Rainbow Trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss)

May 2000 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 13

General Information

Rainbow trout are coldwater fish that have long

been symbolic of clear, healthy mountain

streams and lakes in North America. Because of

their ability to thrive in hatcheries, rainbow trout

have been introduced into much of the United

States and now inhabit many streams and lakes

throughout the country. The popularity of rainbow trout among anglers has placed it among

the top five sport fishes in North America, and it is considered by many to be the most important game

fish west of the Rocky Mountains. However, reduction of good quality trout habitat due to streambank

and upland soil erosion, loss of riparian vegetation, water diversion, logging and mining activities, and

point and non–point source pollution from municipal development and agriculture have significantly

reduced the distribution and abundance of rainbow trout. In addition, construction of dams, road

crossings, and other structures impede the ability of rainbow trout to migrate upstream and downstream, which is critical to successful completion of their life cycles. Consequently, nine different

populations of steelhead (sea-run rainbow trout) have been added to the federal endangered species

list. Implementing sound land management practices and stream and riparian improvements on private

lands can help improve coldwater habitats used by rainbow trout and a host of other aquatic species.

The life history requirements of the species vary tremendously depending on where the trout lives and

whether it spends its life entirely in freshwater, or migrates to the sea for several years of growth before returning to its freshwater birthplace to spawn. This leaflet will concentrate on the life history requirements of resident rainbow and redband trout, and the freshwater habitat needs of steelhead, collectively referred to here as rainbow trout.

This leaflet is designed to introduce the habitat requirements

of rainbow trout and to assist private landowners and managers in the development of trout habitat management plans.

The success of any aquatic species management plan depends on targeting the needs of the desired species, analyzing the designated habitat area as a whole to ensure that all

required habitat elements are present, and determining what

management actions will best improve a stream or lake for

the species and its biotic community.

Range

The historic range of rainbow trout extends from Alaska to

Mexico and includes British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, and Nevada. Rainbow trout found

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute

Rainbow trout current distribution.
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

2

primarily east of the Cascade Mountains in the U.S. and in the Upper Fraser River of British Columbia

are often called redbands. Native rainbow trout are

generally found in watersheds west of the Cascades.

Native steelhead (west coast) are anadromous, meaning

they migrate as juveniles to the Pacific Ocean and return

to freshwater to lay their eggs. Most rainbow trout found

outside their historic range are “domesticated” steelhead.

The rainbow trout’s present-day distribution is shown in

the map on the previous page.

Habitat Requirements

General

Cold headwaters, creeks, small to large rivers, cool lakes,

estuaries, and oceans comprise the habitats collectively

used by the different populations of rainbow trout. Depending on the genetic makeup of a trout population and

the habitat conditions, rainbow trout will use some or all

of these aquatic habitats during their lives. Prime trout waters are clear, clean and cold. Good trout

stream habitat is complex, consisting of an array of riffles and pools, submerged wood, boulders,

undercut banks, and aquatic vegetation. The ability to swim to and from different habitats from ocean

to headwaters, or from tributary confluence to headwaters, increases the value of individual habitat

components. Assuring fish passage through artificial barriers in a system of connected habitats greatly

enhances the capability of an aquatic system to sustain rainbow trout populations.

Food

Rainbow trout are opportunistic feeders that rely on a wide variety of food items ranging from small insects to crayfish.

Trout inhabiting streams with a significant amount of riparian

vegetation often feed heavily on terrestrial insects, such as

grasshoppers and ants, that fall into the stream. Rocky stream

riffles produce bottom-dwelling aquatic invertebrates, such as

insects and crustaceans, that are also fed upon. In lakes and

streams, invertebrates such as plankton, crustaceans, snails, and

leeches, as well as small fish and fish eggs also serve as food

for trout.

Spawning Habitat

Rainbow trout spawn in main river channels and their tributaries, and inlet or outlet streams of lakes.

During their spawning migrations, steelhead are famous for their ability and tenacity to return to the

streams where they hatched. Generally spawning in the spring and early summer, rainbow trout most

commonly use stream riffles located downstream from pools as spawning areas. Tributaries and inlet

and outlet streams containing gravels between one-half and three-inches in size are the most suitable

resident trout spawning habitats. Using her tail, the female digs a depression in the gravel, called a

redd. She then deposits a portion of her eggs into the redd, as an attending male fertilizes them. The

fertilized eggs are covered by gravel as the female excavates yet another redd just upstream. Riffle and

pool tail-out habitats with well-aerated gravels free of sediment are ideal spawning habitat. Trout deposit eggs within a range of water depths and velocities that minimize the risk of desiccation as water

Important rainbow trout food items: a

general list of common food items

(DOES NOT represent all foods

consumed).

Aquatic food items:

Invertebrates such as: larval and

aquatic stages of dragonflies,

mayflies, and caddis flies; worms;

crayfish; plankton; snails; leeches.

Also, small fish and fish eggs.

Terrestrial food items:

Grasshoppers, ants, beetles and

other insects.

Whirling disease – Whirling disease has developed in the last two decades and is a threat

to trout fisheries across the United States.

Primarily affecting hatchery-raised rainbow

trout and other salmonids, whirling disease is

caused by a microscopic parasite that causes

fingerling trout to grow with badly curved

spines and other skeletal deformities that can

result in high fingerling mortality. Found in

22 states to date, whirling disease made its

most significant appearance in wild waters in

1994 in Colorado (upper Colorado River) and

Montana (Madison River). Significant efforts

are being made to understand whirling disease

through research and management of hatchery-raised rainbow trout and wild trout populations with the goal of protecting rainbow

trout and other native trout fisheries nationwide.
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

3

levels recede with the seasons. Sufficient water depth and sediment-free spawning gravels are critical

to ensure that water can percolate through the spaces in the gravel, bringing oxygen to the eggs and

removing metabolic wastes associated with incubation and hatching. After hatching, young trout remain in the gravel until most of the yolk reserves they are born with are used up. They emerge from

the gravel as swimming fry ready to search for food.

Cover

Bank structure, in-stream wood and boulders, and riparian vegetation provide protective refuge and

hiding cover for rainbow trout. Undercut banks, overhanging vegetation, turbulent or deep water,

submerged or semi-submerged wood, aquatic plant beds, root masses, and large rocks also contribute

to habitat diversity for rainbow trout and other aquatic life important to trout for food. Riparian vegetation (vegetation growing along a river or stream) such as trees, shrubs, grasses, and forbs provides

shade which moderates water temperatures and is a source of woody cover when limbs and trees fall

into the stream. Roots of riparian vegetation help stabilize stream banks, reducing siltation and maintaining water quality. Riparian plants also provide habitat for terrestrial insects that may serve as trout

food.

Interspersion of Habitat Components

Ideal interspersion of habitats within a trout

stream consists of a complex of cool, clean water; undercut banks with overhanging riparian

vegetation; slow-flowing shallow to deep pools;

riffles in rapid-flowing water; one to three-inch

diameter gravels or pebbles; aquatic weed beds;

and submerged or semi-submerged logs or

branches, rock piles and root masses that provide shelter. Because rainbow trout are more

solitary than social in nature, an abundance of

complex habitats partitions and reduces the size

of territories, allowing more trout to coexist. In

areas of extreme winter conditions, deep pools

serve as refuges in iced-over streams and are critical for over-winter survival. Trout inhabiting lakes

seek deep, cool water with access to shallows and inlet or outlet streams.

Minimum Habitat Area

Because of the opportunistic and migratory nature of rainbow trout, minimum habitat size is difficult to

determine. Rainbow trout will forage far from their established territories when food is limited. If

habitat conditions (such as water temperature) should change, they will swim to another part of the

stream. While it is difficult to plan for minimum habitat size, connectivity between as many potential

habitats as possible should be maximized. As opportunistic feeders, rainbow trout hold in stream riffles to feed. Thus, streams where food is plentiful may support numerous trout with relatively small

territories. Likewise, streams with less food will support fewer trout and will require larger feeding

territories.

Rainbow Trout Habitat Management – Preserving and protecting stream and lake habitat is the most

effective way to maintain healthy trout numbers in water bodies where they are present. This section

describes management options for protecting existing trout streams and lakes as well as a few common

stream enhancements that can potentially increase a degraded stream’s value as trout habitat. SurSteelhead habitat of interspersed pools and riffles,

in-stream wood, and clean gravels.

Mark Schuller, NRCS
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

4

rounding land uses, a stream’s physical composition and water flow, management goals, and riparian

and in-stream vegetation will dictate which management practices are most appropriate. Because more

than one protection or improvement practice may be beneficial, consultation with and assistance from

federal, state or local fish and wildlife and land management agencies can be very helpful in identifying appropriate management actions and permit requirements.

Watershed Management – The best approach to trout habitat protection or recovery is to sustain a fully functional,

well-vegetated stream corridor within a soundly managed

watershed. This includes maintaining natural stream processes, minimizing erosion in uplands, protecting floodplains,

wetlands and riparian areas, and managing streamside forests and riparian areas with aquatic species in mind. In areas

of degraded habitat, there are both passive and active measures landowners can take to improve trout habitat. Construction of in-stream improvements is a science and an art

requiring technical expertise and experience. Poorly designed and constructed “improvements” can actually lead to

further degradation of habitat or loss of channel and watershed stability. Improvements in riparian management,

sound grazing practices, and addition of wood to stream

channels can maintain or improve aquatic habitats. Landowners should make every effort to maintain in-stream flows for trout during all seasons of the year,

particularly during the growing season, make certain that irrigation diversions are screened to avoid

trapping trout in irrigation ditches, and eliminate or modify

water diversion structures that impede fish passage upstream

and downstream.

Fencing – Fencing livestock from stream banks and trout lakes

can prevent collapse of undercut banks and reduce soil erosion

and siltation in the water resulting from livestock trampling

stream or lake edges. Fencing livestock from trout waters can

also reduce the amount of livestock waste entering a water

body, reducing the risk of water quality degradation from high

nutrient levels. Because fencing can be expensive, preventing

overuse of an area by seasonally rotating livestock and grazing

patterns and providing attractants distant from water sources

such as salt blocks and watering tanks may be an alternative

management option. Properly stocking a grazed range is the

best way to maintain the integrity of both the range and trout

stream habitat whether an area is fenced or not.

Riparian Management– Riparian vegetation protects streams

from siltation, filters nutrients and contaminants in surface runoff, helps maintain stable streambanks and cool water temperatures, and provides input of wood, leaves and twigs to the

aquatic ecosystem. Riparian areas provide habitat for insects

and other wildlife. Sound upland management coupled with

maintaining an undisturbed riparian buffer along trout streams

Rainbow trout stocking – Stocking

hatchery-raised rainbow trout is not without

controversy. The introduction of rainbow

trout into eastern streams and lakes has

resulted in competition for food and habitat

with native brook trout (brook charr) and

Atlantic salmon. Propagation of hatchery

rainbow trout in the western United States

has resulted in a loss of genetic variation in

native rainbow trout as a result of the

mixing of hatchery and native individuals

during spawning. These issues have raised

awareness for the need to carefully plan and

monitor the release of hatchery-raised

rainbow trout into watersheds supporting

wild trout in order to protect native

populations of rainbow trout, cutthroat trout

and other native fishes.

BLM photos

Degraded conditions of an Oregon

trout stream following season-long

grazing (top) were improved by addition of fencing and spring-only

grazing (bottom).
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

5

is one of the most effective practices to protect trout streams. Agriculture and logging can have potential detrimental effects on riparian areas and trout streams. Cultivated fields and timber harvest units

near trout habitat should not come within an average of 100 feet of a stream, depending on the topography, plant community type, and geology of the area. A combination of native riparian vegetation

(trees and shrubs and forbs) and sound upland practices provides an effective riparian buffer to filter

sediment, fertilizer, and herbicide runoff and maintains critical riparian functions important to trout

and aquatic life. Trees along streambanks should not be harvested and logging equipment should be

kept out of riparian habitats, especially during wet periods. Soil and nutrients are trapped by vegetation as surface runoff from recently harvested uplands flows through riparian areas toward the stream.

Stream Improvements

In severely degraded stream habitats,

adding physical structure can influence

the development of scour holes, pools,

narrowed stream channels, and increased water velocity of the stream.

Additions of wood or boulders and

planting of riparian vegetation can expedite an increase in overhanging bank

cover and submerged habitat components that provide spawning, feeding,

and hiding cover for rainbow trout. Instream improvements should always be

designed to emulate the historical or

desired ecological conditions of the

stream in the context of its watershed. Watershed conditions, streambank stability, channel and

streambank gradient levels, and project costs all influence which techniques best suit a particular

stream. Instruction and technical assistance from federal, state or local fish and wildlife and land management agencies should be sought before any stream improvements are undertaken. An evaluation of

the watershed conditions both upstream and downstream of the proposed improvement project will increase the likelihood that in-stream projects will be successful in improving trout habitat. The text

below briefly explains a few common trout stream improvement techniques. Complete diagrams and

instruction for these and other trout stream improvements can be

found in Trout Stream Therapy by Robert Hunt or the interagency

Stream Corridor Restoration Manual (1998). See the reference

section for complete citations.

Riparian vegetation – Planting and maintaining native riparian

vegetation along trout streams provides shade, organic material and

overhanging cover to the channel. In addition, riparian vegetation

attracts terrestrial insects used as food by trout. Native trees and

woody shrubs provide a source of large wood to the stream. Native

grasses, sedges, forbs, and shrubs can be planted or encouraged

along trout streams in which woody riparian vegetation is limited or

absent due to the ecological conditions of the site. Planting willows

along stream banks is encouraged, especially to aid in soil stabilization and rapid revegetation of areas denuded during floods or

bank stabilization activities. Local conservation agents can assist in

Tim Dring, NRCS

Riparian vegetation provides shade and organic matter to

the stream and helps maintain stable steambanks.

In-stream wood provides important trout habitat.

Tim Dring, NRCS
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

6

the planting of appropriate species

and planting techniques.

In-stream wood -- Adding large

wood to streams where little or no

wood exists because of logging or

poor retention capacity can increase pool area and provide cover

for trout, especially in low-gradient

channels with mobile substrates

(see Hilderbrand et al. 1997). In

forested streams, logs provide

resting and hiding cover for rainbow trout and can be imported

from outside of the riparian zone

and placed in the stream channel.

In more stable streams, untrimmed

whole trees with branches and root wads placed in the channel may not need to be secured to the bank.

These structures mimic the natural recruitment of fallen trees into the stream channel and will move

and adjust to the stream channel and floodplain during rain events. If a more secure structure is desired, cover logs can be cabled to stationary objects such as boulders with enough slack to allow the

logs to shift slightly as the channel fluctuates. In areas where artificially placed logs may present a

hazard to infrastructure, such as bridges, logs may be held into place on the stream bottom with rebar

reinforcements four feet or longer in length. Low-gradient streams with slow flowing water and limited amounts of cover are good candidates for addition of large wood, including root wads.

Current deflectors – In seriously degraded streams, deflectors alter the course of shallow streams and

concentrate flow to create deeper channels, scour pools and increase the diversity of current velocities.

Log deflectors are generally V-shaped and are constructed on the stream edge with the closed end waterside. Both free ends are anchored in the stream bank at least three feet, and three- to four-foot

lengths of rebar is used to fasten the in-stream logs to the stream bottom and to one another. Boulder

and cobble fill is used to fill the deflector and stabilize it and the stream bank. Deflectors made solely

of stone can be used as well. Bank cover logs installed opposite deflectors are necessary to protect the

bank into which the redirected water is forced. Deflectors should only be used in channels of low

habitat diversity where pools are limited, and watershed conditions warrant their use.

Boulders - In-stream boulder clusters can be placed

in streams to provide a break in the current and

pockets of slow water in which trout can rest between feeding activities. Boulders can be placed

within any gradient stream channel where resting

cover is limited, and where such in-stream structural

components were likely present historically.

Culverts – Stream crossings such as bridges and culverts should be designed to allow trout to move upstream and downstream. For trout to be able to swim

through culverts, the structure should have a minimum water depth of 0.8 feet, a maximum hydraulicScott Wixsom, USFS

“Downstream V” current deflectors can be used to increase

stream channel complexity in degraded streams.

Brian Abbott, Pierce Co., WA SWCD

Well-designed culverts allow trout to move

upstream and downstream.
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

7

drop at the outfall of 0.8 feet, and maximum water velocity of less than 4.0 feet per second (culverts

greater than 100 feet in length should have slower water velocities). Other criteria and design specifications can be found in the Washington Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Fish Passage Design at

Road Culverts Design Manual, available on their website at

http://www.wa.gov/wdfw/hab/engineer/habeng.htm

Rainbow Trout Habitat Requirements Summary Table.

Habitat Component Habitat Requirements

General • Cold creeks, rivers, cool lakes; for steelhead, also include oceans and estuaries

• Complex array of in-stream wood, boulders, undercut banks

• Provisions for fish passage throughout the watershed to the extent possible

Food Aquatic food items:

• larval and adult insects (mayflies, stoneflies, caddis flies), worms, crayfish,

plankton, snails, leeches

• Small fishes, fish eggs

Terrestrial food items:

• Grasshoppers, ants, beetles

Spawning Habitat • Riffles in tributaries of rivers and inlet or outlet streams of lakes

Cover • Undercut banks, overhanging riparian vegetation, turbulent or deep water,

aquatic weed beds, submerged or semi-submerged logs, boulders, rock

piles or root masses

Interspersion • Stream habitat: Complex of cool, clean water; undercut banks with overhanging riparian vegetation; slow-flowing shallow to deep pools; riffles in

high-velocity water; gravel substrate of one to three-inch diameter gravels

or pebbles; aquatic weed beds; and submerged or semi-submerged logs,

rock piles, root masses that provide shelter

• Lake habitat: Complex of moderately deep to deep, cool water, shallows,

vegetation, and unimpeded access to inlet or outlet streams

Limiting Factors

For planning purposes, assess the site to subjectively rate the availability and quality of rainbow trout

habitat within a planning area, based on the above habitat requirement descriptions. Habitat and

stream community components that are absent or rated low are likely limiting rainbow trout habitat

quality. Land uses and stream conditions on adjacent properties may need to be considered to accurately rate the quality and potential of one’s property as trout habitat.

Availability/Quality

Habitat Component High Medium Low Absent

General (temperature, wood, pools, riparian area)

Food

Spawning habitat

Cover

Interspersion of habitat components

Minimum habitat size, degree of connectivity
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

8

Management Prescriptions

Management treatments should address the habitat components that are determined to be limiting rainbow trout habitat potential. For planning purposes, select among the possible action items listed below

to raise the quality or availability of each habitat component determined to be limiting. NRCS Conservation Practices and various programs that may provide financial or technical assistance to carry out

specific management practices are listed where applicable.

Habitat

Component

Management Options for Increasing

Habitat Quality or Availability

Conserv. Practices and

Assistance Programs

• Fence livestock from streamside riparian vegetation and trout lakes;

pipe storage tank and trough water away from riparian areas and implement seasonal grazing prescriptions to minimize livestock damage to

streambanks and native riparian vegetation.

• Maintain a buffer of 80-100 feet between trout streams and agriculture

fields to reduce siltation and non-point source pollution from fertilizer

and pesticide runoff.

382, 391a, 395, 614

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP

• Along trout streams, plant and maintain native willows, trees, grasses,

sedges, forbs, shrubs, and other riparian vegetation suitable to the site.

391

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP,

WRP

Food

• Place gravel to create aquatic food habitat in stream riffles above and

below pools, dams, or wherever water velocity increases.

• Install boulders and wood to provide cover and habitat for insects.

395

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP,

WRP

Spawning

and rearing

habitat

• Install gravel and rubble to create stream riffles above and below pools,

dams, or wherever water velocity increases from a slow flow.

• Install channel constrictors in very shallow, wide streams .

• Maintain instream flow and eliminate fish passage barriers to allow fish

to move upstream and downstream during all times of the year.

• Maintain healthy riparian vegetation to provide source of wood for

stream, shade for water, and habitat for insects.

391a, 395, 396

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP,

WRP

• Preserve and plant, when practical, native trees, willows, grasses,

sedges, forbs, shrubs, and other riparian vegetation along trout streams.

391a

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP,

WRP

Cover

• Install log covers, current deflectors, boulders, and channel constrictors

in severely degraded trout streams to expedite habitat recovery.

• Install inverted and submerged tree root masses in trout streams.

395

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP,

WRP

Interspersion

& minimum

habitat size

• Combine above prescriptions to increase interspersion of habitat components and amount of suitable rainbow trout habitat.

• Replace culverts considered a barrier to fish passage

• Manage irrigation water and systems to maximize water efficiency and

allow more water to remain in streams.

395, 396, 449

WHIP, EQIP

NRCS Conservation Practices that may be useful in undertaking the above management actions.

Conservation Practice Code Conservation Practice Code

Fence 382 Fish Passage 396

Riparian Forest Buffer 391a Irrigation Water Management 449

Fish Stream Improvement 395 Trough and Tank 614
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

9

Available Assistance

Landowners interested in making their individual efforts effective for their entire community can work

with the Wildlife Habitat Council and NRCS to involve school, scout, and community groups and their

families, as well as state and federal fish and wildlife agency personnel, in habitat projects when possible. On-site education programs demonstrating the value of rainbow trout habitat management can

greatly increase the effectiveness of an individual management project. Corporate landowners should

encourage interested employees to become involved. Involving federal, state and non-profit conservation agencies and organizations in the planning and operation of a rainbow trout management plan can

greatly improve the project’s success. Assistance programs available through various sources are

listed below.

Programs that provide technical and financial assistance for improvement of fish habitat on private lands.

Program Land Eligibility Type of Assistance Contact

Conservation Reserve

Program (CRP)

Highly erodible land,

wetland, and certain

other lands with

cropping history.

Stream-side areas in

pasture land

50% cost-share for establishing permanent cover and

conservation practices, and annual rental payments

for land enrolled in 10 to 15-year contracts. Additional financial incentives are available for some

practices

NRCS or FSA State or

County Office

Environmental Quality

Incentives Program

(EQIP)

Cropland, range,

grazing land & other

agricultural land in

need of treatment

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation practices in

accordance with 5 to 10-year contracts. Incentive

payments for certain management practices

NRCS State or County

Office

Partners for Fish and

Wildlife Program

(PFW)

Most degraded fish

and/or wildlife habitat

Up to 100% financial and technical assistance to

restore wildlife habitat under minimum 10-year cooperative agreements

Local office of the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service

Waterways for Wildlife Private land Technical and program development assistance to

coalesce habitat efforts of corporations and private

landowners to meet common watershed level goals

Wildlife Habitat Council

(301-588-8994)

Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP)Previously degraded

wetland and adjacent

upland buffer with

limited amount of

natural wetland and

existing or restorable

riparian areas

75% cost-share for wetland restoration under 10-year

contracts, and 30-year easements, and 100% costshare on restoration under permanent easements.

Payments for purchase of 30-year or permanent conservation easements

NRCS State or County

Office

Wildlife at Work Corporate land Technical assistance on developing habitat projects

into a program that will allow companies to involve

employees and the community

Wildlife Habitat Council

(301-588-8994)

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP)High-priority fish and

wildlife habitats

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation practices under 5 to 10-year contractsNRCS State or County

Office

State fish and wildlife agencies and private groups such as Trout Unlimited may have assistance programs, publications, or other useful tools in your state.State or local contacts
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

10

References

Behnke, R. 1992. Native trout of western North America. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda,

Maryland. 275pp.

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream corridor restoration:

principles, processes, and practices. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service National

Engineering Handbook (NEH), Part 653.

Hilderbrand, R. H., A. D. Lemly, C. A. Dolloff, and K. L. Harpster. 1997. Effects of large woody

debris placement on stream channels and benthic macroinvertebrates. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.

54:931-939.

Hunt, R. L. 1993. Trout stream therapy. University of Wisconsin Press. Madison, WI. 74 pp.

Hunter, C. J. 1991. Better trout habitat. Montana Land Reliance. Island Press, Washington, DC.

320 pp.

Nickum, D. 1999. Whirling disease in the United States. Trout Unlimited. Arlington, Va. 36 pp.

Scott, W. B. and E. J. Crossman. 1973. Freshwater fishes of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of

Canada, Ottawa. Bulletin 184.

Willers, W. B. 1981. Trout biology – An angler’s guide. University of Wisconsin Press. Madison,

WI. pp. 6-7.

Young, M. K. 1991. Sport fishery and habitat requirements. Wyoming Game and Fish Department.

Habitat Extension Bulletin No. 22.
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

11

NRCS

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute

100 Webster Circle, Suite 3

Madison, MS 39110

(601) 607-3131

In cooperation with partners, the

mission of the Wildlife Habitat

Management Institute is to develop

and disseminate scientifically based

technical materials that will assist

NRCS field staff and others to promote conservation stewardship of

fish and wildlife and deliver sound

habitat management principles and

practices to America’s land users.

 

www.ms.nrcs.usda.gov/whmi

Wildlife

Habitat Council

1010 Wayne Avenue, Suite 920

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 588-8994

The Wildlife Habitat Council's

mission is to increase the amount of

quality wildlife habitat on corporate,

private, and public land. WHC

engages corporations, public agencies,

and private, non-profit organizations

on a voluntary basis as one team for

the recovery, development, and

preservation of wildlife habitat

worldwide.

 

www.wildlifehc.org

Acknowledgments:

Primary authors of this leaflet were Kathryn Staley and John Mueller. Drafts of this leaflet

were reviewed by Kevin Bestgen, Robert Behnke, Andrew Talebere, and Chris

Zimmerman. Habitat photographs were provided courtesy of Tim Dring, Mark Schuller,

Brian Abbott and Scott Wixsom. Redband (rainbow) trout photo was provided courtesy of

Pete Rissler.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race,

color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or familial status. (Not all

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternate means for communication of program

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA's TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326W, Whitten Building, 14th and

Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity

provider and employer.