Wildlife Habitat Management Institute 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Wildlife 

October 2002 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 24 

C. Rewa 

Conservation buffer practices such as field borders provide valuable habitat for wildlife as well as beneficial insects. 

General Information 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ideally combines 

biological and cultural controls with limited pesticide use 

to keep pest populations below economically damaging 

levels, prevent future pest problems, and minimize the 

harmful effects of pesticides on humans and natural 

resources, including wildlife. Practitioners of IPM can 

reduce pest damage and economic loss by recognizing 

and using natural controls such as weather conditions, 

pest diseases and predators, pest life cycles, and modified 

agricultural practices. 

Pest elimination is typically not a goal of IPM, however, 

prevention of crop damage is an integral component. If 

and when pesticides are used, they are used at lower 

application rates and lower toxicities in combination with 

other control methods. IPM can increase profits in the 

long run by reducing chemical pest control costs, 

reducing environmental and human health risks 

associated with pesticide use, improving soil health and 

productivity, and increasing revenues from land leased 

for recreational use. Although generally associated with 

cropland, IPM is implemented by a variety of private 

landowners and managers including farmers, ranchers, 

foresters, homeowners, and groundskeepers. 

This leaflet provides an introduction to the use of IPM 

on agricultural lands and general guidance on integrating 

fish and wildlife considerations into IPM plans. The 

role of wildlife as an agent of integrated pest 

management is also introduced. Landowners and 

mangers should be familiar with proper use of and 

restrictions on pesticides and requirements for pesticide 

applicators. Landowners and managers should also be 

familiar with state and federally listed rare, threatened, 

and endangered plant and animal species in their area 

to ensure their consideration and protection. 

IPM and wildlife 

Beneficial insects, birds, and mammals are natural 

enemies of many crop pests and can play an important 

role in IPM. Landowners and managers spend a 

considerable amount of time and money to control pest 

populations where natural pest inhibitors are lacking. 

Modified farming techniques, increased crop diversity, 

and use of cover crops and conservation buffers can 

increase food and cover on croplands for many species, 

including those beneficial in controlling pest populations. 

S. Bauer, USDA ARS 

Lady beetle adults and larvae prey on aphids, mites, and 

other pest insects. 
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Terms and Definitions Associated with IPM 

Pest 

� An organism, plant or animal, which is undesirable or is detrimental to the interests of humans and capable of 

causing injury or damage. 

� Major pest types include insects and other arthropods, nematodes, pathogens, vertebrates, and weeds. 

Pesticides 

� Chemical compounds used to control individuals or populations of pests. 

� Herbicides are pesticides used to control undesirable vegetation, such as weeds or invasive woody plants. 

� Insecticides are used to control undesirable insects on plants or on/in the soil. 

� Fungicides are used to control fungus growth and spore dispersal. 

� Individuals applying pesticides must comply with federal and state laws and regulations. 

Resistance 

� Genetically inherited ability of organisms to evolve strains that can survive exposure to pesticides formerly 

lethal to earlier generations. 

Resurgence 

� Occurs when insecticide application initially reduces an infestation, but soon afterwards the pest rebounds 

(resurges) to higher levels than those before treatment. 

Economic Injury Level (EIL) 

� This is the economic break even point where the cost of pest damage equals the cost of control. 

Economic/action Threshold Level 

� Population level at which control measures are needed to prevent pest populations from reaching economic 

injury levels; action threshold is lower than EIL to allow for control measures to take affect before the pest 

population reaches the EIL levels. 

IPM incorporates the flowering patterns of native plants 

and crops and the life history and movements of 

beneficial insects and wildlife. 

IPM limits pesticide use, which affects non-target 

species such as beneficial insects and wildlife. Estimates 

of wild birds killed in the United States every year by 

exposure to legally-applied pesticides range in the tens 

of millions. Aquatic invertebrates, fish, amphibians, 

mammals, and others are also at risk. Insects are a 

major vehicle for pollination in orchards and vineyards, 

but their populations decrease after pesticide misuse. 

Herbicides can reduce or eliminate potential wildlife food 

and cover plants. Use of insecticides can reduce 

beneficial invertebrate populations that help control pests 

and are important food sources to many wildlife species. 

By using insecticides to address pest problems only 

where other measures fail to achieve the desired level 

of control, IPM seeks to minimize the negative effects 

of pesticide use on wildlife and other natural resources. 

IPM Strategies 

IPM follows a sequence: pest identification, scouting, 

management treatments, and post-treatment monitoring. 

Together, these actions form the key to IPM, which is 

long-term pest prevention. Preventing pest problems 

is the most effective and efficient pest control method. 

Prevention contributes to the long-term protection and 

productivity of crops, as well as wildlife habitat and other 

natural resources. Local extension agents can help 

landowners and managers develop a scouting schedule, 

correctly identify pests and symptoms, and determine 

economic thresholds and management actions. 

Cooperative relationships and information sharing 

between adjacent crop growers can further reduce pest 

problems. 

Texas A&M Department of Entomology 

Greenbugs are aphids that feed on sorghum. Lady beetles 

are natural predators of greenbugs and can help keep their 

populations from reaching economically damaging levels. 

2
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Pest Identification 

Pest identification is an important component of IPM. 

Whether pests are insects, vertebrates, diseases or 

weeds, landowners and managers should be familiar 

with pests associated with their crops. Landowners 

and managers should be able to recognize seasonal 

conditions that favor pests, potential hosts, and signs of 

pest damage. Local extension agents may be able to 

assist in pest identification. 

Scouting 

Scouting is used to monitor pest densities. Landowners 

can use scouting data to determine the pest population 

size and correct method for controlling pests before the 

economic threshold is reached. Scouting tools include: 

10x hand lens for viewing insects, larvae, or eggs; 

notebook and pen for recording notes; sweep net or 

other device for catching insects on the wing; and a vial 

or other closed container for insect samples. Regular, 

systematic sampling is crucial to estimate pest 

populations and prevent future outbreaks. Notes should 

be taken during each scouting run, and permanent 

records kept to track trends. During weekly scouting 

trips, each crop should be sampled for pests. 

Landowners and managers should take samples from 

the field interior, not just around the field border. Record 

the crop stage and condition, the date and time of day, 

moisture conditions, the number and type of pests, and 

other insects or wildlife observed. Also note nearby 

buildings, vegetation, buffers, water sources, or other 

features that might serve as overwintering or migrating 

grounds for pests, beneficial insects, and wildlife. Collect 

samples of pests and other insects that cannot be 

positively identified, as well as samples of plant materials. 

Management Treatments and Their Effects on 

Habitat 

Whenever possible, landowners and managers should 

avoid disturbing high-use wildlife areas, especially during 

the breeding and nesting season (March-July). Many 

ground-nesting birds, small mammals, and reptiles and 

amphibians may use croplands and ground cover crops 

for breeding and raising young. When possible, avoid 

treating frequently used foraging areas. Woody draws, 

riparian vegetation, wetlands, native grasslands, and 

other sensitive habitats should be preserved. 

Ring-necked pheasants can benefit from a variety of cultural pest control practices. However, mechanical treatments should be avoided from March-July to protect these 

and other ground-nesting birds and their eggs and young. 

Cultural control 

Cultural controls can help create, maintain, and enhance 

habitats that harbor beneficial insects and wildlife. 

Cultural controls generally target some weak point in 

the pest’s life cycle through physical or genetic 

treatments. Physical controls modify the growing 

environment to help control pest populations. Some 

physical controls are actual barriers, such as buffers, 

hedgerows, or windbreaks, that help prevent pests from 

entering cropfields and serve as habitat for beneficial 

insects and wildlife. 

Crop rotation is a physical control mechanism that can 

significantly reduce pest populations, especially those 

USDA 

Conservation tillage practices leave at least 30% residue 

cover, which helps reduce erosion and provide winter cover 

for wildlife inhabiting cropfields and surrounding areas. 

3
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

that are crop-specific or overwinter on site. In order 

for crop rotation to be effective, the alternate host crop 

must be unacceptable to the pest. For example, corn 

rootworm populations are reduced or eliminated by 

rotating from corn to just about any other crop. Rotating 

crops to native grasses or legumes, small grain cover 

crops, and winter cover crops can provide food and 

cover for some wildlife species while disrupting the corn 

rootworm life cycle and reducing their numbers. 

Landowners and managers should avoid continuous crop 

monocultures, which can increase reliance on pesticides 

and reduce soil fertility. In some cases, adjusting planting 

or harvesting dates is an effective control method. For 

example, early alfalfa harvest dates can help reduce 

alfalfa weevil populations by eliminating their 

overwintering source (alfalfa stalks). 

USDA 

Crop residue can provide winter cover for birds and small 

mammals. Snow trapped in the stubble creates pockets of 

space used by small mammals in winter. Trapped snow 

also adds ground moisture in the spring for new plant 

growth. 

Table 1. Cultural controls and their application in Integrated Pest Management*. 

Cultural control Application in IPM Advantages/disadvantages 

Crop rotation Cultivated area that alternates between 

different kinds of crops to reduce cropspecific pest populations and improve 

soil health, tilth, and increase crop vigor. cycles of some pests, especially if pests are 

Planting the same crops year after year can 

lead to a buildup of crop pests and reduced 

soil fertility. Crop rotation breaks the life 

crop-specific or over-winter on-site. Rotation 

can significantly reduce pesticide use. Not all 

crops in a rotation are equally profitable. 

Tillage Practice of cultivating soil to prepare a 

seedbed or control weeds. 

Can significantly reduce herbicide use. 

Moving soil increases erosion; exposes weed 

seeds on soil surface, which encourages new 

weed growth. 

Conservation tillage All-encompassing term for minimum 

tillage, no-tillage, and other farming 

practices that reduce or eliminate 

plowing; newly planted crops protected After many years, no-till can result in soil 

by at least 30% residue cover. 

Enhances soil and water conditions by 

reducing erosion. Can improve wildlife habitat, 

especially cover for many wildlife species. 

compaction unless cut below soil surface. 

Relies heavily on herbicides. 

Sanitation Cleaning or sterilizing equipment or 

materials used in pest-infested fields to 

help reduce the spread of pests to 

other crops. 

Spraying or cleaning contaminated equipment 

can help reduce the spread of fungi, diseases, 

and weed seeds to noninfested crops. 

Sanitation also includes removing trash from 

waterways and removing heavy vegetation 

from around buildings and structures. 

Exclusion Actual barriers used to prevent pests 

from entering fields. 

Fences, both aboveground and underground 

are used to prevent vertebrate pests from 

entering fields. Other types of barriers include 

certified disease-free and weed-free seeds. 

Prescribed burning Fire set deliberately by management to 

achieve a particular management 

objective. A fire plan must be approved 

and/or meet legal requirements. 

Clears residual materials that may harbor overwintering pests and helps control woody or 

undesirable vegetation. Smoke may be a 

problem in more urban areas. 

*The cultural controls listed are most effective when used in combination and with biological controls to 

reduce pesticide use and improve long-term crop and soil health. 

4 
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Tillage is the primary cultural control method, and is 

particularly effective when used in combination with 

spot herbicide treatments. However, tillage can increase 

soil erosion and if conducted during the breeding season, 

can destroy eggs, young, and adult ground-nesting birds 

and other wildlife. 

Conservation tillage practices reduce or eliminate 

plowing, and newly planted croplands are protected by 

at least 30 percent residue cover. Crop stubble can 

provide winter cover for wildlife by creating space in 

snow trapped against the stubble. These snowdrifts 

also increase soil moisture for spring planting. Over 

time, conservation tillage can also improve soil and water 

quality by increasing organic matter, reducing soil erosion 

and pesticide runoff, and increasing soil clumping, which 

promotes root establishment. 

Other cultural controls like mowing, disking, sanitation, 

and increased row spacing (to increase airflow and 

reduce dampness) can be used in various combinations 

to control pest populations. Genetic controls use 

resistant plant strains to help prevent pest outbreaks. 

Weed- or disease-free certified seeds can be planted to 

help reduce herbicide and fungicide use. Table 1 

describes some commonly used cultural controls that 

when combined and integrated with biological controls 

and limited pesticide use, typically improve wildlife habitat 

and long-term crop and soil health on agricultural lands. 

Biological control 

Predators, parasitoids, and pathogens are the three main 

agents of biological control. Common predators include 

insects, birds, and bats and other mammals. Parasitoids 

are typically tiny wasps that lay eggs on insect hosts. 

The wasp larvae then feed on and kill the hosts. 

Parasitoids are not dangerous to humans, livestock, or 

poultry. Pathogens are selective organisms that cause 

disease and include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and 

nematodes. 

Biological control agents, particularly predators, need 

suitable habitat near or adjacent to crops. There are 

several habitat management practices that landowners 

and managers can implement that create, maintain, or 

enhance habitat for beneficial species. Agroforestry, a 

combination of agriculture and forestry, is a land use 

system that retains or introduces a mix of trees and 

other woody perennials in crop and animal production 

systems to take advantage of economic and ecological 

Windbreaks, 

posed of conifers, deciduous trees, and 

shrubs, provide food 

and cover for wildlife 

and beneficial insects 

and can act as pest barriers between adjacent 

crop fields. 

cominteractions, providing habitat for beneficial animals and 

other wildlife. Some agroforestry practices include: 

� Windbreaks — multiple rows of trees and 

shrubs planted and managed to protect farmsteads or incorporated as part of crop or livestock operations to enhance production. 

� Alley cropping— growing food, forage, or other 

crops between rows of planted trees or shrubs. 

� Riparian forest buffers— Natural or re-established forests along waterways comprised of 

trees, shrubs, and grasses designed to filter nonpoint source pollution from adjacent croplands. 

Agroforestry and other habitat enhancing practices 

often benefit wildlife that use edge habitats. 

Establishment of non-native or woody plants in areas 

Big-eyed bugs (top) are

important predators in

many crop systems in

North America, particularly in cotton.

They feed on eggs and

Jack Kelly Clark University of California, Davis larvae of bollworm

(bottom), pink bollworm, tobacco budworm, and other pests. 

Big-eyed bugs also prey 

on whiteflies, mites, and 

aphids. 

Texas A&M University Department of Entomology 

5
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

of native prairie grassland is generally not 

recommended. Many grassland wildlife populations, 

especially birds, are rapidly declining; introduction of 

woody vegetation to native grasslands may accelerate 

this decline. 

When maintaining or enhancing habitat for beneficial 

species, there are treatments that improve habitat quality. 

As a general rule, the wider the windbreak or buffer, 

the more beneficial it is for wildlife. Choose native 

trees, shrubs, grasses, and legumes for planting 

conservation buffers and ground cover crops that best 

support beneficial species without harming crop growth. 

Fruit- and seed-producing vegetation provides a rich 

food source for many wildlife species. Diverse, vertical 

vegetation structure provides for various nesting, 

roosting, and foraging needs. Snags should be preserved 

when possible for cavity-nesting birds and small 

mammals. Leaving a vegetated buffer strip between 

crops and high-use wildlife areas can be beneficial to 

insects and animals during tillage operations and 

chemical treatments. Windbreaks and other conservation 

buffers should connect habitat patches on the landscape 

where possible. 

Beneficial insects— predators and parasitoids 

Introducing beneficial insects can be expensive, and 

there is no guarantee that beneficial species will stay in 

a particular field, especially if suitable habitat is not 

available. Perhaps the best way to integrate beneficial 

insects into an IPM plan is to ensure that habitat 

Galerucella calmeriensis 

(top) and G. pusilla are European beetles introduced 

in 1992 to North America 

to control purple loosestrife (bottom), an exotic 

weed that chokes our naB. Blossey Cornell University tive vegetation in North 

American wetlands, 

greatly decreasing wildlife habitat value. 

J. Dykinga, USDA ARS 

Green lacewing larvae prey on aphids, spider mites, small 

caterpillars, and the eggs of leafhoppers, leafminers, moths, 

and other pests. 

attractive to these animals is available near crop fields 

in need of protection. Field borders and other 

conservation buffer practices containing a diversity of 

native vegetation is one way to provide this habitat near 

and between crop fields. Beneficial insects and other 

arthropods include predators and parasitoids. 

Predators feed on the eggs, larvae and adults of insect 

pests. Beetles, mites, and spiders are common 

predators. Lady beetle larvae feed on aphids and the 

eggs of other pest insects. Green lacewings consume 

aphids, mites, and other pests. Predatory mites consume 

spider mites. Damsel bugs, big-eyed bugs, mantids, 

minute pirate bugs, assassin bugs and others are 

important pest predators in various seasons. 

S. Long Cornell University 

Muscidifurax raptor is an important parasitoid of house 

flies, stable flies, and other fly species. 

B. Blossey Cornell University 

6
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Parasitoids are insects that attack and lay eggs inside 

the pupa case of another species. After hatching, the 

parasitoid larva consumes the host pupa before emerging 

as an adult. Encarsia spp., Muscidifurax raptor, 

Nasonia vitripennis, and Spalangia cameroni are a 

few important parasitoid species. Parasitic nematodes 

also consume grubs, beetles, grasshoppers, and other 

pests. 

Pathogens 

Pathogens are micro-organisms, including bacteria, fungi, 

protozoa, and viruses, that cause disease and live on 

and in the bodies of insects. Pathogens occur naturally 

and can substantially reduce pest populations. They 

are highly selective, so they have limited negative effects 

on humans and non-target organisms. 

The most commonly used pathogen is Bt (Bacillus

thuringiensis), which is a bacterium that controls a 

variety of plant pests from caterpillars (Lepidoptera) to 

Ken Hammond USDA 

Bats can help control insect pests in orchards and reduce 

the need for pesticide application. 

Bat Conservation International 

Big brown bat preying on insect. 

mosquito and small fly larvae (Diptera) to beetles 

(Coleoptera). As a biological pesticide, Bt also controls 

simuliid blackflies, which are vectors for river blindness 

in Africa. Landowners and managers can use variations 

of Bt that are used to control particular families or 

species of insects without harming non-target insect 

species. Varieties of some crops, such as Bt corn and 

Bt cotton, have been genetically altered to contain the 

Bt bacterium toxin to kill susceptible insect pests. 

However, there is controversy regarding the ability of 

pests to develop resistance to Bt crops. 

Different kinds of pathogens control different types of 

pests. For example, Japanese beetle grubs can be 

controlled using milky spore disease (Bacillus popilliae), 

which occurs naturally in some grubs. Milky spore 

disease bacteria are cultured in living hosts and used 

for long-term control of chafer beetles, particularly 

Japanese beetles. Fungi can also act as important pest 

controls. Pine root rot (Heterobasidion annosum), 

one of the most damaging root pathogens of coniferous 

trees, spreads quickly from infected roots to healthy 

roots and also colonizes freshly cut stumps. Another 

fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea, helps prevent invasion 

of pine root rot when applied to freshly cut stumps. 

Bats and IPM 

Bats are a recently recognized form of biological control 

useful in IPM. Bats play key ecological roles in many 

plant communities, eating insects, pollinating flowers, 

and dispersing seeds. Bats are useful in controlling pest 

populations in agricultural fields and orchards, and are 

the only major predator of night-flying insects. The 

food items consumed by bats depend on the bat species, 

season, and available prey. Listed below are some littleknown bat facts. 

An average-sized maternity colony of 150 big 

brown bats can consume 38,000 cucumber 

7
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Bat Conservation International 

Monitoring bat boxes during daylight hours minimizes disturbance to roosting bats. 

beetles, 16,000 June bugs, 19,000 stink bugs, 

and 50,000 leafhoppers in one summer. 

One endangered gray bat can eat 3,000 insects 

per night, including moths, flies, and midges. 

One little brown bat can catch 600 mosquitoes 

per hour. 

In a Georgia pecan orchard, Mexican freetailed bats took up residence in bat houses 

installed by the landowners. The colony 

contained about 600 individual bats and virtually 

eliminated problems and pesticide use 

associated with tent caterpillars, hickory 

shuckworms, and other pests. 

A Willamette Valley, Oregon organic farmer 

nearly eliminated pesticide use for corn 

earworm moths by attracting local bat colonies 

to the orchards. The Oregon farmer reduced 

pesticide use from 13 to two applications per 

year, and did not need to spray until after birds 

and bats had migrated south for the season. 

Attracting bats to croplands and orchards requires proper 

bat house construction and placement in proximity to 

reliable food sources. If there is a local colony of bats 

nearby, bats will likely take notice of bat houses more 

readily. For more information on bat habitat and building 

and installing houses for bats in North America, see 

Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet No. 5, 

Bats. 

Birds and IPM 

Birds are another recently recognized addition to the 

list of biological pest control agents. When used in 

combination with other pest control treatments, birds 

may help reduce populations of insects and small 

mammals. Erecting perches and artificial nesting 

structures for raptors and songbirds is an easy way to 

complement IPM efforts. Perches and nesting 

structures can be placed around the perimeter of crop 

fields or in nearby suitable habitat. Designs for nest 

boxes and other wildlife nesting structures are provided 

in Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet No. 

20, Artificial Nesting Structures. 

A study in the Pacific Northwest found that hawks, 

kestrels, and shrikes were attracted to sites where 

artificial nesting structures were installed. Voles were 

a major diet component, but the results of the study 

concerning the effect of raptor predation on small 

mammal populations were inconclusive. In a separate 

study, barn owls consumed large numbers of gophers, 

mice, and other rodents that are potential pests to crops, 

tree plantations, orchards, and vineyards. These and 

WHC 

Eastern bluebirds, which prefer the open field habitat associated with agricultural lands, may benefit from reduced 

pesticide use on crop fields. 

8
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

other studies indicate that raptors can be effective 

biological pest control agents on agricultural lands, 

especially when used in combination with other control 

methods. 

Chemical control 

Chemical control agents include pesticides, biopesticides, 

pheremones, and other chemicals used to suppress pest 

outbreaks. Under IPM, some level of pest activity is 

tolerated, and most crops survive some damage before 

economic loss occurs. IPM chemical controls, 

specifically pesticides, are used when routine scouting 

trips show that pest populations reach levels that reduce 

yields and breach economic thresholds. Chemical 

controls are applied as a last resort, and are still used in 

combination with other management treatments. 

Individuals applying chemical pesticides must do so in 

compliance with applicable federal and state laws and 

regulations. For more information contact your state 

pesticide regulatory agency, state department of 

agriculture, or state department of environmental quality. 

Pesticides can negatively affect non-target organisms 

and natural resources, including beneficial insects, 

natural pest enemies, fish, wildlife, humans, and soil, air, 

and water quality. Pesticides such as herbicides also 

reduce food and cover that is important to beneficial 

insects and fish and wildlife. The list below includes 

some of the important concepts of chemical use under 

IPM. 

• Choose the least toxic chemical to reduce the 

chance of harming beneficial organisms, fish, 

wildlife, and humans. Choose a less persistent 

chemical to increase the rate of chemical 

breakdown in the soil. Remember to consider the 

whole landscape when choosing pesticides. Some 

chemicals do not affect certain species, but can be 

detrimental to others, both on-site and elsewhere in 

the watershed. 

• Minimize spray drift during application by using the 

appropriate nozzle, pressure, and volume to regulate 

droplet size. Also Consider: (1) adding a drift control 

agent, (2) using groundbooms, fitted with a skirt, 

instead of airplanes, (3) applying at a lower 

temperature and higher humidity, (4) not spraying 

during a temperature inversion, (5) using a soil 

incorporation method instead of spraying. 

• Avoid spraying if wind speeds are greater than 10 

mph. 

• Avoid spraying over, or washing equipment near, 

lakes, ponds, streams, or other bodies of water. 

Immediately report any chemical spills to the proper 

authorities. 

• Conduct chemical controls through spot treatments 

if pest outbreak is limited to particular areas. Spot 

treatments reduce costs and save time by treating 

only the affected area, and conserve beneficial 

species and surrounding habitat in untreated areas. 

• Use less volatile pesticides to minimize volatilization, 

which occurs when a solid pesticide converts to a 

gas and is carried away from the target area by 

wind. 

Post-treatment Monitoring 

Post-treatment monitoring determines the short- and 

long-term effectiveness of management treatments. If 

management actions do not produce the desired results, 

then re-evaluate and adjust the treatments. 

Organic Farming 

Organic farming is an alternative to conventional farming 

that incorporates many principles of IPM. This type of 

farming does not use chemical control methods, but 

relies on techniques such as crop rotation, natural 

manures, composting, organic fertilizer, and biological 

pest controls. Some farmers are concerned with lower 

yields associated with organic farming, but low 

production costs usually compensate for lower yields. 

When properly conducted, organic farming techniques 

increase soil organic matter and soil tilth, minimize runoff 

and erosion, and provide quality fish wildlife habitat. 

Overall, organic farming is an environmentally friendly, 

sustainable agricultural practice that can benefit 

producers and wildlife. 

Landowner Assistance 

There are many agencies and organizations experienced 

with IPM treatments and effects on fish and wildlife 

habitats. The USDA NRCS produced the Core4 

Conservation Practices Training Guide (see 

References), which contains information about 

integrated pest management, conservation tillage, 

9
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

nutrient management, and conservation buffers. 

Extension agents and NRCS technicians can supply 

landowners with information about IPM. The National 

IPM Network lists contacts by region and state, gives 

technical information about specific pests and 

management treatments, and contains a directory of 

state IPM coordinators on-line at www.reeusda.gov/ 

nipmn. The EPA Office of Pesticide Programs also has 

information and links to IPM information on-line at 

www.epa.gov/pesticides . The Consortium for 

International Crop Protection (CICP) and IPMnet 

website contains IPM technical information and links 

at www.ipmnet.org. Many universities also develop 

IPM handbooks through agriculture, forestry, or 

entomology departments. 

References 

On-line sources 

An IPM primer. Adapted by J. VanKirk from Sutton 

and Waldron, New York ProDairy Forage Manual. 

www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ipmnet/ 

IPM.primer2.html. 

Biological control: a guide to the natural enemies in North 

America. C. R. Weeden, A. M. Shelton, and M. 

P. Hoffmann, eds. Cornell University. 

ww.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol. 

Biopesticides. Environmental Protection Agency Office 

of Pesticide Programs. www.epa.gov/pesticides/ 

citizens/biopesticides.htm. 

The Audubon guide to home pesticides. J. Bourne, and 

L. Manning www.audubon.org/bird/pesticides. 

Wildlife and agricultural systems. W. D. Edge. 

www.orst.edu/instruct/fw251/notebook/ 

agriculture.html. 

IPM: a Texas success story. T. W. Fuchs. Texas 

Agricultural Extension Service. 

entowww.tamu.edu/extension/ipm/success.html. 

Georgia Pest Control Handbook. P. Guillebeau, ed. The 

University of Georgia Department of Entomology. 

Special Bulletin 28. www.ent.uga.edu/pest2001. 

Integrated pest management. Forestry Nursery Notes. 

www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/rngr/fnn/jul_96/ 

ipm796.htm. 

Integrated pest management: fundamentals of 

sustainable agriculture. Appropriate Technology 

Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA). 

www.attra.org/attra-pub/ipm.html. 

Integrated pest management (IPM): what is it? The 

changing face of integrated pest management, PA 

IPM 1994-05: a report to the citizens of 

Pennsylvania. www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ipmnet/ 

IPM.prim.psu1.html. 

IPM. EcoSMART Technologies, Inc. 

www.ipmnow.org. 

IPM basics: beneficial insects. IPM Almanac. 

Gempler’s, Inc. www.ipmalmanac.com/basics. 

USDA Integrated Pest Management Initiative. B. 

Jacobsen. http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/ 

Jacobsen.htm. 

High yields on a small farm with no-till. J. Leidner. 

Progressive Farmer. http://progressivefarmer.com/ 

issue/0701/notill/default.asp. 

Pesticides & wildlife – cotton. W. E. Palmer and P. T. 

Bromley. North Carolina Cooperative Extension 

Service AG-463-4. http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/ 

cotton_wildlife.html. 

Pesticides. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http:// 

contaminants.fws.gov/Issues/Pesticides.cfm. 

Radcliffe’s IPM world textbook. E. B. Radcliffe & W. 

D. Hutchison, eds. http://ipmworld.umn.edu/ 

ipmsite.htm. 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Bats 

and integrated pest management. NRCS Wildlife 

Habitat Management Institute and Bat 

Conservation International. 

www.whmi.nrcs.usda.gov. 

Integrated Pest Management in the Northeast. National 

IPM Network. http://northeastipm.org/ 

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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

IPM and water quality: minimizing pesticide risk. J. K. 

Waldron. New York State Integrated Pest 

Management Program. www.nysipm.cornell.edu/ 

publications/waterqual.html. 

Six steps for profitable and environmentally sound 

management of crop pests. J. K. Waldron and P. 

Sutton. New York State Integrated Pest 

Management Program. www.nysipm.cornell.edu/ 

publications/sixsteps.html. 

Printed sources 

Askam, L. R. 1990. Effect of artificial perches and 

nests in attracting raptors to orchards. Proc. 18th 

Vertebr. Pest Conf. L. R. Davis & R. E. Marsh, 

eds. University of California, Davis. 

Bats can pack a punch in pest control. 1998. California 

Agriculture 52(1):6-7. 

Core4 Conservation Practices Training Guide. 1999. 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 

Evans, L. 2000. Bats, IPM, and guano. Acres USA 

30(8):7-8. 

Kay, B. J., L. E. Twigg, and H. I. Nicol. 1994. The use 

of artificial perches to increase predation on house 

mice (Mus domesticus) by raptors. Wildl. Res. 

21:95-106. 

Kaufman, P. E., D. A. Rutz, and J. K. Waldron. 2000. 

Common pest flies found in the urban/rural 

environment and their biological control agents. 

IPM Fact Sheet 102IPMFS1. Cornell Cooperative 

Extension. 

Kiser, M. 2000. Bats and pecans: a growing 

partnership. The Bat House Researcher 8(2):1-2. 

Kiser, M. 1997. Bat houses help Texas farmer. The 

Bat House Researcher 5(2):7. 

Long, R. F. 1996. Bats for insect biocontrol in 

agriculture. The IPM Practitioner 18(9):1-6. 

Moore, T., D. V. Van Vuren, and C. Ingels. 1998. Are 

barn owls a biological control for gophers? 

Evaluating effectiveness in vineyards and 

orchards. Proc. 18th Vertebr. Pest Conf. R. O. 

Baker and A. C. Crabb, eds. University of 

California, Davis, USA. 

Payne, N. F. and F. C. Bryant. 1994. Techniques for 

wildlife habitat management of uplands. McGrawHill. Washington, DC, USA. 

Tuttle, M. D. 2000. Bats, man-made roosts, and 

mosquito control. The Bat House Researcher 

8(2):6. 

Wasko,. R. M. 1995. Best management practices for 

crop pests. Colorado State University Cooperative 

Extension. Bulletin #XCM-176. 

Whitaker, J. O. Jr. 1993. Bats, beetles, and bugs. Bats 

11(1):23. 

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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute 

100 Webster Circle, Suite 3 

Madison, Mississippi 39110 

(601) 607-3131 

In cooperation with partners, the mission of the 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute is to 

develop and disseminate scientifically based 

technical materials that will assist NRCS field staffs 

and others to promote conservation stewardship 

of fish and wildlife, and deliver sound habitat 

management principles and practices to America’s 

land users. 

www.whmi.nrcs.usda.gov 

Wildlife Habitat Council 

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800 

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 

(301) 588-8994 

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council is to 

increase the amount of quality wildlife habitat on 

corporate, private, and public land. 

engages corporations, public agencies, and 

private, non-profit organizations on a voluntary 

basis as one team for the recovery, development, 

and preservation of wildlife habitat worldwide. 

www.wildlifehc.org 

WHC 

Acknowledgments 

Primary authors: Holly L. May and Maureen B. Ryan, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts were reviewed by 

Joseph K. Bagdon, USDA-NRCS National Water and Climate Center; Dr. Robert L. Bugg, University of 

California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program; and Steven Plotkin, USDA-NRCS 

Massachusetts State Office/University of Massachusetts Extension. Edited by Charlie Rewa, NRCS Wildlife 

Habitat Management Institute. 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the 

basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or familial 

status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for 

communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA’s TARGET Center 

at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). 

To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th 

and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal 

opportunity provider and employer. 

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