Space

Operations

Air Force Doctrine Document 2-2

23 August 1998
OPR: HQ AFDC/DR (Maj Jonathan C. Hines, USAF)

Certified by: HQ AFDC/CC Maj Gen Ronald E. Keys, USAF

Pages: 41

Distribution: F

Approved by: MICHAEL E. RYAN, General, USAF

Chief of Staff

BY ORDER OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE

AIR FORCE DOCTRINE DOCUMENT 2-2

 23 AUGUST 1998
FOREWORD

The United States is the world’s foremost aerospace power, and

our space forces are essential elements of that power. Space systems

and capabilities enhance the precision, lethality, survivability, and agility

of all operations – air, land, sea, and special operations. Space operations

are key elements in achieving global awareness and maintaining information superiority. Space assets contribute significantly to overall aerospace superiority and support the full spectrum of military actions in

theaters of operations.

The United States Air Force is an aerospace force comprised of

both air and space systems and the people who employ and support these systems. Space Operations doctrine defines space’s attributes

and its contribution to aerospace power. This document provides employment concepts that integrate space capabilities into theater campaigns.

Space Operations describes a command structure for responsive space force

operations. As a keystone doctrine document, it underscores the seamless integration of space into the total aerospace effort.

MICHAEL E. RYAN

General, USAF

Chief of Staff

23 August 1998
ii
iii

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. v

CHAPTER ONE—Foundation of Space Power ................................. 1

General .............................................................................................. 1

Space Characteristics ......................................................................... 1

Space Systems .................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER TWO—Command of Space Forces .................................. 5

Unity of Command ............................................................................ 5

Service Component Assets ................................................................ 5

Assets Not Assigned to a Service Component ................................... 6

CHAPTER THREE—Space Force Operations .................................. 7

General .............................................................................................. 7

Space Control..................................................................................... 8

Offensive Counterspace ................................................................ 8

Defensive Counterspace............................................................... 10

Contributing Capabilities ............................................................. 10

Application of Force ......................................................................... 11

Enhancing Operations ...................................................................... 11

Supporting Space Forces .................................................................. 12

Spacelift ....................................................................................... 12

Satellite Operations ..................................................................... 13

CHAPTER FOUR—Attributes of Space Power .............................. 15

General ............................................................................................ 15

Global Coverage ............................................................................... 15

Flexibility ......................................................................................... 16

Economy .......................................................................................... 16

Effectiveness .................................................................................... 17

Robustness ....................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER FIVE—Space Employment Concepts ............................ 21

Role of Military Space Power ............................................................ 21

Peacetime, Deterrence, and Military Operations

Other than War ................................................................................. 21

Escalation Control ........................................................................... 22

Space Operations Support During Conflict ..................................... 22

Information Superiority .................................................................. 23

Posthostilities ................................................................................... 24
iv

CHAPTER SIX—Space Power for the Theater Campaign ............ 25

Space Operations Integration .......................................................... 25

Counterspace Planning Factors ....................................................... 25

Theater Planning and Operations Support ...................................... 25

Peacetime Planning ......................................................................... 26

Crisis and Wartime Space Operations.............................................. 27

APPENDIX A—Notional Space Power Capabilities ...................... 28

Suggested Readings ........................................................................... 30

Glossary ............................................................................................... 31
v

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

This Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) highlights specific principles and doctrine for space operations. It provides doctrine for the Air

Force to organize, train, equip, and operate space forces.

APPLICATION

This document applies to all Air Force agencies, including the Air National Guard, Air Force Reserve, and civilian personnel employed by the

Air Force. The doctrine in this document is authoritative but not directive. Commanders should exercise judgment when applying this doctrine

to accomplish their missions.

SCOPE

This doctrine expands upon basic Air Force beliefs and operating principles found in AFDD 1 and AFDD 2 and specifically relates those tenets

of aerospace power to space operations.
Aerospace — Past to Present

Early use of the medium of air focused on reconnaissance and an

airplane’s ability to provide a broader perspective of the battle area to commanders.

Air intelligence proved crucial to the outcome of the first battle of the Marne, early

in World War I. Information supplied by

air reconnaissance about German troop

movements and location allowed French

commanders to maneuver their troops and

engage the enemy. The resulting battle

halted the German army advance short of Paris and helped to prevent a swift

German victory. During World War I and the interwar years, airpower grew

from reconnaissance support to become a crucial ingredient for success in

the modern warfare of World War II.

Space, a further extension of the medium of air, now provides an improved

theater and global perspective of the

world for today’s leaders. Also, like early

airplane use, early space development

focused on reconnaissance and intelligence. Today, space systems are maturing from the equivalent of the biplane

in World War I, to becoming a fully integrated part of our aerospace capability. This integrated aerospace medium

is truly the ultimate high ground of

today’s military.
1

The air ocean and its endless outer space extension are one and

indivisible . . .

Alexander P. de Seversky

CHAPTER ONE

FOUNDATION OF SPACE POWER

GENERAL

The aerospace medium can be most fully exploited when considered as a whole. Although there are physical differences between the

atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them.

The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit

with different platforms and methods. Therefore, space operations

are an integral part of aerospace power. Space power is the capability

to employ space forces to achieve national security objectives. Used effectively, space power enhances America’s opportunities to succeed across

the broad range of military operations. Space power is derived from the

exploitation of the space environment by a variety of space systems. A

key element of space power is the people who operate, maintain, or support these systems. Space affords a commanding view of operations and

provides an important military advantage. At the level of basic aerospace

doctrine, the principles that govern aerospace operations are the same for

air and space.

SPACE CHARACTERISTICS

While the Air Force believes that space and air are a seamless

continuum, the space environment has different characteristics from

the air environment. The characteristics of space are sufficiently

different from air that a complete understanding of both is required

to leverage their contributions. Space-based forces operate in accordance with the laws of astrodynamics, while air forces operate in accordance with the laws of aerodynamics. Although there is no international

agreement regarding the specific boundary between air and space, terrestrial-based forces generally operate below an altitude of roughly 100 kilometers; whereas, space-based forces operate above this altitude where

the effects of lift and drag are negligible. Space-based forces operate in a
2

harsh environment characterized

by high-energy particles and fluctuating magnetic fields and temperatures. Air forces operate in the

Earth’s atmosphere, with its temperature, moisture, wind, precipitation, and pressure differences. Airmen must understand both environments as they create an integrated

aerospace operation.

SPACE SYSTEMS

Space systems consist of three

elements: space, terrestrial, and

link. The space element consists

of the platforms for which

astrodynamics is the primary principle governing movement. Examples include satellites, space stations, or the space shuttle. The terrestrial-based element consists of

the land, sea, or airborne equipment used to communicate with

and control the space element. The

terrestrial-based element also includes the personnel required to operate and maintain equipment. Examples of the terrestrial-based element include ground stations,

shipborne space communication

nodes, or airborne space communications systems. The link element is the communication between the space element and the

terrestrial-based element. Examples of the link element include

data link signals. All three elements can be key factors in military operations.

Space and terrestrial-based forces complement each other. Used

properly, space forces are a significant force multiplier for terrestrial-based

Slow Down to Speed Up

I

t sounds odd, but it is true

for a satellite in orbit. How

quickly a satellite circles the

Earth is determined only by its

altitude—high altitude circuits

take longer to complete than low

ones. Any attempt to “speed up”

a satellite by applying more

thrust will only push the spacecraft out to a higher orbit, thus

increasing the orbital period (the

time it takes to circumnavigate

the globe).

To shorten the orbital period,

the satellite must be allowed to

fall into a lower orbit which requires braking (usually by firing a propulsion motor in the direction of flight). Satellites in

low Earth orbit will complete

more frequent revolutions

around the Earth but cannot “linger” over any particular point.

To cause a satellite to appear to

stand still when seen from the

Earth requires pushing the craft

out to Geostationary Earth Orbit—a geosynchronous orbit

22,300 miles directly above the

equator (a difficult proposition

in terms of fuel costs).

Satellites that orbit at that altitude but are not directly above

the equator will appear to make

figure eights from center lines

over the equator. The 24-hour

orbital period of any geosynchronous orbit corresponds

precisely with the time it takes

the Earth to rotate once on its

axis.
3

forces. In addition to supporting terrestrial operations, many military functions previously performed by terrestrial forces may be accomplished by

space forces. In some cases, space may be the focus of operations and

may be supported by complementary terrestrial-based forces. As space

and air forces are fully integrated into a total aerospace force, future space

assets may not be only a force multiplier but may be the force of decision

itself.
4

Military Strategic and Tactical Relay System (MILSTAR)

The development of communication satellites has revolutionized

civilian and military communication capabilities over the last 25 years

by providing rapid global information transfer. Maintaining freedom

of use of these assets by US forces and denying communication

capabilities to an adversary are critical to military operations.
5

CHAPTER TWO

COMMAND OF SPACE FORCES

UNITY OF COMMAND

Centralized control and decentralized execution are essential to

the successful and optimal use of aerospace power. Since space forces’

effects and contributions are global in nature and include critical

national assets, they are tasked and assigned from a global perspective. Theater commanders do not have actual physical control of the satellite, its control systems, or ground control nodes. However, in a regional conflict, theater commanders have control over accurate and timely

products from space and normally have tactical control over space component equipment and its application in the area of responsibility (AOR).

SERVICE COMPONENT ASSETS

United States Space Command (USSPACECOM) is the unified command exercising control authority over Service space command

components. Within USSPACECOM, the Fourteenth Air Force (14

AF) commander is the Air Force

component commander designated to manage, integrate, and

direct Air Force space forces. The

14 AF commander provides space

support to theater forces as required

or when requested. Currently, theater support teams augment the

joint force air component

commander’s (JFACC) staff to provide space expertise to support planning and execution of air and space

taskings or missions. As the Air

Force moves to more integrated

Limited Assets Require

Centralized Control

Aerospace power requires centralized control and decentralized execution in order to

maximize the impact of valuable

but limited resources across

theaterwide requirements. Space

power, as an integral part of

aerospace power, likewise requires a centralized command

and control approach to insure

it can fulfill both its global and

theater requirements and maximize its benefits.

Nothing is more important in war than unity in command

Napoleon Bonaparte
6

aerospace operations, reliance on theater support teams will diminish as

space specialists are assigned to permanent duty on numbered air force

staffs.

ASSETS NOT ASSIGNED TO A SERVICE COMPONENT

Assets not assigned to a Service component provide an increasing portion of the space systems capabilities available to the theater

commander. These assets include, but are not limited to, US national systems, leased commercial assets, or multinational force assets. They are closely

linked to the air campaign planning and execution process for situational

awareness and battlespace preparation. Command and control of these

assets seldom follow the standard combatant command (command authority), operational control, or tactical control rules. To obtain the widest

range of benefits available from these assets requires flexibility and innovation on the part of the commander.
7

When blows are planned, whoever contrives them with the greatest

appreciation of their consequences will have a great advantage.

Frederick the Great

CHAPTER THREE

SPACE FORCE OPERATIONS

GENERAL

Within the DOD, the Air Force is in the forefront of space operations. The Air Force provides essential support and expertise for

space activities to other military departments and the civil sector.

Air Force space operations are based on the core competencies and missions outlined in Air Force Doctrine Document 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine.

Space force operations focus on controlling the space environment, applying force, conducting enabling and supporting operations for terrestrialbased forces, and supporting space forces.

Gaining air and space superiority is a primary goal of a military

campaign and must be achieved early to ensure freedom of action.

Like air superiority, space superiority helps to provide the freedom to conduct

operations without interference from an adversary. Hostile powers must not be

permitted to freely use space systems against US national interests. The US

cannot permit an adversary access to precision navigation signals, instantaneous communications between leadership and subordinate echelons,

situational awareness, accurate weather data, or a host of other services

that are, or will be, available from space. In future conflicts the US may

have to fight for space superiority.

Adversaries may have imaging and other space systems capable of

monitoring operations and the ability to adversely affect US systems.

American military leaders cannot afford to have enemy commanders

monitor friendly force activities, locate critical command nodes, identify

maneuver elements as they deploy for combat, or witness the debarkation of forces and supplies. This information would substantially facilitate

an adversary’s war planning and execution, which could result in casualties for friendly forces.
8

SPACE CONTROL

Space control is the means by which space superiority is gained

and maintained to assure friendly forces can use the space environment while denying its use to the enemy. To accomplish this, space

forces must survey space, protect the ability to use space, prevent adversaries from exploiting US or allied space services, and negate the ability

for adversaries to exploit their space forces. Counterspace is the mission

carried out to achieve space control objectives by gaining and maintaining

control of activities conducted in or through the space environment.

Counterspace involves activities conducted by land, sea, air, space, information and/or special operations forces. Counterspace includes offensive

and defensive operations.

Offensive Counterspace

Offensive counterspace operations destroy or neutralize an

adversary’s space systems or the information they provide at a time

and place of our choosing through attacks on the space, terrestrial,

or link elements of space systems. The principal means of conducting

offensive counterspace operations is through the use of terrestrial-based forces

such as air attacks against space system ground nodes or supporting infrastructure. As the use of and investment in space increases, protecting resources

is critical. Because such protection introduces the possibility of Earth-tospace, space-to-space, and space-to-Earth operations, it is in the national

interest to be prepared to develop the capability to support multipurpose

operations in the space medium and employ such systems as national

policy dictates.

Offensive counterspace operations use lethal or nonlethal means

to achieve five major purposes: deception, disruption, denial, degradation, and destruction of space assets or capabilities.

J Deception consists of those measures designed to mislead the adversary by

manipulation, distortion, or falsification of evidence to induce the adversary

to react in a manner prejudicial to their interests.

J Disruption is the temporary impairment of the utility of space systems,

usually without physical damage to the space segments. These operations

include delaying critical mission data support to an adversary. Given

the perishability of information required to effectively command and

control military operations, this disruption impedes the effective appli-
9

cation or exploitation of that data. Examples of this type of operation

include jamming or refusing or withholding data support or spare parts.

J Denial is the temporary elimination of the utility of the space systems, usually without physical damage. This objective is accomplished by such

measures as denying electrical power to the space ground nodes or

computer centers where data and information are processed and stored.

J Degradation is the permanent impairment of the utility of space systems,

usually with physical damage. This option may include attacks against

the terrestrial or space element of the space system. For example, a

ground-based laser could be used to damage the optics of an imaging

sensor without impairing other functions of the satellite bus.

J Destruction is the permanent elimination of the utility of space systems,

usually with physical damage. This last option includes special operations forces (SOF) missions to interdict critical ground nodes, airpower

Global Positioning System (GPS) Satellite

The GPS constellation allows forces to navigate anywhere in the world.

By using this system in the Gulf War, US troops were able to operate

effectively in the trackless desert. The precision navigation capability

of GPS greatly enhances military operations throughout the spectrum

of operations.
10

missions to bomb uplink/downlink facilities, and attacks against space

elements with either kinetic-kill or directed-energy weapons.

Defensive Counterspace

Defensive counterspace operations consist of active and passive

actions to protect US space-related capabilities from enemy attack

or interference.

J The objective of active defense is to detect, track, identify, intercept, and

destroy or neutralize enemy space and missile forces. Active defense operations include maneuvering the spacecraft, deploying mobile ground

links and terrestrial-based elements, and deploying decoys. It may also

include the employment of lethal protection methods.

J The objectives of passive defense are to reduce the vulnerabilities and to

protect and increase the survivability of friendly space forces and the information they provide. Passive defense includes measures such as encryption, frequency hopping, and hardening. Space systems are also

defended by camouflage, concealment, deception, redundancy, mobility, and dispersion.

Contributing Capabilities

Three capabilities are critical to the successful conduct of offensive and

defensive counterspace operations: surveillance and reconnaissance of

space, ballistic missile warnings, and understanding how the space environment may affect systems operating through or in space.

J Surveillance and Reconnaissance of Space. Surveillance and reconnaissance of space detect and identify space systems and help characterize the space threat environment. Space surveillance (broad area

coverage) provides information vital to the reconnaissance (close scrutiny) of an area or objects of specific interest. Space surveillance identifies alterations in the space environment, such as changes in the

order of battle and deployment or retirement of space systems. Information derived from both surveillance and reconnaissance data allows

planners to identify where force application or space control is required.

This support is necessary for targeting and situational awareness and

directly supports the counterspace mission as well as the terrestrial

conflict.

J Ballistic Missile Warning. Space-based systems and terrestrial-based

sensors detect, track, and report on ballistic missile launches posing
11

potential threats against North America, geographic theaters of operation, and space-based assets. Ballistic missile warning provides critical

information essential to the NCA decision process in determining an

appropriate response to attack. Additionally, ballistic missile warning

enhances the JFACC’s counterair operations when conducting theater

ballistic missile defense.

J Space Environment Operations. The space environment impacts

systems operating through or in the space environment. Knowledge of

the space environment helps warfighters avoid operations during times

when space environment disturbances degrade space-based information; helps communicators choose the best frequencies, antenna angles,

and transmission schedules; and allows spacecraft operators advanced

notice of effects which may impact satellite and surveillance operations.

APPLICATION OF FORCE

The application of force would consist of attacks against terrestrial-based targets carried out by military weapon systems operating in space. Currently, there are no force application assets operating in

space, but technology and national policy could change so that force application missions could be performed from platforms operating in space. For example, space systems such as the space-based laser could provide spacebased attacks against terrestrial-based targets and provide timely suppression of enemy defenses to improve the penetration effectiveness of air

assets. Space-based weapon systems that deliver this firepower may rely

on other space-based systems for target acquisition, command and control, navigation, mid-course corrections, and terminal guidance. In addition to space-based systems, transatmospheric vehicles could also provide firepower to support future force application missions. Such space

systems will be used when it is consistent with national policy and

they are the best methods to achieve the military objective.

ENHANCING OPERATIONS

Force enhancement operations consist of those operations conducted from space with the objective of enabling or supporting terrestrial-based forces. Navigation, communications, reconnaissance, surveillance, ballistic missile warning, and environmental sensing help reduce uncertainty and friction at all three levels of war—strategic, operational, and tactical. Enabling and supporting space operations increase a force’s ability to

detect, plan, and react faster than an adversary. Force enhancement must
12

include consideration of civil, commercial, and allied space support that

can augment DOD space systems. These enhancements consist of data,

data relay, analysis, or other enabling capabilities. Appendix A depicts

notional space operations and support that enhance the lethality, precision, agility, and survivability of combat forces.

SUPPORTING SPACE FORCES

Space force support is carried out by terrestrial-based elements of

military space forces to sustain, surge, and reconstitute elements of

a military space system or capability. These activities deploy, sustain, or

augment on-orbit spacecraft, direct missions, and support other government or

civil organizations. Space force support involves spacelift and satellite operations.

Spacelift

Spacelift provides the Air Force with the ability to project power

by delivering satellites, payloads, and material into or through space.

The Air Force uses a combination of military, DOD civilian, and civilian contractor personnel to process, integrate, assemble, check out, and launch space

vehicles. Civil and commercial contributions further expand the number

of launch sites available to spacelift. During periods of increased tension

or conflict, a spacelift objective is to launch and deploy new or replacement space assets and capabilities as necessary to achieve national security objectives. Air Force spacelift operations are conducted to deploy, sustain, or augment satellite constellations supporting US military operations.

J Launch to deploy is a strategy defined as a launch, or series of launches,

required to initially achieve a satellite system’s designed operational

capability. This includes initial constellation deployments and research

and development launches. This strategy uses a launch-on-schedule

approach where launches are planned in advance and executed in accordance with the current launch schedule.

J Launch to sustain is a strategy to replace satellites predicted to fail or

that fail abruptly.

J Launch to augment is a strategy to increase operational capability

above the designed operational capability in response to war, crisis, or

contingency. This strategy is considered in conjunction with other systems that may provide similar capabilities.
13

Regardless of the launch strategy employed, planners must consider current satellite capabilities,

residual assets possessing degraded utility, and reconstituted

capabilities. Incorporating all of

these capabilities helps ensure

adequate force structure is

available to satisfy operational

requirements. The quality and

capability of civil, commercial, and allied systems

which augment military operations are a key determinant in the launch strategy

adopted.

Satellite Operations

The Air Force Satellite

Control Network (AFSCN)

provides a means to maneuver, support, and sustain onorbit forces. The AFSCN is a

worldwide network of single-system and multiple-system facilities and sensors

which provides telemetry, tracking, and commanding (TT&C) support, conducts network processes, and distributes mission data for virtually all DOD and

US civilian spacecraft and selected foreign space programs. AFSCN satellite

support generally falls into three categories: 1) low-orbit vehicles which

require high levels of support; 2) medium-altitude vehicles which may

require support only once every other revolution; 3) high-altitude vehicles

which, depending on satellite requirements, need minutes to hours of

support every day. The AFSCN also supports ballistic missile warning

and suborbital test launches.

Delta II Rocket

This system launches civil and

commercial payloads into low-earth,

polar, geotransfer and geosynchronous

orbits.
14
15

CHAPTER FOUR

ATTRIBUTES OF SPACE POWER

GENERAL

The Air Force is unique in its ability to capitalize on the contributions

of space systems by being able to integrate and respond with rapid mobility and firepower to the near-real-time information afforded by systems

operating in space. The systems that operate in space offer several useful

attributes.

GLOBAL COVERAGE

Space-based systems in appropriate orbital deployments provide

worldwide coverage and frequent access to specific Earth locations,

including those denied to terrestrial-based forces, on a recurring

basis. Unconstrained by political boundaries, satellites deployed in specific

orbits and in sufficient numbers maintain a continuous presence over enemy

territory. For example, three surveillance satellites in geostationary orbit

provide surveillance of almost the entire Earth’s surface. Twenty-four navigation satellites placed in semisynchronous orbit enable terrestrial-based

forces anywhere on the Earth to be within line of sight of the necessary

three satellites to obtain three dimensional precision navigation. Space

systems provide an instantaneous presence not available from terrestrial-based

forces, permitting the United States to leverage information to influence, deter,

or compel an adversary or affect a situation. The use of multiple space

platforms allows warfighters to exploit the various sensors, resulting in a

synergistic battlespace perspective that reduces the fog of war. Although

space systems provide global coverage, some can be focused to provide information on specific areas of interest, which can improve situational awareness and planning tempo and can enable information dominance for all

friendly military forces. By exploiting comprehensive space capabilities,

space forces can focus on and provide detailed services for a specific geographic area and support regional planning requirements. The attribute

of global coverage offers significant advantage to Air Force battle manageToday, the ultimate high ground is space.

General Joseph W. Ashy
16

Defense Support Program (DSP)

 satellite

DSP has provided global missile warning

coverage for the United States since the

early 1970s and was a key warning

system for Scud missile launches during

the Gulf War.

ment. Properly positioned

in sufficient numbers,

space-based systems could

provide a global capability for much of the information currently provided

by airborne platforms

such as the joint surveillance, target attack radar

system (JSTARS) and the

Airborne Warning and

Control System (AWACS).

FLEXIBILITY

Space systems provide flexibility in

meeting requirements

for timely, accurate,

and reliable space-derived information,

data products, and services. For example,

today’s satellite systems

perform continuous tasks such as navigation, communications, and surveillance. Operationally, they can adapt to new situations through onorbit, real-time reprogramming. Modifying terrestrial processing operations and modifying replacement satellites being readied for sustainment

launches provide further flexibility options. The Air Force has concluded

that in the near future, autonomous space system operations, from peace through

all levels of conflict, will be cost-effective, operationally responsive, and less

complicated. For the more distant future, uninhabited transatmospheric vehicles may provide additional flexibility in performing complex missions.

ECONOMY

Despite the large initial investments in hardware and lift, over time

some functions are performed more economically from space. For example, global communications are generally more economical when operated from space. Similarly, global weather forecasting would require

numerous ground-based or aerially deployed weather sensors around the

world if weather data were not available from space.
17

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)

The DMSP is used for collecting weather data for US military operations

and has served in this capacity for more than two decades in support

of both peacetime and wartime planning and targeting requirements.

EFFECTIVENESS

Some activities such as wide area surveillance are more effective

when they are conducted from space. Additionally, the absence of atmosphere and attenuation provides an optimum operating medium for future directed energy weapons such as lasers and particle beams that travel at the

speed of light with great range. Absence of atmospheric drag also enables

objects to obtain high velocities that provide tremendous kinetic energy,

which could be used, for space-to-space weapons. The ability to initially

obtain high velocities prior to encountering atmospheric drag also allows

for high kinetic energy space-to-Earth weapons. The use of space in the

future as an actual war-fighting medium will provide unlimited range,

rapid deployability, and unprecedented accuracy in addition to superior

situational awareness. Space enhances the simultaneous employment

of both dominant maneuver and precision engagement operational

concepts by either supporting terrestrial-based operations or providing an opportunity for independent asymmetric employment of

forces.
18

Figure 4.1. Space Surveillance Network (SSN)

The SSN has been tracking space objects since 1957 when the Soviets

opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the

SSN has tracked more than 24,500 space objects orbiting Earth. Of

that number, the SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 orbiting objects.

The rest have re-entered Earths turbulent atmosphere and

disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The space

objects now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons

to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven

percent of the space objects are operational satellites, the rest are

debris. USSPACECOM is primarily interested in the active satellites,

but also tracks space debris. The SSN tracks space objects which are

10 centimeters in diameter (baseball size) or larger.

ROBUSTNESS

Functions accomplished by space-based and terrestrial-based systems, using both air and space assets, provide mutual backup and

complicate hostile attempts to neutralize our overall military capability. However, an adversary’s ability to conduct counterspace missions precludes the space medium from being a sanctuary for our

space systems. The current threat against our space systems focuses
19

on attacks against the terrestrial and link elements of a space system. Emerging threats to the space element of our space systems

include direct ascent anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons, ground-based

lasers, space mines, electronic warfare, exoatmospheric nuclear

bursts, and cyberattack. Therefore, the defense of our space systems is

critical to sustain space operations and maintain redundancy among terrestrial and space systems.
20
21

CHAPTER FIVE

SPACE EMPLOYMENT CONCEPTS

ROLE OF MILITARY SPACE POWER

As an integral element of national capabilities, space systems influence operations throughout the conflict spectrum. Space supports

Service, joint, and multinational operations across the range of military operations, from peacetime engagement to general war. Space forces contribute at all

levels of military activity—strategic, operational, and tactical. They give our

national leaders the presence and war-fighting options needed for power

projection. Space forces develop, operate, and maintain mission capability through spacelift, satellite operations, utilization of space systems,

and the exploitation of space-derived information. The national security

space program collects information critical to America’s national security.

Additional support for military operations can be gained through prudent

planning for and use of civil, commercial, and allied space systems.

PEACETIME, DETERRENCE, AND MILITARY

OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR

Space forces provide arms control verification data, indications

and warning, attack warning of air or ballistic missile strikes on the

United States and its allies, surveillance and reconnaissance of space

systems controlled by adversaries, and critical command and control communications. Space forces play a significant part in our ability

to characterize threats and identify an adversary’s strengths, weaknesses,

and vulnerabilities for our national leaders to use in diplomatic, political,

and economic efforts. Data and information derived from space forces are

often critical decision-making elements that can provide global situational

Airmen throughout the world have learned that the capability to

control the air above the earth’s surface permits freedom of

movement on the land and seas beneath. As we progress into space,

I feel sure that our capability to control space will assure freedom

of movement on the earth and through the earth’s atmosphere.

General Thomas D. White
22

awareness and diplomatic advantage and can permit the United States to

respond effectively to evolving crises. Military operations other than war

(MOOTW) can be applied to complement any combination of the other

instruments of national power. Space forces directly support military and

civil leaders performing all sixteen representative types of MOOTW described

in joint doctrine. Employment of space forces must be responsive to meet

the needs of these leaders and the needs of other military and civil agencies performing both combat and noncombat MOOTW.

ESCALATION CONTROL

As crises escalate, space systems provide data and objective information that can help our leaders accurately appraise the situation

and implement appropriate diplomatic, economic, and military

measures to defuse or respond to the crisis. Our use of military forces

and capabilities as national power elements permits us to take effective actions

prior to war that reflect our resolve to support friends, allies, and national

objectives and interests. During MOOTW, space forces are employed to shift

the balance of power in a regional crisis to deter war, resolve conflict, or

promote peace. Timely intelligence data could be provided to one or both

sides in a potential conflict area to reduce tensions. If these efforts fail,

space forces directly support the deployment, employment, and redeployment

of military forces and the conduct of combat operations.

SPACE OPERATIONS SUPPORT DURING CONFLICT

In the future, the US may not have the opportunity for extended mobilization of military forces in preparation for war; therefore, space support

for military forces involved in regional crises and conflicts will initially be accomplished using currently deployed space forces. Additional space forces will be integrated into the theater commensurate with the requirements of the theater commander and available

assets. The ability of space forces to collect, process, and disseminate

timely strategic, operational, and tactical information on the enemy’s forces

is essential to expeditionary forces who must fight effectively in potentially unfamiliar terrain against an unfamiliar enemy. Conversely, allowing an enemy access to information on US force deployments, order of

battle, movements, and logistics may jeopardize our ability to stage and

deploy forces and to successfully execute our military strategy.
23

Cuban Missile Crisis

This photo, taken on November 10, 1962, was President Kennedy’s favorite of all those taken during the Cuban missile crisis. Clearly shown are

Soviet-built SA–2 surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) in place at launch sites.

These defensive missiles protected offensive weapons sites and posed a

serious threat to US reconnaissance aircraft. A copy of this portion of the

strip photo was mounted in the President’s office. Viewed with a stereoscopic projector, the features have a three-dimensional effect. The pattern

of dots surrounding several launch sites are actually camouflage nets which

were intended to conceal the equipment positioned beneath them, but

which the strip camera rendered ineffective.

During the crisis, the intelligence data supplied to decision makers was

crucial. Objective data from various sources allowed the President to begin diplomatic efforts immediately. The administration took actions that

clearly showed US resolve, which the Soviets were able to verify through

their own means. The information provided before, during, and after the

crisis was critical to the peaceful outcome.

INFORMATION SUPERIORITY

The ability to control an enemy’s information can be decisive in

military operations. This means integrated information superiority becomes

a prerequisite strategic objective for future combat. It will focus on asymmetric warfare where our forces will possess a greater understanding of the

strengths, weaknesses, interdependencies, and centers of gravity of an
24

adversary’s military, political, social, and economic infrastructure than

the adversary has of our own sources of national power.

Failure to attain information superiority early in the crisis or

conflict could mean the difference between success or failure of

diplomatic initiatives, crisis resolution or war, and the ability to

maintain the element of surprise during military operations. Therefore, the ability of our integrated aerospace forces to attain information

superiority widens the gap between friendly actions and adversary reactions and allows friendly commanders to manage the adversary’s decision cycle by controlling and manipulating the information available to

them. This asymmetric warfare, based on an information advantage,

coupled with dynamic battle control methods, permits our forces to redirect actions in real time to blunt or destroy adversary offensive military

operations before they can reach our forces. This approach can be decisive

in modern combat, save lives, and exploit America’s advantage in technology

and tactical operations.

POSTHOSTILITIES

Postconflict actions include the period in which nations return to a

peaceful state and reestablish legitimate governance over their people.

During military operations, critical civil infrastructure such as communications systems and navigation aids may be destroyed. Space systems

can provide these critical services while indigenous communications systems, navigation aids, and other systems are rebuilt. Space systems may

provide the only means to conduct these activities in the posthostilities

phase.
25

DESERT STORM...was a watershed event in military space

applications because for the first time, space systems were both

integral to the conflict and critical to the outcome of the war.

General Thomas S. Moorman, Jr.

CHAPTER SIX

SPACE POWER FOR THE THEATER

CAMPAIGN

SPACE OPERATIONS INTEGRATION

Commanders must integrate and optimize all available space forces

to effectively employ aerospace power. Aerospace operations use terrestrial-based and space-based assets to gain air and space and information superiority to support the theater CINC’s campaign objectives. Full

spectrum dominance, space control, and force enhancement tasks critical

to theater planning are highlighted in Appendix A.

COUNTERSPACE PLANNING FACTORS

The theater CINC can direct the employment of air, land, sea, space,

and special operations forces against the adversary’s space forces by

targeting enemy terrestrial space and link elements. Adversary space

forces to be targeted include data links, launch sites, booster storage facilities,

communications links, TT&C nodes, satellites, and launch vehicles. The theater CINC’s ultimate target is the adversary’s access to space services,

which will be neutralized by whatever means is most effective. These

targets are coordinated with all elements of the joint campaign plan to

ensure control of the activities conducted in space.

THEATER PLANNING AND OPERATIONS SUPPORT

Theater planners need to understand the enabling and supporting capabilities that reside in space forces. They must ensure their requirements are clearly identified so space forces can be effectively, efficiently,

and coherently focused on theater planning and integrated into mission execution. Planners may require access to national system information and

other space-related data.
26

2d Space Warning Squadron (2 SWS)

The 2d Space Warning Squadron at Buckley Air National Guard Base,

Aurora, Colorado, is assigned to the 21st Space Wing, Peterson Air

Force Base, Colorado .  The 2d SWS ground station processes Defense

Support Program Data and controls Defense Support Program

satellites in Earths orbit vital to USSPACECOMs space support mission.

PEACETIME PLANNING

In peacetime, planners ensure that when a crisis erupts in any theater,

forces are fully prepared to use all space systems efficiently. Space systems

should be used to full advantage and tailored to the unique situation in that

theater. Planners ensure sufficient and appropriate user equipment is available to provide access to space capabilities and to support the full range of

military operations. Appendix A depicts notional space capabilities that

should be considered for operation plans (OPLAN). Through an aggressive cross-flow program, space personnel are integrated in staff positions

within the unified command staffs and their components. Individuals with

national and military space expertise provide the knowledge to obtain,

employ, and exploit space power. Combining the knowledge of aerospace

power experts helps to ensure aerospace power is interoperable and properly integrated for the JFC.
27

At the very Heart of Warfare lies doctrine...

CRISIS AND WARTIME SPACE OPERATIONS

Air Force Space Support Teams (AFSSTs) deploy to support regional planning staffs when requested. They provide space power expertise to assist in

planning and execution functions while providing additional liaison channels

between USCINCSPACE and the theater CINCs. Normally, AFSSTs work

through the JFACC to provide space support. Unified theater support teams

provide an interface to coordinate the employment and exploitation of

space forces with other elements of the JFC’s overall campaign plan and

are assigned to the JFC’s staff. As the Air Force moves to more integrated

aerospace operations, reliance on theater support teams will diminish as

space specialists are assigned to permanent duty on numbered air force

staffs.
28

Provide a spaceorder of battleDetect attack andprovide warningto space forcesDefend againstattack againstspace forcesDetect, report,and track ballisticmissile launchesDisrupt, deny,degrade, anddestroyadversary spacesurveillancecapabilitiesDeny adversaryaccess to US/allied spacesystems

Detect artificialdisturbances (e.g.,buried facilities,constructionsites, etc.)Locate presurveyed missilelaunch locationsProvide route andtarget informationfor missionplanningDetectcamouflage(artificial softdisturbances)Assess enemymovements,operations

Provide commonnavigation gridProvide commontiming referenceProvide position,location, velocityfor weaponaccuracy, andingress andegressProvide position,location, time fornavigation, andsilent rendezvouscoordination

Provide data forradiation falloutpatterns, intensity,and aerosoldispersionProvide wind andcloud temperature,and atmosphericmoisture data inenemy area forweapon selectionMonitorionosphericdisturbances andweatherconditions whichaffect C4IProvide weatherdata over routeand target

Prto cePrindePrto PrsucoPrto Prininco

Space Control Enhancing Operations

Surveillance/ Environmental 

Reconnaissance Navigation Sensing C

Appendix A Notional Space Power Capab
29

Deceive, disrupt,deny, degrade,or destroy spaceplatforms,payloads,sensors, links,launch facilities,satellite control,or informationdistributioncenters asrequired byCINCsDeploy decoys,on-orbit spares,and residualcapabilities asrequired tosupport militaryoperations

Provide warningof hostile acts andreconnaissanceagainst US assetsDetect, track,assess, andreport airbreathing threatsDetect, assess,and report nucleardetonations

Provide soilmoisture, locationof ice floes,precipitation,temperature, andsnow cover datafor trafficabilityProvidemultispectralimagery data formaps andanalysisMonitor solarwind andmagnetic fieldsDetermine whenscintillation of UScommunicationsystems mightoccur

PrinfdaPrsitawlocinffoPrfo

 Space Control Enhancing Operations

Surveillance/ Environmental 

Reconnaissance Navigation Sensing C

Appendix A cont. Notional Space Power Capab
30

SUGGESTED READINGS

Daniel Goure, & Christopher M. Szara, Air and Space Power in the New

Millennium (Center for Strategic and International Studies), 1997.

Michael J. Muelo, & (ed) Richard Hand, Bonnie Houchen, Lou Larson,

Jeff Walters, Space Handbook (Air University Press), 1993.

David Lupton, On Space Warfare (Air University Press), 1988.

Michael H. Gorn, Harnessing the Genie, Science and Technology Forecasting

for the Air Force 1944-1986 (Office of Air Force History), 1988.

Mark C. Cleary, The Cape: Military Space Operations, 1971–1992 (45th Space

Wing, History Office), 1994.

Joan Johnson-Freese, and Roger Handberg, Space, the Dormant Frontier:

Changing the Paradigm for the 21st Century (Praeger), 1997.

Michael R. Mantz, The New Sword: A Theory of Space Combat Power (Air

University Press), 1995.

Curtis Peebles, High Frontier: The U.S. Air Force and the Military Space

Program (Air Force History and Museums Program), 1997.

Bob Preston, Plowshares and Power: The Military Use of Civil Space (National Defense University Press), 1994.

Peter Hayes, Space Power Interests (Westview Press), 1996.

David N. Spires, Beyond Horizons: A Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership (Air Force Space Command), 1997.

United Nations, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space: text

and status of treaties and principles governing the activities of states in the

exploration and use of outer space, adopted by the United Nations General

Assembly (Office for Outer Space Affairs, United Nations), 1994.
31

GLOSSARY

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AFDD Air Force Doctrine Document

AFSCN Air Force Satellite Control Network

AFSST Air Force Space Support Team

AOR area of responsibility

ASAT anti-satellite

AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System

CINC commander of a combatant command; commander

in chief

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DOD Department of Defense

DSP Defense Support Program

JFACC joint force air component commander

JFC joint force commander

JSTARS joint surveillance, target attack radar system

MILSTAR military strategic and tactical relay system

MOOTW military operations other than war

NCA National Command Authorities

OPLAN operation plan

SOF special operations forces

SSN space surveillance network

SWS space warning squadron

TT&C telemetry, tracking, and commanding

US United States

USCINCSPACE Commander in Chief, United States Space Command

USSPACECOM United States Space Command

Definitions

associated space infrastructure—The equipment and personnel required

to acquire, field, and sustain space forces.

link element—The electromagnetic energy used to convey data and information between the space element and the terrestrial element.
32

space element—A platform in which astrodynamics is the primary principle governing its movement through its environment.

space power—The capability to exploit civil, commercial, intelligence,

and national security space systems and associated infrastructure to support national security strategy and national objectives from peacetime

through combat operations.

space system—A system with a major functional component which operates in the space environment or which, by convention, is so designated.

It usually includes a space element, a link element, and a terrestrial

element.

terrestrial-based element—The land-, sea-, or air-based equipment and

personnel used to receive, transmit, and process data from, or to control,

the space element of a space system.

Headquarters Air Force Doctrine C

Maxwell AFB, Alabama

1998