757,132 95.0 

145,880 5.0 

991,984 44.7% 

1,225,392 55.3 

641,872 28.9 

1,575,504 71.1 

1,006,572 45.4 

1,210,804 54.6 

583,520 26.3 

1,633,856 73.7 

1,137,864 51.3 

1,079,512 48.7 

1,794,324 80.9 

423,052 19.1 

729,400 32.9 

1,487,976 67.1 

962,808 43.4 

1,254,568 56.6 

1,327,508 59.9 

889,868 40.1 

1,371,272 61.8 

846,104 38.2 

1,312,920 59.2 

904,456 40.8 

1,808,912 81.6 

408,464 18.4 

1,429,624 84.5 

787,752 35.5 

1,487,976 67.1 

729,400 32.9 

1,269,156 57.2 

948,220 42.8 

1,269,156 57.2 

948,220 42.8 

1,911,028 86.2 

306,348 13.8 

],473,388 66.4 

743,988 33.6 

1,867,264 84.2 

350,112 15.8 

2,129,848 96.! 

87,528 3.9 

1,152,452 36.4% 

2,013,144 63.6 

1,940,204 61.3 

1,225,392 38.7 

1,823,500 57.6 

1,342,096 42.4 

2,144,436 67.7 

1,021,160 32.3 

2,436,196 77.0 

729,400 23.0 

2,582,076 81.6 

583,520 18.4 

2,567,488 81.1 

598,108 18.9 

2,611,252 82.5 

554,344 17.5 

2,071,496 65.4 

1,094,100 34.6 

2,713,368 85.7 

452,228 14~3 

2,596,664 82.0 

568,932 18.0 

2,757,132 87.1 

408,464 12.9 

2,582,076 81.6 

583,520 18.4 

2,771,720 87.6 

393,876 12.4 

2,582,076 81.6 

583,520 18.4 

2,903,012 91.7 

262,584 8.3 

2,961,364 93.5 

204,232 6.5 

2,946,776 93.1 

218,820 6.9 

3,063,480 96.8 

102,116 3.2 

3,048,892 96.3 

116,704 3.7 

846,104 37.7% 

1,400,448 62.3 

656,460 29.2 

1,590,092 70.8 

1,021,160 45.5 

1,225,392 54.5 

816,928 36.4 

1,429,624 63.6 

1,137,864 50.6 

1,108,688 49.4 

1,590,092 70.8 

656,460 29.2 

919,044 40.9 

1,327,508 59.1 

802,340 35.7 

1,444,212 64.3 

1,356,684 60.4 

889,868 39.6 

1,298,332 57.8 

948,220 42.2 

1,210,804 53.9 

1,035,748 46.1 

1,633,856 72.7 

612,696 27.3 

1,487,976 66.2 

758,576 33.8 

1,648,444 73.4 

598,108 26.6 

1,269,156 56.5 

977,396 43.5 

1,385,860 61.7 

860,692 38.3 

1,940,204 86.4 

306,348 13.6 

1,531,740 68.2 

714,812 31.8 

1,881,852 83.8 

364,700 16.2 

2,!15,260 94.2 

13],292 5.8 

1,152,452 33.5% 

2,290,316 66.5 

1,896,440 55.1 

1,546,328 44.9 

1,808,912 52.5 

1,633,856 47.5 

2,392,432 69.5 

1,050,336 30.5 

2,479,960 72.0 

962,808 28.0 

2,290,316 66~5 

1,152,452 33~5 

2,727,956 79.2 

714,812 20.8 

2,713,368 78.8 

729,400 21.2 

2,392,432 69.5 

1,050,336 30.5 

2,669,604 77.5 

773,164 22.5 

2,800,896 81.4 

641,872 18.6 

2,844,660 82.6 

598,108 17.4 

2,888,424 83.9 

554,344 16.1 

2,903,012 84.3 

539,756 15.7 

2,771,720 80.5 

671,048 19.5 

3,078,068 89.4 

364,700 10.6 

3,136,420 91.1 

306,348 8.9 

3,078,068 89.4 

364,700 10.6 

3,209,360 93.2 

233,408 6.8 

3,253,124 94.5 

189,644 5.5 

1,312,920 43.9% 

1,677,620 56.1 

977,396 32.7 

2,013,144 67.3 

1,706,796 57.1 

1,283,744 42.9 

1,254,568 42.0 

1,735,972 58.0 

1,269,156 42.4 

1,721,384 57.6 

1,692,208 56.6 

1,298,332 43.4 

1,254,568 42.0 

1,735,972 58.0 

1,298,332 43.4 

1,692,208 56.6 

1,721,384 57.6 

],269,156 42.4 

1,590,092 53.2 

1,400,448 46.8 

1,517,152 50.7 

1,473,388 49.3 

1,983,968 66.3 

1,006,572 33.7 

1,998,556 66.8 

991,984 33.2 

2,071,496 69.3 

919,044 30.7 

2,217,376 74.1 

773,164 25.9 

2,188,200 73.2 

802,340 26.8 

2,159,024 72.2 

831,516 27.8 

2,261,140 75.6 

729,400 24.4 

2,217,376 74.1 

773,164 25.9 

2,815,484 94.1 

175,056 5.9 

1,765,148 46.9% 

1,998,556 53.1 

2,042,320 54.3 

1,721,384 45.7 

2,582,076 68.6 

1,181,628 31.4 

2,771,720 73.6 

991,984 26.4 

2,640,428 70.2 

1,123,276 29.8 

2,086,084 55.4 

1,677,620 44.6 

2,873,836 76.4 

889,868 23.6 

3,194,772 84.9 

568,932 15.1 

2,582,076 68.6 

1,181,628 31.4 

3,005,128 79.8 

758,576 20.2 

2,844,660 75.6 

919,044 24.4 

3,078,068 81.8 

685,636 18.2 

3,194,772 84~9 

568,932 15.1 

3,282,300 87.2 

481,404 12.8 

3,326,064 88.4 

437,640 11.6 

3,501,120 93.0 

262,584 7.0 

3,296,888 87.6 

466,816 12.4 

3,559,472 94.6 

204,232 5.4 

3,471,944 92.2 

291,760 7.8 

3,544,884 94.2 

218,820 5.8 

1,648,444 43.6% 

2,129,848 56.4 

1,312,920 34.7 

2,465,372 65.3 

1,983,968 52.5 

1,794,324 47.5 

1,867,264 49.4 

1,911,028 50.6 

1,750,560 46.3 

2,027,732 53.7 

1,342,096 35.5 

2,436,196 64.5 

1,706,796 45.2 

2,071,496 54.8 

1,983,968 52.5 

1,794,324 47.5 

2,261,140 59.8 

1,517,152 40.2 

2,188,200 57.9 

1,590,092 42~1 

1,925,816 51.0 

1,852,676 49~0 

2,377,844 62.9 

1,400,448 37.1 

2,450,784 64.9 

1,327,508 35.1 

2,727,956 72.2 

1,050,336 27.8 

2,888,424 76.4 

889,868 23.6 

2,815,484 74.5 

962,808 25.5 

2,757,132 73.0 

1,021,160 27.0 

3,034,304 80.3 

743,988 19.7 

2,844,660 75.3 

933,632 24.7 

3,253,124 86.1 

525,168 13.9 
 

 

 

TABLE B-6. Percent and Number Liking Various Types of Music by Age Cohort and Extent of Arts Participation (Continued) 

1951-55 1956-60 1961~o5 1966-70 1971+ 

None One or More None One or More None One or More None One or More None One or More 

Country/ 

Western 

Easy 

Listening 

Gospel 

Music 

Big 

Band 

Blues 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

DoWt listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

kike to listen 

2,757,132 

3,005,128 

2~173,612 

3,369,828 

],808,912 

4,113,816 

1,064,924 

3,588,648 

1,590,092 

2,421,608 

53.2 2,348,668 54~9 

58.0 t,517,152 35.5 

42.0 2,757,132 64,5 

65.1 2,552,900 59.7 

~4.9 1,72],384 411.3 

79.4 2,552,900 59.7 

20.6 1,72/,384 40.3 

69 3 1,692,208 ~9.6 

30.7 2,582,076 60.4 

46.8% 1,925,616 45.1 

3,048,892 52.9 

3,267,712 56.7 

2,494,548 43.~ 

4,011,700 69.6 

1,750,560 30.4 

4,507,692 78.2 

],254,568 2],8 

3,530,296 6].3 

2,231,964 18.7 

2,713,368 47.1 

2,36~,256 49.8 2,727,956 52.2 1,808,912 47.0 1,852~676 48.5 1,269,156 43.1 

],925,616 40.6 3,165,596 60.6 1,531,740 59,8 2,509,136 65,6 1,298,352 44A 

2,815,484 59.4 2,056,908 39.4 2,319,492 60,2 1,312,920 34.4 1,648,444 55.9 

1,108,688 37.8 

2,231,964 76.1 

700,224 23.9 

2,917~600 61.5 3,719,940 71.2 2,523~724 65.5 3,034,304 79.4 2,013,144 6[53 2,465,372 84.1 

1,823~500 38.5 1,502,564 28.8 1,327~508 34.5 787,752 20.6 933,652 31.7 466,816 15.9 

2,990,540 6~.] 4,697,~36 89.9 2,392,432 62.1 3,501,120 91~6 2,100,672 71.3 2,800,896 95.5 

1,750,560 56.9 525,168 10.1 1,458,800 37~9 320,936 8.4 846,104 28.7 131,292 4.5 

1~838,088 38.8 3,457~356 66.2 1~648,444 42.8 2,684,192 70.2 1~239,980 42.I 2,159,024 73.6 

2,903,012 6].2 1,765,148 33.8 2,202,788 57.2 L137,864 29.8 1,706,796 57.9 773,164 26,4 

2,377,844 50,2 2,494,548 47.8 2,042,320 53.0 1,969,380 515% 1,677,620 56.9’7,, 1,823,500 62.2% 1,283,744 65.2% 

685,636 34.8 

977,396 49.6 

991,984 50.4 

1,385,860 70.4 

583,520 29.6 

1,619,268 82.2 

350,112 17.8 

889,868 45.2 

1,079,512 54.8 

Rock 

Classical 

Don’t listen 

Likelolisten 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

2,742,544 

2,436,196 

4,099,228 

1,079,512 

5L0 

47.0 

79.2 

20.8 

1,1571,272 521 

2,903,012 67.9 

1,998,556 46.8 

2,275,7213 5~.2 

2,727,956 47,~ 

3,034,~04 52.7 

4,682,748 81. I 

1,079,512 18.7 

1,779,736 57.5 

2,961,564 62.5 

2,304,904 48.6 

2,416,196 51.4 

2,450,784 

2,771,720 

4,784,864 

437,640 

46.9 

53.5 

91.6 

8.4 

1,108,688 28.8 

2,742,544 71.2 

2,071,496 53.8 

1,779,736 46.2 

1,590,092 41.6 

2,231,964 58.4 

3,428,180 89.7 

39L876 10.~ 

641,872 21.8 

2,504,904 78.2 

1,560,916 53.0 

1,385,860 47.0 

1,108,688 37.8 

1,823,500 62.2 

2,684,192 95.5 

247,996 8.5 

393,876 

1,575,504 

1,123,276 

846,104 

20.0 

80.0 

57.0 

43.0 

Musicals 

Bluegrass 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’tlisten 

Like to listen 

4,536,868 87.6 

641,872 12.4 

3,574,060 69.0 

1,6{74,680 31.0 

2,450,784 575 

1,823,500 42.7 

2,552,900 59.7 

1,721,384 40.3 

5,0~2,860 87.3 

729,400 12.7 

3,967,936 68.9 

1,794,324 51.1 

3,019,716 

1,721,384 

2,873,836 

1,867,264 

63.7 

36.~ 

60.6 

39.4 

4,697,136 89.9 

525,168 10.1 

4,172,168 79.9 

1,050,336 20.1 

2,611,252 67.8 

1,259,980 32.2 

2,800,896 72.7 

1,050,336 27.3 

3,457,356 90.5 

364,700 9.5 

3,253,124 85.1 

568,9~2 14.9 

2,027,732 68.8 

91(5,044 31,2 

2,348,668 79.7 

5913,108 20.3 

2,844,660 97.0 

87,528 3.0 

2,625,840 89,6 

306,348 10,4 

1,444,212 

525,168 

1,633,856 

335,524 

26.7 

83.0 

17.0 

Folk 

Music 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

4,288,872 82.8 

889,868 17.2 

3,982,524 763) 

1,196,216 23.1 

2,655,016 62.1 

1,619,268 ]7.9 

1,867,264 43.7 

2,407,020 56.~ 

4,668,160 81.0 

1,094,100 1!7.(! 

4,113,816 71.4 

1,648,444 28.6 

~,078,068 

1,663,032 

2,013,144 

2,727,956 

64.9 

~5.1 

42.5 

57.5 

4,828,628 92.5 

393,876 7.5 

3,894,996 74.6 

1,:~27,508 25.4 

2,713,368 70.5 

1,137,864 29.5 

1,677,620 43.6 

2,173,612 56.4 

3,457,356 90.5 

364,700 (~.5 

3,107,244 81.~ 

714,812 18.7 

2,436,196 82.7 

510,580 17.3 

1,487,976 505 

1,458,800 495 

2,830,072 96.5 

102,116 3.5 

2,392,432 133.6 

539,756 18.4 

1,706,796 

262,584 

1,050,336 

919,044 

86.7 

13.3 

53.3 

46.7 

Soul 

Ethnic 

Music 

Latin/ 

Salsa 

Don’l listen 

Like to listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don3 listen 

Like to listen 

4,084,640 78.9 

1,094,500 21,1 

4,536,868 87.6 

641,872 12.4 

4,4~4,752 85.6 

743,988 14.4 

2,625,840 61.4 

1,648,444 38.6 

3,063,480 71.7 

1,210,804 28.5 

5,194,772 74,7 

1,079,512 25,5 

4,303,460 74.7 

1,458,800 25.3 

4,784,864 8L0 

977,396 17.0 

4,668,160 81.0 

1,094,100 19.0 

2,786,308 588 

1,954,792 41.2 

5,267,712 689 

1,473,388 31.1 

1,501,120 75.8 

1,239,980 26,2 

3,967,936 76.0 

1,254,568 24.0 

4,711,924 90.2 

510,580 9.8 

4,361,812 83.5 

860,692 16.5 

2,436,196 6].3 

1,415,0~6 36.7 

2,888,424 75.0 

962,808 25.0 

2,917,600 75.8 

935,632 24.2 

3,005,128 78.6 

816,928 21.4 

3,511,476 86.6 

510,580 13.4 

3,~H,476 86.6 

510,580 11.4 

1,677,620 56.9 

1,269,156 43.1 

2,231,964 75.7 

714,[312 24,3 

2,450,784 81.2 

495,992 16.8 

2,173,612 74.1 

758,576 25.9 

2,494,548 85.1 

437,640 14,9 

2,567,488 87.6 

564,700 12.4 

1,167,040 

802,340 

1,663,032 

306,348 

1,692,208 

277,172 

59.3 

40.7 

84.4 

15.6 

85.9 

141 

Marching 

Band 

Choral/ 

Glee 

Don’t listen 

Like to listen 

Don3 listen 

Eike to [~sten 

4,65L572 89,9 

525,168 101 

4,872,392 941 

106,548 59 

1,384,416 79.2 

889,[368 208 

U~76,176 86X) 

598,108 14,0 

5,222,504 90.6 

559,756 9.4 

5,139,208 92.7 

423,052 7.13 

4,115,816 86.8 

627,284 13.2 

4,084,640 [16.2 

656,460 1L8 

4,857,804 93.0 

364,700 7.0 

5,091,212 975 

1H,292 2.5 

3,501,120 90.9 

350, H2 9.1 

1,442,768 /194 

408,464 10.6 

5,6(13,2~6 94.3 

218,820 5.7 

1,705,152 969 

116,704 3,1 

2,625,840 89.1 

520,936 1(!.9 

2,669,604 9(/6 

277,172 9,4 

2,830,072 96,5 

1(!2,116 5.5 

2,871,856 98.(I 

58,352 2,0 

1,692,208 

277,172 

1,808,912 

160,468 

85.9 

14.1 

91.9 

8.1 

Re~ae Don’t listen 

~ike to listen 

4,46L928 862 

714,812 15/t 

2,875,836 67.2 

1,400,448 32.8 

4,799,452 83.1 

%2,808 167 

3,06L480 646 

1,677,620 354 

4,449,340 85.2 

773,164 14.8 

2,407,020 62.5 

1,444,212 ;37.5 

~,107,244 81.3 

714,852 115.7 

1,825,500 6].9 

1,123,276 38.1 

2,251,964 76.1 

700,224 2L9 

9(14,456 

1,064,924 

45.9 

541 

Opera Don3 ligt~n 

Like to liste~ 4,959,920 218,820 

958 

42 

3,617,824 

656,460 

84 6 

154 

5,499,676 

262,584 

95.4 

4.6 

4,{155,464 

685,636 

85.5 

14.5 

5,091,212 

1H,292 

97.5 

2.5 

L399,(104 

452,228 

88.! 

11.7 

L734,528 

137,528 

97.7 

2.3 

2,698,780 

247,996 

91.6 

8.4 

2,903,012 

29,176 99.0 1.0 

1,779,7~6

189,644 

90.4 

9.6 

New 

Age 

Rap 

Don’t listen 

Like m listen 

Don’t listen 

Like to liste~ 

4,609,808 

568,932 

4,q01,568 

277,172 

890 

11.0 

94.6 

5.4 

5,092,656 

1,181,628 

5,765,704 

510,580 

72.4 

27.6 

881 

11,9 

5,076,624 

685,656 

5,222,504 

539,756 

88.1 

11.9 

90.6 

9,4 

3,413,592 

1,327,508 

4,099,228 

641,872 

72.0 

28.0 

86.5 

I 1,5 

4,551,456 

671,048 

4,463,928 

758,576 

/17.2 

12.8 

85.5 

14,5 

2,742,544 

1,108,688 

1,165,596 

685,656 

71.2 

2/I.8 

[12.2 

17.8 

5,209,360 

612,696 

1,092,656 

729,400 

84.0 

16.0 

80.9 

191 

1,852,676 

1,094,100 

2,129,848 

[116,921t 

62.9 

37.1 

72.~ 

27.7 

2,465,372 

466,816 

1,838,088 

1,094,100 

84.1 

15.9 

62.7 

37.1 

1,283,744 

685,656 

1,108,688 

860,692 

65.2 

34.8 

56.3 

43.7 
Notes
 

1.	 This section is taken from Robinson’s NEA Report No. 27, Arts Participation in 

America: 1982-1992. For more information on the survey methodology and 

questionnaire used, see this report. 

2.	 "Significance" generally refers to the differences between numbers. "Substantive 

significance" refers to a difference between numbers that is judged to be important in their consequences. Since questions of substantive importance are generally left to the reader, "significant" here more often refers to "statistical" significance, and when the term "significance" without the protection of an adjective 

is used, it means statistical significance. Statistical significance is measured mathematically and shows how many times in sampling a population a hundred times 

one would find two measures as different as the two being compared. "Significance at the .05 level" means that numbers as different as those being observed 

would occur by chance in 5 of 100 samples of a population. "Significance at the 

.001 level" means that numbers as different as those being observed would occur 

by chance in 1 in 100 samples of a population. So that the reader can make an 

independent judgment, the significance levels are often presented in the tables, 

but when the word "significant" is used in the text, it means the numbers are statistically different from each other at the .05 level of confidence at least. This is 

the conventionally accepted level of confidence, though there are instances 

where a higher or lower level of confidence is appropriate. 

3. Standardized estimates are interpreted as effects of a standard deviation change 

in an independent variable on the participation scale, measured in terms of standard deviation increases or decreases in the dependent variable (the participation 

scale). Because of the requirements of the regression statistic, the independent 

variables which represent categories are compared to an omitted category; for instance, females are compared to males, blacks and nonwhites are compared to 

Anglos, 17- to 26- and 27- to 36-year-olds are compared to 37- to 46-year-olds. 

4. See Paul DiMaggio and Francie Ostrower, Race, Ethnicity, and Participation in
 

the Arts, 1992, for more details on nonwhite arts participation.
 

5. Classical music and opera are selected because they are the most likely art forms 

to be presented by radio; musicals and plays are not. Ballet music is sometimes 

aired on radio but only as a part of the mix of classical music. Jazz, of course, is 

often presented by radio and on records, but it is not analyzed here because its 

audience is robust and young, so the issue of the media substitution of radio for 

live performance among older cohorts is of less concern. 

6. The NEA budget increased by ten times between 1970 and 1985; those of state 

and local arts agencies tripled. Corporate and foundation funding increased in 

like amounts, as did the number of people employed, directly or indirectly, in 

134 
Notes I 135 

the arts. For documentation of these facts, see Cherbo (1992) and Langley & 

Abruzzo (1986). 

7. See Landon Y. Jones, Great ExDectatians, 1980, and Wanda Urganska, The Singular Generation: Young Americans in the 1980s, 1986. 

8. See Francine Klagsbrun, Mixed Feelings: Love, Hate, Rivalry and Reconciliation
 

Among Brothers and Sisters, 1992.
 

9. See Andrew Hacker, U.S.: A Statistical Portrait of the American People, 1983, 

243. 

10. See Philip S. Ennis, The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rock-n-Roll in American Popular Music, 1993. 

11. See Barbara Y. Newsom and Adele Z. Silver, Art Museum as Educator: A Collection of Studies as Guides to Practice and Policy, 1978. 

12. Baby boomers may be going to commercial art galleries more than they go to 

museums, just as they may go to commercial music venues rather than to nonprofit presenters of classical music. However, given the wording of the SPPA 

questions, there is no way to determine if this is the case. 

13. A study of tourism in the New York metropolitan area, for example, demonstrated that over 40 percent of international tourists attended art museums and 

galleries during their visit, while barely 30 percent attended performing arts 

events. 

14.	 NEA Division Note #40 indicates that in the 1970s the number of professional 

artists, as derived from census occupational data, increased over 47 percent. In 

the 1980s it increased by another 54 percent. Numerically, the total number of 

artists rose from 736,960 in 1970, to 1,085,693 in 1980, and to 1,617,278 in 

1990, by which year they comprised 1.37 percent of the total civilian labor force 

(NEA, 1993). These figures do not include the managerial and other personnel 

employed by arts organizations, as discussed by Langley and Abruzzo (1986). 

15. See Hacker, U.S.: A Statistical Portrait. 

16. See Katherine S. Newman, Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American 

Dream, 1993. 

17. Bourdieu’s (1984) perspective has been applied to American arts audiences by 

DiMaggio and Useem (1978). For a different version of the relation of social 

class and artistic taste, see Gans (1985). 

18. Judith H. Balfe, "The Baby-boom Generation: Lost Patrons, Lost Audience?" in 

The Cost of Culture: Patterns and Prospects of Private Art Patronage (Wyszomirski 

and Clubb, 1989: 9-26). 

19. See James Heilbrun, Journal of Cultural Economics, 1993, 89-90. 
Bibliography 

Andreasen, Alan R. (1990). Expanding the Audience for the Performing Arts. 

Research Division Report No. 24. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts. 

Balfe, Judith H. (1989). "The Baby-boom Generation: Lost Patrons, Lost 

Audience?" In The Cost of Culture: Patterns and Prospects of Private Art Patronage. Margaret J. Wyszomirski and Pat Clubb, eds. New York: American Council of the Arts. 

Bourdieu, Pierre. (1984). Distinction: A Sacial Critique of the Judgement of 

Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Cherbo, Joni M. (1992). "A Department of Cultural Resources: A Perspective 

on the Arts." Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, 22 (1): 44-63. 

DiMaggio, Paul and Francie Ostrower. (1992). Race, Ethnicity, and Participation in theArts. Research Division Report No. 25. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts. 

DiMaggio, Paul and Michael Useem. (1978). "Social Class and Art Consumption." Theory and Society, Vol. 5: 141-161. 

Ennis, Philip S. (1993). The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rock-n-Roll in 

American Popular Music. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press of 

New England. 

Esterlin, Richard A. (1987). Birth and Fortune, 2d ed. Chicago, IL: 

University of Chicago Press. 

Gans, Herbert. (1985). "American Popular Culture and High Culture in a 

Changing Class Structure." In Art Ideology &Politics. Judith H. Balfe and 

Margaret J. Wyszomirski, eds. New York: Praeger, 40-58. 

Hacker, Andrew. (1983). U.S.: A Statistical Portrait of the American People. 

New York: Viking Books. 

136 
Bibliography I 137 

Heilbrun, James. (1993). "Innovation in Art, Innovation in Technology, and 

the Future of the High Arts." Journal of Cultural Economics, 17(1): 

89-98. 

Jones, Landon Y. (1980). Great Expectations. New York: Random House. 

Klagsbrun, Francine. (1992). Mixed Feelings: Love, Hate, Rivalry and Reconciliation Among Brothers and Sisters. New York: Bantam Books. 

Langley, Stephen and James Abruzzo. (1986). Jobs in Arts andMedia Management." What They Are and How to Get One! New York: Drama Book Publishers. 

NEA, (1993). Division Note #40. Washington, DC: National Endowment 

for the Arts. 

Newman, Katherine S. (1993). Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream. New York: Basic Books. 

Newsom, Barbara Y. and Adele Z. Silver, eds. (1978). Art Museum as Educator: A Collection of Studies as Guides to Practice and Policy. Berkeley, 

CA: University of California Press. 

Peterson, Richard A. (1992). "The Battle for Classical Music in the Air." In 

Paying the Piper: Causes and Consequences of Arts. Judith H. Balfe, ed. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press: 271-286. 

Port Authority of New York. (1994). Tourism and the Arts in the New 

York/New Jersey Region, Part II. New York: Port Authority of New York, 

Alliance for the Arts, New York City Partnership and the New Jersey 

Partnership. 

Robinson, John. (1993). Arts Participation in America: 1982-1992. Research 

Division Report No. 27. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the 

Arts. 

Urbanska, Wanda. (1986). The Singular Generation: Young Americans in the 

1980s. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 

Zeigler, Joseph W. (1994). Arts in Crisis: The National Endowment for the Arts 

versus America. New York: A Cappella Books. 
About the Authors 

Part I: 

Richard A. Peterson is a Professor of Sociology at Vanderbilt University. He 

has written widely on the production and consumption of culture. Among 

other topics, these works focus on types of music ranging from jazz and classical music to country music and disco. Peterson was the Founding Chair of 

the Culture Section of the American Sociological Association. He has consulted with National Public Radio and the National Endowment for the Humanities since the 1970s. While at the Endowment in 1980, he helped to formulate the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts. More recently he helped 

to construct the "Culture Module" for the General Social Survey of the National Science Foundation. 

Darren E. Sherkat is Assistant Professor of Sociology and Religious Studies at 

Vanderbilt University. His research focuses on cultural consumption, and 

most of his previous substantive work deals with religious affiliation and attendance. His work on quantitative methods explores new ways of analyzing 

binary and polytomous choices. Sherkat is a consulting editor for American 

Journal of Sociology, and his recent articles appear in the American Sociological 

Review, Social Forces, Social Science Research, and other journals. 

Part II: 

Judith Huggins Balfe is Associate Professor of Sociology at the City University 

of New York, College of Staten Island and Graduate Center. She has edited 

and contributed to three books on the sociology of the arts, most recently, 

Paying the Piper: Causes and Consequences of Art Patronage (University of Illinois Press, 1993) and published many articles in the field. She has three times 

chaired or co-chaired the International Conference on Social Theory, Politics 

and the Arts, and serves as Executive Editor of The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society. 

Rolf Meyersohn retired last year as Professor of Sociology at Lehman College 

and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. He has written 

extensively on the sociology of leisure, cultural studies, popular culture, mass 

communication and, most recently, the sociology of music. He coedited Mass 

138 
About the Authors I 139 

Leisure, Die Soziologie der Freizeit and the 14-volume Literary Taste, Culture 

and Mass Communication. For his 1990 study "Culture in the Bronx: Minority Participation in the Arts" (in Pankratz and Morris, The Future of the Arts), 

he adapted questions from the 1982 and 1985 SPPA. He is currently engaged 

in a survey of the users and non-users of New York City’s Central Park, as well 

as an examination of the sociological strains in Theodor Adorono’s musical 

writings in the 1920s. 

Editor: 

Erin Lehman is a research coordinator in the Psychology Department of 

Harvard University. She holds a bachelor’s degree in economics from Wellesley 

College and joined the staff of Harvard in 1986. Erin was the primary field 

researcher for the U.S. and U.K. portions of the cross-national study of 

"Leadership and Mobility in Symphony Orchestras." She has authored several 

papers based on this comparative research and is working towards her doctorate in organizational psychology at City University, London, with a focus 

on exploring alternative organizational models such as the London Symphony 

Orchestra and the Colorado Symphony Orchestra. 
Other Reports on Arts Participation 

The most recent nationwide survey of arts participation was conducted in 

1992. The following publications report on various aspects of the 1992 

Survey of Public Participation in the Arts. 

Public Participation in the Arts: 1982 and 1992, Research Division Note #50. 

A 10-page summary comparing the results of the 1982 and 1992 surveys. 

Arts Participation in America: 1982-1992, Research Division Report #27. A 

more detailed discussion (100 pp) of the 1982 and 1992 surveys. 

Research Division Notes #51, #52, and #55 provide brief summaries of data 

on demographic information for the live broadcast and recorded media audiences and on regional and metropolitan audiences. Division notes and Report 

#27 are available from The Research Division, National Endowment for the 

Arts, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20506. 

The Research Division of the Arts Endowment has been studying trends in 

the size and characteristics of arts audiences for two decades. A complete description of the Division’s work in this area through the most recent nationwide study, Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, 1992, is contained in A 

Practical Guide to Arts Participation Research, Research Division Report #30. 

This report is available through the National Assembly of Local Arts Agencies, 

927 15th Street, NW, 12th Floor, Washington, DC 20005, (202) 371-2830. 

The Division has also funded fifteen monographs that analyzed various aspects of the 1992 and 1982 surveys. Each of these documents, which are listed 

below, are being deposited in the Educational Research Information Center 

(ERIC) system to facilitate distribution. 

Age Factors in Arts Participation, Richard A. Peterson and Darren E. Sherkat 

American Dance 1992: Who’s Watching? Who’s Dancing? Jack Lemon/Jack 

Faucett Associates 

140 
Other Reports on Arts Participation I 141 

American Participation in Opera and Musical Theater--1992, Joni Maya 

Cherbo and Monnie Peters 

American Participation in Theater, Chris Shrum/AMS Planning and Research 

Americans’ Personal Participation in the Arts, Monnie Peters and Joni Maya 

Cherbo 

Arts Participation and Race/Ethnicity, Jeffrey Love and Bramble C. Klipple 

Arts Participation by the Baby Boomers, Judith Huggins Balfe and Roll Meyersohn 

Cross-Over Patterns in Arts Participation, Richard J. Orend and Carol Keegan 

Education and Arts Participation: A Study of Arts Socialization and Current ArtsRelated Activities, Richard J. Orend and Carol Keegan 

The Effects of Education and Arts Education on Adult Participation in the Arty. 

An Analysis of the 1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, Louis 

Bergonzi and Julia Smith 

Hold the Funeral March: The State of Classical Music Appreciation in the U. S., 

Nicholas Zill 

Jazz in America: Who’s Listening? Scott DeVeaux 

Patterns of Multiple Arts Participation, Jeffrey Love 

Reading in the 1990s: Turning a Page or Closing the Books? Nicholas Zill 

Tuning in and Turning On: Public Participation in the Arts via Media in the 

United States, Charles M. Gray 

Seven of these have been condensed and published by Seven Locks Press as the 

following: 

Research Division Report #31: Jazz in America: Who’s Listening? Scott 

DeVeaux 
Other Reports on Arts Participation I 142 

Research Division Report #32: American Participation in Opera and Musical 

Theater, 1992, Joni Maya Cherbo and Monnie Peters 

Research Division Report #33: Turning On and Tuning In: Media Participation in the Arts, Charles M. Gray 

Research Division Report #34: Age and Arts Participation with a Focus on the 

Baby Boom Cohort, Richard A. Peterson, Darren E. Sherkat, Judith Huggins Balfe, and Rolf Meyersohn 

Research Division Report #35: American Participation in Theater, AMS Planning & Research Corp. 

Research Division Report #36: Effects of Arts Education on Participation in the 

Arts, Louis Bergonzi and Julia Smith 
NATIONAL 

ISBN 0-929765-45-~,
 ENDOWMENT
 

FOR THE ARTS
 

Seven Locks Press 

Santa Ana, California