Wildlife Habitat Management Institute 

Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife

December 2002 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 18 

U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research Station 

Forested areas can be managed with a wide variety of 

objectives, ranging from allowing natural processes to 

dictate long-term condition without active management 

of any kind, to maximizing production of wood 

products on the shortest rotations possible. The 

primary purpose of this document is to show how fish 

and wildlife habitat management can be effectively 

integrated into the management of forestlands that are 

subject to periodic timber harvest activities. For 

forestlands that are not managed for production of 

timber or other forest products, many of the principles 

in this leaflet also apply. 

Succession of Forest Vegetation 

In order to meet both timber production and wildlife 

management goals, landowners and managers need 

to understand how forest vegetation responds following 

timber management, or silvicultural prescriptions, or 

other disturbances. Forest vegetation typically 

progresses from one plant community to another over 

time. This forest succession can be described in four 

stages: 

Introduction 

Forests in North America provide a wide variety of 

important natural resource functions. Although 

commercial forests may be best known for production 

of pulp, lumber, and other wood products, they also 

supply valuable fish and wildlife habitat, recreational 

opportunities, water quality protection, and other 

natural resource benefits. In approximately two-thirds 

of the forest land (land that is at least 10% treecovered) in the United States, harvest of wood 

products plays an integral role in how these lands are 

managed. Sustainable forest management applies 

biological, economic, and social principles to forest 

regeneration, management, and conservation to meet 

the specific goals of landowners or managers. 

Much of the forest land in the western U.S. is managed 

by public agencies, whereas most eastern forests are 

privately owned or under a combination of private/ 

public ownership. National forests cover only 19% 

of forested land in the United States. Non-industrial 

private landowners own 59% of the forested land in 

the U.S., making private lands management critically 

important to the welfare of the fish and wildlife 

communities associated with forested landscapes. 

FOREST 

PRODUCTS 

Fish and Wildlife 

Wood Products Habitat

Recreational 

Opportunities 

Soil Conservation 

Air and Water 

Quality 

Aesthetics 

Education 

Nutrient Cycling 

Forests produce a variety of tangible and intangible “products.” 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

1) Stand initiation 

• Begins when grasses, forbs, tree seedlings, and 

shrubs become established in an open space 

created by natural (flood, tornado, fire, etc.) 

or artificial (timber harvest, land clearing) 

disturbances. 

2) Stem exclusion 

• Sapling and pole-size trees compete for light, 

growing space, and nutrients. 

3) Understory reinitiation 

• Many trees die due to overcrowding, disease, 

insect blights, or other causes. 

• New vacancies allow young plants to grow in 

understory gaps. 

• Saw-timber and mature forest structure are 

characteristic of this stage. 

4) Old-growth 

• Old-growth forests generally contain large and 

overmature trees, snags and downed logs, and 

a developed but patchy understory. 

Regeneration occurs when disturbance creates new 

space, and forest succession begins again. 

Wildlife habitat conditions shift in response to changes 

in stand age, structure, size, and species composition. 

As a result, the assemblage of wildlife species 

inhabiting the forest typically shifts as the stand moves 

U.S. Forest Service 

Only five weeks after the Fish Day Fire in Croatan National Forest, stand initiation began with ferns and other 

herbaceous vegetation. 

USDA, NRCS 

Forested wetlands provide food and cover for many species of wildlife. 

through each successional stage. Birds and other 

wildlife frequently play an important role in the dispersal 

of heavy-seeded and fleshy-fruited tree species, 

contributing to the re-establishment of trees in disturbed 

areas. 

Forest Wildlife Habitat Requirements 

Forest structure affects habitat quality for many wildlife 

species. Tree density, canopy height, percent canopy 

closure, and the number of standing and fallen dead 

trees are some key structural features that affect habitat 

quality. Each wildlife species responds differently to 

changes in forest structure. Whereas general habitat 

requirements are discussed in this leaflet, specific 

habitat management practices for particular wildlife 

species may be obtained from other sources (see 

Hoover and Wills 1984, DeGraaf et al. 1992, USDA 

Forester Service 2001). 

Some wildlife species are dependent on a particular 

forest type or successional stage. Kirtland’s warbler 

is an extreme example of a habitat specialist, inhabiting 

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Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

only extensive stands of jack pine (a fire-dependent 

species) six to 20 feet tall with low ground cover. These 

habitat conditions occur where frequent fire keeps the 

forest in early successional stages. The fire also releases 

jack pine seeds from mature cones, which allows 

regeneration of new trees. The warblers nest only in 

young trees and abandon stands that exceed a certain 

height. 

Food 

Wildlife food availability depends on the forest 

successional stage, season, local climate, and other 

factors. The stand initiation stage produces seeds and 

soft mast (berries and fleshy fruits) that are important 

wildlife foods. Tree seedlings and shrubs such as 

sumac, juniper, blueberry, hazelnut, elderberry and 

blackberry, and herbaceous forbs, legumes, and 

grasses provide food for songbirds and small mammals. 

The buds, twigs, and leaves of woody plants are 

browsed by deer, elk, moose, rabbits, hares and 

grouse, and also provide food for the insect prey of 

birds, bats and other wildlife. 

As the forest progresses through successional stages, 

wildlife responds to the variety of food types available. 

Birds and mammals associated with stem exclusion, 

understory reinitiation, and old-growth stages use both 

hard mast (nuts and seeds) and soft mast of aspen, 

cedar, birch, cherry, oak, hickory, maple, pine, and 

beech trees. 

C. Rewa 

Vibernums and other fruit-producing shrubs are important 

wildlife food sources in early successional forests. 

The rose-breasted grosbeak is found in open deciduous 

woodlands and forest edges of the northeastern and midwestern United States. 

Food quantity often varies seasonally, and careful forest 

management can help ensure its availability year-round. 

For example, thinning that preserves mast-producing 

trees and shrubs can help sustain songbirds, deer, black 

bear, wild turkey, and small mammals through the winter 

months. Landowners and managers should understand 

the seasonal changes in food availability for the wildlife 

species of concern. 

Cover 

Cover refers to physical features that provide animals 

with shelter from weather, resting places, or 

concealment from predators. Wildlife uses a variety 

of cover types depending on season and local climate. 

Grass-forb vegetation in the stand initiation stage 

provides ground cover for game birds such as ruffed 

grouse and woodcock, and for small mammals like 

voles, mice, and shrews. Many wildlife species benefit 

from canopy cover. In northern regions, closed, dense 

canopies of conifers in the understory provide thermal 

cover for deer (“deeryards”) and other species during 

winter months. 

Snags (standing dead trees) supply foraging sites for 

woodpeckers and cavities for nesting and resting birds 

and denning mammals. Fifty-five species of cavity 

nesting birds in North America use snags, as do nearly 

half of North America’s 45 bat species. Invertebrates 

in dead wood are a rich food source. Bats roost in 

cavities and under the sloughing bark. Bald eagles, 

goshawks, spotted owls, pine martens, flying squirrels, 

3
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

tree voles, red-backed voles, and some bat species 

prefer cover provided by old-growth woodlands. 

Dead trees, limbs, and litter on the forest floor provide 

cover and invertebrate foods for woodpeckers and 

other wildlife. 

Water 

Wildlife water requirements vary by species. Water is 

obtained from plant and animal foods consumed, as 

well as from free water in ponds, lakes, streams, and 

wetlands. 

Timber Harvest Management 

Even-aged and uneven-aged forest management are 

two common silvicultural systems used to produce 

timber. Harvest and regeneration methods define each 

approach. In even-aged stands, most trees belong to Snags are standing dead or dying trees that provide nestone age class. Uneven-aged stands have trees of three ing sites for cavity nesting species and roosting and foragor more age classes that are mixed, or in small groups. ing sites for raptors, bats, and other wildlife. 

Combinations of even- and uneven-aged systems can 

be used in an area to enhance wildlife habitat and timber Nonpoint source pollution degrades stream water 

production. Table 1 presents basic characteristics of quality, impacting aquatic life. In 1981, the Forestry 

timber harvest management systems. Nonpoint Source Pollution Technical Task Force 

developed Best Management Practices, or BMPs, to 

One potential result of timber harvest and regeneration minimize nonpoint source pollution, such as 

practices is a high level of human activity, including sedimentation and pollution of waterways caused by 

construction and frequent use of logging roads and timber harvest and other land use activities. BMPs 

skid trails. Comprehensive timberland management were recently revised to include considerations for 

includes measures to limit disturbance, soil erosion, nonpoint source pollution abatement in wetlands. 

and discharge of sediments and pollutants into Forest management BMPs include: 

waterways. 

• Permanent and temporary access roads should 

follow land contours and minimum grade U.S. Forest Service 

Table 1. Characteristics of even-aged and uneven-aged harvest methods. 

Even-aged Uneven-aged 

Harvest method Clearcut, shelterwood,and seed-tree. Single-tree and group selection. 

Tree type Shade-intolerant. Shade-tolerant. 

Stand appearance Uniform tree height within stands. Variation in tree height. If group selection 

used on groups larger than 0.4 hectares, 

appears similar to even-aged stands. 

Forest appearance Patchwork of stands at various ages. Uniformly mixed tree sizes. 

Wildlife use Species adapted to early and midsuccessional stages and mature forest 

conditions, depending on stand age. 

Species adapted to mature forests 

as well as early and mid-successional 

conditions. 

4
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

guidelines. 

• Water control structures should be installed on 

roads with highly erosive soils. 

• Landowners should limit the number, width, and 

length of access roads, especially at stream 

crossings. 

• Road construction should take place under dry 

conditions 

• Dips, water bars, and water turnouts should be 

installed on roads to provide proper surface 

drainage on roadways. 

• Hay bales, rocks, or silt fences should be 

strategically placed to help prevent sedimentation. 

• Wildlife-friendly vegetation should be planted to 

stabilize exposed soil and supply wildlife food and 

cover. 

In general, landowner compliance with voluntary 

BMPs is high. BMP specifications for timber harvest 

and road construction vary from state to state. Some 

states enforce BMPs while others rely on voluntary 

compliance. Landowners should contact their state 

forest management agencies for specific information 

on local BMPs. 

Even-aged management 

Under even-aged management systems, most of the 

trees within the stand are approximately the same age. 

Small stands of different age classes can form a diverse 

assemblage of wildlife habitats. Even-aged timber 

stand management often begins with the complete, or 

Moose forage on lush vegetation in clearcut areas. 

Southern Research Station, U.S. Forest Service 

The shelterwood cut in this southern mixed forest leaves 

mature trees on-site to produce seed and maintain some 

mature habitat structure for woodpeckers and other wildlife. 

nearly complete, removal of existing timber. 

Clearcutting removes all marketable trees, dramatically 

changing the composition of wildlife in the area. 

Usually, mature forest flora and fauna are replaced by 

early successional species. Small clearcuts (1 to 15 

acres) are generally more beneficial to wildlife than 

larger clearcuts. The flush of herbaceous growth in 

clearcut areas lasts for several years and provides big 

game animals such as white-tailed deer, elk, and moose 

with nutritious browse, and early successional birds 

and small mammals with food and cover. The shrub 

layer succeeds the grasses and forbs and supports 

“thicket” species like the yellow-breasted chat, willow 

flycatcher, mourning warbler, and many small mammals. 

Herbaceous growth and shrubs also provide rich 

sources of food for lepidopteran larvae and other 

insects that are preyed on by foraging bats. The size, 

5
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

U.S. Forest Service 

Even-aged timber harvests in Deer Lodge National Forest. 

shape, and location of clearcuts affects the wildlife 

habitat quality (see discussion on edge habitat below) 

and the species associated with clearcut and surrounding areas. Clearcuts with irregularly shaped boundaries 

have more edge than clearcuts with linear boundaries. 

Snags, den trees, and mast-producing trees left 

standing can add wildlife habitat value to clearcut areas. 

Both shelterwood and seed-tree cuts leave some 

mature trees on-site as seed sources to help establish 

new stands. These treatments help conserve some 

mature forest structure required by forest birds like 

nuthatches and woodpeckers. Nuts and seeds 

produced by the mature trees also provide a source 

of wildlife food during the fall and winter months. 

Forests that contain several successional stages of 

even-aged stands can provide quality wildlife habitat. 

Plantations are stands of trees that are established by 

planting or artificial seeding. Although single species 

plantations seem dependable timber producers, they 

can require intensive management at considerable 

expense. Insect blights, disease, high winds, and other 

natural disturbances can destroy susceptible trees. 

Conifers such as ponderosa pine, red pine, loblolly 

pine, slash pine, and longleaf pine are often used in 

U.S. Forest Service 

Eastern even-aged pine monocultures typically provide limited wildlife habitat quality due to the lack of plant diversity. 

plantations because they are fire-resistant and produce 

marketable timber in short rotations. 

Tree species with serotinous cones (species like 

lodgepole, jack, and sand pine) usually regenerate 

successfully following burning of clearcut areas. 

Serotinous cones remain tightly closed until extremely 

high temperatures, or fire, causes the resin to melt and 

the cones to open, releasing the seeds. The open 

ground created in burned areas provides suitable sites 

for seeds to germinate. 

The Swainson’s thrush nests in low-growing shrubs or just 

above the ground in conifers, especially in damp areas, 

including riparian buffer zones excluded from timber harvest. 

6
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Even-aged harvest and regeneration practices: 

Clearcut.— Removal of all trees in a stand; reserve trees may be left to accomplish management objectives 

other than regeneration. 

Shelterwood cut.— Removal of most trees in a stand, but leaving enough trees to provide shade for the 

regenerating age class; trees can be cut in groups, strips, or in a uniform manner to reduce competition for 

regeneration. 

Seed-tree cut.— Removing all trees except for a small number of widely distributed trees for seed 

production; seed trees usually removed after regeneration is established. 

In even-aged systems, the rotation is the period between regeneration establishment and final cutting. 

Uneven-aged harvest and regeneration practices: 

Single-tree selection cut.— Individual trees of all size classes removed more or less uniformly throughout 

the stand to increase growth of remaining trees and provide space for regeneration. 

Group selection cut.— Small groups of trees removed for regeneration of new age classes; width of cut 

rarely exceeds twice the height of the mature trees. 

In uneven-aged systems, the cutting cycle is the interval between partial harvests. 

Uneven-aged management 

Under uneven-aged systems the age of the trees within 

the stand varies greatly. Unevenaged forests can 

produce quality timber while providing largely 

continuous canopy cover. Single-tree and group 

selection cuts maintain mixed age classes within one 

stand. The high percentage of canopy closure (often 

70% or greater) can limit herbaceous ground cover, 

and wildlife species associated with those vegetation 

types. Although mid-story levels may develop, brushy 

ground cover required by some wildlife species can 

be limited or altogether missing. Some wildlife species 

benefit from the continuous forest cover associated 

with uneven-aged systems (e.g., some forest interior 

birds), but others do not. 

The single-tree selection method removes designated 

trees from one or more age classes every five to 30 

years, depending on stand density and growth rates. 

The harvest of individual trees at periodic intervals 

creates space for adjacent tree crowns to expand. Single-tree and group selection methods create small 

canopy gaps, which are similar to gaps formed by 

natural forest disturbances. Group selection treatments 

remove groups of trees from one or more age classes. 

Moderately shade-intolerant species can benefit from 

this harvesting method because larger openings are 

created. In the Midwest, forest interior birds like the 

hooded warbler and Kentucky warbler take advantage 

of canopy gaps for food and cover. 

Improving Fish and Wildlife Habitat with Forest 

Management Practices 

Successful forest management for wildlife requires an

understanding of how specific timber management

treatments affect the targeted fish and wildlife species.

Characteristics of effective management strategies

include:

� A thorough inventory and description of forest

management areas, including vegetation species 

composition and age structure. 

� An understanding of how the managed area fits 

7
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

into the surrounding landscape. 

� Clearly defined timber management objectives for 

the management area. 

� Clearly defined fish and wildlife management 

objectives for the management area, such as 

managing target species or increasing biodiversity. 

� A thorough evaluation of the quality and quantity 

of habitat available for the targeted species. 

� Continuous evaluation and modification of timber 

stand treatments and other management practices. 

Regeneration 

Regeneration establishes new growth in an open space 

created by natural or artificial disturbance. Stands can 

be regenerated artificially using mechanical treatments, 

prescribed burning, herbicide applications and planting 

tree seeds, seedlings or cuttings. Stands can also be 

regenerated by relying on germination of existing seeds 

and sprouting of stumps. Regeneration of native trees 

and shrubs provide food and cover for many wildlife 

species. 

Thinning 

Thinning removes weak or suppressed trees and opens 

growing space for the remaining healthy trees. Periodic 

thinning treatments help reduce the risk of insect 

infestations, disease, and catastrophic fires. The timing 

and intensity of thinning regimes is as important as 

selecting which trees to remove. Thinning works best 

as part of a comprehensive forest management plan. 

There are four common methods used to select 

individual trees for thinning: 

¤ Low thinning removes trees from lower crown 

levels to enhance upper crown level growth; soft 

mast, seeds, and grasses typically increase after 

low thinning. 

¤ Crown thinning removes trees from the mid- to 

upper crown classes to favor growth of larger trees. 

¤ Selection thinning harvests trees from upper 

crown levels and promotes growth in lower 

canopies of uneven-aged stands. 

¤ Free thinning removes trees with no preference 

to crown level, but cutting patterns are used to 

improve growth. 

Thinning can improve wildlife habitat by stimulating new 

growth in the understory and improving mast production 

by overstory trees, and by increasing flight space under 

the canopy for foraging bats and forest raptors. 

Brush piles 

Small mammals, amphibians, reptiles and other wildlife 

of the forest floor use brush piles for escape, resting 

and nesting cover. Effective brush piles are built on a 

base of coarse materials so openings are available at 

ground level for wildlife movement. A few piles of 

A 

B 

C 

Brush piles should be constructed with heavy material at 

the base (A) with increasingly finer material on top (B and 

C) to provide cover for small mammals, reptiles and other 

wildlife. 

C. Rewa 

8
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

large rocks at least 12 inches wide and 2 feet tall, and 

several crisscrossed logs at least 6 feet long and 6 

inches in diameter make good brush pile bases. Stumps 

can also make good bases. Progressively smaller limbs 

and brush are piled onto the base until the brush pile is 

about 6 feet tall. Living brush piles can be made by 

partially cutting small trees near the base and pushing 

them to the ground using the bark left intact at the 

base as a hinge. The partial severing of the tree allows 

it to remain alive, providing dense live foliage near the 

ground. 

Prescribed fire 

Fire is a natural disturbance element of many native 

ecosystems. However, fire suppression efforts have 

largely eliminated the regular occurrence of fire from 

many forested areas. Prescribed fire can be an 

economically and ecologically beneficial forest 

management tool when applied properly. Prescribed 

burning is conducted to achieve specific management 

goals such as increasing timber production, eliminating 

undesirable vegetation, improving wildlife habitat, or 

reducing fire hazards. Fire type, frequency, and intensity are three important factors to consider when 

planning a prescribed burn. Most prescribed fires are 

carried out under cool, moist conditions to reduce the 

chance of wildfire. With careful planning and 

consultation with the proper authorities, prescribed fire 

can be an indispensable element of forest management 

for wildlife. 

Southern Research Station, U.S. Forest Service 

Prescribed burns that simulate natural fire regimes can 

stimulate new herbaceous growth that benefits deer, turkeys, and other wildlife. 

Studies show that most wildlife escapes direct 

mortality from fire. For many wildlife species, habitat 

quality is improved by fire, especially for species 

adapted to early successional vegetation. Surface fires 

stimulate new herbaceous growth used by deer, elk, 

moose and other herbivores, and enhance production 

of berries used by black bears, songbirds and other 

wildlife. Small mammal populations generally increase 

in response to new vegetation growth, providing a food 

source for carnivores. Studies have shown that 

populations of wild turkeys, northern bobwhites and 

Bachman’s sparrows increased after prescribed fires 

in forests of the southeastern United States. 

Edge habitat 

Edge is the boundary where two different plant 

communities meet. There is generally diverse 

Top: Clearcut timber harvest without considerations 

for wildlife. 

takes into account the needs of wildlife associated 

with edge habitats. 

Bottom: Clearcut timber harvest that 

From Hassinger et al. (1981). 

9 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

vegetation associated with edge habitats, where some 

animals take advantage of the close proximity of 

different forest successional stages for food and cover. 

In the past, forest wildlife managers have tried to 

produce the maximum amount of edge to increase 

habitat for game species. However, edge does not 

benefit all wildlife. Many populations of forest interior 

birds are declining due to fragmentation of forested 

habitats into smaller patches and the increasing amount 

of edge and the associated effects of predation and 

nest parasitism (see section on forest interior birds 

below). Forest interior species typically avoid edge 

habitats and require large tracts of contiguous forest. 

Wildlife species adapted to edge conditions readily 

outcompete forest interior species for resources along 

forest margins. 

Creation of edges has the following general effects on 

forest wildlife: 

• Habitat quality for edge-generalist species

(those species whose fitness is enhanced near edge 

habitats) is improved. 

• Habitat quality for area-sensitive species (those 

species requiring large blocks of contiguous forest) 

is reduced. 

• Habitat quality for edge-sensitive species (those 

forest species whose survival and reproductive 

capacity is reduced near edges) is reduced. 

Clearcuts often create abrupt edges, and cutting 

patterns determine the amount of edge habitat created. 

C. Rewa 

The dam-building activities of beavers can result in productive habitat for invertebrates, fish, bats, and waterfowl. 

Corridor Functions and Benefits: 

Wildlife habitat

¤ connect habitat remnants to increase habitat area 

for plants and animals 

¤ increase opportunities for emigrating and 

immigrating wildlife, such as increasing travel lanes 

for migrating or juvenile animals 

¤ may serve as home range for corridor “dwellers” 

such as insects, amphibians, reptiles, small 

mammals, and birds 

¤ increase foraging opportunities and cover for some 

wildlife species 

Other environmental functions

¤ reduce flooding

¤ reduce soil erosion and stabilize stream banks

¤ improve water quality and quantity

¤ help improve air quality

Social and economic functions

¤ recreational and educational opportunities

¤ aesthetics

¤ introduced corridors can help increase crop yields

and quality, decrease energy consumption, and 

increase property values 

Circular cuts produce the least amount of edge. 

Landowners and managers can increase edge by 

elongating circles or creating several smaller circles. 

Irregularly shaped cuts containing islands of residual 

trees significantly increase edge, whereas straight linear 

cuts minimize edge. 

Managers should be aware of the effect of edges on 

target wildlife species and plan clearcut sizes and 

shapes accordingly. 

Forest fragmentation 

Forest fragmentation is a process in which contiguous 

forested landscapes are broken up into smaller islands 

of forest. Forest fragmentation is a major concern 

because noncontiguous forest cover can negatively 

impact some wildlife populations. Besides forest interior birds, many wide-ranging carnivores (e.g., 

bobcat, lynx, black bear, fisher, wolverine) need large 

blocs of contiguous forest habitat. Adverse affects of 

forest fragmentation include: 

• Increased predation and nest parasitism on forest 

10
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

interior birds. 

• Abandonment of otherwise suitable habitat by 

area-sensitive species due to close proximity of 

forest edges. 

• Increased interspecific competition. 

• Overall habitat loss. 

Single-tree and small group selection cuts help 

preserve areas of contiguous forest by imitating natural 

forest disturbance processes. Clearcuts and large 

group selection cuts should be avoided in areas 

managed for area-sensitive species. 

Maintenance or establishment of forested corridors 

linking forest habitat patches can mitigate the effects 

of fragmentation to some extent. As forest 

fragmentation and urban sprawl increase, corridors 

become increasingly important habitat elements for 

many species of forest wildlife. Natural corridors 

include strips of woody riparian vegetation along 

waterways, and artificial corridors include windbreaks, 

shelterbelts, and other plantings. 

Vernal pools 

Vernal pools, also called ephemeral or snowmelt pools, 

in forest lands of the eastern U.S. are shallow 

depressions on the forest floor that fill with water when 

groundwater levels are high, particularly in the spring. 

Some herbaceous wetlands in California are also 

known as vernal pools, however, the focus here is on 

K. Cook

Woodland vernal pools provide important spring breeding 

habitat for wood frogs, salamanders and other amphibians. 

Conserving vernal pools includes managing adjacent 

upland habitat. In forested areas, the loss of 

surrounding trees and vegetation around vernal pools 

reduces shade, increases water temperatures, and 

increases evaporation causing the pools to dry up more 

quickly. Natural, undisturbed buffers approximately 

300 yards wide around pools should help protect 

animal movements to and from the pools. Forested 

corridors connecting pools should be preserved, and 

debris or fill should not be dumped into vernal pools. 

Roads can be lethal barriers for animals trying to reach 

vernal pools. Drainage containing road salt, roadside 

pesticides, and other chemicals can have negative 

effects on vernal pool habitats. Habitat alterations 

that must take place should be carried out from 

November through March to minimize disturbance to 

breeding and resident animals. Classified as temporary 

wetlands in many states, landowners and managers 

should check with their state natural resources 

agencies for state and federal laws pertaining to vernal 

pools and associated plants and animals. 

the vernal pools in forested areas. There are several 

common characteristics of woodland vernal pools: 1) 

generally occur on ancient soils, usually with an 

impermeable hardpan, claypan, or volcanic basalt base/ 

substrate, 2) ground is covered by shallow water for 

variable periods of time from winter through spring, 

and pools are typically dry summer through fall, and 

3) lack fish populations, which reduces the threat of 

predation for amphibians and other animals that breed 

exclusively in the pools. During drought years, water 

may be absent year-round. 

These unique habitats provide a safe haven for some 

specialized breeding populations of amphibians and 

invertebrates and food and cover for migrating birds 

and other wildlife. Many species that inhabit vernal 

pools are adapted to harsh conditions. High nutrient 

levels produced by decaying organic material support 

rapid development of amphibian larvae and other 

organisms before pools dry up. Animals that breed 

exclusively in vernal pools and require those habitats 

for survival are called vernal pool obligate species. 

The wood frog, a terrestrial amphibian, breeds only in 

vernal pools as do several species of mole salamanders 

(including the spotted salamander, blue-spotted 

salamander, Jefferson salamander, marbled salamander, 

and others). Other species that use vernal pools in 

11
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

conjunction with permanent aquatic habitats include 

the spring peeper, green frog, American toad, Fowler’s 

toad, four-toed salamander, red-spotted newt, spotted 

turtle, painted turtle, snapping turtle, water scorpions, 

diving beetle larvae, whirligig beetle larvae, dobsonfly 

larvae, damselfly larvae, fingernail clam, amphibious 

snails, and others. 

Vernal pools are easily overlooked when dry, and are 

often unknowingly destroyed by land use and 

management activities. Depressions on the forest floor 

with dark gray, mottled soils and damp, blackened 

leaf litter are indicators of vernal pools. The area may 

also have a strong smell of decomposing organic matter 

or sulfur. The bases of trees may exhibit watermarks. 

State wildlife agencies may have lists of possible vernal 

pool sites. 

Riparian zones 

Riparian zones are terrestrial areas adjacent to and 

influenced by perennial or intermittent bodies of water. 

Riparian zones provide transition areas between 

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which create unique 

and highly valuable fish and wildlife habitats. Riparian 

vegetation provides essential nesting habitat for 

songbirds, and foraging habitat for songbirds and bats, 

especially in arid western environments. Forested 

riparian zones adjacent to streams and rivers provide 

a variety of important ecological functions, including 

the following: 

Raccoons inhabit wooded areas near streams, lakes, and 

marshes. Preserving vegetation in riparian zones provides 

habitat for fish, amphibians, and other wildlife while filtering pollutants and reducing stormwater runoff. 

C. Rewa 

Riparian vegetation provides shade and a source of organic matter and large wood to stream ecosystems. 

• Stream shading: Many fish species, especially 

salmonids and other “cold water” species, cannot 

tolerate elevated water temperatures. Riparian 

areas that are heavily vegetated can moderate 

stream temperatures by shading the stream in 

summer and providing a buffer from extreme cold 

in winter. 

• Large wood: Riparian forests are a source of large 

wood, which when it falls into the stream, provides structural complexity to stream channels. Instream wood often results in the development of 

pools which can slow down stream flow and provide fish refuge from high velocity water, hiding 

cover and over-wintering habitat. Also, in-stream 

wood increases the retention time of smaller organic detritus by capturing leaves and twigs in 

branches and roots. This allows more time for 

aquatic invertebrates to break down the detritus, 

supporting the food chain that sustains fish and 

other vertebrate species. In-stream wood is also 

habitat to some aquatic insects. 

• Organic matter input: In upland streams that are 

shaded by streamside forests, as much as 75 percent of the organic food base is supplied by dissolved organic compounds or detritus such as fruit, 

limbs, leaves and insects that fall from the riparian 

canopy. Benthic detritivores, the stream bottom 

bacteria, fungi and invertebrates that feed on the 

detritus, form the basis of the aquatic food chain. 

12
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

C. Rewa

Wolf trees typically have broad, spreading crowns with many 

natural cavities used by wildlife. 

They pass on this energy when they are consumed 

by larger benthic fauna and eventually by fish. 

• Minimize sediment input: Riparian ground vegetation acts as a very efficient filtration system by 

removing sediment and other suspended solids, 

as well as sediment bound nutrients and pesticides 

from surface runoff. This function is critical for 

maintaining good water quality. 

• Nutrient assimilation: Riparian areas function as 

a sink when nutrients are taken up by plants and 

stored in plant tissues. In wetter areas, nutrients in 

leaf litter may be stored for long periods as peat. 

Also, sediments filtered out by vegetation remain 

in the riparian sink to become incorporated into 

the riparian soils. 

Maintaining the integrity of riparian zones in managed 

forests is a critical aspect of good forest stewardship 

and integral to providing high quality fish and wildlife 

habitat. Disturbance of riparian areas during timber 

harvest operations or other activities should be 

minimized to the extent possible. The width of nonharvested buffer zones adjacent to streams depends 

on the stream order, sensitivity of the target species to 

disturbance, streamside slopes and stream gradient, 

and many other factors. Managers should consult with 

local wildlife and natural resource professionals for 

guidelines concerning the proper width of riparian 

buffer areas that should be left undisturbed. For all 

practical purposes, the wider the undisturbed buffer 

zone, the greater the fish and wildlife habitat benefits 

that will be maintained. 

Cavity-Nesting Wildlife 

Some wildlife species depend on tree cavities for 

nesting. Although this leaflet does not describe 

requirements for each individual species, general 

habitat needs are addressed. Primary cavity-nesters, 

such as members of the woodpecker family, create 

cavities by drilling holes in dead trees and branches. 

Many passerine (perching) birds and owls, a few 

species of waterfowl, and some mammals, including 

several species of bats, are secondary cavity-nesters, 

relying on natural cavities formed by fungus, knots, 

and insects or cavities abandoned by primary 

excavators for nesting or hiding. Tables 2 and 3 provide 

lists of North American cavity nesting mammals and 

birds. 

Competition is high for natural cavities, especially where 

mature forest stands are removed. Landowners and 

managers can install artificial nesting structures to 

increase the availability of suitable nesting sites for 

cavity-nesting wildlife (see Fish and Wildlife Habitat 

Management leaflet No. 20, Artificial Nesting 

Structures). 

Snags and den trees 

Snags and den trees are important to many species of 

wildlife, especially cavity-nesters. Dead branches are 

used for perching and roosting, while the decaying 

wood provides a rich invertebrate food source. 

Sloughing bark on snags provides maternity sites for 

17 of North America’s 45 bat species. Naturally 

occurring snags should be left standing wherever 

possible. Girdling live trees is sometimes used to create 

snags. To do this, a 3- to 4-inch band of bark is 

removed from the circumference of a live tree trunk, 

which kills the tree without felling it. Where safety 

permits, as many snags as possible should be preserved 

during timber harvest and thinning. Because snags are 

Table 2. Some cavity-nesting mammals in North American

forests.

Yellow-pine chipmunk Common red-backed vole 

Northern flying squirrel Yellow-necked field mouse 

Red squirrel Ermine 

Bushy-tailed woodrat Big brown bat 

Deer mouse Raccoon 

13
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

an ephemeral resource, green and dying trees should 

also be left as future replacements for snags lost 

naturally. To prevent loss to wind throw, snags can 

be left in clumps, or in locations less susceptible to 

prevailing winds. 

General recommendations for maintaining snags in 

most timber stands to benefit wildlife include: 

� One snag/acre larger than 20-inch dbh for use by 

larger woodpeckers and owls. 

� Four snags/acre between 10- and 20-inch dbh 

for small mammals such as flying squirrels and 

smaller raptors such as American kestrels. 

� Two snags/acre between 6- and 10-inch dbh for 

smaller birds such as chickadees and nuthatches. 

Den trees, sometimes referred to a “wolf” trees, 

frequently contain weather-tight cavities used by 

wildlife for nesting, food storage, and escape cover. 

Good den trees do not have broken-off tops, which 

expose wildlife to the weather. Like snags, den trees 

(or a few large, potential den trees) should be 

preserved during timber harvest or thinning practices. 

Waterfowl, owls, and woodpeckers 

Some species of waterfowl, such as the wood duck, 

nest in cavities in wooded areas near water. Aquatic 

vegetation and invertebrates provide food for adults 

and young. Mast-producing trees (especially oaks) 

are important adult food sources as well. Natural 

cavities in snags and stumps or cavities abandoned by 

large woodpeckers are used for nesting. Vegetated 

buffer zones around streams and wetlands help protect 

aquatic foraging areas. For more information on wood 

duck habitat requirements, see Fish and Wildlife 

Habitat Management Leaflet No. 1, Wood Duck. 

Most cavity-nesting owls inhabit mature mixed-conifer 

or deciduous forests near riparian areas. Individuals 

of some species use several different cavities within 

their territories. The spotted owl and flammulated owl 

are both area-sensitive species, and prefer large tracts 

Table 3. Common names of cavity-nesting birds in forests of North America.

Primary (excavator) Secondary (nonexcavator) Secondary (nonexcavator) 

Northern flicker 

Pileated woodpecker 

Red-bellied woodpecker 

Gila woodpecker 

Red-headed woodpecker 

Acorn woodpecker 

Lewis' woodpecker 

Yellow-bellied sapsucker 

Williamson's sapsucker 

Hairy woodpecker 

Downy woodpecker 

Ladder-backed woodpecker 

Nuttall's woodpecker 

Strickland's woodpecker 

White-headed woodpecker 

Black-backed woodpecker 

Three-toed woodpecker 

Black-capped chickadee* 

Carolina chickadee* 

Boreal chickadee* 

Chestnut-backed chickadee* 

Brown-crested flycatcher 

Dusky-capped flycatcher 

Great-crested flycatcher 

Ash-throated flycatcher 

Violet-green swallow 

Mountain chickadee 

Tufted titmouse 

Oak titmouse 

Juniper titmouse 

Bridled titmouse 

White-breasted nuthatch 

Red-breasted nuthatch 

Brown-headed nuthatch 

Pygmy nuthatch 

Brown creeper 

House wren 

Winter wren 

Carolina wren 

Bewick's wren 

Eastern bluebird 

Western bluebird 

Mountain bluebird 

Tree swallow 

Barrow's goldeneye 

Common goldeneye 

Bufflehead 

Common merganser 

Hooded merganser 

Black-bellied whistling duck 

Wood duck 

Barn owl 

Barred owl 

Spotted owl 

Western screech owl 

Eastern screech owl 

Whiskered screech owl 

Flammulated owl 

Elf owl 

Ferruginous pygmy owl 

Northern pygmy owl 

Northern saw-whet owl 

Boreal owl 

Northern hawk owl 

Prothonotary warbler 

Lucy's warbler 

American kestrel 

Purple martin 

*Also nests as secondary cavity nester. 

14 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

of mature coniferous forests. On long rotations, evenaged systems can provide suitable habitat for many 

owl species. Owls prey on small mammals and birds 

found in early succession vegetation adjacent to mature 

forests, and in mature forest canopy gaps. 

Woodpeckers (family Picidae: woodpeckers, flickers, 

and sapsuckers) rely on snags and mature trees found 

in deciduous and coniferous forests for food and cover. 

Most species prefer moist environments or riparian 

habitats, which promote wood decay and prolific insect 

populations. On a landscape level, mosaics of different 

age classes created by even-aged management 

practices can enhance woodpecker habitat quality if 

snags and mature trees are preserved. Some areasensitive species, like the red-cockaded woodpecker 

that inhabits mature pine forests in the southeast, do 

not inhabit heavily logged areas. Prescribed burning 

can improve habitat quality for species that rely on 

fire-tolerant pines, such as Lewis’ woodpecker and 

black-backed woodpecker. 

Wood ducks use cavities in trees for nesting, but will also 

readily accept nest boxes. 

Woodpeckers may occupy several different cavities 

simultaneously for several years, increasing the 

importance of snag quality and availability. 

Woodpeckers are year-round residents, or move short 

distances in the winter to find food. Some 

woodpeckers use storage sites, called granaries, to 

Table 4. Habitat characteristics and management recommendations for some forest interior birds of North America.

Species

Nest locationFeeding locationMin. forest size*

Management recommendation

Yellow-throated vireo C C 250 selective cutting to maintain partially open canopy. 

Red-eyed vireo C C 50 harvest techniques that retain at least 70% canopy closure. 

Northern Parula C C 250 retain 60-70% canopy closure and increase shrubs. 

Black-and-white warbler G M 750 maintain early successional forest. 

American redstart U M 80 maintain closed canopy and thin understory trees. 

Prothonotary warbler S G 250 maintain old-growth stands with dead/dying trees. 

Worm-eating warbler G G 750 maintain dense understory and low tree basal area. 

Louisiana waterthrush G G 250 maintain wooded streambanks and thick undergrowth. 

Ovenbird G G 250 maintain closed canopy and open understory. 

Barred owl S OU 250 maintain large areas on 150-yr. or longer rotations. 

Whip-poor-will G O 300 pole-sized even-aged stands, retain decaying trees. 

Hairy woodpecker S T 10 retain decaying and healthy trees during timber harvest. 

Pileated woodpecker T T 125 retain dead/decaying trees, 150 yr. or greater rotations. 

Acadian flycatcher S LC 80 maintain tall closed canopy; thin understory trees. 

Kentucky warbler U G 80 dense understory with well-developed ground cover. 

Hooded warbler U U 80 maintain canopy closure and dense shrub layer. 

Scarlet tanager C C 25 maintain pole-size stands, well-developed canopy. 

Red-shouldered hawk C O 250 maintain mature forest at 140 to 400 trees/acre. 

* Minimum forest size in acres. (Compiled from Bushman and Therres 1988.)

C = canopy, G = ground, U = understory, S = snag, M = mid-story, SH = shrub, T = trunk, 

LC = lower canopy, O = open areas, OU = open understory.

15 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

cache surplus mast. Trees in the center of a bird’s 

territory are often used as granaries. Woodpeckers 

play an important role by reducing the number of tree 

disease-causing insects found under mature tree bark. 

Most woodpeckers eat the larvae and adults of woodboring beetles, ants, flies, caterpillars, and other insects. 

Some drill holes and forage under bark for insects, 

while others feed on the wing. Flickers eat 

invertebrates from the forest floor or fallen logs. 

Sapsuckers drill small holes in live trees and feed on 

insects that become trapped in the oozing sap. This 

resource partitioning allows several different species 

to inhabit the same area. 

Forest interior birds 

Management for forest interior birds focuses on 

maintaining large tracts of contiguous forest in different 

age and structural classes. Table 4 provides a list of 

forest interior birds with general habitat management 

recommendations. Forested landscapes managed on 

even-aged systems can support viable populations of 

forest interior species, providing advantages of both 

early succession and late succession habitats. Harvest 

management strategies should avoid forest 

fragmentation and minimize edge. In areas where snags 

are scarce (<1/acre), landowners can provide nest 

USDI, USGS

Brown-headed cowbirds are more likely to parasitize nests 

of forest birds in edge habitats than in forest interior regions. Here, two cowbird eggs in this wood thrush nest will 

hatch before the others, favoring the cowbird chicks. 

boxes for cavity-nesting species. 

Habitat loss caused by fragmentation is the major 

cause of reduced forest interior bird populations. This 

includes deforestation of the winter habitats of 

neotropical migrants. In areas of agricultural and urban 

development, forest interior species are forced to 

compete with other birds that are better adapted to 

forest edges and early successional vegetation. During 

the nesting season, from late April through early August, 

landowners and managers should minimize 

disturbance. Individual treatments will depend on 

forest types, local bird species, and the objectives of 

the landowner or manager. 

Nest parasitism 

Nest parasites are birds that lay their eggs in the nests 

of other species. After hatching, the parasite young 

typically pushes the other eggs and nestlings out of the 

nest and is then raised by its “foster” parents. Nest 

parasitism, particularly in edge habitats, threatens the 

reproductive success of many forest birds. The 

brown-headed cowbird, the most common nest 

parasite, benefits from increased edge created by 

timber harvest, agriculture, and urban development. 

Cowbirds prefer early successional vegetation. In 

landscapes with tall, continuous forest cover, cowbird 

numbers are generally low. If preliminary monitoring 

shows that forest interior birds are declining because 

of nest parasitism by cowbirds, then forest 

management should include cowbird control measures. 

However, perhaps the most effective means of 

controlling the effects of nest parasitism is by limiting 

forest fragmentation. 

Nest predation 

Increased nest predation is another consequence of 

forest fragmentation. Blue jays, American crows, 

common grackles, squirrels, mice, snakes, and 

domestic pets are frequent nest predators in edge 

habitats. Studies show that predation rates for nesting 

birds in large, forested tracts (managed or unmanaged) 

are significantly lower than for forest birds that are 

forced to nest in edge areas. 

16
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Blue jays are common nest predators in edge habitats. 

Bats 

Many North American bats roost in dead and dying 

trees, especially beneath loose bark, in cavities, 

decaying hollows, and lightning strike crevices. Others 

roost exclusively in the foliage of living trees. Bats 

also use old stumps or downed logs. All of these roosts 

are required for rearing young, as migratory stopover 

sites, and occasionally for hibernation. Bats typically 

select the largest snags and live trees available. Snags 

in the early stages of decay, with much of their bark 

remaining, appear to be the most important. Roost 

trees often receive increased sun exposure, either by 

extending above the canopy or because they are 

located in small forest openings, along forest edges, 

or in more open stands. In landscapes with steeper 

topography and cold-air drainage, some evidence suggests that upland and ridge top roosts may be used 

more frequently than roosts in drainage bottoms. Most 

species move frequently between several roosts during 

the course of a season, often within a relatively small 

area. Bats may return to the same roost or group of 

roosts in subsequent years. Maternity roosts are usually 

located close to water, as lactating females require 

frequent access to drinking water. 

In the eastern United States, the northern myotis and 

the endangered Indiana bat rely on exfoliating bark 

for maternity sites; so do the long-eared myotis and 

long-legged myotis in the West. Other species, such 

as the big-brown bat, silver-haired bat, and pallid bat, 

seem to prefer cavities. In bottomland hardwood 

forests of the southeastern United States, the 

Rafinesque’s big-eared bat and southeastern myotis 

form maternity colonies in the hollow trunks of gum, 

tupelo, and beech trees with basal cavities. Red bats 

and hoary bats roost primarily in the foliage of 

deciduous and coniferous trees, while Seminole and 

northern yellow bats are often found in clumps of 

Spanish moss. 

Bats feed on a variety of night-flying insects, including 

many forest pests. Bats forage along forest edges, 

over riparian areas, along forest roads and trails, and 

in natural forest gaps or small harvest-created 

openings. Feeding strategies vary greatly among forestdwelling species, with some foraging around groundlevel shrubs while others prefer subcanopy, canopy, 

or above-canopy locations. 

Because snags are an ephemeral resource, and roost 

switching appears to be essential for most species, 

forests should be managed where possible to maintain 

consistent roost availability over time. As many dead, 

damaged, and dying trees and defective (cull) live trees 

Bat Conservation International 

Nearly half of North American bat species use forsted habitats for foraging, roosting and maternity sites in tree cavities on under sloughing bark. 

17
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

should be left as safety and silvicultural objectives 

permit. Retain less-decayed snags in favor of moredecayed snags, large diameter snags in favor of small 

diameter snags, and snags with greater bark cover in 

favor of snags with little bark cover. Leaving small 

groups of green trees around snags, or groups of snags, 

can help protect them from wind throw. Leave as 

many hardwoods as possible that have natural or 

woodpecker-excavated cavities. In intensively 

managed forests, snags can be maintained in stream 

side management zones, the habitat matrix separating 

managed stands, forested corridors, and other less 

intensively managed habitats. Where possible, maintain 

well-distributed, variable-sized patches of mature and 

old-growth forest through extended harvest rotations. 

Thinning overstocked stands can improve foraging 

habitat by increasing flight space beneath the canopy. 

Forest Classification 

The U.S. Forest Service has developed a system to 

classify forests in the United States. Seven broad forest 

regions were designated based on geography and 

major forest types. In this leaflet, the continental U.S. 

is divided into eastern and western forest types by the 

100th meridian. Dominant vegetation of the major 

forest types in eastern and western forest type groups 

are listed in Tables 9 and 11, respectively. 

Forests of the eastern United States are primarily 

deciduous or mixed conifer-deciduous forests, while 

the western U.S. has mostly coniferous forests. The 

basic progression of vegetation ranges from evergreen, 

needle-leaved trees in the far north to deciduous, 

broad-leaved trees to mixed deciduous and evergreen 

broad-leaved trees in the deep south. Combinations 

of broad- and needle-leaved trees are widespread. 

Each forest region has unique fish and wildlife species 

that depend on native forest vegetation types. The 

type of on-site vegetation depends on climate, geology 

and soil, fire, competing vegetation, and human 

influence (land-use development and timber 

management). The tables on the following pages 

describe flora and fauna characteristic of eastern and 

western forest types and management 

recommendations based on forest wildlife objectives. 

These tables are intended to guide local decisionmaking for managing forests for wildlife. 

Table 5. Some common mammals of 

eastern forests. 

Table 6. Some common birds of eastern forests. 

Table 7. Some common mammals 

of western forests. 

Table 8. Some common western forest birds. 

Virginia opossum 

Big brown bat 

Little brown bat 

Eastern mole 

Eastern chipmunk 

Northern and southern 

flying squirrels 

Red squirrel 

Deer mouse 

White-footed mouse 

Striped skunk 

Raccoon 

Short-tailed shrew 

Beaver 

Gray squirrel 

Long-tailed weasel 

Mink 

River otter 

Red fox 

Gray fox 

White-tailed deer 

Black bear 

Bobcat 

Red-tailed hawk 

Ruffed grouse 

Great horned owl 

Eastern screech owl 

Common flicker 

Pileated woodpecker 

Downy woodpecker 

Hairy woodpecker 

American crow 

Brown creeper 

Northern cardinal 

Broad-winged hawk 

Whip-poor-will 

Ruby-throated hummingbird 

Great crested flycatcher 

Eastern wood-pewee 

Wood thrush 

Red-eyed vireo 

Ovenbird 

Blue jay 

White-breasted nuthatch 

Elk 

White-tailed deer 

Mule deer 

Long-eared myotis 

Collared peccary 

Mountain lion 

Coyote 

Black bear 

Grizzly bear 

Williamson's sapsucker 

Western tanager 

Townsend's solitaire 

Mountain chickadee 

Hairy woodpecker 

Steller's jay 

Band-tailed pigeon 

Pine siskin 

Blue grouse 

Yellow-rumped warbler 

Dark-eyed junco 

White-crowned sparrow 

18
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 9. Indicator plant species for eastern forest type groups. 

Forest group Trees Shrubs Herbaceous 

White-red-jack pine White spruce, black 

spruce, balsam fir, paper 

birch, red pine, white pine, 

jack pine, Fraser fir, eastern 

hemlock, and aspens. 

Mountain maple, green 

alder, mountain ash, 

mountain holly, lowbush blueberry, elderberry. 

Red baneberry, nodding 

trillium, bunchberry, 

Canada mayflower, 

creeping wintergreen. 

Loblolly-shortleaf 

pine 

Shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, 

various oak and hickory 

species. 

Saw-palmetto, southern 

bayberry, odorless bayberry, winged sumac. 

Little bluestem grass, 

yellow stargrass, wiregrass, Spanish moss, 

colicroot. 

Longleaf-slash pine Longleaf pine, slash pine 

loblolly pine, shortleaf pine 

red oak, blackjack oak, water 

water oak. 

flowering dogwood, gallberry, yaupon, bayberry 

shining sumac, blueberry 

huckleberry 

blustem grasses, panic 

grasses, wiregrass 

Oak-pine Pitch pine, Virginia pine, 

various oak species, 

eastern red cedar. 

Bearberry, huckleberries, 

inkberry, broom crowberry, lowbush blueberry. 

Blazing-star, butterflyweed, pinesap, poverty 

grass, rough hawkweed, 

wild lupine. 

Oak-hickory Various oak spp., various 

hickory spp., flowering 

dogwood, sassafras, hophornbeam. 

Mountain laurel, highbush blueberry, lowbush 

blueberry, mapleleaf 

viburnum. 

Wintergreen, spotted 

pipissisewa, wild sasparilla, violet woodsorrel. 

Oak-gum-cypress Black gum, water tupelo, 

sweetgum, red maple, swamp buttonbush, hobblebush, bower, heartleaf 

hickory, eastern sycamore, 

oaks. 

Swamp-privet, spicebush, Spanish moss, virgin's 

swamp dogwood, wildraisin. 

ampelopsis, wild grapes. 

Elm-ash-cottonwood Eastern cottonwood, black 

willow, American elm, slippery elm, green ash, black 

ash, eastern sycamore, river 

birch. 

American elder, moonseed, river grape, 

poison-ivy, trumpetcreeper, peppervine. 

Green dragon, sweet 

flag, ostrich fern, 

wood nettle, American 

black currant, jewelweed. 

Maple-beech-birch Yellow birch, sugar maple, 

American beech, eastern 

hemlock, red pine, pin 

cherry. 

Striped maple, hobblebush, nannyberry, 

mountain laurel. 

Painted trillium, goldthread, hairy beardtongue, common woodsorrel. 

Dot Paul, USDA NRCS 

Eastern forests

19
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10. Indicator wildlife species of eastern forest type groups. 

Forest group* Birds Mammals 

White-red-jack pine 

forest 

Table 10A 

Gray jay, common raven, boreal chickadee, white-winged 

crossbill, red-winged crosbill, pine grosbeak, evening 

grosbeak, pine siskin, red-breasted nuthatch, winter wren, 

ruby-crowned kinglet, black-backed woodpecker, northern 

three-toed woodpecker, blackburnian warbler, Cape May 

warbler, Wilson's warbler, Swainson's thrush. 

Moose, red squirrel, beaver, porcupine, 

snowshoe hare, lynx, marten, fisher. 

Loblolly-shortleaf 

pine forest 

Table 10B 

Brown-headed nuthatch, pine warbler, yellow-throated 

warbler, northern parula, red-cockaded woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, Bachman's sparrow, wild turkey, 

northern bobwhite, loggerhead shrike, painted bunting, 

eastern bluebird, black vulture. 

Virginia opossum, white-tailed deer, 

gray fox. 

Longleaf-slash pine 

Table 10C 

Brown-headed nuthatch, pine warbler, chipping sparrow 

Bachman's sparrow, red-cockaded woodpecker, tufted 

titmouse, blue grossbeak, northern bobwhite, American 

kestrel, wild turkey. 

fox squirrel, pocket gopher, southern 

flying squirrel, Florida mouse, whitetailed deer. 

Oak-pine forest 

Table 10D 

Pine warbler, prairie warbler, rufous-sided towhee, 

chipping sparrow, great horned owl, common flicker, 

brown thrasher, northern bobwhite. 

Gray squirrel, eastern chipmunk. 

Oak-hickory forest 

Table 10E 

Blue jay, wild turkey, scarlet tanager (north), summer 

tanager (south), rose-breasted grosbeak. 

Gray squirrel, fox squirrel, northern and 

southern flying squirrel, Indiana bat. 

Oak-gum-cypress 

forest 

Table 10F 

Prothonotary warbler, northern parula, herons and egrets, 

barred owl, wood duck, wood stork, white ibis, limpkin 

(deep south only), pileated woodpecker, Acadian 

flycatcher. 

Marsh rabbit, raccoon, Rafinesque's 

big-eared bat, southeastern myotis. 

Elm-ash-cottonwood 

forest 

Table 10G 

Belted kingfisher, bank swallow, spotted sandpiper, green 

heron, wood duck, yellow-throated vireo, blue-gray 

gnatcatcher. 

Mink, river otter. 

Maple-beech-birch 

forest 

Table 10H 

White-throated sparrow, northern junco, purple finch, 

northern waterthrush, mourning warbler, Canada warbler, 

black-throated warbler, blue-throated warbler, greenthroated warbler, American redstart, blue-headed vireo, 

cedar waxwing. 

Red-backed vole, snowshoe hare, red 

squirrel, pocupine, white-tailed deer, 

nothern long-eared bat. 

* Forest group and wildlife management recommendations table number (see following pages). 

C. Rewa 

Eastern forests

Dan Sudia CVIOG/GeorgiaInfo 

The brown thrasher is commonly found in oak-pine 

forests. 

20
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10A. Eastern white-red-jack pine forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Gray jay, boreal chickadee, 

white-winged crossbill, 

red crossbill, pine grosbeak, 

pine siskin, ruby-crowned 

kinglet, moose, red squirrel, 

beaver, snowshoe hare, 

porcupine 

For even-aged management, use high-density shelterwood cuts, in short cycles (5-10yrs) and use prescribed 

burns to simulate herbaceous growth to benefit deer, 

ruffed grouse, and other wildlife. 

For uneven-aged management, practice group selection 

cuts up to one acre if maintaining some hardwoods. 

Preserve existing snags to provide at least 2-4 large 

snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Blackburnian warbler, 

red-breasted nuthatch 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large 

blocks of contiguous forest. 

In mostly forested landscapes, minimize fragmentation 

effects by conducting uneven-aged timber 

management practices. 

If clearcutting, minimize the amount of edge by keeping 

clearcut openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Early successional 

species 

Wilson's warbler, Swainson's 

warbler 

Use even-aged management practices to provide 

patches of brushy habitat. 

If uneven-aged practices must be used, apply group 

selection cuts to create openings 1-2 acres in size. 

Leave snags and stubs with cavities for cavity nesters. 

Late successional 

species 

Black-backed woodpecker, 

northern three-toed woodpecker 

Both black-backed and northern three-toed woodpeckers 

prefer spruce-fir stands with burned-over areas. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Specific rare, 

threatened and 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide specific habitat conditions required by the 

Endangered Species Homepage identified species. 

This boreal forest is an

evergreen, needleleaved forest consisting of white-red-jack

pine and spruce-fir forest type groups. Red

spruce and Fraser fir

dominate the Appalachian extension of the

boreal forest and replace white spruce and

balsam fir, which are

often harvested for

lumber, pulpwood, and Deanna Dawson

commercial Christmas Immature blackburnian

trees. warbler.

Eastern red-white-jack pine forests

21
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10B. Loblolly-shortleaf pine forests: general habitat management recommendations 

by wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Brown-headed nuthatch, pine 

warbler, yellow-throated warbler, 

northern parula, red-headed wood- For uneven-aged mangement, provide a variety of dominant tree 

pecker, wild turkey, northern bob- species and encourage development of overstory, mid-story, 

white, painted bunting, opossum, 

white-tailed deer, gray fox 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age classes 

in close proximity. 

and understory vegetation. 

Retain mast-producing trees (oaks, hickory, walnut). 

Preserve existing snags to provide at least 2-4 large snags 

(>12-inch dbh) per acre. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of stand in old-growth. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along riparian areas. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Brown-headed nuthatch, redcockaded woodpecker, Bachman's Minimize effects of fragmentation by conducting uneven-aged 

sparrow, Kentucky warbler, 

worm-eating warbler. 

In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks of forest. 

timber management practices. 

Minimize the amount of edge created by clearcuts by keeping 

openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Early successional 

species 

Bewick's wren, painted bunting, 

prairie warbler, northern bobwhite brushy habitat. 

Use even-aged management practices and provide patches of 

If uneven-aged practices must be used, apply group selection 

cuts to create openings of 1-2 acres in size. 

Leave snags with natural and excavated cavities for wildlife. 

Late successional 

species 

Yellow-throated vireo, Acadian 

flycatcher, wood thrush, 

Swainson's warbler, Louisiana 

waterthursh. 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth. 

Maximize stand rotation length and maintain at least 50 percent 

of the forested area as mature stands (>100 yrs old). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and mature 

forest reserves; do not remove standing snags or downed logs. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Endangered Species web site and 

individual state listings. 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs of identified 

species. 

Eastern loblolly-shortleaf pine forests

U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research 

Mixed loblolly pine forest. 

22 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10C. Longleaf-slash pine forests: general habitat management recommendations 

by wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Brown-headed nuthatch, pine 

warbler, yellow-throated warbler, 

northern parula, red-headed wood- For uneven-aged mangement, provide a variety of dominant tree 

pecker, wild turkey, northern bob- species and encourage development of overstory, mid-story, 

white, painted bunting, opossum, 

white-tailed deer, gray fox 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age classes 

in close proximity. 

and understory vegetation. 

Retain mast-producing trees (oaks, hickory, walnut). 

Preserve existing snags to provide at least 2-4 large snags 

(>12-inch dbh) per acre. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of stand in old-growth. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along riparian areas. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Brown-headed nuthatch, redcockaded woodpecker, Bachman's Use prescribed fire to manage understory and encourage longsparrow. In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks of forest. 

leaf pine regeneration. 

Minimize the amount of edge created by clearcuts by keeping 

openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Early successional 

species 

Bewick's wren, painted bunting, 

prairie warbler, norhtern bobwhite brushy habitat. 

Use even-aged management practices and provide patches of 

If uneven-aged practices must be used, apply group selection 

cuts to create openings of 1-2 acres in size. 

Leave snags with natural and excavated cavities for wildlife. 

Late successional 

species 

Yellow-throated vireo, Acadian 

flycatcher, wood thrush, 

Swainson's warbler, Louisiana 

waterthrush. 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth. 

Maximize stand rotation length and maintain at least 50 percent 

of the forested area as mature stands (>100 yrs old). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and mature 

forest reserves; do not remove standing snags or downed logs. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Endangered Species web site and 

individual state listings. 

Eastern longleaf-slash pine forests 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs of identified 

species 

J. and K. Hollingsworth 

The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker nests in mature stands of 

southern pines with open understories. 

23 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10D. Eastern oak-pine forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife habitat management 

objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Pine warbler, rufous-sided, 

towhee, chipping sparrow, 

common flicker, brown thrasher, 

northern bobwhite, wild turkey 

gray squirrel, eastern chipmunk, 

white-tailed deer 

Oak-pine forest types regenerate best under even-aged 

management practices such as moderate, dense 

shelterwood cuts and small clearcuts. 

Retain pines to serve as escape, thermal, and roosting cover. 

Preserve existing standing snags to provide 2 to 4 large 

snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of old-growth stands to 

ensure availability of natural snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to protect 

riparian and in -stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Brown-headed nuthatch, wood 

thrush, worm-eating warbler, 

Kentucky warbler, cerulean 

warbler, Canada warbler 

Maintain large blocks of contiguous forest with varied 

vegetation structure. 

Minimize the amount of edge produced by clearcuts by 

keeping openings as close to circular shape as possible. 

Early successional 

species 

Eastern bluebird, loggerhead 

shrike, blue-winged warbler, 

golden winged warbler, 

Tennessee warbler, meadow 

vole, long-tailed weasel, meadow 

jumping mouse 

Use even-aged management practices to provide patches 

of brushy habitat. 

If uneven-aged management practices must be used, apply 

group selection to create openings 1 to 2 acres in size. 

Leave snags and stubs with cavities in openings for cavity 

nesting species. 

Late successional 

species 

Great blue heron, osprey, bald 

eagle, red-headed woodpecker 

red-bellied woodpecker 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed for 

harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the forested 

area as mature stands (>100 years old). 

While conducting intermediate thinnings of oak, maintain 

hardwood snag and den trees as well as hard mastproducing trees. 

Specific rare, 

threatened or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs of 

Endangered Species Homepage identified species. 

Eastern oak-pine forests

Southern Research Station, U.S. Forest Service 

The eastern mixed oak-pine forest supports a unique mix of flora and fauna in each successional stage. Oaks and 

hickories are common hard mast-producing species found in the mixed forest type. Nuts are an important food source for 

many wildlife species, including wood ducks and tree squirrels. 

24 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10E. Oak-hickory forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife 

objective Indicator species Management recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Blue jay, wild turkey, scarlet 

tanager, rose-breasted grosbeak, 

ruffed grouse, blue-winged warbler, 

gray squirrel, fox squirrel, 

northern and southern flying 

squirrels, little brown bat 

For even-aged management, provide several timber 

stand age classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development 

of overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing snags to provide approximately 2 

to 4 large snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Early successional Brown thrasher, prairie warbler, yellowspecies breasted chat, indigo bunting, rufoussided towhee, blue-winged warbler Use even-aged management practices and promote 

disturbance (such as prescribed burns) to open canopy 

and allow light to reach the forest floor to increase 

advanced oak regeneration and herbaceous growth. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Cerulean warbler, wood thrush, 

ovenbird, red-eyed vireo, worm-eating 

warbler, Kentucky warbler, Acadian 

flycatcher, yellow-billed cuckoo 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large 

blocks of contiguous forested habitat and establish 

forested corridors to link forest patches. 

In forested landscapes, minimize fragmentation effects 

by conducting uneven-aged timber management. 

Minimize the amount of edge created in clearcuts by 

keeping openings in the forest as close to circular in 

shape as possible. 

Late successional 

species 

Cerulean warbler, pileated woodpecker, 

Rafinesque's big-eared bat 

Identify and restore the largest tracts of old-growth and 

mature forest. 

Don't remove snags or downed logs from stand; maintain 

large gum and cypress trees with basal cavities. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered 

species 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Endangered Species Homepage and 

individual state listing. 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs of the 

identified species. 

Lynn Betts 

The oak-hickory forest is the largest eastern deciduous forest type group and produces hard mast (acorns and hickory 

nuts) eaten by turkeys and other wildlife. Oak and hickory 

species mix with other forest types, and are replaced by 

American elm, sweetgum, tuliptree, and red maple on mesic 

sites. Sugar maple invades disturbed sites where fire is suppressed and climatic extremes are limited. American chestnut may be found in the understory. 

Eastern oak-hickory forests

25
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10F. Eastern oak-gum-cypress forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

White-tailed deer, Carolina 

chickadee, black bear, 

wild turkey, American 

alligator, cotton-mouth, 

tufted titmouse 

For even-aged management, provide several timber 

age classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development 

of overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing snags to provide 2 to 4 large 

snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 5 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Summer tanager, 

Kentucky warbler, 

Swainson's warbler, 

red-shouldered hawk, 

Acadian flycatcher 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large 

blocks of contiguous forested habitat. 

In mostly forested landscapes, minimize fragmentation effects 

by conducting uneven-aged timber management practices. 

Minimize the amount of edge by keeping clearcut 

openings as close to circular shape as possible. 

Late-successional 

species 

Pileated woodpecker, barred 

owl, cerulean warbler, 

red-eyed vireo 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands and maintain at 

least 50 percent of the forested area as mature stands 

(>100 years of age). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and noharvest forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide along 

riparian areas. 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stand. 

Early-successional 

species 

Yellow-breasted chat, 

Indigo bunting, painted 

bunting, white-eyed vireo, 

orchard oriole 

Use even-aged management to provide patches of 

brushy habitat. 

If uneven-aged techniques must be used, apply group 

selection to create openings 1 to 2 acres in size. 

Leave snags and stubs with cavities for quality nesting 

sites in open areas for cavity-nesting species. 

Specific rare, 

endangered, or 

threatened species Homepage and individual 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Endangered Species 

state listing. 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs of the 

identified species. 

Eastern oak-gum-cypress forests

Southern mixed bottomland hardwood swamp is another name for the oakgum-cypress forest. 

indicator flora, tupelos are usually found in most swamp forests. 

understories, vines, and the presence of water-resistant oaks are also good 

indicators. 

Although there are several different combinations of 

Dense 

26
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10G. Eastern elm-ash-cottonwood forests: general habitat management recommendations by 

wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife 

objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity flycatcher, indigo bunting, 

House wren, great-crested 

Kentucky warbler, blue-gray 

gnatcatcher, common yellowthroat, yellow warbler, mink, 

river otter, northern and 

southern flying squirrels 

Maintain continuous SMZs, at least 100 feet in 

width along all streams and rivers in forestdominated ecoregions. 

Avoid unnecessary alterations of hydrology 

(dams, levees, channelization) to maintain 

natural meandering and oxbow sloughs, 

which provide diverse habitat for wildlife. 

Forest interior 

birds 

American redstart, prothonotary 

warbler, Acadian flycatcher, 

eastern wood-peewee, yellowthroated vireo 

Restore large floodplain forests along 

major rivers, remove dams and levees 

where possible to restore natural habitat 

diversity. 

Late 

successional 

species 

Cerulean warbler, pileated 

woodpecker, redshouldered hawk, bald 

eagle 

Retain and restore large floodplain tree 

species such as cottonwood, sycamore, 

and swamp white oaks to provide tall 

tree species. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered 

species 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions specific to the 

Endangered Species Homepage 

and individual state listing. 

identified species. 

The eastern elm-ash-cottonwood forest group is also referred to as the northern 

floodplain forest. Spring 

floods are common after winter snow and ice melts. 

Floodplains are also fertile 

from the nutrient-laden sediment deposits, and promote 

quick tree growth. Cottonwoods and ashes are more 

abundant in the midwest, 

while sycamores and maples 

are more common in northeastern floodplain forests.

Eastern elm-ash-cottonwood forests

27
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 10H. Eastern maple-beech-birch forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife 

objective Indicator species Habitat management recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

White-tailed deer, 

chipmunk, ruffed 

grouse, black-capped 

chickadee 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age 

classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development of 

overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing snags, at least 2-4 large snags 

(>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 5 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of natural snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zone along streams to protect 

riparian and in-stream habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Scarlet tanager, 

eastern wood-pewee, 

black-throated blue 

warbler, Canada warbler, 

ovenbird, goshawk 

In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks of contiguous 

forest habitat and establish plantings to link forest patches. 

In forested landscapes, minimize fragmentation effects by 

conducting uneven-aged management practices. 

If clearcutting, minimize the amount of edge by keeping 

openings as close to circular shape as possible. 

Late successional 

species 

Pileated woodpecker, 

barred owl, fisher 

Maximize no-harvest areas of old-growth forest whenever possible. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed for harvest, 

and maintain at least 50 percent in mature forests (>100 years old). 

Establish long rotation stands around contiguous or no-harvest 

old-growth forest reserves. 

Do not remove standing snags or downed logs from the stand. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species Homepage and individual 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Endangered Species 

state listing. 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the indentified species. 

Eastern maple-beech-birch forests

Northern hardwood forest is another name for the 

maple-beech-birch forest group, and includes aspen 

species as well. The northern hardwood forest is transitional, frequently containing plant species of both 

the boreal red-white-jack pine forest to the north and 

the oak-hickory forest to the south. 

Greg Lasley CVIOG/GeorgiaInfo 

The ruffed grouse is a common inhabitant of earlysuccessional nothern hardwood forests. 

28 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 11. Indicator plant species in western forest type groups. 

Forest group Trees Shrubs Herbaceous 

Douglas-fir Douglas-fir, western hemlock 

bigleaf maple, tanoak, 

silver fir, western cedar, ponderosa pine. 

Salal, Oregon grape, devil's 

club, various gooseberries, 

thimbleberry, Nootka rose, 

vine maple. 

Hooker's fairy bell, calypso 

orchid, twinflower, bunchberry, pipissisewa. 

Hemlock-sitka 

spruce 

(temperate rain 

forest) 

Sitka spruce, western hemlock, 

western redcedar, red alder 

Douglas-fir, grand fir, silver fir, 

white fir, western larch, bigleaf 

maple. 

Vine maple, devil's club, 

salmonberry, Pacific rhododendron, ocean spray, 

Pacific red elderberry, salal. 

Western sword fern, twinflower, vanilla leaf, trail 

plant, beadlily, deer fern, 

licorice fern, single sugar 

scoop. 

Ponderosa 

pine 

Ponderosa pine, quaking aspen, 

lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir 

gambel oak, Rocky Mountain 

juniper. 

Antelopebrush, mountainmahogany, desert buckbrush, paintbrushes, blanketsnowbush, wax currant, 

common juniper. 

Curlycup gumplant, various 

flower, miner's candle, wild 

geranium. 

Lodgepole 

pine 

Lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, 

Douglas-fir, western white 

pine, whitebark pine, 

Engelmann spruce. 

Snowbrush, kinnikinnick, 

grouse whortleberry, red 

elderberry, Canada buffaloberry. 

Heartleaf arnica, Wyoming 

paintbrush, pinedrops, red 

fireweed, pipissewa, common 

yarrow. 

Spruce-fir Engelmann spruce (white spruce Grouse whortleberry, 

in far north), subalpine fir 

(balsam fir in far north), blue 

spruce, white fir, lodgepole 

pine. 

myrtle blueberry, tundra 

dwarf birch, Canada buffaloberry, Colorado currant. 

Jacob's ladder, explorer's 

gentian, broadleaf arnica, 

pipissewa, monkshood, 

twinflower, starflower. 

Redwood Redwood, western hemlock, 

Douglas-fir, bigleaf maple 

sugar pine, California bay, 

Pacific madrone. 

Pacific rhododendron, 

western azalea, evergreen 

huckleberry, salal, 

salmonberry. 

Redwood sorrel, single 

sugar scoop, western 

trillium, redwood violet. 

Pinyon-juniper Two-needle pinyon, Utah 

juniper, Rocky Mountain juniper, cercocarpus, curlleaf cercogambel oak, oneseed juniper. 

Big sagebrush, alderleaf 

carpus, bitterbrush, desert 

buckbrush. 

Sego lily, Indian paintbrush, 

scarlet globemallow, various 

lupines, golden aster, wild 

zinnia. 

Aspen Quaking aspen, lodgepole pine, 

Douglas-fir, blue spruce, 

subalpine fir, white fir. 

Roundleaf snowberry, Rocky Colorado columbine, showy 

Mountain maple, common 

chokeberry, common juniper, loco, common lupine,sego 

ninebark. 

daisy, red fireweed, showy 

lily.

Western forests

Wendell Gilgert 

29
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12. Indicator wildlife species of western forest groups. 

Forest type* Reptiles and amphibians Birds Mammals 

Douglas-fir 

Table 12A 

Pacific giant salamander, 

northwestern salamander, 

western toad, and 

Ensatina. 

Spotted owl, Vaux's swift, 

white-winged crossbill, 

winter wren, great horned 

owl. 

Red tree vole, 

northern flying 

squirrel, Townsend 

chipmunk, mountain 

beaver. 

Hemlock-Sitka 

spruce 

Table 12B 

Pacific tree frog, Ensatina, 

western red-backed 

salamander, dunn salamander, Oregon slender 

salamander. 

Winter wren, Townsend's 

warbler, chestnut-backed 

chickadee, pileated 

woodpecker, varied thrush, 

spruce grouse. 

Townsend chipmunk, 

yellow pine chipmunk, 

red squirrel, western 

gray squirrel, marten, 

bobcat. 

Ponderosa pine 

Table 12C 

Fence lizard, 

many-lined skink, 

woodhouse toad, sagebrush lizard. 

Hepatic tanager, western 

bluebird, pygmy nuthatch, 

band-tailed pigeon, Steller's 

jay. 

Tassel-eared squirrel, 

golden-mantled squirrel, 

Colorado chipmunk, 

porcupine. 

Lodgepole pine 

Table 12D 

Pacific giant salamander, 

western toad, Pacific treefrog, northern leopard frog, 

western skink. 

White-breasted nuthatch, 

blue grouse, western woodpewee, Steller's jay, red 

crossbill, and others. 

Red (pine) squirrel, 

marten, hoary bat, 

least chipmunk, snowshoe hare, and others. 

Spruce-fir 

Table 12E 

Ensatina, western redbacked salamander, western 

toad, northern leopard frog, 

Pacific treefrog, common 

garter snake. 

Gray jay, ruby-crowned 

kinglet, red-breasted nuthatch, black-backed woodpecker, golden-crowned 

kinglet. 

Snowshoe hare, red 

(pine) squirrel, red fox, 

mountain vole, lynx, 

bighorn sheep, longtail 

weasel. 

Redwood 

Table 12F 

Northern alligator lizard, 

western whiptail, rubber boa, warbler, western screech-owl, 

western skink, western racer. rufous hummingbird, northern 

Anna's hummingbird, Wilson's 

flicker. 

Western gray squirrel, 

deer mouse, Sonoma 

chipmunk, raccoon. 

Pinyon-juniper 

Table 12G 

Collared lizard, eastern 

fence lizard, bullsnake, short- mouse, black-chinned 

horned lizard, western 

rattlesnake. 

Bushtit, pinyon jay, plain tithummingbird, rock wren, 

canyon towhee. 

Blacktail jackrabbit, 

ringtail, Colorado 

chipmunk, pallid bat, 

gray fox. 

Aspen 

Table 12H 

Smooth green snake, boreal 

toad, western terrestrial 

garden snake. 

Violet-green swallow, 

mountain bluebird, red-naped 

sapsucker, broad-tailed 

hummingbird. 

Beaver, porcupine, 

masked shrew, dusky 

shrew, long-legged 

myotis. 

* Forest group and wildlife management recommendations table number (see following pages) 

Western forests

Snowshoe hare. 

30 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12A. Western Douglas-fir forests: general recommendations by wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Spotted owl, Vaux's swift, whitewinged crossbill, winter wren, 

great horned owl, red tree vole, 

northern flying squirrel, chickaree 

(Douglas squirrel), Townsend 

chipmunk, porcupine, black 

bear, mountain beaver, mule deer 

For even-aged management, clearcut in small blocks 

or strips 10-40 acres in size, and provide several timber 

stand age classes in close proximity; prescribed burns to 

reduce slash and favor Douglas fir regeneration, leave 

some slash for wildlife cover. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development of 

overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation 

(if western larch desirable). 

Maintain at least 10 percent of stand in old-growth to 

ensure availability of natural snags and den trees; 

preserve soft mast species. 

Preserve existing snags to provide approximately 2-4 

large snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Ruby-crowned kinglet, hermit thrush, In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks 

western wood-pewee, mountain 

chickadee, hermit warbler, 

Townsend's warbler, pine siskin, 

blue grouse, evening grosbeak 

of contiguous habitat. 

Minimize effects of fragmentation by conducting 

uneven-aged timber management practices. 

Minimize the amount of edge created by clearcuts by 

keeping openings in the forest as close to a circular 

shape as possible. 

Late successional 

species 

Spotted owl, hermit warbler, redbreasted nuthatch, brown creeper Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed 

for harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the 

forested area as mature stands (>100 yrs old). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and 

no-harvest old-growth reserves; do not remove 

standing snags or downed logs. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide 

along riparian areas. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs 

of the indentified species. 

Douglas-fir forests are found throughout the Pacific Northwest and are 

present in nearly all but the highest elevations. Douglas-firs often occupy drier sites than those of the hemlock-spruce forest.

Western Douglas-fir forests

CVIOG/GeorgiaInfo

Black bear. 

31
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12B. Western hemlock-sitka spruce forests: general habitat management recommendations by 

wildlife management objectives. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Winter wren, Townsend's 

warbler, chestnut-backed 

chickadee, pileated woodpecker, varied thrush, spruce 

grouse, Townsend's chipmunk, 

yellow pine chipmunk, red 

squirrel, western gray 

squirrel, marten, bobcat 

For even-aged management, provide several timber 

age classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development 

of overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing standing snags to provide 

approximately 2-4 large snags (>12-inch dbh) per 

acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zomes along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Ruffed grouse, blue grouse 

fox sparrow, western woodpewee, Hammond's flycatcher 

olive-sided flycatcher, 

golden-crowned kinglet 

In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks of 

contiguous forest habitat. 

Minimize effects of fragmentation by conducting 

uneven timber management practices. 

Minimize the amount of edge created keeping 

clearcut openings as close to circular shape as possible. 

Late successional 

species 

Pileated woodpecker, spotted 

owl, red-breasted sapsucker, 

hairy woodpecker, brown 

creeper, red-breasted 

nuthatch, hermit warbler 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed for 

harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the forested 

area as mature stands (>100 years of age). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and 

no-harvest mature forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide along 

riparian areas. 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stands. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs 

Endangered Species Homepage of the identified species. 

Western hemlock-sitka spruce forests

The hemlock-spruce forest is also called the temperate 

rain forest. Due to the ample rainfall, trees in the hemlock-spruce forest can reach 200 feet and live almost 

1,000 years. The oldest forests are also called oldgrowth forests and many mosses, lichens, and other 

epiphytes grow on tree branches and the forest floor. 

Richard Baetsen USFWS 

The spruce grouse prefers mature, 

old growth coniferous forests. 

32
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12C. Western ponderosa pine forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Hepatic tanager, western 

bluebird, pygmy nuthatch, 

band-tailed pigeon, 

Steller's jay, dark-eyed junco 

tassel-eared squirrel, goldenmantled squirrel, least chipmunk, black bear, coyote, 

elk, mule deer 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age 

classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development of 

overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing snags to provide approximately 2-4 

large snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Red-breasted nuthatch, 

white-breasted nuthatch, 

brown creeper, Grace's 

warbler, yellow-rumped 

warbler 

In highly fragmented lanscapes, maintain large blocks 

of contiguous forest. 

Use uneven-aged timber harvest practices to minimize 

the effects of forest fragmentation. 

Minimize the amount of edge by keeping clearcut 

openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Late successional 

species 

White-headed woodpecker, 

flammulated owl, Lewis's 

woodpecker, black-backed 

woodpecker 

Practice frequent, low-intensity prescribed burns to 

maintain park-like structure dominated by very large 

trees (primarily ponderosa pine). 

Maintain no-harvest sactuaries of old-growth. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed 

for harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the 

forested area as mature stands (>100 years old). 

Position long-rotation stands next to contiguous and 

no-harvest mature forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide 

along riparian areas. 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stands. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions that meet the needs of 

Endangered Species Hompeage the identified species. 

Western ponderosa pine forests

Ponderosa pine forests are found throughout the 

southern and central Rocky Mountains. Ponderosa pine is the most widely distributed pine species in the west. At lower elevations and southfacing slopes, Rocky Mountain juniper mixes with 

ponderosa pine forests. At higher elevations, 

shrub cover is dense and quaking aspen and lodgepole pine mix with ponderosa pine. 

33
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12D. Western lodgepole pine forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Blue grouse, western 

wood-pewee, whitebreasted nuthatch, 

Steller's jay, red crossbill, pine grosbeak, 

calliope hummingbird, 

red squirrel, marten, least 

chipmunk, southern redbacked vole, elk 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age 

classes in close proximity; clearcut overmature stands 

in blocks up to 40 acres in size. 

Keep clearcut blocks or strips less than 200-300 feet wide 

wide and separate cut areas by untreated strips 100-

400 feet wide. 

Retain inclusions of Douglas-fir, spruce-fir, ponderosa 

pine, and aspen; prescribed burns promote seed dispersal. 

Preserve existing standing snags to provide approximately 

2-4 large snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain at least 10 percent of the stand in old-growth 

to ensure availability of natural snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Northern saw-whet owl, 

sharp-shinned hawk, 

Cassin's finch, rubycrowned kinglet, hermit 

thrush, Clark's nutcracker 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks 

of contiguous forest. 

Preserve snags and downed logs in forest stands. 

Late successional 

species 

Black-backed woodpecker, 

three-toed woodpecker, 

red-breasted nuthatch, 

brown creeper 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed for 

harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the forested 

area as mature stands (>100 years old). 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous and 

no-harvest mature forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide along 

riparian areas. 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stands. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions that meet the specific needs 

Endangered Species Homepage of the identified species. 

Western lodgepole pine forests

Lodgepole pines can occur in pure, even-aged stands

and often show signs of previous fires around trunks.

Many bark gleaning birds use lodgepole pines for food

sources, especially nuthatches and woodpeckers. Mountain chickadees, yellow-rumped warblers, and western

wood-pewee take advantage

of the ample insect populations of lodgepole stands.

The black-backed, threetoed, and Lewis’ woodpeckers all prefer the habitat of

recently burned lodgepole

pine forests. Pine martens

and red squirrels (also

called pine squirrels) are

common lodgepole pine forJohn and Karen Hollingsworth est inhabitants. Pine marten 

34
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12E. Western spruce-fir forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Gray jay, hermit thrush, 

red-breasted nuthatch, yellow- timber age classes in close proximity. 

rumped warbler, northern 

goshawk, hairy woodpecker, 

snowshow hare, red (pine) 

squirrel, porcupine, lynx, 

bobcat, mule deer, bighorn 

sheep 

For even-aged management, provide several 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety 

of dominant tree species and encourage 

development of overtsory, mid-story, and 

understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing snags to provide approximately 

2-4 large snags per acre of forest. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snags and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Spruce seem to establish more quickly on sites 

newly opened up by fire. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Boreal owl, northern sawwhet owl, ruby-crowned 

kinglet, golden-crowned 

kinglet 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large 

blocks of contiguous forest. 

Use uneven-aged timber harvest practices to 

minimize the effects of forest fragmentation. 

Minimize the amount of edge by keeping clearcut 

openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Late sucessional 

species 

Pine siskin, red crossbill, 

black-backed woodpecker, 

three-toed woodpecker, 

brown creeper, Clark's 

nutcracker 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed 

for harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the 

forested area as mature stands (>100 years old). 

Position long-rotation stands next to contiguous 

and no-harvest mature forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide 

along riparian areas. 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stands. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Homepage and 

Provide habitat conditions that meet the needs of 

the indentified species. 

Al and Betty Schneider, Southwest Colorado 

Western spruce-fir forests

Wildflowers, Ferns, and Trees 

Engelmann spruce. 

35 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12F. Western redwood forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Anna's hummingbird, Wilson's 

warbler, western screech-owl, 

rufous hummingbird, varied thrush, 

western flycatcher, Vaux's swift, 

northern pygmy owl, Swainson's 

thrush, Douglas squirrel, Sonoma 

chipmunk, mule deer, elk 

For even-aged management, provide several timber age 

classes in close proximity. 

For uneven-aged management, provide a variety of 

dominant tree species and encourage development of 

overstory, mid-story, and understory vegetation. 

Preserve existing standing snags. 

Maintain no less than 10 percent of the stand in oldgrowth to ensure availability of snag and den trees. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

birds 

Golden-crowned kinglet, spotted 

owl, varied thrush, western 

flycatcher 

In fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks of 

contiguous, mature forested habitat. 

Minimize the effects of fragmentation by conducting 

uneven-aged timber management practices. 

Late successional 

species 

Spotted owl, hairy woodpecker, 

brown creeper, pygmy nuthatch, 

black-backed woodpecker 

Maintain no-harvest sanctuaries of old-growth forest. 

Maximize rotation length in timber stands managed for 

harvest, and maintain at least 50 percent of the 

forested area as mature stands (>100 years old). 

Do not remove snags or downed logs from stands. 

Position long-rotation stands around contiguous 

and no-harvest mature forest reserves. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet wide 

along riparian areas. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Endangered Species Homepage 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs 

of the indentified species. 

Western redwood forests

Redwood forests contain the tallest trees on Earth, and require the 

moist, well-drained soils found 

along the Pacific coast from central California to southwestern 

Oregon. Wildlife that depend on 

old-growth or mature forests, such 

as spotted owls, northern pygmy 

owls, and western screech owls can 

be found in redwood stands. Many 

species of salamanders inhabit the 

dense litter layer of the moist forest floor. 

John and Karen Hollingsworth USFWS 

Spotted owl 

36
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12G. Western pinyon-juniper forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife 

management objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Bushtit, pinyon jay, juniper titmouse, Avoid large block clearcuts and intersperse 

black-chinned hummingbird, rock 

wren, prairie falcon, golden eagle, 

greater roadrunner, white-throated maintain irregular boundaries. 

swift, scrub jay, sage thrasher, 

blacktail jackrabbit, ringtail, 

spotted skunk, gray fox 

small clearcuts and natural woodland 

openings with blocks of pinyon-juniper, 

Remove individual pinyon or juniper trees 

with a chainsaw or bulldozer, and reseed 

native grasses and forbes in openings. 

Where pinyon-juniper invades grasslands, 

cabling or chaining possible if cleared area 

immediately reseeded with native vegetation. 

Retain vegetation buffer strips along riparian 

areas and highways. 

Preserve large and mature pinyon and juniper 

trees, preserve existing snags and mastproducing trees. 

Retain browse species like mountain 

mahogany, bitterbrush, and sagebrush. 

Use prescribed burns to open canopies. 

Forest interior 

species 

Mountain quail, black-throated 

gray warbler, gray vireo, Scott's 

oriole, Lawrence's goldfinch 

Maintain large tracts of contiguous forest 

whenever possible. 

Restrict selective removal of pinyon pine. 

Use prescribed burns to reduce fuel buildup. 

Late successional 

species 

Gray vireo, gray flycatcher, pinyon Do not remove standing snags or downed 

jay, Cassin's kingbird, juniper 

titmouse, Virginia's warbler 

logs from stands. 

Retain no-harvest sanctuaries of mature 

and old-growth forest. 

Maintain no-harvest areas at least 300 feet 

wide along riparian areas. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Endangered Species Homepage 

Provide habitat conditions specific to the 

needs of the identified species. 

Western pinyon-juniper forests

The pinyon-juniper forest is found in the upper Sonoran desert and the arid slopes of the 

southern and central Rocky Mountains. The 

forest consists mostly of small pines and junipers with sparse herbaceous groundcover. 

Prickly pear cacti are also present, along with 

characteristic desert reptiles. The pinyon 

cones contain large seeds that are important 

food sources to many wildlife species found in 

pinyon-juniper woodlands. 

37
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 12H. Western aspen forests: general habitat management recommendations by wildlife management 

objective. 

Wildlife objective Indicator species Habitat recommendations 

Forest wildlife 

species diversity 

Violet-green swallow, mountain 

bluebird, red-naped sapsucker, 

broad-tailed hummingbird, 

ruffed grouse 

For even-aged management, use clearcuts (limit to 40 

acres) with irregular edges alone or in combination with 

prescribed burns and herbicide applications to 

encourage regeneration. 

Preserve mast-producing shrubs and trees for 

wildlife food. 

Preserve existing standing snags to provide 2-4 large 

snags (>12-inch dbh) per acre of forest. 

Maintain no-harvest buffer zones along streams to 

protect riparian and in-stream aquatic habitats. 

Forest interior 

(closed canopy 

inclusion) species 

Red-breasted nuthatch, hermit 

thrush, gray catbird, rufoussided towhee 

In highly fragmented landscapes, maintain large blocks 

of contiguous forest habitat. 

Minimize effects of fragmentation by conducting 

uneven-aged timber management practices. 

Minimize amount of edge created by clearcuts by keeping 

openings as close to a circular shape as possible. 

Early successional 

species 

Swainson's thrush, Wilson's 

warbler, Lincoln's sparrow, 

dark-eyed junco, black-billed 

and yellow-billed cuckoo, gray 

catbird 

Use even-aged management practices to provide patches 

of brushy habitat. 

Leave snags and stubs with cavities in openings for 

cavity-nesting species. 

Specific rare, 

threatened, or 

endangered species and individual state listing. 

See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Provide habitat conditions specific to the needs 

Endangered Species Homepage of the identified species. 

Apens often grow in dense, pure stands and are common in most elevations and forest regions of the west. Firs, spruces, 

and junipers are sometimes found in aspen stands. Aspen stands provide food and cover for gamebirds such as ruffed 

grouse, and beavers and porcupines. Chokecherry and Rocky Mountain maple can be found in the understory of many 

mature aspen forests. 

Western aspen forests

W. Gilgert 

38 
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Forest and Timberland Management Plans and 

Programs 

There are a variety of federal, state, private and nonprofit organizations that provide landowners with 

financial and technical assistance to improve fish and 

wildlife habitats in forests. 

Landowner assistance programs 

Landowner assistance programs help private 

landowners develop forest management plans. These 

programs are part of the U.S. Forest Service 

Cooperative Forestry department. Cooperative 

Forestry coordinates partnerships with forestry 

organizations and federal funding helps support forest 

recreation, fish and wildlife resources, and timber management. Some forest product companies also offer 

landowner assistance programs. 

The Forest Legacy Program (FLP) is a voluntary 

federal program. It forms partnerships between 

landowners and states to protect privately owned 

forest lands. FLP supports conservation easements, 

which are legally binding agreements that transfer 

property rights from one party to another, but the 

property remains under private management. The 

landowner negotiates property use with the states. 

Conservation easements restrict development and 

require sustainable forestry practices. Landowners 

must prepare a resource management plan in order to 

qualify as part of the easement acquisition. The federal government may fund up to 75% of the costs, and 

the other 25% can come from private, state, or local 

sources. Tax breaks are another incentive for 

landowners to participate in the FLP. Program 

information and guidelines can be found at the U.S. 

Forest Service website: http://www.fs.fed.us/spf/coop/ 

flp.htm. Landowners can call the Cooperative 

Forestry Unit at (202)-205-1389. 

The Forest Stewardship Program (FSP) is designed 

to promote multiple-use attitudes to natural resource 

management on non-industrial private forest lands 

(NIPF). The FSP develops partnerships with natural 

resource professionals and NIPF landowners to 

successfully manage private timberlands for wildlife 

habitat, recreation, and water quality. State foresters 

and wildlife biologists help landowners implement 

management plans that include landowner goals and 

natural resource issues. Individuals and noncommercial landowners can participate in FSPs if they 

agree to maintain the plan for at least 10 years. If a 

landowner wants cost sharing assistance through the 

Stewardship Incentives Program (SIP), then 

landowners must complete the FSP. For additional 

program information, landowners can contact their 

state forester’s office, the Cooperative Forestry Unit, 

or the U.S. Forest Service website. 

The Stewardship Incentives Program (SIP) gives cost 

share support for NIPF landowners to help them design 

Forest Stewardship Plans. SIPs encourage long-term 

management of natural resources, like timber and 

wildlife, while providing economic incentives. Financial 

support (as part of FSPs) includes the following forest 

management activities: reforestation, soil and water 

protection and improvement, riparian and wetland 

protection and improvement, fisheries habitat 

enhancement, wildlife habitat enhancement, and others. 

The federal government may reimburse the landowner 

up to 75% of approved expenses, to a maximum 

amount of $10,000 per year per landowner. This 

financial support depends on the landowner’s 

commitment to maintain SIP funded practices for at 

least 10 years. For more information on this program, 

landowners should contact their state forester’s office, 

the Cooperative Forestry Unit, or the U.S. Forest 

Service website. 

Forestry Incentives Program 

Forestry Incentives Program (FIP) is part of the 1996 

Farm Bill, and share up to 65% of the costs for tree 

planting, timber stand improvements (TSI), and other 

actions on non-industrial private lands. FIP is designed 

to help non-industrial private landowners maintain 

forestry practices that protect natural resources and 

future timber supplies. As with SIP, the federal cost 

share has a $10,000 limit per landowner per year, but 

no more than 65% of the cost can be paid. State 

foresters give NIPF landowners technical advice to 

develop forest management plans, and certify 

completed projects for cost shares. To find out about 

39
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Table 26. Programs that provide technical and financial assistance to develop fish and wildlife habitat on private lands. 

Program Land eligibility Type of assistance Contact 

Conservation Reserve 

Program 

(CRP) 

Highly erodible land, 

wetland and certain 

other lands with cropping 

history. Stream-side 

areas in pasture land. 

50% cost-share for est. permanent 

cover and conservation practices, and 

annual rental payments for land enrolled 

in 10 to 15 year contracts. Additional 

financial incentives available for some 

practices. 

NRCS or FSA 

state or county 

office 

Environmental Quality 

Incentives Program 

(EQIP) 

Cropland, range, grazing 

land and other agricultrual 

land in need of treatment. 

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation 

practices in accordance with 10 to 15 

year contracts. Incentive payments for 

certain management practices. 

NRCS state or 

county office 

Partners for Fish and 

Wildlife Program 

(PFW) 

Most degraded fish and/ 

or wildlife habitat. 

Up to 100% finanical and technical 

assistance to restored widlife habitat 

under a minimum 10 year cooperative 

agreement. 

Local office of 

the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife 

Service 

Waterways for 

Wildlife 

Private lands. Technical and program development 

assistance to coalesce habitat efforts of 

corporations and private landowners to 

meet common wateshed level goals. 

Wildlife Habitat 

Council 

Wetlands Reserve 

Program 

(WRP) 

Previously degraded 

wetland and adjacent 

upland buffer, with limited 

amount of natural wetland 

and existing or restorable 

riparian areas. 

75% cost-share for wetland restoration 

under 10 year contracts and 30 year 

easements, and 100% cost-share on 

restoration under permanent easements. 

Payments for purchase of 30 year or 

permanent conservation easements. 

NRCS state or 

county office 

Wildlife at Work Corporate lands. Technical assistance on developing 

habitat projects into programs that allow 

companies to involve employees and the 

community. 

Wildlife Habitat 

Council 

Wildlife Habitat 

Incentives Program 

(WHIP) 

High-priority fish and 

wildlife habitats. 

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation 

practices under 5 to 10 year contracts. 

NRCS state or 

county office 

State fish and wildlife agencies as well as private groups may have assistance programs or other 

useful opportunities through state and local contacts. 

qualifications and FIP county participants, landowners 

should contact their state forester’s office, local 

conservation district, local Cooperative Extension 

office, or the NRCS. 

The American Tree Farm System 

The American Tree Farm System certifies owners of 

tree farms and NIPF lands in the U.S. that maintain 

strict sustainable forestry management practices. 

Landowners must pass an inspection every five years 

by a volunteer forester to become certified. In addition 

to producing timber, landowners must protect 

watershed quality, wildlife habitat, and soil, and provide 

recreational opportunities. For more information on 

the American Tree Farm System, landowners should 

contact the American Forest Foundation’s website at 

http://www.affoundation.org or call 1-888-889-4466. 

Non-governmental contacts 

There are many non-governmental and non-profit 

organizations that landowners can contact for up-todate information on forest and wildlife management, 

consulting contacts, publications, taxes, and current 

issues. Included are some available internet resources. 

These websites also have contact information and links 

to related topics. 

40
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

Some forest conservation organizations. 

Organization Website address 

Society of American http://www.safnet.org 

Foresters 

American Forests http://www.americanforests.org 

Association of 

Consulting Foresters 

of America, Inc. 

http://www.acf-foresters.com 

National Association 

of State Foresters 

http://www.stateforesters.org 

Conclusion 

Comprehensive forest management can conserve, 

preserve, or improve fish and wildlife habitat on 

forested lands while meeting other landowner 

objectives. Effective forest management plans 

incorporate silviculture systems that combine several 

forestry practices suited to local conditions that fit the 

individual goals of the landowner or manager. Although 

this leaflet describes basic timber harvest strategies 

and associated wildlife management techniques, it 

should not be considered as a definitive answer to 

every problem. Silvicultural treatments change over 

time as the goals of landowners and managers shift 

Sources of forest wildlife habitat management assistance. 

Agency or Group Assistance Provided Contact 

State Fish & Wildlife 

Agency 

Educational materials, technical guidance, 

and cost-sharing of habitat management 

in some cases. 

Regional, state 

or county office 

USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service 

Technical, financial and educational assistance 

provided directly to landowners at the local level. 

Help plan, apply and maintain conservation 

systems that are site-specific and environmentally 

and economically sound. 

Local county 

office 

USDA Cooperative State 

Research, Education and 

Extension Service 

Information and educational materials on forest 

and wildlife management. 

Regional, state 

or county office; 

partner universities 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service 

Technical, educational, and in some cases 

financial assistance for habitat restoration and 

management. 

State of local office 

National Assiciation of 

Conservation Districts 

Through local conservation districts, educate and 

assist local land managers conserve soil, water, 

wildlife, forests, and other natural resources. 

Local conservation 

district office 

Private Conservation 

Organizations 

A variety of conservation organizations provide 

Technical, educational, and in some cases 

financial assistance for habitat restoration and 

management. Groups include: 

Bat Conseration International 

Ducks Unlimited 

Longleaf Alliance 

National Fish and Wildlife Foundation 

National Wild Turkey Federation 

Quail Unlimited 

Quality Deer Management Assoication 

Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation 

Ruffed Grouse Society 

The Wildlife Society 

Wildlife Habitat Council 

Wildlife Management Institute 

State or local contacts 

41
Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

and management techniques improve. It is important 

for landowners and managers to enroll the technical 

expertise of natural resource professionals. These 

cooperative relationships help conserve natural 

resources while conducting sustainable forest 

management practices in the future. 

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Managing Forests for Fish and Wildlife 

www.wildlifehc.org 

Wildlife Habitat Council 

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800 

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 

(301) 588-8994 

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council is to 

increase the amount of quality wildlife habitat on 

corporate, private, and public land. 

corporations, public agencies, and private, nonprofit organizations on a voluntary basis as one 

team for the recovery, development, and 

preservation of wildlife habitat worldwide. 

www.whmi.nrcs.usda.gov 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute 

100 Webster Circle, Suite 3 

Madison, Mississippi 39110 

(601) 607-3131 

In cooperation with partners, the mission of the 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute is to develop 

and disseminate scientifically based technical 

materials that will assist NRCS field staffs and others 

to promote conservation stewardship of fish and 

wildlife, and deliver sound habitat management 

principles and practices to America’s land users. 

WHC engages 

Acknowledgements 

Primary author: Holly L. May, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts of this leaflet were reviewed by Richard 

DeGraaf, USDA, Forest Service Northeastern Research Station; Melinda Knutson, USGS Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center; Dan Taylor, Bat Conservation International; Dan Twedt, USGS Patuxent 

Wildlife Research Center; Bruce C. Wight, NRCS National Agroforestry Center; and T. Bently Wigley, 

National Council for Stream and Air Improvement, Inc. Edited by Charlie Rewa, NRCS Wildlife Habitat 

Management Institute. 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the 

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status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Person with disabilities who require alternate means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDAs TARGET Center at (202) 

720-2600 (voice and TDD). 

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity 

provider and employer. 

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