Ecological Types of the Eastern 

Slope of the Wind River Range, 

Shoshone National Forest, 

Wyoming

Aaron F. Wells, Janis L. Boettinger, Kent E. Houston, David W. Roberts

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Rocky Mountain General Technical

Service Research Station Report RMRS-GTR-345 December 2015
Wells, Aaron F.; Janis L. Boettinger; Kent E. Houston; and David W. Roberts. 

2015. Ecological Types of the Eastern Slope of the Wind River Range, 

Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-345. Fort 

Collins, CO. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. 423 p.

Abstract

This guide presents a classification of the Ecological Types of the eastern slope 

of the Wind River Range (WRR) on the Shoshone National Forest in westcentral Wyoming. Ecological Types integrate vegetation and environmental 

characteristics, including climate, geology, landform, and soils, into a 

comprehensive ecosystem classification. The three objectives are: (1) complete 

field data collection, (2) simultaneously develop soil map unit components and 

Ecological Types, and (3) publish the ecological type classification such that it is 

compatible with the National Cooperative Soil Survey spatial and tabular data. 

Fifty-eight Ecological Types were organized into 3 ecosystems, 3 physiognomic 

groups, and 12 vegetation series.

Keywords: ecological type, Wind River Range, National Cooperative Soil 

Survey, potential natural vegetation, Shoshone National Forest

Authors

Aaron F. Wells is Senior Scientist with ABR, Inc. Environmental Research and 

Services in Anchorage, Alaska.

Janis L. Boettinger is Professor of Pedology with the Plants, Soils, and Climate 

Department at Utah State University in Logan.

Kent E. Houston is Ecologist and Soil Scientist with the Shoshone National 

Forest in Cody, Wyoming.

David W. Roberts is Department Head and Professor with the Department of 

Ecology at Montana State University in Bozeman.
This work is dedicated to the late Dr. Charles Grier Johnson, Jr.

Cover: Northeast Face of Gannett Peak from Dinwoody Creek, northeastern Wind River Range, Wyoming. Photo by 

Aaron Wells.

Looking west from Fairfield Hill—Left, Flathead Sandstone; Center, Gros Ventre Shale; Right, Gallatin 

Limestone outcrop. Photo by Aaron Wells.
Contents

Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1

Objectives................................................................................................................................ 2

Classification Concepts.......................................................................................................... 2

Definitions........................................................................................................................................... 2

Nomenclature ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Synecological perspective and terminology........................................................................................ 4

Ecological unit classification............................................................................................................... 4

Study Area ................................................................................................................................... 5

Overview ................................................................................................................................. 5

Geology.................................................................................................................................... 7

Geologic history of the Wind River Range ......................................................................................... 7

Major rock units.................................................................................................................................. 9

Glacial history and till deposits......................................................................................................... 15

Climate .................................................................................................................................. 19

Precipitation ...................................................................................................................................... 19

Temperature....................................................................................................................................... 20

Topography and climate .................................................................................................................... 20

Climate change and the Wind River Range ...................................................................................... 21

Natural History..................................................................................................................... 22

Dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains (17m) ............................................................................ 22

Granitic subalpine zone (17k) ........................................................................................................... 24

Alpine zone (17h).............................................................................................................................. 26

Factors of Soil Formation.................................................................................................... 27

Methods...................................................................................................................................... 28

Field Protocols...................................................................................................................... 28

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 28

Office Protocols..................................................................................................................... 29

Mapping ............................................................................................................................................ 29

Data management.............................................................................................................................. 30

Soil temperature and moisture regimes............................................................................................. 31

Data Analysis..................................................................................................................................... 33

Results and Discussion.............................................................................................................. 36

Soil Map Units and Ecological Types ................................................................................. 36

Ecological Type Key............................................................................................................. 37

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 37

Key to Ecosystems............................................................................................................................ 40

Key to Ecological Types.................................................................................................................... 41

Environment Key ................................................................................................................. 57

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 57

ECOLOGICAL TYPE DESCRIPTIONS............................................................................... 63

Contents of Ecological Type Descriptions.......................................................................... 65

Alpine Series......................................................................................................................... 67

Principal Species Descriptions.......................................................................................................... 69

Ross’ Avens ....................................................................................................................................... 69

Blackroot Sedge and Bellardi Bog Sedge ......................................................................................... 69

Arctic Willow and Snow Willow ...................................................................................................... 70

Grayleaf Willow................................................................................................................................ 71

Ross’ Avens Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family Ecological Type ........................................................ 72

Ross’ Avens—Blackroot Sedge Alpine Turf, Agneston Family Ecological Type............................. 76

Snow Willow/Bellardi Bog Sedge, McCall Family Ecological Type ............................................... 81

Late Snowbank Vegetation, Hargran Family Ecological Type.......................................................... 85

Subalpine Fir Series............................................................................................................. 91

Principal Species Description............................................................................................................ 93

Subalpine Fir ..................................................................................................................................... 93

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Subalpine Fir/Gooseberry Currant, Elting Family Ecological Type ................................................. 95

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, McCall Family Ecological Type ........................................... 100

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, Elting Family Ecological Type ............................................. 105

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, Marosa Family Ecological Type ........................................... 110

Warm Subalpine Fir Forests, Elting Family Ecological Type......................................................... 115

Subalpine Fir/Oregon Grape, Frisco Family Ecological Type ........................................................ 120

Subalpine Fir/Heartleaf Arnica-Cold Air Drainage, Hierro Family 

Ecological Type........................................................................................................................... 125

Subalpine Fir/Gooseberry Currant, Cranbay Family Ecological Type ........................................... 131

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, Swapps Family Ecological Type........................................... 131

Whitebark Pine Series....................................................................................................... 132

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 132

Krummholz, Klootch Family Ecological Type ............................................................................... 136

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, Jeru Family Ecological Type ............................................. 140

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, Salt Chuck Family Ecological Type .................................. 145

Whitebark Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Frisco Family Ecological Type........................................................ 149

Whitebark Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Como Family Ecological Type ........................................................ 153

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, Sig Family Ecological Type .............................................. 158

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, Elting Family Ecological Type.......................................... 158

Whitebark Pine Series, Marosa Family Ecological Type................................................................ 159

Douglas-Fir Series.............................................................................................................. 160

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 160

Douglas-Fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, Redfist Family Ecological Type.......................................... 161

Douglas-Fir/Oregon Grape, Cloud Peak Family Ecological Type.................................................. 167

Douglas-Fir/Common Juniper, Shawmut Family Ecological Type................................................. 172

Douglas-Fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, Yourame Family Ecological Type....................................... 178

Douglas-Fir/Utah Snowberry, Typic Calciustepts Ecological Type................................................ 178

Limber Pine Series............................................................................................................. 179

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 179

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, Lolo Family Ecological Type........................................................ 181

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, Tyzak Family Ecological Type ..................................................... 187

Limber Pine/Spike Fescue, Saddlehorse Family Ecological Type.................................................. 192

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, Como Family Ecological Type ..................................................... 197

Lodgepole Pine Series........................................................................................................ 198

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 198

Lodgepole Pine/Oregon Grape, Agneston Family Ecological Type ............................................... 201

Lodgepole Pine/Common Juniper, Holland Lake Family Ecological Type.................................... 206

Lodgepole Pine/Russet Buffaloberry, Bohica Family Ecological Type.......................................... 211

Lodgepole Pine/Heartleaf Arnica, Como Family Ecological Type................................................. 216

Lodgepole Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Targhee Family Ecological Type..................................................... 221

Lodgepole Pine Series, Corbly Family Ecological Type ................................................................ 226

Lodgepole Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, Telcher Family Ecological Type........................................ 231

Lodgepole Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Stecum Family Ecological Type...................................................... 231

Quaking Aspen Series........................................................................................................ 232

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 232

Quaking Aspen/Sticky Purple Geranium, Bullflat Family Ecological Type ................................... 235

Quaking Aspen/Utah Snowberry-Boulder, Ledgefork Family Ecological Type............................. 240

Quaking Aspen/Red-Osier Dogwood-Sitka Alder Habitat Type..................................................... 244

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush Series.............................................................................. 247

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 247

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Ledgefork Family Ecological Type ....................... 248

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush/Bluebunch Wheatgrass, Bigsheep 

Family Ecological Type............................................................................................................... 252

Mountain Big Sagebrush Series........................................................................................ 256

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 256

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Shawmut Family Ecological Type .................................. 258

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Ledgefork Family Ecological Type................................. 262

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Corbly 166D Family Ecological Type ............................ 266

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Lithic Argiustolls Ecological Type.................................. 270

iii
Mountain Big Sagebrush/Bluebunch Wheatgrass, Winspect Family Ecological Type................... 274

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Kiev Family Ecological Type ......................................... 279

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho Fescue, Corbly 351L Family Ecological Type............................. 279

Idaho Fescue Series............................................................................................................ 282

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 282

Idaho Fescue-Bluebunch Wheatgrass-Columbia Needlegrass, 

Elwood Family Ecological Type.................................................................................................... 

Idaho Fescue-Bluebunch Wheatgrass, Ledgefork Family Ecological Type ................................... 287

Bluebunch Wheatgrass Series........................................................................................... 288

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 288

Bluebunch Wheatgrass.................................................................................................................... 288

Bluebunch Wheatgrass-Sandberg Bluegrass-Mock Goldenweed—

Scabland, Paunsaugunt Family Ecological Type ........................................................................... 

Bluebunch Wheatgrass-Sandberg Bluegrass, Wabek Family Ecological Type............................... 293

Miscellaneous Graminoid Series....................................................................................... 294

Parry’s Rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents Ecological Type.................................................................... 294

Riparian and Wetland Series ............................................................................................ 295

Principal Species Descriptions........................................................................................................ 297

Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family Ecological Type .................................................................... 299

Willow/Sedge—Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts Ecological Type ...................................... 304

Oxyaquic Soils, Elvick Family Ecological Type............................................................................. 304

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................... 305

References................................................................................................................................ 306

Glossary ................................................................................................................................... 320

Appendix 1: SNOTEL Precipitation and Temperature Data Summaries................................. 333

Appendix 2: Total Species List................................................................................................ 337

Appendix 3: Available Water Capacity of Mineral Soils by Texture....................................... 353

Appendix 4: Cross-reference Between Ecological Types and Soil 

Map Unit Components..............................................................................................

Appendix 5: Narrative Soil Map Unit Descriptions ................................................................ 359

Appendix 6: Additional Species Descriptions......................................................................... 370

Appendix 7: Environmental Characteristics for Minor Ecological Types............................... 382

Appendix 8: Complete Constancy and Average Cover by Ecological Type 

of all Species Present ................................................................................................

Appendix 9: List of Animal and Fish and Pest and Disease Species....................................... 421

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Introduction____________________

The Wind River Range (WRR) is located in westcentral Wyoming, occurring as a large massif of extensive 

forests, subalpine and alpine meadows, and alpine rock 

and ice, bounded on three sides by desert basins, including 

the Green River, Wind River, and Great Divide Basins 

(Figure 1). The WRR appears on a map of Wyoming as a 

southeasterly extension of the mountainous northwestern 

corner of the state, converging with the Absaroka and Gros 

Ventre Mountains in the north and northwest, respectively. 

The WRR is oriented along a northwest-southeast axis, extending southeasterly from Togwotee Pass in the northwest 

to South Pass, a distance of approximately 180 km. The 

width of the WRR depends on where one draws the line 

between mountains and desert basin. Based on vegetation, 

the distance from the meeting of sagebrush and forest on 

the west side to the meeting of sagebrush and forest on the 

east side is approximately 40 km (Kelsey 1988). Based on 

geology, the distance between the lower Cretaceous/upper 

Jurassic Cloverly and Morrison Formations near the town 

of Lander, Wyoming, to the easterly edge of the Eocene 

Green River Formation near the towns of Pinedale and 

Boulder, Wyoming, is approximately 81 km (USGS 1994).

The crest of the WRR forms the Continental Divide, 

and Three Waters Mountain (formerly Triple Divide Peak), 

located along the Continental Divide in the northern portion of the range, separates three major watersheds (Kelsey 

1988), including the Upper Colorado, Missouri River, and 

Pacific Northwest (Columbia River) Regional Watersheds 

(Steeves and Nebert 1994). Precipitation falling to the 

east of Three Waters Mountain and the Continental Divide 

flows into the Wind River Basin via the Wind River, 

eventually emptying into the Missouri River in Montana 

by way of the Bighorn and Yellowstone Rivers. Bull Lake 

Creek, Dinwoody Creek, and Jakeys Fork are the major 

waterways in the northeastern WRR, while the Popo Agie 

(a Crow Indian word for “headwaters” and pronounced 

“po-PO-zhia”) is the major river in the southeastern part 

of the range (Kelsey 1988). Draining the southern slope 

of the range, the Sweetwater River begins on the western 

slope and flows east, eventually joining with the North 

Figure 1—Overview map showing Shoshone National Forest within the broader landscape, including Wyoming and 

surrounding states (Paskevich 2002), major basins, and points of interest (POI). These POI include Snake River plain (1), 

Teton Range (2), Wyoming and Salt River Ranges (3), Gros Ventre Range (4), Absaroka Range (5), Wind River Range (6), 

and Bighorn Mountains (7). Background imagery from ESRI ArcGIS Online and data partners (ESRI 2012), Yellowstone 

National Park boundary from Department of the Interior (DOI 2008).
2 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

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Platte River, which forms the Platte River in Nebraska 

and eventually flows into the Missouri River. Precipitation 

falling on the west slope of the Continental Divide, north 

of Three Waters Mountain, flows into Fish Creek, which 

empties into the Gros Ventre River, then to the Snake and 

Columbia Rivers. Precipitation falling on the west slope of 

the Continental Divide, south of Three Waters Peak, drains 

into the Green River Basin via the Green River, eventually 

emptying into the Colorado River. Major drainages on the 

southwest slope include Boulder and Pine Creeks and the 

New Fork River.

Vegetation of the WRR is quite diverse, as it includes 

a mixture of Central Rocky Mountain flora and species 

more typical of the Great Plains. At lower elevations (2100 

to 2700 m), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests occur on 

sheltered slopes, while limber pine woodlands, mountain 

big sagebrush, and Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass 

grasslands occur as a mosaic on more exposed slopes. 

Quaking aspen forests occur in moist upland sites, including topographic depressions and slumps, while willow 

communities dominate the steep, narrow riparian zones 

and wetlands. A subalpine zone, consisting of subalpine 

fir-Engelmann spruce forests and whitebark pine-Idaho 

fescue parkland occurs between 2700 m and timberline (approximately ~3200 m). Lodgepole pine forests occur within 

the subalpine zone on coarse-textured, unproductive soils, 

including those derived from sandstone and granitic glacial 

till. Above timberline lies the alpine zone, where turf communities composed largely of Ross’ avens and blackroot 

sedge occur across broad windswept plateaus and narrow 

ridges. Grayleaf willow, tufted hairgrass, and Holm’s 

Rocky Mountain sedge communities occur on moist, sheltered alpine sites.

The adjacency of the WRR with the Absaroka and 

Gros Ventre Mountains to the north results in connectivity 

between the mountains of northwestern Wyoming and the 

WRR, providing an important travel corridor for wildlife. 

Wildlife is abundant in the WRR, including grizzly and 

black bears, elk, white-tailed and mule deer, moose, pronghorn, cougars, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, beavers, 

muskrats, coyote, marmots, pikas, and a variety of song 

birds. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep are most abundant 

in the northeastern portion of the range, north of Gannett 

Peak, where they spend the summer grazing on high alpine 

plateaus and summits near Whiskey Mountain and Ram 

Flat and winter on the extensive glacial moraines near 

Torrey Lake to the southwest of Dubois, Wyoming (Kelsey 

1988). Trout, including cutthroat, golden, rainbow, and 

brook, are abundant in streams and in the thousands of glacial lakes scattered across the WRR (Mitchell 1999).

Objectives

Ecological Types integrate potential natural vegetation 

(PNV) and environmental characteristics, including climate, geology, landform, and soils, into a comprehensive 

ecosystem classification. The United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) has recently 

moved toward an ecological type approach to land classification termed the Terrestrial Ecological Unit Inventory 

(TEUI). TEUI is a field sampling protocol and ecological 

type classification system intended to collect information on the nature and distribution of ecosystems and to 

classify ecosystem types and map land areas with similar 

capabilities and potential for management (Winthers and 

others 2005).

The National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) is a 

nationwide partnership of Federal, regional, state, and 

local agencies; and private entities and institutions (USDA 

NRCS 2007a). This partnership works to investigate, 

inventory, document, classify, interpret, disseminate, and 

publish information about soils of the United States. The 

USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) 

provides the leadership and data quality assurance for the 

NCSS.

The fieldwork for a NCSS of the Shoshone National 

Forest (SNF) was nearly completed as of the summer of 

1997 with the exception of the eastern slope of the WRR.

OBJECTIVE 1: Complete the data collection phase of 

the NCSS on the SNF (Survey Area WY656) by finishing 

the fieldwork on the eastern slope of the WRR during the 

summers of 2004 and 2005 following NCSS and TEUI 

guidelines simultaneously.

Upon conclusion of the fieldwork on the eastern slope 

of the WRR, individuals from the NRCS, USFS, and 

Montana State University completed the NCSS of the 

entire SNF (USDA NRCS 2008). The end results of a 

NCSS are typically (1) a digital map of the soils depicting 

the spatial distribution of different soils organized into 

discernible map units, (2) soil tabular data, and (3) the 

classification of similar soil types, within soil map units, 

termed soil map unit components.

OBJECTIVE 2: Simultaneously develop the soil map 

unit component and ecological type classifications 

of the eastern slope of the WRR in order that the two 

classifications might be synonymous. The TEUI system 

of land classification had not been initiated into the USFS 

land survey protocols prior to circa 2000, and portions of 

the SNF completed prior to this were included only in the 

NCSS and not in the TEUI ecological type classification.

OBJECTIVE 3: Publish the ecological type classification 

of the eastern slope of the WRR. Primary to Objective 3 

was the compatibility of this publication with the soil map 

unit spatial and tabular data from the WRR portion of the 

Shoshone National Forest NCSS (USDA NRCS 2008) and 

vice versa.

Classification Concepts

Definitions

The following are definitions of the major classification 

and mapping concepts used throughout this document.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
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Exact Joins–The goal of soil survey is a seamless product 

across political and physiographic boundaries. A seamless 

product entails an exact join of attribute and spatial 

data between soil survey areas. In some situations, an 

exact join may not be possible and an acceptable join is 

achieved (USDA NRCS 2007a). An exact join between 

soil survey areas occurs when soil polygon lines and 

features are continuous across and along the common 

boundary and joined soil polygons share the same 

basic soil properties and selected soil qualities. When 

accomplishing an exact join, soil map units from an 

adjacent soil survey may be brought into the survey area 

of interest (and vice versa) along the boundary of the two 

surveys if the soil and environment are similar. The map 

unit that is carried over into the survey area of interest is 

referred to in this report as a ”join unit.”

Ecological Type (ET)—An ecological type is a category of 

land with a distinctive combination of landscape elements, 

including climate, bedrock geology, landform, and soils, 

and differing from other types in the kind and amount of 

vegetation it can produce and in its ability to respond to 

management actions and natural disturbances (Winthers 

and others 2005). The ecological type concept is similar 

in many respects to the NRCS ecological site concept 

(Peacock, G.L., pers. comm.). As per Objective 2, major 

and minor Ecological Types correspond to the major 

and minor soil components, respectively. Note: In the 

Ecological Type Descriptions, major ETs (n≥3) are given 

an extended description including summary tables, while 

minor ETs (n<3) are given an abbreviated description 

written in paragraph form at the end of each respective 

vegetation series section.

Habitat Type (HT)—Originally defined by Daubenmire 

(1968) as “all lands capable of producing similar plant 

communities at climax.”

Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV)—The vegetation that 

would become established if all successional sequences 

were completed without human interference under present 

climatic and edaphic conditions (Winthers and others 

2005).

Soil Map Unit (MU)—NCSS land unit classification 

concept that refers to a collection of areas defined and 

named the same in terms of their soil components and 

vegetation (Soil Survey Division Staff 1993). Each 

soil map unit differs in some respect from all others in 

a soil survey area and is uniquely identified on a soils 

map. A delineation refers to each individual polygon 

on a soils map. Soil map units consist of one or more 

components and/or miscellaneous areas. Soil components 

within a single map unit may be very similar or strongly 

contrasting depending on the degree of environmental 

heterogeneity included in the map unit. Soil surveys use 

four different kinds of map units to distinguish the degree 

of similarity-dissimilarity between components within a 

map unit (USDA NRCS 2007a). The four kinds of map 

unit (from most similar component soils to least) are:

Consociation—A single name representing the 

dominant component in the map unit is used to define 

delineated areas and highly dissimilar components are 

minor in extent.

Association—Includes two or more dissimilar soils that 

occur in a regularly repeating pattern within delineated 

areas and the major components of a complex can be 

mapped separately at the scale of mapping.

Complex (this study)—Includes two or more dissimilar 

soils that occur in a regularly repeating pattern and the 

major components (see below) of a complex cannot be 

mapped separately at the scale of mapping.

Undifferentiated group—Includes two or more 

components that are differentiated geographically and 

therefore do not consistently occur in the same map 

delineation.

Soil Map Unit Component or Component—Components 

of map units describe the properties of natural bodies of 

soils in a particular landscape (NSSC 2003). An individual 

component within a soil map unit embodies a collection of 

similar soils that represent a significant percentage of the 

land area of a soil map unit and occur repetitively across 

the landscape. Two types of components were defined:

Major component: A map unit component composing 

>10% of the areal extent of a map unit. A minimum 

of three sample points is required to define a major 

component. However, less than three sample points 

may constitute a major component if the component 

was also observed by the researcher to occur repeatedly 

across the landscape.

Minor component: A map unit component composing 

≤10% of the areal extent of a map unit and having 

fewer than three sample points.

Nomenclature

Soil components were classified to an appropriate 

taxonomic classification using the 9th edition of the Keys 

to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003) and were then 

correlated to an existing soil series family name. The 

series family names were then used as part of the map unit 

and ecological type names. Occassionally, series family 

names were unavailable, in which case the soil subgroup 

of the typical pedon was substituted for the series family 

name (e.g., PSMEG/SYORU, Typic Calciustepts ET).

The soil map unit components developed as part of the 

National Cooperative Soil Survey of the WRR portion of 

the Shoshone National Forest were used as the Ecological 

Types described in this management guide. However, 

cross-referencing between the soil map unit components 

and Ecological Types is not straightforward because the 

nomenclature between the two classification units differs 

slightly.

Soil Map Unit Nomenclature—Soil map unit complexes 

were named based on the soil components and 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
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miscellaneous areas (separated by hyphens) that compose 

the greatest percentage (>10%) of the land area in a map 

unit.

Soil Component Nomenclature—The map unit 

components were named based on soil series family 

names. Vegetation (PNV) phases were not used in 

the component nomenclature to differentiate between 

components.

Ecological Type Nomenclature—Ecological Types were 

given two-part names beginning with the vegetation 

(PNV) phase, including functional group (e.g., Late 

snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family ET), series (e.g., 

Lodgepole pine series, Corbly Family ET), or habitat 

type (e.g., subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, McCall 

Family ET), followed by the soil series family name, 

followed by the abbreviation for Ecological Type (ET). 

Soils, geologic, geomorphic, and/or landform names 

were sometimes included in the name (in place of, or 

following the vegetation phase name and separated with a 

hyphen), thus indicating the importance of that landscape 

feature or process in the designation as an ecological type 

(e.g., Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass-mock 

goldenweed-Scabland, Paunsangunt Family ET; Oxyaquic 

soils, Elvick Family ET).

The one exception to the above naming convention 

was the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue (ARTRV2/

FEID), Corbly Family Ecological Type. The Corbly series 

family name was used as the series family name of an 

ARTRV2/FEID phase in both map units 351L (granitic 

glacial till) and 166D (granitic residuum). In order to 

differentiate between this vegetation phase in the two 

different map units, the following naming convention 

was applied: (1) ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L Family 

ET for the map unit 351L component, and (2) ARTRV2/

FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET for the map unit 166D 

component.

Synecological perspective and terminology

Traditional concepts in plant succession state that 

the most shade tolerant or “climax” species in a stand 

will come to dominate a given site in the absence of 

disturbance. The concept of climax potential reflects the 

most meaningful integration of the environmental factors 

affecting vegetation because it represents the end result of 

plant succession (Steele and others 1981). The term “habitat type” follows directly from the climax concept and is 

defined as all the land capable of producing similar plant 

communities at climax (Daubenmire 1968); this term has 

been adopted by authors of plant classifications across the 

Rocky Mountain West (Hansen and others 1995; Hironaka 

and others 1983; Pfister and others 1977; Steele and others 1981, 1983; Tweit and Houston 1980; Youngblood and 

Mauk 1985).

The climax concept is incorporated within the HT 

concept wherein the most shade-tolerant or, in the case of 

riparian zones and wetlands, water-tolerant (Wells 2006), 

species will prevail in the absence of disturbance. In this 

way, habitat types are not directly classified by the present assemblage of plant species; instead, classification 

is based on PNV, often times limited to the understory 

canopy layers or relatively sparse occurrences. Ecological 

Types incorporate PNV and the environment in an integrated classification. Ecological Types may include one 

or more similar HTs so long as the HTs included have 

similar PNV and occur within the relatively narrow range 

of environmental conditions defined by the ET.

Ecological unit classification

The framework of the TEUI is based on a National 

Hierarchy of Ecological Units (Cleland 1997). The 

National Hierarchy is a nested hierarchical land unit classification that begins by grouping land areas into broad 

classes based on large-scale (global, continental) climatic 

and physiographic factors. More detailed categories are 

then classified based on systematically smaller-scale 

(regional, local) climatic, geological, geomorphic, vegetative, and topographic factors (Winthers and others 2005). 

The classes within the National Hierarchy are (from 

broad-scale to fine-scale) (ECOMAP 1993):

Domain—An ecological unit in the ecoregion planning 

and analysis scale corresponding to subcontinental 

divisions of broad climatic similarity that are affected 

by latitude and global atmospheric conditions.

Division—An ecological unit in the ecoregion planning 

and analysis scale corresponding to subdivisions of a 

Domain that have the same regional climate.

Province—An ecological unit in the ecoregion 

planning and analysis scale corresponding to 

subdivisions of a Division that conform to climatic 

subzones controlled mainly by continental weather 

patterns.

Section—An ecological unit in the subregion planning 

and analysis scale corresponding to subdivisions of 

a Province having broad areas of similar geomorphic 

process, stratigraphy, geologic origin, drainage 

networks, topography, and regional climate. Such areas 

are often inferred by relating geologic maps to Kuchler 

(1964) potential natural vegetation groupings.

Subsection—An ecological unit in the subregion 

planning and analysis scale corresponding to 

subdivisions of a Section into areas with similar 

surficial geology, lithology, geomorphic process, soil 

groups, subregional climate, and potential natural 

communities.

The Ecological Unit Classification for this study follows Bailey (1995) for Domain, Division, and Province; 

Nesser and others (1994) and McNab and Avers (1994) for 

Section; and Chapman and others (2004) for Subsection 

(referred to as “Ecoregions”).

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Study Area_____________________

Overview

We present data and results from a soil and vegetation survey of the eastern slope of the WRR, Shoshone 

National Forest, Wyoming that was collected as part of a 

broader NCSS and TEUI of the entire Shoshone National 

Forest (USDA NRCS 2008). Figure 1 provides an overview of the Shoshone National Forest and surrounding 

areas. The study area was located along the southeastern 

two-thirds of the WRR, east of the Continental Divide 

and approximately south and east of Union Pass and 

Warm Spring Mountain (Figure 2). The study area encompasses a total area of approximately 191,021 ha. The 

study area splits the NCSS survey area for the Shoshone 

National Forest into two sections, including the study 

area for this report, and areas north of the study, referred 

to in this report as “study area” and “northern Shoshone 

National Forest,” respectively. The Wind River Indian 

Reservation extends into the central portion of the east 

slope of the WRR and is not included in the study area, 

thus splitting it into northern and southern sections, 

referred to here as “northern study area” and “southern 

study area.” The northern study area includes the area 

east of the Continental Divide to the Shoshone National 

Forest Boundary, and from approximately Union Pass and 

Warm Spring Mountain in the north to Hay Pass in the 

south. The southern study area includes the area east of 

the Continental Divide to the Shoshone National Forest 

Boundary, and from approximately Mount Hooker and 

the headwaters of the South Fork Little Wind River in the 

northwest to Bald Mountain and Dickinson Park in the 

northeast, to near South Pass in the south. The Ecological 

Unit Classification of the study area is presented in 

Figure 3 and Table 1.

Figure 2—Detailed view of study area, including adjacent land ownership (BLM 2011) and field plot locations, ecological 

types of the eastern slope of the Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Note: land ownership is 

incomplete and is not intended for navigational purposes. Always research land ownership and seek permission to travel 

across private lands. Background imagery from ESRI ArcGIS Online and data partners (ESRI 2012).

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
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Figure 3—Detailed view of study area, including ecoregions of Wyoming (USEPA 2010), ecological types of the eastern slope 

of the Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming.

Table 1—Ecoregion classification (Chapman and others 2004) of the study area, including map unit codes, the absolute 

(hectares) and relative (%) area of each subsection.

Domain – Dry (300)

Division – Temperate Steppe Mountains (M330)

 Province – Middle and Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe - Open Woodland - Coniferous Forest – 

 Alpine Meadow (M331)

 Section – Wind River Mountains (M331J)

 Subsection – > Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains (17m, ~43,600 ha, 23%)

 > Granitic Subalpine Zone (17k, ~73,470 ha, 38%)

 > Alpine Zone (17h, ~70,930 ha, 37%)

Division – Temperate Desert (340)

 Province – Intermountain Semidesert (342)

 Section – Central Basin and Hills (342F)

 Subsection – > Foothills shrublands and low mountains (18d, ~3,020 ha, 2%)

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Geology

The WRR occurs in the central portion of the Rocky 

Mountain cordillera as a large, north-south doubly plunging, asymmetrical anticline (Blackstone 1993). The WRR 

is bounded on the southwest by a series of reverse thrust 

faults, the most important of which is the Wind River fault 

(Figure 4). The present landscape of the WRR is the result 

of billions of years of geologic activity, including magmatism, tectonism, sedimentation, and erosion. The core of the 

WRR is characterized by Precambrian (Archean) crystalline basement rocks (Figure 5), including granodiorite, 

porphyritic quartz monzonite, and migmatic gneiss (Frost 

and others 2000). A series of Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

sedimentary formations along the eastern flank of the WRR 

abut the Precambrian rocks and dip consistently northeast 

at 10-15 degrees (Blackstone 1993). The South Pass 

Granite-Greenstone Belt is located in the southeast corner 

of the WRR and is a complex of Precambrian metasedimentary rocks, metamorphosed volcanic rocks, granodiorite 

plutons, and iron and gold deposits (Bayley and others 

1973). Paleozoic sedimentary rocks abut the Greenstone 

Belt to the east, while Precambrian crystalline rocks and 

tertiary sedimentary rocks abut the Greenstone Belt to 

the north and south, respectively. During the Quaternary 

Period (please refer to Gibbard and others [2010] for latest 

Quaternary/Pleistocene stratigraphy), the WRR experienced 

cyclical glacial and interglacial periods. Over the course 

of hundreds of thousands to millions of years, the glaciers 

eroded the bedrock and stripped soil material from higher 

elevations, depositing these sediments at lower elevations 

in extensive moraine deposits.

The geology section is split into two subsections—the 

first presents a brief geologic history of the WRR, set within the broader geologic history of Wyoming; and the second 

presents detailed descriptions of the four major rock units 

in the WRR: (1) Precambrian, which includes the structural 

and magmatic history as related to the major Precambrian 

crystalline rock units; (2) The South Pass GraniteGreenstone Belt, including the geologic history of the area, 

and stratigraphy of major geologic rock units; (3) Paleozoic 

Sedimentary Formations, which includes information on 

the depositional setting, stratigraphy, and pertrology of 

major Paleozoic sedimentary strata; and (4) Glacial History 

and Till Deposits, which includes the glacial history of the 

WRR and descriptions of important moraine units across 

the eastern slope of the range.

Geologic history of the Wind River Range

The geologic history of the WRR is quite complex and 

spans a period of time difficult to comprehend. The brief 

description of this rich history, including major episodes 

and events, is intended to provide a general sense of the 

Figure 4—Schematic cross section of 

the Wind River Range, showing the 

Paleozoic sedimentary formations 

flanking the Precambrian igneous 

core and the location of the Wind 

River Fault. In this cross section, 

the Green River Basin is at about 

2,195 m above sea level, the summit 

of the range at Gannett Peak is at 

4,209 m, and U.S. Highway 287 in 

the Wind River Basin is at 1,677 m. 

Diagram from Figure 20 in Mears 

and others (1986) reprinted with 

permission from the Wyoming State 

Geological Survey.

Figure 5—Looking west toward Lizard Head and Cirque of the Towers from Lizard Head Trail, southeast Wind River Range, 

Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

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history and set the geologic framework within which the 

WRR was formed (Table 2).

The geologic history of Wyoming began more than 3 

billion years ago (gigaannum, Ga) with the formation of 

a large portion of the Earth’s crust termed the Wyoming 

Province, which was composed of late Archean migmatic 

gneiss, granite and plutonic rocks, ultramafic and mafic 

intrusive rocks, and a series of original sedimentary rocks 

subsequently metamorphosed (Snoke 1993). The Wyoming 

Province includes one of the oldest portions of the Earth’s 

crust in North America, ranging in age from 2.5 to 3.4 

Ga (Frost and Frost 1993). During this period in time, the 

area of the Wyoming Province that is now considered the 

WRR was located near the tectonically active margin of 

the Wyoming Province (Frost and others 2000). This area 

experienced a series of deformation and magmatic events 

that repeatedly reworked the Archean basement rocks.

Approximately 1.8 to 1.6 Ga, the Proterozoic aged 

Colorado Province accreted to the Wyoming Province 

in southeastern Wyoming, forming the tectonic boundary referred to as the Cheyenne Belt (Snoke 1993). The 

middle Proterozoic (1.5–1.4 Ga) across North America was 

characterized by a period of intense magmatism, which resulted in the intrusion of a swarm of mafic dikes across the 

Wyoming province, including the area presently considered 

the WRR. During the late Proterozoic (1300–570 million 

years ago [megaannum, Ma]), the Wyoming Province was 

a faulted upland characterized by erosion and deposition 

of sediments into adjacent basins in present day Utah and 

Colorado.

At the beginning of the Phanerozoic, during the 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, the Wyoming Province was 

inundated by an expansive inland sea that periodically 

regressed and transgressed (Snoke 1993). The periodic 

transgressions of the sea led to alternating sedimentation 

and erosion events and the eventual development of a 

broad, flat basin across the Wyoming Province termed the 

“marine foreland basin.” During this time period, a diverse 

series of sedimentary formations, including marine, clastic, 

and eolian dune types were deposited across the Wyoming 

province, including the area that is now considered the 

WRR.

Two periods of intense magmatism and tectonic activity, 

termed the Sevier and Laramide Orogenies, occurred between the mid-Cretaceous and mid-Eocene Period (125–50 

Ma). The Sevier (120–50 Ma) and Laramide (75–50 

Ma) Orogenies were largely coeval, although the Sevier 

Orogeny began approximately 45 million years earlier 

than the Laramide (Frost, B.R., pers. comm.). The Sevier 

is defined as the thrusting of Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

sediments onto the Wyoming craton, which resulted in 

the formation of the fold and thrust belt, represented in 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest

EON ERA EPOCH Relative 

Timescale

Holocene

Pleistocene

Pliocene

Miocene

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

a

 Dates for geologic time periods from Figure 8-13 in Chernicoff and others (1997)

Precambrian

Phanerozoic

PERIOD

Quaternary

Neogene

Jurassic

Paleogene

Tertiary

Permian

Formation of rocks composing Wyoming Province

Erosive period across much of Wyoming Province

23.7

Carboniferous

Cenozoic

Cretaceous

Mesozoic

Triassic

Pennsylvanian

Ordovician

Cambrian

Phanerozoic

Phosphoria Formation

Tensleep and Amsden Formation

Bighorn Dolomite

Mississippian

Paleozoic

Devonian

Silurian

Madison Limestone

Maa MAJOR GEOLOGIC EVENTS IN WYOMING

Flathead sandstone, Gros Ventre Shale, Gallatin 

Limestone

Formation of Absaroka Mountains (49-44 Ma) 

Laramide Orogeny (75-50 Ma)

Initial uplift of Teton Range 

Secondary uplift of the Wind River Range 

Yellowstone volcanic activity begins (2.2 Ma)

Recent times 

Climate fluctuations, periodic ice ages

Beginning of Sevier Orogeny (120-50 Ma)

Nugget sandstone

Dinwoody Formation and Chugwater Group

Table 2. Geologic timeline of major geologic events in Wyoming (millions of years ago, Ma).

Proterozoic

Archean

Precambrian

Hadean

NA

1.6

5.3

36.6

57.8

144

208

66.4

245

2500

3800

4600

286

320

360

408

438

570

505

Table 2—Geologic timeline of major geologic events in Wyoming (millions of years ago Ma).
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the Wyoming Province by the Bear River, Salt River, 

Wyoming, and Gros Ventre Mountain Ranges of northeastern Utah, southeastern Idaho, and western Wyoming. 

The Laramide involved large uplifts within the Wyoming 

craton itself. Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata were fractured 

by faulting and upward displacement of Precambrian basement rocks, and the once broad, flat marine foreland basin 

was partitioned into a complex of structurally separated 

marine basins (Snoke 1993). A number of mountain ranges 

cored with Precambrian rocks were uplifted in Wyoming 

and across the Rocky Mountains, including the WRR, 

which was uplifted and thrust westward along the Wind 

River Thrust Fault. The total displacement on the fault was 

between approximately 9000 and 15,000 m (Frost, B.R., 

pers. comm.). Following the uplift, and westward thrusting, 

the crest of the WRR was composed of Cambrian sedimentary rocks and was located several kilometers west of the 

present topographic divide (Blackstone 1993). Although 

it is impossible to know the actual elevation of the crest 

of the WRR at that time, it is known that the elevation of 

the mountains was higher than that of present day and the 

basin floors were closer to sea level, resulting in dramatic 

topographic relief (Mears 1993).

Near the end of the Laramide Orogeny, during the 

mid- to late Eocene, another series of magmatic, tectonic, 

and volcanic episodes began in areas corresponding to the 

present day Absaroka Mountains (northwestern Wyoming), 

Black Hills (northeastern Wyoming), and Rattlesnake Hills 

(central Wyoming) (Snoke 1993). Also during the mid- to 

late Eocene, powerful tectonic and magmatic activity was 

tilting the Wyoming Province westward, reversing the 

eastward drainage and leading to the development of extensive lake systems in southwestern, central, and northern 

Wyoming, as well as parts of Utah and Colorado. A series 

of erosion and deposition events during the late Eocene 

to late Miocene resulted in the deposition of an extensive 

sheet of outwash, principally coarse volcanic debris, over 

a late Eocene landscape characterized by extensive late 

Eocene erosion. In the WRR, Precambrian crystalline basement rocks were exposed in the core of the range during 

this time due to continued uplift and erosion, and more 

than 3000 m of sediment had been eroded and deposited in 

adjacent basins.

During the Oligocene, intense volcanic activity occurred 

to the southwest, in the Great Basin Region (Mears 1993). 

Large volumes of volcanic debris, primarily airborne ash, 

fell over large areas of Montana, Wyoming, North and 

South Dakota, and western Nebraska. Deep ash deposits 

combined with continued erosion of the Precambrian 

crystalline basement rocks of the WRR throughout the 

Oligocene and early- to mid-Miocene led to rapid aggradation of adjacent basins and the development of an extensive 

low gradient erosion surface, or peneplane, of crystalline 

basement rocks along the periphery of the WRR (Mears 

1993). At this point, the intense topographic relief of the 

early Laramide WRR was much subdued, and the range 

appeared more like a broad ridge with a series of isolated 

hills and mountain peaks protruding above a broad, flat 

Precambrian bedrock surface, than a continuous mountain 

range.

During the mid-Miocene, around the same time the 

Teton Range was initially uplifted, normal faulting during 

a regional tectonic event caused broad, regional uplifts 

that raised the WRR to its present elevation (Snoke 1993). 

The lifting of the once broad, flat erosion surface led to 

the eventual development of “high-level” or “summit” 

erosion surfaces (Mears 1993). However, the origin of the 

high-level erosion surfaces in the WRR is debatable, in fact 

a number of hypotheses exist. Please refer to Mears (1993) 

for a detailed discussion of these hypotheses. The highlevel erosion surface was heavily eroded by glaciers during 

the Quaternary Period. However, remnants of this once 

broad high-level erosion surface (herein termed “high-level 

erosion surface remnants”) occur primarily in the northeastern portion of the WRR.

From the mid-Miocene regional uplift to the present, erosion events have dominated across the Wyoming 

Province, and a vast amount of sediment was stripped from 

the area presently considered the eastern Rocky Mountain 

Front (Snoke 1993). The most recent volcanic activity 

in the area of northwestern Wyoming, the area presently 

considered Yellowstone National Park, began during the 

early Pleistocene. The current Yellowstone Volcanic Plateau 

formed over the past approximately 2.0–2.5 million years, 

and was characterized by three major eruptions occurring 

2.0, 1.3, and 0.6 Ma. Concurrent with the Yellowstone 

volcanic activity, the Rocky Mountains have experienced 

approximately 2.5 million years of periodic cooling cycles, 

resulting in a series of Ice Ages characterized by extensive glaciations in mountainous regions, alternating with 

warmer, drier periods. The erosion associated with these 

glaciations was extensive and has resulted in the fantastic 

topographic relief associated with the U-shaped glacial valleys, dramatic glacial cirques, and nunataks of the present 

landscape (Figure 6).

Major rock units

Precambrian granitics

The Precambrian history of the WRR began during 

the early Archean (>3.0 Ga) when much of the Wyoming 

Province was already formed of supracrustal rocks, primarily gneiss (Chamberlain and others 2003). The area 

of the Wyoming Province presently considered the WRR 

was located near the western margin of the Wyoming 

Province. The western margin remained both tectonically 

and magmatically active, resulting in continued crustal 

growth in the vicinity of the WRR throughout the mid- to 

late- Archean Eon. The Washakie Terrane in the northeastern portion of the WRR (Figure 7) is mostly 2.86 

Ga; however, it contains inclusions of some of the oldest 

granitic rocks (3.3–3.8 Ga) in the WRR (Frost, B.R., pers. 

comm.). The Washakie Terrane is composed of relatively 

homogenous, banded gray gneisses (Frost and others 1998). 

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At approximately 2.8 Ga, the Native Lake Gneiss locally 

intruded broad areas of the northern WRR, including the 

Washakie Terrane, forming migmatite along the boundaries of larger intrusive bodies. The Washakie Terrane is 

the hanging wall of the Mount Helen Structural Block 

(MHSB), a thick uplift of supracrustal rocks characterized 

by a deep 45° normal fault to the southwest (Frost and 

Figure 6—Looking north from the summit of Wind River Peak at 4,022 m. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Figure 7—Geologic map of the Precambrian rocks of the Wind River Range. Diagram from Figure 2 in Frost 

and others (2006) reprinted with permission from B.R. Frost.

others 2006). The MHSB creates the southwestern boundary of the Washakie Terrane, is 5 km wide, 40 km long, 

trends northwest, and occurs in the north-central portion of 

the WRR. The fault occurs on the southwestern boundary 

of the MHSB, beginning at the Continental Divide on the 

north flank of Mount Helen (approximately 4.2 km SSE 

of Gannett Peak) and extending 40 km to the southeast 

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and crossing the Continental Divide near Triple Divide 

Peak (Granger and others 1971).

South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt

The South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt includes a 

series of metamorphosed Precambrian sedimentary and volcanic rocks that were thrust northward upon the Wyoming 

Province around 2.65 Ga (Frost and others 2000). The 

rocks of the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt are the 

result of sedimentation and intermittent volcanic activity on 

an ancient oceanic crust formed of basalts and ultramafic 

igneous rocks during the early Archean (2.72–2.64 Ga) 

(Frost, B.R., pers. comm.). The supracrustal rocks of the 

South Pass Granite–Greenstone Belt are unique among 

other supracrustal rocks in the WRR in that they present a 

logical stratigraphy due to the preservation of the primary 

sedimentary structure as a result of weak metamorphism 

(Frost and others 2000). The supracrustal rocks include 

five distinct rock units, from oldest to youngest: Gneiss 

Complex, Diamond Springs Formation, Goldman Meadows 

Formation, Round Top Mountain Greenstone, and the 

Miner Delight Formation (Bayley and others 1973; Hausel 

1991).

The Gneiss Complex occurs along the border of the 

Louis Lake Pluton and the South Pass Granite–Greenstone 

Belt and consists of strongly foliated felsic gneiss, migmatite, granite, granodiorite, and amphibolite (Hausel 1988, 

1991). Figure 8 provides a generarlized geologic map of 

the South Pass Granite–Greenstone Belt. The rocks of the 

Gneiss Complex have their origins as an early basement or 

supracrustal sequence that was adhered to the other South 

Pass supracrustal rocks by tectonic forces. The Diamond 

Springs Formation is located along the northern margin 

of the South Pass Granite–Greenstone Belt and originated 

as lava flows and sills that were erupted on an ancient sea 

floor during the Archean (Hausel 1991). The Diamond 

Springs Formation is composed of serpentinite, schist, and 

amphibolite. The Goldman Meadows Formation overlies 

the Diamond Spring Formation and occurs as a narrow, 

northeast trending band of rocks along its southeastern 

boundary. The Goldman Meadows Formation includes 

quartzite, schist, amphibolite, and a banded iron formation. 

The banded iron formation is a hard, dense, fine-grained, 

dark-colored rock consisting of alternating bands of magnetite and quartz (Bayley and others 1975). It is the product 

of chemical sedimentation followed by thermal metamorphism. The rocks of the Goldman Meadows Formation 

originated as sedimentary rocks formed from sediments 

deposited in a deep oceanic basin (Hausel 1991). The deposition environment was one of relative stability interrupted 

by periodic volcanic eruptions and subsequent basalt flows. 

The Round Top Mountain Greenstone overlies the Goldman 

Meadow Formation and occurs from Round Top Mountain 

in the northeast, southwest of the headwaters of Big Hermit 

Gulch. The Round Top Mountain Greenstone is composed 

of greenstone, greenschist, and amphibolite and originated 

as ancient ocean floor basalts cut by numerous basaltic and 

(Granger and others 1971). The MHSB is composed of 

gneiss, intrusive bodies of porphyritic granite, and migmatite. It was formed when the Pacific plate began to subduct 

beneath the western margin of the Wyoming Province 

between 2.67 and 2.68 Ga. Subduction led to the eastward 

collision of the Idaho Continental Block with the Wyoming 

Province resulting in the southwest thrusting of the MSHB. 

Later during this same event, the Bridger Batholith, the 

product of melted mantle or subducted plate, intruded the 

western portion of the MSHB (Frost and others 2006). 

The Bridger Batholith comprises a large portion of the 

northwestern WRR and is composed primarily of granodiorite. Magmatism associated with the emplacement of the 

Bridger Batholith resulted in the formation of migmatite 

along its periphery.

The Louis Lake Batholith is the largest in the WRR and 

was originally emplaced in the southern half of the range 

around 2.63 Ga. Around this time, a series of late Archean 

batholiths were also emplaced in the northwestern and 

northeastern portions of the range and as isolated plutons 

in the South Pass area. The Louis Lake Batholith, south of 

the Middle Fork Popo Agie River, is primarily composed 

of granodiorite with localized intrusions of biotite quartz 

monzonite around Atlantic Canyon, Leg Lake, and the 

western ridge of Roaring Fork Mountain (Pearson and 

others 1971). Along Tayo Creek, near the headwaters of 

the Middle Fork Popo Agie River, a small (1.6 × 3.2 km) 

area of biotitic and hornblendic gneisses and schists with a 

core of albite-quartz crops out from the surrounding granodiorite. The portion of the Louis Lake Batholith north of 

the Middle Fork Popo Agie River is primarily porphyritic 

quartz monzonite, which is composed of large crystals of 

potassium-rich alkali feldspar set in a groundmass of oligoclase, quartz, biotite, and horneblende. Lastly, during the 

Proterozoic Eon (1.47 Ga), crustal extension across large 

areas of the Wyoming Province caused crustal thinning and 

rifting, resulting in the intrusion of diabasic dike swarms 

across the WRR (Chamberlain and others 2003). Individual 

dikes resulting from this episode are up to 50 m wide and 

30 km long (Frost and others 2000). Although numerous 

smaller dikes occur throughout the WRR, four major dikes 

or groups of dikes exist along the eastern slope of the 

range. The first occurs in the southern portion of the Louis 

Lake Batholith, to the south and east of Louis Lake, where 

a series of dikes parallel and, at times, cross one another 

along a northeasterly trend (Pearson and others 1973). The 

second is a 23-km-long dike that begins on the southern 

slope of Wind River Peak and trends northeasterly toward 

Dickinson Park (Pearson and others 1971). The third is a 

pair of dikes that cross the continental divide near Baptiste 

and Grave Lakes in the northwestern corner of the southern 

study area. These two dikes run for approximately 32 km 

along a northeasterly trend, joining at a point approximately 

8 km to the northeast of the Continental Divide. The fourth 

is the Goat Flat Diabase Dike, which occurs in the northeastern portion of the range, beginning near Native Lake 

in the southeast, extending northwesterly across Goat Flat, 

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diabasic sills. Lastly, the Miners Delight Formation occurs 

across vast areas of the South Pass Granite–Greenstone belt 

and is composed primarily of metagreywacke interbedded 

with mica schist. The Round Top Mountain Fault, a major 

northeast trending fault in the South Pass area, marks the 

contact between the Miners Delight Formation and the 

Round Top Mountain Greenstone. The Miners Delight 

Formation originated as sediments deposited from a shallow water fan into a moderately deep oceanic basin.

The South Pass Granite–Greenstone belt also features 

a number of intrusive granite and granodiorite plutons that 

were emplaced around the same time as the Louis Lake 

Batholith (Hausel 1991). The Lewiston Lake Pluton was 

emplaced in the eastern portion of the South Pass Granite–

Greenstone Belt during the first episode. During the second 

episode, a number of smaller, scattered plutons intruded 

the Miners Delight Formation in the western portion of the 

South Pass Granite–Greenstone Belt, including the South 

Pass Pluton located to the west of South Pass City and the 

Sweetwater Granite located along the Sweetwater River 

and Lander Creek.

Thick layers of sedimentary rocks, deposited during 

the Tertiary Period, cover about a third of the South Pass 

Granite–Greenstone Belt, including the Wasatch Formation, 

White River Formation, Arikaree Formation, and the South 

Pass Formation (Hausel 1991). The White River Formation 

occurs on the north slope of Round Top Mountain, overlying the Round Top Mountain Greenstone, and is composed 

of white to pale pink blocky tuffaceous claystone and 

lenticular arkosic conglomerate formed primarily from 

sediments of volcanic ash that blanketed much of the northern and central Rockies and western Great Plains during the 

Oligocene Epoch (see “Geologic History of the Wind River 

Range”).

Paleozoic sedimentary formations

The sedimentary formations occurring along the eastern 

flank of the WRR and throughout central-western Wyoming 

and southwestern Montana were initially deposited during 

Figure 8—Generalized map of the South Pass granite-greenstone belt showing mining district locations, 

gold placers, and generalized Precambrian geology. Map from Figure 1 in Hausel (1991) reprinted 

with permission from the Wyoming State Geological Survey.

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the Paleocene Era (570–286 Ma) when the area was part 

of a vast inland sea (Boyd 1993). The arrangement of the 

sedimentary formations atop one another reflects a series of 

depositional events associated with advances and retreats 

of seawater into and out of the area currently considered 

central Wyoming. Figure 9 illustrates the arrangement of 

sedimentary formations along the eastern flank of the WRR 

to the south of Lander, Wyoming near Red Canyon.

The oldest of the sedimentary formations, the Flathead 

Sandstone, is middle Cambrian (ca. 550 Ma) in age 

(Figure 10). Along the eastern flank of the WRR, the 

Flathead Sandstone rests on the Precambrian basement 

rocks of the core of the range and varies in thickness from 

approximately 50 m in the northwest to 90 m in the southeast (Bell and Middleton 1978). Two major rock units have 

been recognized in the Flathead Sandstone: 

(1) the lower unit, characterized by medium-grained, 

clean sandstone that is locally shaley or conglomeratic at 

the base; and (2) the upper unit, characterized by parallel 

stratification with coarse- to fine-grained sandstone at the 

base grading upward into interbedded fine-grained, clayey 

sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

Figure 9—Schematic cross section of the southeast flank of the Wind River Range and western Wind River Basin, looking 

northwest from the head of Read Canyon. Section is about 11 mi across, and vertical relief at the surface is about 915 m. 

Diagram from Figure 21 in Mears and others (1986) reprinted with permission from the Wyoming State Geological 

Survey.

Figure 10—Flagstones of Flathead Sandstone, southeast Wind 

River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Photo 

by Aaron Wells.

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The middle to upper Cambrian (ca. 540–520 Ma) Gros 

Ventre Formation forms the next layer and exhibits a 

distinct scarp slope directly above the Flathead Sandstone. 

Throughout the majority of central and northwestern 

Wyoming, the Gros Ventre Formation is a thick (maximum 

thickness 250 m) shale-limestone-shale sequence (Boyd 

1993). In order from oldest to youngest, the Gros Ventre 

Formation is divided into three members: Wolsey Shale, 

Death Canyon Limestone, and Park Shale (Middleton and 

others 1980). Along the eastern flank of the WRR, however, 

the Death Canyon Limestone is absent, thus preventing 

differentiation between the Wolsey and Park Shales. Where 

the Death Canyon Limestone is absent, the Wolsey and 

Park Shales are merged and collectively refered to as the 

Gros Ventre Group. The Gros Ventre Group consists of 

greenish-gray/purple-pink micaceous shale and ranges 

from cross-stratified sandy shale near the contact with the 

Flathead Sandstone to fine-textured shale interbedded with 

thin limestone toward the top.

Overlying the Gros Ventre Formation is the upper 

Cambrian (ca. 520–505 Ma) Gallatin Limestone Group, 

consisting of a limestone-shale-limestone sequence 

(Figure 11). The basal member of the Gallatin Limestone 

Group, the DuNoir Limestone, is a resistant, cliff-forming, 

massive, dark gray, locally sandy limestone averaging 

30 m in thickness (Middleton and others 1980). The upper 

member of the Gallatin Limestone Group, the Open Door 

Limestone, is a cliff-forming, gray, coarsely crystalline 

limestone with thin interbeds of green shale and scattered 

flat-pebble conglomerates. The Open Door Limestone 

ranges in thickness between 21 and 80 m across central and 

northwestern Wyoming, trending toward the thinner end 

along the eastern flank of the WRR. Between the DuNoir 

and Open Door Limestones, along a sharp and erosional 

contact, lies the Dry Creek Shale Member of the Open 

Door Limestone. The Dry Creek Shale is dark-green, nonresistant shale interbedded with thin, pebbly limestone and 

fine-grained sandstone and siltstone beds. The Dry Creek 

Member is relatively thin, ranging between 7 and 16 m.

Above the Gallatin Limestone Group lies the Ordovician 

(505–438 Ma) aged Bighorn Dolomite (Figure 12). Across 

central and northwestern Wyoming, the Bighorn Dolomite 

has been subdivided into four rock units, in order from 

oldest to youngest: Lander Sandstone, Steamboat Point, 

Leigh, and Horseshoe Mountain (Zenger 1992). Along the 

eastern flank of the WRR, the Steamboat Point Member 

has a gradational lower contact with the thin (1–1.5 m) 

Figure 11—Gallatin Limestone outcrop, Limestone Mountain, 

southeast Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, 

Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Figure 12—Bighorn Dolomite cliffs at Wild Iris Climbing Area, Limestone Mountain, southeast Wind River Range, 

Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 15

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Lander Sandstone Member, while the Leigh and Horseshoe 

Mountain Members are absent. The Steamboat Point 

Member is the most persistent and obvious member of the 

Bighorn Dolomite in the eastern WRR, forming prominent 

tan to yellow cliffs that vary in thickness between 32 and 

54 m. Along the eastern flank of the WRR, the Steamboat 

Point Member is typically a uniformly fine-crystalline 

dolomite that essentially lacks “original” calcite. Unique 

to the Steamboat Point Member of the Bighorn Dolomite 

are irregular fretted surfaces, depressions, and sharp, sometimes knob-like protuberances (Johnson and Biggs 1955). 

The protuberances may have developed due to differential 

weathering of the less resistant dolomite matrix, resulting 

from the occurrence of scattered patches of more highly 

resistant quartz and opal rich dolomite. The irregular fretted 

surfaces have been attributed to the differential weathering 

of the dolomite matrix and the filled burrow cavities of 

the ichnogenus Thalassinoides (Zenger 1992). The more 

resistant surfaces are generally light-gray, fine crystalline 

dolomite, while the less resistant “matrix” is commonly 

pale yellowish to orange, coarser and more porous dolomite. Dust-like particles of iron-rich material sometimes 

occur within the interstices between the dolomite crystals, 

accounting for the pinkish to red tinge occasionally observed (Blackwelder 1913).

Silurian (438–408 Ma) aged rocks are absent along the 

eastern flank of the WRR due to heavy erosion during the 

Devonian Period (408–306 Ma). Following the erosional 

Devonian Period, the Mississippian Period (360–320 Ma) 

was characterized by thick carbonate deposition over a 

major portion of North America (Boyd 1993). Across much 

of Wyoming, the carbonate rocks of the Mississippian 

period have been given the name Madison Limestone 

(Figure 13). The Madison Limestone is a geologically 

diverse formation, with six members differing in ratio of 

limestone to dolomite, bedding type, grain origin, and 

chert content. Two formations are recognized in central 

Wyoming: (1) the older, Lodgepole Limestone (60–120 m; 

eastern flank WRR), rests conformably atop the Bighorn 

Dolomite and is characterized by basal black shale grading 

into cherty limestone; and (2) the younger, Mission Canyon 

Limestone (30–60 m; eastern flank WRR), is typically chert 

rich dolomite overlain by sandstone and red shale of the 

Amsden Formation (Andrichuk 1955; Boyd 1993).

The age and differentiation of the Amsden Formation 

has long been debated by geologists and has been referred to as the “Amsden Problem” (Boyd 1993). For the 

purposes of this discussion, the Amsden Formation will 

be considered late Mississippian (ca. 330–320 Ma) to 

early Pennsylvanian (ca. 320–310 Ma), and the original 

three-member sequence proposed by Darton (1908) will 

be employed. Lying disconformably atop the Madison 

Limestone Formation, the Darwin Sandstone (the first, and 

oldest member of the Amsden Formation) is a relatively 

thin (<30 m), friable, well-cemented, grayish-white to red, 

fine to medium grained, quartz sandstone (Sando and others 

1975). The Horseshoe Shale member (average 25 m) rests 

conformably atop the Darwin Sandstone and represents 

the typical bright red to purple and graying fissile, platy, 

or blocky shale, siltstone, and mudstone often associated 

with the Amsden Formation. Calcareous quartz sandstone, 

silty to sandy limestone, and dolomite occur sporadically 

throughout the Horseshoe Shale member. Lastly, the 

Ranchester Limestone (average 30 m), the most widespread 

member of the Amsden Formation, exists between the top 

of the Horseshoe Shale and the bottom of the Tensleep 

Sandstone. The Ranchester Limestone is a heterogeneous 

sequence of interbedded cherty dolomite and limestone, 

sandstone, and shale.

The upper boundary of the Amsden Formation with 

the Pennsylvanian (ca. 310–286 Ma) Tensleep Sandstone 

is sometimes difficult to identify in areas where the 

Ranchester Limestone member is characterized by sandstone. The boundary between the Amsden and Tensleep 

is transitional and conformable, with inter-tonguing of 

Amsden and Tensleep common. The Tensleep Sandstone 

(15–100 m) is a white and cream to tan and pink, fine 

to medium grained, cross-bedded sandstone, sometimes 

interbedded with limestone and dolomite. Wind, rather than 

water, played a major role in transport and deposition of the 

sands that formed the Tensleep Sandstone, as evidenced by 

several eolian dune types, differentiated by distinctive bedding geometry, and grain characteristics (Boyd 1993).

Glacial history and till deposits

The Quaternary Period is characterized by a series of 

broad-scale climatic warming and cooling events, corresponding to interglacial and glacial oscillations (Table 3). 

At times during this period, an extensive ice sheet covered 

a large portion of the northern half of the North American 

continent, including the northern margin of the western 

Figure 13—Madison Limestone outcrop on the summit of 

Peak 9239 in the Freak Mountains, east-central Wind 

River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. 

“Sharpshooter” shovel in photo is approximate 1 meter 

tall. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
16 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

United States. Across much of the western United States, 

south of the continental ice sheet, the Quaternary was 

characterized by episodic glaciations in the major mountain 

ranges of the Rocky Mountain Cordillera, including the 

WRR, corresponding to global glacial and interglacial 

intervals. The Marine Isotope Record (MIR) provides a 

continuous account of the Quaternary glacial and climatic 

history in a series of deep ocean sediment cores (Walker 

2005). The MIR relies on the ratio of two oxygen isotopes, 

Oxygen-16 and -18, composing the marine microfossils 

found in the ocean floor sediments. The ratio of the heavier 

Oxygen-18 to the lighter Oxygen-16 depends on the 

amount of water frozen as glacial ice at a given point in 

time and is used to reconstruct historic climatic and glacial 

sequences (Dansgaard and Tauber 1969). The MIR has 

been classified into a series of stages, referred to as Marine 

Isotope Stages (MIS), reflecting the global glacial and interglacial intervals during the Pleistocene. The MIR indicates 

that worldwide in the past 800 thousand years (killaannum, 

Ka), there have been as few as 7 or 8 major glaciations and 

perhaps as many as 20 during the entirety of the Pleistocene 

Epoch (Pierce, K.L., pers. comm.). However, in glaciated 

landscapes, exposures of glacial till deposited by older glaciations are difficult to find as they are usually obliterated 

by subsequent glaciations (Gibbons and others 1984).

In the WRR, exposures of glacial till deposited by 

glaciations before MIS 14-12, referred to as pre-Sacagawea 

Ridge, are extremely rare (Dahms 2004a). Presently, 

pre-Sacajawea Ridge deposits have been eroded away or 

covered by till from subsequent younger glaciers and only 

small patches occur scattered throughout the range, occurring as deeply weathered and severely eroded mounds on 

high ridges and plateaus (Blackwelder 1915). The location 

of pre-Sacagawea Ridge till on high ridges and plateaus 

suggests that the physiography of the WRR was markedly 

different during these early glaciations (Holmes and Moss 

1955). The dramatic U-shaped glacial valleys of today had 

not yet formed, and the range was a broad, high table land 

upon which large mountain icecaps developed. The lack of 

significant exposures of pre-Sacagawea Ridge till has made 

it difficult to directly collect information regarding the age 

and chronology of glacial-interglacial events during this 

time period. Richmond (1964, 1986) defined two pre-Bull 

Lake glacial deposits at Cedar Ridge along the northern 

shore of Bull Lake in the northeastern WRR, from oldest to 

youngest: Washakie Point (MIS 20) and Cedar Ridge (MIS 

16-18). Hall and Jaworowski (1999) later reported soils 

and paleomagnetic evidence that the Washakie Point and 

Cedar Ridge deposits, as identified by Richmond, could not 

be confirmed and suggested that the terms should be abandoned. The Sacagawea Ridge till was redefined by Hall and 

Jaworowski (1999) for a small section of till that occurs 

near Dinwoody Lakes to the northeast of Bull Lake, given 

an age of MIS 16 (770–660 Ka), and remained as the sole 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest

Period Epoch Glaciation Starta End MIS Source Articles Relative 

Timescale

Black Joe 3000 1500 1 Dahms (2002); Dahms and others (2010)

Alice Lake 6000 - 5000 3,000 1 Dahms (2002); Dahms and others (2010)

Interglacial period 8,000 5,000 1 Davis (1988)

Temple Lake 12,800 11,500 1 Gosse and others (1995b), Dahms and others 

(2010); Zielinski and Davis (1987)

Pinedale 22,000 16,000 2 Dahms (2004a); Gosse and others (1995a); 

Phillips and others (1997)

Intermediate Bull 

Lake/Pinedale 70 Ka 60 Ka 4 Hall and Shroba (1995); Pierce (2004)

Bull Lake 200 Ka 95 Ka 6

Chadwich and others (1997); Pierce (2004); 

Phillips and others (1997); Sharp and others 

(2003)

Sacagawea 770 Ka 660 Ka 16 Chadwick and others (1997); Hall and 

Jaworoski (1999)

Pre-Sacagawea NA NA >16 Dahms (2004b)

Pleistocene Holocene

Pleistocene

Quaternary

150

Early Illinoian and older

a

 All ages are approximate. Readers are encouraged to review the source articles for a more detailed discussion regarding the ages of glaciations.

Gannett Peak 500 Dahms (2002)

Late Wisconsian

Late Illinoian

1

Altithermal

Early Wisconsian

Table 3. Glacial timeline of the Wind River Range with approximate start and end times of important glacial and interglacial 

events (thousands of years ago, Ka).

Climatic or glacial event

Little Ice Age

Neoglaciation

Younger Dryas

Holocene

Table 3—Glacial timeline of the Wind River Range with approximate start and end times of important glacial and interglacial 

events (thousands of years ago Ka).
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 17

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

pre-Bull Lake till until Dahms (2004b) reported patches of 

pre-Sacagawea Ridge till on a ridge above Sinks Canyon 

and on Table Mountain to the west of Lander, Wyoming. 

The pre-Sacagawea Ridge tills were not given numeric 

ages, but instead were defined as “younger” and “older” 

pre-Sacagawea Ridge units.

No surviving moraines are known between the 

Sacagawea Ridge glaciation and Bull Lake glaciation, but 

the MIR suggests that glaciations have occurred every ca. 

100,000 years over the last 800 Ka and at shortened intervals to about 2 Ma (Pierce, K.L., pers. comm.). The Bull 

Lake glaciation was the next major glacial advance with 

known till exposures in the WRR and occurred between 

[200]>130 and 95 Ka (Chadwick and others 1997; Pierce 

2004; Phillips and others 1997). The Bull Lake glaciation 

corresponds generally with the late Illinoian continental 

glaciations and MIS 6. During the Bull Lake glaciation, 

the topography of the WRR was approximately that of the 

present day, with deeply eroded U-shape glacial valleys, 

steep headwalls, and numerous nunataks standing above 

the glacial ice. The Bull Lake glaciers were extensive and 

spilled out into the surrounding basins. The most prominent of these glaciers, and the one for which Blackwelder 

(1915) originally named the Bull Lake till, occurred in 

the lower Bull Lake drainage in the northeastern WRR. 

Detailed studies of the extensive till deposits around Bull 

Lake and correlative outwash terraces along the nearby 

Wind River suggest that two to four separate, major Bull 

Lake glacial episodes occurred (Chadwick and others 

1997; Sharp and others 2003). Bull Lake till is exposed 

near, and often extends beyond, the mouths of numerous 

canyons along the periphery of the WRR. Some of the more 

important of these include Bull Lake Creek (Blackwelder 

1915), Dinwoody Creek, Jakeys Fork, and Torrey Creek 

(Applegarth and Dahm 2001) on the east side of the range, 

and near Fremont, Boulder, Willow, and New Fork Lakes 

on the west side of the range (Richmond 1987).

Preliminary evidence exists for exposures of till corresponding to a separate glaciation, intermediate between 

the Bull Lake and next youngest glaciation (Hall and 

Shroba 1995). This intermediate glaciation probably correlates with the early Wisconsian continental glaciation (ca 

70–60 Ka), or MIS 4 (Pierce 2004). The early Wisconsian 

till was originally correlated with the Bull Lake glaciation, as the youngest of five Bull Lake aged moraines near 

Fremont Lake on the west slope of the range near Pinedale, 

Wyoming (Richmond 1987). Later, evidence arose around 

the Rocky Mountains for an early Wisconsian glaciation 

(Colman and Pierce 1986; Forman and others 1993) and 

further study progressed on the Bull Lake moraines at 

Fremont and Bull Lakes (Hall and Shroba 1995). As a 

result, the youngest of the five moraines at Fremont Lake 

previously correlated with the Bull Lake glaciation was 

reinterpreted and given the distinction as early Wisconsian. 

Limited exposures of early Wisconsian till have also been 

recognized in Sinks Canyon on the southeast slope of WRR 

(Dahms 2004b).

The next major glacial event in the WRR for which 

appreciable amounts of exposed till occur was termed the 

Pinedale glaciation by Blackwelder (1915) after till deposits occurring near Fremont Lake on the west slope of the 

range near Pinedale, Wyoming. Gosse and others (1995), 

using Beryllium-10 dating, found the age of the Pinedale 

glaciation to be between approximately 22,000 and 16,000 

years, corresponding to the late Wisconsian continental 

glaciation and MIS 2 (Dahms 2004a). During the maximum 

Pinedale glaciation, the glacial ice extended down-valley to 

approximately 75–90% of the maximum Bull Lake glaciation. Pinedale till overlies or banks up against Bull Lake till 

on lateral moraines along the greater length of major glacial 

valleys along the western slope of the range, while Pinedale 

ice usually breached the Bull Lake moraines on the eastern 

flank of the range (Pierce, K.L., pers. comm.). Recession of 

the Pinedale ice corresponded with a warming period and 

occurred rapidly between approximately 16,000 and 12,100 

years ago, during which time the glaciers receded an average of 33 km to their respective glacial cirques (Gosse and 

others 1995a; Pierce 2004).

The Temple Lake till represents a brief resurgence of 

glaciers that occurred during the Younger Dryas global 

cooling event between 12,800 and 11,500 years ago (Alley 

and others 1993; Gosse and others 1995b; Dahms and 

others 2010; Zielinski and Davis 1987). Temple Lake till 

is named after till deposits in a glacial cirque in the upper 

Temple Lake valley (Currey 1974; Miller and Birkeland 

1974; Dahms and others 2010). Glaciers corresponding 

with the Temple Lake glaciation were relatively small 

compared to the Bull Lake and Pinedale glaciations and 

remained within glacial cirques in the high mountains. 

During the Younger Dryas event, tree line in the WRR 

was slightly lower than its present level and alpine tundra 

vegetation dominated glacial cirques (Fall and others 

1995). Following the Younger Dryas, a transitional period 

occurred, and by approximately 10,340 years ago, the 

Temple Lake glaciers had receded to near their present 

positions near cirque headwalls, or had melted entirely. The 

first half of the Holocene Epoch was marked by warmer 

temperatures, including an interglacial period termed the 

“Altithermal” (Davis 1988). The Altithermal interglacial 

event occurred between approximately 8,000 and 5,000 

years ago, with a maximum between approximately 7,200 

and 6,400 years ago. During this warming event, tree line 

gradually shifted upward to a point 100 m higher than present day (Fall and others 1995). Subalpine forests composed 

of subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and Engelmann spruce 

dominated upper elevation forests, while Douglas-fir and 

cottonwood occurred as minor components of lower elevation forests. Near the end of the Altithermal, during the 

mid-Holocene, the climate began to cool, subalpine forests 

began to retreat to lower elevations near modern day tree 

line, and alpine tundra returned to glacial cirques.

The most recent series of glaciations, or Neoglaciation, 

began during the mid- to late Holocene, roughly 5,000 to 

6,000 years ago, and was characterized by three glacial 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
18 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

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events, including Alice Lake (6,000–3,000 yrs BP), Black 

Joe (3,000–1,500 yrs BP), and Gannett Peak (500–150 yrs 

BP) (Dahms 2002; Dahms and others 2010). The most 

recent of these, the Gannett Peak glaciation, occurred during the Little Ice Age (Naftz and others 1996). The glaciers 

of the Neoglaciation were smaller than the Temple Lake 

glaciers, and till from these glaciers formed a series of 

terminal moraines occurring successively higher within 

glacial cirques. Modern vegetation began to establish in 

the late Holocene, including alpine tundra (>3,200 m), 

whitebark pine parklands in upper elevation forests (3,100–

3,200 m), subalpine forests in lower elevation forests 

(2,900-3,100 m), and the establishment of lodgepole pine 

across vast areas at lower elevations (Fall and others 1995).

The time since the end of the Little Ice Age (150 yrs 

BP) has been characterized by rapid recession of glacial ice 

and significant warming. Modern day glaciers are remnants 

of the Gannett Peak glaciation and are most abundant in 

the northeastern portion of the WRR, near Gannett Peak 

(Figure 14). In the southern portion of the range, small 

glaciers occur in glacial cirques on the north faces of Lizard 

Head and Wind River Peaks.

Sinks Canyon moraine

Sinks Canyon is located in the southern third of the 

WRR southwest of the town of Lander, Wyoming. Sinks 

Canyon is a popular destination for people visiting the 

eastern slope of the WRR due to easy access to public lands 

and abundant recreational opportunities. Sightseers are 

drawn to the famed ”sinks” where the Middle Fork Popo 

Agie River disappears below the ground, only to resurface 

less than a 1 kilometer downstream. Rock climbers, horseback riders, backpackers, and mountain bikers flock to 

Sinks Canyon to test their mettle against the sheer dolomite 

cliffs or to access the many trailheads beginning in the 

upper sections of the canyon. Sinks Canyon is also unique 

both ecologically and geologically. The extensive mountain 

big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass communities that occur here provide important winter range for mule deer, and 

the canyon is one of a few places where Utah juniper woodlands occur on the eastern slope of the WRR. Sinks Canyon 

may be unique geologically in that it might record a glacial 

history spanning more than 770,000 years, more than any 

other single location in the WRR. Given its unique nature, 

combined with high levels of human use, Sinks Canyon is 

subject to special management considerations. As such, a 

detailed description of its glacial history and stratigraphy 

follows.

Piedmont glacial deposits occur in many of the major 

canyons along the northeastern flank of the WRR, including Sinks Canyon, Bull Lake Creek Canyon, and Whiskey 

Basin (Applegarth and Dahms 2001; Dahms 2004b). Sinks 

Canyon was scoured through Paleozoic sedimentary rocks 

by glaciers flowing out of the present day Middle Fork 

Popo Agie drainage. The glacial deposits in Sinks Canyon 

possibly represent six different Pleistocene glaciations: 

Pinedale, early Wisconsin, Bull Lake, Sacagawea Ridge, 

and two pre-Sacagawea Ridge events (>770 Ka) (Gosse 

and others 1995a; Chadwick and others 1997; Philips and 

others 1997; Hall and Jaworowski 1999; Dahms 2004b; 

Pierce 2004). Pinedale age deposits are most extensive in 

the upper 9 km of the canyon, extending along the valley 

floor and lower valley walls from the terminal moraine 

at 2,037 m to a recessional moraine just up-valley from 

Popo Agie Falls (~2,642 m) (Dahms 2004b). In the canyon 

bottoms and lower canyon walls, the Pinedale deposits 

are overlain by mixed calcareous colluvium from the surrounding Paleozoic sedimentary outcrops. The majority of 

the early Wisconsin and Bull Lake moraines were buried 

by Pinedale deposits later in the Pleistocene, thereby limiting exposures of this material to narrow bands along the 

upper valley walls. In the lower reaches of the canyon, 

however, Bull Lake lateral moraines are exposed near 

the valley floor. The majority of the Sacagawea deposits 

are located beyond the mouth of Sinks Canyon, although 

patchy exposures occur north of Fossil Hill along the upper 

canyon walls. Lastly, the pre-Sacagawea deposits were laid 

down when the glacial ice flowed above the canyon rim 

and spilled out into the Wind River Basin. Pre-Sacagawea 

deposits occur exclusively beyond the canyon mouth and 

above the rim, the most extensive being the summit of 

Table Mountain and a section of the ridge running northeast 

of Fossil Hill near Deer Spring.

Louis Lake moraine

The Louis Lake moraine is located near Louis Lake, in 

the southern portion of the WRR, approximately 29 km 

southwest of Lander, Wyoming. The glaciers that formed 

Figure 14—Bonney Pass and Dinwoody Glacier from Gooseneck Pinnacle on Gannett Peak, northeast Wind River Range, 

Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 19

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

the moraine flowed east from the Continental Divide near 

Silas and Atlantic Canyons and Christina Lake. The Louis 

Lake moraine is the main watershed of the Little Popo Agie 

River, a major tributary of the Wind River. The moraine 

terminates approximately 11 km east of Christina Lake at 

an elevation of roughly 2,550 m. Unlike moraines in other 

major drainages along the northeastern flank of the WRR, 

including Sinks Canyon, Bull Lake Creek Canyon, and 

Whiskey Basin, the Louis Lake Moraine does not extend 

outside the canyon mouth into the Wind River Basin. This 

may be the result of lower magnitude glaciations due to a 

warmer climate in the extreme southern WRR combined 

with a precipitation gradient that decreases to the southeast 

across the Continental Divide (see the “Climate” section). 

The vegetation on the Louis Lake moraine is primarily 

forested, with lodgepole pine at lower elevations and 

whitebark pine at upper elevations. Willow and sedge communities are common along the margins of kettle lakes. 

Alpine turf communities dominate in the glacial cirques.

The majority of the Louis Lake moraine downstream 

from the glacial cirques is composed of Bull Lake and 

Pinedale aged till. The Pinedale till ends just northeast of 

Louis Lake, where the remnant of the terminal moraine can 

be observed on a topographic map as a low ridge running 

north-south (Dahms, D.E., pers. comm.). The Bull Lake 

till extends another kilometer or so downstream where it 

ends in a fan-shaped terminal moraine. The lower one-third 

of the Louis Lake moraine is dominated by hundreds of 

tiny glacial lakes—termed kettle lakes—and alternating 

kames—or a low mound, knob, hummock, or short irregular ridge of glacial origin (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002). The kettle and kame topography, location near the 

terminal end of the moraine, and fan shape of the lower 

portion of the Louis Lake moraine may indicate that this 

section of the moraine is a glaciofluvial fan composed 

of stratified sands and gravels that were deposited by a 

subglacial stream at the margin of the melting glacier. 

The upper portion of the moraine is dominated by a series 

of terminal-recessional-lateral moraines. The outermost 

lateral moraines are most likely Bull Lake age, while the 

inner most lateral, terminal, and recessional moraines 

mark a series of glacial advances and recessions during the 

Pinedale glaciation. Two larger glacial lakes, Louis and 

Fiddlers, occur in the lower portion of the moraine (Dahms, 

D.E., pers. comm.). Both were dammed at least two times 

(Fiddlers Lake dammed at least three times) by lateral moraines of the Bull Lake and Pinedale glaciations (or older). 

In the glacial cirques, the moraine sequences follow those 

described for the WRR by Dahms and others (2010) and 

include till from late Pleistocene and Holocene glaciations, 

including Temple Lake, Alice Lake, Black Joe, and Gannett 

Peak.

Climate

Unlike the mountain ranges in the northern Rocky 

Mountains and Pacific Northwest, the WRR—located in the 

central Rocky Mountains, far from the maritime influence 

of the Pacific Ocean—experiences a cold, dry, continental 

climate regime. During the winter, arctic air masses carried 

by the jet stream regularly descend into central Wyoming, 

blasting the WRR with hurricane force winds and frigid 

temperatures. Also, the location of the WRR along the 

eastern Rocky Mountains Front Range places it in the rain 

shadow of numerous mountain ranges to the west. The 

result of the physiographic location of the WRR is that 

it is colder and drier than most of the mountain ranges 

in the northern and central Rocky Mountains and Pacific 

Northwest.

Precipitation

Ranges of precipitation in the following narrative are 

based on climate models of the entire Shoshone National 

Forest derived from weather station and grid-based climate 

data (see the “Climate Data—Modeled” section). The 

precipitation ranges reported in the text include modeled 

precipitation values from the lowest elevations in the 

study area in Sinks and Little Popo Agie Canyons (1,900 

to 2,100 m) to the highest elevations (>4,000 m) along 

the Continental Divide. In addition to the below narrative, 

Appendix 1 provides summaries of 20 years of precipitation data from the USDA NRCS SNOTEL Climate stations 

at 4 sites across the study area ranging in elevation between 

2,652 and 3,079 m.

Total average annual precipitation along the eastern 

slope of the WRR varies between 400 and 1,100 mm annually. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is highly 

variable and depends on broad-scale climate patterns along 

the eastern slope of the WRR. The broad-scale climate patterns observed along the eastern slope of the WRR reflect 

the geographic position of the WRR at the convergence of 

the Columbia River Plateau and the Great Plains and the 

orientation of the WRR perpendicular to the prevailing 

westerly winds. In general, a precipitation gradient occurs 

from higher precipitation in the northwest to lower in the 

southeast. A gradient in precipitation also occurs from 

west to east, with the greatest precipitation occurring at the 

Continental Divide and decreasing eastwardly.

During the winter months (December–February), Pacific 

storms originating in the Gulf of Alaska carry moistureladen air from the Pacific Northwest across the Snake River 

Plain and into western Wyoming (Bryson and Hare 1974). 

In western Wyoming, this moisture-laden air encounters the 

Salt River, Wyoming, and Teton Ranges, and subsequently 

drops much of its moisture before meeting the WRR to 

the east. Upon uplift at the western slope of the WRR, a 

considerable portion of the remaining moisture precipitates, 

leaving the eastern flank of the range not only in a rainshadow but under the influence of drying, downslope winds.

During the late winter and spring (March–May), the 

northwesterly flows begin to weaken due to the northward 

expansion of tropical airstreams and the southward expansion of arctic air masses (Mock 1996). Moisture from the 

Gulf of Mexico is carried northward to the high plains of 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
20 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

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Colorado and Wyoming by extratropical storms (Boatman 

and Reinking 1984). As a result, large precipitation increases are evident in the eastern high plains of Wyoming 

and eastern Front Range of the Rocky Mountains (Mock 

1996), and the eastern flank of the WRR receives its highest 

amounts of precipitation (60 to 80 mm/month) in the form 

of rain and snow. Precipitation near the Continental Divide 

begins to decrease during the late winter and spring, ranging between 70 and 110 mm/month.

Precipitation generally decreases across the WRR during the summer months of June (45 to 65 mm), July (30 to 

60 mm), and August (25 to 45 mm). Evapotranspiration is 

at a maximum during the months of June, July, and August, 

generally exceeding precipitation. The marginal precipitation that does occur during the summer is the result of 

convective thunderstorms that increase in frequency later in 

the summer.

September and October bring cooler temperatures and a 

slight increase in precipitation (35 to 80 mm/month), often 

in the form of snow. In November, the northwesterly storm 

systems resume, and precipitation increases to between 50 

and 70 mm along the eastern flank of the WRR, and 70 and 

125 mm near the Continental Divide (Mock 1996).

Temperature

Based on climate models of the entire Shoshone 

National Forest derived from weather station and gridbased climate data (see the “Climate Data” section), 

average annual temperature in the WRR varies between 

-5.1 °C at the highest elevations and 4.4 °C, at the lowest 

elevations. The study area experiences between 11 and 22 

frost-free days each year.

The following discussion is based on USDA Natural 

Resource Conservation Service SNOTEL Climate station 

data from four sites across the study area ranging in elevation between 2,652 and 3,079 m (Appendix 1). The climate 

station data show some strong seasonal trends across all 

four sites. The coldest months are typically December, 

January, and February, with average daily temperature 

across the sites ranging between -7.9 and -7.1 °C, and average daily minimum temperatures commonly dipping below 

-12 °C during the winter months. Temperatures begin to 

warm up beginning in March through May, with average 

daily temperatures across the sites ranging between -1.5 

and 0.5 °C during the spring months. June, July, and August 

are historically the hottest months, with average daily temperatures ranging between 10.2 and 12.1 °C, and average 

daily maximum temperatures often exceeding 21 °C during 

the summer months. Beginning in September through 

November, temperatures begin to cool down again, with 

average daily temperatures across the sites ranging between 

0.7 and 1.9 °C during the fall months.

The South Pass SNOTEL climate station (2,756 m) is 

the most southerly climate station in the WRR. Average 

daily temperature was 1.4 °C during the period between 

1986 and 2006. Average annual maximum and minimum 

temperatures were 9.8 and -5.1 °C, respectively. Two years 

out of 10, the average annual maximum temperature was 

greater than 14 °C, while the average annual minimum temperature was less than -9 °C.

The Townsend Creek SNOTEL climate station at 

2652 m is the lowest elevation climate station in the WRR. 

Average daily temperature was 1.9 °C from 1990 to 2006. 

Average annual maximum and minimum temperatures were 

10.3 and -6.3 °C, respectively. Two years out of 10, the 

average annual maximum temperature was greater than 

15 °C, while the average annual minimum temperature was 

less than -11 °C.

The Hobbs Park SNOTEL climate station at 3,079 m is 

the highest elevation climate station in the WRR. Average 

daily temperature was 0.4 °C between 1990 and 2006. 

Average annual maximum and minimum temperatures were 

7.0 and -6.1 °C, respectively. Two years out of 10, the average annual maximum temperature was greater than 11 °C, 

while the average annual minimum temperature was less 

than -11 °C.

The Cold Springs SNOTEL climate station is the most 

northerly climate station in the WRR and the second 

highest at 2,935 m. Average daily temperature was 1.0 °C 

between 1990 and 2006. Average annual maximum and 

minimum temperatures were 7.8 and -4.6 °C, respectively. 

Two years out of 10, the average annual maximum temperature was greater than 12 °C, while the average annual 

minimum temperature was less than -9 °C.

Topography and climate

Topography significantly influences climate patterns 

along the eastern slope of the WRR, where the annual 

precipitation is near the lower tolerance limits of forested 

plant communities. Slight changes in topographic position 

influencing precipitation, temperature, and solar radiation 

patterns affect the amount of soil water available during 

the growing season. In turn, the vegetative potential of 

a site may seem to be disproportionately affected with 

a physiognomic shift from, for example, grassland to 

woodland. Elevation in the WRR varies between 1,931 m 

in the depths of Little Popo Agie Canyon, to the highest 

point in Wyoming, the 4,207 m summit of Gannett Peak, 

in the northern part of the range. Upper tree line averages 

around 3,200 m and varies between 3,100 and 3,200 m 

depending on slope aspect and latitude. A lower tree line of 

approximately 2,400 m occurs on south-facing slopes and 

is extended downward to 2,100 m on north-facing slopes.

Elevation has an inverse relationship with temperature 

and the number of frost-free days, while precipitation 

tends to increase with increasing elevation (Baker 1944). 

In the mountains of Wyoming, air temperature generally 

decreases at a rate of approximately 3.5 oC per 300 m in 

dry air (2 oC in saturated air) (Curtis and Grimes 2004). 

In mountainous topography, temperature inversions may 

result in cold air drainage when nighttime (cooler) air of the 

upper slopes, having greater density than warmer air, drains 

down ravines and slides under the mass of warm air that 

has accumulated in the valley during the day (Lee 1978).

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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Aspect can mimic elevation affects depending on slope 

orientation (Barry and Van Wie 1974). Northerly slopes 

tend to experience lower solar radiation input and thus 

lower evapotranspiration, cooler temperatures, fewer 

frost-free days, and higher available soil water throughout 

the growing season. Southerly slopes experience higher 

radiation inputs and thus higher evapotranspiration, warmer 

temperatures, more frost-free days, and lower available soil 

water throughout the growing season.

In montane environments, aspect and the direction of the 

prevailing winds play a role in the movement and deposition of the winter snow pack (Johnson and Billings 1962). 

Windward slopes, receiving the full force of the prevailing 

winds, are areas of net snow loss during the winter months 

and thus have lower available water throughout the growing season. Leeward slopes, protected from the prevailing 

winds, are areas of net snow accumulation and thus have 

higher available water throughout the growing season. The 

duration of snow cover is directly influenced by the direction of the prevailing winds and slope aspect. Windward 

slopes accumulate little to no snow and typically melt off 

early, while leeward slopes accumulate deep snow drifts 

and melt off later in the season or not at all. Southerly 

slopes receive higher levels of radiation and melt-off earlier 

than more sheltered, north-facing slopes.

Climate change and the Wind River Range

This section contains a brief synopsis of the potential 

impacts of climate change in the WRR. For an in-depth 

review of climate change on the Shoshone National Forest, 

please refer to Rice and others (2012). The Earth is no 

stranger to climate change. One need only look at the glacial record of the WRR, which depicts a cycle of climatic 

warming and cooling events corresponding to interglacial 

and glacial periods throughout the last 2 million years. 

Climate cycles, including the present interglacial period, 

are natural phenomena that have occurred throughout 

the Earth’s history. Whether climate change is actually 

occurring, or the degree to which it is natural versus 

human-induced, is not the subject of this discussion, and 

readers interested in this topic may refer to IPCC (2007) 

for more information. For the purposes of this discussion, 

it is assumed that climate is changing, and that it is happening at an accelerated rate relative to historic levels (ca. 

pre-1950), and it will continue to occur throughout the 

Twenty-First Century. Unprecedented climate warming has 

occurred worldwide during the later half of the Twentieth 

Century and the beginning of the new millennium and is 

nearly double that for the past century. Since 1978, Arctic 

sea ice has melted at a rate of nearly 3% per decade (IPCC 

2007). Furthermore, estimates based on changes in length 

of 48 glaciers from around the world suggest that mountain 

glaciers declined by an average of 1.23 km during the 94 

years between 1884 and 1978 (Oerlemans 1994).

In the WRR, estimates gathered from ice core data from 

Upper Fremont Glacier indicate that average air temperature increased by 2.1 °C between 1985 and 1991 relative 

to the estimated air temperature during the Little Ice Age, 

more than three times the increase that occurred over the 

90-year period immediately following the Little Ice Age 

(Naftz and others 2004). A consequence of the climate 

warming is that glaciers in the WRR, as in other parts of 

the world, are rapidly melting. Using repeat photography, 

Marston and others (1989) documented the changes in 

Gannett and Dinwoody Glaciers, located in the northeastern WRR, between 1935 and 1988. The photos showed 

that during the 53-year period, both glaciers experienced 

significant termini retreat to upper cirque positions. Naftz 

and others (2008) attributed a glacial outburst flood that occurred in 2003 at Grasshopper Glacier, located to the north 

of Gannett Peak, to rapid melting of the glacier due to accelerated warming. Although current climate models do not 

have the resolution to model alpine areas of limited areal 

extent, such as those in the WRR, it is likely that the large 

temperature increases observed in the past will continue 

into the future, given the projected increases in CO2 over 

the next 50 years (Naftz, D.L., pers. comm.).

Glacial melt-water provides a reliable source of late 

summer water for residents of the Wind River Basin 

(Marston and others 1989). The effects of a reduced water 

supply due to shrinking glaciers may have far reaching effects, from local irrigation to multi-state water agreements. 

Rapid melting of glaciers may result in an increased frequency of glacial outburst floods that pose a risk to humans 

residing or recreating in the valleys downstream (Naftz and 

others 2008). Lastly, the WRR has a rich history of mountaineering that continues today (Kelsey 1994). The glaciers 

that play a large role in that history may themselves become 

history as air temperatures continue to rise.

Continued warming throughout the Twenty-First 

Century may result in a higher incidence of insect and 

disease outbreaks in forested communities across North 

America (Logan and others 2003). In the WRR, this is particularly true in lodgepole and whitebark pine communities. 

Nearly pure stands of lodgepole pine occur on the Tensleep 

and Flathead Formations and on lower elevation (approximately 2,600 to 2,900 m) glacial deposits, while extensive 

whitebark pine stands occur near timberline (approximately 

3,000 to 3,200 m). Lodgepole pine and whitebark pine are 

favored host species for the mountain pine beetle (MPB; 

Dendroctonus ponderosae), a bark beetle that has infested 

millions of hectares of pine forests in the western United 

States and Canada (Logan and Powell 2001; USDA FS 

2004; Westfall 2004). In order for large MPB outbreaks 

to occur, the insects must attack en masse by combining 

synchronous emergence during favorable temperatures with 

a one-year life cycle, a combination of life history attributes 

termed “adaptive seasonality” (Hicke and others 2006). 

Using temperature data for the period between 1895 and 

1993, Hicke and others (2006) modeled adaptive seasonality of MPB across the western United States in relation to 

the distribution of lodgepole pine. The model showed a 

large gap in adaptive seasonality in the northwestern corner 

of Wyoming, to include the WRR. The gap in northwestern 

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
22 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Wyoming is due to the higher elevations and cold, continental climate of the area and particularly the WRR 

(Logan, J.A., pers. comm.). When the model was expanded 

to include future climate warming, the model predicted 

an increase of 5 °C by the year 2100 and a decrease in the 

area of adaptive seasonality, mostly due to lower elevations 

becoming too warm to foster adaptive seasonality in MPB 

(Hicke and others 2006). The model predictions suggest 

that while warmer, lower elevation forests are seeing a 

reduction in adaptive seasonality, a warming climate would 

result in an increase in the area of adaptive seasonality 

and perhaps an increased risk of episodic MPB attack in 

the relatively higher elevations of the WRR (Logan, J.A., 

pers. comm.). Lodgepole pine stands on the Tensleep and 

Flathead Formations and on lower elevation (approximately 

2,600 to 2,900 m) glacial deposits would likely be most 

vulnerable as they are located at relatively warmer, lower 

elevations.

Throughout its range, whitebark pine is a foundation 

species that serves a number of essential ecosystem functions (Ellison and others 2005). Whitebark pine stands 

near timberline, historically too cold to support adaptive 

seasonality, may also be at risk of catastrophic MBP 

outbreaks with continued warming. Compounding the 

problem for whitebark pine is an increased occurrence of 

white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), an exotic 

fungal pathogen that is lethal to five-needle pines and that 

will likely accompany a warming climate (Koteen 2002). 

Historically, whitebark pine was thought to be safe from 

severe outbreaks of blister rust due to the cold, dry conditions inhabited by this timberline species. However, recent 

observations by Resler and Tomback (2008) of white pine 

blister rust in high elevation, krummholz whitebark pine of 

Glacier National Park, Montana, may indicate otherwise. 

The decline of whitebark pine in the WRR due to climate 

change would have dramatic effects, ranging from snowpack water retention to the population dynamics of grizzly 

bears (Koteen 2002; Ellison and others 2005).

A warming climate is also likely to change wildfire 

dynamics in the WRR and across the western United States. 

Westerling (2006) found that during the period between 

1986 and 2003, the total area burned by wildfires in the 

western United States increased 6.5 times compared to the 

previous 16 years. Fire frequency was also found to have 

increased by four times during the same period. Some 

of this increase in area burned and fire frequency was attributed to increased fuel loads due to fire suppression over 

a large part of the Twentieth Century. However, climate 

warming was found to have a significant effect on the wildfire occurrence and extent. For instance, earlier snowmelt 

corresponding to a warming climate was positively correlated with increased fire frequency. Exacerbating the effects 

of earlier snowmelt dates on fire frequency is increased fuel 

loads that are sure to accompany massive mountain pine 

beetle infestations.

Another change that may accompany a warming climate 

is a shift in lower elevation grasslands and sagebrush 

communities from cool season bunchgrasses of mesic habitats, such as Idaho fescue, to cool season bunchgrasses of 

more xeric regimes, such as bluebunch wheatgrass. Lower 

and upper timberline, currently located at approximately 

2,100 and 3,200 m, respectively, are likely to gradually 

shift upward. Pikas (Ochotona princes), the small rodents 

whose distinctive squeak signals a hikers entrance into the 

alpine zone, will face an uncertain future as the climate 

continues to warm (Beever and others 2003). Lastly, as 

the climate continues to warm, alpine plant species will be 

pushed to higher elevations in order to maintain the cold 

temperature conditions required for their survival. It is likely that at some point, alpine plant species will be pushed to 

local extinction once they cannot move any higher.

A warming climate in the WRR has important implications for land managers, ranchers, recreationists, wildlife, 

and biodiversity in general. From melting glaciers to 

increased disease and insect epidemics, and from greater 

wildfire risk to shifting plant species distributions, the 

WRR faces an uncertain future—one that may change the 

character of the Range for centuries to come.

Natural History

Dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains 

(17m)

The Foothill Shrublands and Low Mountains 

Subsection (18d) occur near Ed Young Mountain, an upthrust limestone block composed of Madison Limestone 

and Bighorn Dolomite in the southeastern portion of the 

study area (Figure 3). Subsection 18d also occurs near 

Timbertop, an upthrust block of the Phosphoria, Tensleep, 

and Amsden Formations, in the east-central portion of the 

study area. Subsection 18d will be treated in the Natural 

History section of this manuscript along with Subsection 

17 m due to the similar geology, plant communities, and 

climate, and relatively low areal extent (Table 1).

The topography and vegetation of the Dry Mid-Elevation 

Sedimentary Mountains is strongly influenced by the geologic setting of the eastern flank of the WRR, the orientation 

of the Wind River Fault to the northeast, and the physical 

characteristics of the geologic formations (Figure 15). The 

Flathead Sandstone dips consistently (15–25% slope) to the 

northeast and is divided by stream erosion into a series of 

crescent shaped summits abutting the Precambrian rocks 

of the central core of the WRR. Exposures of the Flathead 

sandstone may also be found along the lower reaches of 

the canyons created by the larger streams that dissect the 

eastern flank of the WRR, including Squaw, Sawmill, 

Canyon Creeks, and the Little Popo Agie River. Forming 

a steep (20–50%), scarp slope directly east of the Flathead 

Sandstone, the less resistant Gros Ventre Formation has 

eroded into a sequence of rounded summits deeply divided 

by stream erosion. Aspect on the Gros Ventre slopes ranges 

between north-northwest and south-southwest, with the 

summits facing westerly.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 23

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Atop the Gros Ventre slopes, a relatively thin layer of 

Gallatin Limestone creates a break in slope (15–25%). 

Near the upper limit of the Gallatin Limestone Formation, 

rock outcrops form a series of moderately steep shoulders 

(2–4 m in height) leading to the contact with the Bighorn 

Dolomite. A number of small drainages, including 

Whiskey, Blue Holes, Red, Spring, Squaw, Elderberry, 

Crooked, Snow, and Cherry Creeks, begin atop the 

resistant Gallatin Limestone and dissect the Bighorn 

Dolomite and Madison Limestone into a series of cliffy 

summits separated by broad Y-shaped headwaters. Aspect 

on the Gallatin Limestone ranges between northeastnorth-northwest and south-southwest on the actual 

outcrops (scarp slope) to northeasterly in the headwaters 

(dip slope). Aspect on the Bighorn Dolomite is typically northeasterly at the summits and ranges between 

northerly and southerly on steep slopes above drainages. 

Differential weathering of the various members of the 

Madison Limestone Group has formed a banded pattern 

of rock outcrop on the south-southwesterly facing scarp 

slope, while the northeast facing dip slope lacks the 

banded pattern. Similar to the Gros Ventre Formation, 

the Amsden Formation is characterized by a sequence 

of smaller north-northwest and south-southwest facing 

rounded summits occurring atop the Madison Limestone. 

Lastly, the Tensleep Sandstone occurs in conjunction with 

the Amsden Formation as a series of north to east facing, 

triangle-shaped summits.

The Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains 

exhibit a striking vegetation zonation and species mix 

typical of the middle Rocky Mountains (Bailey 1995). A 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/limber pine zone occupies 

lower elevation slopes, the former typically inhabiting 

sheltered north-facing slope positions, especially at lower 

elevations. Limber pine forests commonly occur along 

with mountain big sagebrush and Idaho fescue-bluebunch 

wheatgrass grasslands as a mosaic on more exposed slope 

positions. A spruce-fir zone occurs at higher elevations and 

in areas experiencing cold air drainage. Lodgepole pine is 

seral to subalpine fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir on 

highly productive sites, and develops into climax stands on 

unproductive sites, especially on the Flathead and Tensleep 

Sandstone Formations.

Ponderosa pine and curl-leaf mountain mahogany, 

common in the Bighorn Mountains to the northeast, are 

notably and conspicuously absent along the eastern flank 

of the WRR (Little 1976; Norris and others 2006; USGS 

1999). Lastly, Wyoming three-tip sagebrush, a dwarf 

sagebrush species typical of dry, windy sites, is unique on 

the Shoshone National Forest to the eastern slope of WRR 

(Houston and others 2001). In the Dry Mid-Elevation 

Sedimentary Mountains, Wyoming, three-tip sagebrush 

occurs on steep upper backslopes and shoulders near the 

contact between the Gros Ventre and Gallatin Formations.

The soils in the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary 

Mountains Ecoregion are strongly influenced by parent material and vegetation. Flathead Sandstone typically weathers 

into rocky, coarse-textured, red to pink Haplocryalfs. 

E-horizons were commonly observed in soils derived 

from Flathead Sandstone, indicating the eluviation of clay 

minerals to lower in the soil profile. A layer of sandy-shale 

typically occurs near the contact with the Gros Ventre 

Formation. Soils formed from this sandy-shale were generally Inceptisols and weakly developed Alfisols with brown 

to yellowish colors, relatively low rock fragments, and low 

clay.

On Gros Ventre slopes, in sagebrush and grassland 

communites, in deep, mixed calcareous colluvium, Typic 

Calciustolls and Typic Calcicryolls form on south- and 

north-facing slopes, respectively. Soil colors vary from 

dark brown to black mollic colors in the surface horizons 

to tan and gray in the subsurface horizons. Where primary 

or secondary parent materials included either the Wolsey 

or Park Shales of the Gros Ventre Formation, clay-rich 

Mollisols, including Typic Argiustolls, Typic Calciustolls, 

and Pachic Calcicryolls, were the result. Soil colors varied 

from dark brown to black mollic colors in the surface horizons to greenish and yellowish in the subsurface horizons 

(Figure 16).

Carbonate-rich Alfisols predominated in forested communities on north-facing shale and limestone slopes in 

deep calcareous colluvium. Calcic Haplustalfs were typical 

Figure 15—Panorama looking northwest from Freak Mountain—Flathead Sandstone (far left), Gros Ventre Shale (center left), 

Gallatin Limestone (center right), and Bighorn Dolomite (far right); southeast Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, 

Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
24 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

of Douglas-fir communities, while Eutric Haplocryalfs 

characterized subalpine fir communities. Weak Alfisols and 

Inceptisols were more common on steeper (>40%) slopes, 

including Inceptic Haplocryalfs, Typic Calciustepts, and 

Typic Eutrocryepts.

On south-facing slopes, atop Gallatin Limestone 

outcrops, Alfisols and clay-rich Mollisols, including 

Argiustolls and Haplustalfs, occurred below the Bighorn 

Dolomite cliffs. Where the Bighorn Dolomite is absent, 

shallow to moderately deep calcareous soils reside on the 

Gallatin Limestone outcrops, including Lithic Calciustolls, 

Lithic Haplustolls, and Typic Calciustolls.

Limber pine woodlands and sagebrush/grassland communities on south-facing Bighorn Dolomite and Madison 

Limestone slopes were characterized by deep Typic 

Calciustolls and Pachic Haplustolls on back-slope and 

foot-slope positions. On summit and shoulder positions, the 

soils tended to be shallower and less developed, forming 

moderately deep Typic Calciustepts.

Calcareous, clay rich Mollisols predominated in 

the sagebrush and grassland communities associated 

with the Amsden Formation. Soils weathered from the 

Horseshoe Shale member of the Amsden Formation, 

formed bright red to orange, clay-rich (>20% clay) Typic 

Argiustolls (Figure 17). Carbonates were often present 

in the Horseshoe Shale soils due to the influence of colluvial Ranchester Limestone. Soils weathered from the 

Ranchester Limestone member of the Amsden Formation 

were typically dark brown to gray, sandy (<20% clay), 

gravelly Typic Argiustolls and Typic Calciustolls. 

Argiudolls were common in quaking aspen communities at 

toe-slope positions and other areas of concave topographic 

relief. Lastly, Tensleep Sandstone soils were typically 

coarse-textured, rocky, and little developed, including 

Dystrustepts and Ustorthents.

Granitic subalpine zone (17k)

The granitic subalpine zone includes the area of exposed 

Precambrian granitic core below timberline (~3,200 m). 

The landscape is dominated by steep, glacially carved 

U-shaped valleys flanked by deposits of deep glacial 

till; mountains scoured by glaciers into subdued, gently 

rounded slopes and summits; and thousands of glacial 

lakes stippling the landscape. The granitic subalpine zone 

culminates just downstream from glacial cirques occurring 

at the head of 10 major glacial valleys across the study 

area (from north to south): Jakeys Fork, Torrey Creek, 

Figure 16—Greenish-yellow soil formed from Gros Ventre 

Shale, southeast Wind River Range, Shoshone National 

Forest, Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

Figure 17—Reddish Amsden Siltstone soil with bright white 

Ranchester Limestone cobbles, southeast Wind River 

Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by 

Aaron Wells.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 25

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Dinwoody Creek, Dry Creek, the North and Middle Forks 

of Bull Lake Creek, the South Fork Little Wind River, the 

North and Middle Forks of the Popo Agie, and the Little 

Popo Agie River.

Glacial activity was relatively low in the extreme southeastern portion of the granitic subalpine zone, including 

the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt, and in the areas 

to the southwest, south, and east of Louis Lake. The lack 

of significant glaciation in these areas is reflected in the 

landscape. The broad glacial valleys, typical of the majority 

of the granitic subalpine zone, are replaced by narrow headwaters, and a series of diabasic gabbro dikes dissects the 

landscape, forming a distinct trellis drainage pattern. To the 

west, the Continental Divide in this area drops in elevation 

below timberline, and a series of forested mountain peaks 

occurs in the granitic subalpine zone, including Granite, 

Pabst, and Rennecker Peaks. To the east, the Round Top 

Mountain Greenstone forms Round Top Mountain and the 

ridge that runs southwest from its summit, while the core of 

Iron Mountain is formed from the Iron Formation Member 

of the Goldman Meadows Formation. The gneiss belt and 

the Diamond Springs Formation have weathered into a series of rounded summits, narrow ridges, and broad, gently 

sloped hills.

The vegetation in the granitic subalpine zone generally resembles that of other granitic subalpine areas in 

Wyoming, including the Bighorn Mountains (Despain 

1973), the Medicine Bow Mountains (Oosting and Reed 

1952), and the Teton Range (Whitlock 1993), with broad 

areas of subalpine forest (Reed 1976) and whitebark pineIdaho fescue parkland (Lynch 1988). Subalpine fir forests 

are limited to cooler, moister north- and east-facing slopes 

and cold air drainages at lower elevations in residual soils, 

while whitebark pine-Idaho fescue parkland commonly occurs on south- and west-facing slopes. At lower elevations, 

in soils derived from granitic glacial till, lodgepole pine 

may form persistent stands, and subalpine fir is restricted to 

cooler microsites. At higher elevations on granitic glacial 

till, whitebark pine forests dominate on south-facing slopes, 

and subalpine fir forests dominate on north-facing slopes; 

however, the influence of slope aspect is less apparent at 

these cooler, higher elevations. Open canopied whitebark 

pine forests predominate near timberline. At timberline, 

subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and whitebark pine battered by strong winds, blowing snow and ice, and bitter 

cold feature a shrub-like growth-form termed krummholz. 

Krummholz communities occur at timberline as scattered 

patches interspersed with alpine meadow communities. 

Engelmann spruce commonly co-dominates subalpine fir 

and whitebark pine forests along the eastern slope of the 

WRR; however, pure Engelmann spruce forests are not 

as widespread in the WRR as in other granitic subalpine 

areas in Wyoming. Engelmann spruce forests do occur, 

but they are typically limited to smaller stands on moist 

sites in areas with gentle topography. Near South Pass, 

mountain big sagebrush-Idaho fescue grasslands occur on 

convex slope positions, while subalpine fir and lodgepole 

pine forests occupy more sheltered sites. On the series of 

diabasic gabbro dikes that occur to the south of Louis Lake, 

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush-Idaho fescue communities 

occur on south- and west-facing shoulders and summits, 

while whitebark pine and subalpine fir forests occupy the 

north-facing slopes on upper and lower slope positions, respectively. Broad wetlands and moist meadows dominated 

by willows, sedges, and mesic grasses are common in the 

broad glacial valleys of the granitic subalpine zone.

Soils in the granitic subalpine zone tend to be less well 

developed, sandier, and more acidic than soils derived from 

fine-grained, calcareous sedimentary parent materials. The 

actual rock type, including granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, or migmatite, appears to be less important than the type of parent material, including residuum, 

colluvium, or glacial till. Soils derived from residuum 

occur most often on shoulders, summits, and low gradient 

(<30%) backslopes. Residual soils are typically shallow to 

moderately deep to bedrock and feature a layer of partially 

decomposed bedrock, or grus, beginning around 50 to 

60 cm below the soil surface. Soils located on the series of 

diabasic gabbro dikes that occur to the south of Louis Lake 

tend to have higher base saturation as a result of the high 

concentrations of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) in the diabasic gabbro. Soils on the dikes tend to be Mollisols and Inceptisols 

with high base saturation, including Typic Eutrocryepts. 

Mollisols, including Entic Haplustolls, Lithic Argiustolls, 

and Lithic Haplocrolls, occur in sagebrush and grassland 

communities on south-facing slopes. Entisols, including 

Lithic and Typic Cryorthents, and Inceptisols, including 

Typic Eutrocryepts and Lithic and Typic Dystrocryepts, are 

typical of whitebark pine and subalpine fir communities on 

north-facing slopes.

Soils derived from colluvium are moderately deep 

to deep and occur most often on footslopes and steep 

(>30%) backslopes. In general, colluvial soils tend to be 

deeper and more developed than residual soils, including 

Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Mollisols. Mollisols, including 

Entic Haplustolls, Pachic Haplocryolls, Pachic Haplustolls, 

and Typic Argicryolls occur in sagebrush, grassland, 

and quaking aspen communities. Inceptisols, including 

Typic Eutrocryepts, Humic, and Typic Dystrocryepts, 

and Alfisols, including Typic, Eutric, and Inceptic 

Haplocryalfs, are common in subalpine fir and whitebark 

pine communities.

Soils derived from glacial till are typically deep. The 

degree of soil development in till soils is largely related to 

the age of the till. Soils derived from till deposited during 

older glaciations, including the Bull Lake and earlier, have 

had more time to develop than soils derived from till deposited during younger glaciations, including Pinedale and 

more recent. Soils in older till tend to be Alfisols, including 

Eutric Glossocryalfs and Inceptic Haplocryalfs, while those 

in younger till tend to be Inceptisols and Entisols, including Typic Cryorthents, Typic Dystrocryepts, and Humic 

and Typic Eutrocryepts. Densic horizons develop from the 

compaction of soils by glacial ice and are common in soils 

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derived from glacial till. Vegetation on till soils is mostly 

forested, with lodgepole pine at lower elevations and subalpine fir and whitebark pine at higher elevation.

Alpine zone (17h)

Glaciers and glacial cirques; precipitous mountain summits; and broad, flat, high-level erosion surface remnants; 

craggy escarpments; and narrow ridges dominate the 

landscape in the Alpine Zone. The majority of the Alpine 

Zone includes the area of exposed Precambrian granitic 

core above timberline (~3,200 m). However, Paleozoic 

sedimentary formations, including the Flathead, Gros 

Ventre, Gallatin, Bighorn, and Madison, extend above 

timberline at Arrow, Whiskey, and Shale Mountains in the 

northern study area. The Continental Divide, beginning just 

south of Atlantic Peak and continuing northwest to Union 

Peak (approximately 120 km), forms the main, continuous body of the Alpine Zone. High-level erosion surface 

remnants, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, Horse Ridge, 

Dry Creek Ridge, and Mount Hooker compose large areas 

of the Alpine Zone near the Continental Divide, while a 

number of summits located to the east of the Continental 

Divide, including Whiskey Mountain, Torrey Peak, Arrow 

Mountain, Mount Chevo, Mount Arter, and Cony Mountain 

represent isolated “islands” of the Alpine Zone separated 

from the Continental Divide by broad areas of the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone.

The Alpine Zone is home to the greatest number of 

high peaks in Wyoming. Of the 26 peaks in Wyoming with 

summits greater than 4,000 m (and a rise of 150 m from 

any saddle connecting them to a higher peak), 23 are in the 

WRR (Kelsey 1988). Gannett Peak in the northern WRR, 

at 4,207 m, is the highest peak in Wyoming. Fremont Peak 

just to the south of Gannett, with its impressive headwall 

and fluted buttresses, is the second highest peak in the 

WRR at 4,191 m, followed by Mount Warren (4,184 m), 

Mount Helen (4,152 m), and Mount Turret (4,146 m). 

The gently sloping summit of Wind River Peak stands 

at 4,022 m, making it the 15th highest peak in the WRR, 

and the highest peak in the southern portion of the range. 

Dozens of alpine glacial cirques with their sheer headwalls, 

including Atlantic Canyon, Silas Canyon, Stough Lakes 

Basin, Ice Lakes, Cirque of the Towers, South Fork Lakes, 

and Brown Cliffs mark the upper terminus of once extensive mountain glaciers. The WRR is also refuge to 24 intact 

glaciers, remnants of the last ice age, 13 of which occur 

on the northeastern slope. Of those, the five largest occur 

near Gannett Peak, and the ridge between Mount Helen 

and Fremont Peak: Dinwoody, Gannett, Sacagawea, Upper 

Fremont, and Bull Lake Glaciers.

The vegetation of the Alpine Zone is characteristic 

of alpine tundra vegetation of the central and southern 

Rocky Mountains. Vast expanses of alpine turf and fellfield 

vegetation dominated by Ross’ avens and blackroot sedge 

occur on exposed mountain slopes and the plateau-like 

high-level erosion surface remnants. Fellfields occur 

on rocky, exposed sites that experience very little snow 

accumulation and are characterized by scattered, diminutive shrubs, forbs, and cushion plants, including Ross’ 

avens, Hooker’s mountain avens, phlox, moss campion, 

dwarf clover, and twinflower sandwort, grown in a matrix 

of erosion pavement or talus. Erosion pavement refers to a 

soil surface that is covered by rock fragments as the result 

of wind deflation—the removal of the fine-earth fraction 

(<2 mm) of a soil by the force of wind (Livingstone and 

Warren 1996; Seppälä 2004). Alpine turf occurs on less 

rocky, slightly more sheltered sites that experience low to 

moderate amounts of snow accumulation. Alpine turf vegetation is characterized by dense colonies of sod-forming 

sedges, including blackroot and Bellardi bog sedge, arctic 

and snow willows, and an array of forbs and graminoids, 

including Ross’ avens, alpine sagebrush, moss campion, 

manyray goldenrod, purple reedgrass, and arctic bluegrass. 

On leeward slopes where deep snows accumulate, the 

vegetation is relatively lush compared to fellfields and turf 

communities due to a combination of factors, including 

insulation from extreme winter temperatures; protection 

from strong, desiccating winter winds; and increased soil 

moisture as a result of gradually melting snow throughout 

the summer months. Vegetation on leeward slopes includes 

grayleaf willow, tufted hairgrass, Holm’s Rocky Mountain 

sedge, and Parry’s rush.

The soils in the Alpine Zone are strongly influenced by 

the forces associated with seasonal and diurnal freeze-thaw 

cycles. Soil water expands when it freezes, thus applying 

a force to soil particles and rock fragments. Given enough 

time, this process, termed “cryoturbation,” sorts rock fragments by size, shifting or heaving rocks upward in the soil 

profile in proportion to their size (Davis 2001). Through 

this differential sorting process, larger rocks are moved 

higher in the soil profile more quickly than smaller rocks 

leading to a variety of sorted ground, including stone nets 

and stone stripes. Stone nets occur on flat or gentle slopes 

(<7%), and feature a series of rock polygons, or “cells” of 

the “net,” interlaced with a net-like pattern of smaller rock 

fragments and soil material (Richmond 1949). Gravity induces a linear component to the sorting process on steeper 

slopes (7–27%) leading to sorted stone stripes (Figure 18). 

At sites featuring a seasonally high water table, cryoturbation results in a number of unsorted frost features, including 

frost hummocks and frost boils on flat sites and solufluction 

landforms on sloping sites (Johnson and Billings 1962). 

Frost hummocks are low (typically <1 m) soil mounds 

that are formed from frost heaving, or the uplifting of the 

ground surface resulting from the freezing of water within 

the soil (Peterson and Krantz 2003). Frost boils are bare 

soil patches containing mostly silt and clay that form when 

the fine-grained soil particles are saturated to liquefaction, 

or the point where the soil particles begin to behave as 

a liquid and boil up through the surface due to the stress 

imparted by the weight of overlying soil material (Davis 

2001). Liquefaction of soils on a slope can cause mass 

movements of soil downhill, a process termed “solufluction” (Johnson and Billings 1962). The accumulation of 

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sediments from solufluction results in the burial of downhill soils and the development of distinctive landforms. 

Solufluction terraces are broad, bench-like landforms 

resulting from the accumulation of soils due to solufluction that tend to develop on shallow slopes (Davis 2001). 

Solufluction lobes are narrow, linear landforms resulting 

from the accumulation of soils due to solufluction that tend 

to develop on steep slopes. Cryogenic solufluction refers to 

solufluction caused by freeze-thaw processes. Water freezing in the interstitial spaces between soil particles results 

in an upward force that moves the particles in a direction 

perpendicular to the slope. When these same soil particles 

thaw, they drop straight down to a point on the slope slightly downhill from where they were originally. Repeated 

freeze-thaw cycles result in the slow creep of soils 

downhill. Cryogenic solufluction may also result in the 

genesis of solufluction terraces and lobes. Since adequate 

soil moisture is key to the solufluction process, solufluction landforms most commonly occur downhill from late 

melting snow banks and other areas of high soil moisture. 

Soils in the Alpine Zone are typically deep, loamy-skeletal 

Haplocryalfs in turf communities and Humic Dystrocryepts 

in fellfields. Turf and fellfield soils are often associated 

with stone stripes. Soils on leeward slopes and other areas 

associated with snow accumulation are typically saturated 

early on in the growing season and include moderately 

deep and deep, loamy-skeletal Oxyaquic Dystrocryepts, 

and sandy-skeletal Oxyaquic Cryorthents.

Factors of Soil Formation

The soils of the eastern slope of the WRR reflect the 

complex interactions between the five soil-forming factors 

of Jenny (1994), including climate, organisms, topography, 

parent material, and time. The composition of the parent 

material influences the ratio of sand, silt, and clay, which, 

in turn, affects the available water holding capacity of a soil 

(Saxton and others 1986). Chemical properties of the parent 

material can affect rates of weathering, carbonate content, 

pH, cation exchange capacity, availability of nutrients to 

plants, and formation and flocculation of clay minerals 

(Birkeland 1999). The physical and chemical properties of 

a soil in turn influence the vegetation species composition 

(i.e., organisms) of the plant communities associated with a 

given soil.

Slope gradient affects soil stability and thus the amount 

of time a soil has to develop (Berry 1987). Topographic 

position greatly influences the dominant geomorphic processes, erosion, or sediment accumulation, which, in turn, 

determines the type (residuum, colluvium, or alluvium) of 

parent material at a site and the thickness of the regolith. 

Topo-climatic gradients, created by differences in slope 

aspect, influence precipitation, temperature, and solar radiation patterns and significantly influence the amount of soil 

water available during the growing season, which, in turn, 

influences the vegetative potential of a site. Simultaneously, 

the soils are influenced by the vegetation communities 

and indirectly follow the topo-climatic gradients that are 

a major determinant of the vegetation. Soil temperature 

and water availability also affect the rates of chemical and 

physical weathering of parent material and, ultimately, the 

rate and degree of soil development (Tonkin and Basher 

1990; Birkeland and others 2003).

Glacial till provides an excellent example of the influence of time on soil development. For instance, soils 

formed from Bull Lake till in the WRR, deposited some 

200 to 130 Ka, have had a relatively long time to develop 

compared to soils derived from younger deposits. Dahms 

(2004b) found that soils on Bull Lake moraines in Sink 

Canyon had thicker surficial horizons (A- and B-), more 

deeply colored B-horizons, higher illuvial clay, and generally finer soil textures than soils derived from younger till 

deposits. Soil derived from Pinedale age glacial till, deposited approximately 22,000 to 15,000 years ago, have had 

relatively little time to develop compared to soils derived 

from older glacial till deposits. Dahms (2004b) found that 

soils on Pinedale moraines in Sink Canyon had the thinnest 

surficial horizons (A- and B-), minimal amounts of illuvial 

clay, and were generally the least developed soils in Sinks 

Canyon.

Plants influence soil temperature, texture, and pH 

through the input of organic matter, including leaves and 

fine roots, and shading of the soil surface. Plant roots affect the rate of chemical and physical weathering through 

root exudates and the shattering of bedrock. Thick organic 

horizons at the surface of forested soils and shading of the 

soil surface from the tree canopies above insulate the soil 

from drastic temperature fluctuations and maintain cooler, 

moister soils in forested communities than in grassland and 

sagebrush communities. Fine-root turnover in grassland 

and sagebrush communities perpetuates the development of 

thick, organic rich A-horizons, which encourages the continuity of non-forested communities. The type and quality of 

Figure 18—Sorted stone stripes on Peak 11595 above Burro 

Flat in the notheastern Wind River Range, Shoshone 

National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by Aaron Wells.

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organic input into soils can impact soil pH and, ultimately, 

the availability of nutrients to plants. For instance, conifers 

concentrate acidic chemicals in their needles, which fall to 

the soil surface and decompose, thus lowering the pH of 

soils in conifer forests. On the other hand, quaking aspen 

leaves, which have high concentrations of cations and acid 

buffering qualities and that decompose quickly due to a low 

carbon to nitrogen ratio, provide a ready source of organic 

carbon and raise the pH of soils (Pylypec and Redmann 

1984; Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 1996; Legare and 

others 2005).

Vegetation succession following wildfire in conifer forests significantly influences the genesis of soils through time 

and exemplifies the parallel relationship between soils and 

vegetation. Following wildfire in conifer forests, vegetation 

is typically characterized by high abundance of quaking 

aspen, a common early seral species in the study area. Soils 

in younger stands dominated by quaking aspen typically 

feature thick, dark, carbon-rich surface horizons (Cryer 

and Murray 1992). As stand age progresses and conifer 

species begin to dominate the stand, herbaceous species and 

quaking aspen gradually decline in abundance as the forest 

canopy begins to close. During this time, the carbon-rich 

surface horizons begin to lose organic matter and thickness 

with reduced leaf fall. This results in increased water percolation and heightened rates of nutrient and organic matter 

leaching. In mature conifer forests, herbaceous species and 

quaking aspen are nearly absent, and the soils eventually 

lose all evidence of the once thick, dark surface horizons.

Methods_______________________

Field Protocols

Overview

Field sampling took place during the summers of 2004 

and 2005. A preliminary map (pre-map) of soil map units 

(see below) was used to develop a directed, stratified, 

gradient-oreinted (Austin and Heyligers 1989) sampling 

design. The areal extent of each pre-map unit, and the 

study area as a whole were calculated in a GIS environment (ESRI® ArcMapTM 8.7). The percentage of the area 

of each map unit relative to the area of the entire study 

area was calculated and used as a rough guide to the 

relative distribution of sample points across map units. 

Within each map unit, sample points were chosen systematically to represent the landscape as a whole, focusing 

on stratification of sample points across geologic units, 

topographic positions, and vegetation communities (Soil 

Survey Division Staff 1993). Field researchers traveled to 

the location of each preliminary sample point (±100 m). 

Sample points were situated in such a way as to be entirely 

located in the vegetation community most representative 

of the landform of interest, avoiding ecotones and highly 

disturbed vegetation. Plots were 0.04 ha (0.1 acre) in size 

and circular. Along riparian areas and on other small, irregularly shaped landforms/plant communities, the shape of 

the plot was flexible (so long as the size remained 0.04 ha), 

in order that the entire plot would fit within the landform/

plant community of interest. Prior to the 2005 field season, 

data from the first summer’s sampling effort were evaluated both statistically and spatially (see “Office Protocols” 

section), and preliminary results were obtained. The results 

were examined to determine existing gaps in the data and 

were used to aid in stratification of sampling points for the 

2005 field season. In total, 251 plots were sampled during 

the 2004 and 2005 field seasons (Figure 2). An additional 

30 field plots from a previous study conducted in 1997 

were included in the dataset for analysis and ecological 

type development. Data on the general site, forest inventory, vegetation composition, and soils were collected at 

each plot using the methods described below.

Site

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates 

were obtained for each site by using a global positioning 

system (GPS) (North American Datum 27, Zone 12). 

Photographs, including landscape and ground cover view, 

were taken from the plot center of each sample site, and 

the compass directions in which each photo was taken 

were recorded. Detailed site descriptions were recorded 

at each site, including elevation,% slope, slope aspect 

(compass declination set at 12° east), slope position, and 

slope shape. Landform and bedrock geology were noted 

at each site. Lastly, detailed descriptions of the sites were 

recorded, including general observations, disturbance history, insects and disease, indications of wildlife and human 

use, and geomorphic processes active at the site.

Forest inventory

Basal area tallies of tree species were obtained at forested sites (tree cover >10%) using a 10 BAF (Basal Area 

Factor) prism and a variable size circular plot design. The 

species and diameter at breast height (DBH) were recorded 

for each tree identified in the basal area tallies. Site trees 

were defined as healthy individuals representative of the 

size and age class of the principal tree species in the stand. 

A single site tree was selected for each of the principal 

species in a stand, and height, diameter, age (using increment borer), and DBH were recorded.

Vegetation composition

Vegetation sampling protocols followed the methodology 

described in Appendix C of Winthers and others (2005). 

Canopy cover within the sample plot for all vascular plants 

was estimated in increments of 1%, 3%, 5%, and 10%, 

and every 5% thereafter. Canopy cover of tree species was 

split based on overstory layer into dominant, subdominant, 

understory (DBH >13 cm), and seedling (DBH <2.5 cm). 

Percent ground cover of surface features, including submergence, bare ground, exposed bedrock, gravels, cobbles, 

stones, boulders, litter, wood, moss and lichen, and basal 

vegetation, were recorded using the same method. Potential 

natural vegetation was classified into habitat types (sensu 

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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Daubenmire 1952) according to Steele and others (1983) for 

forested vegetation, Tweit and Houston (1980) for shrubland 

and grassland vegetation, and Walford and others (2001) 

for riparian and wetland vegetation. Since no formal alpine 

vegetation classification exists for the study area, alpine 

vegetation was classified as described in the “Ecological 

Type Classification” section.

Plant taxonomy: Plant taxonomy follows Dorn (2001)

with the exception of Osmorhiza purpurea and Poa curtifolia following Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973), Minuartia 

macrantha and Sedum rosea following Scott (1995), and 

Festuca viviparoidea ssp. krajinae following Massatti and 

Wells (2008). In the study area, Pseudotsuga menziesii

(Mirbel) Franco is variety glauca (Beissn.) Franco, or 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, and may be referred to by 

either “Douglas-fir” or “Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir.” 

Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud is variety latifolia Engelm. 

ex S. Wats. in the study area and is referred to as simply 

“lodgepole pine.”

Most plant identification was conducted by the field 

researchers; for particularly difficult identifications, specimens were sent to an expert at the Montana State University 

Herbarium in Bozeman, Montana. All taxa were identified 

to the lowest possible taxonomic level. Plant codes follow 

the USDA Plants Database (USDA NRCS 2007b) with the 

exception of the following taxa that are accepted by Dorn 

(2001) but were not present in the USDA Plants Database 

as of analysis of these data: Boechera spp. Löve & Löve 

and Boechera holboellii (Hornem.) Löve & Löve. For the 

purposes of this discussion, the species were assigned local six-letter codes: BOECH and BOEHOL, respectively. 

Appendix 2 provides a list of all plant species encountered 

during field sampling, including USDA Plants code, Latin 

name, common name, and author. Voucher specimens 

are being stored at the USDA Forest Service, Shoshone 

National Forest Supervisors Office in Cody, Wyoming.

Soils

Soil sampling conformed to National Cooperative Soil 

Survey Protocols (Soil Survey Division Staff 1993). Soil 

classification follows the ninth edition of the “Keys to Soil 

Taxonomy” (Soil Survey Staff 2003). Soil pits were excavated by hand to a depth of just over 1 m or until contact 

with lithic materials or interlocking stones and boulders. 

Soil temperature was collected at a depth of 50 cm. Root 

restricting depth, drainage class, surface runoff class, and 

soil moisture and temperature regimes were recorded. 

Soil horizons were identified, and thickness (cm) of each 

were recorded. Dry and moist color, soil texture, structure, 

consistence,% coarse fragments, effervescence class, and 

quantity and size of roots and pores were recorded for each 

horizon. The location and amount of clay films, amount and 

color of redoximorphic features, and depth to water table 

were recorded when appropriate. Soil pH for each horizon 

was obtained using field indicators. Photographs were taken 

of the face of the soil pit, including an overview photo 

and close-up views of the upper and lower halves of the 

pit face. Soil samples from each horizon were collected in 

quart-sized zippered freezer bags. Soil samples were used 

to fill box samples for long-term documentation of the soils 

and to analyze base saturation and particle size on soils 

from selected horizons. Box samples of typical pedons are 

being stored at the Shoshone National Forest Supervisors 

office in Cody, Wyoming, while all other box samples are 

being stored with Dr. Janis Boettinger in the Plant, Soils, 

and Climate Department at Utah State University in Logan, 

Utah.

Office Protocols

Mapping

Soil mapping for the northern Shoshone National Forest 

was completed prior to the initiation of the present study. 

Within the study area, geographic information systems 

(GIS) and remotely sensed data were employed to create a 

pre-map of the soil map units before field work began following Terrestrial Ecological Unit Inventory protocols for 

delineating pre-map units (Winthers and others 2005). When 

delineating pre-map units, the focus was on dividing the 

landscape based on bedrock and surficial geology, topography, and broad-scale vegetation patterns. Final soil map 

units were mapped as complexes of two or more dissimilar 

soils that could not be differentiated at the scale of mapping. 

The study area was split based on soil survey order. All 

areas outside wilderness boundaries were mapped as third 

order, while wilderness areas were mapped as fourth order 

(Soil Survey Division Staff 1993). Third order map units 

were delineated at a mapping scale of 1:24,000 with a minimum delineation of approximately 1.5 ha. Fourth order map 

units were delineated at a mapping scale of 1:63,360 with 

a minimum delineation of approximately 5 ha. Exceptions 

were map units 302, 302L, and IH2O, which were mapped 

at at 1:24,000 and a minimum delination of 1 ha, and GLAC 

and W, which were mapped at 1:10,000 and a minimum 

delineation of 0.5 and 0.25 ha, respectively.

Soil map units from the northern Shoshone National 

Forest extend into the study area along the northern 

boundary of the northern study area. Where sufficient 

field data existed, the delineations of these northern 

Shoshone National Forest map units were reworked and 

these polygons were assigned the appropriate soil map 

unit code (including associated soil map unit components 

and Ecological Types) from the study area. Soil map unit 

delineations and associated soil map components were 

left unchanged, and Ecological Types were not assigned 

where field data was insufficient to verify changes to the 

northern Shoshone National Forest map units. Exact joins 

were completed on final soil map unit lines to ajoining 

soil surveys, including Fremont County, Wyoming, East 

Part and Dubois Area (Survey Area WY713) and Bridger 

National Forest, Wyoming, Eastern Part (WY662). As 

per NCSS protocols, soil map units from these adjoining 

surveys were shared across survey area boundaries where 

appropriate.

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Data management

Overview

Vegetation and site data were entered into the USFS 

Natural Resource Information System Terra Module 

(NRIS Terra), which consists of an Oracle database/GIS 

application and set of analysis tools designed to implement corporate data standards for TEUI and Rangeland 

Management. Soil and site data were entered into the 

NRCS National Soils Information System (NASIS).

Aspect

Aspect value is a cosine transformation of aspect into 

solar radiation equivalents, and includes a correction of 

30°, which reflects the relative heat of the atmosphere at 

the time the peak radiation is received (Roberts and Cooper 

1989). Accordingly, the maximum value of av (1.0) occurs 

at 30° aspect, and the minimum value (0.0) occurs at 210° 

aspect. Aspect value was calculated using the following 

formula:

aspect value = (cos((aspect-30)/180*pi)+1)/2

Cardinal aspect direction is a categorical variable that 

divides aspect into 16 categories of cardinal direction. See 

Table 4 for aspect range within each category. Lastly,% 

clay and coarse fragments (>2mm) in the particle size control section and average weighted pH were calculated for 

each soil pedon.

Estimation of available water capacity

Available water capacity (AWC) is an estimate of the 

water potentially available to plants between permanent 

wilting point and field capacity after hydric soils have 

drained due to gravity, and is measured as N cm of water 

per one meter of soil. AWC for mineral soil horizons was 

obtained from the USDA Soil Conservation Service on 

AWC (Appendix 3).

Available water capacity for organic soil horizons was 

calculated by the following method. Boelter (1969) provided regression equations for calculating water content from 

fiber content of organic soils. Equations were provided 

for 0.1 bar and 15 bar suctions (permanent wilting point). 

No equations were provided for field capacity (0.33 bar); 

therefore, water content at 0.1 bar was calculated as an 

estimate of field capacity for organic soils. AWC at different fiber contents was estimated by calculating the water 

content across the full range of fiber contents for each 

type of organic material (fibric [67, 74, 81, 88, 95, 100%], 

hemic [33, 40, 47,54, 61, 66%], and sapric [1, 8, 15, 22, 

29, 32%]) at both 0.1 and 15 bar suctions. The difference 

in water content between 0.1 and 15 bar was calculated and 

then averaged across the six values of fiber content. AWC 

estimates for sapric fiber contents were obtained by averaging the values for all six fiber contents, removing 1%, and 

removing 1 and 8%. The decision was made to use the 

results obtained by removing 1 and 8% fiber contents since 

such low fiber content soils are technically closer to loams 

and silt loams than to organic soil. The results for the AWC 

of organic soils calculation are presented in Table 5.

The AWC for each soil was estimated by calculating 

AWC for each horizon to a depth of 1 m for deep soils or to 

bedrock for shallow to moderately deep soils. The AWC for 

each horizon was calculated as follows:

Horizon thickness (cm)*AWC (cm/cm)*(1-Fraction Rock 

Fragments) = Horizon AWC (cm)

Total AWC for the soil pit (cmcm of water per meter of 

soil) was calculated by summing all horizon AWC values 

for a given soil to a depth of 1 m.

Climate data—modeled

Dr. Niklaus Zimmermann of the Swiss Federal Institute 

for Forest, Snow, and Landscape Research developed 

spatially explicit climate models for the entirety of the 

Shoshone National Forest. The result of the modeling effort 

was a set of GIS raster maps representing the derived climate variables. Mean annual precipitation (MAP) and mean 

monthly precipitation (MMP), mean monthly potential 

Table 4—Aspect range (degrees) within sixteen classes of 

cardinal direction.

Cardinal direction Abbreviation

Aspect range 

(degrees)

North N 349–11

North-Northeast NNE 12–33

Northeast NE 34–56

East-Northeast ENE 57–78

East E 79–101

East-Southeast ESE 102–123

Southeast SE 124–146

South-Southeast SSE 147–168

South S 169–191

South-Southwest SSW 192–213

Southwest SW 214–236

West-Southwest WSW 237–258

West W 259–281

West-Northwest WNW 282–303

Northwest NW 304–326

North-Northwest NNW 327–348

Table 5—Available Water Capacity (AWC) of organic soils 

by texture.

Texture

Available water capacity

(cm water/cm soil) Range AWC

Fibric 0.20 0.005–0.38

Hemic 0.46 0.39–0.51

Sapric 0.50 0.47–0.51

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evapotranspiration (PET), daily temperature, mean annual 

temperature (MAT), and summer radiation (SUMRAD) 

were calculated following the methodology described in 

Edwards and others (2005). Degree days were calculated 

by multiplying the number of days for which the mean temperature of a pixel exceeds an arbitrary standard of 0 °C by 

the mean temperature over this period, while frost-free days 

were calculated by simply summing the number of days 

exceeding 0 °C on a pixel by pixel basis (Zimmermann and 

Roberts 2000). Zimmerman and Kienast (1999) provided a 

detailed description of the derivation of degree days. Lastly, 

site water balance was an estimate of the water available to 

plants during the growing season and integrated climatic 

and soil parameters (Zimmermann and Roberts 2000). The 

climate data for each sample point were obtained by spatially joining the sample point layer and each climate raster 

layer in a GIS.

Estimation of site water balance

Available water capacity is an estimate of the water 

potentially available to plants between permanent wilting 

point and field capacity after hydric soils have drained due 

to gravity, and is a function of soil texture, coarse fragment 

content, and soil depth. Inputs of water to the soil through 

precipitation and groundwater sources and loss of water 

due to evapotranspiration are independent of AWC. When 

placed in the context of the difference between precipitation 

and evapotranspiration, AWC provides a more meaningful estimation of the water available to plants through the 

growing season. Site water balance (SWB) is an estimate of 

the water available to plants during the growing season and 

integrates MMP, PET, and AWC. Beginning with the first 

month where MMP>PET, SWB was estimated by calculating a running sum of the difference between MMP and 

PET. When the running sum exceeded AWC, the difference 

was assumed to run off. The running sum was continued for 

a total of one year.

Table 6—Vegetation and environment criteria used to designate soil temperature and soil moisture regimes.

Cryic/Udic

• Elevations > 2,750 m.

• Any or all of the following species present in the vegetation community: subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and/or 

lodgepole pin

• All sample sites located on Flathead Sandstone.

Frigid/Ustic

• Elevations ≤ 2,750 m.

• Sample sites located on sedimentary bedrock (except Flathead Sandstone) AND meeting the elevation critera listed 

abov

Frigid/Udic

• Quaking aspen communities on sedimentary bedrock (except Flathead Sandstone).

Udic

• Sample sites with Idaho fescue in the understory at greater than or equal to 5% foliar cover.

Ustic

• Sample sites with bluebunch wheatgrass in the understory at greater than or equal to 5% foliar cover.

Soil temperature and moisture regimes

Soil Temperature Regime (STR) is a soil taxonomy 

concept that refers to the range of temperatures a soil experiences annually. Soil Moisture Regime (SMR) refers to the 

presence or absence of ground water or the amount of water 

in a given soil that is available to plants (Soil Survey Staff 

2003). For a given soil, the designation of STR and SMR is 

based on a series of soil temperature and moisture criteria 

and is critical to consistent classifications of soils between 

adjacent soil survey areas. The soil temperature and moisture criteria are based on long-term (30 year) averages of 

these variables. Therefore, soil temperature and moisture 

data collected while describing a soil in the field, at a single 

point in time, are insufficient as criteria for designating 

STR and SMR classes. Barring long-term soil temperature 

and moisture data, an objective, invariable set of criteria 

should be chosen when designating STR and SMR for a 

given soil.

At the landscape scale, the soils along the eastern flank 

of the WRR fall within the Cryic/Frigid and Udic/Ustic 

soil temperature and moisture regime classes, respectively. 

At the community scale, distinguishing between the two 

sets of STR and SMR classes for a given soil required the 

objective, invariable set of criteria, previously discussed. 

Table 6 contains the list of criteria used to designate STR 

and SMR for soils of the eastern flank of the WRR. The 

criteria include known indicator species of cool/moist 

and warm/dry environments and topographic factors that 

influence solar radiation input, temperature, and moisture 

availability. Soils were preliminarily classified into STR 

and SMR classes in the field using the vegetation and 

topography rules listed in Table 6. Box and whisker diagrams were used to check the consistency of the vegetation 

and topography rules used to determine STR and SMR 

with the modeled climate data. Box and whisker diagrams 

are a simple means of displaying a range of data. The 

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diagrams were plotted using the R function boxplot, while 

minimum, maximum, and quartiles were calculated using 

the summary function (R Development Core Team 2007). 

Box and whisker diagrams display the 50th (median), 75th, 

and 25th quartiles, minimum, maximum, and outliers of a 

distribution of values (Figure 19). Similar to percentiles, 

quartiles are a member of a family of statistics that divide 

a frequency distribution into equal areas (Sokal and Rohlf 

1987). For instance, 25% of the values in a distribution lie 

above the 75th quartile and below the 25th quartile. The 

inter-quartile distance is defined as the difference between 

the 75th and 25th quartile and is used as a basic summary 

statistic for describing the central range of values in a 

distribution. Outliers are defined as those values in the 

distribution that are greater than (75th quartile+(N*(75th–

25th))) and less than (25th quartile–(N*(75th–25th))). The 

value of N determines the sensitivity of the box and whisker plot to outliers. The lower the value of N, the more 

sensitive to outliers. The value of N was set at 1.5 for the 

purposes of this study.

Box and whisker diagram of degree days (Figure 20) 

and frost-free days (not shown) were plotted across all 

sample points within the two STR categories. Unpaired 

Welch’s two-sample t-tests showed that across the range of 

variation in degree days, sample points considered Cryic 

based on the vegetation and environment rules had significantly (p<0.001) lower degree days and frost-free days 

than sample points considered Frigid. In order to test for 

consistency between the vegetation/topography rules and 

the climate data, all plots falling within the upper 25% of 

both degree days and frost-free days for plots considered 

Cryic, and the lower 25% of both degree days and frostfree days for Frigid were identified and further scrutinized. 

The 25% rule relies on the assumption that those plots 

considered Cryic, and that fall within the upper 25% of 

the data distribution, represent plots that have higher 

degree days and frost-free days than would be expected 

considering the remaining Cryic plots, while those plots 

considered Frigid, and that fall within the lower 25% of 

the data distribution, represent plots that have lower degree 

and frost-free days than could be expected considering the 

remaining Frigid plots. Although the 25% rule is somewhat arbitrary (a 20% or 15% rule could also be applied), 

the important point is the consistency with which the 25% 

rule was used. A similar analysis was conducted for SMR 

using annual average precipitation and SWB (data not 

shown). Upon further scrutiny, it was determined that the 

vegetation rules were consistent with the climate data in 

Figure 19—Example of box and whisker diagram depicting 

the distribution of sample points across elevation.

Figure 20—Box and whisker diagram depicting 

depicting cryic and frigid sample points across 

degree days.

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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

86% of the plots. Thirty-five of the 251 plots required a 

change in STR and SMR, the majority of which occurred 

in the South Pass area and were changed from Cryic/Udic 

to Frigid/Ustic.

Data analysis

Overview

An ecological type is a category of land with a distinctive combination of landscape elements, including climate, 

bedrock geology, landform, and soils, and that differs 

from other types in the kind and amount of vegetation it 

can produce and in its ability to respond to management 

actions and natural disturbances (Winthers and others 

2005). Ecological type classifications integrate the combination of landscape elements previously described into an 

ecosystem-based classification by drawing on ecological 

relationships. Recognizing and interpreting ecological relationships is a primary task of many ecologists. However, 

ecological datasets are often quite complex, including 

multiple dependent and independent variables that interact 

with one another across a number of spatial and temporal 

scales. Ecological data are also full of superfluous information, or noise, that can mask the relationships that 

scientists seek. Multivariate statistical analysis includes a 

suite of statistical techniques designed specifically to distill 

complex ecological datasets, thus enhancing the ability of 

the ecologist to recognize patterns within the data. Similar 

to a carpenter using a hammer to construct a building, the 

ecologist uses multivariate statistics techniques as tools to 

develop an ecological classification. Multivariate statistical 

techniques are important tools used in the classification 

process to draw inferences from the data and provide 

objective criteria for decision making. However, the skill 

involved in developing an ecological type classification 

goes beyond the actual tools used, requiring knowledge of 

species autecology, ecosystem processes, and classification systems. Multivariate statistical techniques, including 

ordination and Generalized Additive Models, were used in 

part to develop the ecological type classification presented 

in this management guide.

Preliminary data analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted in R: a language 

and environment for statistical computing (R Development 

Core Team 2007, http://www.r-project.org). The vegetation 

and environment data were initially separated by sample 

plot into pre-map unit vegetation and environment datasets 

by grouping them based on the pre-map unit in which the 

sample plots were located. Following the 2004 field season, 

basic summary tables were constructed that summarized 

the number of sample plots within each pre-map unit. The 

number of sample points per pre-map unit was compared 

to the relative distribution of sample points across pre-map 

units calculated during the initial phase of sampling design. 

This provided a rough estimate of the number of sample 

points in each pre-map unit remaining to be sampled during 

the upcoming 2005 field season.

Box and whisker diagrams were employed in the preliminary data analysis to compare the ranges of sampled 

percent slope and elevation (“sampled”) to the ranges 

of percent slope and elevation that occurred within each 

pre-map unit (“extent”). The first step was to calculate a 

raster layer of percent slope across the study area using a 

10-m Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The DEM and the 

percent slope raster were converted to a point layer using 

the “Convert Raster to Features” tool in the Spatial Analyst 

extension of ArcMap 9.1. The DEM and the percent slope 

layers, each composed of a grid of points occurring where 

the center of each pixel was located in the raster, were then 

spatially joined to the pre-map polygon layer using the 

“Join Data” tool in ESRI® ArcMapTM 8.7. During the join, 

each of the points in the DEM and percent slope layers 

were given the attributes of the pre-map unit polygon in 

which they were located. These data represented the extent 

of elevation and slope within each pre-map unit. Box and 

whisker diagrams were plotted and summary statistics were 

calculated for sampled and extent elevation and slope within each pre-map unit dataset. The distribution of sampled 

and extent elevation and slope within each pre-map unit 

were visually compared with one another. If the range of 

the sampled variable was skewed above the mean of the extent, then higher values of the variable were over-sampled 

in that pre-map unit, and the 2005 sampling scheme was 

adjusted to focus on sampling lower values of the variable. 

If the range of the sampled variable was skewed below the 

mean of the extent, then lower values were over-sampled, 

and the 2005 sampling scheme was adjusted to focus on 

sampling higher values of the variable within that pre-map 

unit. An objective criterion for determining a significant 

difference between sampled and extent follows. Calculate 

the mean and standard deviation for the extent of the variable within each pre-map unit. Next, calculate the mean of 

the variable for the sample points within each pre-map unit. 

If the mean of the sampled points falls outside ! one-half 

standard deviation of the mean of extent of elevation or 

slope, this represents a gap in the survey data for that variable within a given pre-map unit.

Ordination is a multivariate statistical technique that 

displays the projection of a multidimensional point cloud 

in two dimensions. Ordination utilizes the compositional 

similarity, or the inverse, dissimilarity, between sample 

points in ecological community datasets to arrange the 

sample points in multidimensional ordination space. 

Similarity, in the case of sample points in a study of ecological communities, is related to the presence and absence 

of species. Sample points with many species in common 

are more similar than sample points with little or no species 

in common. In this way, sample points similar in species 

composition appear closer together in the ordination space, 

while dissimilar points appear further apart.

For each pre-map unit vegetation dataset, a Bray/Curtis 

(Bray and Curtis 1957) dissimilarity matrix was calculated 

from the raw canopy coverage data using the R function 

dsvdis (Roberts 2006). The dissimilarity matrix was used 

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to calculate three-dimensional non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordinations (Kruskal 1964a, 1964b; 

Shepard 1962a, 1962b) using the R function nmds (Roberts 

2006). The ordinations were plotted in all three sets ([1,2], 

[1,3], [2,3]) of dimensions. The ordination diagrams were 

initially inspected for outliers, or those sample points more 

similar in vegetation composition to themselves than to 

any other sample point. Outliers were usually located well 

outside the primary point cloud. Outliers within pre-map 

unit datasets suggested three situations: (1) the vegetation 

type was more extensive within a pre-map unit but was 

not sampled adequately, (2) the vegetation type was rare 

and truly represented an outlier, and (3) that the sample 

site may have fit better in another pre-map unit and the 

polygon lines in the pre-map required adjustment. Outliers 

were noted, and an attempt was made during the 2005 field 

season to more adequately sample the vegetation types 

represented by outliers.

Ecological relationships were examined and preliminary 

map unit components were identified by testing the orientation of sample points along the ordination axes relative to 

a number of environmental factors. A minimum of three 

sample points was used to define major soil components 

(see “Classification Concepts” section). Preliminary major 

map unit components included groups of three or more 

habitat types with similar soils and environment within 

each pre-map unit. Also, potential major soil map unit components were identified as individual sample points or in 

groups less than three of similar habitat types/great groups 

within each map unit. The researcher noted these and made 

an attempt during the following field season to validate the 

potential major soil map unit components by sampling or 

observing more of these in the field.

Categorical environmental variables, including vegetation series, slope position, soil depth, soil parent material, 

soil classification, habitat type, and bedrock geology, were 

symbolized on the ordination diagrams using the R function 

points (R Development Core Team 2007). The categorical 

variables were tested for their degree of deviation from 

randomness along each set of ordination axes using the R 

function ordtest (Roberts 2006). Significant deviations from 

randomness suggested that the categories of the variable 

were more highly aggregated along the set of ordination 

axes than would be expected if the categories were randomly distributed across the ordination space. Categorical 

variables with significant deviations from randomness were 

considered potentially important in differentiating between 

map unit components and were examined more closely in 

the final data analysis.

Continuous environmental variables, including elevation, slope, aspect value, percentage of coarse fragments, 

percentage of clay, AWC, site water balance, and the 

modeled climate variables, were evaluated using the R 

function surf (Roberts 2006). The function surf first fits a 

Generalized Additive Model (GAM) (Hastie and Tibshirani 

1986; Yee and Mitchell 1991) using the R function gam 

(Wood 2006) to the ordination axes for each continuous 

environmental variable. The function surf next plots a 

modeled surface, similar to lines on a topographic map, 

that represents the predicted distribution of the environmental variable across the ordination space. The fit value 

for a GAM is deviance squared (D2), and is equivalent to 

R2 in least squared regression (Guisan and Zimmerman 

2000). The higher the fit value, the better the GAM fits the 

actual distribution of the environmental variable along the 

ordination axes, and (indirectly) the greater the importance 

of that variable in structuring the vegetation composition. 

Continuous environmental variables with high fit values 

were considered potentially important in differentiating 

between Ecological Types and were examined more closely 

in the final data analysis.

Final data analysis and map unit components

Following the 2005 field season, ecological relationships were examined, outliers were identified, and final 

map unit components were classified following the same 

general methods described for the preliminary data analysis. Outliers were either removed entirely from the data 

or moved to a more appropriate pre-map unit. This was 

an iterative process by which the outliers were removed/

moved and the ordinations recalculated. During the final 

data analysis, groups of three or more of the same or 

similar habitat types within each pre-map unit ordination 

were considered potential map unit components. The 

environmental variables identified in the preliminary data 

analysis were used to test for ecological relationships 

between the potential map unit components. Variables used 

in the analysis included vegetation series, habitat type, soil 

great group, soil depth, slope position, elevation, slope, 

site water balance, summer radiation, soil parent material, 

and % clay. The final map unit components were classified 

based on similarities in vegetation, soils, and environment. 

The statistical analyses were used as a guide in the classification process and provided objective criteria for deciding 

between splitting and lumping sample sites in the classification. The researcher also drew upon knowledge of species 

autecology and ecological process and observations made 

in the field to develop the final classification.

The classification of the forested components of map 

unit 12L provides a relatively simple example of the classification process. A three-dimensional NMDS ordination 

was plotted in dimensions one and three using the data 

for the forested sample points within map unit 12L. First, 

vegetation series was highlighted on the map unit 12L 

forested ordination using the R function chullord.nmds 

(Roberts 2006), revealing sample sites in the limber pine 

series on the lower end of the NMDS axis 1 and sample 

sites in the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir series on the upper 

end of NMDS axis 1 (Figure 21). Second, soil depth was 

symbolized on the ordination diagram, bringing to light 

the relationship between soil depth and vegetation series 

(Figure 22). Shallow to moderately deep soils mostly 

occurred at points near the lower end of NMDS axis 1, 

corresponding in large part to the limber pine series, while 

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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

deep soils occurred largely on the upper end of NMDS axis 

1, corresponding to the Douglas-fir series. The shallow 

to moderately deep soils in the limber pine series were 

all located at limestone shoulder and summit positions in 

limestone residuum. Two deep soils occurred in the limber 

pine series; these were located on back-slope positions in 

limestone colluvium. Next, soil classification was highlighted on the ordination diagram indicating that Alfisols 

and clay-rich Mollisols occurred almost exclusively beneath Douglas-fir communities, while clay-poor Mollisols 

and Inceptisols occurred beneath limber pine communities 

(Figure 23). The forested components of map unit 12L 

reflect the above patterns, and included (1) limber pine/

common juniper, Lithic Calciustolls; (2) Limber pine/common juniper, deep, Pachic Haplustolls; and (3) Douglas-fir/

common juniper, deep, Typic Argiustolls.

A second example demonstrates the use of GAMs and 

the R function ordtest in the soil map unit classification. A 

three-dimensional NMDS ordination was plotted in dimensions one and three using the data for the non-forested 

sample points in map unit 15L. First, habitat type was 

symbolized on the map unit 15L forested ordination using 

the R function points, and the habitat types with at least 

three sample points were highlighted using the R function 

chullord.nmds (Figure 24).

Ordtest revealed that the distribution of the habitat type 

categories in the ordination was significantly different 

from a random configuration (p = 0.001), suggesting that 

habitat type was an important variable in the development 

of the non-forest map unit components in map unit 15L. 

Next, a GAM of elevation was calculated and plotted using 

Figure 21—Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 12L forested sample points with 

vegetation series symbolized.

Figure 22—Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 12L forested sample points with soil depth 

symbolized.

Figure 23—Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 12L forested sample points with soil order 

symbolized.

the first and third NMDS axes (Figure 25). The model 

predicted (D2 = 0.36) higher elevations on the left end of 

axis 1, corresponding to the Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type (ARTRR4/ ELSP3), and 

lower elevations on the right end of axis 1, corresponding to the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat 

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type (ARTRV2/FEID), with the mountain big sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass (ARTRV2/ELSP3) habitat type at 

moderate elevations. The elevation GAM fits with a general 

pattern observed by the field researcher in which ARTRR4/

ELSP3 was located primarily on upper backslopes and 

shoulder positions, ARTRV2/ELSP3 was located on middle 

and lower backslopes, and ARTRV2/FEID was located 

primarily on footslopes.

Lastly, a GAM of % clay in the particle-size control 

section was calculated and plotted using the first and third 

NMDS axes (Figure 26). The D2 of 0.51 was somewhat 

better than for elevation, and the model predictions were 

slightly more complicated. The model generally predicted 

increasing % clay from left to right along axis 1; however, 

a localized high of % clay occurred near the center of axes 

1 and 3. The predicted increases in % clay corresponded 

to soils with argillic horizons, which occurred almost exclusively in the ARTRV2/FEID habitat type (data not shown). 

The major non-forested soil map unit components for 15L 

reflect the above patterns of habitat type, elevation, and % 

clay: mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, deep, Typic 

Argiustolls; mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

deep, Typic Calciustolls; and Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass, deep, Typic Calciustolls.

Results and Discussion__________

Soil Map Units and Ecological Types

Sixty-one map units occurred in the northern and southern study areas combined, including 34 from the Shoshone 

National Forest survey area (WY656), 20 pulled into the 

study area from the adjoining Fremont County, Wyoming, 

East Part and Dubois Area survey area (WY713), and 

7 pulled from the ajoining Bridger National Forest, 

Figure 24—Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 15L non-forested sample points with 

habitat type symbolized.

Figure 25—Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 15L non-forested sample points with 

generalized additive model (GAM) of elevation overlaid.

Figure 26—Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 

plot of map unit 15L non-forested sample points with 

generalized additive model (GAM) of percent clay in the 

particle-size control section overlaid.

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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Wyoming, Eastern Part survey area (WY662) (Table A-1). 

The five largest map units accounted for approximately 

58% of the study area and included 304L (36,371.0 Ha), 

327S (26,089.4), 319L (21367.5), 311L (15187.8), and 

310L (12312.3). Twenty-five map units were assigned 

ecotypes, including 23 from WY656 and 2 from WY713. 

Thirty-six map units were not assigned ecotypes, including 

11 from WY656, 18 from WY713, and 7 from WY662. 

Figure 27 presents the soil map units in the southern study 

area. Complete spatial and tabular data for the entirety of 

the Shoshone National Forest NCSS are freely available at 

the NRCS Soil Data Mart at www.http://soildatamart.nrcs.

usda.gov/ (USDA NRCS 2008).

A few minor disparaties existed between the ecological 

type classification and the soil map unit components related 

to differences between NCSS and TEUI protocols. These 

disparities are explained and a cross-reference between 

soil map unit components and ecotypes is presented in 

Appendix 4. Soil map unit descriptions and the areal extent 

within the study area are presented in Appendix 5.

A total of 59 ecological types were classified in the 

study area, including 4 alpine, 38 forested, 9 shrubland, 5 

herbaceous, and 3 riparian and wetland. The remainder of 

this document provides the classification and description of 

the ecological types, including keys to the ecological types 

based on vegetation and environment. Ecological type descriptions are organized by vegetation physiognomy (e.g., 

alpine, forest, shrubland, etc.) and along an environmental 

gradient from the coldest/driest to the warmest/wettest 

ecological types.

Ecological Type Key

Overview

The Ecological Type Key is an organized means by 

which to identify ecological types in the field. While not 

technically a dichotomous key, the ecological type key is 

very similar, leading the user through a series of logical 

conditions that address both vegetation composition and 

environment, including soil parent material, landform, 

and elevation. The criteria used in the key were chosen for 

ease of identification in the field. Technical soil properties, 

including soil texture, diagnostic subsurface horizons, and 

soil depth, were purposefully excluded from the ecological type key as these are often difficult to determine in 

the field, requiring extra time to excavate a soil pit and 

specialized equipment and skills for proper data collection 

and description. As such, terminal nodes of some branches 

of the key may result in more than one ecological type. In 

these cases, the vegetation and general environment of the 

ecological types sharing a terminal node were very similar, 

and the key was not able to further differentiate between 

the types based on the environmental criteria used. In such 

cases, the user should (1) refer to the description of each of 

the types listed under the terminal node; (2) take note of the 

subtle differences in vegetation, environment, and ecology 

described; (3) compare the types described to the vegetation and environmental conditions at the site in question; 

and (4) choose the appropriate ecological type.

Using the ecological type key

If you, (1) are standing on the east slope of the WRR 

within the study area described above, (2) are interested in 

identifying an assemblage of vegetation/environment as a 

classified ecological type, and (3) have this guide with you, 

then you should begin with the Key to Ecosystems.

First, locate a relatively homogenous patch of vegetation 

that is obviously associated with a specific landform or 

slope position (see “Glossary”). An appropriate sample site 

should be located firmly on the landform and should not be 

near the boundary between two landforms. Next, go to the 

Key to Ecosystems and determine the ecosystem where the 

site is located. Plots should be roughly 390 m2 (about 0.1 

acre) in size and circular (11.3-m radius). On long, narrow 

landforms, such as in steep, narrow riparian zones, the 

shape of the plot may be changed to fit on the landform so 

long as the area of the plot approximates 390 m2. Next, go 

to the Key to Ecological Types and select the appropriate 

portion of the key for a given ecosystem and work your 

way through.

Two options exist for highly disturbed sites that do not 

fit in this classification: (1) use the Ecological Type Key to 

match remnant patches of native vegetation (if such patches 

exist) as closely as possible to a classified type, and (2) 

use the Environment Key to determine possible vegetation 

potentials for the site.

Notes regarding the ecological type key

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Limber Pine Series

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and limber pine will often 

be found co-dominating sites in the study area, which 

may cause confusion when using the Ecological Type 

Key to differentiate between these two vegetation series. 

The following suggestions are provided to help alleviate 

this confusion. The user is reminded that the vegetation 

classification is based on potential natural vegetation. As 

such, the Ecological Type Key relies on the criteria of a 

species being “present and reproducing successfully with 

≥5% cover”. This criteria holds up well when one species 

is obviously out-competing the other in the understory. 

However, when both species are present and reproducing 

successfully, this criterion becomes less effective. In the 

case of both species being present and reproducing successfully, the following environmental guidelines should aid 

in decision making: (1) Douglas-fir series on north-facing 

footslopes, backslopes, and shoulders below 2700 m elevation, (2) Douglas-fir series at elevations above 2700 m on 

south-facing Gallatin Limestone shoulders and on granitic 

backslopes and footslopes, (3) limber pine series on southfacing limestone, or dolomite back-slope, shoulder, and 

summit positions, (4) limber pine series on limestone and 

dolomite outcrops and on shallow to moderately deep soils.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest

Figure 27—Soil map units (USDA NRCS 2008) in the south study area, ecological types of the eastern slope of the Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. Soil 

map units 1701BT and 8004BT not shown. Background imagery from ESRI ArcGIS Online and data partners (ESRI 2012).
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 39

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Purpose and Limits of the Ecological Type Key

The Ecological Type Key was developed for efficient 

field identification of the Ecological Types described in 

this guide. The Key is not the classification, and users are 

advised to thoroughly read the description of an ecological 

type upon identification. The cutoff values for percentage 

cover in the key are general guidelines and may have no 

ecological basis. The user should be keenly aware of the 

relative importance of the indicator species present at a site 

and give priority to those indicator species most representative of the landform at large (most vigorous growth, not 

isolated to microsites, etc.).

The classification provided is not exhaustive of the possible vegetation types and environments along the eastern 

slope of the WRR. An effort was made to sample only 

relatively undisturbed sites, and the boundaries between 

relatively distinct vegetation types, or ecotones, were 

avoided. Therefore, it is possible that users of this key will 

encounter unclassified Ecological Types in the field. The 

Environment Key is provided to aid in recognition of the 

possible vegetation potentials at obviously disturbed sites.

Additional resources

If the Ecological Type Key fails, it may be that the vegetation type and/or environment were not sampled during 

the field effort, or that the vegetation type does not fit in the 

study area. In this case, reference the following:

Forested

Pfister, R.D.; B.L. Kovalchik; S.F. Arno; and R.C. Presby. 

1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INT-GTR-34. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 174 p.

Steel, R., R.D. Pfister, R.A. Ryker, and J.A. Kittams. 

1981. Forest habitat types of central Idaho. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INT-GTR-114. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 138 p.

Steele, R., S.V. Cooper, D.M. Ondov, D.W. Roberts, and 

R.D. Pfister. 1983. Forest habitat types of eastern Idahowestern Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-144. 

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 122 p.

Shrub and Grassland

Hironaka, M., M.A. Fosberg, and A.H. Winward. 1983. 

Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho. 

Moscow, ID: Forest, Wildlife, and Range Experiment 

Station, University of Idaho.

Mueggler, W.F. and W. L. Stewart. 1980.Grassland and 

shrubland habitat types of Western Montana. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INT-GTR-66. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 154 p.

Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest

Tweit, S.J. and K.E. Houston. 1980. Grassland and 

shrubland habitat types of the Shoshone National Forest. 

Golden, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 143 p.

Alpine

Cooper, S.V., P. Lesica, and D. Page-Dumroese. 1997. 

Plant community classification for alpine vegetation on 

the Beaverhead National Forest, Montana. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INT-GTR-362. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station. 61 p.

Riparian/Wetland

Walford, G., G. Jones, W. Fertig, S. Mellman-Brown, K.E. 

Houston. 2001. Riparian and wetland plant community 

types of the Shoshone National Forest. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. RMRS-GTR-85. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station. 122 p.

Youngblood, A.P.; W.G. Padgett; and A.H. Winward. 

1985. Riparian community type classification of eastern 

Idaho-western Wyoming. R4-ECOL-85-01. Ogden, 

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Intermountain Region. 89 p.

Miscellaneous

Jones, G. and S. Ogle. 2000. Characterization abstracts for 

vegetation types on the Bighorn, Medicine Bow, and 

Shoshone National Forests. Prepared for USDA Forest 

Service, Region 2. Laramie, WY: Wyoming Natural 

Diversity Database, University of Wyoming, Laramie. 

218 p.
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40 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. Key to Ecosystems 1a. Sites above timberline (ca. 3200 m); not including riparian areas and wetlands I. Alpine Ecological Types 1b. Sites at or below timberline 2 2a. Upland sites II. Upland Ecological Types 2b. Riparian and wetland sites III. Riparian and Wetland Ecological Types
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 41 Key to Ecological Types I. Alpine Ecological Types 1a. Grayleaf willow (Salix glauca var. villosa) cover ≥ 25 percent AND sites located in late snowbank environments 2 2a. Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge (Carex scopulorum) cover ≥ 25 percent Late snowbank vegetation -- Willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] 2b. Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge cover < 25 percent 3 3a. Tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa) cover ≥ 25 percent or the dominant graminoid Late snowbank vegetation -- Grayleaf willow/tufted hairgrass, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] 3b. Tufted hairgrass cover < 25 percent and not the dominant graminoid Undefined type or not Alpine Series 1b. Grayleaf willow cover < 25 percent OR sites other than late snowbank environments 4 4a. Snow willow (Salix reticulata var. nana) cover ≥ 5 percent 5 5a. Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge (Carex scopulorum) cover ≥ 25 percent AND sites located in late snowbank environments Late snowbank vegetation -- Willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] 5b. Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge cover < 25 percent OR sites other than late snowbank environments 6 6a. Bellardi bog sedge (Kobresia myosuroides) cover ≥ 15 percent or the dominant graminoid Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET [p. 81] 6b. Bellardi bog sedge cover < 15 percent and not the dominant graminoid Undefined type or not Alpine Series 4b. Snow willow cover < 5 percent 7 7a. Tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa) cover ≥ 25 percent or the dominant graminoid 8 8a. Sites located in late snowbank environments Late snowbank vegetation -- Tufted hairgrass, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] 8b. Other sites Undefined type or not Alpine Series 7b. Tufted hairgrass cover < 25 percent and not the dominant graminoid 9 9a. Parry’s rush (Juncus parryi) cover ≥ 25 percent or the dominant graminoid 10
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42 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 10a. Sites located in late snowbank environments Late snowbank vegetation -- Parry’s Rush, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] 10b. Other sites Undefined type or not Alpine Series 9b. Parry’s rush cover < 25 percent and not the dominant graminoid 11 11a. Ross’ avens (Geum rossii var. turbinatum) cover ≥ 15 percent OR the dominant forb in an otherwise graminoid dominated continous turf 12 12a. Blackroot sedge (Carex elynoides) cover ≥ 15 percent or the dominant graminoid in an otherwise graminoid dominated continous turf Ross’ avens-Blackroot sedge Alpine Turf, Agneston Family ET [p. 76] 12b. Blackroot sedge cover < 15 percent and not the dominant graminoid 13 13a. Forb dominated communities, OR graminoid dominated communities with graminoids occuring discontinuously, AND cushion plants, including dwarf clover (Trifolium nanum), alpine clover (T. dasyphyllum), phlox (Phlox spp.), twinflower sandwort (Minuartia obtusiloba), and moss campion (Silene acaulis var. subacaulescens), occuring at ≥ 5 percent cover either singly or collectively Ross’ avens Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family ET [p. 72] 13b. Vegetation not as above Undefined type or not Alpine series 11b. Ross’ avens cover < 15 percent and not the dominant forb Undefined type or not Alpine series II. Upland Ecological Types Lifeform Key 1a. Greater than or equal to 10 percent tree cover A. Upland Forested Ecological Types 1b. Less than 10 percent tree cover 2 2a. Greater than or equal to 10 percent shrub cover B. Upland Shrubland Ecological Types 2b. Less than or equal to 10 percent shrub cover C. Upland Grassland Ecological Types A. Key to Upland Forested Ecological Types 1a. Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Subalpine fir Series [2] 2a. Grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scoparium) cover ≥ 5 percent 3 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 43 3a. Soils derived from granitic glacial till on upper elevation (>2800 m) lateral moraines Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, McCall Family ET [p. 100] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Swapps Family ET [p. 131] 3b. Soils derived from sandstone or granitic colluvium and residuum 4 4a. Soils derived from sandstone colluvium and residuum Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 4b. Soils derived from granitic colluvium and residuum Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family ET [p. 105] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 4c. Other soils Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 2b. Grouse whortleberry cover < 5 percent 5 5a. Oregon grape (Mahonia repens) cover ≥ 1 percent or Oregon boxleaf (Pachistima myrsinites) cover ≥ 5 percent 6 6a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium Subalpine fir/Oregon grape, Frisco Family ET [p. 120] 6b. Soils derived from granodiorite colluvium and residuum Warm subalpine fir forests, Elting Family ET [p. 115] 6c. Other soils Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 5b. Oregon grape cover < 1 percent and Oregon boxleaf cover < 5 percent 7 7a. Gooseberry currant (Ribes montigenum) cover ≥ 5 percent or the dominant plant of normally depauperate undergrowths 8 8a. Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) cover ≥ 5 percent and sites located at or near treeline (ca. 3200 m) and communities occurring as “tree islands” Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Elting Family ET [p. 95] 8b. Whitebark pine cover < 5 percent and sites located below treeline (2900-3100 m) and communities occurring as contiguous forest Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Cranbay Family ET [p. 131] 8c. Whitebark pine cover ≥ 5 percent or not, sites not as above Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 7b. Gooseberry currant cover < 5 percent and not the dominant plant of normally depauperate undergrowths 9
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44 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 9a. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) cover ≥ 5 percent 10 10a. Soils derived from sandstone colluvium and residuum Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 10b. Soils derived from granodiorite colluvium and residuum Warm subalpine fir forests, Elting Family ET [p. 115] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 10c. Other soils Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 9b. Common juniper cover < 5 percent 11 11a. Heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia) cover ≥ 5 percent or the dominant undergrowth species 12 12a. Soils derived from igneous colluvium and residuum Warm subalpine fir forests, Elting Family ET [p. 115] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 12b. Soils derived from sedimentary colluvium and residuum 13 13a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium over limestone, dolomite, or sandstone residuum and sites located in cold air drainages Subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica - Cold Air Drainage, Hierro Family ET [p. 125] 13b. Soils derived from sandstone colluvium over sandstone or sandy-shale residuum Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 13c. Soils and/or sites not as above Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 12c. Other soils Undefined type or not subalpine fir series 11b. Heartleaf arnica cover < 5 percent and not the dominant undergrowth species Depauperate or undefined type or not subalpine fir/upland series 1b. Subalpine fir cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 14 14a. Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent please refer to “Engelmann spruce Series” in Steele and others 1983 [p. 16] for a key to the Engelmann spruce Habitat Types 14b. Engelmann spruce cover < 5 percent 15 15a. Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Whitebark pine series [16]
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 45 16a. Whitebark pine and other tree species with a “flagged” or “krummholz” growth form, sites at or slightly above timberline Krummholz, Klootch Family ET [p. 136] 16b. Whitebark pine featuring a “spire” growth form, sites below timberline 17 17a. Grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scoparium) cover ≥ 5 percent 18 18a. Soils derived from granitic glacial till 19 19a. Sites located on the upper extent of the Louis Lake moraine (ca. west of Louis Lake Loop Road) or on lower elevation (< 3000 m) lateral moraines near Worthen Meadows or near the headwaters of Sawmill Creek Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Salt Chuck Family ET [p. 145] 19b. Sites located on upper elevation (≥ 3000 m) lateral moraines or on ground moraines in glacial cirques Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET [p. 140] 19c. Other sites Undefined type or not whitebark pine series 18b. Other soils 20 20a. Soils derived from sandstone colluvium over sandstone residuum Whitebark pine Series, Marosa Family ET [p. 159] 20b. Soils derived from granitic colluvium and/or residuum Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET [p. 140] Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family ET [p. 158] Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Sig Family ET [p. 158] 20c. Other soils Undefined type or not whitebark pine series 17b. Grouse whortleberry cover < 5 percent 21 21a. Common juniper (Juniperus communis), russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), or timber milkvetch (Astragalus miser) cover ≥ 5 percent or dominant either singly or collectively 22 22a. Soils derived from sandstone colluvium over sandstone residuum
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46 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. Whitebark pine Series, Marosa Family ET [p. 159] 22b. Soils derived from granitic colluvium and/or residuum Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET [p. 153] 22c. Other soils Undefined type or not whitebark pine series 21b. Common juniper, russet buffaloberry, and timber milkvetch cover < 5 percent and not dominant either singly or collectively 23 23a. Ross’ sedge (Carex rossii) present and the dominant graminoid 24 24a. Soils derived from granitic colluvium and/or residuum Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET [p. 153] Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Frisco Family ET [p. 149] 24b. Other soils Undefined type or not whitebark pine series 23b. Ross’ sedge absent or not dominant graminoid Depauperate or undefined type or not whitebark pine/upland series 15b. Whitebark pine cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 25 25a. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Douglas-fir Series [26] 26a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium 27 27a. Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum) cover ≥ 5 percent 28 28a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium over limestone, dolomite, or sandstone residuum Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple, Redfist Family ET [p. 161] 28b. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium over granitic glacial till Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountan maple, Yourame Family ET [p. 178] 27b. Rocky Mountain maple cover < 5 percent 29
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 47 29a. Oregon grape (Mahonia repens) or Oregon boxleaf (Pachistima myrsinities) cover ≥ 5 percent either singly or collectively Douglas-fir/Oregon grape, Cloud Peak Family ET [p. 167] 29b. Vegetation not as above 30 30a. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) cover ≥ 5 percent Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut Family ET [p. 172] 30b. Common juniper cover < 5 percent 31 31a. Utah snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis), black chokecherry (Prunus virginiana var. melanocarpa), or whiskly currant (Ribes cereum) cover ≥ 5 percent Douglas-fir/Utah snowberry, Typic Calciustepts ET [p. 178] 31b. Vegetation not as above Undefined type or not Douglas-fir series 26b. Other soils Depauperate or undefined type or not Douglas-fir/upland series 25b. Douglas-fir cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 32 32a. Limber pine (Pinus flexilis) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Limber pine series [33] 33a. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) cover ≥ 5 percent 34 34a. Soils derived from calcareous sedimentary colluvium and/or residuum Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET [p. 181] Limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family ET [p. 187] 34b. Soils derived from granodiorite colluvium over residuum Limber pine/common juniper, Como Family ET [p. 197] 34c. Other soils Undefined type or not limber pine series 33b. Common juniper cover < 5 percent 35 35a. Spike fescue (Leucopoa kingii) present and more abundant than Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) 36
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KEY TO ECOLOGICAL TYPES

48 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 36a. Sites located on limestone or dolomite shoulder and summits AND soils derived from limestone or dolomite residuum Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET [p. 181] 36b. Sites located on Gros Ventre Shale backslopes AND soils derived from mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium Limber pine/spike fescue, Saddlehorse Family ET [p. 192] 36c. Other sites or soils Undefined type or not limber pine series 35b. Spike fescue absent or less abundant than Idaho fescue Depauperate or undefined type or not limber pine/upland series 32b. Limber pine cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 37 37a. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Lodgepole pine Series [38] 38a. Grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scoparium) cover ≥ 5 percent 39 39a. Soils derived from sandstone Lodgepole pine/grouse whortleberry, Telcher Family ET [p. 231] 39b. Other soils Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 38b. Grouse whortleberry cover < 5 percent 40 40a. Oregon grape (Mahonia repens) or Oregon boxleaf (Pachistima myrsinites) cover ≥ 5 percent 41 41a. Sites located on the lower extent of the Louis Lake moraine unit (ca. east of Louis Lake Loop Road) Lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake Family ET [p. 206] 41b. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Lodgepole pine Series, Corbly Family ET [p. 226] 41c. Sites located on lower backslope or footslope positions on Flathead Sandstone Formation Lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, Agneston Family ET [p. 201] 41d. Sites not as above Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 40b. Oregon grape (Mahonia repens) and Oregon boxleaf (Pachistima myrsinites) cover < 5 percent 42 42a. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) cover ≥ 5 percent 43
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 49 43a. Sites located on the lower extent of the Louis Lake moraine unit (ca. east of Louis Lake Loop Road) Lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake Family ET [p. 206] 43b. Sites located on upper backslopes and shoulder on Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone Formations Lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family ET [p. 216] 43c. Sites located on lower backslope or footslope positions on Flathead Sandstone Formation Lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, Agneston Family ET [p. 201] 43d. Sites not as above Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 42b. Common juniper cover < 5 percent 44 44a. Russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) cover ≥ 5 percent 45 45a. Sites located on the lower extent of the Louis Lake moraine (ca. east of Louis Lake Loop Road) Lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake Family ET [p. 206] 45b. Sites located on lower elevation (< 3000 m) lateral moraines near Worthen Meadows, Frye Lake, and along Burnt Gulch and Sawmill Creeks Lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry, Bohica Family ET [p. 211] 45c. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Lodgepole pine Series, Corbly Family ET [p. 226] 45d. Sites not as above Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 44b. Russet buffaloberry cover < 5 percent 46 46a. Heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia) or timber milkvetch (Astragalus miser) cover ≥ 5 percent 47 47a. Sites located on upper backslopes and shoulder on Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone Formations Lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family ET [p. 216] 47b. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Lodgepole pine Series, Corbly Family ET [p. 226]
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50 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 47c. Sites not as above Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 46b. Heartleaf arnica and timber milkvetch cover < 5 percent 48 48a. Ross’ sedge (Carex rossii) cover ≥ 5 percent or the dominant undergrowth species 49 49a. Sites located on lower elevation (< 3000 m) lateral moraines near Worthen Meadows, Frye Lake, and along Burnt Gulch and Sawmill Creeks Lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry, Bohica Family ET [p. 211] 49b. Sites located on upper backslopes and shoulders on Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone Formations Lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family ET [p. 216] 49c. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Lodgepole pine Series, Corbly Family ET [p. 226] 49d. Sites located on shoulders and summits of outcrops of foliated Louis Lake granodiorite just west of the South Pass Granite- Greenstone Belt Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Stecum Family ET [p. 231] 49e. Other sites with soils formed from igneous or metamorphic residuum and/or colluvium Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Targhee Family ET [p. 221] 49f. Sites not as above Undefined type or not lodgepole pine series 48b. Ross’ sedge cover < 5 percent Depauperate or undefined type or not lodgepole pine/upland series 37b. Lodgepole pine cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 50 50a. Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Quaking aspen Series [51] 51a. Toeslopes along the periphery of conifer forests or topographic depressions; soils derived from sedimentary rocks 52 52a. Sticky purple geranium (Geranium viscosissimum) and/or starry false lily of the valley (Maianthemum stellatum) cover ≥ 1 percent Quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET [p. 235] 52b. Sticky purple geranium and starry false lily of the valley cover < 1 percent Undefined type or not quaking aspen series 51b. Sites not as above 53
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 51 53a. Granitic boulder-strewn backslopes and footslopes 54 54a. Utah snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis) cover ≥ 5 percent Quaking aspen/Utah snowberry - Boulder, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 240] 54b. Utah snowberry < 5 percent Undefined type or not quaking aspen series 53b. Sites not as above Depauperate or undefined type or not quaking aspen/upland series 50b. Quaking aspen cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully Depauperate or undefined type or not forested/upland series B. Key to Upland Shrubland Ecological Types 1a. Wyoming three-tip sagebrush (Artemisia tripartita var. rupicola) cover ≥ 10 percent or the dominant sagebrush speciesWyoming three-tip sagebrush Series [2] 2a. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) cover ≥ 5 percent 3 3a. Sites located on a series of intrusive dikes to the south and east of Louis Lake; soils derived from granodiorite and/or diabasic gabbro Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 248] 3b. Other soils Undefined type or not Wyoming three-tip sagebrush series 2b. Idaho fescue cover < 5 percent 4 4a. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Elymus spicatus) cover ≥ 5 percent 5 5a. Soils derived from mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium AND sites located on steep upper backslopes and shoulder near the boundary between the Gros Ventre and Gallatin limestone formations Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Bigsheep Family ET [p. 252] 5b. Other sites or soils Undefined type or not Wyoming three-tip sagebrush series 4b. Bluebunch wheatgrass cover < 5 percent Depauperate or undefined type or not Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 1b. Wyoming three-tip sagebrush cover < 10 percent and not the dominant sagebrush species 6 6a. Low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula) cover ≥ 10 percent or the dominant sagebrush species Low sagebrush Series [7]
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52 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 7a. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) cover ≥ 5 percent Low sagebrush/Idaho fescue Habitat Type [please refer to Tweit and Houston (1980) for a description of this habitat type] 7b. Idaho fescue cover < 5 percent Depauperate or undefined type or not low sagebrush series 6b. Low sagebrush cover < 10 percent 8 8a. Mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana) cover ≥ 10 percent or the dominant sagebrush species Mountain big sagebrush series [9] 9a. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) cover ≥ 5 percent 10 10a. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 166D Family ET [p. 266] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Lithic Argiustolls ET [p. 270] 10b. Sites located on the upper extent of the Sinks Canyon moraine along the Middle Fork Popo Agie River; soils derived from granitic glacial till Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 351L Family ET [p. 279] 10c. Sites along footslopes of the Gros Ventre or Amsden Formations Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Shawmut Family ET [p. 258] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Kiev Family ET [p. 279] 10d. Sites located on a series of intrusive dikes to the south and east of Louis Lake; soils derived from granodiorite and/or diabasic gabbro Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 279] 10e. Other sites or soils Undefined type or not mountain big sagebrush series 9b. Idaho fescue cover < 5 percent 11 11a. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Elymus spicatus) cover ≥ 5 percent 12 12a. Soils derived partly or entirely from mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Winspect Family ET [p. 274] 12b. Other soils Undefined type or not mountain big sagebrush series
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 53 11b. Bluebunch wheatgrass cover < 5 pecent Depauperate or undefined type or not mountain big sagebrush/shrubland series 8b. Mountain big sagebrush cover < 10 percent and not the dominant shrub Depauperate or undefined type or not shrubland/upland series C. Key to Upland Grassland Ecological Types 1a. Parry’s rush (Juncus parryii) cover ≥ 5 percent or the dominant graminoid Miscellaneous Graminoid Series [2] 2a. Sites located at or below timberline in granitic glacial till, soils saturated within one meter of the soil surface for a short period during the growing season often the result of late melting snowbanks Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET [p. 294] 2b. Sites and soils not as above Undefined type or not Parry’s rush series or not Upland Ecological Types 1b. Parry’s rush cover < 5 percent and not the dominant graminoid [3] 3a. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) cover ≥ 5 percent or the dominant graminoid Idaho fescue Series [4] 4a. Columbia needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonii) and/or red avens (Geum triflorum) cover ≥ 1 percent 5 5a. Soils derived from granitic residuum Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass-Columbia needlegrass, Elwood Family ET [p. 284] 5b. Soils not as above Undefined type or not Idaho fescue series 4b. Columbia needlegrass and red avens cover < 1 percent 6 6a. Bluebunch wheatgrass cover ≥ 5 percent 7 7a. Sites located near Dickinson Park on lateral glacial moraines; soils derived from compacted granitic glacial till Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 287] 7b. Sites not as above Undefined type or not Idaho fescue series 6b. Bluebunch wheatgrass cover < 5 percent Depauperate or undefined type or not Idaho fescue/grassland series 3b. Idaho fescue cover < 5 percent 8 8a. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Elymus spicatus) cover ≥ 5 percent Bluebunch wheatgrass series [9]
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54 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 9a. Mock goldenweed (Stenotus spp.) cover ≥ 5 percent 10 10a. Limestone shoulders and summits; soil surface dominated by an erosion pavement of limestone flagstones Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass-mock goldenweed -- Scabland, Paunsaugunt Family ET [p. 290] 10b. Sites not as above Undefined type or not Bluebunch wheatgrass series 9b. Mock goldenweed cover < 5 percent 11 11a. Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) co-dominant with bluebunch wheatgrass 12 12a. Soils derived from granitic glacial till and located on steep, lateral glacial moraines in Sinks Canyon Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass, Wabek Family ET [p. 293] 12b. Other soils or locations Undefined type or not Bluebunch wheatgrass series 11b. Sandberg bluegrass not sharing dominance with bluebunch wheatgrass Depauperate or undefined type or not Idaho fescue/grassland series 8b. Bluebunch wheatgrass cover < 5 percent Depauperate or undefined type or not grassland/upland series III. Riparian and Wetland Ecological Types 1a. Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) present and reproducing successfully with cover ≥ 5 percent Quaking aspen Series [2] 2a. Sitka alder (Alnus viridis var. sinuata) and/or red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea) present with cover ≥ 5 percent either singly or collectively 3 3a. Landform slope typically < 10 percent AND soils saturated within a meter of the soil surface throughout the growing season Quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood - Sitka alder Habitat Type, Mantador Family ET [p. 244] 3b. Landform slope typically ≥ 10 percent AND soil surface periodically flooded early in the growing season and/or soils saturated for only a short period during the growing season Quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood - Sitka alder Habitat Type, Caryville Family ET [p. 244]
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 55 3c. Sites or soils not as above Undefined type or not quaking aspen series 2b. Sitka alder and red osier dogwood combined cover < 5 percent 4 4a. Sticky purple geranium (Geranium viscosissimum) and/or starry false lily of the valley (Maianthemum stellatum) present Quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET [p. 235] 4b. Sticky purple geranium and starry false lily of the valley absent Undefined type or not quaking aspen series 1b. Quaking aspen cover < 5 percent and/or not reproducing successfully 5 5a. Willow (Salix spp.) cover ≥ 25 percent Willow Series [6] 6a. Soils derived in part from granitic alluvium 7 7a. Landform slope ≤ 6 percent 8 8a. Soils saturated within a meter of the soil surface throughout the growing season 9 9a. Sedge (Carex aquatilis, C. utriculata, C. vesicaria, C. scopulorum), and/or grass (Deschampsia caespitosa, Calamagrostis canadensis) cover ≥ 25 percent either singly or collectively 10 10a. Sites located along the periphery of kettle lakes on the Louis Lake moraine Willow/Sedge - Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts ET [p. 304] 10b. Other sites Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] 9b. Sedge and grass cover < 25 percent Undefined type 8b. Soils saturated within a meter of the soil surface for only a short period during the growing season 11 11a. Sedge (C. scopulorum, C. nigricans), and/or grass (Deschampsia caespitosa, Calamagrostis canadensis) cover ≥ 25 percent either singly or collectively Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET [p. 304] 11b. Mesic forbs (Senecio triangularis, Saxifraga odontoloma, Parnassia fimbriata, Mertensia ciliata, Geranium viscosissimum, Heracleum sphondylium var. lanatum, Erigeron peregrinus var. scaposus, Aquilegia coerulea) cover ≥ 25 percent either singly or collectively
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56 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] 8c. Other soils Undefined type or not riparian series 7b. Landform slope > 6 percent Undefined type 6b. Other soils Undefined type 5b. Willow cover < 25 percent 12 12a. Sedge (Carex aquatilis, C. utriculata, C. vesicaria, C. scopulorum, C. nigricans), and/or grass (Deschampsia caespitosa, Calamagrostis canadensis) cover ≥ 25 percent either singly or collectively Graminoid Series [13] 13a. Soils derived in part from granitic alluvium 14 14a. Landform slope ≤ 6 percent 15 15a. Soils saturated within a meter of the soil surface throughout the growing season Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] 15b. Soils saturated within a meter of the soil surface for only a short period during the growing season Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET [p. 304] 15c. Other soils Undefined type or not riparian series 14b. Landform slope > 6 percent Undefined type 13b. Other soils Undefined type 12b. Sedge and grass cover < 25 percent Depauperate or undefined type, or rerun the Ecological Type Key with cutoff levels reduced as follows: 25 percent = 10 percent; 10 percent = 5 percent; 5 percent = 1 percent (and reproducing for tree species) , 1 percent = present; or try the Environment Key.
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 57

Environment Key________________

Overview

The Environment Key is provided (1) to reduce the 

number of possible Ecological Types based on a given 

set of environmental attributes, (2) for office users who 

are interested in identifying the set of Ecological Types 

that might occur at sites located on topographic maps or 

GIS data, (3) to identify potential natural vegetation and 

Ecological Types at disturbed sites.

The Environment Key is a dichotomous key based on 

the environmental data collected during the field sampling 

effort. The Key is fashioned after the results of a tree classifier and also reflects the knowledge of, and observations 

made by, the field researcher. The Key is dichotomous, but 

given the environmental amplitude shown by many of the 

Ecological Types, terminal nodes often result in more than 

one possible ecological type. It is important to note that 

(1) the Environment Key is not exhaustive of the possible 

environmental conditions present along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, and (2) cut-off values are approximate.
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ENVIRONMENT KEY

58 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. Environment Key 1a. Igneous or metamorphic bedrock geology AND sites other than the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt 2 2a. Elevations < 3000 m 3 3a. Soil parent materials glacial till or alluvium 4 4a. Glacial till 5 5a. Summits, shoulders, backslopes, and footslope 6 6a. Elevations < 2750 m Lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake Family ET [p. 206] Lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry, Bohica Family ET [p. 211] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 351L Family ET [p. 279] Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass, Wabek Family ET [p. 293] 6b. Elevations ≥ 2750 m Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Salt Chuck Family ET [p. 145] 5b. Toeslopes along the periphery of kettle lakes on the Louis Lake moraineWillow/Sedge - Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts ET [p. 304] 4b. Alluvium Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] Quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET [p. 235] Quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood - Sitka alder Habitat Type, Mantador Family ET [p. 244] Quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood - Sitka alder Habitat Type, Caryville Family ET [p. 244] Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET [p. 304] 3b. Soil parent materials colluvium or residuum 7 7a. Shoulders and summits Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET [p. 153] Limber pine/common juniper, Como Family ET [p. 197] Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Targhee Family ET [p. 221] Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Stecum Family ET [p. 231] Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 248] 7b. Backslopes and footslopes 8 8a. North- and east-facing slopes Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family ET [p. 105] Warm subalpine fir forests, Elting Family ET [p. 115]
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ENVIRONMENT KEY

USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 59 Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Targhee Family ET [p. 221] 8b. South- and west-facing slopes Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET [p. 153] Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Frisco Family ET [p. 149] Lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Targhee Family ET [p. 221] Quaking aspen/Utah snowberry - Boulder, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 240] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 262] Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass-Columbia needlegrass, Elwood Family ET [p. 284] 2b. Elevations ≥ 3000 m 9 9a. Sites at or below timberline (ca. 3200 m) 10 10a. Soils derived from glacial till or alluvium 11 11a. Soils derived from glacial till 12 12a. Lateral moraines 13 13a. North- and east-facing slopes Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, McCall Family ET [p. 100] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Swapps Family ET [p. 131] Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Cranbay Family ET [p. 131] Krummholz, Klootch Family ET [p. 136] 13b. South- and west-facing slopes Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET [p. 140] Krummholz, Klootch Family ET [p. 136] Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass, Ledgefork Family ET [p. 287] 12b. Ground moraines Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET [p. 140] Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET [p. 294] 11b. Soils derived from alluvium Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET [p. 304] 10b. Soils derived from colluvium and/or residuum Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET [p. 140] Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family ET [p. 158] Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Sig Family ET [p. 158] Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Elting Family ET [p. 95] 
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ENVIRONMENT KEY

60 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. Krummholz, Klootch Family ET [p. 136] 9b. Sites above timberline 14 14a. Sites located in late snowbank environments Late snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family ET [p. 85] Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET [p. 81] 14b. Other sites 15 15a. Riparian zones and wetlands Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET [p. 304] 15b. Glacial cirques, avalanche paths, and sheltered slope positions Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET [p. 81] 15c. Exposed, windy alpine slopes, shoulders, and summits Ross’ avens-Blackroot sedge Alpine Turf, Agneston Family ET [p. 76] Ross’ avens Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family ET [p. 72] 1b. Sedimentary bedrock geology or sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt 16 16a. Sites located in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt 17 17a. Shoulders, summits, and exposed backslopes 18 18a. White River Formation Low sagebrush/Idaho fescue Habitat Type [please refer to Tweit and Houston (1980)] 18b. Other geologic formations of the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 166D Family ET [p. 266] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Lithic Argiustolls ET [p. 270] 17b. Sheltered backslopes, footslopes, and toeslopes 19 19a. Sheltered backslopes and footslopes Lodgepole pine Series, Corbly Family ET [p. 226] 19b. Toeslopes Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family ET [p. 299] 16b. Sites located in sedimentary bedrock geology 20 20a. Upland sites 21 21a. North- and east-facing slopes 22
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ENVIRONMENT KEY

USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 61 22a. Soils derived exclusively from sandstone or sandy-shale 23 23a. Summits, shoulders, and upper backslopes Lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family ET [p. 216] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] Whitebark pine Series, Marosa Family ET [p. 159] 23b. Lower backslopes and footslopes Lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, Agneston Family ET [p. 201] Lodgepole pine/grouse whortleberry, Telcher Family ET [p. 231] Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET [p. 110] 22b. Soil derived at least in part from limestone and/or dolomite 24 24a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium over granitic glacial till. Primarily located in Sinks Canyon, but may occur in other deep canyons where piedmont glacial deposits occur, including Bull Lake Creek canyon, and the Whiskey Basin - Torrey Creek canyon areas Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple, Yourame Family ET [p. 178] 24a. Other soils 25 25a. Upper slope positions Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut family ET [p. 172] Douglas-fir/Utah snowberry, Typic Calciustepts ET [p. 178] Douglas-fir/Oregon grape, Cloud Peak Family ET [p. 167] Subalpine fir/Oregon grape, Frisco Family ET [p. 120] Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET [p. 181] 25b. Lower slope positions Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple, Redfist Family ET [p. 161] Subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica - Cold Air Drainage, Hierro Family ET [p. 125] Quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET [p. 235] 21b. South- and west-facing slopes 26 26a. Soils derived from limestone and/or dolomite colluvium over granitic glacial till primarily in Sinks Canyon Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Winspect Family ET [p. 274] 26b. Soils derived from limestone, dolomite, shale, and/or siltstone 27
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ENVIRONMENT KEY

62 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 27a. Upper slope positions 28 28a. Soils derived from residuum Limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family ET [p. 187] Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass-mock goldenweed -- Scabland, Paunsaugunt Family ET [p. 290] 28b. Soils derived from colluvium over residuum Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut family ET [p. 172] Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET [p. 181] Limber pine/spike fescue, Saddlehorse Family ET [p. 192] Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Winspect Family ET [p. 274] Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Bigsheep Family ET [p. 252] 27b. Lower slope positions Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Shawmut Family ET [p. 258] Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Kiev Family ET [p. 279] 20b. Riparian zones Quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET [p. 235] Quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood - Sitka alder Habitat Type, Caryville Family ET [p. 244]
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 63

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Ecological Type Descriptions
64 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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Contents of Ecological Type 

Descriptions

A descriptive section for each major Ecological Type 

contains the following:

Principal Species Descriptions—Presented at the 

beginning of each vegetation series. A narrative description 

of the general ecology and management considerations 

for the principal species (see “Nomenclature/title”) 

of the habitat types included in the vegetation series. 

Prinicipal species descriptions for subordinate species (see 

“Nomenclature/title”) are provided in Appendix 6.

Nomenclature/title—The name given to the Ecological 

Type (ET) beginning with the representative PNV, 

which may include functional group, series, or habitat 

type. Habitat type names include principal species first 

followed by subordinate species of different floristic layers 

(seperated by a forward-slash) and/or coprincipal species 

of the same floristic layer (seperated by a dash), The 

potential natural vegetation name is followed by the soil 

series family name. Geologic, geomorphic, and/or landform 

names were sometimes included in the name (following the 

PNV name and separated with a hyphen), thus indicating 

the importance of that landscape feature or process in the 

designation of the ET.

Title code—A shorthand version of the title consisting of 

the USDA Plants Database code (USDA NRCS 2007b) for 

the PNV.

Sample size (n =)—The number of sample plots used to 

describe the ET.

Landscape/ground cover/soil photograph—Photographs 

depicting a typical landscape, ground cover, and soil profile 

view for ETs with a sample size 3 or greater. Photos are by 

Aaron Wells unless otherwise indicated.

Distribution—A description of the areal extent of the ET, 

including Ecological Unit Classification, distribution across 

the study area, and soil map units in which the ET is a 

component.

Environment—A description of the environmental 

attributes typical of the ET, including slope aspect (with the 

number of sample plots of a given aspect class in brackets), 

landforms, landscape position, soil parentmaterials, 

bedrock geology, and climate.

Environment table—A summary table of quantitative 

environmental data (see Appendix 7 for a summary of 

environmental data for minor ETs [n<3]).

Potential natural vegetation (PNV)—Includes a 

descriptive section regarding the floristic attributes of the 

ET and the principal species table.

Descriptive section—A description of the floristic 

attributes of the ET.

Principal species table—A table including the common 

and Latin names, constancy, percentage cover, and range 

of cover for the characteristic species (typically ≥40% 

constancy) of the ET (see Appendix 8 for complete 

constancy/cover tables).

Constancy (CON)—A percentage of plots where a 

species occurs in the ET.

Cover (COV)—The average percentage foliar cover 

of a species on the plots where it is present (when it 

occurs) in the ET.

Range of cover (MIN/MAX)—The minimum and 

maximum percent foliar cover of a species when it 

occurs in the ET.

Soils—A general description of the soils typical of the ET, 

also includes soil photograph and typical pedon description.

Soil photograph—A photograph of a typical soil for the 

ET. This photo is most often of the typical pedon, but 

may include other soil profiles if the typical pedon photo 

was of low quality. Photos are by Aaron Wells unless 

otherwise indicated.

Typical pedon description—A narrative description 

of the typical pedon for major ET (n≥3). Generated 

from the NASIS report generator. Includes the soil 

classification and horizonation.

Soil classification—The full classification of the 

typical pedon from the ninth edition of the “Keys 

to Soil Taxonomy” (Soil Survey Staff 2003) (in the 

following order): particle-size class, mineralogy 

class, cation-exchange activity class, and soil 

subgroup.

Horizonation—A narrative description of each soil 

horizon, including horizon name, depths (cm) of 

upper and lower boundary, color, texture, structure, 

plasticity, roots, coarse fragments, and other 

miscellaneous descriptors.

Ecology—A narrative description of the ecological 

relationships important to the ET, including vegetation, 

soils, parent material, geomorphology, bedrock geology, 

and climate.

Succession (forested ETs only)—A narrative section 

describing likely successional pathways for the ET 

following a disturbance such as a forest fire or wind throw. 

Much of the information for this section was derived from 

Bradley and others (1992) “Fire Ecology of the Forest 

Habitat Types of Eastern Idaho and Western Wyoming.”

Management considerations—A narrative section 

describing issues important in managing the ET. This 

section includes information on stand characteristics 

(forested ETs only), timber harvest, insects and disease, 

invasive plant species, prescribed and natural fire, wildlife, 

recreation, and livestock grazing.
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66 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Stand characteristics—Summary tables for the forested 

ETs, includes basal area, DBH, trees per ha, and site tree 

summaries by tree species.

Similar ecological types—A section listing the ecological 

type(s) similar to the ET being described, including similar 

type, floristic differences, and environmental differences.

Similar type—The full ecological type name of the 

similar type.

Floristic differences—A short narrative describing 

the key floristic attributes that differentiate the two 

Ecological Types.

Environmental differences—A short narrative 

describing the key environmental attributes that 

differentiate the two ecological type
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Alpine Series
68 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 69

Principal Species Descriptions

Ross’ avens

Geum rossii var. turbinatum (R. Br.)

Ser. (Rydb.) C.L. Hitchc.

Ross’ avens is a common, native forb that occurs in high 

alpine environments, typically above timberline, at elevations between 2,744 and 4,268 m, in northeastern Oregon, 

central Idaho, western and central Montana, Wyoming, 

northeastern Nevada, Utah, western Colorado, north-central 

New Mexico, and northern Arizona. On the east slope of 

the WRR in Wyoming, Ross’ avens occurs between roughly 

2,700 and 3,800 m (Massatti 2007).

Ross’ avens is a perennial, rhizomatous herb with erect 

flowering stems arising from a woody caudex, and standing 

5 to 15 cm tall (Scott 1995). The crowded basal leaves are 

pinnate to pinnatifid with oblanceolate to obovate, entire to 

coarsely three- to five-toothed leaflets. Stem leaves appear 

alternate and are sessile, pinnatifid, and reduced upwards. 

Flowers are yellow with five petals and numerous stamens. 

Reproduction occurs asexually via rhizomes, and sexually 

from pubescent, wind dispersed seeds.

Ross’ avens occurs on all major rock types, including 

sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous (Bamberg and 

Major 1968; Hess and Wasser 1982). However, evidence 

from Wyoming and Montana suggests that Ross’ avens is 

less common on sedimentary rocks (Jones and Ogle 2000). 

Ross’ avens grows on well-drained slopes and ridges, 

occurring across a wide range of slope exposures, snow 

depths, and plant communities. Ross’ avens ranges from 

sheltered, mesic turf communities dominated by Carex elynoides or Kobresia bellardi to windswept, snow-free, xeric 

cushion plant communities characterized by erosion pavement, and cushion plants and low sedges, including Silene 

acaulis, Trifolium nanum, T. parryi, Minuartia obtusiloba, 

Phlox spp., and Carex rupestris, to landforms experiencing 

frost boils and active frost-sorting (Johnson and Billings 

1962; Baker 1983; Jones and Ogle 2000). Ross’ avens 

forms dense, continuous stands at sites less severe than 

those occupied by cushion plant communities but more severe than those occupied by sedge turf. The environmental 

flexibility and ubiquitous nature of Ross’ avens, compared 

to other alpine species such as blackroot sedge, may be 

explained in part by its ability to store massive amounts of 

carbohydrates in roots and rhizomes (Mooney and Billings 

1960). The large carbohydrate stores allow Ross’ avens to 

survive in harsh unproductive sites, initiate growth beneath 

the late winter snowpack, and continue with rapid growth 

following snow melt.

The fire ecology of Ross’ avens is unknown. In the rare 

event of a fire in the alpine zone, it is assumed, given the 

rhizomatous nature and carbohydrate storage ability, that 

this species would show a positive post-fire response. In a 

transplanting experiment in Colorado, strips of alpine turf 

were removed from natural communities and transplanted 

onto rehabilitation sites (Conlin and Ebersole 2001). Ross’ 

avens in transplants showed a decrease in abundance within 

a year following transplanting compared to non-transplants. 

However, in another transplanting study conducted by 

May and others (1982) in Colorado, Ross’ avens was successfully transplanted when complete root systems were 

carefully excavated and transplanted. Ross’ avens may be 

a good choice for revegetation projects in the alpine zone 

when properly transplanted. Ross’ avens has been identified in the food caches of pikas in the Rocky Mountains 

of Colorado (Johnson 1967). At severe, windswept sites in 

cushion plant communities, Ross’ avens and associated species are sensitive to trampling. At more sheltered sites, in 

dense Ross’ avens, blackroot sedge, and Bellardi bog sedge 

turf communities, Ross’ avens and associated species are 

moderately resilient to trampling by hikers and livestock. 

Heavy trampling that damages the sod layer will result in 

the elimination of Ross’ avens and associated species and 

the initiation of wind erosion in high use areas.

Blackroot Sedge and Bellardi Bog Sedge

Carex elynoides Holm and 

Kobresia myosuroides (Vill.) Fiori

Blackroot and Bellardi bog sedge are native, densely 

tufted alpine sedges that share many ecological and morphological characteristics, and are therefore treated together 

in the following section.

Bellardi bog sedge is a circumboreal species that occurs at high latitudes across Alaska, northern Canada, 

Greenland, Europe, and Asia (Ball 2002). At lower latitudes, Bellardi bog sedge occurs in all Canadian Provinces 

except Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 

and Prince Edward Island, and across the western United 

States except Washington, Montana, Nevada, and Arizona. 

Blackroot sedge has a much more limited geographic 

extent, occurring only in Montana, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, 

Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico (Ball and Reznicek 

2002). The elevation range of Bellardi bog sedge is 

strongly dictated by latitude but generally occurs just below 

or above tree line. However, in the high arctic, Bellardi bog 

sedge occurs at or near sea level. At their southern geographic limits, both blackroot and Bellardi bog sedge are 

limited to high alpine environments greater than 3,200 m. 

Across much of the Pacific Northwest and the central and 

northern Rocky Mountains, both species typically occur 

above timberline, between 2,439 and 4,268 m. On the east 

slope of the WRR in Wyoming, these two species occur 

between roughly 2,800 and 3,800 m (Massatti 2007).

Blackroot and Bellardi bog sedge are caespitose, nonrhizomatous, sod-forming sedges with wiry flowering stems 

standing 5 to 20 cm tall (Ball 2002; Ball and Reznicek 
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70 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

2002). The solitary flowering spikes are androgynous in 

both species. The perigynia of Bellardi bog sedge are 2 to 

3.5 mm long and are split nearly the entire length, while the 

perigynia of blackroot sedge are 2 to 4 mm long and entire 

throughout. The split pergynia is the most obvious means 

of distinguishing between the two species. Both reproduce 

sexually via tiny seeds called achenes, and vegetatively by 

root sprouting.

Blackroot sedge and Bellardi bog sedge have both 

been characterized as calcicoles, or plant species requiring 

calcareous substrates (Bamberg and Major 1968; Jones 

and Ogle 2000). However, both species are known to 

also occur on siliceous substrates throughout the Rocky 

Mountains (Johnson and Billings 1962; Cooper and others 1997; Komarkova and Webber 1978). Bamberg and 

Major (1968) suggested that these species may be obligate 

calcicoles across the arctic and northern Rocky Mountains 

but have adapted to the extensive siliceous substrates in 

the southern and central Rocky Mountains. Blackroot 

sedge and Bellardi bog sedge have both been described as 

inhabiting broad, well-drained, windswept upper slopes 

above timberline (Douglas and Bliss 1977; Walker and others 1993). However, observations from Colorado and New 

Mexico suggest that blackroot sedge tends to occur in drier, 

harsher, more exposed sites with little to no winter snow 

accumulation, while Bellardi bog sedge tends to occur in 

more mesic, sheltered sites with low to moderate snow 

accumulations (26–50 cm), including north-facing slopes, 

slight depressions on windward slopes, and glacial cirques 

(Baker 1983; Walker and others 1993; Boyce and others 

2005).

The fire ecology of blackroot sedge and Bellardi bog 

sedge is unknown. In the rare event of a fire in the alpine 

zone, it is assumed, given the dense sod created by these 

species and their ability to reproduce vegetatively, that 

post-fire response would be positive. In a transplanting 

experiment in Colorado, strips of alpine turf were removed 

from natural communities and transplanted onto rehabilitation sites (Conlin and Ebersole 2001). Blackroot sedge in 

transplants showed no difference in abundance in the years 

following transplanting than non-transplants. Blackroot 

sedge may be a good choice for revegetation projects in 

the alpine zone using transplants. Blackroot sedge is considered an important forage species for domestic livestock, 

especially sheep (Hermann 1970). Bellardi bog sedge has 

been identified in the food caches of pikas in the Rocky 

Mountains of Colorado (Johnson 1967). It is likely that 

blackroot sedge also composes a portion of the diet of 

pikas, especially in areas where the two species coexist. 

The dense sod created by blackroot and Bellardi bog sedge 

is extremely important in mitigating the effects of wind 

on soil erosion at the exposed, high elevation sites characteristic of these two species. Blackroot and Bellardi bog 

sedge are moderately resilient to trampling by hikers and 

livestock. Heavy trampling that damages the sod layer will 

result in the elimination of these sedges and the initiation of 

wind erosion in high use areas.

Arctic Willow and Snow Willow

Salix arctica var. petraea (Anderss.) Bebb 

and Salix reticulata var. nana

L. (Hook.) Anderss.

Arctic and snow willows are native, deciduous, 

prostrate, alpine shrubs that share many ecological and 

morphological characteristics, and are therefore treated 

together in the following section.

Arctic and snow willows are circumboreal species that 

occur throughout the high latitudes in North America, 

Europe, and Asia (Scott 1995). In western North America, 

south of the boreal and arctic regions, arctic and snow 

willows occur in all major alpine regions of the Rocky 

Mountains from British Columbia and Alberta into 

Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado (USDA NRCS 

2007b). In Washington, arctic willow is limited to the 

extreme northern Cascade Range, while snow willow occurs throughout the Cascade, central Coast, and Olympic 

Ranges. In Oregon, arctic and snow willows are limited to 

the Wallowa, Elkhorn, and Strawberry Mountain Ranges 

in the northeastern part of the state. Small populations 

of arctic and snow willow also occur in mountain ranges 

of northern Nevada. The Sierra Nevada Mountains of 

California; the Wasatch, Uinta, and LaSal Mountains of 

Utah; and the San Juan Mountains of New Mexico represent the southern limits of these two alpine willow species.

Arctic and snow willows are both creeping, mat-forming, perennial shrubs that are typically less than 5 to 8 cm 

in height (Fertig and Markow 2001). Arctic willow features 

elliptic to ovate leaves that are pointed at the tip and dull 

green in color, while the leaves of snow willow are elliptic 

to ovate, rounded at the tip, dark green, and leathery in texture. The pistillate catkins are 1 to 5 cm long and occur on 

leafy flowering branchlets, while those of snow willow are 

generally shorter (0.5–2 cm) and occur on naked, flowering 

branchlets. Both species are shallow rooting (5–40 cm), and 

vegetative reproduction is accomplished by rooting of stem 

nodes (Dawson 1990).

The elevation range of arctic and snow willow is strongly dictated by latitude but generally occurs just below or 

above tree line (Ladyman 2004b). In the high arctic, these 

willows occur at or near sea level but are limited to high 

alpine environments greater than 3,350 m at their southern 

geographic limits. Across much of the Pacific Northwest 

and the central and northern Rocky Mountains, both species 

typically occur between 2,469 and 4,085 m. On the east 

slope of the WRR in Wyoming, arctic and snow willows 

occur between roughly 2,700 and 4,100 m (Massatti 2007). 

Arctic and snow willows occur on all major rock types, 

including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Soils 

where arctic and snow willows occur tend to have loamy, 

organic rich surface horizons (Brunsfeld and Johnson 

1985). Snow willow is also found growing on moist, sandy, 

and gravelly soils.
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 71

Arctic and snow willows often co-occur within the same 

general vicinity. However, each species features specific 

soil moisture requirements that result in microhabitat partitioning (Dawson 1990). Arctic willow is more general in its 

habitat type preferences than snow willow but most often 

inhabits moist, sheltered microsites, including late snowbank sites, solufluction terraces, seeps, and moist meadows. 

Unlike snow willow, arctic willow is dioecious and features 

intersexual differences in ecology and physiology (Dawson 

and Bliss 1989a, 1989b; Jones and others 1999). Snow 

willow is found predominantly at exposed, xeric sites, 

including windward slopes, fellfields, and dry turf (Dawson 

1990). Snow willow features an extensive, fine-textured, 

rhizomatous root system that is highly efficient in collecting water and nutrients. Snow willow conserves water 

through fine-tuning its tissue osmotic properties, allowing it 

to survive in water-limited conditions.

The fire ecology of arctic and snow willows is unknown. 

In the rare event of a fire in the alpine zone, it is assumed, 

given their low stature and ability to reproduce vegetatively, that post-fire response would be positive. Arctic 

and snow willows are sensitive to trampling by hikers and 

livestock, which can lead to stem damage and disruption of 

the shallow roots. Johnson (1967) identified willows (Salix

spp.) in the food caches of pikas in the Rocky Mountains 

of Colorado. It is likely arctic and snow willows compose 

a portion of the diet of pikas and perhaps also marmots. 

Arctic and snow willow are important in stabilizing soils 

from frost heaving and erosion by wind and water.

Grayleaf Willow

Salix glauca var. villosa L. Anderss.

Grayleaf willow occurs throughout the northern and 

western portion of Canada from Newfoundland northwest 

to northern Yukon Territory and south through British 

Columbia and Alberta (Uchytil 1992). Grayleaf willow 

occurs throughout most of Alaska, with the exception of 

the Aleutian chain and the southeastern coastline. In the 

lower 48 states, grayleaf willow occurs in subalpine and 

alpine environments of Montana, Wyoming, eastern Idaho, 

Colorado, Utah, and northern New Mexico.

On the Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming, grayleaf 

willow occurs most often in the upper-forested zone and 

alpine zone between 3,000 and 3,300 m elevation but may 

occur as low as 2,600 m and as high as 3,800 m (Fertig 

and Markow 2001). At or below timberline, this species 

typically appears as a low shrub (<1 m), growing along 

subalpine streams, lakes, snow melt-water and avalanche 

paths, and in krummholz vegetation. Above timberline, it 

is much reduced in stature (<10 cm), making it difficult to 

differentiate from other prostrate willows, such as arctic 

willow. Above timberline, this species may be found growing in late snowbank environments and on sheltered slopes 

in alpine turf.

Grayleaf willow is a dioecious shrub with densely hairy 

twigs and 3- to 8-cm long elliptic to oblanceolate leaves 

that are bright green above and glaucous below (Fertig and 

Markow 2001). The pistillate catkins are typically 2 to 5 cm 

long with pubescent capsules, while staminate catkins are 

1.2 to 3 cm long with hairy, light brown to black flowering 

bracts. Regeneration is primarily sexual via small, lightweight seeds that overwinter under the snow and germinate 

soon after the spring thaw in exposed mineral soil (Uchytil 

1992). Grayleaf willow also reproduces asexually by 

sprouting from the rootcrown or a stembase that has been 

damaged.

Grayleaf willow is intolerant of shade and prefers rocky, 

well-drained soils (Uchytil 1992). Grayleaf willow is tolerant of low to moderate fire and will resprout quickly from 

the rootcrown following a burn. However, severe fires that 

burn through the upper soil horizon will destroy the roots, 

thus killing the plant. Following severe fires, grayleaf willow regenerates from seeds, which sprout quickly in the 

broad areas of mineral soil exposed by the fire. Grayleaf 

willow is tolerant of heavy browsing and is an important 

source of nutrition for moose.
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72 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Ross’ Avens Alpine Fellfield, 

McCall Family Ecological Type

Geum rossii var. turbinatum

Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family ET

GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family ET

N = 5

Distribution

The Ross’ avens Alpine Fellfield, Agneston Family 

Ecological Type occurs within the alpine zone ecoregion 

of Chapman and others (2004). This ecological type occurs 

from Union Peak in the northwest to Atlantic Peak in the 

southeast. It is a component of map unit 304L.This ecological type occurs in the Alpine Zone Ecoregion on windward 

positions on ridges, steep slopes, and summits, and on 

dry, high-level erosion surface remnants of moderate 

slope gradient (<30%), including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and 

Horse Ridge in the northern study area, and Roaring Fork 

Mountain and Cathedral Peak in the southern study area.

Environment

Aspect: Northwest [1], south [1], southwest [1], west [1], 

west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Windward slopes on 

alpine ridges, mountain summits, upper extent of glacial 

cirques. Summits, shoulders, backslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum, residuum, 

granitic glacial till.

When this type occurs in glacial cirques, parent material is 

granitic glacial till.

When this type occurs on alpine slopes, summit erosion 

surfaces, and mountain summits, parent materials are 

(1) colluvium over residuum when slope gradient > 

approximately 25%, or (2) residuum when slope gradient < 

approximately 25%.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

In the southern study area near Atlantic Peak, Roaring 

Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, bedrock tends to be 

granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. In the southern study 

area north of the North Fork Popo Agie River, bedrock 

tends to be porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern 

study area, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and Horse Ridge, 

bedrock tends to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 85 to 

93 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 7.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is similar to the Ross’ avens dry alpine turf described by 

Johnson and Billings (1962). Ross’ avens is the dominant 

species. Blackroot sedge occurs at low abundance (≤5%) 

and may be completely absent at the most exposed, windy 

sites. Cushion plants, including cushion phlox, moss campion, dwarf clover, lance-leaved stonecrop, and twinflower 

sandwort, are quite common at these windswept sites. Other 

common herbaceous species are alpine sagebrush, Rocky 

Mountain fescue, American bistort, varileaf cinquefoil, 

Sandberg bluegrass, arctic bluegrass, northern singlespike 

sedge, spike trisetum, curly sedge, and common woodrush. 

Table 8 provides a summary of species constancy and cover 

for this ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family 

ET were deep with a low degree of soil development, high 

coarse fragments (avg. 68%), and low clay (avg. 12%). 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 73

One soil located on an unglaciated alpine ridge featured a 

20 cm thick Bt-horizon between the A- and Bw-horizons. 

A typical soil featured an A/Bw/C horizonation. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include a mollic (avg. 38-cm thick) or umbric 

epipedon (avg. 35-cm thick) and a cambic horizon (avg. 42-

cm thick). Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. Soils were 

Typic Dystrocryepts [1] and Humic Dystrocryepts [4].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Humic Dystrocryepts

A—0 to 33 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) extremely 

stony very fine sandy loam, very dark grayish brown 

(10YR 3/2), dry; 53%sand; 10% clay; weak fine granular 

structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

many fine roots and common medium roots and many 

very fine roots; many fine and common medium and many 

very fine pores; 4% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 61% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 5.0; 

clear wavy boundary.

Bw1—33 to 51 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely bouldery coarse sandy loam, light yellowish 

brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 73% sand; 14% clay; weak very 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, soft, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; many very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots and few coarse roots; many 

very fine and fine and common medium and few coarse 

pores; 17% patchy faint clay films on rock fragments; 6% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 17% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 30% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 39% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; 

clear smooth boundary.

Bw2—51 to 82 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely stony 

fine sandy loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 67% sand; 

15% clay; weak medium platy structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and common very 

fine pores; 2% patchy faint silt coats on all faces of peds 

and 3% patchy faint silt coats between sand grains and 

24% patchy distinct clay films on top surfaces of rock 

fragments; 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments and 19% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 44% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7; 

clear smooth boundary.

C—82 to 93 cm: olive brown (2.5Y 4/3) extremely stony 

loamy sand, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), dry; 86% 

sand; 6% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and common very fine pores; 5% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 13% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 66% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.8; hit a restricting stone at 93 cm (roots 

observed at bottom of pit, therefore assuming a deep pit).

Ecology

Fellfields are alpine sites characterized by relatively 

flat relief, very stony soils, and low, often widely spaced 

plants (Daubenmire 1978). Fellfields occupy some of 

the most exposed, windy sites in the alpine environment 

and experience no snow accumulation during the winter 

months. The lack of snow exposes the plants inhabiting 

these sites to extremely cold winter temperatures, intense 

desiccation from winter winds, and physical abrasion by 

snow and ice particles. “Cushion” plants and Ross’ avens 

occupy these sites dominated by rock, gravels, and erosion 

pavement (Johnson 2004). Blackroot sedge is densely 

caespitose sedge that is resilient to the cold, dry, windy 

conditions typical above timberline. Blackroot sedge occurs along a continuum from extremely windswept sites 

characterized by cushion plant communities to sheltered 

sites near timberline. The GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall 

Family ET represents sites near or above the upper limit of 

blackroot sedge. Ross’ avens is more general in its habitat 

preference than blackroot sedge, in part due to its ability to 

store large amounts of carbohydrates in roots and rhizomes, 

which may explain its ability to survive at these harsh sites 

(Mooney and Billings 1960). On high-level erosion surface 

remnants and mountain slopes, this ET is commonly associated with slopes experiencing various types of frost action, 

especially stone stripes, which are best expressed on slopes 

between 7 and 27% gradient (Richmond 1949).

Management considerations

This ecological type occurs almost entirely within 

wilderness boundaries. Trampling by hikers and pack- and 

grazing-animals is the most important management issue 

concerning the GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall Family 

ET. This ecological type is tolerant of low levels of trampling. Moderate to heavy trampling can damage the cushion 

plants and result in the initiation of wind erosion. Managers 

should encourage backpackers and wranglers to stay on 

maintained trails. When traveling off-trail, recreationists 

can mitigate the effects of trampling by (1) spreading out 

across the landscape, and (2) traveling on hard surfaces 

such as boulder, stone, or talus slopes whenever common 

sense and safety dictates.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Ross’ avens—Blackroot sedge Alpine Turf, Agneston 

Family ET
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74 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Table 7—Summary of environmental variables for the GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,454 3,329 3,530

Slope (%) 24 12 34

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 889 850 931

degree days 7,534 6,959 8,973

frost-free days 14.6 14.2 15.7

site water balance (mm/year) -90 -131 -62

average annual temperature (°C) -2.2 -2.5 -1.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 322 288 408

summer radiation (KJ) 20,160 19,280 20,860

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 68 43 84

Clay (% in particle size control section) 12 7 17

pH (in particle size control section) 4.8 4.8 5

Available water capacity (mm/m) 39 22 52

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil, < 2 mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 9 0 45

Gravel 3 1 5

Cobble 9 5 15

Stones 15 10 20

Boulders 6 2 10

Litter 13 5 20

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 7 2 15

Basal vegetation 45 25 55

Water 0 0 0

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the McCall Family ET has little to no blackroot sedge 

and is characterized by discontinuous vegetation, erosion 

pavement, and abundant cushion plants, while the Agneston 

Family ET is characterized by abundant blackroot sedge 

and a more continuous vegetation cover.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the McCall Family ET is located 

on the most exposed, windswept sites that experience little 

to no snow accumulation, while the Agneston Family ET 

is located on slightly more sheltered sites that experience 

low to moderate snow accumulation. The second difference 

is that the soils of the McCall Family (Inceptisols) are 

relatively low in clay when to compared soils in the 

Agneston Family ET (Alfisols).

Ecological Type 2

Type: Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in that the Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall Family ET 

has little to no snow willow or Bellardi bog sedge and 

is characterized by discontinuous vegetation, erosion 

pavement, and abundant cushion plants, while the 

snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

characterized by a dense sod with abundant snow willow 

and Bellardi bog sedge.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall 

Family ET is located on the most exposed, windswept sites 

that experience little to no snow accumulation, while the 

Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

located on more sheltered sites that experience moderate 

to high snow accumulation and relatively abundant soil 

moisture throughout the year.
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Table 8—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the GEROT Alpine Fellfield, McCall 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella Umber pussy-toes 40 3 3 3

ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 80 4 3 5

ASTRA Astragalus Milk-vetch 40 1 1 1

ERLA Erigeron lanatus Woolly fleabane 40 1 1 1

GEROT Geum rossii var. turbinatum Ross’ avens 100 15 10 20

HYGR5 Hymenoxys grandiflora Graylocks four-nerve daisy 60 1 1 1

MIOB2 Minuartia obtusiloba Twinflower sandwort 60 3 1 5

ORAL4 Oreostemma alpigenum Tundra aster 40 2 1 3

OXCA4 Oxytropis campestris Slender crazyweed 40 4 3 5

PHPU5 Phlox pulvinata Cushion phlox 80 2 1 3

POBI6 Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 100 2 1 5

PODI2 Potentilla diversifolia Varileaf cinquefoil 100 3 1 5

POVI Polemonium viscosum Sticky polemonium 40 1 1 1

SARH2 Saxifraga rhomboidea Diamondleaf saxifrage 40 1 1 1

SELA Sedum lanceolatum Lance-leaved stonecrop 80 2 1 3

SIACS2 Silene acaulis var. subacaulescens Moss campion 100 1 1 3

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 60 2 1 3

TRNA2 Trifolium nanum Dwarf clover 60 5 1 10

Grasses:

CAPU Calamagrostis purpurascens Purple reedgrass 40 6 1 10

ELTR7 Elymus trachycaulus Slender wheatgrass 40 2 1 3

FEBR Festuca brachyphylla Alpine fescue 60 2 1 3

FESA Festuca saximontana Rocky Mountain fescue 80 4 1 10

POAR2 Poa arctica Arctic bluegrass 60 2 1 3

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 80 7 3 15

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 80 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CAEL3 Carex elynoides Blackroot sedge 80 3 1 5

CAMA9 Carex macloviana Falkland island sedge 40 2 1 3

CAPH2 Carex phaeocephala Dunhead sedge 40 4 3 5

CARU3 Carex rupestris Curly sedge 40 3 1 5

CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Canadian single-spike sedge 60 8 3 10

LUMU2 Luzula multiflora Common woodrush 80 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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76 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Ross’ Avens—Blackroot Sedge Alpine 

Turf, Agneston Family Ecological Type

Geum rossii var. turbinatum—Carex 

elynoides Alpine Turf, Agneston Family 

Ecological Type

GEROT—CAEL3 Alpine Turf, Agneston Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The Ross’ avens-blackroot sedge Alpine Turf, Agneston 

Family Ecological Type occurs within the alpine zone 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). This ecological 

type occurs from Union Peak in the northwest to Atlantic 

Peak in the southeast. It is a component of map unit 304L.

This ecological type occurs in the Alpine Zone 

Ecoregion on windward positions on moderately steep 

(< approximately 30%) ridges, mountain slopes and summits, and glacial cirque walls and on dry, high-level erosion 

surface remnants, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and 

Horse Ridge in the northern study area, and Roaring Fork 

Mountain and Cathedral Peak in the southern study area.

Environment

Aspect: Northeast [1], southwest [1], west-northwest [2]

Landforms and Landscape Position: Windward slopes 

on alpine ridges and mountain peaks, high-level erosion 

surface remnants. Shoulders, backslopes, footslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium and residuum.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, parent 

materials tend to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. 

In the southern portion of the WRR in the areas north of 

the North Fork Popo Agie River, parent material tends to 

be porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of 

the WRR, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and Horse Ridge, 

parent materials tend to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, bedrock 

tends to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.

In the southern portion of the WRR in the areas north 

of the North Fork Popo Agie River, bedrock tends to be 

porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of 

the WRR, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and Horse Ridge, 

bedrock tends to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 82 to 

86 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 9.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is Ross’ avens and blackroot sedge (Johnson and Billings 

1962). Blackroot sedge is the projected climax species. 

Ross’ avens occurs as a codominant with blackroot sedge; 

however, Ross’ avens tends to be more general in its distribution than blackroot sedge, and, therefore, has less value 

as an indicator of this type. Blackroot sedge and Ross’ 

avens form a dense, nearly continuous turf interrupted by 

cobbles, stones, and stone stripes. Common herbaceous 

species, including alpine sagebrush, cushion phlox, 

American bistort, lance-leaved stonecrop, dwarf clover, 

purple reedgrass, slender wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, 

spike trisetum, and common woodrush, occur interlaced 

between Ross’ avens and densely, caespitose patches of 

blackroot sedge. Table 10 provides a summary of species 

constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the GEROT-CAEL3 alpine turf, Agneston 

Family ET are deep with dark brown to black silt-rich upper horizons; yellowish-brown, moderately clayey (avg. 

19%) subsurface horizons; and moderate amounts of coarse 

fragments (avg. 46%). A typical soil features an A/Bw/Bt 

horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a silt-rich 

mollic (avg. 27 cm thick) or ochric (avg. 10 cm thick) 

epipedon, and a thick, argillic horizon (avg. 49 cm thick). 

Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. Soils were Typic 

Haplocryalfs [2], Inceptic Haplocryalfs [1], and Humic 

Dystrocryepts [1]. The relatively high degree of soil development typical of this ET is the result of an extremely long 

period of undisturbed weathering, particularly on high-level 

erosion surface remnants, combined with powerful mechanical weathering from the free-thaw cycle.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Typic Haplocryalfs
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 77

A—0 to 11 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very fine 

sandy loam, black (10YR 2/1), dry; 58% sand; 10% clay; 

moderate medium granular structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

few medium roots and many very fine roots; common fine 

and few medium and many very fine pores; 6% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 6.0; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bw—11 to 29 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) 

medium gravelly sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 

6/4), dry; 56% sand; 15% clay; weak, very fine subangular 

blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and few medium roots and 

many very fine roots; common fine and few medium and 

many very fine pores; 15% patchy distinct clay films on 

top surfaces of rock fragments; 8% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 24% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.6; clear 

wavy boundary.

Bt1—29 to 78 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) very 

stony sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 

67% sand; 19% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and few medium roots and many 

very fine roots; common fine and few medium and many 

very fine pores; 2% patchy faint clay films between sand 

grains and 30% patchy distinct clay films on top surfaces 

of rock fragments; 7% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 20% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 22% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, 

pH 5.6; clear wavy boundary.

2Bt2—78 to 102 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) 

extremely stony sandy loam, very pale brown (10YR 

7/4), dry; 72% sand; 19% clay; weak fine subangular 

blocky structure, and weak very fine subangular blocky 

structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and common medium and common very fine pores; 

4% patchy faint clay films between sand grains and 

30% patchy distinct clay films on top surfaces of rock 

fragments; 15% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments and 19% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 41% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.6.

Ecology

Turf represents alpine plant communities with a more 

continuous coverage of plants and a lower percentage of 

rocks and erosion pavement at the soil surface than alpine 

fellfields (Johnson 2004). Similar to fellfields, turf communities are located on exposed slopes with little to no snow 

accumulation and experience strong winter winds and cold. 

However, turf communities occur in sites slightly less harsh 

and more sheltered than fellfields, allowing the vegetation 

to form a more continuous coverage. Blackroot sedge is 

densely caespitose sedge that is resilient to the cold, dry, 

windy conditions typical above timberline. Blackroot sedge 

occurs along a continuum from extremely windswept sites 

characterized by cushion plant communities to sheltered 

sites near timberline. However, blackroot sedge is most 

abundant at moderately exposed to partially sheltered sites 

with little to no snow accumulation typical of the GEROTCAEL3 alpine turf, Agneston Family ET. Ross’ avens 

is more general in its habitat preference than blackroot 

sedge, in part due to its ability to store large amounts of 

carbohydrates in roots and rhizomes (Mooney and Billings 

1960). Ross’ avens-blackroot sedge alpine turf vegetation 

has been described as “climax” vegetation in the Beartooth 

Mountains of northern Wyoming-southern Montana 

(Johnson and Billings 1962). Presumably, sites where 

this ecological type occurs have been stable for long time 

periods as evidenced by the high degree of development 

typical of soils in these communities. On high-level erosion 

surface remnants, this type is commonly associated with 

slopes experiencing various types of frost action, especially 

stone stripes, which are best expressed on slopes between 

7 and 27% gradient (Richmond 1949). Wind deflation is at 

a minimum at these sites and is mitigated by the dense turf 

that creates a barrier against wind erosion.

Blackroot sedge has been characterized as a calcicole, 

or a plant species requiring calcareous substrates (Bamberg 

and Major 1968; Jones and Ogle 2000). However, this 

species is known to also occur on siliceous substrates 
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78 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

throughout the Rocky Mountains, including in the GEROTCAEL3 Alpine Turf, Agneston Family ET (Johnson and 

Billings 1962; Cooper and others 1997; Komárková and 

Webber 1978). The occurrence of blackroot sedge on 

non-calcareous substrates may, in part, be explained by 

eolian contributions to alpine soils of carbonate-rich silts 

from intermountain basins. Eolian contributions from 

intermountain basins to alpine soils have been reported on 

the western slope of the WRR (Dahms 1993, Dahms and 

Rawlins 1996), the Uinta Mountains in Utah (Bockheim 

and Koerner 1997), the Snowy Range Mountains of 

southeast Wyoming (Rochette and others 1988), and 

the Colorado Front Range (Litaor 1987). It is likely that 

eolian sedimentation from sediments arising in the Green 

River Basin occurs along the eastern slope of the WRR, 

especially given that the east slope is located on leeward 

side of the Continental Divide where eolian silts carried by 

westerly winds would settle out. The dense sod of alpine 

turf effectively traps a thin layer of snow and windblown 

sediments enriched in base cations, thus increasing the 

pH of alpine soils (Dahms 1993, Bockheim and Koerner 

1997). The carbonate-rich silts would provide a base-rich 

environment and may help explain the occurrence of the 

calcicole species, blackroot sedge, on non-calcareous substrates in the Rocky Mountains. The phenomenon of eolian 

sedimentation may also help explain the preponderance 

of Mollic soils (high base saturation, silt-rich horizon) in 

alpine environments, where the carbonate rich silts would 

increase base saturation and accumulate in the upper soil 

horizons forming an organic-rich cap over sandy residual or 

colluvial soils.

Management considerations

This ecological type occurs almost entirely within 

wilderness boundaries. Trampling by hikers and packand grazing-animals is the most important management 

issue concerning the Ross’ avens-blackroot sedge alpine 

turf, Agneston Family ET. This ecological type is tolerant 

of moderate trampling. However, heavy trampling that 

damages the turf will result in the extirpation of blackroot 

sedge and Ross avens and the initiation of wind erosion. 

Managers should encourage backpackers and wranglers 

to stay on maintained trails. When traveling off-trail, 

recreationists can mitigate the effects of trampling by 

(1) spreading out across the landscape, and (2) traveling 

on hard surfaces such as boulder, stone, or talus slopes 

whenever common sense and safety dictates. In the rare 

event of a fire in the alpine zone, it is assumed, given the 

dense sod created by these species and their ability to 

reproduce vegetatively, that post-fire response would be 

positive. Blackroot sedge is an important forage species for 

domestic sheep (Hermann 1970). Blackroot sedge is best 

grazed lightly, later in the season when it has completed 

most of its growth for the year and carbohydrate reserves 

are high.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the McCall Family ET has little to no blackroot sedge 

and is characterized by discontinuous vegetation, erosion 

pavement, and abundant cushion plants, while the Agneston 

Family ET is characaterized by abundant blackroot sedge, 

and a more continuous vegetation cover.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the McCall Family ET is located 

on the most exposed, windswept sites that experience little 

to no snow accumulation, while the Agneston Family ET 

is located on slightly more sheltered sites that experience 

moderate snow accumulation. Secondly, the soils of the 

McCall Family (Inceptisols) are relatively low in clay when 

compared to soils in the Agneston Family ET (Alfisols).

Ecological Type 2

Type: Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the Agneston Family ET has little to no snow willow 

or Bellardi bog sedge and is characterized by abundant 

blackroot sedge.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that Agneston Family ET is located on 

relatively more exposed, windswept sites that experience 

low to moderate amounts of snow accumulation, while 

the snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

located on more sheltered sites that experience moderate 

to high snow accumulation and relatively abundant soil 

moisture throughout the year.
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Table 9—Summary of environmental variables for the GEROT—CAEL3 Alpine 

Turf, Agneston Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,334 3,242 3,411

Slope (%) 22 20 25

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm/year) 839 816 855

Degree days 8,759 7,993 10,100

Frost-free days 15.5 15 16.4

Site water balance (mm) -82 -94 -72

Average annual temperature (°C) -1.6 -1.9 -1

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 371 348 384

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,910 19,180 20,800

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 46 39 54

Clay (% in particle size control section) 19 13 23

pH (in particle size control section) 5 4.7 5.5

Available water capacity (mm/m) 70 46 95

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil, < 2mm fraction (%) 0 0 0

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 0 0 0

Cobble 7 3 10

Stones 15 3 20

Boulders 4 1 5

Litter 24 20 35

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 4 2 5

Basal vegetation 44 35 60

Water 0 0 0
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Table 10—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the GEROT - CAEL3 Alpine Turf, Agneston 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa Western yarrow 50 1 1 1

AGGL Agoseris glauca Pale agoseris 50 1 1 1

ANSES Androsace septentrionalis var. subulifera Pygmyflower rockjasmine 50 1 1 1

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella Umber pussy-toes 50 1 1 1

ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 75 2 1 3

DRAU Draba aurea Golden draba 50 1 1 1

DRCA4 Draba cana Cushion draba 50 1 1 1

GEROT Geum rossii var. turbinatum Ross’ avens 100 19 10 30

MIOB2 Minuartia obtusiloba Twinflower sandwort 50 3 1 5

NONI Nothocalais nigrescens Meadow prairie-dandelion 50 1 1 1

PHPU5 Phlox pulvinata Cushion phlox 100 2 1 5

POBI6 Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 75 2 1 3

PODI2 Potentilla diversifolia Varileaf cinquefoil 50 3 1 5

POGR9 Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil 50 3 3 3

POVI Polemonium viscosum Sticky polemonium 50 1 1 1

SARH2 Saxifraga rhomboidea Diamondleaf saxifrage 50 1 1 1

SELA Sedum lanceolatum Lance-leaved stonecrop 75 2 1 3

SIKI Silene kingii King’s campion 50 2 1 3

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 50 1 1 1

TRNA2 Trifolium nanum Dwarf clover 75 4 1 5

Grasses:

CAPU Calamagrostis purpurascens Purple reedgrass 100 2 1 3

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides Squirreltail 50 2 1 3

ELTR7 Elymus trachycaulus Slender wheatgrass 75 2 1 3

FEBR Festuca brachyphylla Alpine fescue 50 3 3 3

FESA Festuca saximontana Rocky Mountain fescue 50 4 3 5

POAR2 Poa arctica Arctic bluegrass 50 3 1 5

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 6 1 15

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 75 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CAAL6 Carex albonigra Black-and-white-scaled sedge 50 1 1 1

CAEL3 Carex elynoides Blackroot sedge 100 18 15 20

CAMA9 Carex macloviana Falkland island sedge 50 1 1 1

CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Canadian single-spike sedge 50 5 5 5

LUMU2 Luzula multiflora Common woodrush 100 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min = 

minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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Snow Willow/Bellardi Bog Sedge, McCall 

Family Ecological Type

Salix reticulata var. nana/Kobresia 

myosuroides, McCall Family ET

SAREN2/KOMY, McCall Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the WRR along the continental 

divide within the alpine zone of Chapman and others 

(2004). This ET occurs from the upper Jakey’s Fork, 

Grasshopper, Dinwoody, and Bull Lake Creek drainages 

in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness southeast to the upper North 

Fork of the Popo Agie River. This ET is a component of 

map unit 304L.

Environment

Aspect: North-northwest [2], northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Solufluction terraces 

and lobes, avalanche paths, leeward slopes on alpine ridges, 

glacial cirques.

Parent Materials: Colluvium; colluvium over glacial till.

Bedrock: Precambrian porphyritic quartz monzonite, 

migmatite, gneiss.

In the North Fork Popo Agie and South Fork Little Wind 

River drainages, bedrock is porphyritic quartz monzonite. 

In the Grasshopper, Dinwoody, and Bull Lake Creek 

Drainages, bedrock is migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 81 to 86 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 11.

Potential Natural Vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the Snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge habitat type. This 

habitat type has not previously been described. Snow willow and/or Hooker’s mountain avens form a dense net-like 

shrub layer growing no taller than 5 to 6 cm. Bellardi 

bog sedge forms thick, tufted colonies punctuated by a 

variety of alpine forbs and graminoids. Ross’ avens, alpine 

sagebrush, moss campion, manyray goldenrod, and arctic 

bluegrass are the most common and abundant herbaceous 

species. Tufted hairgrass is sometimes present in moist 

microsites. Northern fescue, a fescue species previously 

known to occur in the lower 48 states only in Glacier 

National Park, Montana, was found in this ecological type 

in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness (Massatti and Wells 2008). 

The documentation of northern fescue in the WRR represents a southern range extension for this species. Table 12 

provides a summary of species constancy and cover for this 

ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the SAREN2/KOMY, McCall Family ET are 

deep with a low to moderate degree of soil development, 

moderately high coarse fragments (avg. 65%), and low 

to moderate clay (10–17%, avg. 13%). A thin (avg. 5 cm 

thick) organic horizon of partially decomposed sedge 
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82 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

and grass roots may occur at the surface. A typical soil 

features an A/Bw/C horizonation. The C-horizons tended 

to be extremely gravelly. One soil featured a 41 cm thick 

Bt-horizon below the Bw-horizon. Diagnostic soil horizons include a mollic, umbric, or ochric epipedon (15 to 

25 cm thick), and a cambic horizon (avg. 33 cm thick). 

Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. The soils were Typic 

Dystrocryepts [1], Mollic Haplocryalfs [1], and Humic 

Dystrocryepts [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Humic Dystrocryepts

A1—0 to 12 cm: black (10YR 2/1) very stony silt loam, 

black (10YR 2/1), dry; 35% sand; 13% clay; weak medium 

subangular blocky structure, and weak fine subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine granular structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very 

fine roots; common fine and common medium and many 

very fine pores; 2% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 5% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 49% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.1; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A2—12 to 23 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) 

very stony sandy loam, grayish brown (10YR 5/2), dry; 

64% sand; 16% clay; weak coarse subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; many 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very fine 

roots; many fine and common medium and many very 

fine pores; 8% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 36% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; 

abrupt wavy boundary.

Bw—23 to 52 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely stony 

loamy coarse sand, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), dry; 

82% sand; 8% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky 

structure, and weak fine subangular blocky structure; very 

friable, soft, nonsticky, nonplastic; many fine roots and 

common medium roots and many very fine roots; many 

fine and common medium and many very fine pores; 16% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 29% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- 

to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 30% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy 

boundary.

2BC—52 to 79 cm: light olive brown (2.5Y 5/3) extremely 

gravelly sandy loam, light gray (2.5Y 7/2), dry; 73% sand; 

13% clay; massive; very friable, loose, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; many very fine and fine roots; many fine and 

many very fine pores; 21% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 43% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.9; clear wavy 

boundary.

2C—79 to 108 cm: pale olive (5Y 6/3) very gravelly 

loamy sand, light gray (5Y 7/2), dry; 84% sand; 9% clay; 

single grain; loose, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

many very fine pores; 8% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 33% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 5.0.

Ecology

The snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family 

ET occurs intermediate between the Fellfield/Turf and 

Late snowbank vegetation along the exposure/moisture 

gradient in alpine environments. This ET tends to occur on 

north-facing, mesic, sheltered sites with low to moderate 

snow accumulations and was sometimes located downslope 

from late melting snowbanks. The continuous snow cover 

throughout the winter provides protection against winter 

desiccation, low temperatures, and physical abrasion by 

snow and ice particles typical of more exposed, snow-free 

alpine sites. When this ET is located downslope from 

late melting snowbanks, it may be considered a type of 

late snowbank vegetation as it benefits from a continual 

source of melt water throughout the summer months. Soil 

movement processes, including solufluction and soil creep, 

are often associated with these sites due to the constant 

source of water provided by late melting snowbanks. The 

vegetation in this ET is similar to alpine turf, with a more 

continuous coverage of plants and a lower percentage 

of rocks and erosion pavement than fellfield vegetation. 

However, the vegetation of this ET is more robust and productive than true alpine turf due to the more sheltered site 

conditions and abundance of soil moisture. Wind deflation 

is at a minimum at these sites and is mitigated by the dense 

turf that creates a barrier against wind erosion.

Bellardi bog sedge and Hooker’s mountain avens have 

been characterized as calcicoles, or plant species requiring 

calcareous substrates (Bamberg and Major 1968; Jones 

and Ogle 2000; Ladyman 2004c). However, both species 

are known to also occur on siliceous substrates throughout 

the Rocky Mountains, including in the SAREN2/KOMY, 

McCall Family ET (Johnson and Billings 1962; Cooper and 

others 1997; Komarkova and Webber 1978). The occurrence of Bellardi bog sedge and Hooker’s mountain avens 

on non-calcareous substrates may, in part, be explained 

by eolian contributions to alpine soils of carbonate rich 

silts from intermountain basins. Eolian contributions from 

intermountain basins to alpine soils have been reported on 

the western slope of the WRR (Dahms 1993; Dahms and 

Rawlins 1996), the Uinta Mountains in Utah (Bockheim 
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and Koerner 1997), the Snowy Range Mountains of 

southeast Wyoming (Rochette and others 1988), and the 

Colorado Front Range (Litaor 1987). It is likely that eolian 

sedimentation from sediments arising in the Green River 

Basin occurs along the eastern slope of the WRR. This is 

especially pertinent given the fact that the east slope is located on the leeward side of the Continental Divide where 

eolian silts carried by westerly winds would settle out. The 

dense sod of alpine turf effectively traps snow and windblown sediments enriched in base cations, thus increasing 

the pH of alpine soils (Bockheim and Koerner 1997; 

Dahms 1993). The carbonate-rich silts would provide a 

base-rich environment and may help explain the occurrence 

of the calcicole species, Bellardi bog sedge and Hooker’s 

mountain avens, on non-calcareous substrates in the Rocky 

Mountains. The phenomenon of eolian sedimentation may 

also help explain the preponderance of Mollic soils (high 

base saturation, silt-rich) in alpine environments, where the 

carbonate rich silts would increase base saturation and accumulate in the upper soil horizons forming an organic-rich 

cap over sandy residual or colluvial soils.

Management considerations

This ecological type occurs entirely within wilderness boundaries. Trampling by hikers and pack- and 

grazing-animals is the most important management issue 

concerning the snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall 

Family ET. This ecological type is tolerant of moderate 

trampling. However, heavy trampling that damages the sod 

and fragile willow stems will result in the extirpation of 

Bellardi bog sedge and snow willow and the initiation of 

wind and water erosion. Managers should encourage backpackers and wranglers to stay on maintained trails. When 

traveling off-trail, recreationists can mitigate the effects of 

trampling by (1) spreading out across the landscape, and (2) 

traveling on hard surfaces such as boulder, stone, or talus 

slopes whenever common sense and safety dictates. In the 

rare event of a fire in the alpine zone, it is assumed, given 

the dense sod created by these species and their ability to 

reproduce vegetatively, that post-fire response would be 

positive. Bellardi bog sedge and Hooker’s mountain avens 

have been identified in the food caches of pikas (Johnson 

1967; Ladyman 2004).

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in that the Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall Family ET 

has little to no snow willow or Bellardi bog sedge and 

is characterized by discontinuous vegetation, erosion 

pavement, and abundant cushion plants, while the 

snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

characterized by a dense sod with abundant snow willow 

and Bellardi bog sedge.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Ross’ avens Fellfield, McCall 

Family ET is located on the most exposed, windswept sites 

that experience little to no snow accumulation, while the 

snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

located on more sheltered sites that experience moderate 

to high snow accumulation and relatively abundant soil 

moisture throughout the year.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Ross’ avens-blackroot sedge, Agenston Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the Agneston Family ET has little to no snow willow 

or Bellardi bog sedge and is characterized by abundant 

blackroot sedge.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that Agneston Family ET is located on 

relatively more exposed, windswept sites that experience 

low to moderate amounts of snow accumulation, while 

the snow willow/Bellardi bog sedge, McCall Family ET is 

located on more sheltered sites that experience moderate 

to high snow accumulation and relatively abundant soil 

moisture throughout the year.
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Table 11—Summary of environmental variables for the SAREN2/KOMY, McCall Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,305 3,251 3,384

Slope (%) 32 20 52

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 830 806 860

Degree days 9,009 8,525 9,298

Frost-free days 15.7 15.3 15.9

Site water balance (mm/year) -53 -80 -19

Average annual temperature (°C) -1.4 -1.6 -1.3

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 312 285 336

Summer radiation (KJ) 17,210 16,160 18,820

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 65 61 72

Clay (% in particle size control section) 13 10 17

pH (in particle size control section) 4.8 4.7 4.9

Available water capacity (mm/m) 60 38 77

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil, < 2mm fraction (%) 1 0 2

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 5 2 10

Cobble 5 5 5

Stones 6 3 10

Boulders 11 2 20

Litter 15 10 20

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 10 3 25

Basal vegetation 43 30 65

Water 0 0 0

Table 12—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the SAREN2/KOMY, McCall Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

DROCH3 Dryas octopetala var. hookeriana Hooker’s mountain avens 67 10 5 15

SAGLV Salix glauca var. villosa Grayleaf willow 67 4 3 5

SAREN2 Salix reticulata var. nana Snow willow 100 13 5 25

Forbs:

ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 100 5 3 10

GEAL2 Gentiana algida Whitish gentian 67 1 1 1

GEROT Geum rossii var. turbinatum Ross’ avens 100 15 10 20

HYGR5 Hymenoxys grandiflora Graylocks four-nerve daisy 100 1 1 1

POBI6: Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 67 1 1 1

POGR9 Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil 67 3 3 3

POVI3 Polygonum viviparum Viviparous knotweed 100 1 1 1

SECR Senecio crassulus Thickleaf ragwort 67 1 1 1

SIACS2 Silene acaulis var. subacaulescens Moss campion 100 2 1 3

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 100 3 1 5

Grasses:

FESA Festuca saximontana Rocky Mountain fescue 67 1 1 1

POAR2 Poa arctica Arctic bluegrass 100 6 1 15

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 100 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Canadian single-spike sedge 67 2 1 3

KOMY Kobresia myosuroides Bellardi bog sedge 100 19 3 35

LUMU2 Luzula multiflora Common woodrush 67 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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Late Snowbank Vegetation, Hargran 

Family Ecological Type

Snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family ET

N = 7

Distribution

The late snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the eastern slope of the 

WRR in the alpine zone ecoregion of Chapman and others 

(2004). The ecological type occurs near the Continental 

Divide from Union Peak and Goat Flat southeast to Wind 

River Peak and Atlantic Peak. It is a component of map unit 

304L.

Environment

Aspect: North [1], north-northeast [1], northwest [1], southsouthwest [2], west-northwest [1], west-southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Solufluction terraces, 

frost hummocks, ground moraines in alpine glacial cirques, 

leeward slopes on alpine ridges.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum; granitic 

glacial till.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, parent 

materials tend to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. 

In the southern portion of the WRR in the areas north of 

the North Fork Popo Agie River, parent material tends to 

be porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of 

the WRR, including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and Horse Ridge, 

parent materials tend to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, bedrock 

tends to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. In the 

southern portion of the WRR in the areas north of the North 

Fork Popo Agie River, bedrock tends to be porphyritic 

quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of the WRR, 

including Ram Flat, Goat Flat, and Horse Ridge, bedrock 

tends to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 79 to 

89 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 13.

Potential natural vegetation

This ecological type includes a variety of alpine plant 

communities that inhabit late snowbank environments. 

Potential natural vegetation includes Parry’s rush community type (Svalberg and others 1997), tufted hairgrass 

(Johnson and Billings 1962), willow/Holm’s Rocky 

Mountain sedge, and grayleaf willow/tufted hairgrass 

(Jones and Ogle 2000). Table 14 provides a summary of 

species constancy and cover for the most common community types included in this ecological type.

Parry’s rush community type: Parry’s rush dominates 

a rich herbaceous community. Trace amounts of grayleaf 

willow or grouse whortleberry often occur on drier hummocks. Common forbs include alpine sagebrush, ballhead 

sandwort, subalpine fleabane, alpine daisy, tundra aster, 

American bistort, slender cinquefoil, and creeping sibbaldia. White marsh marigold may occur in slightly more 

moist microsites. Alpine timothy, Letterman’s bluegrass, 

spike trisetum, Falkland island sedge, Raynold’s sedge, 

and northern singlespike sedge are the most common 

graminoids.
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Tufted hairgrass community type: Tufted hairgrass is the 

dominant herbaceous species. Tufted hairgrass cover varies 

depending on the duration and intensity of soil saturation. 

At the moist extreme, soils remain saturated to within 

1 m of the soil surface throughout the summer, and tufted 

hairgrass forms a dense, nearly monocultural sward. At 

drier sites, soils are saturated for 20 to 30 days throughout 

the growing season, and tufted hairgrass cover is more diffuse. Species richness at drier sites tends to be greater than 

at wetter sites. Grayleaf willow is always present at low 

abundance, usually occurring on slightly drier microsites. 

Arctic willow may be present at high elevation sites, while 

alpine laurel may occur at sites closer to tree line. Common 

herbaceous species present at all sites include white marsh 

marigold, American bistort, varileaf cinquefoil, creeping 

sibbaldia, and Falkland island sedge. Herbaceous species 

common at drier sites include alpine sagebrush, subalpine 

fleabane, Ross’ avens, arctic bluegrass, alpine fescue, 

Nelson’s sedge, northern singlespike sedge, and common 

woodrush.

Willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge community type: 

This community type features grayleaf willow or snow willow as the primary willow species. Snow willow occurs as 

a densely matted shrub often growing no more than 5 to 6 

cm tall. Grayleaf willow is a low to moderately tall willow 

growing in small clumps. Arctic willow, another matted 

willow species, may also occur in this type. Holm’s Rocky 

Mountain sedge dominates the herbaceous layer along 

with Ross’ avens, alpine sagebrush, varileaf cinquefoil, 

Sandberg bluegrass, and Rocky Mountain pussytoes. Other 

herbaceous species include tundra aster, tufted hairgrass, 

coiled lousewort, alpine leafybract aster, three-hulled rush, 

and woolly fleabane.

Grayleaf willow/tufted hairgrass plant community: 

Grayleaf and planeleaf willows are found growing on frost 

hummocks. Engelmann spruce seedlings may occasionally occur on the frost hummocks. The herbaceous layer 

is relatively species rich despite being thin and scattered. 

Bare mineral soil and gravels are the most prevalent ground 

cover, the result of frost boils. Tufted hairgrass occurs 

mostly in the depressions in between the frost hummocks. 

Pioneer species, including twinflower sandwort, dwarf 

clover, wormleaf stonecrop, and moss campion, have 

gained a foothold on frost boils. Other herbaceous species 

include northern singlespike sedge, alpine bitterroot, Ross’ 

avens, mountain bentgrass, Falkland island sedge, thickleaf 

ragwort, and Yellowstone whitlow-grass.

Soils

Soils in the late snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family 

ET are quite diverse depending on landform. Many of 

the soils in this ET featured the “Oxyaquic” subgroup. In 

general, oxyaquic soils are saturated within 1 m of the soil 

surface for 20 or more consecutive days or 30 or more 

cumulative days throughout the growing season, yet lack 

redoximorphic features typical of other semi- to permanently saturated soils.

Soils on solufluction terraces (see “Typical Pedon 

Description”) are deep with a moderate degree of soil 

development, low to moderate coarse fragments (<40%), 

and low to moderately high clay (10–20%). A typical soil 

features an A-AB/Bw/Ab horizonation. The Ab-horizon 

results from the gradual burial of the soil surface due to 

solufluction of uphill soil material. Diagnostic soil horizons 

include an umbric epipedon (41 cm thick) and a cambic 

horizon (43 cm thick). Soils were loamy-skeletal, Oxyaquic 

Dystrocryepts.

Soils on frost-hummocks were deep with a moderate 

degree of soil development, high coarse fragments (>70%), 

and moderately high clay (18–25%). A typical soil features 

an A/Bw-Bt/C horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons 

include an umbric epipedon (36 cm thick) and an argillic 

horizon (avg. 70 cm thick). Soils were loamy-skeletal 

Oxyaquic Haplocryalfs.

Soils on ground moraines in alpine glacial cirques were 

moderately deep and weakly developed with high coarse 

fragments (avg. 77%) and low clay (avg. 8%). A typical 

soil featured an A/Bw-Bt/C horizonation. The C-horizon 

was often times composed of interlocking boulders and 

stones within 100 cm of the soil surface. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include an ochric (avg. 10 cm thick) or umbric (18 

cm thick) epipedon, and a cambic horizon (44 cm thick). 

Entisols were lacking a cambic horizon. One soil in the 

tufted hairgrass community type featured redoximorphic 

features within 31 cm of the soil surface and soil saturation 

within 100 cm of the soil surface throughout the growing 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 87

season. Soils were loamy-skeletal Aquic Dystrocryepts, 

sandy-skeletal Oxyaquic Dystrocryepts, and fragmental 

Oxyaquic Cryorthents.

Soils on leeward slopes of alpine ridges were shallow 

to moderately deep to bedrock, high in coarse fragments 

(avg. 76%), and low in clay (avg. 12 %). Soils featured 

A/Bw/C/R horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include 

an ochric epipedon (avg. 11 cm thick), a cambic horizon 

(19 cm thick), and lithic contact (avg. 56 cm depth). 

Entisols were lacking a cambic horizon. Soils were loamyskeletal Lithic Dystrocryepts and sandy-skeletal Oxyaquic 

Cryorthents.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Oxyaquic Dystrocryepts

A—0 to 16 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) loam, very 

dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), dry; 44% sand; 10% clay; 

weak very fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and many very fine pores; 8% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 5.0; clear wavy boundary.

AB—16 to 41 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very 

gravelly sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3), dry; 54% sand; 

14% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and many very 

fine pores; 23% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments and 34% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.2; abrupt wavy 

boundary.

Bw1—41 to 60 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) gravelly sandy 

loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), dry; 67% sand; 11% 

clay; weak coarse subangular blocky structure; friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

many very fine roots; common fine and many very fine 

pores; 65% patchy prominent silt coats on top surfaces 

of rock fragments; 2% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 28% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 5.0; gradual wavy 

boundary.

Bw2—60 to 84 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very gravelly 

sandy loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), dry; 70% sand; 

10% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, and 

weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and few 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and few medium and common very fine pores; 29% patchy 

distinct silt coats on top surfaces of rock fragments; 6% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 31% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly 

acid, pH 4.8; abrupt smooth boundary.

2ABb1—84 to 108 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 

3/2) sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 59% sand; 12% 

clay; weak very thick platy structure, and moderate medium 

subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common very fine roots; many very fine 

pores; 22% patchy prominent silt coats on top surfaces 

of rock fragments; 14% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- 

to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear smooth boundary.

2ABb2—108 to 115 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) medium 

gravelly sandy loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 62% 

sand; 14% clay; weak very thin platy structure, and 

moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common very fine roots; many fine and common very fine 

pores; 33% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, 

pH 4.8.

Ecology

A late snowbank environment is defined here as a section of land surface that is influenced by snow that has 

been redistributed by wind and accumulated in sheltered 

sites, either directly by physically covering the site, or 

indirectly by providing melt-water throughout the growing season. Redistribution and accumulation of snow in 

alpine environments is strongly influenced by slope aspect 

and the direction of the prevailing winds (Seppälä 2004). 

Secondary turbulence is created when wind encounters an 

obstacle, such as a mountain summit, ridgeline, or boulder, 

and snow carried by wind is deposited on the leeward side 

of the obstacle. Throughout the winter months, successive 

snowstorms, usually accompanied by strong winds, lead 

to the accumulation of snowbanks on the leeward side of 

obstacles.

Late snowbank vegetation, also called snowbed communities (Douglas and Bliss 1977) or snow-patch vegetation 

(Helm 1982), is defined here as an assemblage of plant 

species occurring in a late snowbank environment. Snow 

accumulation is closely associated with four important 

factors affecting vegetation: insulation from extreme winter 

temperatures and desiccation by strong winter winds; 

shortened growing season; a source of melt water; and soil 

movement, including solufluction, frost boils, and hummocks (Helm 1982). The accumulated snow melts slowly 

throughout the following summer providing a continuous 

source of water for plant communities located downslope 

and immediately beneath the snowbank. The result is a 

steep environmental gradient over a relatively small area 

(Johnson and Billings 1962). The alpine plant species associated with late snowbank environments are found at these 
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88 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

sites because of the protection provided there against winter 

desiccation, low temperatures, and summer drought typical 

of alpine fellfield and turf communities (Billings and Bliss 

1959). Alpine plant species growing beneath the snowbank 

are adapted to shortened growing season associated with 

the gradual melting of snow and exposure to sunlight 

throughout the summer.

Management considerations

This ecological type occurs almost entirely within 

wilderness boundaries. Trampling by hikers and packand grazing-animals is the most important management 

issue concerning the late snowbank vegetation, Hargran 

Family ET. The ecological type is tolerant of low levels of 

trampling. The cold, moist to wet soils are easily damaged 

by even moderate levels of trampling. Managers should 

encourage backpackers and wranglers to avoid traveling 

across late snowbank vegetation. The small areal extent 

of most of these communities should make avoiding them 

a relatively simple task. Trails should avoid this ET and 

be designed to stay on drier soils, including the GEROTCAEL3 Alpine Turf, Agneston Family ET and the GEROT 

Turf, McCall Family ET. In trail building situations where 

avoiding this ET is logistically difficult, managers should 

consider armoring the trail with stones and cobbles across 

late snowbank environments. The vegetation of this ET is 

highly productive for grazing animals. These sites are best 

grazed at low levels later in the summer, after the soils have 

begun to dry.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET

Floristic differences: The Parry’s rush community type 

of the Hargran Family ET is the same as the Parry’s rush 

community in the Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Hargran Family ET occurs 

above timberline, while the Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic 

Cryorthents occurs at or slightly below timberline.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET

Floristic differences: A number of vegetation types 

constitute the Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET, including 

some of those listed under the Hargran Family ET.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Hargran Family ET occurs 

above timberline and is associated with late snowbank 

environments, while the Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET 

occurs in riparian zones and wetlands either above or below 

timberline.

Table 13—Summary of environmental variables for the Late Snowbank 

Vegetation, Hargran Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,306 3,167 3,505

Slope (%) 19 1 38

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 838 786 892

Degree days 8,839 7,316 10,130

Frost-free days 15.6 14.5 16.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -117 -166 -33

Average annual temperature (°C) -1.5 -2.2 -0.9

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 369 285 432

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,850 18,340 20,620

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 70 35 99

Clay (% in particle size control section) 12 4 22

pH (in particle size control section) 4.9 4.8 5.1

Available water capacity (mm/m) 41 13 75

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil, < 2mm fraction (%) 11 1 35

Exposed bedrock 2 0 10

Gravel 3 1 10

Cobble 4 1 10

Stones 9 2 15

Boulders 5 1 10

Litter 14 7 30

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 13 2 20

Basal vegetation 42 15 60

Water 0 0 0
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 89 Table 14. Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the Late Snowbank Vegetation, Hargran Family ET. Grayleaf willow/ Tufted hairgrass C.T. Parry’s rush C.T. Tufted hairgrass C.T. Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max Con Cov Min Max Con Cov Min Max Percent Percent Percent Shrubs: SAGLV Salix glauca var. villosa Grayleaf willow 100 2 1 3 100 18 10 25 Forbs: ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 100 9 3 15 100 3 1 5 CALE4 Caltha leptosepala White marsh marigold 100 1 1 1 ERCO24 Eremogone congesta Ballhead sandwort 100 1 1 1 ERPES3 Erigeron peregrinus Subalpine fleabane 100 8 5 10 var. scaposus ERSI3 Erigeron simplex Alpine daisy 100 3 1 5 GEROT Geum rossii var. Ross’ avens 100 9 3 15 turbinatum ORAL4 Oreostemma alpigenum Tundra aster 100 1 1 1 POBI6 Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 100 1 1 1 100 3 1 5 100 2 1 3 PODI2 Potentilla diversifolia Varileaf cinquefoil 100 3 1 5 100 6 1 10 POGR9 Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil 100 2 1 3 SIPR Sibbaldia procumbens Creeping sibbaldia 100 2 1 3 100 4 3 5 Grasses: DECE Deschampsia cespitosa Tufted hairgrass 100 42 20 65 100 3 3 3 100 6 3 10 PHAL2 Phleum alpinum Alpine timothy 100 4 3 5 POLE3 Poa lettermanii Letterman’s bluegrass 100 2 1 3 TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 100 1 1 1 Graminoids: CAMA9 Carex macloviana Falkland island sedge 100 2 1 3 100 3 3 3 CARA6 Carex raynoldsii Raynolds’ sedge 100 3 3 3 CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Canadian single-spike 100 1 1 1 sedge JUPA Juncus parryi Parry’s rush 100 25 20 30 Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
90 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 91

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Subalpine Fir Series
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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Principal Species Description_____

Subalpine fir

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Subalpine fir is the smallest of the eight species of true 

firs native to the western United States (Uchytil 1991a). 

Subalpine fir is widely distributed across western North 

America, occurring along the Pacific Coast from central 

Yukon Territory and southeastern Alaska south along the 

eastern slope of the Coast Range in British Columbia to 

the Olympic Mountains in Washington, and along both 

slopes of the Cascade Mountains into southern Oregon 

(Alexander and others 1990). Subalpine fir is not found on 

the western slope of the Coast Range in southern British 

Columbia or along the Coast Range in Washington and 

Oregon; however, it does occur on Vancouver Island. In 

the Rocky Mountains, subalpine fir occurs continuously 

along the continental divide from latitude 55° N in British 

Columbia and Alberta south through the Rocky Mountains 

of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming. In Wyoming, 

the distribution of subalpine fir is discontinuous south and 

southeast of the Wyoming, Salt River, and WRRs, picking 

up again in northeastern Utah in the Bear River, Wasatch, 

and Uinta Mountains, in southeastern Wyoming in the 

Snowy and Laramie Ranges, and in the Rocky Mountains 

of central Colorado. In southern Utah, Arizona, and western 

New Mexico, the distribution of subalpine fir is disjointed 

and limited to the highest elevations.

In British Columbia and Alberta subalpine fir occurs 

at elevations between 914 and 2,134 m, but it is most 

abundant above 1,524 m (Alexander and others 1990). In 

the northern Rocky Mountains, including mountain ranges 

in Montana, Idaho, and eastern Oregon and Washington, 

subalpine fir occurs most commonly between 1,524 and 

2,743 m and occasionally down to 610 m especially in cold 

air drainages and north-facing slopes. Average temperatures 

in the subalpine fir zone of the northern Rocky Mountains 

in January and July range from -15 to -9 °C and 7 to 13 °C, 

respectively. Average annual precipitation ranges between 

610 and 1,520 mm.

In the central Rocky Mountains, including mountain 

ranges in Colorado, Wyoming, and northern Utah, subalpine fir occurs most commonly at elevations between 

2,743 m and timberline (3,200–3,500 m) and as low as 

2,438 m strictly in cold air drainages and on north-facing 

slopes (Alexander and others 1990). Average temperatures 

in the subalpine fir zone of the central Rocky Mountains 

in January and July range between -12 to -9 °C and 10 to 

13 °C, respectively. Average annual precipitation ranges 

between 610 and 1,520 mm.

In the southern Rocky Mountains, including mountain 

ranges in New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah, subalpine 

fir is restricted primarily to north-facing slopes at elevations between 2,896 and 3,353 m (Alexander and others 

1990). Average temperatures in the subalpine fir zone of 

the southern Rocky Mountains in January and July range 

between -9 to -7 °C and 10 to 16 °C, respectively. Average 

annual precipitation ranges between 610 and 1,020 mm.

Subalpine fir is tolerant of a variety of soil types and 

condition, including soils derived from sandstone, sandyshale, limestone, dolomite, granite, basalt, tuff, shale and 

siltstone, breccia, andesite, glacial till, sandy alluvium, and 

deep volcanic ash (Pfister and others 1977; Youngblood and 

Mauk 1985; Johnson and Simon 1987; Svalberg and others 

1997; Johnson and others 2001). Subalpine fir potential 

is limited on shallow and coarse-textured soils developed 

from granitic and schistic rocks, conglomerates, coarse 

sandstones, and permanently saturated soils (Alexander 

and others 1990). Subalpine fir can tolerate short-term soil 

saturation and is commonly found growing in moist alluvial 

forests, along seeps and springs, and on stream terraces, 

floodplains, and wetland margins (Hansen and others 1995; 

Kovalchik and Clausnitzer 2004; Wells 2006).

Subalpine fir is a monoecious species with male cones 

on the lower branches of the crown and female cones positioned upright on the crowns upper branches (Alexander 

and others 1990). Subalpine fir may begin to produce seed 

when trees are 1.2 to 1.5 m tall and 20 years old; however, 

seed production is delayed in closed canopy situations. 

Pollination occurs by wind-dissemination in late spring 

and early summer. The conspicuous, upright purple-indigo 

blue cones open in mid-August to mid-September, and 

seeds ripen from mid-September to late-October. Along the 

Pacific Coast and in the northern Rocky Mountains, subalpine fir produces good (20–49 cones/tree) to heavy crops 

(50–99 cones/tree) every three years, interspersed with 

light crops to failures the other two years. In the central and 

southern Rocky Mountains seed production is relatively 

poor with infrequent heavy crops and many more failures. 

When subalpine fir cones are ripe, the scales fall away with 

the large winged seeds and the cones disintegrate on the 

tree (Alexander and others 1990). Subalpine fir seeds are 

wind dispersed, and the dispersal pattern is strongly related 

to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Subalpine fir seedlings thrive on a variety of substrates 

and under nearly all levels of light intensity. However, 

establishment and early survival are usually favored by 

at least partial shade (Alexander and others 1990). In the 

Pacific Northwest, where subalpine fir co-occurs with 

Pacific silver fir, grand fir, and mountain hemlock, subalpine fir is considered less shade tolerant than the other 

species. In the central and southern Rocky Mountains, 

subalpine fir is the most shade tolerant tree species and is 

considered climax vegetation. In more open canopy situations, subalpine fir is not a successful competitor with 

Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, or Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir when light intensity exceeds 50% of full shade. 

Subalpine fir commonly reproduces vegetatively through a 

process termed “layering.” Layering refers to the process of 

tree stems, which typically grow vertically, growing horizontally instead. New stems arise as the layering branches 

closest to the ground eventually become buried in litter and 
94 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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sprout roots. Layering is negligible in closed canopy situations and is most important under open canopies and near 

timberline.

Subalpine fir trees are extremely slow growing, and trees 

25 to 51 cm in diameter typically are 150 to 200 years old 

under closed forest canopies (Alexander and others 1990). 

Trees greater than 250 years old are not uncommon but are 

extremely susceptible to heart-rot and, for this reason, do 

not live much beyond this age. The typical growth-form of 

subalpine fir across much of its geographic distribution is a 

narrow, cone-, or bullet-shaped crown standing 18 to 30 m 

tall (Uchytil 1991a). Near timberline, the growth-form of 

subalpine fir appears much like a flag in a stout wind, with 

the only living branches on the leeward side of the tree. 

Individual stems arise from a dense, layered mat and do not 

reach heights greater than 4 to 5 m due to severe winds and 

cold temperatures. Above tree line, subalpine fir features 

a krummholtz form, growing in dwarf, shrub-like mats no 

greater than 1 m tall.

Subalpine fir is very sensitive to fire, due to thin, 

resin-pocketed bark and shallow root systems and is 

killed or severely injured from even low intensity burns 

(Uchytil 1991a). At dry, lower elevation sites in the Rocky 

Mountains, fires occur more frequently and at lower intensity, with mean fire return intervals ranging between 17 and 

28 years in western Montana to 80 to 100 years in central 

Wyoming and Colorado. The frequent fires kill subalpine 

fir and help maintain seral Douglas-fir or lodgepole pine 

forests at these sites. Moist, high elevation sites experience 

infrequent (>100 years), high intensity, stand-replacing 

burns. The tendency of subalpine fir-dominated stands 

to produce stand replacing burns is due to a combination of high fuel loads, highly flammable foliage, the 

long retention time of dead branches on the lower stem, 

and a tendency to grow in dense stands (Uchytil 1991a). 

Following fire, subalpine fir readily establishes on bare 

mineral soil from seed provided by individuals surviving in 

nearby unburned areas.

The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) and western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes confusus) 

are the two most common insect pests of subalpine fir in the 

spruce-fir region of the Rocky Mountains (Alexander and 

others 1990). The western spruce budworm feeds on buds, 

needles, cones, and seeds of trees of all ages, often resulting 

in severe defoliation (Hagle and others 2003). Following 

several years of heavy defoliation, branch dieback, top 

kill, and tree mortality can occur. Western balsam bark 

beetle feed on the phloem layer of the inner bark. Trees not 

killed directly by the bark beetles usually succumb to blue 

stain fungi, which the trees become inoculated with following attack. Wood borers, including longhorned beetles 

(Family: Cerambycidae) and metallic wood borers (Family: 

Buprestidae), may also attack subalpine fir. Longhorned 

beetles and metallic wood borers rarely kill their hosts; 

they usually only attack weakened and recently downed 

trees. Subalpine fir may suffer significant loss of growth 

and vigor from fir broom rust (Melampsorella caryophyllacearum). Subalpine fir is also susceptible to a variety of 

wood rotting fungi, which weaken trees and predispose 

them to windthrow and breakage by wind (Alexander and 

others 1990).

In the Rocky Mountains, the appropriate timber harvesting methods favoring subalpine fir over Engelmann spruce, 

lodgepole pine, and Douglas-fir include shelterwood and 

individual tree selection (Uchytil 1991a). The seed tree 

method is not generally recommended because of the 

susceptibility of subalpine fir to windthrow. Uneven-aged 

silviculture can be problematic because residual subalpine 

fir trees damaged during thinning operations are susceptible 

to attack by decay fungi. Light surface fires can be used 

following timber harvest as a management tool to remove 

subalpine fir seedlings at dry, lower elevation sites where 

subalpine fir is not a preferred timber species and to 

encourage the growth of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or 

lodgepole pine.

Subalpine fir forests are often unproductive as forage 

sites for livestock, and the palatability of subalpine fir to 

livestock and wild ungulates is generally low (Uchytil 

1991a). However, moose and mountain goats may browse 

subalpine fir during the winter and spring. Subalpine fir 

forests provide important summer range for mule deer, 

elk, and black and grizzly bears. Snowshoe hare, flying 

squirrels, red squirrels, pine marten, lynx, and a variety of 

rodents inhabit subalpine fir forests. A number of bird species nest and feed in subalpine fir forests, including several 

woodpecker species, flycatchers, kinglets, nuthatches, 

juncos, thrushes, chickadees, crossbills, pine siskin, owls, 

and grouse. Red squirrels cache significant amounts of 

subalpine fir seeds in large middens across the forest floor. 

Chickadees, nuthatches, crossbills, pine siskin, and Clark’s 

nutcracker forage on the seeds by physically removing 

them from the cones. Subalpine fir seeds are an important 

part of the diet of small birds because they are relatively 

large, comprising approximately 26% of the total weight of 

a cone. Lastly, blue grouse feed on the needles and buds of 

subalpine fir.
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Subalpine Fir/Gooseberry Currant, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Ribes montigenum,

Elting Family Ecological Type

ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET

N = 2

Distribution

The subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Elting Family 

Ecological Type, occurs in the WRR near the Continental 

Divide within the alpine zone of Chapman and others 

(2004). It is a component of map unit 304L.

This ET occurs at or near timberline on the boundary 

between alpine meadows and subalpine forests. These 

forested stands occur in scattered patches or “tree islands” 

separated from one another by sections of alpine meadow 

vegetation (Marr 1977). This ET typically occurs in 

microsites suitable for the establishment of tree seedlings, 

including gentle concavities and sheltered slopes. Trees in 

these forested stands are stunted from extreme cold temperatures and strong winds.

Environment

Aspect: West [1], west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Backslopes and 

footslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, parent 

materials tend to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. 

In the southern portion of the WRR in the areas north of the 

North Fork Popo Agie River, parent material tends to be 

porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of the 

WRR, including the areas surrounding Burro Flat, Horse 

Ridge, Brown Cliffs, and Dennis Lake, parent materials 

tend to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Atlantic Peak, 

Roaring Fork Mountain, and Wind River Peak, bedrock 

tends to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.

In the southern portion of the WRR in the areas north 

of the North Fork Popo Agie River, bedrock tends to be 

porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of the 

WRR, including the areas surrounding Burro Flat, Horse 

Ridge, and Brown Cliffs, and Dennis Lake, parent materials 

tend to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 80 to 

83 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 15.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is 

the subalpine fir/gooseberry currant habitat type whitebark 

pine phase (Steele and others 1983). Trees in these forested 

stands are stunted from extreme cold temperatures and 

strong winter winds. Subalpine fir and whitebark pine are 

the projected climax tree species. Whitebark pine is usually 

the dominant overstory tree species. Stunted subalpine fir 

and Engelmann spruce is typically found in the understory 

canopy layer.

Gooseberry currant and willows, including planeleaf and 

grayleaf, are the only shrub species present. Occasionally, 

on drier microsites at lower elevations near contiguous 

subalpine forests, grouse whortleberry may occur.

Overall, the herbaceous layers of the sites sampled were 

incredibly species rich; however, the spatial distribution of 

species depends on the location to the leeward, in the middle of, or to the windward of the tree islands. In the middle 

of the tree island, beneath the tree canopy, the herbaceous 

layer is depauperate and species richness is low. Species 

typical of the middle of these tree islands include Wheeler’s 

bluegrass, Ross’ sedge, long-leaved fleabane, and Rocky 

Mountain pussytoes. Species typical of the dry, windward 

side of the tree islands include Ross’ avens, American 

bistort, slender cinquefoil, spiny milkvetch, twinflower 

sandwort, alpine bitterroot, spike woodrush, and northern 

singlespike sedge. Tufted hairgrass, tall fringed bluebells, 

spike trisetum, and Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge are 

typical of the moist, leeward side of the tree islands. 

Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 16 and 17, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET were 

moderately deep and deep with a low degree of soil 
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development, high coarse fragments (avg. 72%), and low 

clay (avg. 10%). A typical soil features an A/Bw/C/Cr-R 

horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include an ochric 

epipedon (avg. 9 cm thick), a cambic horizon (23 cm 

thick), and paralithic or lithic contact (avg. 76 cm depth). 

Particle size class was sandy-skeletal. The soils were Typic 

Dystrocryepts and Typic Cryorthents.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed, Typic 

Dystrocryepts

A—0 to 5 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) fine gravelly 

fine sandy loam, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 62% 

sand; 18% clay; weak very fine granular structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; many fine roots and 

common medium roots and many very fine roots; many fine 

and common medium and many very fine pores; 18% 2- to 

5-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 

normal; strongly acid, pH 5.1, Bromcresol green; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Bw—5 to 28 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) fine 

gravelly sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), 

dry; 72% sand; 14% clay; weak fine granular structure; 

very friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very 

fine roots; common fine and common medium and many 

very fine pores; 21% 2- to 5-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.8, Bromcresol green; clear smooth boundary.

C1—28 to 49 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/4) extremely gravelly 

loamy sand, reddish yellow (7.5YR 6/6), dry; 82% sand; 

9% clay; moderate fine granular structure; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and common medium and common very fine pores; 11% 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 52% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 

1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 4.9, Bromcresol green; 

clear smooth boundary.

C2—49 to 70 cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

extremely cobbly coarse sand, brownish yellow (10YR 

6/6), dry; 94% sand; 3% clay; weak fine granular structure, 

and weak fine subangular blocky structure; loose, 

nonsticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

very fine roots; common fine and common very fine pores; 

11% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 37% 76- 

to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 38% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8, Bromcresol green; clear smooth 

boundary.

Cr—70 to 101 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) extremely bouldery 

coarse sand, very pale brown (10YR 7/3), dry; 93% sand; 

5% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; few 

fine roots and few very fine roots; few fine and few very 

fine pores; 19% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 

20% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 41% 601- to 

3,000-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 

1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 4.8, Bromcresol green.

Ecology

Three distinct morphological forms of trees are associated with the transition between subalpine forests and 

alpine tundra environments (Grant and Mitton 1977). The 

morphological forms are related to specific micro-environmental conditions associated with increasing elevation and 

wind exposure. The “spire” form is associated with trees 

in subalpine forests. This is the typical tree growth-form 

with a central stem and radiating branches. The “flagged” 

growth-form features short, erect stems appearing much 

like a flag in a stout wind, with the only living branches on 

the leeward side of the tree. This growth-form is typical 

of the transition zone between subalpine forest and alpine 

tundra. Lastly, the krummholz or “elfinwood” growthform features a shrub-like appearance with semi-erect to 

prostrate stems. The three growth-forms include a variety 

of intergrades making it difficult at times to distinguish 

between each. The flagged growth-form is most typical of 

trees in the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET.

Scientific evidence exists that these tree islands are 

actually mobile and that the trees move in the direction of 

the wind (Marr 1977). Branches on the windward side of 

the tree island die due to desiccation from strong winds 

or abrasion from blowing snow and ice, while leeward 

branches, protected from the wind by the dead branches 

of their own stems, continue to grow (Hadley and Smith 

1983). Through a process called layering, tree stems, which 

typically grow vertically, begin to grow horizontally (Marr 
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1977). New stems arise as the layering branches closest to 

the ground eventually become buried in litter and sprout 

roots. Once the new stems grow to a height where they are 

affected by the wind, the process begins anew as the windward branches are killed and leeward branches begin to 

layer in the direction of the wind. In this way, tree islands 

slowly move across the landscape in the direction of the 

wind.

Size and survival of tree islands are strongly interrelated 

(Marr 1977). In order for the tree islands to survive, leeward growth must exceed windward mortality. However, a 

delicate balance exists between the rate of leeward growth 

and windward mortality. If growth exceeds mortality to 

the point where the tree island increases in size, it is at 

risk of an outbreak of the black-felt fungus (Herpotrichia 

nigra Hartig). Larger tree islands create a stronger leeward 

eddy and a larger, deeper leeward snowdrift. The black-felt 

fungus is adapted to growth in a mixture of ice and liquid 

water near the freezing point, conditions common in alpine 

environments in late spring and early summer (Simms 

1967). Individual trees buried by leeward snowdrifts are at 

risk of parasitism by the black-felt fungus. Leeward mortality is the result, and the life expectancy of the tree island 

is generally limited. Snowdrift mortality of trees on the 

leeward side of tree islands is also related to growing season length and the physiological demands of tree seedlings. 

The deeper the leeward snowdrift, the longer it takes for the 

snowdrift to melt the following summer, and the shorter the 

growing season for buried tree seedlings. This shortening 

of the growing season may result in death to buried tree 

seedlings that may not have enough time to store adequate 

carbohydrate reserves to survive the following winter.

The mechanisms responsible for leeward mortality of 

tree islands also play a role in the spacing of tree islands 

(Marr 1977). Two or more tree islands separated by gaps 

will commonly occur in a line parallel to the direction of 

the wind. The size of the gap between two tree islands corresponds to the size and depth of leeward snowdrifts.

Succession

An initial herbaceous/shrub stage (A) follows a standreplacing disturbance (Bradley and others 1992). Stage (A) 

may be held in place for extended time periods depending 

on post-disturbance conditions at the site. A conifer seedling stage (B) follows the initial herbaceous/shrub stage. 

During stage (B), whitebark pine germinates from seeds 

cached at the disturbed site by Clark’s nutcrackers, and 

subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce seedlings grow in the 

shelter of shrubs and whitebark pine seedlings. A mature 

whitebark pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce stand 

(C) develops in approximately 75 to 100 years following 

stage (B). Two to three centuries may be required for the 

climax stand (D) to develop. Low severity fires at stages 

(A) through (D) maintain the stand at each respective stage, 

while severe fire will completely reset the successional 

pathway.

Management considerations

Traditional management issues important in montane 

and subalpine forests, including timber harvest and prescribed fire, are of little importance in these high elevation 

forests that occur almost exclusively within wilderness 

boundaries. Forest fire is rare in these high elevation 

forests; however, it can occur due to lightning strike or 

as large high intensity fires invade from lower elevation 

forests (Bradley and others 1992). Physical disturbance due 

to avalanches, snow and wind abrasion, or rockslide more 

commonly destroy these stands and reset the successional 

pathway. Gooseberries (Ribes spp.) are an obligate alternate 

host of white pine blister rust. Whitebark pine in these 

stands may be at increased risk of white pine blister rust, 

especially under future climate warming. Also, sickletop 

lousewort (Pedicularis racemosa), a species recently 

discovered to be an alternate host of white pine blister rust 

(McDonald and others 2006), was found in this ecological 

type. See the “Principal Species Description” for whitebark 

pine for more details regarding management considerations 

for this newly discovered host.

The ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET has high aesthetic, watershed, and wildlife value. The snow trapped in 

drifts on the leeward side of this ET melt slowly throughout 

the summer months, providing a steady source of water for 

the streams and rivers down valley. Also, these small forest 

stands provide one of the only forms of refuge for large 

mammals foraging in nearby alpine meadows and are home 

to numerous songbirds and small mammals.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Cranbay Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in that the Elting Family ET has whitebark pine as a 

significant part of the overstory, while the Cranbay family 

does not. Also, the trees in the Elting Family ET feature a 

flagged growth-form and occur in tree islands, whereas the 

trees in the Cranbay Family ET feature a spire growth-form 

and occur as contiguous forest.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at or 

slightly above timberline, whereas the Cranbay Family ET 

generally occurs below timberline.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Krummholz, Klootch Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the trees in the Elting Family ET feature a flagged 

growth-form, whereas the trees in the Klootch Family ET 

most often feature a krummholz growth-form. However, 

the flagged growth-form may occur at lower elevations in 

the Klootch Family ET, in which case the two Ecological 
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Types differ in the absence of gooseberry currant in the 

Klootch Family ET.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at 

or slightly above timberline, whereas the Klootch Family 

ET occurs at higher elevations above timberline near the 

physiological limits of tree growth.

Table 15—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,238 3,207 3,268

Slope (%) 25 21 28

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 817 801 833

Degree days 9,545 9,306 9,784

Frost-free days 16.1 15.9 16.3

Site water balance (mm/year) -117 -122 -113

Average annual temperature (°C) -1.2 -1.3 -1.1

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 354 351 357

Summer radiation (KJ) 18,470 18,120 18,810

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 72 66 78

Clay (% in particle size control section) 10 7 12

pH (in particle size control section) 4.9 — —

Available water capacity (mm/m) 28 23 33

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 4 3 5

Exposed bedrock 2 1 3

Gravel 2 1 3

Cobble 2 1 3

Stones 2 1 3

Boulders 8 6 10

Litter 20 10 30

Wood 3 1 5

Moss and lichen 7 2 12

Basal vegetation 50 30 70

Water 0 0 0
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Table 16—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 8 5 10

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 8 5 10

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 10 5 15

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 6 5 7

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 4 3 5

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 4 1 7

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 5 5 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 1 1 1

Shrubs:

RIMO2 Ribes montigenum Gooseberry currant 100 5 3 7

SAPL2 Salix planifolia Planeleaf willow 100 4 1 7

Forbs:

ANME2 Antennaria media Rocky Mountain pussytoes 100 4 3 5

ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 100 4 3 5

ERCO5 Erigeron corymbosus Long-leaved fleabane 100 4 3 5

GEROT Geum rossii var. turbinatum Ross’ avens 100 2 1 3

MEAL7 Mertensia alpina Alpine bluebells 100 1 1 1

POBI6 Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 100 4 3 5

POGR9 Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil 100 4 1 7

Grasses:

POCU3 Poa cusickii Cusick’s bluegrass 100 4 3 5

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 100 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Northern singlespike sedge 100 3 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in 

plots in which the species occurred.

Table 17—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 4.6 2.3–6.9 7.6 5.8–9.4 1,114 371–1,857

PIAL 2.3 — 10.4 9.7–11.2 274 235–314

PIEN 5.7 2.3–9.2 13.7 6.4–29.0 921 726–1,119

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 9.1 — 53

PIAL 9.7 1.8 55

PIEN 6.4 — 45
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Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, 

McCall Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Vaccinium scoparium, 

McCall Family Ecological Type

ABLA/VASC, McCall Family ET

N = 7

Distribution

The subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, McCall Family 

Ecological Type, occurs within the granitic subalpine zone 

of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs along the 

upper extent of all of the major drainages in the study area, 

including Jakeys Fork, East Fork Torrey Creek, Dinwoody 

Creek, Dry Creek, Bull Lake Creek, South Fork Little 

Wind River, North Fork Popo Agie River, and the Middle 

Fork Popo Agie River. This ET is a component of map unit 

327S.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], north [3], northwest [1], west-northwest 

[1], west-southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Lateral moraines. 

Backslopes and footslopes.

Parent Materials: Granitic glacial till, granitic colluvium 

over granitic glacial till.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite.

In the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is 

primarily granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton; however, 

pockets of gneiss do occur as well. In the North Fork Popo 

Agie and South Fork Little Wind River drainages, bedrock 

is porphyritic quartz monzonite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 66 to 

79 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 18.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological 

type is the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type 

grouse whortleberry phase or whitebark pine phase (Steele 

and others 1983). Although subalpine fir is the projected 

climax dominant, the species rarely dominated the sample 

sites. The whitebark pine phase represents the cooler, 

upper elevations of the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry 

habitat type. In the whitebark pine phase, whitebark pine 

and Engelmann spruce are codominant. Lodgepole pine is 

often codominant with subalpine fir in the grouse whortleberry phase. The grouse whortleberry phase represents 

the warmer, lower elevation range of the subalpine fir/

grouse whortleberry habitat type. The first distinguishing 

characteristic of this habitat type is the incredibly strong 

regeneration of subalpine fir in the understory canopy layers, which far surpasses all other tree species. The second 

distinguishing characteristic of this habitat type is the thick 

cover of grouse whortleberry and sparse herbaceous layer. 

Heartleaf arnica and Ross’ sedge are the only herbaceous 

species occurring with any consistency. Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided 

in Tables 19 and 20, respectively.

Soils

The soils in this ET are relatively young as they are 

derived from Pinedale age glacial till deposited between 

22,000 and 15,000 years ago (Dahms 2004b; Dahms, D.E., 

pers. comm.). Soils in the ABLA/VASC, McCall Family 

ET were moderately deep and deep with a low degree of 
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soil development, variable amounts of rock fragments 

(35–94%, avg. 66%), and low clay (avg. 11%). A thin (avg. 

6 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil 

features an A/Bw/C-Cd horizonation. Some soils may 

feature an E-horizon (avg. 14 cm thick) directly below, or 

in place of, an A-horizon. One soil featured a thick, dense 

layer of compacted glacial till (Cd-horizon) between 73 

and 102 cm below the soil surface. Diagnostic soil horizons 

include an ochric epipedon (16 cm thick) and a cambic 

horizon (avg. 45 cm thick). One soil featured a 32-cm 

thick umbric epipedon. Particle size class included loamyskeletal [5], sandy-skeletal [1], and fragmental [1]. Soils 

were Typic Dystrocryepts [5], Humic Dystrocryepts [1], 

and Typic Cryorthents [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Humic Dystrocryepts

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; clear 

wavy boundary.

Oe—1 to 7 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

clear smooth boundary.

A—7 to 22 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) 

cobbly silt loam, brown (10YR 4/3), dry; 24% sand; 13% 

clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure parting 

to moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine roots and many medium roots and many coarse roots 

and many very coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and many medium and many coarse and 

many very coarse and common very fine pores; 5% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 13% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.9; clear wavy boundary.

BA—22 to 32 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very stony 

silt loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 32% sand; 15% clay; 

moderate very coarse subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine roots and many medium roots and common coarse 

roots and common very fine roots; common fine and many 

medium and common coarse and common very fine pores; 

12% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 13% 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 16% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.9; clear wavy boundary.

2Bw1—32 to 55 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6) 

very stony sandy loam, brownish yellow (10YR 6/6), dry; 

63% sand; 13% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky 

structure parting to moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, nonsticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots and few 

very fine roots; common fine and common medium 

and common coarse and common very fine pores; 13% 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 16% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 22% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy boundary.

2Bw2—55 to 73 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

stony sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 

68% sand; 12% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure parting to moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots; common 

fine and common medium pores; 10% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments and 12% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 12% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.8; abrupt smooth boundary.

2Cd1—73 to 91 cm; brown (10YR 5/3) very bouldery 

coarse sandy loam, very pale brown (10YR 7/4), dry; 

69% sand; 12% clay; massive firm, moderately hard, very 

weakly cemented, slightly sticky, nonplastic; few medium 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

coarse pores; 4% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 

14% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 18% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 20% 601- to 3,000-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.9; abrupt smooth boundary.

2Cd2—91 to 102 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) very 

bouldery loamy coarse sand, very pale brown (10YR 

7/3), dry; 82% sand; 6% clay; massive; very firm, hard, 

weakly cemented, nonsticky, nonplastic; 17% 2- to 

75 mm unspecified fragments and 20% 601- to 3,000-

mm unspecified fragments and 21% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8.

Ecology

The ABLA/VASC, McCall Family ET represents higher 

elevation ABLA/VASC forests located on soils derived 

from granitic glacial till. At these higher elevations in 

upper subalpine and timberline forests, this ET is limited 

to cool, moist, north-facing slopes where subalpine fir is 

more competitive than whitebark pine and forms climax 

stands. The whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat 

type occurs on adjacent south-facing slopes, while the 

Engelmann spruce/grouse whortleberry habitat type 

inhabits adjacent sites with high soil moisture. Whitebark 

and lodgepole pine are seral to the more shade tolerant 

subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce on these cooler, more 

moist sites.

Succession

Sample sites in the ALBA/VASC, McCall Family ET 

with no overstory subalpine fir and small-size class lodgepole and whitebark pine fall within successional stage (D) 

described below. Sample sites with overstory subalpine fir 

and Engelmann spruce and larger, less dense lodgepole and 

whitebark pine fall within the successional stage (E) or (F) 

described below.
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A likely successional pathway for the ALBA/VASC, 

McCall Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous stage 

(A) in which Ross’ sedge and heartleaf arnica regenerate 

rapidly from underground rhizomes and seeds, respectively, 

and quickly dominate the site. Immediately following the 

fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned area. 

The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 

non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is 

dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven aged lodgepole and 

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at stage 

(B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, pole-sized 

lodgepole and whitebark pine stand, with subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce seedlings in the understory (C), and 

then by a mature lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand, 

with understory subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce (D). 

Low to moderate severity fires at stages (C) and (D) will 

maintain the stand at each respective stage, while severe 

fire will completely reset the successional pathway. With 

a continued lack of fire, a mixed subalpine fir, Engelmann 

spruce, lodgepole, and whitebark pine stand develops (E). 

A low intensity fire at stage (E) will maintain the mixed 

stand, while a moderate severity fire will return the stand 

to stage (D). Lodgepole pine will eventually drop out of 

the overstory and be replaced by subalpine fir resulting in 

a climax stand of mixed subalpine fir and whitebark pine 

with strong subalpine fir regeneration and scattered adult 

Engelmann spruce (F). Regeneration of whitebark pine and 

Engelmann spruce at stage (F) is a continual and gradual 

process as gaps created in the forest canopy are slowly 

filled by seedlings of both species. Regeneration success 

tends to be greater for subalpine fir, which is more shade 

tolerant than both whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce. 

Severe fires at stages (E) and (F) will completely reset the 

successional pathway.

Management considerations

This ET occurs almost exclusively within wilderness 

boundaries, and traditional management issues important 

in montane and subalpine forests, including timber harvest 

and prescribed fire, are of little importance. Natural forest 

fires occur at broad intervals, on the order of three to fouer 

centuries between burns. This ET provides important habitat for black and grizzly bears, which feed on whitebark 

pine cones and the berries of grouse whortleberry.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Swapps Family 

ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Swapps Family ET features 

relatively clay-rich soils compared to the McCall Family 

ET.
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Table 18—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/VASC, McCall 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,986 2,795 3,137

Slope (%) 36 11 62

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 723 662 788

Degree days 11,890 10,100 13,620

Frost-free days 17.5 16.5 18.4

Site water balance (mm/year) -151 -184 -95

Average annual temperature (°C) 0 -1 1

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 443 393 495

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,180 17,490 20,450

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 66 35 94

Clay (% in particle size control section) 11 6 14

pH (in particle size control section) 4.8 4.6 5

Available water capacity (mm/m) 59 14 112

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 3

Cobble 3 1 7

Stones 7 3 10

Boulders 6 3 10

Litter 36 15 55

Wood 7 3 10

Moss and lichen 9 1 30

Basal vegetation 31 15 45

Water 0 0 0
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Table 19—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/VASC, McCall 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 57 14 10 20

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 14 5 20

Subdominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 2 1 5

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 57 9 1 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 43 2 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 71 6 1 10

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 5 1 15

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 86 2 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 86 2 1 3

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 11 5 25

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 3 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 2 1 3

Shrubs:

VASC Vaccinium scoparium Grouse whortleberry 100 37 15 75

Forbs:

AQCO Aquilegia coerulea Colorado blue columbine 43 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia Heartleaf arnica 100 4 1 15

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Fireweed 43 1 1 1

PYMI Pyrola minor Lesser wintergreen 43 2 1 3

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 57 2 1 3

Graminiods:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 86 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in 

plots in which the species occurred.

Table 20—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/VASC, McCall Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 5.1 2.3–13.8 26.0 13.0–36.1 138 32–222

PIAL 19.5 9.2–27.6 31.5 13.7–58.4 405 54–879

PICOL 21.4 2.3–52.8 27.2 14.0–45.2 474 44–1,299

PIEN 15.2 4.6–36.7 41.7 13.5–74.4 178 20–398

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 27.9 25 168

PIAL 33.8 13 219

PICOL 29.7 — 160

PIEN 36.6 19 203
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Vaccinium scoparium, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area 

within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs around Blue Ridge and the 

headwaters of Sawmill and Canyon Creeks, to the south 

and east of Louis Lake in a network of diabasic gabbro 

dikes that have intruded into the Louis Lake Pluton, near 

Sweetwater Gap at the headwaters of the Middle Fork of 

the Popo Agie River, and near Dickinson Park. This ET 

may also occur in the North Fork Popo Agie drainage 

and in the northern study area; however, no sample sites 

occurred in these areas. It is a component of map units 

309L, 309A, and 310L.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], east-northeast [1], north [1], northeast 

[1], north-northeast [1], northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Lower backslopes 

and footslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum.

When this type occurs around Blue Ridge and the 

headwaters of Sawmill and Canyon Creeks, to the south 

and east of Louis Lake, and near Sweetwater Gap, parent 

materials are granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. When 

this type occurs near Dickinson Park, parent material is 

quartz monzonite.

Bedrock: Granodiorite or quartz monzonite

When this type occurs around Blue Ridge and the 

headwaters of Sawmill and Canyon Creeks, to the south 

and east of Louis Lake, and near Sweetwater Gap, bedrock 

is granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.When this type 

occurs near Dickinson Park, bedrock is quartz monzonite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 66 to 

77 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 21.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type whitebark pine phase (Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir is 

the projected climax dominant tree species at these lower 

backslope and footslope positions. Although subalpine fir is 

the projected dominant tree species, it is rarely dominant in 

the overstory. Lodgepole pine is the major seral species and 

is commonly the most prolific overstory tree. Engelmann 

spruce is present at upper elevation sites. Whitebark pine is 

always present in the tree canopy. At upper backslope and 

shoulder positions upslope from the subalpine fir/grouse 

whortleberry, Elting Family ET, whitebark pine is the 

projected climax dominant tree species, and potential natural vegetation is the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry 

habitat type. Subalpine fir and whitebark pine are always 

present and vigorously regenerating in the understory 

canopy layers.

Grouse whortleberry forms a dense low shrub layer. 

Other shrub species are either lacking or occur at low 

abundance. Prickly currant may occur in moist microsites. 

The herbaceous layer of this ET is typically sparse with 

the exception of heartleaf arnica, which may occur at 

greater abundance. Other forbs that may occur scattered 

across the understory include Colorado blue columbine, 

fireweed, sidebells wintergreen, and manyray goldenrod. 

Silvery lupine may occur in the herbaceous layer at the 

lower elevation range of this ecological type. Ross’ sedge, 

spike trisetum, and Wheeler’s bluegrass are the most 

common graminoids. Northern reedgrass may occur in 

moist microsites. Summaries of species constancy/cover 

and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 22 and 23, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET were 

mostly deep and sandy, with a low to moderate degree of 

soil development, moderate to high coarse fragment content 

(40–81%, avg. 63%), and low to moderate amounts of clay 

(5–20%, avg. 12%). A litter layer typically occurs at the 

soil surface (avg. 4 cm thick). A typical soil features an A/

Bw/C-Cr horizonation. An E-horizon (avg. 20 cm) sometimes occurs directly below the A-horizon. Diagnostic soil 
106 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

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horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 14 cm thick) and 

a cambic horizon (avg. 32 cm thick). Particle size class was 

loamy-skeletal [3] and sandy-skeletal [3]. The soils were 

classified as Typic Dystrocryepts and Typic Eutrocryepts.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed, Typic 

Dystrocryepts

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A—2 to 8 cm: black (10YR 2/1) fine gravelly sandy loam, 

dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 61% sand; 11% clay; 

moderate fine granular structure, and weak fine subangular 

blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common very fine irregular pores; 

7% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 17% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 

1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.1, Bromcresol green; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Bw1—8 to 29 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/3) very gravelly coarse 

sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 69% 

sand; 12% clay; moderate medium granular structure, 

and moderate medium subangular blocky structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common very coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium irregular and common very coarse irregular and 

common very fine pores; 7% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 41% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.8, Bromcresol green; clear smooth boundary.

Bw2—29 to 79 cm: strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) extremely 

gravelly loamy coarse sand, very pale brown (10YR 7/4), 

dry; 86% sand; 7% clay; moderate fine granular structure, 

and weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium irregular and common 

very fine pores; 6% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 15% 601- to 3,000-mm unspecified fragments and 

16% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 43% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 

normal; very strongly acid, pH 4.8, Bromcresol green; clear 

smooth boundary.

2C—79 to 102 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) extremely 

gravelly coarse sand, brownish yellow (10YR 6/6), 

dry; 94% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; few fine roots and common medium roots 

and few very fine roots; few fine and common medium 

interstitial and few very fine pores; 5% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 8% 251- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 72% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.6, Bromcresol green.

Ecology

The ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET represents middle 

to lower elevation ABLA/VASC-PIAL forests located on 

soils derived from granitic colluvium and residuum. This 

ET was always found on cooler, more moist north- or 

east-facing slopes. At the lowest elevations (approximately 

<2700 m), the distribution of this ET is probably influenced 

by cold air drainage as it was always located on lower 

backslopes and footslopes near valley bottoms.

Succession

Sample sites in the ALBA/VASC, Elting Family ET 

with no overstory subalpine fir or Engelmann spruce, and 

small-size class lodgepole and whitebark pine fall within 

successional stages (C) or (D) described below. Sample 

sites with overstory subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce 

and larger, less dense lodgepole and whitebark pine fall 

within the successional stage (E) or (F) described below.

A likely successional pathway for the ALBA/VASC, 

Elting Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous stage 

(A) in which Ross’ sedge and heartleaf arnica regenerate 

rapidly from underground rhizomes and seeds, respectively, 

and quickly dominate the site. Immediately following the 

fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned area. 

The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 107

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is 

dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven aged lodgepole and 

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at stage 

(B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, pole-sized 

lodgepole and whitebark pine stand, with subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce seedlings in the understory (C), and 

then by a mature lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand, 

with understory subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce (D). 

Low to moderate severity fires at stages (C) and (D) will 

maintain the stand at each respective stage, while severe 

fire will completely reset the successional pathway. With 

a continued lack of fire, a mixed subalpine fir, Engelmann 

spruce, and lodgepole and whitebark pine stand develops 

(E). A low intensity fire at stage (E) will maintain the mixed 

stand, while a moderate severity fire will return the stand 

to stage (D). Lodgepole pine will eventually drop out of 

the overstory and be replaced by subalpine, fir resulting in 

a climax stand of mixed subalpine fir and whitebark pine 

with strong subalpine fir regeneration and scattered adult 

Engelmann spruce (F). Regeneration of whitebark pine and 

Engelmann spruce at stage (F) is a continual and gradual 

process as gaps created in the forest canopy are slowly 

filled by seedlings of both species. Regeneration success 

tends to be greater for subalpine fir, which is more shade 

tolerant than both whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce. 

Severe fires at stages (E) and (F) will completely reset the 

successional pathway.

Management considerations

The ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET is best suited 

for timber harvest during successional stages (C) and 

(D). Small clear-cuts or seed tree treatments followed by 

low to moderate severity broadcast burns will prepare 

the site for lodgepole and whitebark pine regeneration, 

remove disease and insects remaining in slash material, 

and stimulate vigorous grouse whortleberry regeneration. 

Timber harvest is not recommended beyond stage (D), at 

which point productivity begins to decrease and the stand 

begins to open up due to lodgepole pine mortality. Risk of 

catastrophic wildfire increases with stand age, and low to 

moderate severity fires become less common. Low to moderate severity prescribed fire can be utilized at successional 

stages (C), (D), and (E) to thin subalpine fir and Engelmann 

spruce seedlings, reduce fuel loadings, and encourage 

vigorous regeneration of grouse whortleberry. In climax 

stands, mechanical thinning of understory subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce and diseased and dying lodgepole pine 

is an effective means of reducing fuels without the chance 

of a controlled burn escalating into a severe stand replacing 

burn. Later stages of this ET are important habitat for black 

and grizzly bears, which feed on whitebark pine cones and 

the berries of grouse whortleberry.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry Marosa Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically. However, the Marosa Family ET includes the 

subalpine fir/common juniper, and subalpine fir/heartleaf 

arnica habitat types at lower elevations, whereas the 

Elting Family ET includes only the subalpine fir/grouse 

whortleberry habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at 

higher elevations (avg. 2,896 m) exclusively on granitic 

substrates and is characterized by sandy, clay-poor soils, 

whereas the Marosa Family ET occurs at lower elevations 

(avg. 2,792 m) on both sandstone and granitic substrates 

and is characterized by relatively clay-rich soils.
108 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 21—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET.

General environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,896 2,595 3,060

Slope (%) 28 13 40

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 710 663 767

Degree days 13,040 11,520 14,830

Frost-free days 18.0 17.3 19.0

Site water balance (mm/year) -191 -266 -139

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.3 -0.3 1.1

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 468 426 537

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,070 18,300 19,930

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 63 40 81

Clay (% in particle size control section) 12 5 20

pH (in particle size control section) 5.1 4.8 5.4

Available water capacity (mm/m) 49 27 68

Ground surface components, cover Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 0 1 3

Exposed bedrock 11 0 40

Gravel 0 0 0

Cobble 4 1 7

Stones 6 1 10

Boulders 9 1 15

Litter 37 20 50

Wood 7 5 10

Moss and lichen 2 1 5

Basal vegetation 22 15 30

Water 0 0 0
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 22—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant Overstory Trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 67 10 3 20

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 83 11 3 15

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 50 10 5 15

Subominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 50 4 3 5

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 83 5 1 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 50 7 5 10

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 67 8 1 25

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 83 5 1 10

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 83 2 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 50 2 1 5

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 5 1 15

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 2 1 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 50 2 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 67 2 1 3

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa Common juniper 50 3 1 5

VASC Vaccinium scoparium Grouse whortleberry 100 23 3 45

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia Heartleaf arnica 83 3 1 10

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Fireweed 50 1 1 1

ORSE Orthilia secunda Sidebells wintergreen 67 2 1 3

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 67 2 1 3

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 67 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 83 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in which a species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.

Table 23—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 3.9 2.3–6.9 16.5 13.7–21.3 190 121–309

PIAL 1.7 6.9–39.0 25.4 7.1–54.9 603 106–1171

PICOL 1.7 2.3–30.0 24.1 9.9–48.5 551 27–1628

PIEN 6.9 4.6–9.2 34.3 13.5–53.1 173 64–284

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 17.0 17 114

PIAL 25.4 12 164

PICOL 28.7 18 194

PIEN 35.6 23 160
110 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Marosa Family Ecological Type

Subalpine fir/Vaccinium scoparium,

Marosa Family Ecological Type

ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET

N = 8

Distribution

The subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family 

Ecological Type occurs across the study area within the 

dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion and 

in the granitic subalpine zone ecoregion of Chapman 

and others (2004). In the mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains ecoregion, this ET occurs on northeast-facing 

Flathead and Tensleep sandstone. In the granitic subalpine 

zone ecoregion, this ET occurs in the southern study area 

just south of Louis Lake. It is a component of map units 

43LF and 310A.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], east-northeast [3], north [1], northeast 

[2], west [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders, 

backslopes, and footslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum.

When this type occurs at lower backslope and footslope 

positions on the Flathead Formation, parent materials are 

Flathead Sandstone colluvium over sandy-shale residuum. 

When this type occurs at backslope and shoulder positions 

on the Flathead and Tensleep Formations, parent materials 

are Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone colluvium over 

residuum. When this type occurs south of Louis Lake, 

parent materials are granodiorite of the Louis Lake 

Pluton.

Bedrock: Flathead Sandstone, Tensleep Sandstone, or 

Granodiorite.

When this type occurs at lower backslope and footslope 

positions on the Flathead Formation, bedrock is sandy-shale 

residuum. When this type occurs at backslope and shoulder 

positions on the Flathead and Tensleep Formations, bedrock 

is Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone, respectively. When this 

type occurs south of Louis Lake, bedrock is granodiorite of 

the Louis Lake Pluton.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

70 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 24.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type at 

higher elevations (approximately >2,750 m) on backslopes 

and shoulders is the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry 

habitat type whitebark pine phase (Steele and others 

1983). At lower elevations (approximately ≤2,750 m) on 

backslopes and footslopes, the potential natural vegetation 

is the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type grouse 

whortleberry phase, the subalpine fir/common juniper habitat type, or the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica habitat type.

Subalpine fir is present in all canopy layers, and vigorous subalpine fir seedlings are present in the understory. In 

early seral stands, subalpine fir may only be present in the 

understory. Lodgepole pine is the major seral species and 

commonly occurs in the overstory. Engelmann spruce and 

whitebark pine are common at upper elevation sites. Limber 

pine may occur at lower elevation sites.

In the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type 

whitebark pine phase and subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry 

habitat type grouse whortleberry phase, grouse whortleberry 

forms a dense low shrub layer. Other shrub species may 

include common juniper, russet buffaloberry, or Oregon 

grape. The herbaceous layer is typically sparse with the exception of heartleaf arnica and Wheeler’s bluegrass, which 

may occur at greater abundance. Other forbs that may occur 

scattered across the understory include Ross’ sedge, slender 

hawkweed, sidebells wintergreen, and fireweed.

In the subalpine fir/common juniper habitat type, 

common juniper, Oregon grape, kinnikinnick, and russet 

buffaloberry may form a low shrub layer. The herbaceous 

layer is characteristically sparse and may include heartleaf 

arnica, manyray goldenrod, alpine leafybract aster, fireweed, 

and Ross’ sedge.

In the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica habitat type, russet 

buffaloberry is the most common shrub species. Common 

juniper and Oregon grape may also occur at low abundance. 

Heartleaf arnica is always present and may be joined by 

manyray goldenrod, slender hawkweed, fireweed, sidebells 

and lesser wintergreen, bluntseed sweetroot, Wheeler’s 

bluegrass, and Ross’ sedge. Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 

25 and 26, respectively.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 111

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Soils

Soils in the ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET were 

sandy and mostly deep with a moderate to high degree 

of soil development, moderate to high coarse fragments 

(35–88%, avg. 57%), and low to moderately high illuvial 

clay (10–25%, avg. 17%). A thin (avg. 2 cm thick) litter 

layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an A/E/

Bt-Bw/C horizonation. Distinguishing soil horizons include 

an ochric epipedon (avg. 17 cm thick), an argillic horizon 

(avg. 27 cm thick), and a cambic horizon (avg. 35 cm 

thick). One soil featured a 27-cm thick mollic epipedon 

overlying a thick E-horizon (34 cm thick). This same plot 

had quaking aspen in the overstory. Quaking aspen leaves, 

which have high concentrations of cations and decompose 

quickly due to a low carbon to nitrogen ratio, contribute 

strongly to the development of thick, dark, carbon-rich 

surface horizons (Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 1996; 

Legare and others 2005). Particle size class was loamyskeletal. The soils were classified as Inceptic Haplocryalfs 

[4], Mollic Haplocryalfs [1], Typic Eutrocryepts [1], Typic 

Dystrocryepts [1], and Typic Cryorthents [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Inceptic Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oe—1 to 2 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

abrupt wavy boundary.

A—2 to 15 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) fine 

gravelly fine sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 63% 

sand; 16% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and many 

medium roots and many coarse roots and common very 

coarse roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and many medium and many coarse and common very 

coarse and common very fine pores; 4% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 10% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 13% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly 

acid, pH 5.3; clear wavy boundary.

E—15 to 46 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very stony fine sandy 

loam, light gray (10YR 7/2), dry; 77% sand; 15% clay; 

weak fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate fine 

granular structure; very friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and many coarse roots and common very coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and many coarse and common very coarse and 

common very fine pores; 7% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 18% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 24% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, 

pH 5.0; clear wavy boundary.

Bt—46 to 69 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/4) very stony fine sandy 

loam, light brown (7.5YR 6/4), dry; 74% sand; 18% clay; 

weak coarse subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate very 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, moderately hard, 

slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; 2% patchy faint clay 

films on all faces of peds; 9% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 13% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 26% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, 

pH 4.8; clear wavy boundary.

Bw—69 to 91 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/3) very stony fine 

sandy loam, light brown (7.5YR 6/3), dry; 82% sand; 16% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, and weak 

very fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common very fine and 

fine roots and common medium roots; common fine and 

common medium and common very fine pores; 8% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 39% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy 

boundary.
112 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

C—91 to 104 cm: strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) very stony 

fine sandy loam, strong brown (7.5YR 5/6), dry; 83% sand; 

17% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

moderately hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine and common medium and common very fine pores; 4% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 6% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments and 45% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7.

Ecology

On the Flathead or Tensleep Formation, the ABLA/

VASC, Marosa Family ET represents subalpine fir forests 

located on clay-rich soils derived from sandstone or sandyshale. Along the eastern flank of the WRR, soils derived 

from Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone tend to support lodgepole pine forests that may reach a stable state akin to what 

some might consider climax vegetation. However, along 

cold-air drainages and in pockets of finer-textured soil, 

lodgepole pine on the Flathead and Tensleep Formations 

may give way to mature subalpine fir forests given sufficient time between burns, on the order of 300 to 400 years.

South of Louis Lake, the ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family 

ET represents ABLA/VASC-VASC and middle to lower 

elevation ABLA/VASC-PIAL forests located on clay-rich 

soils derived from granitic colluvium and residuum. In 

general, this ET was always found on cooler, mesic northor east-facing slopes. This ET may be located on south- or 

west-facing slopes at higher elevations where the clay-rich 

soils retain moisture long into the summer months, allowing subalpine fir to extend its distribution onto these 

warmer, drier sites.

Succession

Sample sites in the ABLA/VASC-VASC and ABLA/

VASC-PIAL habitat types share similar successional 

pathways, with the exception that the former features only 

lodgepole pine as a seral species, while the latter features 

lodgepole and whitebark pine as seral species. Stands with 

no overstory subalpine fir and small-size class lodgepole 

and whitebark pine fall within successional stages (C) or 

(D) described below. Sample sites with overstory subalpine 

fir and Engelmann spruce and larger, less dense lodgepole 

and whitebark pine fall within the successional stage (E) or 

(F) described below.

A likely successional pathway for the ALBA/VASCVASC and ABLA/VASC-PIAL habitat types begins with 

a brief herbaceous/shrub stage (A) in which Ross’ sedge, 

heartleaf arnica, and grouse whortleberrry regenerate 

rapidly from underground rhizomes or seeds (heartleaf 

arnica), and quickly dominate the site. Immediately following the fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s 

nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned 

area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 

serotinous on sandstone bedrock. Regeneration tends to 

be synchronous on sandstone, forming even-aged stands. 

On granitic bedrock, the cones of lodgepole pine are typically non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine 

is dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven aged lodgepole and 

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage 

(A) (Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at 

stage (B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In 

the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open polesized lodgepole and whitebark pine stand, with subalpine 

fir seedlings in the understory (C), and then by a mature 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand, with understory 

subalpine fir (D). At stages (C) and (D), Engelmann spruce 

seedlings may occur at higher elevation sites. Low to 

moderate severity fires at stages (C) and (D) will maintain 

the stand at each respective stage, while severe fire will 

completely reset the successional pathway. With a continued lack of fire, a mixed subalpine fir, lodgepole, and 

whitebark pine stand develops (E). A low intensity fire at 

stage (E) will maintain the mixed stand, while a moderate 

severity fire will return the stand to stage (D). Lodgepole 

pine will eventually drop out of the overstory and be replaced by subalpine fir resulting in a climax stand of mixed 

subalpine fir and whitebark pine with strong subalpine fir 

regeneration and scattered adult Engelmann spruce (F). 

Regeneration of whitebark pine at stage (F) is a continual 

and gradual process as gaps created in the forest canopy 

are slowly filled by seedlings of both species. Regeneration 

success tends to be greater for subalpine fir, which is more 

shade tolerant than whitebark pine. Severe fires at stages 

(E) and (F) will completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The ABLA/VASC-VASC and ABLA/VASC-PIAL 

habitat types are highly productive and are best suited for 

timber harvest on backslope and footslope positions at successional stages (C) and (D). The highly productive nature 

of this ET makes it ideal for short rotation harvests of large, 

high quality timber. Since forested stands of this ecological type tend to be even aged, timber harvest should occur 

shortly after stands reach maturity and before mountain 

pine beetle outbreaks reach epidemic proportions. Harvest 

schedules should be designed to create age-class mosaics 

across the landscape (Bradley and others 1992). Since 

subalpine fir is a wind-dispersed species, managers should 

consider the adjacency of subalpine fir seed trees when deciding on harvest opening size. Broadcast burning of slash 

following timber harvest operations will effectively control 

dwarf mistletoe, open serotinous cones on downed branches, remove duff and prepare mineral soil for lodgepole pine 

regeneration, and increase forage production for big game 

in the years shortly after timber harvest. Forage and browse 

production is high during the initial stages of this ecological type. Forage production drops continually as stand age 

increases, and Oregon grape may be the only species with 

appreciable forage value in climax stands. At footslope 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

positions on Flathead and Tensleep Sandstone, this ecological type provides important shelter and hiding cover for elk 

due to its adjacency to grassland and sagebrush communities on nearby Gros Ventre and Amsden slopes.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically. However, the Marosa Family ET includes the 

subalpine fir/common juniper and subalpine fir/heartleaf 

arnica habitat types at lower elevations, whereas the 

Elting Family ET includes only the subalpine fir/grouse 

whortleberry habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at 

higher elevations (avg. 2,896 m) exclusively on granitic 

substrates and is characterized by sandy, clay-poor soils, 

whereas the Marosa Family ET occurs at lower elevations 

(avg. 2,792 m) on both sandstone and granitic substrates 

and is characterized by relatively clay-rich soils.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Warm subalpine fir forests, Elting Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically. However, the Marosa Family ET includes the 

subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type at higher 

elevations, whereas the Elting Family ET never includes 

this habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at 

lower elevations (avg. 2,660 m) exclusively on granitic 

substrates and is characterized by sandy, clay-poor soils, 

whereas the Marosa Family ET occurs at higher elevations 

(avg. 2,792 m) on both sandstone and granitic substrates 

and is characterized by relatively clay-rich soils.

Table 24—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET.

General environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,792 2,675 2,882

Slope (%) 19 8 41

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 669 633 703

Degree days 14,700 13,560 16,020

Frost-free days 18.9 18.3 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -239 -265 -202

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.1 0.6 1.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 550 500 604

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,850 19,290 20,530

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 57 35 88

Clay (% in particle size control section) 17 10 25

pH (in particle size control section) 5.0 4.7 5.4

Available water capacity (mm/m) 53 26 68

Ground surface components, cover Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 6 0 30

Gravel 2 0 5

Cobble 7 0 20

Stones 6 0 20

Boulders 8 0 30

Litter 32 20 60

Wood 15 5 30

Moss and lichen 2 1 6

Basal vegetation 19 0 30

Water 0 0 0
114 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 25—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/VASC, Marosa 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 100 14 10 25

Subdominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 62 6 1 10

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 50 5 3 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 62 4 3 5

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 88 6 3 15

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 50 2 1 3

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 75 2 1 5

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 4 1 10

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 50 1 1 1

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 100 2 1 3

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa Common juniper 62 4 1 10

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis Russet buffaloberry 50 6 1 10

VASC Vaccinium scoparium Grouse whortleberry 75 26 15 35

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia Heartleaf arnica 100 5 1 10

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Fireweed 88 1 1 1

HITRG2 Hieracium triste var. gracile Slender hawkweed 62 1 1 3

ORSE Orthilia secunda Sidebells wintergreen 62 1 1 3

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 88 3 1 10

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 62 1 1 3

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 88 2 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots 

in which the species occurred.

Table 26—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 6.7 2.3–13.8 20.6 12.7–33.8 232 45–665

PIAL 12.2 6.9–18.4 28.4 13.0–49.0 279 116–405

PICOL 20.2 4.6–41.3 24.4 13.2–54.6 538 101–1235

PIEN 3.4 2.3–4.6 40.6 27.9–49.5 32 15–49

POTR5 4.6 — 14.2 9.4–19.0 412 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 23.1 19 84

PIAL 30.7 13 200

PICOL 26.4 19 151

PIEN 47.2 20 152
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Warm Subalpine Fir Forests, Elting 

Family Ecological Type

Warm Abies lasiocarpa Forests, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The Warm Subalpine Fir Forests, Elting Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs on rocky mountain slopes characterized by 

outcrops of foliated granodiorite and talus fields, located 

south and east of Louis Lake, and directly west of Bayer 

Mountain. It is a component of map unit 310A.

Environment

Aspect: Northeast [1], northwest [1], west [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders and 

backslopes.

Parent Materials: Granodiorite colluvium over granodiorite 

residuum.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

64 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 27.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

includes the subalpine fir/common juniper, subalpine 

fir/Oregon grape, and the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica 

habitat types (Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir is the 

projected climax dominant tree species on these sheltered 

backslopes. Lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, and occasionally Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are major seral 

species. Quaking aspen may be dominant in early seral 

stages, especially at extremely bouldery sites. Subalpine 

fir and whitebark pine are always present and vigorously 

regenerating in the understory canopy layers.

Common juniper and russet buffaloberry are always 

found in the shrub layer. Russet buffaloberry may sometimes be found at great abundance, especially in younger 

stands (Steele and others 1983). Oregon grape is the 

predominant species in the subalpine fir/Oregon grape 

habitat type. Other shrub species may include kinnikinnick, 

antelope bitterbrush, Utah snowberry, and whiskey currant.

The herbaceous layer tends to be species rich; however, 

no one species ever occurs at great abundance. The most 

common herbaceous species were lance-leaved stonecrop, 

umber pussy-toes, spiny milkvetch, lesser wintergreen, 

ballhead sandwort, many-flowered phlox, and Wheeler’s 

bluegrass. Heartleaf arnica and Ross’ sedge may be 

prominent members of the herbaceous layer immediately 

following fire. The herbaceous layer of early seral stages 

tends to be more graminoid rich and may include western 

needlegrass, Idaho and spike fescues, little ricegrass, and 

squirreltail. Summaries of species constancy/cover and 

stand characteristics are provided in Tables 28 and 29, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the Warm Subalpine Fir Forests, Elting Family 

ET were moderately deep and deep, sandy, and characterized by a low degree of soil development, high coarse 
116 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

fragments (avg. 70%), and low clay (avg. 8%). A thin (avg. 

2 cm thick) litter layer may occur at the surface. A typical 

soil features an A/Bw/C-Cr horizonation. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 12 cm thick) 

and a cambic horizon (avg. 36 cm thick). Entisols featured 

no diagnostic subsurface horizons. Particle size class was 

sandy-skeletal [2] and loamy-skeletal [1]. The soils were 

Typic Dystrocryepts [2] and Typic Cryorthents [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Dystrocryepts

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

A—1 to 5 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely gravelly sandy 

loam, light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), dry; 65% sand; 

11% clay; weak medium granular structure, and weak 

very fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and few 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and few medium and common very fine pores; 17% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 45% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 

5.3; abrupt smooth boundary.

Bw—5 to 36 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely gravelly sandy loam, light yellowish brown 

(10YR 6/4), dry; 67% sand; 18% clay; weak very fine 

subangular blocky structure, and weak fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; 23% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 48% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, 

pH 4.8; clear smooth boundary.

2C1—36 to 61 cm: extremely gravelly coarse sand; 

94% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and few medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and few medium and 

common very fine pores; 11% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 69% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7; Colors dry and 

moist are variegated.; clear smooth boundary.

2C2—61 to 105 cm: extremely gravelly coarse sand; 

96% sand; 2% clay; single grain; loose, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common very fine and fine roots and few 

medium roots; common very fine and fine and few 

medium pores; 12% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 72% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7; Colors dry and 

moist are variegated.

Ecology

The Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET represents 

middle to lower elevation subalpine fir forests located on 

soils derived from granitic colluvium and residuum. This 

ET was always found on cool, dry northwest- and westfacing slopes. Average annual temperature and growing 

degree days were higher than in the cooler subalpine fir 

forests, including ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET. The 

Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET is located above 

valley bottoms on backslopes and shoulders, and the distribution of this ET is most likely not influenced by cold air 

drainage, but rather by the indirect effect of slope aspect 

in creating cooler air temperatures than on adjacent southfacing slopes. The rocky, sandy soils have very little water 

holding capacity and available nutrients, and are extremely 

unproductive.

Succession

Sample sites in the Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family 

ET were at successional stages (C) and (D) and were seral 

to lodgepole pine. At sites where Rocky Mountain Douglasfir is the major seral species, a herbaceous/shrub stage (A), 

which may include some limber pine regeneration, follows 

directly from a stand-replacing burn (Bradley and others 

1992). In the absence of fire, the herbaceous/shrub stage is 

followed by a Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, limber pine, 

quaking aspen seedling and sapling stand (B). A fire of any 

severity at stage (B) will reset the successional pathway 

to the herbaceous/shrub stage. A mixed Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir, limber pine, and quaking aspen pole stand with 

subalpine fir regeneration follows the seedling and sapling 

stand (C) in the absence of fire. Low severity fires maintain 

the pole stand, while moderate severity fires at stage (C) 

typically escalate into severe fires and reset the successional pathway. In the continued absence of fire, quaking 

aspen begins to decline as the understory becomes shaded, 

and the pole stand is followed by a mature limber pine and 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stand with strong subalpine 

fir regeneration (D) and then by a mixed Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir, limber pine, subalpine fir stand (E). Low severity fires at stages (D) or (E) maintain each respective stage, 

while moderate severity fires favor the slightly more fire 

resistant Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and lead to an open 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forest with Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir regeneration (D1). Stage (D1) is maintained by 

low to moderate severity fires. In the absence of fire, stage 

(D1) progresses to stages (D) and (E). A climax stand (F) 

of mature subalpine fir with plentiful subalpine fir regeneration follows from stage (E) and is maintained by low 

severity burns or the absence of fire. Severe fires at stages 

(D), (D1), (E), and (F) completely reset the successional 

pathway.

At sites where lodgepole pine is the major seral species, 

a herbaceous/shrub stage (A), which may include quaking 

aspen sprouts, follows directly from a stand-replacing 

burn (Bradley and others 1992). Immediately following 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

the fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned 

area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 

non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is 

dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven aged lodgepole pine, 

whitebark pine, quaking aspen seedling/sapling stand (B) 

follows stage (A) (Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any 

intensity at stage (B) will completely reset the successional 

pathway. In the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an 

open, pole-sized lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, and quaking aspen stand, with subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce 

seedlings in the understory (C), and then by a mature 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand, with understory 

subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce (D). Low to moderate 

severity fires at stages (C) and (D) will maintain the stand 

at each respective stage, while severe fire will completely 

reset the successional pathway. With a continued lack of 

fire, quaking aspen begins to decline, and a mixed subalpine fir, whitebark pine, Engelmann spruce, and lodgepole 

pine stand develops (E). A low intensity fire at stage (E) 

will maintain the mixed stand, while a moderate severity 

fire will return the stand to stage (D). Lodgepole pine will 

eventually drop out of the overstory and be replaced by 

subalpine fir, resulting in a climax stand of mixed subalpine 

fir with strong subalpine fir regeneration and scattered adult 

whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce (F). Regeneration of 

Engelmann spruce at stage (F) is a continual and gradual 

process as gaps created in the forest canopy are slowly 

filled by seedlings. Regeneration success tends to be 

greater for subalpine fir, which is more shade tolerant than 

Engelmann spruce. Severe fires at stages (E) and (F) will 

completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The Warm Subalpine Fir Forests, Elting Family ET is 

not suited for timber harvest due to low productivity and 

the inherent difficulty of accessing these rocky sites with 

logging equipment. However, small clear-cuts (2–4 ha) or 

seed tree treatments followed by low to moderate severity broadcast burns will reinvigorate older stands, reduce 

fuels, control disease and insects, and stimulate vigorous 

quaking aspen and lodgepole pine regeneration. Risk of 

catastrophic wildfire increases with stand age, and low 

to moderate severity fires become less common. Low to 

moderate severity prescribed fire can be utilized at successional stages (C), (D), and (E) to thin subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce seedlings and reduce fuel loadings. In 

climax stands, mechanical thinning of understory subalpine 

fir and Engelmann spruce and diseased and dying lodgepole 

pine is an effective means of reducing fuels without the 

chance of a controlled burn escalating into a severe, stand 

replacing burn.

Mountain pine beetle epidemics often begin in warmer, 

lower elevation subalpine forests, and move from there into 

upper elevation forests (Eggers 1990). Managers concerned 

with mountain pine beetle epidemics in upper elevation 

subalpine forests may want to consider monitoring the 

Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET for signs of beetle 

activity, especially at early seral stages when lodgepole 

pine is dominant. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed 

fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain pine 

beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others 

(1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for 

more information on the use of silvicultural techniques for 

controlling mountain pine beetle in stands dominated by 

lodgepole pine.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry Marosa Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically. However, the Marosa Family ET includes the 

subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type at higher 

elevations, whereas the Elting Family ET never includes 

this habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at 

lower elevations (avg. 2660 m) exclusively on granitic 

substrates and is characterized by sandy, clay-poor soils, 

whereas the Marosa Family ET occurs at higher elevations 

(avg. 2792 m) on both sandstone and granitic substrates and 

is characterized by relatively clay-rich soils.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry Elting Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically. However, the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET 

is characterized by the subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry 

habitat type, whereas the Warm ABLA Forests, Elting 

Family ET includes a number of subalpine fir habitat types 

that occur at the warm, dry end of the subalpine fir series.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the ABLA/VASC, Elting Family 

ET occurs at cooler, higher elevations (avg. 2896 m), 

whereas the Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET occurs 

at warmer, lower elevations (avg. 2660 m).
118 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 27—Summary of environmental variables for the Warm ABLA, Elting 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,660 2,647 2,681

Slope (%) 30 22 39

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 633 629 637

Degree days 15,750 15,660 15,940

Frost-free days 19.4 19.3 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -266 -273 -263

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.5 1.4 1.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 528 519 534

Summer radiation (KJ) 18,840 18,610 19,250

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 70 43 87

Clay (% in particle size control section) 8 5 15

pH (in particle size control section) 4.8 4.7 4.9

Available water capacity (mm/m) 20 9 33

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 5 1 10

Exposed bedrock 5 1 10

Gravel 11 3 15

Cobble 8 3 15

Stones 4 3 5

Boulders 5 3 10

Litter 15 10 20

Wood 10 5 15

Moss and lichen 9 2 20

Basal vegetation 27 10 35

Water 0 0 0
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 28—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the Warm ABLA, Elting Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 67 8 1 15

Subdominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 4 1 7

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 67 8 5 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 100 5 1 10

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 5 1 10

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 9 5 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 100 2 1 3

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 8 5 10

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 6 5 7

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 100 1 1 1

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 67 1 1 1

POTR5 Populus tremuloides Quaking aspen 67 4 1 7

Shrubs:

ARUV Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Kinnikinnick 67 4 3 5

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa Common juniper 100 4 3 5

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 67 2 1 3

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata Antelope bitterbrush 67 1 1 1

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis Russet buffaloberry 100 4 1 10

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella Umber pussy-toes 67 5 3 7

ASKE Astragalus kentrophyta Spiny milkvetch 67 2 1 3

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta Ballhead sandwort 67 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora Many-flowered phlox 67 1 1 1

PYMI Pyrola minor Lesser wintergreen 67 1 1 1

SELA Sedum lanceolatum Lance-leaved stonecrop 100 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides Squirreltail 67 1 1 1

PIEX3 Piptatherum exiguum Little ricegrass 67 2 1 3

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 5 3 10

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 67 4 3 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 29—Stand characteristics for the Warm ABLA, Elting Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 2.3 2.3–2.3 17.5 16.5–18.3 96 86–106

PIAL 8.0 2.3–13.8 20.6 15.0–22.9 257 72–442

PICOL 4.6 2.3–92 26.7 15.5–32.3 104 32–153

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 17.5 9 80

PIAL 21.3 12 130

PICOL 24.9 17 156
120 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Subalpine Fir/Oregon Grape, Frisco 

Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Mahonia repens, 

Frisco Family Ecological Type

ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The subalpine fir/Oregon grape, Frisco Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the eastern flank of the WRR 

within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the northern study 

area, this ecological type occurs from Little Warm Spring 

Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. In the 

southern study area, this ecological type occurs from Sinks 

Canyon southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map unit 43L.

Environment

Aspect: North [1], north-northwest [1], northwest [2].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Backslopes.

Parent Materials: Mixed limestone and dolomite 

colluvium.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gros Ventre Shale, Cambrian or 

Mississipian Limestone, Ordovician Dolomite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

67 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 30.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological 

type is the subalpine fir/Oregon grape habitat type-Oregon 

grape phase (Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir rarely 

dominates in the overstory canopy layers. Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir and limber pine are major seral species on 

limestone and dolomite slopes. Subalpine fir is always well 

represented in the small size classes and exhibits vigorous 

regeneration in the understory.

Oregon grape is always present, sometimes at relatively 

low abundance. Steele and others (1983) also consider 

Oregon boxleaf an indicator of this habitat type; however, 

Oregon boxleaf was not found in the shrub layer of any of 

the sample sites. Russet buffaloberry and common juniper 

are other common shrubs found in this ecological type. 

Common juniper was abundant (20%) at one early seral 

site dominated by Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and limber 

pine. Given enough time, common juniper should decline 

in abundance as subalpine fir achieves dominance and 

shades the understory. Snowbrush ceanothus is indicative 

of recent forest fire activity.

The herbaceous layer is surprisingly species rich relative 

to other subalpine fir habitat types found along the eastern 

slope of the WRR. Heartleaf arnica, harebell, elkweed, 

northern bedstraw, bluntseed sweetroot, manyray goldenrod, and alpine leafybract aster are the most common forbs. 

Spike fescue and Wheeler’s bluegrass are the most common graminoids. Summaries of species constancy/cover 

and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 31 and 32, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET are 

deep and carbonate rich, with a moderate to high degree 

of soil development, moderately high coarse fragments 

(avg. 54%), and moderately high clay (avg. 20%). A thin 

(avg. 3 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical 

soil features an A/Bt-Bw/Bk horizonation. Distinguishing 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 7 cm 

thick), an argillic horizon (avg. 38 cm thick), and a thick 

calcic horizon (avg. 50 cm thick). Inceptisols featured a 

cambic horizon (avg. 62 cm thick) in place of an argillic 

horizon. One soil featured a 32-cm thick Mollic epipedon. 

Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. Soils were Eutric 

Haplocryalfs, Calcic Argicryolls, and Typic Eutrocryepts.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Eutric Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oe—2 to 4 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

abrupt smooth boundary.

BAt—4 to 14 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) medium gravelly 

sandy clay loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 54% sand; 23% 

clay; weak very thin platy structure, and moderate very 

fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate medium 

subangular blocky structure; friable, moderately hard, 

moderately sticky, moderately plastic; common very fine 

and fine roots and common medium roots; many fine and 

common medium and many very fine pores; 14% patchy 

faint clay films on all faces of peds; 4% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 14% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; slightly alkaline, pH 7.5; 

Colors: Dry color is multiple colors and organic stains; 

clear wavy boundary.

Bt—14 to 30 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely gravelly sandy clay loam, yellowish brown 

(10YR 5/4), dry; 58% sand; 22% clay; moderate very fine 

subangular blocky structure, and weak fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, moderately sticky, 

slightly plastic; common very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots and common coarse roots; many 

very fine and fine and common medium and common 

coarse pores; 2% patchy faint clay films on surfaces along 

root channels and 2% patchy faint clay films on all faces 

of peds; 4% fine distinct carbonate nodules in matrix; 9% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 16% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- 

to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 37% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; slightly alkaline, pH 7.7; gradual irregular 

boundary.

Btk—30 to 52 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely gravelly 

sandy clay loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 

66% sand; 21% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky 

structure, and weak fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common very fine 

and fine roots and common medium roots and common 

coarse roots; common very fine and fine and common 

medium and common coarse pores; patchy distinct 

carbonate coats on bottom surfaces of rock fragments 

and 4% patchy faint clay films on top surfaces of rock 

fragments; 8% fine distinct carbonate nodules in matrix; 

14% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 33% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; strong effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.6; 

clear wavy boundary.

Bk—52 to 80 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) very gravelly sandy 

loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 79% sand; 19% clay; 

weak very fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common very fine and 

fine roots and common medium roots and common coarse 

roots; common very fine and fine and common medium 

and common coarse pores; patchy distinct carbonate coats 

on rock fragments; 15% fine faint carbonate masses in 

matrix; 18% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 38% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; strong 

effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.8; clear wavy 

boundary.

BCk—80 to 102 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) very 

gravelly sandy loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), 

dry; 77% sand; 17% clay; massive; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; few fine roots and few medium 

roots and common very fine roots; common very fine and 

fine and common medium pores; patchy distinct carbonate 

coats on rock fragments; 18% fine faint carbonate masses 

in matrix and 12% medium distinct carbonate nodules 

in matrix; 7% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 34% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; violent 

effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 8.0.

Ecology

The ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET represents 

lower elevation subalpine fir forests on calcareous soils 

along the eastern slope of the WRR. Subalpine fir lower 

than ~2750 m in the study area is restricted to cold air 

drainages and cooler, mesic, northerly slopes. The clay-rich 

soils have high available waterholding capacity, a factor 

that contributes to the maintenance of high levels of soil 

moisture well into the summer months. On calcareous 

soils, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and limber pine are the 

most important seral species (Bradley and others 1992). 

Oregon grape, which is tolerant of full sun and partial to 

deep shade, is often the only shrub species able to tolerate 

the intense shade experienced in the understory of climax 

stands of this ET (Uley 2006).

Mollisols are most commonly associated with soils in 

grassland and sagebrush communities (Nimlos and Tomer 

1982). However, a handful of Mollisols occurred under 

north-facing conifer stands, sites more typical of Alfisols, 

including one sample site in the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco 

Family ET. The vegetation communities on north-facing 

forested Mollisols were typified by more open overstories 
122 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

and relatively high abundance of grass in the understories. 

The grassland influence at these sites may be associated 

with forest fire and represent the early stages of the transition between grassland and forest. Given sufficient time 

between disturbance events, a closing of the forest canopy, 

and acidification of the soils by conifer needles, the soils at 

these sites may lose any evidence of the grassland influence 

in the understory.

Succession

Sample sites in the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET 

fall within successional stages (D) or (E) described below. 

An herbaceous/shrub stage (A), which may include some 

limber pine regeneration, follows directly from a standreplacing burn (Bradley and others 1992). In the absence 

of fire, the herbaceous/shrub stage is followed by a Rocky 

Mountain Douglas-fir and limber pine seedling and sapling 

stand (B). A fire of any severity at stage (B) will reset the 

successional pathway to the herbaceous/shrub stage. A 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and limber pine pole stand, 

with subalpine fir regeneration follows the seedling and 

sapling stand (C) in the absence of fire. Low severity fires 

maintain the pole stand, while moderate severity fires at 

stage (C) typically escalate into severe fires and reset the 

successional pathway. In the continued absence of fire, 

the pole stand is followed by a mature limber pine and 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stand with strong subalpine 

fir regeneration (D) and then by a mixed Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir, limber pine, subalpine fir stand (E). Low severity fires at stages (D) or (E) maintain each respective stage, 

while moderate severity fires favor the slightly more fire 

resistant Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and lead to an open 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forest with Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir regeneration (D1). Stage (D1) is maintained by 

low to moderate severity fires. In the absence of fire, stage 

(D1) progresses to stages (D) and (E). A climax stand (F) 

of mature subalpine fir with plentiful subalpine fir regeneration follows from stage (E) and is maintained by low 

severity burns or the absence of fire. Severe fires at stages 

(D), (D1), (E), and (F) completely reset the successional 

pathway.

Management considerations

The ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET is highly 

productive and shows promise for timber harvest; however, 

the steep slopes sometimes associated with this ET may 

preclude access to logging equipment. Also, the clay-rich 

soils are at increased risk of compaction. Soil compaction 

can lead to reduced rates of water infiltration and lower 

soil volume, factors resulting in reduced root penetration 

and overall water availability (Meurisse and others 1991). 

Forest managers should (1) consider cable yarding as an 

alternative harvest technique on steep slopes, and (2) limit 

the number of logging roads developed in lower gradient stands and require equipment operators to remain on 

designated roads. Downed logs located away from roads 

may be retrieved using a cable and winch system attached 

to skidders.

Timber managers interested in targeting Rocky 

Mountain Douglas-fir over subalpine fir as a timber species may consider a moderate severity prescribed fire at 

successional stages (D) or (E), which will favor Rocky 

Mountain Douglas-fir over subalpine fir. However, forest 

managers should proceed with caution for two reasons: (1) 

low to moderate severity controlled burns in early seral 

stands can quickly escalate into severe stand-replacing 

burns, and (2) post-fire mortality may occur as a result of 

western spruce budworm, Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus 

pseudotsugae), and/or wood borer outbreaks which typically follow light ground fires to moderate intensity burns. 

Since subalpine fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are a 

wind-dispersed species that regenerates most favorably in 

small canopy openings, silvicultural techniques should be 

used that leave suitable seed trees and result in small forest 

gaps, including individual tree selection or shelterwood 

cuts (Uchytil 1991a). The seed tree method is not generally 

recommended because of the susceptibility of subalpine fir 

to windthrow. Uneven-aged silviculture can be problematic 

because residual subalpine fir trees damaged during thinning operations are susceptible to attack by decay fungi. 

Deer trails were commonly observed in this ET. Following 

severe fire, this ET may provide moderate amounts of forage. However, forage production drops continually as stand 

age increases, and Oregon grape may be the only species 

with appreciable forage value in climax stands.

Lastly, where this ET is underlain by Gros Ventre Shale 

bedrock, landslide potential is high, especially following a 

wetter than normal winter/spring on steep (approximately 

>35%), recently burned slopes.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Douglas-fir/Oregon grape, Cloud Peak Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the 

potential natural vegetation of the Frisco Family ET is 

subalpine fir, while the potential natural vegetation of the 

Cloud Peak Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types differ in that 

the Frisco Family ET occurs at slightly higher elevations 

(avg. 2666 m) and experiences lower degree days (avg. 

15720) and average annual temperature (avg. 1.6 oC) than 

the Cloud Peak Family ET, which occurs at an average 

elevation of 2582 m and experiences higher degree days 

(avg. 17350) and average annual temperature (2.2 oC).
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Table 30—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,666 2,605 2,724

Slope (%) 34 26 47

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 647 632 671

Degree days 15,720 15,040 16,080

Frost-free days 19.3 19.1 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -210 -240 -179

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.6 1.3 1.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 512 483 552

Summer radiation (KJ) 18,380 17,260 19,050

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 54 40 77

Clay (% in particle size control section) 20 16 22

pH (in particle size control section) 7.7 7.4 7.8

Available water capacity (mm/m) 58 30 76

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 3

Exposed bedrock 1 0 5

Gravel 4 2 5

Cobble 8 3 15

Stones 2 0 5

Boulders 0 0 0

Litter 39 25 55

Wood 11 5 20

Moss and lichen 2 1 2

Basal vegetation 29 25 40

Water 0 0 0

Table 32—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 3.4 2.3-4.6 23.4 13.5-44.5 131 15-311

PICOL 3.4 2.3-4.6 18.3 15.2-23.6 143 126-163

PIFL2 4.6 2.3-9.2 17.8 10.4-24.1 227 101-420

PSMEG 12.6 6.9-23.0 37.8 18.0-55.9 153 42-212

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 19.6 17 51

PICOL 15.2 — 51

PIFL2 18.8 12 73

PSMEG 39.6 24 83
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LIMBER PINE SERIES

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Table 31—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 50 10 10 10

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 21 15 25

Subdominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 4 1 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 50 3 1 5

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis Limber pine 100 6 5 10

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 3 1 5

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis Limber pine 100 5 3 10

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 4 3 5

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 3 1 5

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis Limber pine 50 6 1 10

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 2 1 5

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa Common juniper 100 7 1 20

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 100 3 3 3

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis Russet buffaloberry 100 12 1 20

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa Western yarrow 100 1 1 1

AGGL Agoseris glauca Pale agoseris 50 1 1 1

ANMA Anaphalis margaritacea Common pearly-everlasting 50 1 1 1

AQCO Aquilegia coerulea Colorado blue columbine 50 3 1 5

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia Heartleaf arnica 100 5 3 10

ASAUG Astragalus australis var. glabriusculus Indian milkvetch 50 3 3 3

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia Harebell 100 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta Ballhead sandwort 50 1 1 1

FRSP Frasera speciosa Elkweed 100 2 1 5

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 50 2 1 3

GABO2 Galium boreale Northern bedstraw 100 2 1 3

ORSE Orthilia secunda Sidebells wintergreen 50 1 1 1

OSDE Osmorhiza depauperata Bluntseed sweetroot 75 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora Many-flowered phlox 50 1 1 1

POCO13 Potentilla concinna Elegant cinquefoil 50 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 75 1 1 1

SYFO2 Symphyotrichum foliaceum Alpine leafybract aster 75 1 1 1

TAOF Taraxacum officinale Common dandelion 75 1 1 1

Grasses:

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii Spike-fescue 100 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 50 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min = 

minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Subalpine Fir/Heartleaf Arnica-Cold 

Air Drainage, Hierro Family Ecological 

Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Arnica cordifolia-Cold Air 

Draininage, Hierro Family ET

ABLA/ARCO9-CAD, Hierro Family ET

N = 5

Distribution

The subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica-Cold Air Drainage, 

Hierro Family Ecological Type occurs along the eastern 

flank of the WRR within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In 

the northern study area, this ecological type occurs in the 

headwaters of Lime Kiln Gultch, Whiskey Creek, Blue 

Hole Creek, and Red Creek. In the southern study area, this 

ecological type occurs near the headwaters of a number 

of drainages, including (from northwest to southeast) 

Baldwin, Porcupine, Squaw, Elderberry, Crooked, Snow, 

and Cherry Creeks. This ET occurs along Sawmill Creek 

from the junction of Townsend Creek downstream to 

Crooked Creek. This ET also occurs along Canyon Creek 

from the junction of Spring Creek downstream to the Little 

Popo Agie River. It is a component of map unit 43L.

Environment

Aspect: North [3], north-northeast [1], north-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Footslopes and 

toeslopes.

Parent Materials: Mixed limestone and dolomite 

colluvium.

Parent materials are typically mixed limestone and 

dolomite colluvium. However, along Canyon Creek, parent 

materials were mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium 

over Flathead Sandstone residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Sandstone, Cambrian or Mississipian 

Limestone, Ordovician Dolomite.

Along Baldwin, Porcupine, Squaw, Sawmill, and Canyon 

Creeks, bedrock is Flathead Sandstone. Along South Fork 

Squaw, Elderberry, and Cherry Creeks, bedrock is Gallatin 

Limestone. At the headwaters of Snow Creek, bedrock is 

Bighorn Dolomite. At the headwaters of Crooked Creek, 

bedrock is Madison Limestone.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 57 to 

65 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 33.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type 

is the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica habitat type-heartleaf 

arnica phase (Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir dominates all canopy layers. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is the 

major seral species on limestone and dolomite. On sandstone, lodgepole pine is the major seral species. Limber 

pine is sometimes present and represents a hold-over from 

early seral stages. Quaking aspen is almost always present 

in the understory canopy layers in scattered patches.

Shrub species are often scattered or completely lacking. Russet buffaloberry occasionally occurs at higher 

abundance (≥5%), in which case the vegetation would 

classify as the russet buffaloberry phase. Oregon grape was 

abundant (10%) at one early seral site dominated by lodgepole pine. Given enough time, Oregon grape will decline in 

abundance as subalpine fir achieves dominance and shades 

the understory.

In mature stands, subalpine fir forms a dense canopy 

layer, which significantly reduces sunlight penetration to 

the forest floor. Due to the intense shading by subalpine 

fir, the herbaceous layer is depauperate and extremely 

species poor. Heartleaf arnica is the most common species, followed by sidebells, greenflowered wintergreen, 

and bluntseed sweetroot. Ross’ sedge is the most common 

graminoid. Sticky purple geranium is sometimes present, 

indicating the moist microenvironment experienced by this 

ecological type. Early seral stages of this type will often 

have a more diverse herbaceous layer, including harebell, 

Indian milkvetch, slender hawkweed, Virginia strawberry, 

bigleaf lupine, and sticky cinquefoil. Summaries of species 

constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in 

Tables 34 and 35, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the ABLA/ARCO9-CAD, Hierro Family ET are 

deep and carbonate rich, with a high degree of soil development, low to moderate coarse fragments (avg. 33%), and 

strong clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons (avg. 

31%). A thin (avg. 3 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an A/Bw/Bt horizonation. Some 
126 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

soils may display a Btk-horizon below the Bt-horizon. One 

soil featured a 7-cm thick BE-horizon and a 16-cm thick 

Bt/E-horizon below a 26-cm thick A-horizon. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 12 cm thick) 

and a thick argillic horizon (76 cm thick). Particle size 

classes included loamy-skeletal [2], fine-loamy [2], and 

clayey-skeletal [1]. Soils were Eutric Haplocryalfs [3], 

Inceptic Haplocryalfs [1], and Typic Haplocryalfs [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive Eutric 

Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oe—2 to 6 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

abrupt smooth boundary.

A—6 to 10 cm: black (10YR 2/1) very fine sandy loam, 

very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), dry; 54% sand; 

14% clay; weak medium platy structure, and weak fine 

granular structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common very fine roots; common very fine and 

fine and common medium pores; 2% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; very slight 

effervescence; moderately acid, pH 5.7; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bw—10 to 19 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) sandy clay loam, 

brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 60% sand; 23% clay; weak coarse 

subangular blocky structure, and moderate thick platy 

structure; friable, slightly hard, moderately sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common coarse and common very coarse and 

common very fine pores; 1% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; 

strongly acid, pH 5.4; clear smooth boundary.

Bt1—19 to 49 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) sandy clay loam, 

brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 54% sand; 22% clay; weak 

coarse subangular blocky structure, and moderate medium 

subangular blocky structure; friable, moderately hard, 

moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common very fine and 

fine roots and common medium roots and common coarse 

roots and common very coarse roots; common very fine 

and fine and common medium and common coarse and 

common very coarse pores; 3% patchy faint clay films 

on surfaces along root channels and 5% patchy faint clay 

films on all faces of peds; 1% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 3% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

very slight effervescence; moderately acid, pH 5.6; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

Bt2—49 to 62 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) very 

bouldery sandy clay loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), 

dry; 63% sand; 25% clay; moderate coarse subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; firm, hard, moderately sticky, moderately plastic; 

common very fine and fine roots and common medium 

roots; common very fine and fine and common medium 

pores; 52% patchy distinct clay films on all faces of peds 

and 52% patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; 3% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 6% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments and 9% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 36% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; slight effervescence; neutral, pH 7.1; Ped and 

Void: Clay films are both faint and distinct.; clear smooth 

boundary.

Bt3—62 to 82 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) 

extremely bouldery sandy clay loam, light yellowish 

brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 70% sand; 23% clay; moderate 

medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate very 

fine subangular blocky structure; firm, moderately hard, 

moderately sticky, moderately plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common coarse and common very fine 

pores; 16% patchy faint clay films on top surfaces of rock 

fragments and 31% patchy distinct clay films on all faces 

of peds; 5% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 12% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 56% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; very slight effervescence; neutral, pH 7.2; Ped 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

and Void: Clay films are both faint and distinct.; gradual 

wavy boundary.

Btk—82 to 104 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely bouldery 

sandy clay loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 76% sand; 

22% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

moderately hard, moderately sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and few medium roots and common 

coarse roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

few medium and common coarse and common very fine 

pores; patchy faint carbonate coats on rock fragments and 

3% patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; 4% fine 

faint carbonate masses in matrix; 6% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 27% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 52% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 

3000-mm unspecified fragments; slight effervescence; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.4.

Ecology

The ABLA/ARCO9-CAD, Hierro Family ET represents 

the low elevation extreme of subalpine fir forests on calcareous soils along the eastern slope of the WRR. These 

forests occur in a relatively narrow strip (≤250 m) along 

footslopes and toeslopes of headwater drainages in the 

sedimentary formations. Dense, cold air is funneled into 

the drainages associated with this ET, where it flows under 

the force of gravity to lower elevations. This cold air drainage effect extends the altitudinal range of subalpine fir to 

elevations lower than it would normally tolerate in upland 

environments. The clay-rich soils have high available water 

holding capacity, which helps maintain high soil moisture 

well into the summer months. Also, stands located at the 

headwaters of small drainages on limestone and dolomite 

bedrock were positioned on the leeward side of the Gallatin 

Limestone outcrops. During the winter months, snow accumulates in these areas, and remains on the ground until 

mid-summer (Wells, A.F., pers. observation).

Alfisols are soils that exhibit the translocation and accumulation of clay minerals in subsurface horizons and that 

lack either the high base saturation and/or the accumulation 

of organic carbon typical of Mollisols (Soil Survey Staff 

2003). The zone of clay accumulation is termed an argillic 

horizon and is marked by a significantly greater percentage of clay than overlying soil material and evidence of 

clay illuviation, including clay films and clay bridges. 

Primary to the development of Alfisols is the dispersion 

and translocation of clay minerals from higher in the soil 

profile. Dispersion of clays is largely dependent on the 

electrolyte concentration of the soil (Birkeland 1999). Clay 

translocation requires the dispersion of clay minerals and a 

transport medium such as water. Clay particles in soils high 

in electrolytes, such as those derived from carbonate rich 

parent materials, tend to be attracted to one another and 

cannot be dispersed and translocated (Anderson and others 

1975). In soils rich with carbonates, clay minerals typically do not disperse until after the carbonates have been 

leached from the soil unless the electrolyte concentration 

of the soil is reduced. Conifer needles tend to decrease soil 

pH (Daubenmire 1959). Deep accumulations of snow can 

decrease the pH of meltwater and, in turn, the pH of the 

soil beneath by trapping CO2 produced by organisms and 

soil and forming carbonic acid, a weak acid formed by the 

combination of water and carbon dioxide (Seppälä 2004). 

Reduced electrolyte concentrations due to the combined 

effect of conifer needles and acidification of meltwater, 

combined with the overall high availability of water at 

these sites, should encourage the dispersion and translocation of clays and the development of the thick argillic 

horizons typical of soils in this ET.

Succession

The majority of the sample sites in the ABLA/ARCO9-

CAD, Hierro Family ET were located on limestone or 

dolomite parent materials where Rocky Mountain Douglasfir is the major seral species. Sample sites on limestone 

and dolomite fell within successional stages (E) or (F) 

described below for Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir seral 

stands. One sample site was located on limestone and 

dolomite colluvium over Flathead Sandstone residuum, and 

lodgepole pine was the major seral species. This sample 

site fell within successional stage (D) described below for 

lodgepole pine seral stands.

At sites where Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is the major 

seral species, an herbaceous/shrub stage (A), which may 

include some limber pine regeneration, follows directly 

from a stand-replacing burn (Bradley and others 1992). In 

the absence of fire, the herbaceous/shrub stage is followed 

by a Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, limber pine, quaking 

aspen seedling and sapling stand (B). A fire of any severity at stage (B) will reset the successional pathway to 

the herbaceous/shrub stage. In a mixed Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir, limber pine, and quaking aspen pole stand 

with subalpine fir, regeneration follows the seedling and 

sapling stand (C) in the absence of fire. Low-severity fires 

maintain the pole stand, while moderate severity fires at 

stage (C) typically escalate into severe fires and reset the 

successional pathway. In the continued absence of fire, 

quaking aspen begins to decline as the understory becomes 

shaded, and the pole stand is followed by a mature limber 

pine and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir stand with strong 

subalpine fir regeneration (D), and then by a mixed Rocky 

Mountain Douglas-fir, limber pine, subalpine fir stand 

(E). Low-severity fires at stages (D) or (E) maintain each 

respective stage, while moderate-severity fires favor the 

slightly more fire resistant Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 

and lead to an open Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forest 

with Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir regeneration (D1). Stage 

(D1) is maintained by low-to-moderate-severity fires. In 

the absence of fire, stage (D1) progresses to stages (D) and 

(E). A climax stand (F) of mature subalpine fir with plentiful subalpine fir regeneration follows from stage (E) and 

is maintained by low-severity burns or the absence of fire. 
128 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Severe fires at stages (D), (D1), (E), and (F) completely 

reset the successional pathway.

At sites where lodgepole pine is the major seral species, 

an herbaceous/shrub stage (A), which may include quaking 

aspen sprouts, follows directly from a stand-replacing burn 

(Bradley and others 1992). The cones of lodgepole pine 

in this ET are typically non-serotinous, and regeneration 

of lodgepole pine is dependent on seeds from adjacent, 

unburned lodgepole pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over the course of several years, an 

uneven aged lodgepole pine and quaking aspen seedling/

sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) (Bradley and others 

1992). A fire of any intensity at stage (B) will completely 

reset the successional pathway. In the absence of fire, stage 

(B) is followed by an open, pole-sized lodgepole pine and 

quaking aspen stand, with subalpine fir seedlings in the 

understory (C), and then by a mature lodgepole pine stand, 

with understory subalpine fir (D). Low to moderate severity 

fires at stages (C) and (D) will maintain the stand at each 

respective stage, while severe fire will completely reset the 

successional pathway. With a continued lack of fire, quaking aspen begins to decline, and a mixed subalpine fir and 

lodgepole pine stand develops (E). A low intensity fire at 

stage (E) will maintain the mixed stand, while a moderate 

severity fire will return the stand to stage (D). Lodgepole 

pine will eventually drop out of the overstory and be replaced by subalpine fir, resulting in a climax stand of mixed 

subalpine fir with strong subalpine fir regeneration (F). 

Severe fires at stages (E) and (F) will completely reset the 

successional pathway.

Management considerations

The ABLA/ARCO9-CAD, Hierro Family ET is highly 

productive and shows the most promise for timber harvest 

at successional stages (D) or (E) where Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir is the major seral species, and stages (C), (D), 

or (E) where lodgepole pine is the major seral species. 

Since these stands are typically narrow and linear, timber 

harvest should be planned to coincide with the harvest 

of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, or subalpine fir stands located on adjacent backslopes in order 

to maximize the harvest. Also, the clay-rich soils are at 

increased risk of compaction by heavy logging equipment. 

Soil compaction can lead to reduced rates of water infiltration and lower soil volume, factors resulting in reduced 

root penetration and overall water availability (Meurisse 

and others 1991). Forest managers should limit the number 

and length of logging roads developed in this ET and 

require equipment operators to remain on designated roads. 

Downed logs located away from roads may be retrieved using a cable and winch system attached to skidders.

Since subalpine fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are 

wind-dispersed species that regenerate most favorably in 

small canopy openings, silvicultural techniques should be 

used that leave suitable seed trees and result in small forest 

gaps, including individual tree selection or shelterwood 

cuts (Uchytil 1991a). The seed tree method is not generally 

recommended because of the susceptibility of subalpine fir 

to windthrow. Uneven-aged silviculture can be problematic 

because residual subalpine fir trees damaged during thinning operations are susceptible to attack by decay fungi. 

Timber harvest is not recommended in climax stands due to 

the prevalence of stem, butt, and root rot. Climax stands are 

also susceptible to western spruce budworm and western 

balsam bark beetle attack. Longhorned beetles were commonly observed in this ET. Prescribed fire can be used to 

control insect infestations, reduce fuels, and renew older 

stands suffering from decay fungi or fir broom rust. Fire 

prescriptions should give particular attention to the proximity of seed trees to the burned area following fire. Climax 

stands of this ET provide important bedding areas for wild 

ungulates due to the moderate slope gradient and close 

proximity of adjacent foraging grounds. Snags in this ET 

provide feeding and nesting opportunities for cavity nesting 

birds and roosting sites for bats. Following severe fire, this 

ET may provide moderate amounts of forage. However, 

forage production drops continually as stand age increases.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 129

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 33—Summary of environmental variables for the ABLA/ARCO9, Hierro 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,637 2,480 2,743

Slope (%) 18 10 31

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 625 571 652

Degree days 16,500 15,750 18,060

Frost-free days 19.7 19.3 20.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -229 -286 -185

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.8 1.5 2.5

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 581 567 600

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,390 18,730 20,690

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 33 14 47

Clay (% in particle size control section) 31 22 40

pH (in particle size control section) 6.7 6.1 7.1

Available water capacity (mm/m) 102 58 135

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 0 1 3

Exposed bedrock 1 0 5

Gravel 1 0 5

Cobble 2 0 5

Stones 1 0 3

Boulders 0 0 0

Litter 54 25 70

Wood 20 15 25

Moss and lichen 2 0 4

Basal vegetation 14 0 20

Water 0 0 0
130 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Table 34—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ABLA/ARCO9, Hierro Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 80 20 10 35

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia Lodgepole pine 60 10 1 25

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 40 2 1 3

Subdominant overstory trees:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 12 5 15

POTR5 Populus tremuloides Quaking aspen 60 3 1 5

Saplings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 10 3 25

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 10 3 20

POTR5 Populus tremuloides Quaking aspen 60 2 1 3

Shrub:

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 40 6 1 10

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis Russet buffaloberry 60 5 1 10

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 40 2 1 3

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia Heartleaf arnica 100 7 3 15

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia Harebell 40 2 1 3

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Fireweed 40 1 1 1

GABO2 Galium boreale Northern bedstraw 40 2 1 3

GEVI2 Geranium viscosissimum Sticky purple geranium 60 2 1 3

ORSE Orthilia secunda Sidebells wintergreen 60 1 1 1

OSDE Osmorhiza depauperata Bluntseed sweetroot 60 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 40 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.

Table 35—Stand characteristics for the ABLA/ARCO9, Hierro Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 26.0 4.6–45.9 25.1 13.7–53.1 731 212–988

PICOL 8.0 2.3–13.8 18.5 13.7–21.8 324 74–576

PIEN 2.3 — 49.5 — 12 —

PIFL2 6.9 — 25.7 22.6–29.0 136 —

POTR5 2.3 — 18.5 17.8–19.3 170 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 31.8 30 107

PICOL 21.8 15 120

PIEN — — —

PIFL2 29.0 19 —

POTR5 17.8 21 —
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 131

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Miscellaneous Subalpine 

Fir Types

Subalpine Fir/Gooseberry Currant, 

Cranbay Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Ribes montigenum, 

Cranbay Family Ecological Type

ABLA/RIMO2, Cranbay Family ET

N = 1

The subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Cranbay Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern WRR within the 

granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET occurs along the upper extent of U-shaped glacial valleys on lateral glacial moraines. It is a component of map 

unit 327S. This ET was observed in the upper Dinwoody 

Creek valley in the northern portion of the study area on 

sheltered backslope and footslope positions at elevations 

between 2900 and 3100 m. Parent materials were mixed 

migmatite and gneiss glacial till. Soils were deep, fineloamy Inceptic Haplocryalfs.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the subalpine 

fir/gooseberry currant habitat type-gooseberry currant phase 

(Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir and Engelmann 

spruce share dominance in the overstory. Subalpine fir 

seedlings are always present and vigorously reproducing. 

Gooseberry currant is prolific throughout the understory. 

The otherwise depauperate understory includes a variety 

of mesic forbs, including tall ragwort, Colorado blue 

columbine, tall fringed bluebells, thickstem aster, sidebells 

wintergreen, and heartleaf arnica. Graminoids may include 

Ross’ sedge, spike trisetum, and Cusick’s bluegrass.

Snow accumulated on the steep, rocky slopes and cliffs 

above these lateral moraines melts slowly throughout the 

summer. Water from the melting snow flows down the 

cliffs in small rivulets and forms melt-water drainages that 

dissect these lateral moraines. Soil moisture in this ET 

remains relatively high throughout the summer due to the 

melt-water from these small drainages. The ABLA/RIMO2, 

Cranbay Family ET differs environmentally from the 

ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET in that the former occurs 

as continuous forests at lower elevations below timberline, 

while the later occurs as tree islands at or near timberline.

Subalpine Fir/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Swapps Family Ecological Type

Abies lasiocarpa/Vaccinium scoparium, 

Swapps Family Ecological Type

ABLA/VASC, Swapps Family ET

N = 2

The subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Swapps Family 

Ecological Type occurs throughout the WRR within the 

granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET occurs along the upper extent of U-shaped glacial valleys on lateral glacial moraines. It is a component of map 

unit 327S. This ET occurred near Sweetwater Gap and in 

the North Fork Popo Agie drainage at elevations between 

3000 and 3200 m. Parent materials were granodiorite or 

quartz monzonite glacial till. Soils were moderately deep 

to compacted till, fine-loamy, and loamy-skeletal Inceptic 

Haplocryalfs.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the subalpine 

fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type grouse whortleberry phase (Steele and others 1983). Subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce share dominance in the overstory. 

Subalpine fir seedlings are always present and vigorously reproducing. Engelmann spruce and whitebark pine 

seedlings also occur in the understory at low abundance. 

Grouse whortleberry is prolific throughout the understory, 

forming a dense, low shrub cover. Forbs and graminoids 

are typically scattered and may include thickstem aster, 

heartleaf arnica, fireweed, and slender hawkweed. Common 

graminoids include Ross’ sedge and spike trisetum. The 

ABLA/VASC, Swapps Family ET differs from the ABLA/

VASC, McCall Family ET in that the former features 

relatively clay-rich Alfisols, while the later features less 

well-developed Inceptisols.
LIMBER PINE SERIES WHITEBARK PINE SERIES

132 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Whitebark Pine Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Whitebark Pine

Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

Whitebark pine is a small- to medium-sized, five-needle 

pine found in high elevation forests from the subalpine to 

timberline. Whitebark pine superficially resembles limber 

pine in its growth habit, reaching between 12 to 18 m in 

height, with wide-spreading, upswept branches (Howard 

2002). While the geographic range of limber and whitebark 

pine overlap to some degree, especially in the central and 

northern Rocky Mountains, the two species have disparate 

geographic ranges to the south and west. The altitudinal 

range of limber and whitebark pine overlaps to a small 

degree but is largely disparate. Where the two species 

co-occur geographically, whitebark pine inhabits higher 

elevations than limber pine.

The geographic range of whitebark pine is split into 

two distinct distributions, the first following the Rocky 

Mountains from eastern British Columbia and western 

Alberta southeast through western Montana, northern and 

central Idaho, and into northwestern Wyoming, and the 

second following the Coast Range of British Columbia, 

south through the Cascade Range, and into the Klamath 

and Sierra Nevada Mountains of California (Arno and Hoff 

1990). In Wyoming, the WRR populations represent the 

southeasterly extent of the geographic range of whitebark 

pine in the Rocky Mountains. In the Pacific Northwest, 

whitebark pine is limited to dry, inland slopes of the Coast 

and Cascade Ranges and is absent from the wettest areas, 

including Vancouver Island. Whitebark pine occurs in the 

Olympic Mountains of Washington State where it is limited 

to peaks in the northeast rain shadow zone. Aside from this 

general distribution, whitebark pine occurs in the Blue and 

Wallowa Mountains of northeastern Oregon and several 

isolated ranges in northeastern California, south-central 

Oregon, and northern Nevada.

The climate of whitebark pine ecosystems is typically 

cold, windy, snowy, and moist relative to limber pine (Arno 

and Hoff 1990). In the Pacific Northwest, the climate has 

a strong maritime influence resulting in more moderate 

temperatures and higher precipitation, while the Rocky 

Mountains exhibit a continental climate with cold, harsh 

winters and hot, dry summers. In moist mountain ranges, 

whitebark pine is found predominantly on warm, dry slopes 

and ridgelines. In dry, semiarid mountain ranges whitebark 

pine shifts to cooler exposures and moist slopes. In January, 

across the geographic range of whitebark pine, the average 

daily temperature ranges from a nightly low of -11 °C (-14 

to -8 °C) to a high of -1 °C (-3 to 1 °C) (Weaver 1990). 

Some of the coldest winter temperatures in whitebark pine 

forests have been reported in western Wyoming where 

average daily temperatures in January range between -18 

and -5 °C, and record lows have been recorded as low as 

-44 °C. In July across the geographic range of whitebark 

pine, average daily temperatures range from a low of 4 °C 

(3 to 5 °C) to high of 21 °C (19 to 22 °C). Hard frosts are 

common into May and June and uncommon to rare in July 

and August. Mean annual precipitation is between 600 and 

1000 mm in semi-arid mountains of Wyoming, southwestern Montana, central Idaho, and Nevada and between 900 

and 1800 mm in mountains of the Pacific Northwest (Arno 

and Hoff 1990). Snowpack begins accumulating in October 

and is at a maximum by April. Snowpack in whitebark pine 

stands of the central and northern Rockies ranges between 

60 and 125 cm and between 250 and 300 cm in the Pacific 

Northwest. However, redistribution of snow by wind often 

makes it difficult to determine the amount of effective precipitation received in whitebark pine forests.

Whitebark pine is similar to many subalpine tree species 

in that the elevation distribution shifts upward as latitude 

and/or precipitation decreases. In the Coast Range of 

British Columbia, the Olympic Mountains in Washington, 

and the western slope of the Cascade Range in Washington 

and northern Oregon, whitebark pine is a minor forest component occurring on exposed sites near timberline between 

1,580 and 2,130 m (Arno and Hoff 1990). On the eastern 

slope of the Cascade Range in Washington and northern 

Oregon, both slopes of the Cascade Range in southern 

Oregon and northern California, and the Sierra Nevada 

Mountains, whitebark pine is a major forest component, 

occurring in subalpine forests and near timberline at elevations between 1,620 and 2,440 m, 2,440 and 2,990 m, and 

3,050 and 3,510 m, respectively. In the Rocky Mountains 

of British Columbia and Alberta, whitebark pine is a minor 

component of subalpine forests and occurs mainly at 

exposed sites near timberline between 1,980 and 2,290 m. 

Whitebark pine is a major forest component of subalpine 

forests and timberline in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming. 

Whitebark pine occurs at elevations between 1,800 and 

2,500 m in northwestern Montana, 2,130 and 2,830 m in 

west-central Montana, and 2,440 and 3,200 m in western 

Wyoming.

The soils of whitebark pine forests are typically weakly 

developed, shallow (0–50 cm) to moderately deep (50–100 

cm), coarse-textured, rocky, and acidic. Soils in whitebark 

pine forests are derived from a variety of parent materials, 

including limestone, dolomite, shale, siltstone, sandstone, 

quartzite, quartz monzonite, quartz diorite, gneiss, basalt, 

metasedimentary rocks, volcanic ash, and glacial till 

(Hansen-Bristow and others 1990). Weaver and Dale 

(1974) and Steele and others (1983) reported that in western Montana, eastern Idaho, and northwestern Wyoming, 

whitebark pine is virtually absent from soils derived from 

calcareous parent materials, apparently preferring coarsegrained, non-calcareous soils in this region. Shallow, 

residual soils typically support pure stands of whitebark 

pine, while on deeper soils, in glacial till or colluvium, 

whitebark pine typically occurs in mixed stands with 
LIMBER PINE SERIES WHITEBARK PINE SERIES

USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 133

subalpine fir, lodgepole pine, and/or Engelmann spruce. 

Whitebark pine is intolerant of prolonged soil saturation.

Whitebark pine is a monoecious conifer with female 

cones located near the tip of the crown branches and male 

cones developing throughout the crown on the current 

year’s growth (Arno and Hoff 1990). The maturation 

process of cones requires two years, a trait typical of 

pines (Pinus spp.) (Howard 2002). Cone production may 

begin when individual whitebark pine reach 20 to 30 years 

old; however, full cone production is not achieved until 

60 to 100 years. In northwestern Wyoming, northeastern 

Idaho, and southwestern Montana, cone production is 

characterized by two to three large cone crops per decade 

interspersed with small cone crops. Pollination occurs 

in late June at low to mid-elevations and in the first two 

weeks of July at higher elevations (Arno and Hoff 1990). 

The purplish, fleshy, small- to medium-sized (5 to 8 cm), 

egg-shaped cones house large, heavy, wingless seeds. 

When mature, the cones turn brownish and disintegrate 

on the tree. Unlike the cones of limber pine, which fall 

to the ground intact when mature, whitebark pine cones 

disintegrate on the tree, and intact cones are difficult to find 

on the ground immediately surrounding whitebark pine 

trees. As previously mentioned, whitebark and limber pine 

have similar growth-forms making it difficult to distinguish 

between the two species. Based on morphology, the differences in cone coloration, size, and ability to remain intact 

when mature are often the best means of distinguishing 

between whitebark and limber pine.

Similar to limber pine, whitebark pine is a birddispersed species sharing a mutualistic relationship with 

the Clark’s nutcracker. Throughout late summer and fall, 

the Clark’s nutcracker caches pine seeds for use during 

the winter months. An individual may transport up to 125 

seeds at one time to destinations up to 22 km away from 

the parent tree (Vander Wall and Balda 1977). The Clark’s 

nutcracker prefers to cache seeds in areas of low snow 

accumulation where snows melt earlier in the winter, including south-facing sites and windward slopes. About 80% 

of the approximately 20,000 to 30,000 seeds per ha that a 

single nutcracker might cache in one season are actually retrieved and consumed, leaving 20% to be eaten by rodents 

or germinate (Lanner and Vander Wall 1980; Schoettle and 

Rochelle 2000).

Whitebark pine seeds are often cached by the Clark’s 

nutcracker before they are fully developed (Howard 2002). 

The cached seeds continue to mature for two or more years. 

Once the seeds are mature, germination occurs only after 

the seeds have been subjected to prolonged periods of cold 

weather and weathering of the seedcoat. Seedbeds must be 

moist for a significant period of time (≥four days) following germination in order to ensure success of the seedling. 

Whitebark pine is one of a few seed banking pines in North 

America, and as such good seedling establishment may occur even if the previous year cone crop was poor. Seedling 

establishment is most successful on sites with bare mineral 

soil and is especially favorable following severe burns. 

Whitebark pine features single- and multi-stem forms 

(Howard 2002). The single-stem form occurs more often 

in mixed subalpine forests below timberline, while the 

multiple-stem form is more prevalent at or near timberline. 

The multiple-stem form results when clusters of seedlings 

germinate from Clark’s nutcracker seed caches. Above 

timberline, whitebark pine features a krummholtz form and 

may reproduce by layering.

The successional status of whitebark pine ranges 

from minor seral to climax depending upon the location 

of forested stands relative to tree line (Howard 2002). 

Whitebark pine is a minor seral species in lower subalpine 

forests, a major seral species in upper subalpine forests, a 

co-climax species at lower timberline, and a climax species at upper timberline, forming even-aged, monocultural 

stands. Whitebark pine is often the first species to colonize 

burned sites. In general, the shade tolerance of whitebark 

pine may be rated as moderate (McCaughey and Schmidt 

1990). However, the shade tolerance of whitebark pine 

increases with age from highly to moderately intolerant at 

the seedling and sapling stages to moderately tolerant at 

later developmental stages. At later developmental stages, 

whitebark pine is considered less shade tolerant than subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce but more shade tolerant than 

limber and lodgepole pine.

The fire tolerance of whitebark pine seedlings and 

saplings is very low due to thin resin-filled bark, and 

mortality may occur from even low severity surface fires 

(Howard 2002). Severe fires, especially those that reach 

the overstory, are detrimental to adult whitebark pine. 

However, three factors are important in enhancing the ability of whitebark pine to survive burns and thrive following 

fire. First, the bark thickness of adult trees ranges between 

that of ponderosa pine bark (thick) and lodgepole pine bark 

(thin) and is considered moderately thick. The moderately 

thick bark allows mature whitebark pine to survive low- to 

moderate-severity fires. Second, fuels are often limited in 

pure whitebark pine stands due to low productivity, often 

resulting in patchy, mixed severity fires. Large, refugia 

trees often survive in areas where fire was absent or of low 

severity, thus providing a seed source for adjacent burned 

areas. Lastly, the Clark’s nutcracker is highly efficient at 

distributing and caching seeds at newly burned sites.

Fire regimes in whitebark pine ecosystems are mixed 

severity with widely ranging fire intensities and frequencies 

(Howard 2002). Fire return intervals range between 30 and 

350+ years. Late successional species, including subalpine 

fir and Engelmann spruce, dominate in areas with high fire 

return intervals. In mixed, mid-elevation subalpine forests 

where whitebark pine is a seral species, and at lower timberline forests where whitebark pine is a co-climax species, 

the fire return intervals of those species co-occurring with 

whitebark pine are relevant. At timberline, where whitebark 

pine forms open canopy, even-aged, monocultural stands, 

fires are typically patchy and mixed severity due to a limited fuel supply and large widely spaced trees. In general, 
LIMBER PINE SERIES WHITEBARK PINE SERIES

134 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

forest fire is an important factor in maintaining whitebark 

pine throughout subalpine and timberline ecosystems.

Across the central and northern Rocky Mountains, 

whitebark pine is susceptible to a variety of insect pests and 

diseases, the most prominent of which are described below. 

Of the insect pests, mountain pine beetle has been the most 

damaging to whitebark pine (Arno and Hoff 1990). Large 

epidemics occur periodically, killing most of the whitebark 

pine in the infested area. The adults and larvae of the 

mountain pine beetle feed on the phloem layer of the inner 

bark, eventually girdling the tree. Trees attacked by mountain pine beetle are inoculated with blue stain fungi, and 

individuals not killed directly by the beetle later succumb 

to the fungi (Hagle and others 2003). Mountain pine beetle 

epidemics often begin in lower elevation lodgepole pine 

stands (Eggers 1990). Managers concerned with mountain 

pine beetle epidemics in whitebark pine forests may want 

to consider monitoring adjacent lower elevation lodgepole 

pine stands for signs of beetle activity.

Pine engraver beetles (Ips spp.) bore through the outer 

bark and feed in the phloem layer, introducing blue stain 

fungi along the way (Hagle 2003). Top-kill is a common 

symptom of trees attached by pine engraver beetles. When 

populations of pine engraver beetles are high, whitebark 

pine death may ensue. Pine cone beetle (Conophthorus 

ponderosae) and western conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus 

occidentalis) feed on the cones and developing seeds. 

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) is the leading cause of whitebark pine death (Arno and Hoff 1990). 

Introduced from Eurasia, the species is lethal to whitebark 

pine (Hagle and others 2003). White pine blister rust causes 

branch and stem cankers, which eventually girdle the 

branches and/or stem, causing top kill and eventually death. 

White pine blister rust is especially prevalent in areas 

where gooseberries and currants (Ribes spp.), obligate alternate hosts of white pine blister rust, occur. Recently, two 

previously unknown alternate hosts of white pine blister 

rust were discovered in northern Idaho (McDonald and others 2006). Sickletop lousewort (Pedicularis racemosa) and 

giant red Indian paintbrush (Castilleja miniata) were confirmed as alternate hosts of white pine blister rust through a 

combination of DNA testing, scanning electron microscopy, 

and laboratory inoculations. Zambino and others (2006) 

suggested that the utilization of non-Ribes host species by 

white pine blister rust is likely not limited to whitebark 

pine forests in northern Idaho. They further speculate that 

non-Ribes alternate hosts of white pine blister rust may be 

of particular importance for spreading the rust given the 

prevalance of the non-Ribes host species in high elevation 

environments. Zambino and others (2006) advise that additional studies are required to quantify the degree to which 

different populations of white pine blister rust across the 

western United States utilize non-Ribes alternate hosts, and 

develop effective management and restoration strategies 

for whitebark pine. Additional studies may include surveys 

to assess the occurrence and prevalence of blister rust on 

non-Ribes species, collection and preservation of infected 

specimens, and experiments designed to tease out the 

complex interactions between management activities and 

non-Ribes alternative hosts. See Zambino and others (2006) 

for more details.

Whitebark pine is susceptible to a variety of root, butt, 

and stem diseases, including red belt fungus (Fomitopsis 

pinicola) and red ring rot (Phellinus pini) (Hagle and others 2003). The pine needle cast (Lophodermella arcuata) 

is a fungus that attacks and kills primarily one-year-old 

foliage. The result is a loss in growth rate and, in smaller 

trees, death. Another fungus, brown felt blight (Neopeckia 

coulteri) develops on needles that are buried in snow and 

remain moist for prolonged periods of time in the spring. 

The infected needles become matted together by a dark 

brown mat of mycelium and eventually are killed. Brown 

felt blight is rarely lethal. Lodgepole pine and limber pine 

dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium americanum and A. cyanocarpum, respectively) are common parasites of whitebark 

pine. “Witches brooms” form on infected trees. Top kill, 

stem cankers, and swellings are common symptoms of 

dwarf mistletoe infection. Trees infected by dwarf mistletoe 

are also more susceptible to mountain pine beetle attack.

Whitebark pine is declining at an alarming rate across 

the majority of its geographic distribution (Howard 2002). 

The decline is due primarily to a combination of fire 

exclusion, mountain pine beetles, and white pine blister 

rust. Restoring the natural fire regime is perhaps the most 

important management action that can be taken to help 

maintain and promote the establishment of whitebark pine. 

A major proportion of whitebark pine is located in remote, 

wilderness settings where controlled burns may be logistically and fiscally difficult. One means of fire management 

in wilderness settings is to allow natural fires ignited 

in wilderness areas to burn while monitoring the fire to 

ensure the safety of private residences adjacent to national 

forests. If the choice is made to use management-ignited 

fires in whitebark pine forests, light ground fires and low 

to moderate severity burns help maintain whitebark pine 

forests by killing seedlings of competing species. Stand 

replacing burns can be used to open up large areas of bare 

mineral soil where whitebark pine seeds may be readily 

planted by Clark’s nutcrackers. However, if stand replacing 

burns are used as a management tool in whitebark pine 

forests, careful consideration should be given to the availability of adjacent whitebark pine to act as seed trees. Also, 

stand-replacing burns should not be used in areas where 

whitebark pine is in serious decline (e.g., northern Idaho 

and northwestern Montana). In these areas, stand-replacing 

burns risk the destruction of individual whitebark pines 

genetically resistant to white pine blister rust. The best time 

to conduct a prescribed burn is following an early frost/

snowfall in the fall of the year. Managers may consider a 

post-fire thinning treatment to remove more shade-tolerant 

species and promote whitebark pine.

Although managing whitebark pine forests for timber 

production is not recommended, a variety of silvicultural 

treatments may be used to promote whitebark pine. Both 
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even-aged, including clear-cutting, seed tree, and shelterwood, and uneven-aged, including group selection and 

singletree, are recommended (Eggers 1990). The best treatment at a particular site depends on the degree of exposure 

of the site to wind. Across a gradient of slope exposure 

from the most to the least exposed, the treatments should be 

considered as follows: clear-cutting, seed tree, shelterwood, 

group selection, and singletree. The retention of healthy, 

wind-firm, seed trees with phenotypic resistance to blister 

rust is fundamentally important in promoting regeneration 

following even-aged treatments. Seed production may be 

increased by selectively cutting trees to increase spacing, 

thus producing trees with a higher proportion of crowns 

fully exposed to sunlight.

Whitebark pine seeds are an integral part of the diet of 

black and grizzly bears, providing an important source of 

calories for bears preparing for hibernation (Howard 2002). 

Red squirrels also feed heavily on whitebark pine seeds, 

storing them in middens on the forest floor. As previously 

mentioned, Clark’s nutcrackers feed heavily on whitebark 

pine seeds. The depauperate herbaceous layer typical of 

whitebark pine forests in the central Rocky Mountains are 

of little forage value for large wild ungulates. Whitebark 

pine forests provide valuable thermal cover for wild 

ungulates, especially at upper elevations where other tree 

species are generally lacking (Arno and Hoff 1990). Large, 

hollow snags of whitebark pine provide feeding and nesting 

opportunities for cavity nesting birds. Historically, Native 

Americans utilized whitebark seeds as a secondary food 

source.
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Krummholz, Klootch Family 

Ecological Type

Krummholz, Klootch Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The Krummholz, Klootch Family Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern study areas within the 

alpine zone ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET is a component of map unit 304L. This ET occurs above 

timberline near the boundary between the alpine tundra and 

timberline forests. This ET typically occurs in microsites 

suitable for the establishment of tree seedlings, including 

gentle concavities and sheltered slopes. Trees in these 

forested stands are stunted from extreme cold temperatures 

and strong winter winds, resembling more of a shrub than 

a tree.

Environment

Aspect: East-southeast [1], north-northwest [1], south [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Upper backslopes and 

shoulders.

Parent Materials: Colluvium, colluvium over granitic 

glacial till.

In the southern portion of the WRR, including Wind River 

Peak, Ice Lakes, and areas to the south, parent material 

tends to be granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. In the 

southern portion of the WRR in the areas north of the 

North Fork Popo Agie River, parent material tends to be 

porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern portion of 

the WRR, including the areas surrounding Ram, Goat, and 

Burro Flats; Horse Ridge; Brown Cliffs; and Dennis Lake, 

parent materials tend to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss and migmatite.

In the southern portion of the WRR near Wind River Peak 

and Ice Lakes, bedrock tends to be granodiorite of the 

Louis Lake Pluton. In the southern portion of the WRR in 

the areas north of the North Fork Popo Agie River, bedrock 

tends to be porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the northern 

portion of the WRR, including the areas surrounding Ram, 

Goat, and Burro Flats; Horse Ridge; Brown Cliffs; and 

Dennis Lake, bedrock tends to be migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 77 to 

86 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 36.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the subalpine fir-whitebark pine krummholz habitat type. 

Trees in these forested stands are stunted from extreme cold 

temperatures and strong winter winds. Subalpine fir and 

whitebark pine are the projected climax tree species and 

occur in the overstory as co-dominants. Engelmann spruce 

is occasionally found in the overstory canopy layer.

A variety of subalpine and alpine willow species may 

occur in this habitat type, including grayleaf, arctic, shortfruit, and snow willows. Grayleaf willow is commonly 

found growing along melt-water channels. Pink mountainheath and grouse whortleberry often occur on drier 

microsites.

The herbaceous layer is especially species rich. 

Common forbs include alpine sagebrush, ballhead sandwort, subalpine fleabane, Ross’ avens, American bistort, 

wormleaf stonecrop, and manyray goldenrod. Common 

graminoids include spike trisetum, Rocky Mountain fescue, 

alpine timothy, northern singlespike sedge, and spike woodrush. Blackroot sedge often occurs on drier microsites. 

Brittle bladder-fern was found growing in-between boulders at one site. Table 37 provides a summary of species 

constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the krummholz, Klootch Family ET were mostly 

shallow to moderately deep with a low degree of soil 

development, moderate to high coarse fragments (47–73%, 

avg. 62%), and low clay (avg. 12%). A typical soil features 

an A/Bw/Cr-R horizonation. One soil was formed in deep 

glacial till, with a thick Bw-horizon (87 cm thick) over a 

sandy (91%) C-horizon (+9 cm thick). Diagnostic soil horizons include an ochric (avg. 8 cm thick) or umbric (23 cm 

thick) epipedon, a cambic horizon (avg. 31 cm thick), and 

lithic or paralithic contact (avg. 44 cm depth). Entisols 

lack a cambic horizon. Soils were loamy-skeletal Typic 

Dystrocryepts [1], Oxyaquic Dystrocryepts [1], and Lithic 

Cryorthents [1].
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fine roots; common very fine pores; 12% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 25% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 26% 601- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments and 30% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.7; abrupt wavy boundary.

R—73 cm: granodiorite bedrock.

Ecology

Three distinct morphological forms of trees are associated with the transition between subalpine forests and 

alpine tundra environments (Grant and Mitton 1977). The 

morphological forms are related to specific micro-environmental conditions associated with increasing elevation and 

wind exposure. The spire form is associated with trees in 

subalpine forests. This is the typical growth-form of a tree 

with a central stem, and radiating branches. The flagged 

growth-form features short, erect stems appearing much 

like a flag in a stout wind, with the only living branches on 

the leeward side of the tree. This growth-form is typical 

of the transition zone between subalpine forest and alpine 

tundra. Lastly, the krummholz or elfinwood growth-form 

features a shrub-like appearance with semi-erect to 

prostrate stems. The three growth-forms include a variety 

of intergrades, making it difficult at times to distinguish 

between each. The krummholz growth-form is most typical 

of trees in the krummholz, Klootch Family ET. The flagged 

growth-form may occur at lower elevation of this ET.

Krummholz is derived from the German words 

“krumm,” meaning crooked or bent, and “holz,” meaning 

wood. A debate exists regarding the causal factors associated with the development of the krummholz growth-form, 

with some arguing for a strictly genetic basis, and others 

for a purely environmental cause (Grant and Mitton 1977). 

In fact, the term “krummholz” has two different meanings in English, where it is used to refer to stunted and 

crooked individuals of normally upright growing trees 

due to desiccation from strong winds or abrasion from 

blowing snow and ice experienced above timberline, and 

in German, where it is used to refer to a crooked growth 

that is fixed genetically (Holtmeier 1973). Trees featuring 

the krummholz form reproduce most common through an 

asexual process termed layering. New stems arise as the 

layering branches closest to the ground eventually become 

buried in litter and sprout roots. This ET, when dominated 

by the “flagged” growth-form, may occur as tree islands 

that slowly move across the alpine tundra in the direction 

of the wind (see the ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET for a 

complete review of tree islands) (Marr 1977). However, the 

true krummholz form of this ET usually occurs as isolated 

stands separated by patches of alpine meadow vegetation, 

which are relatively stationary on the landscape.

Management considerations

Traditional management issues important in montane 

and subalpine forests, including timber harvest and 

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Typic Dystrocryepts

A—0 to 20 cm: black (10YR 2/1) very bouldery fine 

sandy loam, very dark gray (10YR 3/1), dry; 62% sand; 

19% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate medium granular structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; many fine roots and 

common medium roots and many very fine roots; many 

fine and common medium and many very fine pores; 6% 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 14% 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 25% 601- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

strongly acid, pH 5.1; clear smooth boundary.

Bw—20 to 69 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) extremely 

bouldery sandy loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), dry; 

77% sand; 13% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure parting to weak fine subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; many 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very fine 

roots; many fine and common medium and many very 

fine pores; 7% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 

11% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 17% 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 38% 601- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8; gradual wavy boundary.

Cr—69 to 73 cm: variegated, brown (10YR 5/3) and 

yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), dry; 94% sand; 4% clay; 

single grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; common very 
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Table 36—Summary of environmental variables for the Krummholz, Klootch Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,290 3,232 3,364

Slope (%) 23 12 31

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 819 771 855

Degree days 9,359 8,877 9,997

Frost-free days 15.9 15.6 16.4

Site water balance (mm/year) -145 -159 -130

Average annual temperature (°C) -1.3 -1.6 -1.0

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 392 375 414

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,950 19,240 20,990

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 62 47 73

Clay (% in particle size control section) 12 9 13

pH (in particle size control section) 4.9 4.8 5.0

Available water capacity (mm/m) 27 11 46

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 0 0 0

Exposed bedrock 8 5 10

Gravel 3 1 5

Cobble 7 2 15

Stones 9 3 15

Boulders 13 5 20

Litter 8 3 15

Wood 1 0 2

Moss and lichen 16 2 25

Basal vegetation 33 10 50

Water 0 0 0

prescribed fire, are of little importance in these high 

elevation “forests” that occur almost exclusively within 

wilderness boundaries. Forest fire is rare at these high 

elevation sites; however, it can occur due to lightning strike 

or as large, high intensity fires invade from lower elevation 

forests (Bradley and others 1992). Physical disturbance 

due to avalanches, snow and wind abrasion, or rockslide 

more commonly destroy these stands and reset the successional pathway. Krummholz may be found in avalanche 

tracks where the low-growing form is less susceptible than 

the spire growth-form to damage by frequent avalanches. 

Although stem diameter of whitebark pine is too small 

(<8–13 cm) and the climate too severe for mountain pine 

beetle infestations, whitebark pine in these stands may be 

at risk of white pine blister rust, especially under future 

climate warming (Resler and Tomback 2008). Pedicularis 

and Castilleja species have recently been identified as alternate hosts of white pine blister rust (McDonald and others 

2006). Please refer to the “Principal Species Description” 

for whitebark pine for more details on the management 

implications of this recent finding.

The Krummholz, Klootch Family ET has high aesthetic, 

watershed, and wildlife value. The snow trapped in drifts 

on the leeward side of this ET melts slowly throughout the 

summer months, providing a steady source of water for the 

streams and rivers down valley. These small “forest” stands 

provide one of the only forms of refuge for large mammals 

foraging in nearby alpine meadows and are home to numerous songbirds and small mammals. Moose were commonly 

observed browsing on willow stems in this ET.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/gooseberry currant, Elting Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the trees in the Elting Family ET feature a flagged 

growth-form, whereas the trees in the Klootch Family ET 

most often feature a krummholz growth-form. However, 

the flagged growth-form may occur at lower elevations in 

the Klootch Family ET, in which case the two Ecological 

Types differ in the absence of gooseberry currant in the 

Klootch Family ET.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs at or 

slightly below timberline, whereas the Klootch Family ET 

occurs at relatively higher elevations above timberline near 

the physiological limits of tree growth.
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Table 37—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the Krummholz, Klootch Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa Subalpine fir 100 5 1 10

PHEM Phyllodoce empetriformis Pink mountainheath 67 1 1 1

PIAL Pinus albicaulis Whitebark pine 100 9 1 15

SAGLV Salix glauca var. villosa Grayleaf willow 67 10 10 10

VASC Vaccinium scoparium Grouse whortleberry 67 3 3 3

Forbs:

ANME2 Antennaria media Rocky Mountain pussytoes 67 2 1 3

ARSC Artemisia scopulorum Alpine sagebrush 100 3 1 5

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta Ballhead sandwort 67 2 1 3

ERPES3 Erigeron peregrinus var. scaposus Subalpine fleabane 67 3 1 5

GEROT Geum rossii var. turbinatum Ross’ avens 67 2 1 3

POBI6 Polygonum bistortoides American bistort 100 3 1 5

POGR9 Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil 67 5 3 7

SARH2 Saxifraga rhomboidea Diamondleaf saxifrage 67 1 1 1

SEST2 Sedum stenopetalum Wormleaf stonecrop 100 3 1 7

SIPR Sibbaldia procumbens Arizona cinquefoil 67 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Manyray goldenrod 67 2 1 3

Grasses:

CAPU Calamagrostis purpurascens Purple reedgrass 67 1 1 1

FESA Festuca saximontana Rocky Mountain fescue 67 3 3 3

PHAL2 Phleum alpinum Alpine timothy 67 3 1 5

POAL2 Poa alpina Alpine bluegrass 67 1 1 1

POCU3 Poa cusickii Cusick’s bluegrass 67 6 3 10

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum Spike trisetum 100 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CAEL3 Carex elynoides Blackroot sedge 67 5 3 7

CASC10 Carex scirpoidea Canadian single-spike sedge 67 3 3 3

LUSP4 Luzula spicata Spike woodrush 100 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.
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140 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Jeru Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Vaccinium scoparium, Jeru 

Family Ecological Type

PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET

N = 11

Distribution

The whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern study 

areas within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and 

others (2004). This ET occurs along the upper extent of all 

of the major drainages in the study area, including Jakeys 

Fork, East Fork Torrey Creek, Dinwoody Creek, Dry 

Creek, Bull Lake Creek, South Fork Little Wind River, 

North Fork Popo Agie River, and the Middle Fork Popo 

Agie River.

This ET is a component of map units 327S, 310L, 311, 

and 311L.

Environment

Aspect: South [3], south-southeast [2], south-southwest [3], 

southwest [2], west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Kames, lateral and 

ground moraines, mountain slopes. Backslopes, footslopes.

In map unit 327S, this ET occurs primarily on footslopes 

and backslopes of lateral moraines along the lower extent 

of glacial valleys. In map unit 310L, this ET occurs on 

kames and lateral moraines along the upper extent of 

glacial valleys, including the areas around South Fork 

Lakes, Washakie Lake, and Tayo Lake. This ET also 

occurs in map unit 310L in colluvial soils on mountain 

slopes above the lateral moraines of map unit 327S. In map 

unit 311L, this ET occurs at footslope positions, gentle 

depressions, and other areas of moderate topography where 

slope wash and colluvium have accumulated and site 

conditions have been stable long enough for deep soils to 

have formed.

Parent Materials: Granitic glacial till, colluvium over 

granitic glacial till, colluvium over residuum.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite.

In the southern portion of the study area, south of and 

including the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is 

primarily granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton; however, 

pockets of gneiss occur as well. In the southern portion 

of the study area, north of the Middle Fork Popo Agie 

drainage, bedrock is porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the 

northern portion of the study area, bedrock tends to be 

migmatite and/or gneiss.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 72 to 

83 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 38.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type 

is the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type 

(Steele and others 1983). Lodgepole pine and Engelmann 

spruce are the major seral species at the lower and upper 

elevations, respectively. At lower elevations, lodgepole pine 

coexists with whitebark pine in the overstory for significant 

time periods. At higher elevations, lodgepole pine is less 

successful and gradually declines in abundance as stand age 

increases.

At higher elevations, Engelmann spruce is sometimes 

codominate with whitebark pine, especially where site 

conditions allow for relatively high soil moisture, such as 

on lower gradient slopes (≤20%). Engelmann spruce regeneration is limited at drier, steeper sites and at the highest 

elevation sites (> approximately 3100 m). Whitebark pine 

is always present and vigorously reproducing in the understory canopy layer. Subalpine fir seedlings occasionally 

occur; however, regeneration potential is generally limited 

at these south-facing sites.

Grouse whortleberry forms a thick low shrub layer. The 

abundance of grouse whortleberry in the PIAL/VASC, Jeru 

Family ET is less dependent on specific site conditions 

than in the PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET. This is 

most likely an effect of the higher elevations and associated 

cooler temperatures experienced by the PIAL/VASC, Jeru 

Family ET in mediating the effects of aspect and slope 

position on micro-climatic conditions. Common juniper 

may also occur in limited amounts. Forbs and graminoids 

are generally infrequent and scattered. Heartleaf arnica, 

Ross’ sedge, and Wheeler’s or Cusick’s bluegrass are the 

most prolific herbaceous species. Summaries of species 

constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in 

Tables 39 and 40, respectively.
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Soils

The soils in this ET are relatively young as they are 

derived from Pinedale age glacial till deposited between 

22,000 and 15,000 years ago (Dahms 2004b; Dahms, 

D.E., pers. comm.). Soils in the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family 

ET were moderately deep [4] and deep [7] with a low to 

moderate degree of soil development, moderate to high 

rock fragments (37-87%, avg. 64%), and low to moderate 

clay (5-25%, avg. 13%). A thin (avg. 4 cm thick) litter 

layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an A/Bw/

CB-C horizon. On average, moderately deep soils featured 

bedrock or paralithic contact at 84 cm below the soil surface. One soil featured a thick, dense layer of compacted 

glacial till (Cd-horizon) between 57 and 102 cm below the 

soil surface. Another soil featured an 8-cm thick E-horizon 

directly below a 2-cm thick A-horizon. Diagnostic soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 14 cm thick), and 

cambic horizon (avg. 50 cm thick). Particle size included 

sandy-skeletal [3], and loamy-skeletal [8]. Soils were 

Typic Eutrocryepts [2], Typic Dystrocryepts [7], and Typic 

Cryorthents [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Typic Dystrocryepts

A—3 to 10 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) stony 

loam, grayish brown (10YR 5/2), dry; 42% sand; 14% 

clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure parting to 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

coarse and common very fine pores; 2% 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 12% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 14% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy boundary.

Bw—10 to 34 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

very stony sandy clay loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), 

dry; 54% sand; 21% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure parting to moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very coarse and common very fine 

pores; 3% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 8% 

601- to 3000-mm unspecified fragments and 16% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 17% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy boundary.

2CB—34 to 59 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely bouldery coarse sandy loam, light yellowish 

brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 74% sand; 13% clay; weak 

fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate fine 

granular structure; very friable, loose, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common medium roots and common coarse 

roots and common very fine roots; common medium and 

common coarse and common very fine pores; 6% 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 10% 251- to 600-

mm unspecified fragments and 31% 601- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments and 42% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.9; clear wavy boundary.

2C—59 to 104 cm: light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4) extremely 

bouldery loamy sand, pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4), dry; 80% 

sand; 9% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; 3% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 4% 251- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 31% 601- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments and 33% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, 

pH 4.8.

Ecology

The PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET represents the higher 

elevation, cold, moist end of the whitebark pine series. At 

these higher elevations, in upper subalpine and timberline forests this ET is limited to dry, south-facing slopes 

where whitebark pine is more competitive than subalpine 

fir and Engelmann spruce and forms climax stands. The 

subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type occurs on 

adjacent north-facing slopes, while the Engelmann spruce/

grouse whortleberry habitat type inhabits adjacent sites 
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142 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

with low slope gradient and high soil moisture. Whitebark 

pine is seral to the more shade tolerant subalpine fir and 

Engelmann spruce on these cooler, wetter sites. The spatial 

distribution of this ET is tied to the combined effect of 

the relationship between whitebark pine and the Clark’s 

nutcracker and the lower shade-tolerance and higher 

drought-tolerance of whitebark pine compared with subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce.

Succession

A likely succession pathway for the PIAL/VASC, Jeru 

Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous/shrub stage (A) 

in which grouse whortleberry regenerates rapidly from 

underground rhizomes and quickly dominates the site. 

Immediately following the fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds 

across the burned area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this 

ET are typically non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned 

lodgepole pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the 

site over the course of several years, an uneven-aged lodgepole and whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows 

stage (A) (Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity 

at stage (B) will completely reset the successional pathway. 

In the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, 

pole-sized lodgepole and whitebark pine stand (C), then by 

a mature lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand (D), and 

eventually by a climax stand of mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine (E). Regeneration of lodgepole and whitebark 

pine at stage (E) is a continual and gradual process as gaps 

created in the forest canopy are slowly filled by seedlings 

of both species. Regeneration success tends to be greater 

for whitebark pine, which is slightly more shade tolerant 

than lodgepole pine. At higher elevations, lodgepole pine 

begins to decline in stage (D) and is a minor component of 

the climax stand. Low to moderate intensity fires at stages 

(C) through (E) will maintain the stand at each respective 

stage, while severe fires at stages (C) through (E) will completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

This ET occurs almost exclusively within wilderness 

boundaries, and traditional management issues important 

in montane and subalpine forests, including timber harvest 

and prescribed fire, are of little importance. Whitebark pine 

forests at these higher elevations typically experience less 

severe droughts and colder temperatures and are at less 

of a risk of mountain pine beetle infestations than lower 

elevation whitebark pine forests. Pedicularis and Castilleja

species have recently been identified as alternate hosts of 

white pine blister rust (McDonald and others 2006). Please 

refer to the “Principal Species Description” for whitebark 

pine for more details on the management implications of 

this recent finding. This ET provides important habitat 

for black and grizzly bears, which feed on whitebark pine 

cones and the berries of grouse whortleberry.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Salt Chuck 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Salt Chuck Family ET occurs 

on till deposits at lower elevations (< approximately 3000 

m), whereas the Jeru Family ET occurs on till deposits at 

higher elevations (≥ approximately 3000 m).

Ecological Type 2

Type: Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family 

ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Elting Family ET occurs on 

moderately deep colluvial and residual soils on backslopes 

and shoulders, whereas the Jeru Family ET occurs on 

footslopes and backslopes in moderately deep and deep 

soils formed from glacial till.

Ecological Type 3

Type: Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Sig Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Sig Family ET occurs on 

shallow residual soils on shoulders and summits, whereas 

the Jeru Family ET occurs on footslopes and backslopes in 

moderately deep and deep soils formed from glacial till.
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 143

Table 38—Summary of environmental variables for the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 3,105 2,983 3,260

Slope (%) 23 2 48

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 762 716 831

Degree days 10,970 9,373 12,340

Frost-free days 17.0 16.0 17.8

Site water balance (mm/year) -186 -254 -129

Average annual temperature (°C) -0.6 -1.3 0.0

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 472 420 528

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,710 19,830 20,960

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 64 37 87

Clay (% in particle size control section) 13 5 25

pH (in particle size control section) 4.9 4.8 5.1

Available water capacity (mm/m) 50 16 80

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 3

Cobble 4 0 10

Stones 9 2 15

Boulders 7 1 15

Litter 34 0 65

Wood 6 3 15

Moss and lichen 2 0 4

Basal vegetation 31 15 60

Water 0 0 0
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144 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Table 39—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 91 16 3 30

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 45 10 3 15

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 91 6 1 10

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 82 12 3 25

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 45 4 1 10

Saplings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 82 4 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 64 1 1 3

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa subalpine fir 45 1 1 3

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 4 1 7

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 82 2 1 3

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 45 4 3 5

VASC Vaccinium scoparium grouse whortleberry 100 50 20 80

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 45 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 82 4 1 10

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 45 1 1 1

HITRG2 Hieracium triste var. gracile slender hawkweed 45 1 1 1

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 64 2 1 5

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 64 3 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which 

the species occurred.

Table 40—Stand characteristics for the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 2.3 — 21.6 13.0–30.0 104 32–175

PIAL 25.3 4.6–50.5 30.0 8.4–70.4 684 67–3,288

PICOL 14.2 2.3–34.4 36.6 19.3–59.0 161 7–469

PIEN 11.5 2.3–43.6 37.8 16.5–63.0 148 17–454

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 13.0 7 —

PIAL 31.5 16 197

PICOL 38.1 22 244

PIEN 37.6 19 174
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 145

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Salt Chuck Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Vaccinium scoparium, Salt 

Chuck Family Ecological Type

PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET

N = 7

Distribution

The whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Salt Chuck 

Family Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area 

within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others 

(2004). This ET occurs on the upper extent of a glacial moraine that extends east from Christina Lake and Silas and 

Atlantic Canyons to just north-northeast of Louis Lake. It is 

a component of map unit 327L and 327W. This ecological 

type occurs in map unit 327L on the upper extent (approximately west of the Louis Lake Loop Road) of the Louis 

Lake moraine unit. In map unit 327W, this ecological type 

occurs west and southwest of Worthen Meadows reservoir 

and near the headwaters of Sawmill Creek.

Environment

Aspect: East-southeast [1], north [1], northeast [1], northnortheast [1], southeast [2], west-northwest [1].]

Landforms and Landscape Position: Kames; lateral, 

recessional, and end moraines. Summits, shoulders, 

backslopes.

Parent Materials: Granitic glacial till.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

73 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 41.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type is 

the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type (Steele 

and others 1983). Lodgepole pine is the major seral species. 

At lower elevations, lodgepole pine coexists with whitebark 

pine in the overstory for significant time periods. At higher 

elevations, lodgepole pine is less successful and gradually 

declines in abundance as stand age increases. Whitebark 

pine is always present and vigorously reproducing in the 

understory canopy layer. Subalpine fir seedlings may occur 

as scattered individuals, and adjacent sites may fall into the 

subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type.

Grouse whortleberry, although always present, occurs 

at varying amounts depending on site conditions. At more 

sheltered sites, including north-facing slopes and gentle 

depressions, grouse whortleberry is more prolific than at 

more exposed sites, including south-facing slopes, shoulder 

positions, and gentle rises. Common juniper may also occur 

in limited amounts. Forbs and graminoids are generally 

infrequent and scattered. Heartleaf arnica and Ross’ sedge 

are the most common and abundant herbaceous species. 

Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 42 and 43, respectively.

Soils

The soils in this ET are relatively young as they are 

derived from Pinedale age glacial till deposited between 

22,000 and 15,000 years ago (Dahms 2004b; Dahms, D.E., 

pers. comm.). These soils have had relatively little time 

to develop compared to soils derived from older glacial 

till deposits. The soils were deep (>1 m), high (avg. 72%) 

in rock fragments, sandy, and minimally developed and 
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146 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

featured very little clay illuviation. Soils in this ET typically 

featured an A-AB/Bw/Cb-C horizonation. One soil lacked 

an A-horizon, featuring instead a 12-cm thick E-horizon 

directly beneath pine needle litter. Another soil, occurring 

along the periphery of the Louis Lake Moraine unit east of 

Christina Lake, featured a thick Bt-horizon (75 cm thick) 

and 23% clay in the particle size control section. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 15 cm thick), 

and a cambic horizon (avg. 53 cm thick). Mollic and umbric epipedons may occur occasionally. Particle size class 

included loamy-skeletal [4] and sandy-skeletal [2]. Soils 

included Humic Eutrocryepts [2], Typic Dystrocryepts [2], 

Typic Eutrocryepts [1], and Typic Argicryolls [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Humic 

Eutrocryepts

Oi1—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oi2—2 to 5 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; 

Horizon 2 is really organic matter in upper portion; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A—5 to 25 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) medium gravelly 

sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 56% sand; 15% clay; 

weak fine granular structure, and weak medium subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and many medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and many medium 

and common very fine pores; 7% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 16% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; 

clear irregular boundary.

Bw1—25 to 54 cm: olive brown (2.5Y 4/3) very cobbly 

sandy loam, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), dry; 78% 

sand; 11% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common very fine 

and fine roots and common medium roots; common very 

fine and fine and common medium pores; 24% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250- mm unspecified fragments 

and 32% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 

5.2; clear wavy boundary.

Bw2—54 to 89 cm: olive brown (2.5Y 4/3) extremely 

gravelly loamy sand, light gray (2.5Y 7/2), dry; 81% 

sand; 5% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, 

and weak medium subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine 

roots and few medium roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common very 

fine pores; 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-

mm unspecified fragments and 18% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 37% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.5; clear 

wavy boundary.

C—89 to 106 cm: olive brown (2.5Y 4/3) extremely 

gravelly loamy sand, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), 

dry; 84% sand; 11% clay; massive; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common very fine roots; 

common very fine pores; 13% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 49% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.3.

Ecology

The PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET represents 

forests on the middle and upper extent of glacial moraines 

around Louis Lake, Christina Lake, and Worthen Meadows 

reservoir. This ET is limited to dry, south-facing slopes 

where whitebark pine is more competitive than subalpine 

fir and Engelmann spruce and forms climax stands. The 

subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry habitat type occurs on 

adjacent north-facing slopes, while the Engelmann spruce/

grouse whortleberry habitat type inhabits adjacent sites with 

low slope gradient and high soil moisture. Whitebark pine is 

seral to the more shade tolerant subalpine fir and Engelmann 

spruce on these cooler, mesic sites. The spatial distribution 

of this ET is tied to the combined effect of the relationship 

between whitebark pine and the Clark’s nutcracker and 

the lower shade-tolerance and higher drought-tolerance of 

whitebark pine compared with subalpine fir and Engelmann 

spruce.

Succession

A likely succession pathway for the PIAL/VASC, Salt 

Chuck Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous/shrub 

stage (A) in which grouse whortleberry regenerates rapidly 

from underground rhizomes and quickly dominates the site. 

Immediately following the fire, during the initial herbaceous 

stage, Clark’s nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across 

the burned area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are 

typically non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine 

is dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven-aged lodgepole and 

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at stage 

(B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open pole-sized 

lodgepole and whitebark pine stand (C), then by a mature 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand (D), and eventually 

by a climax stand of mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine 

(E). Regeneration of lodgepole and whitebark pine at stage 

(E) is a continual and gradual process as gaps created in the 

forest canopy are slowly filled by seedlings of both species. 

Regeneration success tends to be greater for whitebark pine, 

which is slightly more shade tolerant than lodgepole pine. 

At higher elevations, lodgepole pine begins to decline in 

stage (D) and is a minor component of the climax stand. 

Low to moderate intensity fires at stages (C) through (E) 

will maintain the stand at each respective stage, while severe 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 147

Table 41—Summary of environmental variables for the PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,829 2,688 2,975

Slope (%) 20 10 35

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 679 632 732

Degree days 14,220 12,590 15,780

Frost-free days 18.6 17.8 19.3

Site water balance (mm/year) -243 -281 -207

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.8 0.0 1.5

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 546 498 606

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,300 19,600 20,980

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 72 61 87

Clay (% in particle size control section) 14 7 23

pH (in particle size control section) 5.1 4.8 5.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 40 24 51

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 0 0 0

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 2 0 5

Cobble 5 1 15

Stones 7 3 10

Boulders 12 3 25

Litter 41 30 50

Wood 8 2 15

Moss and lichen 2 1 4

Basal vegetation 23 20 25

Water 0 0 0

fires at stages (C) through (E) will completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The most important management consideration in these 

warm, lower elevation whitebark pine forests is risk of 

mountain pine beetle infestations. These stands are at high 

risk of mountain pine beetle infestation under future climate 

warming scenarios. Managers concerned with mountain 

pine beetle epidemics in whitebark pine forests may want 

to consider monitoring these lower elevation mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine stands for signs of beetle activity. 

Pedicularis and Castilleja species have recently been identified as alternate hosts of white pine blister rust (McDonald 

and others 2006). Please refer to the “Principal Species 

Description” for whitebark pine for more details on the 

management implications of this recent finding.

This ET occurs near the interface of wilderness and 

non-wilderness lands, and traditional management issues, 

including timber harvest and prescribed fire, may be more 

pertinent than in similar Ecological Types that occur exclusively within wilderness boundaries (e.g., PIAL/VASC, 

Jeru Family ET). Light ground fires and low to moderate 

severity burns help maintain whitebark pine forests by 

killing seedlings of competing species. Stand replacing 

burns can be used to open up large areas of bare mineral 

soil where whitebark pine seeds may be readily planted by 

Clark’s nutcrackers. However, if stand replacing burns are 

used as a management tool in whitebark pine forests, careful 

consideration should be given to the availability of adjacent 

whitebark pine to act as seed trees.

Although this ecological type is not suited for commercial timber harvest, a variety of silvicultural treatments may 

be used to promote whitebark pine. Depending on the degree of wind exposure at a site, the following treatments are 

recommended (in order from most to least exposed): clearcutting, seed tree, shelterwood, and uneven-aged, group 

selection, and single tree (Eggers 1990). If clear-cutting is 

chosen as the appropriate silvicultural treatment, careful 

consideration should be given to the size of the clear-cut 

relative to the availability of adjacent whitebark pine to act 

as seed trees. This ET provides important habitat for black 

and grizzly bears, which feed on whitebark pine cones and 

the berries of grouse whortleberry.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Jeru Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Salt Chuck Family ET occurs on 

till deposits at lower elevations (< approximately 3000 m), 

whereas the Jeru Family ET occurs on till deposits at higher 

elevations (≥ approximately 3000 m).
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148 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Table 42—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 43 9 3 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 10 3 20

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 57 6 5 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 86 11 5 25

Saplings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 86 3 1 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 86 3 1 10

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa subalpine fir 43 2 1 3

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 3 1 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 86 2 1 5

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 43 3 1 5

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 43 7 3 15

VASC Vaccinium scoparium grouse whortleberry 100 34 3 65

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 2 1 5

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 43 1 1 1

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 43 2 1 3

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 43 1 1 1

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 43 1 1 1

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum 43 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 57 2 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 43—Stand characteristics for the PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 2.3 — 30.0 20.1–39.9 44 17–72

PIAL 16.0 2.3–32.1 24.9 13.5–41.9 422 72–823

PICOL 25.3 6.9–60.0 22.6 10.2–43.7 978 267–3,305

PIEN 2.3 — 27.7 — 37 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 30.0 24 154

PIAL 23.9 16 192

PICOL 26.4 19 164

PIEN 27.7 20 110
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 149

Whitebark Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Frisco 

Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Carex rossii, Frisco Family 

Ecological Type

PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Frisco Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the eastern slope of the 

southern WRR within the granitic subalpine zone ecoregion 

of Chapman and others (2004). The ecological type occurs 

near Dickinson Park in the northeast corner of the southern 

study area. It is a component of map unit 310L.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], northeast [1], south [1], south-southwest 

[1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Mountain slopes. 

Shoulders and backslopes.

Parent Materials: Quartz monzonite colluvium over quartz 

monzonite residuum.

Bedrock: Precambrian quartz monzonite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 68 to 

72 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 44.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type 

is the whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge habitat type-lodgepole 

pine phase (Steele and others 1983). In younger stands, 

lodgepole pine dominates the overstory. Whitebark pine 

shares dominance in the overstory with lodgepole pine in 

older stands. Whitebark pine is always present and vigorously regenerating in the understory.

The shrub layer is extremely species poor and sometimes completely lacking. Kinnikinnick and common 

juniper are the most likely shrub species to occur in this ET. 

Similar to the shrub layer, the herbaceous layer is sparse 

and the ground surface is characterized by high coverage 

of pine needle litter, bare ground, and boulders. There is 

typically not one dominant species; however, Ross’ sedge 

and Wheeler’s bluegrass are the most common herbaceous 

species. Heartleaf arnica and manyray goldenrod may 

also occur. Summaries of species constancy/cover and 

stand characteristics are provided in Tables 45 and 46, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET were moderately deep and deep, sandy, and characterized by a low 

to moderate degree of soil development, high coarse fragments (avg. 72%), and low to moderately high clay (3-21%, 

avg. 11%). A thin (avg. 2 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the 

surface. A typical soil features an A/Bt-Bw/C-Cr horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include an ochric epipedon 

(avg. 12 cm thick), and an argillic horizon (avg. 70 cm 

thick). Inceptisols featured a cambic horizon (avg. 21 cm 

thick) in place of an argillic horizon. One soil featured a 

17-cm thick E-horizon directly below the A-horizon, while 

another soil was characterized by dark Mollic colors in the 

upper 20 cm of the soil. Soils were loamy-skeletal Eutric 

Haplocryalfs [1] and Mollic Haplocryalfs [1], and sandyskeletal Typic Eutrocryepts [2].
LIMBER PINE SERIES WHITEBARK PINE SERIES

150 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Eutric Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A—1 to 10 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) fine 

gravelly coarse sandy loam, grayish brown (10YR 5/2), 

dry; 72% sand; 11% clay; weak fine granular structure; 

very friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and many very fine roots; common fine and 

many very fine pores; 2% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 31% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.6; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bt1—10 to 34 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very gravelly coarse 

sandy loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 75% sand; 15% 

clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common very 

fine and fine roots and common medium roots and common 

coarse roots; common very fine and fine and common 

medium and common coarse pores; 1% patchy faint clay 

films on all faces of peds and 2% patchy faint clay films 

on surfaces along root channels; 4% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 15% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments and 36% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, 

pH 5.2; clear wavy boundary.

Bt2—34 to 75 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely bouldery coarse sandy loam, light yellowish 

brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 80% sand; 17% clay; weak coarse 

subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

coarse and common very fine pores; 12% patchy distinct 

clay films between sand grains; 6% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 40% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments and 42% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, 

pH 5.2; clear wavy boundary.

2CBt—75 to 105 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) 

extremely bouldery coarse sandy loam, very pale brown 

(10YR 7/4), dry; 79% sand; 19% clay; massive; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common very 

fine and fine roots and few medium roots; common fine and 

common medium and common very fine pores; 15% patchy 

faint clay films on all faces of peds; 7% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 36% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 46% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 

3000-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly 

acid, pH 5.3.

Ecology

The PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET represents the 

lower elevation, warm, dry end of the whitebark pine 

series in map unit 310L. Whitebark and lodgepole pine are 

the only species capable of inhabiting these rocky, sandy, 

and droughty soils. Whitebark pine is a bird-dispersed 

species sharing a mutualistic relationship with the Clark’s 

nutcracker. Throughout late summer and fall, the Clark’s 

nutcracker caches pine seeds for use during the winter 

months. The Clark’s nutcracker prefers to cache seeds in 

areas of low snow accumulation where snows melt earlier 

in the winter, including south-facing sites and windward 

slopes. The spatial distribution of this ET is strongly linked 

to the relationship between whitebark pine and the Clark’s 

nutcracker. The thick litter layer and unproductive, acidic 

soils result in a highly depauperate understory where only a 

few hardy species can survive.

Succession

A likely succession pathway for the PIAL/CARO5, 

Frisco Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous stage (A) 

in which Ross’ sedge regenerates rapidly from underground 

rhizomes and quickly dominates the site. Immediately following the fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s 

nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned 

area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 

non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is 

dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven-aged lodgepole and 

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at stage 

(B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, pole-sized 

lodgepole and whitebark pine stand (C), then by a mature 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand (D), and eventually by a climax stand of mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine 

(E). Regeneration of lodgepole and whitebark pine at stage 

(E) is a continual and gradual process as gaps created in the 

forest canopy are slowly filled by seedlings of both species. 

Regeneration success tends to be greater for whitebark 

pine, which is slightly more shade tolerant than lodgepole 

pine. Low to moderate intensity fires at stages (C) through 

(E) will maintain the stand at each respective stage, while 

severe fires at stages (C) through (E) will completely reset 

the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The most important management consideration in 

these warm, lower elevation whitebark pine forests is risk 

of mountain pine beetle infestations. These stands are at 

high risk of mountain pine beetle infestation under future 

climate warming scenarios. Managers concerned with 

mountain pine beetle epidemics in whitebark pine forests 

may want to consider monitoring these lower elevation 

mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine stands for signs of 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 151

Table 44—Summary of environmental variables for the PIAL/CARO5, Frisco 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,916 2,873 2,987

Slope (%) 30 25 34

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 696 677 719

Degree days 12,710 12,140 13,140

Frost-free days 17.9 17.6 18.1

Site water balance (mm/year) -232 -252 -193

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.3 0.1 0.5

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 503 453 537

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,100 18,960 20,910

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 72 67 77

Clay (% in particle size control section) 11 3 21

pH (in particle size control section) 5.4 5.3 5.4

Available water capacity (mm/m) 29 24 39

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 1 5

Exposed bedrock 3 0 5

Gravel 8 0 20

Cobble 4 2 5

Stones 9 5 10

Boulders 14 5 20

Litter 42 25 56

Wood 9 5 15

Moss and lichen 2 2 2

Basal vegetation 10 10 10

Water 0 0 0

beetle activity. Mountain pine beetles are favored by mild 

winters and warm, droughty summers—climatic factors 

responsible for epidemics (Howard 2002). Temperatures 

at low and mid-elevations have historically been most 

favorable for mountain pine beetle broods, and whitebark 

pine forests within this elevation range are at higher risk 

of attack. Mountain pine beetle epidemics often begin in 

lower elevation lodgepole pine stands and move from there 

into upper elevation forests (Eggers 1990). Pedicularis and 

Castilleja species have recently been identified as alternate 

hosts of white pine blister rust (McDonald and others 

2006). Please refer to the “Principal Species Description” 

for whitebark pine for more details on the management 

implications of this recent finding.

This ET is not suited for timber harvest due to the low 

productivity and rocky soil surface. Also, vast areas of this 

ET occur along roads frequented by recreationists, and 

the large trees and open understory typical of these stands 

have high aesthetic value. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain 

pine beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others 

(1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for more 

information on the use of silvicultural techniques in the 

control of mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands.

Whitebark pine seeds are an integral part of the diet of 

black and grizzly bears, providing an important source of 

calories for bears preparing for hibernation (Howard 2002). 

Cone scat originating from black and grizzly bears gorging 

themselves on whitebark pine cones was commonly found 

in this ET. During the herbaceous stage, directly following severe fire, this ET may provide moderate amounts of 

forage. However, forage production drops dramatically as 

stand age increases, with climax stands having little to no 

forage production.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Como Family ET occurs near 

Louis Lake and is characterized by Inceptisols and Entisols, 

whereas the Frisco Family ET occurs near Dickinson Park 

and is characterized by Alfisols and Inceptisols.
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152 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Table 45—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 75 10 5 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 10 10 10

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 5 3 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 8 5 10

Saplings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 7 1 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 2 1 3

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa subalpine fir 50 1 1 1

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 4 3 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 2 1 3

Shrubs:

ARUV Arctostaphylos uva-ursi kinnikinnick 50 2 1 3

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 50 1 1 1

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 50 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 100 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 46—Stand characteristics for the PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIAL 12.6 4.6–16.1 25.7 13.0–46.7 408 47–902

PICOL 18.4 6.9–36.7 26.0 15.5–37.3 420 72–1,047

PIEN 4.6 — 23.4 19.8–26.7 116 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIAL 28.4 13 206

PICOL 30.0 16 140

PIEN 19.8 13 113
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 153

Whitebark Pine/Ross’ Sedge, 

Como Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Carex rossii, 

Como Family Ecological Type

PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET

N = 9

Distribution

The whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs from Blue Ridge and the headwaters of 

Sawmill Creek in the north, to Willow Creek in the south, 

and east toward Rock Creek Reservoir. It is a component of 

map units 309L and 309A. To the south and east of Louis 

Lake, this ET occurs primarily on backslopes and shoulders 

of a network of diabasic gabbro dikes that have intruded 

into the Louis Lake Pluton (Bayley and others 1973). To 

the north of Louis Lake, this ET occurs on backslopes, 

shoulders, and summits of low- to moderate-gradient 

mountain slopes as the forest component of park-forest 

vegetation.

Environment

Aspect: East-northeast [1], northeast [1], south [2], southsoutheast [2], west [1], west-northwest [2].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro dikes 

and mountain slopes. Summits, shoulders, and backslopes.

Parent Materials: Granodiorite residuum.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

76 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 47.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ET is the whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge habitat type (Steele and others 1983). 

The lodgepole pine phase was most commonly associated 

with the ET. Whitebark pine is present in all canopy layers 

with vigorous regeneration in the understory. Lodgepole 

pine is nearly always present in the upper canopy layers, 

while seedlings of lodgepole pine are always present at low 

abundance in the understory. Limber pine may sometimes 

co-occur with whitebark pine, especially at the lower elevation range of this ET.

The shrub layer is sometimes completely lacking in this 

ET. When a shrub layer does exist, it is typically sparse. 

Common juniper and mountain big sagebrush are the most 

common shrub species associated with the ET. Ross’ sedge 

and Wheeler’s bluegrass are always present in the herbaceous layer. Idaho fescue and sulphur-flower buckwheat 

are indicative of the Idaho fescue grasslands that typically 

co-occur as a mosaic with this ET. Summaries of species 

constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in 

Tables 48 and 49, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET are mostly 

shallow to moderately deep with a low degree of soil development, moderately high coarse fragments (avg. 56%), and 

moderately low clay (avg. 14%). A thin (avg. 2 cm thick) 

litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an 

A/Bw/CB-C/Cr-R horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons 
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154 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

include an ochric epipedon (avg. 13 cm thick), a cambic 

horizon (avg. 24 cm thick), and paralithic-lithic contact 

(avg. 48 cm depth). One soil featured a thick argillic horizon (58+ cm thick) in place of a cambic horizon. Entisols 

lacked both cambic and argillic horizons. Particle size class 

included loamy-skeletal [5], sandy-skeletal [2], and coarseloamy [2]. The soils were mostly Entisols and Inceptisols, 

including Typic Eutrocryepts [4], Typic Dystrocryepts [1], 

Typic Cryorthents [3], and Typic Haplocryalfs [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed, Typic 

Eutrocryepts

Oi—0 to 3 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A—3 to 7 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very gravelly 

sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 70% sand; 11% clay; 

weak fine subangular blocky structure, and weak very 

fine granular structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium roots; 

common fine and common medium pores; 39% 2- to 5-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 5.0; abrupt wavy boundary.

Bw—7 to 26 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6) very 

gravelly sandy loam, very pale brown (10YR 7/3), dry; 

68% sand; 12% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure, and weak fine granular structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and common coarse roots; common 

fine and common medium and common coarse pores; 58% 

2- to75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by 

HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 4.9; clear smooth 

boundary.

C—26 to 64 cm: variegated very gravelly coarse sand; 

95% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; few fine roots and few medium roots; few 

fine and few medium pores; 14% 601- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments and 21% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 49% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

4.9; gradual wavy boundary.

R—64 cm: granodiorite bedrock.

Ecology

The PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET represents the 

lower elevation, warm, dry end of the whitebark pine series. At the lowest elevations (<2850 m), this ET is limited 

to north-facing slopes, while at upper elevation, this ET 

is found primarily on south-facing slopes. Whitebark and 

lodgepole pine are the only species capable of inhabiting 

these shallow to moderately deep, sandy, droughty residual 

soils. The thick litter layer and unproductive, acidic soils 

result in a highly depauperate understory where only a few 

hardy species can survive.

Park-forest vegetation refers to a mixture of non-forested and subalpine forest vegetation that occurs in a mosaic 

across mountainous landscapes. Park-forest vegetation is a 

common vegetation type across the mountains of Wyoming 

and southwestern Montana (Patten 1963; Despain 1973; 

Doering and Reider 1992; Whitlock 1993; Lynch 1998). 

Parks are sometimes related to environmental conditions 

not conducive to conifer regeneration, including poorly 

drained soils in valley bottoms; exposed ridges; and hot, 

dry, south-facing slopes (Lynch 1998). However, parks 

also occur on sites with similar environmental conditions 

to those of surrounding conifer forests, and a variety of 

ideas and hypotheses have been developed to explain the 

persistence of parks on these sites. Lynch (1998) tested 

three hypotheses for the persistence of park vegetation 

in the northwestern WRR, including the permanent site, 

remnant, and replacement hypotheses. In the permanent 

site hypothesis, parks are considered to be stable communities related to specific types of soils or topography. In the 

remnant hypothesis, parks are considered to be remnants of 

a vegetation type more common under historical climatic 

conditions. Lastly, the replacement hypothesis suggests 

that parks are the result of permanent changes in vegetation composition from forest to park following forest fire 

and/or climate change. Lynch (1998) concluded that the 

replacement hypothesis best explained the persistence of 

park vegetation in the northwestern WRR and provided 

the following explanation. A disturbance event (forest fire 

or windthrow) that resulted in the removal of forest cover 

occurred ~3500 to 2500 years BP and corresponded with a 

cooling trend that favored park vegetation over the regeneration of pioneer tree species. A positive feedback between 

park vegetation and microclimate would maintain the park 

vegetation by exposing tree seedlings to increased temperatures, solar radiation, and water stress. Whitlock (1993) 

provided a similar explanation for the development of park 

vegetation in Yellowstone National Park, suggesting that 

increased fire frequency and changing climatic conditions 

gave rise to increased bark beetle infestations, thus favoring 

park vegetation over forest. Once parks have become established, frequent, low intensity fires would kill tree seedlings 

invading the parks, while leaving adult conifers in adjacent 

forest patches unharmed, thus maintaining the park-forest 

mosaic.

Succession

A likely succession pathway for the PIAL/CARO5, 

Como Family ET begins with a brief herbaceous stage (A) 

in which Ross’ sedge regenerates rapidly from underground 

rhizomes and quickly dominates the site. Immediately following the fire, during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s 

nutcrackers cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned 

area. The cones of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically 

non-serotinous, and regeneration of lodgepole pine is 

dependent on seeds from adjacent, unburned lodgepole 

pine. As lodgepole pine seeds gradually reach the site over 

the course of several years, an uneven-aged lodgepole and 
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 155

whitebark pine seedling/sapling stand (B) follows stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any intensity at stage 

(B) will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, pole-sized 

lodgepole and whitebark pine stand (C), then by a mature 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine stand (D), and eventually by a climax stand of mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine 

(E). Regeneration of lodgepole and whitebark pine at stage 

(E) is a continual and gradual process as gaps created in the 

forest canopy are slowly filled by seedlings of both species. 

Regeneration success tends to be greater for whitebark 

pine, which is slightly more shade tolerant than lodgepole 

pine. Low to moderate intensity fires at stages (C) through 

(E) will maintain the stand at each respective stage, while 

severe fires at stages (C) through (E) will completely reset 

the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The most important management consideration in 

these warm, lower elevation whitebark pine forests is risk 

of mountain pine beetle infestations. These stands are at 

high risk of mountain pine beetle infestation under future 

climate warming scenarios. Managers concerned with 

mountain pine beetle epidemics in whitebark pine forests 

may want to consider monitoring these lower elevation 

mixed lodgepole and whitebark pine stands for signs of 

beetle activity. Mountain pine beetles are favored by mild 

winters and warm, droughty summers—climatic factors 

responsible for epidemics (Howard 2002). Temperatures 

at low and mid-elevations have historically been most 

favorable for mountain pine beetle broods, and whitebark 

pine forests within this elevation range are at higher risk 

of attack. Pedicularis and Castilleja species have recently 

been identified as alternate hosts of white pine blister rust 

(McDonald and others 2006). Please refer to the “Principal 

Species Description” for whitebark pine for more details on 

the management implications of this recent finding.

This ET is not suited for timber harvest as it is not 

highly productive. These stands have high watershed value 

by retaining winter snowfall in the form of large drifts on 

the sheltered, leeward side of the stands. Also, vast areas of 

this ET occur along roads frequented by recreationists, and 

the large trees and open understory typical of these stands 

have high aesthetic value. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain 

pine beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others 

(1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for more 

information on the use of silvicultural techniques in the 

control of mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands.

Whitebark pine seeds are an integral part of the diet of 

black and grizzly bears, providing an important source of 

calories for bears preparing for hibernation (Howard 2002). 

Cone scat originating from black and grizzly bears gorging 

themselves on whitebark pine cones was commonly found 

in this ET. During the herbaceous stage, directly following severe fire, this ET may provide moderate amounts of 

forage. However, forage production drops dramatically 

as stand age increases, with climax stands having little 

to no forage production. These forests provide important 

hiding and thermal cover for wild and domestic ungulates 

foraging in adjacent non-forest patches, including FEIDELSP3-ACNE9, Elwood Family ET in map unit 309A, and 

ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET and ARTRR4/FEID, 

Ledgefork Family ET in map unit 309L.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Frisco Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Como Family ET occurs near 

Louis Lake and is characterized by Inceptisols and Entisols, 

whereas the Frisco Family ET occurs near Dickinson Park 

and is characterized by Alfisols and Inceptisols.
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156 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Table 47—Summary of environmental variables for the PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,838 2,630 3,078

Slope (%) 17 10 28

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 692 627 764

Degree days 13,970 11,660 16,000

Frost-free days 18.5 17.3 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -272 -326 -214

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.8 -0.1 1.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 554 520 615

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,630 19,750 21,640

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 56 30 83

Clay (% in particle size control section) 14 3 28

pH (in particle size control section) 5.0 4.8 5.4

Available water capacity (mm/m) 34 19 76

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 7 2 15

Exposed bedrock 4 0 10

Gravel 6 1 10

Cobble 6 0 15

Stones 6 0 20

Boulders 8 0 20

Litter 31 20 45

Wood 10 3 25

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 22 10 40

Water 0 0 0
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 157

Table 48—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIAL/CARO5, Como 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 57 11 5 20

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 71 17 5 30

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 57 10 5 15

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 71 11 5 15

Saplings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 6 3 10

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 2 1 3

Seedlings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 3 1 7

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 1 1 3

Forbs:

ANRO2 Antennaria rosea rosy pussy-toes 57 2 1 3

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 57 2 1 4

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 57 2 1 3

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 57 3 1 5

Grasses:

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 57 2 1 5

PIMI7 Piptatherum micranthum littleseed ricegrass 43 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 86 4 3 5

Graminoids: 

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 100 3 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in 

plots in which the species occurred.

Table 49—Stand characteristics for the PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 6.9 2.3–13.8 23.9 10.9–47.8 232 74–553

PICOL 13.8 2.3–23.0 27.4 12.2–45.5 351 37–1,215

PIFL2 2.3 — 40.6 — 17 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 22.6 10 138

PICOL 28.7 15 107

PIFL2 40.6 12 80
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158 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

Miscellaneous Whitebark Pine 

Types

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Sig Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Vaccinium scoparium, 

Sig Family Ecology Type

PIAL/VASC, Sig Family ET

N = 1

The whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Sig Family 

Ecological Type occurs throughout the WRR within the 

granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET occurs on shoulders and summits of glacially scoured 

mountains dominated by rock outcrop. It is a component of 

map unit 311 and 311L. Parent materials include granodiorite, quartz monozonite, or migmatite and gneiss residuum. 

Soils were shallow to bedrock, sandy, and low in rock fragments. Soils were loamy-skeletal, Lithic Dystrocryepts.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the whitebark 

pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type (Steele and others 

1983). Whitebark pine dominates all canopy layers, forming an open-canopy forest. Grouse whortleberry creates a 

moderately dense low shrub layer and may sometimes only 

occur in scattered patches. Pine needle litter (55%), boulders (10%), and rock outcrop (5%) make up the majority 

of the ground cover with a scant cover of forbs and graminoids, including alpine lewisia, umber pussy-toes, heartleaf 

arnica, ballhead sandwort, spiny milkvetch, Ross’ sedge, 

and Wheeler’s bluegrass

Whitebark pine forests at these higher elevations 

typically experience less severe droughts and colder temperatures and are at less of a risk of mountain pine beetle 

infestations than lower elevation whitebark pine forests. 

This ET provides important habitat for black and grizzly 

bears, which feed on whitebark pine cones and the berries 

of grouse whortleberry.

The PIAL/VASC, Sig Family ET is very similar in 

vegetation composition to the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family 

and PIAL/VASC, Elting Family Ecological Types. The 

Sig Family ET differs from the Jeru and Elting Family 

Ecological Types in that it occurs on shallow residual soils 

on shoulders and summits. The Jeru Family ET occurs on 

footslopes and backslopes in moderately deep and deep 

soils formed from glacial till, while the Elting Family ET 

occurs on moderately deep colluvial and residual soils on 

backslopes and shoulders.

Whitebark Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis/Vaccinium scoparium, 

Elting Family Ecological Type

PIAL/VASC, Elting Family ET

N = 1

The whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry, Elting Family 

Ecological Type occurs within the granitic subalpine 

zone of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs from 

Bomber Lake in the upper Dinwoody Creek drainage 

south to the Middle Fork of the Popo Agie drainage. It is 

a component of map unit 311L. This ET occurs on low to 

moderate gradient (5 to 25%) backslopes and shoulders on 

granitic rock outcrop. The ET was observed at elevations 

ranging between 2900 and 3200 m. This ET falls within the 

65 to 80 cm range of annual precipitation. Parent materials 

are granodiorite, porphoritic quartz monzonite, migmatite, 

or gneiss colluvium over residuum. Soils were generally 

moderately deep, sandy skeletal Typic Dystrocryepts.

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type 

is the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type 

(Steele and others 1983). Lodgepole pine and Engelmann 

spruce are the major seral species at the lower and upper 

elevations, respectively. Whitebark pine is always present 

and vigorously reproducing in the understory canopy layer. 

Subalpine fir seedlings occasionally occur; however, regeneration potential is generally limited at these south-facing 

sites. Grouse whortleberry forms a thick low shrub layer. 

Common juniper may also occur in limited amounts. Forbs 

and graminoids are generally infrequent and scattered. 

Heartleaf arnica, Ross’ sedge, and Wheeler’s or Cusick’s 

bluegrass are the most prolific herbaceous species.

The PIAL/VASC, Elting Family ET is very similar 

floristically to the PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family and PIAL/

VASC, Sig Family ET. The Elting Family ET differs from 

the Jeru Family ET in that the former is characterized by 

moderately deep, sandy-skeletal Typic Dystrocryepts, while 

the latter is characterized by deep, loamy-skeletal Typic 

Dystrocryepts. The Elting Family ET differs from the Sig 

Family ET in that the former is characterized by moderately 

deep sandy-skeletal, Typic Dystocryepts, while the latter is 

characterized by loamy-skeletal, Lithic Dystrocryepts.
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 159

Whitebark Pine Series, Marosa Family 

Ecological Type

Pinus albicaulis Series, Marosa Family 

Ecological Type

PIAL, Marosa Family ET

N = 2

The whitebark pine series, Marosa Family Ecological 

Type occurs within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains of Chapman and others (2004). This ET oc-

curs at upper elevations (avg. 2,772 m) on shoulder and 

summit positions on the Flathead Formation. The soils in 

this ET are moderately deep and deep, moderately high in 

clay (avg. 19%), and rocky (avg. 66%). This ET is similar 

environmentally to the ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET 

but occurs on more exposed slope positions and in rockier 

soils.

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

includes the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat 

type and the whitebark pine/common juniper habitat type. 

In the whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type, 

whitebark pine dominates all canopy layers, and is com-

monly joined in the overstory by lodgepole pine. Grouse 

whortleberry often forms a dense low shrub layer and may 

be joined by Oregon grape, common juniper, pipsissewa, 

and russet buffaloberry. The herbaceous layer is generally 

diffuse and may include heartleaf arnica, fireweed, white 

vein pyrola and sidebells wintergreen, lanceleaf spring-

beauty, and Ross’ sedge.

In the whitebark pine/common juniper habitat type, 

whitebark pine co-dominates with seral lodgepole pine. 

Other common seral species include Douglas-fir and quak-

ing aspen. A rich shrub canopy, including Rocky Mountain 

maple, russet buffaloberry, twinberry honeysuckle, and 

western serviceberry, overtops a sparse herbaceous layer, 

of which sidebells wintergreen and pipsissewa are the most 

common species.

Whitebark pine on the Flathead Formation occurs 

on exposed shoulder positions at the highest elevations 

(≥3,050 m) and on exposed slope positions subject to 

cold-air drainage at lower elevations. Significant fire-free 

periods must occur for whitebark pine to attain climax at 

these sites. This ET is not suited for timber harvest. Climax 

stands of whitebark pine on the sedimentary formations 

along the eastern flank of the WRR are unique and require 

specific environmental conditions to become established 

and many centuries without disturbance to attain maturity. 

Also, accessibility of logging equipment is low due to 

the rocky terrain associated with shoulder positions on 

Flathead Sandstone. The cones of whitebark pine provide a 

nutritious and protein-rich food source for black and grizzly 

bears.
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Douglas-Fir Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Rocky Mountain Douglas-Fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco var. 

glauca (Beissn.) Franco

Douglas-fir is one of the most important coniferous tree 

species in North America, both ecologically and economically (Hermann and Lavender 1990). Two varieties of 

Douglas-fir are widely recognized: P. menziesii (Mirb.) 

Franco var. menziesii, commonly called coast Douglas-fir, 

and P. menziesii (Mirbel) Franco var. glauca (Beissn.) 

Franco, commonly called Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. 

The native range of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is quite 

extensive, spanning some 4,500 km from its northern extent 

in central British Columbia, south to the mountains of 

central Mexico. The native range of the coast Douglas-fir 

is more limited, ranging some 2,200 km along the Pacific 

Coast from coastal British Columbia to northern and parts 

of central California.

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is tolerant of a broad range 

of climatic conditions (Hermann and Lavender 1990). 

Climatic conditions for the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 

zone include average July temperatures between 14 to 

20 °C in the northern Rockies and 7 to 21 °C in the central and southern Rockies.Average January temperature 

between -7 to -3 °C are typical in the northern Rockies 

and -9 to 2 °C in the central and southern Rockies.Average 

annual precipitation varies between 560–1,020 mm in the 

northern Rockies to 360–760 mm in the central and southern Rockies. The central and southern Rocky Mountains 

experience a continental climate with long cold winters 

and hot, dry summers. Much of the precipitation arrives 

all at once as snow and rain in the late winter and spring 

months. The uneven distribution of precipitation in the 

central and southern Rocky Mountains combined with 

hot, dry summers results in an extended drought in late 

summer and early fall. Topography, including elevation, 

slope, and slope aspect, as it influences climatic factors 

responsible for regulating soil moisture, is very important 

in the spatial distribution of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 

in the central and southern Rocky Mountains, especially 

at the lower elevation extent (1,800–2,800 m). At lower 

elevations in the central and southern Rocky Mountains, 

contiguous stands of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are 

generally limited to cooler, more moist north-facing slopes 

(Hermann and Lavender 1990). The upper elevation extent 

of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir in the southern and central 

Rocky Mountains is approximately 3,200 and 2,900 m, 

respectively.

Climate in the northern Rocky Mountains has a significant maritime influence, a climatic regime resulting in 

higher, more evenly distributed levels of precipitation and 

more moderate temperature fluctuations than in the central 

and southern Rocky Mountains. The spatial distribution of 

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir at its most northerly extent, 

where precipitation is abundant and evenly distributed, 

is less limited by soil moisture and strongly limited by 

temperature (Hermann and Lavender 1990). In the northern 

part of its range, contiguous stands are generally limited to 

warmer, south-facing slopes, and the upper elevation extent 

of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (~760–1,500 m) reflects 

the inverse relationship between temperature and latitude at 

any given elevation, i.e., as latitude increases lower elevations experience colder temperatures.

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is most productive on deep, 

well-drained soils with a pH range from 5 to 6 (Hermann 

and Lavender 1990). Forests of Rocky Mountain Douglasfir occur on a wide range of geologic substrates, including 

limestone, dolomite, sandstone, quartzite, siltstone, basalt, 

deep loess with volcanic ash, granite, tuff, rhyolite, schist, 

breccia, andesite, alluvium, and glacial till (Pfister and others 1977; Youngblood and Mauk 1985; Johnson and Simon 

1987; Svalberg and others 1997; Johnston and others 

2001). Steele and others (1983) described Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir forests as highly dependent on substrate in the 

central Rocky Mountains of eastern Idaho and western 

Wyoming. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests in this 

region typically occur on soils derived from limestone and 

basic extrusive volcanics, particularly andesite and basalt. 

Douglas-fir is intolerant of prolonged soil saturation.

In the central and southern Rocky Mountains, pollination of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir cones occurs between 

mid-May to mid-June (Hermann and Lavender 1990). 

Hard frosts or depredation of the cones by insects during 

this time period will result in the destruction of the cones 

and seeds before maturation. In the central and southern 

Rocky Mountains, the Douglas-fir cone moth (Barbara 

colfaxiana) is the most common cone pest; however, 

western spruce budworm will also attack cones and seeds 

(Hagle and others 2003). Seeds ripen sometime in August, 

and seed dispersal usually begins sometime between late 

August and mid-September (Hermann and Lavender 

1990). Douglas-fir seeds are primarily wind-dispersed. 

Seeds germinate from mid-May to mid-June depending on 

elevation. A thin organic layer at the mineral soil surface 

creates a favorable environment for seedling establishment. 

Light shade encourages the germination and establishment 

of seedlings during the first year, especially on southerly 

slopes, by moderating temperature extremes. However, older seedlings require full sunlight. Generally speaking, in the 

southern and central Rocky Mountains, Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir is seral to subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce 

in colder, more moist environments at upper elevations and 

at sites experiencing cold air drainage, and is a climax species at warmer, drier sites at lower elevations.

In the central Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, historical 

fire return intervals in Douglas-fir forests range between 50 

and 100 years (Steinberg 2002). Douglas-fir is most susceptible to fire in the seedling and sapling stage when the thin, 
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DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

resin filled bark is easily scorched through to the cambium. 

After about 40 years at moist sites, and perhaps 60 years in 

drier localities, Douglas-fir develops a thick, fire-resistant 

bark, at which point Douglas-fir can resist moderate intensity surface fires. However, if moderate intensity surface 

fires escalate into crown fires, Douglas-fir will be killed or 

severely damaged as buds and fine twigs are particularly 

susceptible to fire. Prescribed fire can be used to thin 

mature Douglas-fir forests, reduce fuel loadings, or halt 

the encroachment of Douglas-fir into adjacent grassland 

communities when mechanical thinning is logistically or 

monetarily prohibitive (Steinberg 2002). However, forest 

managers should proceed with caution for two reasons: 

(1) low to moderate severity controlled burns in early seral 

stands can quickly escalate into severe crown fires, and 

(2) post-fire mortality may occur as a result of western 

spruce budworm, Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae), and/or wood borer outbreaks, which typically 

follow light ground fires to moderate intensity burns.

Western spruce budworm, one of the most prolific 

insect pests of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, feeds on buds 

and needles of trees of all ages, often resulting in severe 

defoliation (Hermann and Lavender 1990). Adult and larval 

Douglas-fir beetles girdle and usually kill trees by feeding 

on the phloem layer (Hagle and others 2003). Douglas-fir 

beetle bore-holes provide an excellent avenue for the inoculation of the weakened trees with blue stain fungi. Trees not 

girdled and killed directly by the Douglas-fir beetle usually 

succumb to the blue stain fungi infection. Wood borers may 

include longhorned beetles (Family: Cerambycidae) and 

metallic wood borers (Family: Buprestidae). Longhorned 

beetles and metallic wood borers rarely kill their hosts; they 

usually only attack weakened and recently downed trees. 

The cambium is the first area of the host fed on by these 

wood boring insects. Tunnels are then sometimes extended 

into the sapwood.

Douglas-fir forests provide important habitat for a 

number of wildlife species (Steinberg 2002). A variety of 

songbirds, including Clark’s nutcracker, black-capped and 

mountain chickadees, and red-breasted nuthatch, and small 

mammals, including red squirrels, chipmunks, mice, voles, 

and shrews, feed on the seeds of Douglas-fir. Blue grouse 

forage on Douglas-fir buds and needles.

Douglas-Fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, 

Redfist Family Ecological Type

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca/Acer 

glabrum, Redfist Family Ecological Type

PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, Redfist Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern study 

areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the northern 

study area, this ecological type occurs from Little Warm 

Spring Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. 

In the southern study area, this ecological type occurs from 

Sinks Canyon southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map unit 43L.

Environment

Aspect: North [3], northeast [1], north-northwest [2].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Backslopes and 

footslopes.

Parent Materials: Mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium.

Parent materials are typically mixed limestone and dolomite 

colluvium. However, in the depths of the Canyon Creek 

parent materials were mixed limestone and dolomite 

colluvium over Flathead Sandstone residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Flathead Sandstone, Cambrian Gros 

Ventre Shale, Cambrian Gallatin Limestone.

Flathead Sandstone was observed as bedrock at footslope 

positions along Canyon Creek from the junction of Spring 

Creek downstream to the Little Popo Agie River and along 

Sawmill Creek from the junction of Townsend Creek 

downstream to Crooked Creek. Other areas of Flathead 

Sandstone bedrock may occur along the lower section of 

other deep canyons along the eastern flank of the range.
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Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 49 to 58 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 50.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is 

the Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple habitat type (Steele 

and others 1983). Douglas-fir dominates all canopy layer, 

especially in more mature stands. Limber pine and quaking 

aspen are usually present in the overstory of younger stands. 

Rocky Mountain maple, western serviceberry, and black 

chokecherry create an arbor-like tall shrub layer. Oregon 

grape and/or Oregon boxleaf are always present in the low 

shrub layer, sometimes at high abundance. Common juniper, 

russet buffaloberry, and Utah snowberry are shrubs common 

to early seral stands. As this habitat type matures, the less 

tolerant shrubs, including western serviceberry and black 

chokecherry, become less important and Rocky Mountain 

maple remains as the dominant shrub.

The herbaceous layer is similar to that described by 

Steele and others (1983) for this habitat type in eastern 

Idaho and far western Wyoming in that heartleaf arnica and 

bedstraw are the dominant herbaceous species. However, 

in the WRR, northern bedstraw (as opposed to fragrant 

bedstraw) is the primary bedstraw species. Additionally, elk 

sedge and pinegrass are rarely, if ever, present in this type. 

Rather, Wheeler’s bluegrass, spike fescue, spike trisetum, 

and Ross’ sedge are the primary graminoids. Other common 

species include Virginia strawberry, small-leaved alumroot, 

and alpine leafybract aster. Summaries of species constancy/

cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 51 

and 52, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET 

were deep and calcareous, with a high degree of soil 

development, variable amounts of rock fragments (27–78%, 

avg. 56%), moderate to high clay (17–32%, avg. 24%), and 

strong clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons. A thin 

(avg. 5 cm thick) litter layer occurred at the surface. Soils 

with a calcic horizon typically featured an A/Btk-Bk/BC-C 

horizonation. One soil featured a 29-cm thick Bw-horizon 

and 15-cm thick Bt-horizon directly below the A-horizon 

and above a Btk-horizon. Diagnostic soil horizons include 

an ochric epipedon (avg. 22 cm thick), and a calcic horizon 

(avg. 47 cm thick). One soil displayed a 45-cm thick mollic epipedon. Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. Soils 

were Typic Calciustepts [1], Pachic Haplustolls [1], Calcic 

Haplustepts [1], and Calcic Haplustalfs [1].

Soils lacking calcic horizons typically featured an 

A/Bt/C horizonation. C-horizons tended to be thick (avg. 

68 cm thick), and extremely gravelly. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include a mollic (36 cm thick) or ochric epipedon 

(14 cm thick), and a thin argillic horizon (avg. 17 cm thick). 

Particle size class was fine-loamy. The soils were classified 

as clay-rich Mollisols and weak Alfisols, including Typic 

Argiustolls [1] and Inceptic Haplocryalfs [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Calcic Haplustepts

Oi—0 to 4 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

A—4 to 18 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) silt loam, dark brown 

(10YR 3/3), moist; 41% sand; 20% clay; moderate medium 

subangular blocky structure parting to moderate fine 

subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and common coarse roots and common 

very fine roots; common fine and common medium and 

common coarse and common very fine pores; patchy faint 

carbonate coats on rock fragments; 1% fine faint carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 6% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly alkaline, pH 

7.4; clear wavy boundary.

AB—18 to 33 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) very gravelly silt 

loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), moist; 40% sand; 22% 

clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure parting to 

moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable, hard, 

moderately sticky, moderately plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common very coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very coarse and common very fine 

pores; patchy distinct carbonate coats on rock fragments; 

25% fine faint carbonate nodules in matrix; 22% 251- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments and 45% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; slight effervescence, by HCl, 1 

normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; clear wavy boundary.

Bk—33 to 71 cm: light brown (7.5YR 6/3) extremely 

stony loam, strong brown (7.5YR 4/6), moist; 39% sand; 

26% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, 

and weak fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, 
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slightly sticky, moderately plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common coarse and common very fine pores; 

patchy distinct carbonate coats on bottom surfaces of rock 

fragments; 1% fine faint carbonate nodules in matrix; 28% 

251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 44% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; violent effervescence, by 

HCl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; abrupt smooth 

boundary.

2BC—71 to 103 cm: pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) extremely 

gravelly sandy loam, light olive brown (2.5Y 5/6), moist; 

69% sand; 16% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure, and weak very fine granular structure; very 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots and 

common coarse roots; common fine and common medium 

and common coarse pores; 3% 251- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 85% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

violent effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; moderately 

alkaline, pH 8.0.

Ecology

The PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET was distributed 

on north-facing slopes along the lower reaches of steep canyons near lower tree line. Topography, including elevation, 

slope gradient, and slope aspect, as it influences climatic 

factors responsible for regulating soil moisture, is very 

important in the spatial distribution of Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir in the central and southern Rocky Mountains, 

especially at the lower elevation extent (1,800–2,800 m). 

At lower elevations in the central and southern Rocky 

Mountains, contiguous stands of Rocky Mountain Douglasfir are generally limited to cooler, more moist north-facing 

slopes (Hermann and Lavender 1991).

Rocky Mountain maple is a moist site indicator in the 

mountains of western Wyoming (Houston and others 2001). 

Considering that in mountainous regions precipitation 

generally decreases with elevation, the spatial distribution of Rocky Mountain maple at lower elevations along 

canyon walls suggests that these sites are more mesic than 

is characteristic for these lower elevations. Precipitation in 

mountainous regions that are dominated by steep, narrow 

canyons can be effected by a phenomenon termed “canyon 

effects” (Baker 1944). Canyon effects occur when moist air 

masses, uplifted by the higher elevation ridges surrounding a canyon, result in elevated amounts of precipitation 

at the canyon bottom. Canyon effects may partly explain 

the distribution of Rocky Mountain maple in these lower 

elevation Douglas-fir forests. The clay-rich soils, which 

retain moisture well into the summer months, may also help 

explain the distribution of this ET.

Mollisols are most commonly associated with soils in 

grassland and sagebrush communities (Nimlos and Tomer 

1982). However, a handful of Mollisols occurred under 

north-facing conifer stands, sites more typical of Alfisols, 

including two sample sites in the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist 

Family ET. Quaking aspen is seral to Douglas-fir in this 

ET following forest fire, and the early seral stages of these 

forested stands feature vigorous quaking aspen resprouts. 

Quaking aspen leaves, which have high concentrations 

of cations and decompose quickly due to a low carbon to 

nitrogen ratio, contribute strongly to the development of 

thick, dark, carbon-rich surface horizons with relatively 

high pH (typically >6.0) (Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 

1996; Legare and others 2005). The abundance of deciduous shrubs in later seral stages of the PSMEG/ACGL, 

Redfist Family ET, including Rocky Mountain maple, Utah 

snowberry, and black chokecherry, likely contribute to the 

persistence of Mollisols through the annual input of highly 

decomposable, carbon-rich leaf litter.

Succession

The sample sites in the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family 

ET fall within successional stages (D) through (E) described below. Sample sites with low basal area (10–30 ft2/

acre) of Douglas-fir and moderate to high basal area 

(>30 ft2/acre) of quaking aspen fall within successional 

stage (D). Sample sites with moderate to high basal area 

(>30 ft2/acre) of Douglas-fir and low basal area of quaking 

aspen (10–30 ft2/acre) fall within successional stage (E). 

Sample sites with no quaking aspen fall within successional 

stage (F).

Quaking aspen is a common seral species in these 

moist Douglas-fir forests. In soils influenced by sandstone, 

lodgepole pine may also occur in early seral stands. A brief 

herbaceous/shrub stage (A) follows directly after a stand 

replacing burn and is quickly replaced by a dense stand of 

aspen resprouts (B) (Bradley and others 1992). A fire of 

any intensity during stage (B) will reset the successional 

pathway. In the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by 

a dense, pole-sized aspen stand that features Douglas-fir 

seedlings in the understory (C). Low fires result in a more 

open stand in which aspen and Douglas-fir seedlings can 

become established. Moderate fires reset the successional 

pathway, resulting in a dense stand of aspen resprouts. A 

mixed stand (D) develops in the absence of fire, in which 

Douglas-fir dominates the understory and shares the overstory with aspen. A moderate fire at stage (D) eliminates 

the understory, killing aspen stems and creating an open 

Douglas-fir stand with aspen resprouts (D1). The stand is 

maintained by low fire, while severe fire will completely 

reset the successional pathway. In the absence of fire, quaking aspen will eventually begin to break up as Douglas-fir 

continues to shade the understory to the detriment of 

quaking aspen resprouts (E). In the continued absence of 

fire, a climax multi-aged Douglas-fir stand develops (F). 

Moderate fires at stage (F) result in a more open Douglasfir forest with scattered aspen in canopy openings. Severe 

fire will completely reset the successional pathway.
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Management considerations

The PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET is moderately 

well suited for timber harvest. Basal area and trees per ha 

are high and the deep soils are highly productive. However, 

these sites typically feature a steep slope gradient (avg. 

46%), thus reducing operability of heavy timber harvest 

equipment.

Since Douglas-fir is a wind-dispersed species that 

regenerates most favorably in small canopy openings, silvicultural techniques should be used that leave suitable seed 

trees and result in small forest gaps, such as individual tree 

selection or shelterwood cuts. Group selection or shelterwood cuts are appropriate silvicultural techniques in mixed 

Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine stands (Steinberg 2002). 

Clear-cutting can be used to salvage entire stands damaged 

by insects or Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe. Following clearcutting of infested stands, slash should be burned in piles or 

windrows in order to control residual dwarf mistletoe and 

insects.

Mechanical thinning of well-stocked, multi-storied 

stands can reduce the potential for intensive western spruce 

budworm attack (Bradley and others 1992). Prescribed 

fire can be used to thin mature Douglas-fir forests, reduce 

fuel loadings, or halt the encroachment of Douglas-fir into 

adjacent grassland communities when mechanical thinning 

is logistically or monetarily prohibitive (Steinberg 2002). 

However, forest managers should proceed with caution for 

two reasons: (1) low to moderate severity controlled burns 

in early seral stands can quickly escalate into severe crown 

fires, and (2) post-fire mortality may occur as a result of 

western spruce budworm, Douglas-fir beetle, and/or wood 

borer outbreaks that typically follow light ground fires to 

moderate intensity burns.

Managers considering the use of prescribed fire to 

increase the abundance of Rocky Mountain maple should 

consider using low to moderate intensity burns as high intensity burns can result in less successful regeneration and 

an overall loss of vigor. Silvicultural treatments, including 

thinning, clear-cutting, and shelterwood cuts, may also lead 

to an increase in the overall density of Rocky Mountain 

maple. However, severe damage to the root crown due to 

mechanical disturbance will decrease the abundance of 

Rocky Mountain maple following silvicultural treatments. 

Rocky Mountain maple is an important browse species 

for domestic and wild ungulates and, in early seral stands, 

provides physical and thermal cover for a variety of wildlife, including mule deer, elk, birds, and small mammals 

(Anderson 2001a). Lastly, where this ET is underlain by 

Gros Ventre Shale bedrock, landslide potential is high, 

especially following a wetter than normal winter/spring on 

steep (approximately >35%), recently burned slopes.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, Yourame 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the soils of the Redfist Family ET 

are derived from mixed calcareous colluvium or mixed 

calcareous colluvium over residuum, while the soils of the 

Yourame Family ET are derived from mixed calcareous 

colluvium over granitic glacial till.
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Table 52—Stand characteristics for the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

ABLA 2.3 — 12.7 — 180 —

PIFL2 6.9 — 27.7 22.9–35.8 128 —

POTR5 5.3 2.3–11.5 15.5 11.7–16.5 299 121–561

PSMEG 16.1 2.3–27.6 34.0 13.5–64.3 259 17–773

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

ABLA 12.7 8 38

PIFL2 24.4 — 76

POTR5 14.5 17 —

PSMEG 37.3 24 85

Table 50—Summary of environmental variables for the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,422 2,273 2,493

Slope (%) 46 40 56

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 552 490 581

Degree days 18,700 17,890 20,560

Frost-free days 20.8 20.4 21.8

Site water balance (mm/year) -246 -277 -207

Average annual temperature (°C) 2.7 2.4 3.5

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 560 504 594

Summer radiation (KJ) 17,750 16,490 18,320

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 56 27 78

Clay (% in particle size control section) 24 17 32

pH (in particle size control section) 7.5 7.0 8.0

Available Water Capacity (mm/m) 68 47 137

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 4 1 7

Exposed bedrock 1 0 5

Gravel 3 0 10

Cobble 4 1 10

Stones 4 2 5

Boulders 13 3 20

Litter 17 15 20

Wood 13 10 15

Moss and lichen 2 1 3

Basal vegetation 38 20 60

Water 0 0 0
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Table 51—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 20 10 30

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 4 2 5

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 10 5 15

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 2 1 3

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 4 1 10

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 2 1 3

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 2 1 3

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 83 4 3 5

Shrubs:

ACGL Acer glabrum Rocky Mountain maple 100 6 5 10

AMAL2 Amelanchier alnifolia western serviceberry 50 2 1 3

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 4 1 5

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 100 6 1 10

PAMY Paxistima myrsinites Oregon boxleaf 50 6 3 10

PRVIM Prunus virginiana var. melanocarpa black chokecherry 50 3 1 7

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 100 2 1 3

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 100 12 3 25

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 83 5 1 15

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 11 3 25

FRSP Frasera speciosa elkweed 50 2 1 3

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 100 2 1 3

GABO2 Galium boreale northern bedstraw 100 2 1 3

HEPA11 Heuchera parvifolia small-leaved alumroot 83 1 1 1

ORSE Orthilia secunda sidebells wintergreen 50 2 1 3

PAST10 Packera streptanthifolia Rocky Mountain groundsel 50 1 1 1

POGL9 Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil 50 1 1 1

SYFO2 Symphyotrichum foliaceum alpine leafybract aster 100 4 1 5

VIOLA Viola violet 67 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELGL Elymus glaucus blue wildrye 50 4 3 5

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 67 2 1 3

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 83 3 1 3

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum 67 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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Douglas-Fir/Oregon Grape, Cloud 

Peak Family Ecological Type

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca/Mahonia 

repens, Cloud Peak Family Ecological Type

PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The Douglas-fir/Oregon grape, Cloud Peak Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern study 

areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the northern 

study area, this ecological type occurs from Little Warm 

Spring Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. In the southern study area, this ecological type occurs 

from Sinks Canyon southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is 

a component of map unit 43L. This ecological type occurs 

on moderately steep (approximately 20–40%), north- and 

east-facing limestone footslopes, backslopes and shoulders.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], north [2], north-northeast [2], northnorthwest [1]

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders, backslopes, 

footslopes.

Parent Materials: Limestone or dolomite colluvium.

Bedrock: Madison or Gallatin Limestone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 56 to 

63 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 53.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ET is the 

Douglas-fir/Oregon grape habitat type. The Oregon 

grape phase is the primary phase associated with this 

ET; however, the common juniper phase may also occur 

(Steele et. al 1983). Douglas-fir occurs in all canopy layers, forming a dense tree canopy and exhibiting vigorous 

regeneration in the understory. Limber pine commonly occurs at low abundance scattered throughout the understory 

canopy layer, and sometimes occurs as a subdominant in 

the overstory.

Oregon grape and Oregon boxleaf often co-occur forming a diffuse low shrub layer. Russet buffaloberry, Utah 

snowberry, and common juniper may also be present in 

the shrub layer at low abundance. The presence of black 

chokecherry is indicative of early seral stages of this ET. 

Heartleaf arnica, northern bedstraw, Wheeler’s bluegrass, 

and Ross’ sedge are the most common herbaceous species 

found in this ET. Sticky purple geranium is sometimes 

found in this ET and is a moist site indicator.

One site, located on an east-facing shoulder was 

characterized by small (≤0.04 ha) canopy openings scattered throughout the stand. The vegetation composition of 

the openings resembled that of a grassland or sagebrush 

community, including mountain big sagebrush, arrowleaf 

balsamroot, bluebunch wheatgrass, and spike fescue. 

Species from these openings were also found growing 

under the forested canopy at low abundance. This site 

likely represents a mid-fire seral stage in which the vegetation is transitioning from sagebrush-grassland to an open 

forest canopy. Summaries of species constancy/cover and 

stand characteristics are provided in Tables 54 and 55, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family ET 

are highly calcareous, deep, and feature a high degree of 
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soil development, moderate amounts of coarse fragments 

(avg. 50%), and strong subsurface clay accumulations (avg. 

25%). A thin (avg. 3 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an A/Bt-Btk/Bk horizonation. 

Diagnostic soil horizons include a thin ochric epipedon 

(avg. 9 cm thick), an argillic horizon (avg. 32 cm thick), 

and a calcic horizon (avg. 38 cm thick). One soil featured a 

mollic epipedon (27 cm thick). Particle size class was primarily loamy-skeletal with one soil of the fine-loamy class. 

The soils were classified as Alfisols and clay-rich Mollisols, 

including Calcic Haplustalfs [3], Ustic Haplocryalfs [1], 

Inceptic Haplustalfs [1], and Typic Argiustolls [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

Ustic Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

A—1 to 5 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) very fine 

sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 

66% sand; 11% clay; weak thick platy structure, and weak 

thin platy structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; many very fine roots; many very fine pores; 

4% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; neutral, pH 6.9; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bt1—5 to 11 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) cobbly sandy clay 

loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 57% sand; 21% 

clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, and weak 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and many very fine roots; common 

fine and common medium and many very fine pores; 2% 

patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; 8% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; very slight effervescence; neutral, 

pH 7.1; clear wavy boundary.

Bt2—11 to 31 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) very 

gravelly sandy clay loam, brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 59% 

sand; 23% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; firm, 

moderately hard, moderately sticky, moderately plastic; 

common very fine and fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and common very coarse 

roots; common very fine and fine and common medium 

and common coarse and common very coarse pores; patchy 

faint clay films on rock fragments and 14% patchy faint 

clay films on all faces of peds; 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 28% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; very slight effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 

7.4; clear irregular boundary.

Btk—31 to 64 cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

extremely gravelly sandy clay loam, yellowish brown 

(10YR 5/4), moist; 69% sand; 22% clay; weak fine 

subangular blocky structure, and weak very fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, moderately sticky, 

slightly plastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

coarse and common very fine pores; patchy distinct 

carbonate coats on rock fragments and 2% patchy faint 

clay films on surfaces along root channels; 7% fine faint 

carbonate masses in matrix; 10% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 17% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 39% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; slight effervescence; slightly 

alkaline, pH 7.6; gradual wavy boundary.

Bk—64 to 104 cm: very pale brown (10YR 7/4) extremely 

cobbly sandy loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), moist; 

77% sand; 17% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky 

structure, and; friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; patchy distinct 

carbonate coats on rock fragments; 18% fine faint 

carbonate masses in matrix; 9% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 28% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 29% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; violent effervescence; 

moderately alkaline, pH 8.1.

Ecology

Topography, including elevation, slope gradient, and 

slope aspect, as it influences climatic factors responsible 

for regulating soil moisture, is very important in the spatial 

distribution of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir in the central 

and southern Rocky Mountains, especially at the lower 

elevation extent (1,800–2,800 m). At lower elevations in 

the central and southern Rocky Mountains, contiguous 

stands of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are generally limited 

to cooler, more moist north-facing slopes (Hermann and 

Lavender 1991). The clay-rich soils have high available 

water-holding capacity, which help maintain high soil moisture well into the summer months. Oregon grape, which is 

tolerant of full sun and partial to deep shade, is often the 

only shrub species able to tolerate the intense shade experienced in the understory of this ET (Uley 2006).

Mollisols are most commonly associated with soils in 

grassland and sagebrush communities (Nimlos and Tomer 

1982). However, a handful of Mollisols occurred under 

north-facing conifer stands, sites more typical of Alfisols, 

including one sample site in the PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud 

Peak Family ET. The vegetation communities on these 

north-facing forested Mollisols were typified by more open 

overstories and relatively high abundance of grass in the 

understories. The grassland influence at these sites may be 
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associated with forest fire and represent the early to middle 

stages of the transition between grassland and forest.

Succession

Across the majority of the eastern slope of the WRR, 

Douglas-fir is the primary species regenerating in the 

PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family ET following disturbance. However, on soils with a sandstone influence, or 

at more mesic sites, lodgepole pine or quaking aspen may 

be important seral species, respectively. Where lodgepole 

pine is seral to Douglas-fir, a likely successional pathway 

begins with a brief herbaceous/shrub stage (A) directly 

after a stand replacing burn, followed by a Douglas-fir and 

lodgepole pine seedling and sapling stage (B) (Bradley and 

others 1992). A fire of any intensity during stage (B) will 

reset the successional pathway. In the absence of fire, stage 

(B) is followed by a dense Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine 

pole stand (C). The absence of fire leads to a young mature 

Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine stand (D) followed by an 

older mature Douglas-fir forest with scattered lodgepole 

pine and strong Douglas-fir regeneration (F) and eventually 

a multi-storied climax Douglas-fir forest (G). A moderate to 

severe fire at stage (C) will reset the successional pathway, 

while a low severity fire will result in a scattered pole stand 

with lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir regeneration in the 

understory (C1). Continual low severity burns will maintain 

the scattered pole stand. In the absence of fire, stage (C1) 

will shift to an open Douglas-fir stand with Douglas-fir and 

lodgepole pine regeneration (D1), and eventually a mature 

Douglas-fir and lodgepole forest with strong Douglas-fir 

regeneration (E1). At stages (D), (D1), (E1), and (F), a 

moderate severity fire will result in an open Douglas-fir 

stand (E), which is maintained by a fire of any intensity. 

In the absence of fire, the (E1) stage shifts to stage (F), 

and eventually to a multi-storied climax Douglas-fir forest 

(G). The fire resistance of Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine 

increases as diameter increases, and as such, low severity 

fires have little influence on stand structure beyond stage 

(D). Beyond stage (D), severe fires will completely reset 

the successional pathway.

Where quaking aspen is seral to Douglas-fir, an early 

herbaceous/shrub stage (A) gives way quickly to a dense 

stand of aspen resprouts with Douglas-fir seedlings in canopy openings (B) (Bradley and others 1992). A fire of any 

severity at stage (B) will reset the successional pathway. In 

the absence of fire, a pole-sized quaking aspen stand will 

develop with Douglas-fir in the understory (C). A moderate 

severity fire at stage (C) will return the stand to stage (B), 

while low severity fires will maintain the pole-sized stand. 

In the absence of fire, a mixed quaking aspen and Douglasfir stand develops with strong Douglas-fir regeneration (D). 

A low severity fire at stage (D) will maintain the mixed 

stand while a moderate severity fire will lead to an open 

Douglas-fir forest with quaking aspen resprouts (D1). Low 

to moderate severity fires at stage (D1) will maintain the 

open Douglas-fir forest, while in the absence of fire, the 

stand will eventually return to stage (D). The absence of 

fire beyond stage (D) leads to the break-up of the quaking 

aspen overstory (E) and eventually to a climax Douglas-fir 

forest with quaking aspen reduced to meager patches occurring in small canopy openings in the understory. A severe 

fire beyond stage (C) will completely reset the successional 

pathway.

Management considerations

The PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family Family ET 

shows the most promise for timber harvest of all Ecological 

Types in the Douglas-fir series. Basal area and trees per ha 

are high, and the deep, clay-rich soils are highly productive. 

These sites also typically feature low to moderate slope 

gradient (<30%) and very little rock outcrop, making this 

ET accessible to logging equipment. However, the clay-rich 

soils are at increased risk of compaction by heavy logging 

equipment. Soil compaction can lead to reduced rates of 

water infiltration, decreased pore space, and lower soil 

volume, factors resulting in reduced root penetration and 

overall water availability (Meurisse and others 1991).

Since Douglas-fir is a wind-dispersed species that 

regenerates most favorably in small canopy openings, 

silvicultural techniques should be used that leave suitable 

seed trees and result in small forest gaps, including individual tree selection or shelterwood cuts. Group selection 

or shelterwood cuts are appropriate silvicultural techniques 

in mixed Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine stands (Steinberg 

2002). Clear-cutting can be used to salvage entire stands 

damaged by insects or Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe. 

Following clear-cutting of infested stands, slash should be 

burned in piles or windrows in order to control residual 

dwarf mistletoe and insects.

Mechanical thinning of well-stocked, multi-storied 

stands can reduce the potential for intensive western spruce 

budworm attack (Bradley and others 1992). Prescribed 

fire can be used to thin mature Douglas-fir forests, reduce 

fuel loadings, or halt the encroachment of Douglas-fir into 

adjacent grassland communities when mechanical thinning 

is logistically or monetarily prohibitive (Steinberg 2002). 

However, forest managers should proceed with caution for 

two reasons: (1) low to moderate severity controlled burns 

in early seral stands can quickly escalate into severe crown 

fires, and (2) post-fire mortality may occur as a result of 

western spruce budworm, Douglas-fir beetle, and/or wood 

borer outbreaks that typically follow light ground fires to 

moderate intensity burns.

Oregon grape with its ability to resprout from underground rhizomes, is well adapted to forest fire and logging 

disturbance. Low to moderate severity burns actually 

stimulate Oregon grape growth, often resulting in increased 

vigor in the years immediately following a fire. Also, forest 

fires may result in the germination of Oregon grape seeds 

stored in the seed bank. However, severe burns that remove 

the duff layer and heat the upper mineral soil may kill the 

underground rhizomes, resulting in Oregon grape mortality.

Deer trails were commonly observed in this ET. 

Following severe fire, this ET may provide moderate 
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amounts of forage. However, forage production drops 

continually as stand age increases, and Oregon grape may 

be the only species with appreciable forage value in climax 

stands.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Subalpine fir/Oregon grape, Frisco Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the 

potential natural vegetation of the Frisco Family ET is 

subalpine fir, while the potential natural vegetation of the 

Cloud Peak Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types differ in that 

the Frisco Family ET occurs at slightly higher elevations 

(avg. 2,666 m) and experiences lower degree days (avg. 

15,720) and average annual temperature (avg. 1.6 oC) than 

the Cloud Peak Family ET, which occurs at an average 

elevation of 2,582 m, and experiences higher degree days 

(avg. 17,350) and average annual temperature (2.2 oC).

Table 53—Summary of environmental variables for the PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,582 2,442 2,639

Slope (%) 29 9 41

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 600 556 628

Degree days 17,350 16,340 18,690

Frost-free days 20.1 19.6 20.8

Site water balance (mm/year) -240 -266 -219

Average annual temperature (°C) 2.2 1.8 2.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 564 531 615

Summer radiation (KJ) 18,300 16,440 19,150

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 50 28 66

Clay (% in particle size control section) 25 20 29

pH (in particle size control section) 7.6 7.0 7.9

Available water capacity (mm/m) 66 46 114

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 1 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 2 0 3

Cobble 3 1 5

Stones 1 0 2

Boulders 1 0 5

Litter 56 22 70

Wood 16 5 40

Moss and lichen 1 0 4

Basal vegetation 17 10 20

Water 0 0 0
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Table 54—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 83 30 15 40

Subominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 2 1 3

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 83 20 10 45

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 67 2 1 3

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 5 1 15

Seedlings:

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 83 2 1 5

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 83 2 1 3

Shrubs:

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 100 5 3 10

PAMY Paxistima myrsinites Oregon boxleaf 83 3 1 5

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 50 1 1 1

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 83 4 1 10

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 67 2 1 3

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 3 3 5

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 50 1 1 1

GABO2 Galium boreale northern bedstraw 67 2 1 3

SYFO2 Symphyotrichum foliaceum alpine leafybract aster 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

ACNE9 Achnatherum nelsonii Columbia needlegrass 50 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 83 1 1 3

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 67 2 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.

Table 55—Stand characteristics for the PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 20.1 — 19.8 15.2–25.1 709 —

PIFL2 2.3 — 29.7 — 32 —

PSMEG 34.4 25.3–39.0 30.0 14.7–54.6 595 388–731

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PICOL 19.8 12 120

PIFL2 — — —

PSMEG 35.6 19 191
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Douglas-Fir/Common Juniper, 

Shawmut Family Ecological Type

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca/Juniperus 

communis var. depressa, Shawmut Family 

Ecological Type

PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET

N = 5

Distribution

The Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern 

study areas within the dry, mid-elevation, sedimentary 

mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In 

the northern study area, this ecological type occurs from 

Little Warm Spring Creek in the northwest to Red Creek 

in the southeast. In the southern study area, this ecological type occurs from just northeast of Dickinson Park 

southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map 

unit 12L. This ecological type occurs on northeast-facing 

Madison Limestone and Bighorn dolomite summits, including Fairfield Hill, Fossil Hill, and Peak 9239 on Freak 

Mountain. This type also occurs on south-facing shoulders 

in a distinct narrow band located below the Bighorn 

Dolomite outcrops and above the Gallatin Limestone 

Formation, including areas around Fairfield Hill, Fossil 

Hill, Peak 9378 south of Elderberry Creek headwaters, 

Freak Mountain, Ed Young Mountain, and Limestone 

Mountain.

Environment

Aspect: Northeast [1], north-northeast [1], northwest [1], 

south-southwest [1], southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders and 

summits.

Parent Materials: Colluvium and residuum.

When this ET occurs on summits, parent materials tend 

to be Madison Limestone or Bighorn Dolomite colluvium 

over residuum.

When this ET occurs on shoulders, parent materials tend 

to be mixed Bighorn Dolomite and Gallatin Limestone 

colluvium over Gallatin Limestone residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian and Mississippian Limestones, 

Ordovician Dolomite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime on summits and shoulders over approximately 

2750 m elevation and/or northerly aspects. At elevations 

below approximately 2750 m elevation and/or on southerly 

aspects, soil temperature regime is Frigid, and soil moisture 

regime is Ustic. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 

66 to 68 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 56.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the Douglas-fir/common juniper habitat type (Steele and 

others 1983). Douglas-fir is the projected climax dominant 

tree species. Limber pine and occasionally lodgepole pine 

occur as early seral species, although limber pine is often 

present at low abundance in the overstory of mature stands 

as well. Quaking aspen occurs sporadically in the understory layer. Canopy cover of tree species ranges between 35 

and 75%.

Common juniper and Utah snowberry are the most 

common shrub species encountered. Shrub species more 

typical of early seral stands include mountain big sagebrush, antelope bitterbrush, and russet buffaloberry. Rocky 

Mountain maple is indicative of more mesic microsites. 

Total canopy cover for shrub species ranges between 10 

and 30%. Common herbaceous species include heartleaf 

arnica, Henderson’s wavewing, spike fescue, and Ross’ 

sedge. Arrowleaf balsamroot is indicative of earlier seral 

stages. Small-leaved alumroot, when it occurs, may be 

found exclusively on dolomite boulders. Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided 

in Tables 57 and 58, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET are 

deep and carbonate rich, with a high degree of soil development, low to moderately high coarse fragments (15-66%, 

avg. 46%), high clay (avg. 25%), dark brown upper soil 

horizons, brown to yellowish lower soil horizons, and 

strong clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons. A thin 

(avg. 2 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical 

soil features an A/Bt-Btk/Bk horizonation. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 12 cm thick), 

an argillic horizon (avg. 65 cm thick), and a calcic horizon 

(avg. 44 cm thick). Two soils featured thick mollic epipedons (avg. 24 cm thick). Particle size class was primarily 
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loamy-skeletal [4] with one soil of the fine-loamy class. 

The soils were classified as clay-rich Mollisols and Alfisols, 

including Calcic Argicryolls [1], Typic Argiustolls [1], 

Eutric Haplocryalfs [2], and Typic Haplustalfs [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, Deep, Typic Argiustolls

Oe–0 to 3 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

abrupt wavy boundary.

A–3 to 7 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) loam, 

black (10YR 2/1), moist; 51% sand; 18% clay; moderate 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots and 

common very fine roots; common very fine and fine and 

common medium pores; 5% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecifiedfragments and 6% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; neutral, pH 7.0; abrupt wavy boundary.

Bat–7 to 27 centimeter: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) 

loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 45% 

sand; 23% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; firm, moderately hard, moderately sticky, 

moderately plastic; common very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots and common coarse roots; common 

very fine and fine and common medium and common 

coarse pores; 2% patchy faint clay films on all faces of 

peds; 3% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 5% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; 

neutral, pH 7.1; clear wavy boundary.

Bt1–27 to 39 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) and 

yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) very gravelly clay loam, 

brown (10YR 4/3) and dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6), 

moist; 43% sand; 33% clay; moderate coarse subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; firm, extremely hard, moderately sticky, very 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very coarse and common very fine pores; 

20% patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; carbonate, 

finely disseminated throughout; 7% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 8% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 30% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; very slight effervescence; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.4; clear wavy boundary.

2Bt2–39 to 64 cm: light brown (7.5YR 6/4) very gravelly 

sandy clay loam, brown (7.5YR 4/4), moist; 58% sand; 

25% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, moderately hard, moderately sticky, moderately 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very fine pores; 15% patchy faint clay films 

between sand grains; carbonate, finely disseminated 

throughout; 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-

mm unspecified fragments and 13% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 36% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2-to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; very slight effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 

7.6; clear wavy boundary.

2Btk–64 to 89 cm: brown (7.5YR 5/4) very stony sandy 

clay loam, brown (7.5YR 4/3), moist; 60% sand; 21% 

clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure, and 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

hard, moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very fine pores; 20% patchy faint clay films 

on all faces of peds; 12% fine distinct carbonate masses 

in matrix; 12% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-

mm unspecified fragments and 16% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 22% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; slight effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.8; 

gradual wavy boundary.

2Bk–89 to 106 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) extremely 

stony sandy clay loam, brown (10YR 5/3), moist; 59% 

sand; 20% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common medium roots; common very fine and fine and 

common medium pores; 40% patchy distinct carbonate 

coats on bottom surfaces of rock fragments; 30% fine 

distinct carbonate masses in matrix; 6% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 13% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2-to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 43% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments; violent effervescence; 

moderately alkaline, pH 8.0.
LIMBER PINE SERIES

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DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

Ecology

Douglas-fir is a wind-dispersed species with relatively 

higher physiological moisture requirements than limber 

pine. Across the eastern flank of the WRR, contiguous 

stands of Douglas-fir are generally limited to cooler, more 

moist north-facing limestone slopes. Douglas-fir forests 

only occasionally extend onto southerly slopes where soil 

conditions provide for higher water holding capacity, as is 

the case with the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET. 

The clay-rich soils located on south-facing Gallatin shoulders retain moisture long into the summer months, allowing 

Douglas-fir to extend its distribution onto these otherwise 

drought-stricken sites.

Common juniper is a widespread conifer species and 

includes five subspecies or varieties occurring on all major 

continents throughout the northern hemisphere (Pojar and 

Mackinnon 1994). The variety Juniperus communis var. 

depressa is present in the Rocky Mountains and is a low 

shrub typically 3 m tall or less. Common juniper is intolerant of shade and prefers relatively open canopy forested 

communities with high amounts of solar radiation (Ward 

1982).

Succession

Across the majority of the eastern slope of the WRR, 

Douglas-fir is the primary species regenerating in the 

PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET following disturbance. Limber pine often co-dominates with Douglas-fir 

at all developmental stages. Where lodgepole pine is seral 

to Douglas-fir, a likely successional pathway begins with 

a brief herbaceous/shrub stage (A) directly after a stand 

replacing burn, followed by a Douglas-fir and limber pine 

seedling and sapling stage (B) (Bradley and others 1992). A 

fire of any intensity during stage (B) will reset the successional pathway. In the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed 

by a dense Douglas-fir and limber pine pole stand (C). 

The absence of fire leads to a young mature Douglas-fir 

and limber pine stand (D), followed by an older mature 

Douglas-fir forest with abundant limber pine and strong 

Douglas-fir regeneration (F), and eventually a multi-storied 

climax Douglas-fir forest (G). A moderate to severe fire at 

stage (C) will reset the successional pathway, while a low 

severity fire will result in a scattered pole stand with limber 

pine and Douglas-fir regeneration in the understory (C1). 

Continual low severity burns will maintain the scattered 

pole stand. In the absence of fire, stage (C1) will shift to an 

open Douglas-fir stand with Douglas-fir and limber pine 

regeneration (D1) and eventually a mature Douglas-fir and 

limber pine forest with strong Douglas-fir regeneration 

(E1). At stages (D), (D1), (E1), and (F), a moderate severity 

fire will result in an open Douglas-fir stand (E), which is 

maintained by a fire of any intensity. In the absence of fire, 

the (E1) stage shifts to stage (F) and eventually to a multistoried climax Douglas-fir forest (G). The fire resistance of 

Douglas-fir and limber pine increases as diameter increases, 

and as such, low severity fires have little influence on stand 

structure beyond stage (D). Beyond stage (D), severe fires 

will completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

In the central Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, historical 

fire return intervals in Douglas-fir forests ranges between 

50 and 100 years (Steinberg 2002). Douglas-fir is most 

susceptible to fire in the seedling and sapling stage when 

the thin, resin filled bark is easily scorched through to the 

cambium. After about 40 years at moist sites, and perhaps 

60 years in drier localities, Douglas-fir develops a thick, 

fire-resistant bark, at which point Douglas-fir can resist 

moderate intensity surface fires. However, if moderate 

intensity surface fires escalate into crown fires, Douglas-fir 

will be killed or severely damaged as buds and fine twigs 

are particularly susceptible to fire. Crown fires are projected 

to be most likely during early to mid-seral stages of the 

PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET when stand densities are highest and when dense, low-growing Douglas-fir 

branches provide a pathway for fire into the overstory. At 

later seral stages, when trees are more widely spaced, the 

chance of mortal crown fires is reduced. Post-fire mortality 

may occur as a result of Douglas-fir beetle, wood borers, 

and/or western spruce budworm outbreaks, which typically 

follow light ground fires to moderate intensity burns.

Prescribed fire can be used to thin mature Douglas-fir 

forests, reduce fuel loadings, or halt the encroachment of 

Douglas-fir into adjacent grassland communities when 

mechanical thinning is logistically or monetarily prohibitive (Steinberg 2002). However, forest managers should 

proceed with caution as low to moderate severity controlled 

burns in early seral stands can quickly escalate into severe 

crown fires.

Douglas-fir forests provide important habitat for a 

variety of wildlife species (Steinberg 2002). South-facing 

stands of the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET 

provide valuable winter range for mule deer, both due to 

thermal cover and accessibility to adjacent sagebrush and 

grassland communities. Rocky mountain maple and antelope bitterbrush are important browse species. A variety of 

songbirds, including Clark’s nutcracker, black-capped and 

mountain chickadees, and red-breasted nuthatch, and small 

mammals, including red squirrels, chipmunks, mice, voles, 

and shrews, feed on the seeds of Douglas-fir. Blue grouse 

were often observed strutting about in this ecological type. 

Blue grouse forage on Douglas-fir buds and needles and 

utilize these stands for winter cover and spring breeding 

grounds. These forests provide little forage for domestic 

livestock. Common juniper is intolerant of forest fire and 

is generally killed or seriously damaged by moderate to 

severe burns (Tirmenstein 1999). Common juniper does 

not resprout after fire. In the case of low intensity burns, 

surviving individuals provide seed for regeneration. In 

the case of high intensity burns, where common juniper 

is completely obliterated in the burn area, birds and small 

mammals carry seeds from off-site providing a pathway 

for re-establishment. Common juniper cones are utilized 
LIMBER PINE SERIES

USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 175

DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

by song-birds, including American robins and chickadees 

(Tirmenstein, 1999). Domestic livestock rarely feed on 

common juniper, which may be poisonous to domestic 

goats. This ET is not suited for timber harvest due to the 

steep, cliffy topography. In the sample stands, limber 

pine had overall greater basal area and trees per ha than 

Douglas-fir; however, Douglas-fir tended to be of a larger 

size class and greater height than limber pine.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the 

potential natural vegetation of the Lolo Family ET is limber 

pine, while the potential natural vegetation of the Shawmut 

Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types are very similar 

environmentally. However, the Shawmut Family ET occurs 

at slightly cooler (avg. 1.2 oC, 14990 degree days) sites 

with relatively higher site water balance (avg. -226 mm) 

than the Lolo Family ET (avg. 1.5 oC, 15720 degree days, 

-275 mm). The soils in the Shawmut Family have relatively 

higher clay content (avg. 25% vs. 20%) and lower coarse 

fragment content (avg. 46% vs. 64%) than the Lolo Family 

ET.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the 

potential natural vegetation of the Tyzak Family ET is 

limber pine, while the potential natural vegetation of the 

Shawmut Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that soils in the Shawmut Family ET are 

deep Alfisols and clay-rich Mollisols, while the soils in the 

Tyzak Family are shallow to moderately deep Inceptisols 

and Mollisols.

Table 56—Summary of environmental variables for the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut 

Family ET

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,756 2,734 2,787

Slope (%) 24 20 28

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 673 664 678

Degree days 14,990 14,830 15,230

Frost-free days 19.0 18.8 19.1

Site water balance (mm/year) -226 -265 -188

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.2 1.2 1.3

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 566 474 615

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,980 18,100 20,750

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 46 15 66

Clay (% in particle size control section) 25 23 27

pH (in particle size control section) 7.7 7.4 8.0

Available water capacity (mm/m) 88 50 135

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 0 0 0

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 3 1 5

Cobble 10 0 30

Stones 4 0 5

Boulders 9 0 20

Litter 47 40 65

Wood 6 3 10

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 18 15 25

Water 0 0 0
LIMBER PINE SERIES

176 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

Table 57—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 60 35 30 45

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 15 1 30

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 80 8 1 15

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 80 6 1 10

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 5 3 10

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 80 4 3 5

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 1 1 3

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 100 3 1 5

Shrubs:

ACGL Acer glabrum Rocky Mountain maple 60 2 1 5

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 60 2 1 3

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 7 3 10

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 80 2 1 3

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 40 1 1 1

RICEP Ribes cereum var. pedicellare whisky currant 40 1 1 1

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 40 1 1 1

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 100 1 1 3

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 100 3 1 5

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 80 1 1 1

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 40 1 1 1

ANPAM Anemone patens var. multifida cutleaf anemone 40 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 80 9 1 30

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 40 1 1 1

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia harebell 40 2 1 3

CIRSI Cirsium thistle 40 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 40 1 1 1

CYLO10 Cymopterus longilobus Henderson’s wavewing 100 5 1 15

EREA Erigeron eatonii Eaton’s fleabane 40 1 1 1

FRSP Frasera speciosa elkweed 40 1 1 1

GABO2 Galium boreale northern bedstraw 60 1 1 1

HEPA11 Heuchera parvifolia small-leaved alumroot 60 1 1 1

LEFR4 Lesquerella fremontii Fremont’s bladderpod 40 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 40 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 60 1 1 1

POCO13 Potentilla concinna elegant cinquefoil 80 1 1 1

SEFR3 Senecio fremontii dwarf mountain ragwort 40 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 80 1 1 1

SYFO2 Symphyotrichum foliaceum alpine leafybract aster 60 1 1 1

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 40 1 1 1

Grasses:

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 100 2 1 3

POFE Poa fendleriana muttongrass 60 1 1 1

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 60 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 60 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
LIMBER PINE SERIES

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DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

Table 58—Stand characteristics for the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIFL2 15.6 2.3–27.6 28.2 16.0–41.7 306 104–472

PSMEG 11.0 2.3–18.4 35.8 13.5–60.2 161 15–422

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIFL2 32.8 13 80

PSMEG 40.9 15 113
LIMBER PINE SERIES

178 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

DOUGLAS-FIR SERIES

Miscellaneous 

Douglas-Fir Types

Douglas-Fir/Rocky Mountain Maple, 

Yourame Family Ecological Type

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca/Acer 

glabrum, Yourame Family Ecological Type

PSMEG/ACGL, Yourame Family ET

N = 1

The Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple, Yourame 

Family Ecological Type occurs on the Sinks Canyon 

moraine within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004) and is a 

component of map unit 351L. This ET may also occur in 

other deep canyon where piedmont glacial deposits occur, 

including Bull Lake Creek canyon and the Whiskey Basin 

and Torrey Creek areas; however, it was not sampled at 

these sites. This ET occurred on a steep (56%), north-facing 

backslope in mixed dolomite and limestone colluvium over 

granitic glacial till. The soils were calcareous, moderately 

high in coarse fragments (avg. 50%), and high in clay (avg. 

26%). Soils were deep, loamy-skeletal, Calcic Haplustalfs.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the Douglas-fir/

Rocky Mountain maple habitat type (Steele and others 

1983). Douglas-fir dominates the overstory and features 

prolific regeneration in the understory. The shrub layer is 

species rich and includes Rocky Mountain maple, Utah 

snowberry, Oregon grape, Oregon boxleaf, russet buffaloberry, common juniper, woods rose, western serviceberry, 

and black chokecherry. Heartleaf arnica is the most prominent herbaceous species. Other species include northern 

bedstraw, alpine leafybract aster, Virginia strawberry, 

roughfruit fairybells, and small-leaved alumroot.

Potential for timber production is generally high; 

however, logging opportunities may be limited on steeper 

sites. Rocky Mountain maple is an important browse species for domestic and wild ungulates and, in early seral 

stands, provides hiding and thermal cover for a variety of 

wildlife, including mule deer, elk, birds, and small mammals (Anderson 2001a). Please refer to the “Management 

Considerations” section of the PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist 

Family ET for more complete information on management 

consideration in the Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple 

habitat type.

The PSMEG/ACGL, Yourame Family ET and the 

PSMEG/AGCL, Redfist Family ET are very similar in 

vegetation composition. However, the two types differ 

environmentally in that the soils of the Redfist Family ET 

are derived from mixed calcareous colluvium or mixed 

calcareous colluvium over residuum, while the soils of the 

Yourame Family ET are derived from mixed calcareous 

colluvium over granitic glacial till.

Douglas-Fir/Utah Snowberry, Typic 

Calciustepts Ecological Type

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca/

Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis, 

Family Ecological Type

PSMEG/SYORU, Typic Calciustepts ET

N = 2

The Douglas-fir/Utah snowberry, Typic Calciustepts 

Ecological Type occurs within the dry mid-elevation 

sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others 

(2004) and is a component of map unit 43L. This ET occurred on steep (avg. 61%), northwest-facing backslopes 

in mixed dolomite and limestone colluvium over limestone 

residuum. Soils were high in coarse fragments (avg. 62%) 

and moderately high in clay (avg. 21%). Soils were deep, 

loamy-skeletal, Typic Calciustepts and Inceptic Haplustalfs.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the Douglasfir/Utah snowberry habitat type (Steele and others 1983). 

Douglas-fir and limber pine share dominance in the overstory. Douglas-fir seedlings and saplings are most prolific in 

the understory; however, limber pine and quaking aspen are 

also present. The shrub layer is generally quite sparse and 

always includes Utah snowberry and Oregon boxleaf, and 

occasionally russet buffaloberry. Heartleaf arnica, northern 

bedstraw, Indian milkvetch, alpine leafybract aster, and 

spike fescue are common herbaceous species in the typically depauperate understory.

This ET is not suitable for timber harvest due to the 

steep topography. Utah snowberry will resprout from basal 

buds on the root crown following low to moderate severity burns and often survive severe fires (Aleksoff 1999). 

Utah snowberry is not especially nutritious or palatable 

but remains an important browse species for domestic and 

wild ungulates, including cattle, domestic sheep, horses, 

pronghorn, elk, and mule deer. Lastly, the fruits of Utah 

snowberry provide food for grouse and magpie.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 179

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Limber Pine Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Limber Pine

Pinus flexilis James

Limber pine is a small- to medium-sized, long lived 

(>1000 yrs), five-needle pine (Johnson 2001a). Limber 

pine superficially resembles whitebark pine in its growth 

habit, reaching up to 15 m in height with wide-spreading 

upswept branches. While the geographic range of limber 

and whitebark pine overlap to some degree, especially in 

the central and northern Rocky Mountains, the two species 

have disparate geographic ranges to the south and west. 

The altitudinal range of limber and whitebark pine, while 

it overlaps to a small degree, is largely disparate. Where 

the two species co-occur geographically, whitebark pine 

inhabits higher elevations than limber pine.

Limber pine occurs more or less continuously near the 

Continental Divide and on associated mountain ranges from 

southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta 

southeast to the Wind River and Owl Creek Mountains of 

Wyoming (Steele 1990). Outliers to this general distribution include the northern Wallowa Mountains of eastern 

Oregon, the Bighorn Mountains of north central Wyoming, 

and portions of western North Dakota, South Dakota, and 

Nebraska. In Wyoming, the distribution of limber pine is 

discontinuous south and southeast of the Wind River and 

Owl Creek Mountains, picking up again in northeastern 

Utah in the Bear River, Wasatch, and Uinta Mountains. In 

southeastern Wyoming, limber pine occurs in the Snowy 

and Laramie Ranges where it continues south into the 

Rocky Mountains of central Colorado and northern New 

Mexico. Limber pine occurs to the southwest in scattered 

mountain ranges across southern Utah, Arizona, Nevada, 

and southern California.

Limber pine occurs across a wider range of elevations 

than any other tree species in the central Rocky Mountains 

(Johnson 2001a). In the northern part of its range, including British Columbia, Alberta, and northwestern Montana, 

limber pine occurs near lower tree line between 1000 

and 1800 m. In the central portion of its range, including 

eastern Oregon, central Idaho, southwestern Montana, 

Wyoming, and northern Utah, limber pine occurs near 

lower tree line between 1500 and 2900 m. The altitudinal 

position of limber pine shifts upward at more southerly latitudes. In southern Utah, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, 

Arizona, and California, limber pine occurs from lower to 

upper tree line between 2000 and 3800 m. In areas where 

the geographic range of limber pine overlaps with that of 

whitebark pine, including southeastern British Columbia, 

Alberta, northeastern Oregon, western Montana, central 

Idaho, and northwestern Wyoming, limber pine and whitebark pine sometimes co-occur at the upper elevation range 

of limber pine.

The majority of the geographic range of limber pine is 

dominated by continental climate patterns with long, cold 

winters; hot, dry summers; and maximum precipitation 

levels occurring in the late winter and spring. Exceptions 

are the mountains of northeastern Oregon where climate 

patterns have a strong maritime influence, and the southern 

extent of the geographic range of limber pine, including 

Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah, southern Colorado, 

and southern California, where a summer monsoon season 

brings high levels of precipitation in late summer (Mock 

1996). Throughout its geographic range, limber pine is 

commonly found on exposed, drought-stricken sites, occurring on the driest sites capable of supporting trees (Johnson 

2001a). Although deep winter snow pack may occur at 

sites adjacent to limber pine communities, actual winter 

snow pack in limber pine communities is relatively low 

due to the redistribution of snow by wind and strong solar 

radiation.

Limber pine occurs across a variety of substrates but 

across the majority of its geographic range, it shows a 

strong preference for soils derived from calcareous parent 

materials, including limestone, dolomite, and calcareous 

sandstones, siltstones, and shale (Steele 1990). Limber 

pine may occur locally on granitic substrates and has been 

found in soils derived from serpentine rocks in northeastern 

Oregon, growing from cracks in lava in central Idaho and 

growing on the face of limestone and dolomite cliffs in 

Wyoming. Limber pine thrives on deep soils derived from 

colluvium and on shallow, rocky soils on summit and 

shoulder positions. Limber pine is intolerant of long-term 

soil saturation.

Limber pine is a monoecious conifer, with male cones 

predominately on the lower crown and female cones on 

the upper crown (Steele 1990). Pollenation occurs during a 

short period in June and July. Fertilization takes place a little over one year after pollination. Cones mature in August 

or September and seed dispersal occurs in September and 

October. Mature cones are yellow-light brown, relatively 

large (8-12 cm), and, unlike the cones of whitebark pine, 

fall from the tree intact. As previously mentioned, whitebark and limber pine have similar growth-forms, making 

it difficult to distinguish between the two species. Based 

on morphology, the differences in cone coloration, size, 

and ability to remain intact when mature are often the best 

means of distinguishing between whitebark and limber 

pine.

Similar to whitebark pine, limber pine is a birddispersed species sharing a mutualistic relationship with 

Clark’s nutcracker. Throughout late summer and fall, 

Clark’s nutcracker caches pine seeds for use during the 

winter months. An individual may transport up to 125 seeds 

at one time to destinations up to 22 km away from the parent tree (Vander Wall and Balda 1977). Clark’s nutcracker 

prefers to cache seeds in areas of low snow accumulation 

where snows melt earlier in the winter, including southfacing sites and windward slopes. About 80% of the 

approximately 20,000 to 30,000 seeds per ha that a single 
180 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

nutcracker might cache in one season are actually retrieved 

and consumed, leaving the remaining 20% to be eaten 

by rodents or germinate (Lanner and Vander Wall 1980; 

Schoettle and Rochelle 2000). Seedlings will commonly 

germinate in clusters from Clark’s nutcracker seed caches, 

a phenomenon that often results in clumped or multi-stem 

growth habit (Steele 1990). In the southern portion of its 

geographic range, where limber pine occurs at or above upper tree line, the krummholtz growth-form is common.

Limber pine, due to its intolerance to shade, high 

drought tolerance, and efficient seed dispersal by birds, is a 

highly successful pioneer species that is considered either 

seral or a topoedaphic climax species depending on the 

environmental conditions (Johnson 2001a). At sheltered 

mesic sites, limber pine is often seral to Engelmann spruce 

and subalpine fir at higher elevations. At lower elevations, 

limber pine is seral to Douglas-fir on sheltered mesic sites 

and is often times co-dominant with Douglas-fir on slightly 

xeric exposed sites (Steele 1990). At the most severe, 

exposed, and xeric sites, limber pine often forms all-aged, 

self-maintaining stands.

The fire tolerance of limber pine increases with age 

(Johnson 2001a). Young limber pines are highly sensitive 

to fire and are easily killed by even low severity burns 

due to thin bark. The bark at the base of older limber pine 

trees is often 5 cm thick, providing older individuals with 

protection from low severity burns. Wildfires are infrequent 

in limber pine communities relative to other conifers due to 

limited productivity and fuel accumulations associated with 

harsh site conditions. Fire return interval of pure limber 

pine stands is unpredictable and may be as high as 1000 

years. In mixed stands, the fire return intervals of those 

species co-occurring with limber pine are relevant. Open 

canopied limber pine woodlands may be maintained by 

periodic light ground fires, which reduce undergrowth and 

kill more shade tolerant conifer seedlings.

The mountain pine beetle and the sugar pine tortrix 

(Choristoneura lambertiana) are the two most common 

insect pests of limber pine in the central and northern 

Rocky Mountains (Steele 1990; Hagle and others 2003). 

The adults and larvae of the mountain pine beetle feed on 

the phloem layer of the inner bark, eventually girdling the 

tree. Trees attacked by mountain pine beetle are inoculated 

with blue stain fungi, and individuals not killed directly by 

the beetle later succumb to the fungi. In spring, the larvae 

of the sugar pine tortrix mine needle sheaths and staminate 

flowers, often consuming up to 90% of new growth. Top 

kill may result from repeated defoliation.

Limber pine is susceptible to a variety of root, butt, 

and stem diseases, including Phaeolus schweinitzii, 

Armillaria ostoyae, and Phellinus pini (Hagle and others 

2003). Lodgepole pine and limber pine dwarf mistletoes 

(Arceuthobium americanum and A. cyanocarpum, respectively) are common pests of limber pine. “Witches’ 

brooms” form on infected trees. Top kill, stem cankers, 

and swellings are common symptoms of dwarf mistletoe 

infection. Trees infected by dwarf mistletoe are also more 

susceptible to mountain pine beetle attack. White pine 

blister rust is a lethal disease common to limber pine, especially in areas where gooseberries and currants, the obligate 

alternate host of white pine blister rust, occur. The fungus 

causes branch and stem cankers, which eventually girdle 

the branches and/or stem, causing top kill and eventually 

death.

Limber pine has little commercial value as timber or fuel 

due to slow growth and irregular form (Johnson 2001a). 

However, where the two species co-occur, limber pine is 

important in facilitating the re-establishment following 

disturbance of the economically important Douglas-fir 

by providing initial site stabilization and creating a more 

favorable environment for Douglas-fir seedlings in the 

understory. The value of limber pine as browse for large 

mammals is generally low, and forage is often scarce in 

limber pine forests due to the harsh, unproductive environment. Periodic light surface fires can be used to increase 

forage productivity in mature limber pine forests; however, 

care should be taken since even low intensity burns can 

damage and kill limber pine seedlings and saplings. Limber 

pine forests provide important winter range for mule deer 

and elk. The large seeds of limber pine provide highly nutritious and energy rich food for small mammals and birds. 

Large, dead limber pine snags are important as nesting sites 

for cavity nesting birds.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, Lolo 

Family Ecological Type

Pinus flexilis/Juniperus communis 

var. depressa

PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET

N = 5

Distribution

The limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern 

study areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the 

northern study area, this ecological type occurs from Little 

Warm Spring Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the 

southeast. In the southern study area, this ecological type 

occurs from just northeast of Dickinson Park southeast to 

Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map unit 12L.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], east-northeast [1], northeast [1], southeast 

[1], south-southeast [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders and 

backslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium over residuum.

Parent materials are typically limestone and/or dolomite 

colluvium over limestone residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gallatin Limestone, Ordovician 

Bighorn Dolomite, Mississippian Madison Limestone.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime at elevations over approximately 2750 m 

elevation and/or northerly aspects. At elevations below 

approximately 2750 m elevation and/or on southerly 

aspects, soil temperature regime is Frigid and soil moisture 

regime is Ustic. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 

62 cm to 69 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 59.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation for this ecological type 

is the limber pine/common juniper or the limber pine/spike 

fescue habitat types (Steele and others 1983). These stands 

are open woodlands or savannas with limber pine forming 

an open canopy layer and rarely sharing dominance with 

Douglas-fir. Limber pine is always present and vigorously reproducing in the understory. Douglas-fir seedlings 

commonly occur. However, unlike the PSMEG/JUCOD, 

Shawmut Family ET, which occurs adjacent to the PIFL2/

JUCOD, Lolo Family ET, Douglas-fir is not projected 

as the climax tree species. The rocky soils of the PIFL2/

JUCOD, Lolo Family ET, relative to the PSMEG/JUCOD, 

Shawmut Family ET, are more suitable for limber pine as 

the projected climax species.

Common juniper is always present at low abundance 

in the limber pine/common juniper habitat type. Other 

common shrubs include mountain big sagebrush, russet 

buffaloberry, Utah snowberry, and antelope bitterbrush. 

Shrubs were absent from the one site sampled in the limber 

pine/spike fescue habitat type; however, mountain big 

sagebrush, whisky currant, and Utah snowberry are commonly associated with this habitat type, according to Steele 

and others (1983). The herbaceous layer is notably species 

rich with many species typical of adjacent sagebrush and 

grassland communities. In the limber pine/spike fescue 

habitat type, spike fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass are 

the predominant graminoids. Herbaceous species common to both habitat types include heartleaf arnica, timber 

milkvetch, hoary balsamroot, oblongleaf bluebells, woolly 

groundsel, flowery phlox, spearleaf stonecrop, spike fescue, 

and Sandberg bluegrass. Arrowleaf balsamroot, spiked 

ipomopsis, turpentine wavewing, and lambstongue ragwort 

are the most prevalent species that were found only in 

the limber pine/common juniper habitat type. Fremont’s 

bladderpod, an endemic species of mustard that occurs 

only in Fremont County, Wyoming, was found growing 

on limestone outcrops in this ecological type. Summaries 

of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are 

provided in Tables 60 and 61, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET are mostly 

deep with high carbonate content, a moderate degree of 

soil development, high coarse fragments (avg. 64%), and 

moderately high illuvial clay (avg. 20%). A typical soil features an A/Bk-Btk horizonation. One soil was moderately 

deep, with a thin A-horizon (13 cm thick), over a weak 

B-horizon (19 cm thick), over a sandy (83%) C-horizon (27 

cm thick), over dolomite bedrock. Diagnostic soil horizons 

include a thick mollic epipedon (avg. 40 cm thick), and a 

calcic horizon (avg. 51 cm thick). One soil displayed a 68-

cm thick argillic horizon. Particle size class was primarily 

loamy-skeletal with one soil of the sandy-skeletal class. 
182 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

The soils were classified as Typic Argicryolls [1], Pachic 

Calcicryolls [1], Pachic Haplustolls [1], Typic Calcicryolls 

[1], and Typic Haplustepts [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Pachic Haplustolls

Oi—0 to 3 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

A1—3 to 15 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) channery 

silty clay loam, very dark brown (10YR 2/2), moist; 

12% sand; 35% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine and medium granular 

structure; very friable, soft, moderately sticky, moderately 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very fine pores; 1% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 26% flat 

angular indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; neutral, pH 7.0; clear wavy boundary.

A2—15 to 31 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/2) very gravelly 

very gravelly silty clay loam, dark brown (7.5YR 3/2), 

moist; 15% sand; 32% clay; weak medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine granular structure; 

very friable, slightly hard, moderately sticky, moderately 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common very 

fine pores; 14% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments and 19% flat angular 

indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 25% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; slightly alkaline, pH 7.5; 

gradual wavy boundary.

AB—31 to 56 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) extremely gravelly 

extremely gravelly clay loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), 

moist; 26% sand; 29% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, moderately sticky, 

moderately plastic; common very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots and common coarse roots; common 

fine and common medium and common coarse pores; 

carbonate, finely disseminated in matrix; 13% flat angular 

indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 14% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 45% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments; very slight effervescence; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.6; gradual wavy boundary.

BA—56 to 71 cm: brown (7.5YR 5/3) very gravelly 

very gravelly loam, dark brown (7.5YR 3/2), moist; 45% 

sand; 25% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly 

plastic; common very fine and fine roots and common 

medium roots; common very fine and fine and common 

medium and common coarse pores; carbonate, finely 

disseminated in matrix; 3% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 17% flat angular 

indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 39% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments; slight effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 

8.0; clear wavy boundary.

2Bk1—71 to 92 cm: very pale brown (10YR 7/3) extremely 

channery loam, brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 40% sand; 22% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots and 

common very coarse roots; common fine and common 

very fine pores; carbonate, finely disseminated in matrix; 

5% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 23% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-

mm unspecified fragments and 42% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; violent 

effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; clear smooth 

boundary.

2Bk2—92 to 110 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) extremely 

gravelly fine sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), moist; 55% 

sand; 19% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and common coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common very fine and fine 

and common medium pores; 34% patchy prominent clay 

films on rock fragments and 100% continuous prominent 

clay films on rock fragments; 10% fine prominent spherical 

carbonate masses in matrix and 12% fine prominent 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

threadlike carbonate masses in matrix and 11% fine 

prominent threadlike carbonate masses on faces of peds; 

7% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 19% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-

mm unspecified fragments and 61% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; violent 

effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 8.2; clear wavy 

boundary.

Ecology

The PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET is very similar in 

ecology to the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET (see the 

”Ecology” section of the latter for a detailed comparison 

of the two types). Limber pine is a bird-dispersed species 

sharing a mutualistic relationship with the Clark’s nutcracker. The geographic distribution of limber pine in the study 

area is strongly linked with the caches of this seed harvesting bird. Limber pine is intolerant of shade and is highly 

drought tolerant compared to Douglas-fir. In the midelevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion, limber pine is 

seral to Douglas-fir on cooler, mesic north-facing slopes. 

However, on warm, south-facing, limestone and dolomite 

summit, shoulder, and backslope positions, limber pine 

forms extensive woodlands that may persist for centuries. 

Limber pine thrives on deep soils derived from colluvium 

and on shallow, rocky soils on summit and shoulder positions where other conifers are unable to survive. Pfister 

and others (1977) and Steele and others (1983) described 

the limber pine/common juniper habitat type as occurring 

most often on calcareous parent materials in Montana and 

eastern Idaho/western Wyoming, respectively, similar to 

the PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family and PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak 

Family Ecological Types. No sign of recent wildfire was 

found in the sample stands of either the Tyzak or Lolo 

Family Ecological Types, as evidenced by the abundance 

of common juniper and limber pine seedling, both of which 

are highly intolerant of fire. Pfister and others (1977) made 

similar observations in sample stands of the limber pine/

common juniper habitat type in Montana.

Succession

A grassland stage (A) follows directly from a standreplacing burn, during which Clark’s nutcrackers cache 

seeds of limber pine across the burned area, and Douglas-fir 

seeds carried by wind from adjacent unburned stands inundate the area (Bradley and others 1992). At moister sites, 

a shrub stage (B) may quickly follow the grassland stage. 

A fire of any intensity during the grassland or shrub stages 

will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, the grassland or shrub stages are followed 

by a limber pine and Douglas-fir seedling/sapling stand (C), 

where Douglas-fir is most successful in moist microsites. 

On severely dry, windswept sites, Douglas-fir may not 

successfully reproduce and will be absent from the stand. A 

low intensity fire during stage (C) would maintain the seedling/sapling stand and be less favorable for Douglas-fir than 

limber pine, which becomes fire resistant at a younger age. 

A moderate severity burn at stage (C) would completely 

reset the successional pathway. Following the seedling/sapling stage, a mature limber pine and Douglas-fir forest (D) 

develops. In the continued absence of fire, a climax forest 

(E) of dense, mixed-age limber pine and Douglas-fir develops. Several centuries may be required to attain climax. 

A low to moderate intensity burn at stages (D) or (E) will 

result in an open-canopied, coniferous woodland of mixed 

age limber pine and Douglas-fir (F). Open areas created 

by fire are attractive caching sites for Clark’s nutcracker, 

thus enhancing limber pine regeneration following low to 

moderate severity burns. Severe fires are rare in this ET due 

to a lack of fuels and a relatively open overstory. However, 

the risk of severe fires increases with stand age, and severe 

fires may occur in stages (D), (E), or (F), completely resetting the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET is not especially 

productive and is not suited for timber harvest. Also, the 

rocky terrain makes it difficult to access these sites with 

logging equipment. Low to moderate severity controlled 

burns may be used to reduce fuels, stimulate forage production, and maintain the open character of these stands. 

However, managers should take care not to allow prescribed burns to escalate into severe fires, which may result 

in the extirpation of common juniper and spike fescue from 

these sites. Common juniper and spike fescue are important 

in mitigating soil erosion, especially following forest fire. 

Also, these sites are at risk of invasion by cheatgrass following severe burns. These limber pine forests and adjacent 

grasslands provide important winter range for mule deer 

and elk. The large seeds of limber pine provide highly 

nutritious, energy rich food for small mammals and birds. 

Large, dead limber pine snags are important as nesting 

sites for cavity nesting birds. Spike fescue is a highly nutritious and palatable grass for domestic and wild ungulates, 

especially in the spring and early summer (Anderson 2005). 

The dense tufts of spike fescue are tolerant of moderate 

trampling and grazing pressure. However, spike fescue 

will decrease under constant heavy grazing pressure and 

continual trampling.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the 

potential natural vegetation of the Lolo Family ET is limber 

pine, while the potential natural vegetation of the Shawmut 

Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types are very similar 

environmentally. However, the Shawmut Family ET occurs 

at slightly cooler (avg. 1.2 oC, 14990 degree days) sites 

with relatively higher site water balance (avg. -226 mm) 
184 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

than the Lolo Family ET (avg. 1.5 oC, 15,720 degree days, 

-275 mm). The soils in the Shawmut Family have relatively 

high clay content (avg. 25% vs. 20%) and lower coarse 

fragment content (avg. 46% vs. 64%) than the Lolo Family 

ET.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar in 

vegetation composition.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that soils in the Lolo Family ET are 

mostly deep Mollisols with thick (avg. 40 cm thick) mollic 

epipedons, while the soils in the Tyzak Family are shallow 

to moderately deep Inceptisols and Mollisols with relatively 

thin (avg. 22 cm thick) mollic epipedons.

Table 59—Summary of environmental variables for the PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,718 2,652 2,859

Slope (%) 21 16 32

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 651 619 694

Degree days 15,720 14,360 16,480

Frost-free days 19.3 18.7 19.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -275 -313 -231

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.5 1.0 1.8

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 590 516 642

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,090 19,400 20,620

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 64 47 79

Clay (% in particle size control section) 20 9 27

pH (in particle size control section) 7.8 7.7 8.0

Available water capacity (mm/m) 55 34 75

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 4 1 10

Exposed bedrock 3 0 10

Gravel 13 3 35

Cobble 10 5 15

Stones 9 5 15

Boulders 2 0 3

Litter 30 10 65

Wood 7 4 10

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 20 10 30

Water 0 0 0
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Table 60—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 18 5 25

Subdominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 8 5 10

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 4 3 5

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 2 1 5

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 50 2 1 3

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 75 17 5 30

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 4 3 5

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 75 1 1 1

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 75 3 1 5

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 100 4 1 5

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 100 2 1 3

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 75 1 1 1

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 50 1 1 1

ANMA Anaphalis margaritacea common pearly-everlasting 50 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 50 1 1 1

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 50 2 1 3

ASTER Aster aster 50 1 1 1

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 50 3 1 5

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 75 3 1 5

CASTI2 Castilleja Indian-paintbrush 50 1 1 1

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 50 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 50 1 1 1

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 50 3 3 3

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 50 1 1 1

GABO2 Galium boreale northern bedstraw 75 6 1 15

IPSP Ipomopsis spicata spiked ipomopsis 75 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 75 1 1 1

PACA15 Packera cana woolly groundsel 50 1 1 1

PEHU Penstemon humilis low beardtongue 50 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 75 2 1 3

POOV2 Potentilla ovina sheep cinquefoil 50 1 1 1

SEIN2 Senecio integerrimus lambstongue ragwort 50 2 1 3

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 75 1 1 1

ZIVEG Zigadenus venenosus var. gramineus grassy deathcamas 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 50 1 1 1

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 50 2 1 3

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 100 4 3 5

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 2 1 5

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 50 3 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min 

= minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
186 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Table 61—Stand characteristics for the PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIFL2 13.8 9.2–16.1 30.7 16.7–58.4 257 52–366

PSMEG 2.3 — 42.7 — 15 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIFL2 32.3 11 95

PSMEG 41.5 13 90
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, 

Tyzak Family Ecological Type

Pinus flexilis/Juniperus communis var.

depressa, Tyzak Family Ecological Type

PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern 

study areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the 

northern study area, this ecological type occurs from Little 

Warm Spring Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the 

southeast. In the southern study area, this ecological type 

occurs from just northeast of Dickinson Park southeast to 

Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map unit 12L.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], east-southeast [2], south [1], southsouthwest [1], southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Shoulders and 

Summits.

Parent Materials: Residuum, colluvium over residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gallatin Limestone, Ordovician 

Bighorn Dolomite, Mississippian Madison Limestone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 55 to 66 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 62.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the limber pine/common juniper habitat type (Steele and 

others 1983). Limber pine forms an open canopy layer, 

sometimes sharing dominance with Douglas-fir. Limber 

pine occurs widely spaced, and these stands often resemble 

more of a woodland than a forest. Limber pine is always 

present and vigorously reproducing in the understory. 

Douglas-fir seedlings commonly occur in this ET. Small 

stands of Douglas-fir occasionally occur in pockets of 

deep soil near this ET. Douglas-fir in these stands can be 

quite large and old as they are protected from fire by the 

limestone and dolomite rock outcrops typical of these sites. 

However, unlike the PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family 

ET, which may occur adjacent to the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak 

Family ET, Douglas-fir is not projected as the climax tree 

species at these sites. The shallow, rocky soils of the PIFL2/

JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET, relative to the PSMEG/JUCOD, 

Shawmut Family ET, are more suitable for limber pine as 

the projected climax dominant species.

The shrub layer is quite diverse and often resembles 

nearby sagebrush communities. Common juniper is always 

present, usually as widely scattered individuals. Mountain 

big sagebrush, antelope bitterbrush, Utah snowberry, and 

whisky currant are shrub species reflective of the open 

canopy layer and intense solar radiation experienced by this 

type. Rockspirea may also be found in this ecological type 

growing out of cracks in the limestone outcrops. Russet 

buffaloberry may occur at relatively high abundance at 

cooler, high elevation sites.

The herbaceous layer, like the shrub layer, is very diverse and quite similar to adjacent sagebrush and grassland 

communities. In the spring and early summer, the striking 

yellow flowers of hoary and/or arrowleaf balsamroot, and 

the bursting white flowers of many-flowered phlox are 

always present. Less noticeable yet common forbs include 

turpentine wavewing, wooly groundsel, sulphur-flower 

buckwheat, oblongleaf bluebells, low beardtongue, and 

sheep cinquefoil. Bluebunch wheatgrass, spike fescue, 

and Sandberg bluegrass are typical grasses. Obtuse sedge, 

common in this ecological type, is a low growing, inconspicuous sedge with solitary stems arising linearly along 

creeping rhizomes. Summaries of species constancy/cover 

and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 63 and 64, 

respectively.

Soils
188 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Soils in the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET were shallow to moderately deep and calcareous, with a low degree 

of soil development, moderate to high coarse fragments 

(48-81%, avg. 63%), and variable clay (8-33%, avg. 20%). 

Accumulations of clay minerals were the result of in situ 

weathering rather than pedogenic transport to subsurface 

horizons. A typical soil featured an A/Bk/R horizonation. 

Mollisols featured a mollic epipedon (avg. 22 cm thick), 

while Inceptisols featured a thin ochric epipedon (avg. 7 

cm thick). Diagnostic subsurface horizons included a calcic 

horizon (avg. 35 cm thick) over shallow to moderately deep 

lithic contact (avg. 60-cm depth). Particle size class was 

loamy-skeletal. The soils were Lithic Calciustolls [3], and 

Typic Calciustepts [3].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Lithic Calciustolls

A1—0 to 8 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very gravelly loam, 

very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 43% sand; 

22% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; many 

fine roots and common medium roots and common coarse 

roots and many very fine roots; many fine and common 

medium and common coarse and many very fine pores; 

11% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 16% 76- 

to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 24% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.4; clear wavy boundary.

A2—8 to 27 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) very cobbly fine sandy 

loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 71% sand; 11% clay; 

moderate medium subangular blocky structure parting to 

moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and common coarse roots and 

many very fine roots; common fine and common medium 

and common coarse and many very fine pores; distinct 

carbonate coats on bottom surfaces of rock fragments; 

2% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 27% 2-to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 30% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.6; clear wavy boundary.

Bk—27 to 45 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) very cobbly 

loamy fine sand, brown (10YR 5/3), moist; 78% sand; 

8% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate fine granular structure; very friable, soft, 

nonsticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

very fine roots; common fine and common very fine pores; 

patchy distinct carbonate coats on rock fragments; 10% 

fine carbonate nodules in matrix; 22% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 26% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; violent effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; 

moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; very abrupt smooth boundary.

R—45 cm: limestone bedrock.

Ecology

The limber pine/common juniper, Tyzak Family ET is 

very similar in ecology to the limber pine/common juniper, 

Lolo Family ET (see the ”Ecology” section of the latter 

for a detailed description of the ecology of limber pine/

common juniper woodlands). The primary difference 

between the two Ecological Types is that the soils in the 

Tyzak Family ET were shallow to moderately deep to 

bedrock with a thin Mollic epipedon, while the soils of the 

Lolo Family ET were typically deep with a thick Mollic 

epipedon. The difference in soils is a reflection of the different parent materials and slope positions inhabited by 

the two Ecological Types, with the shallow to moderately 

deep soils of the Tyzak Family ET occurring on shoulders 

and summits in residual limestone and dolomite soils, and 

the deeper soils of the Lolo Family ET occurring primarily 

on backslopes in soils derived from mixed limestone colluvium. The two types are nearly identical in vegetation 

composition, with the exception that the Tyzak Family ET 

typically features smaller, more widely spaced limber pine 

than the Lolo Family ET. Environmentally, the difference 

in slope position and parent material is more distinct. 

However, the line separating the two Ecological Types is 

slightly blurred as the result of a continuum in soil development and depth to bedrock between the two types.

Succession

A grassland stage (A) follows directly from a standreplacing burn, during which Clark’s nutcrackers cache 

seeds of limber pine across the burned area and Douglasfir seeds carried by wind from adjacent unburned stands 

inundate the area (Bradley and others 1992). At more moist 

sites, a shrub stage (B) may quickly follow the grassland 

stage. A fire of any intensity during the grassland or shrub 

stages will completely reset the successional pathway. In 

the absence of fire, the grassland or shrub stages are followed by a limber pine and Douglas-fir seedling/sapling 

stand (C), where Douglas-fir is most successful in moist 

microsites On severely dry, windswept sites, Douglas-fir 

may not successfully reproduce and will be absent from 

the stand. A low intensity fire during stage (C) would 

maintain the seedling/sapling stand and be less favorable 

for Douglas-fir than limber pine, which becomes fire 

resistant at a younger age. A moderate severity burn at 

stage (C) would completely reset the successional pathway. 

Following the seedling/sapling stage, a mature limber 

pine and Douglas-fir forest (D) develops. In the continued 

absence of fire, a climax forest (E) of dense, mixed-age 

limber pine and Douglas-fir develops. Several centuries 

may be required to attain climax. A low to moderate 

intensity burn at stages (D) or (E) will result in an opencanopied, coniferous woodland of mixed-age limber pine 

and Douglas-fir (F). Open areas created by fire are attractive caching sites for Clark’s nutcracker, thus enhancing 

limber pine regeneration following low to moderate severity burns. Severe fires are rare in this ET due to a lack of 

fuels and a relatively open overstory. However, the risk of 
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severe fires increases with stand age, and severe fires may 

occur in stages (D), (E), or (F), completely resetting the 

successional pathway.

Management considerations

The PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET is not especially 

productive and is not suited for timber harvest. Also, the 

rocky terrain makes it difficult to access these sites with 

logging equipment. Low to moderate severity controlled 

burns may be used to reduce fuels, stimulate forage production, and maintain the open character of these stands. 

However, managers should take care not to allow prescribed burns to escalate into severe fires, which may result 

in the extirpation of common juniper and spike fescue from 

these sites. Common juniper and spike fescue are important 

in mitigating soil erosion, especially following forest fire. 

Also, these sites are at risk of invasion by cheatgrass following severe burns. These limber pine forests and adjacent 

grasslands provide important winter range for mule deer 

and elk. The large seeds of limber pine provide highly 

nutritious, energy rich food for small mammals and birds. 

Large, dead limber pine snags are important as nesting sites 

for cavity nesting birds.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Douglas-fir/common juniper, Shawmut Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ in that the potential natural vegetation of the Tyzak Family ET is limber 

pine, while the potential natural vegetation of the Shawmut 

Family ET is Douglas-fir.

Environmental differences: The two types differ in that 

the soils of the Tyzak Family ET are typically shallow to 

moderately deep Inceptisols and Mollisols, whereas the 

soils of the Shawmut Family ET are typically Alfisols and 

clay-rich Mollisols. Also, the Shawmut Family ET occurs at 

slightly cooler (avg. 1.2 oC, 14990 degree days) sites with 

relatively higher site water balance (avg. -226 mm) than 

the Tyzak Family ET (avg. 1.8 oC, 16490 degree days, -339 

mm). The soils in the Shawmut Family have relatively high 

clay content (avg. 25% vs. 20%) and lower coarse fragment 

content (avg. 46% vs. 63%) than the Tyzak Family ET.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Limber pine/common juniper, Lolo Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar in 

vegetation composition.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that soils in the Lolo Family ET are 

mostly deep Mollisols with thick (avg. 40 cm thick) mollic 

epipedons, while the soils in the Tyzak Family are shallow 

to moderately deep Inceptisols and Mollisols with relatively 

thin (avg. 22 cm thick) mollic epipedons.

Table 62—Summary of environmental variables for the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,620 2,408 2,719

Slope (%) 23 2 40

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 623 545 657

Degree days 16,490 15,560 19,040

Frost-free days 19.7 19.2 21.0

Site water balance (mm/year) -339 -434 -284

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.8 1.5 2.8

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 650 576 729

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,750 20,020 22,030

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 63 48 81

Clay (% in particle size control section) 20 8 33

pH (in particle size control section) 8.1 7.8 8.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 33 19 51

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 7 0 20

Exposed bedrock 7 0 15

Gravel 7 1 20

Cobble 13 1 40

Stones 4 2 10

Boulders 3 1 10

Litter 22 5 45

Wood 2 2 2

Moss and lichen 0 0 0

Basal vegetation 34 15 60

Water 0 0 0
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Table 63—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 18 3 35

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 50 7 1 15

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 83 3 1 5

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 83 2 1 5

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 50 1 1 1

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 83 4 1 10

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 83 4 1 5

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 50 1 1 1

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 67 4 1 5

RICEP Ribes cereum var. pedicellare whisky currant 67 1 1 1

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 50 1 1 1

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 67 4 1 10

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 83 2 1 3

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 67 1 1 1

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 67 3 1 8

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 67 7 1 20

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 67 2 1 5

CAPA25 Castilleja pallescens palish Indian-paintbrush 50 1 1 1

CIRSI Cirsium thistle 50 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 50 1 1 1

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 83 2 1 3

ERAS2 Erysimum asperum sanddune wallflower 50 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 50 2 1 3

EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat 50 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 67 1 1 1

LILE3 Linum lewisii prairie flax 50 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 67 1 1 1

PACA15 Packera cana woolly groundsel 67 1 1 1

PEHU Penstemon humilis low beardtongue 67 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 50 2 1 3

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 83 4 3 8

POOV2 Potentilla ovina sheep cinquefoil 67 2 1 3

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 67 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 67 2 1 3

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 83 4 3 10

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 67 3 1 5

Graminoids:

CAOB4 Carex obtusata obtuse sedge 67 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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Table 64—Stand characteristics for the PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIFL2 8.7 6.9–11.5 26.4 13.7–41.4 227 82–464

PSMEG 6.9 2.3–13.8 37.6 16.5–86.4 124 15–326

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIFL2 26.7 8 62

PSMEG 36.1 12 85
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Limber Pine/Spike Fescue, 

Saddlehorse Family Ecological Type

Pinus flexilis/Leucopoa kingii, 

Saddlehorse Family Ecological Type

PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The limber pine/spike fescue, Saddlehorse Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern study 

areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the northern 

study area, this ecological type occurs from Little Red 

Creek, northwest to Bald Mountains. In the southern study 

area, this ecological type occurs from just northeast of 

Dickinson Park southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a 

component of map unit 15L.

Environment

Aspect: South-southwest [2], southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Upper backslopes on 

landslide deposits.

Parent Materials: Mixed Bighorn Dolomite and Gallatin 

Limestone colluvium.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gros Ventre Shale, Cambrian Gallatin 

Limestone.

This ecological type occurs on steep backslopes near the 

contact between the Gros Ventre and Gallatin Formations. 

The type of bedrock at a given site will vary depending 

on the slope position relative to the particular geologic 

stratigraphy at the site.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 62 to 65 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 65.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the limber pine/spike fescue habitat type (Steele and others 1983). These stands are open woodlands or savannas, 

with large, widely spaced limber pine, robust mountain big 

sagebrush, and antelope bitterbrush. Whisky currant and 

Utah snowberry occur as large solitary individuals growing amongst the sagebrush. Small aspen clones commonly 

occur scattered throughout this ecological type. Spike 

fescue, although the dominant grass species, typically occurs at low abundance scattered throughout the understory. 

Bluebunch wheatgrass and Sandberg bluegrass often codominate with spike fescue. The forb layer resembles that 

of nearby mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass 

communities. Common forbs include arrowleaf balsamroot, 

sanddune wallflower, sulphur-flower buckwheat, oblongleaf 

bluebells, woolly groundsel, many-flowerd phlox, and 

lambstongue ragwort. Summaries of species constancy/

cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 66 

and 67, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse Family ET were 

deep and calcareous with a low to moderate degree of 

soil development, moderate coarse fragments (avg. 60%), 

and moderate clay (avg. 21%). Soils typically featured an 

A-Bk horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a thick 

mollic epipedon (avg. 62 cm thick) and a calcic horizon 

(avg. 57 cm thick). One soil was lacking a calcic horizon, 

and featured instead a 64-cm thick argillic horizon over an 

extremely gravelly C-horizon (17+ cm thick). Particle size 

class was loamy-skeletal. The soils were Typic Calciustolls 

[1], Pachic Calciustolls [1], and Pachic Argiustolls [1].
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Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Typic Calciustolls

A1—0 to 4 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) medium 

gravelly very fine sandy loam, very dark brown (10YR 

2/2), moist; 58% sand; 17% clay; weak fine subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine granular structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; 17% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

very slight effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.6; clear 

wavy boundary.

A2—4 to 15 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) medium gravelly 

sandy clay loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), 

moist; 56% sand; 20% clay; weak fine subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and many medium roots and common 

coarse roots and common very coarse roots and common 

very fine roots; common fine and many medium and 

common coarse and common very coarse and common 

very fine pores; 7% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- 

to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 24% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

very slight effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.5; clear 

wavy boundary.

BA—15 to 37 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) coarse gravelly 

loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 50% sand; 21% clay; 

weak medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common very fine 

and fine roots and common medium roots and common 

coarse roots and common very coarse roots; common very 

fine and fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very coarse pores; 25% patchy distinct 

carbonate coats on bottom surfaces of rock fragments; 10% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 21% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; slight effervescence; slightly 

alkaline, pH 7.6; gradual irregular boundary.

Bk1—37 to 61 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) very cobbly loam, 

brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 46% sand; 23% clay; moderate 

fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate very fine 

subangular blocky structure; friable, moderately hard, 

moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common very fine and 

fine roots and common medium roots and common coarse 

roots; common very fine and fine and common medium 

and common coarse pores; 40% patchy distinct carbonate 

coats on rock fragments; 13% fine faint carbonate masses 

in matrix; 16% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250- 

mm unspecified fragments and 20% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; strong 

effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; clear wavy 

boundary.

2Bk2—61 to 76 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) very gravelly 

sandy clay loam, brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 62% sand; 

20% clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure, and 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

hard, slightly sticky, moderately plastic; common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and common very coarse 

roots and common very fine roots; common medium and 

common coarse and common very coarse and common 

very fine pores; 50% patchy distinct carbonate coats 

on rock fragments; 13% fine faint carbonate masses in 

matrix; 12% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-

mm unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 30% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; violent effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 

8.2; clear wavy boundary.

2Bk3—76 to 103 cm: white (10YR 8/1) extremely gravelly 

sandy clay loam, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), moist; 

57% sand; 21% clay; moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate very fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and common coarse roots; common 

fine and common coarse and common very fine pores; 65% 

patchy distinct carbonate coats on rock fragments; 8% fine 

faint carbonate masses in matrix and 5% medium distinct 

carbonate nodules in matrix; 19% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 46% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; violent effervescence; moderately alkaline, pH 

8.2.

Ecology

In the mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion, 

forested vegetation is generally limited to limestone, dolomite, and sandstone slopes. The PIFL2/LEKI, Saddlehorse 

Family ET is unique in that it represents forested vegetation that occurs on shale and siltstone slopes, typically 

below Bighorn Dolomite outcrops. The soils were highly 

calcareous and derived from deep, mixed limestone and 

dolomite colluvium. South-facing Gros Ventre slopes 

lacking Bighorn Dolomite outcrops upslope never featured 

forested vegetation, suggesting that the occurrence of this 

ET on Gros Ventre Shale slopes is somehow related to the 

dolomite in the soil.

The occurrence of forested vegetation on Gros Ventre 

slopes with heavy dolomite influence may be related to 

the availability of phosophorus in calcareous soils and the 

mediating effects of magnesium present in the dolomite. 

Phosphorus is a key nutrient often limiting productivity in terrestrial ecosystems and is also one of the few 

elements that must be supplied almost entirely from the 

parent material of a soil (Walker and Syers 1976). Calcium 

carbonate controls the availability of phosphorus in soils 

by sequestering phosphorus in precipitates of calciumphosphate (Lajtha and Schlesinger 1988). Dolomite is a 

calcium-magnesium carbonate (CaMg(CO3)2) formed by 
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a process termed dolotimization, where magnesium rich 

solutions pass through carbonate rich sediments altering its 

chemical composition. Magnesium has the opposite effect 

on phosphates than calcium, leading to higher available 

phosphates in soils where magnesium is present, such as 

those weathered from dolomite (Shariatmadan and Mermut 

1999). Limber pine communities may be able to establish 

on Gros Ventre slopes below Bighorn Dolomite outcrops 

due to the higher available phosphorus provided by the 

dolomitic soils.

Succession

A grassland stage (A) follows directly from a standreplacing burn, during which Clark’s nutcrackers cache 

seeds of limber pine across the burned area and Douglas-fir 

seeds carried by wind from adjacent unburned stands inundate the area (Bradley and others 1992). A mountain big 

sagebrush stage with scattered limber pine and Douglas-fir 

seedlings (B) gradually follows the grassland stage. A fire 

of any intensity during the grassland or sagebrush stages 

will completely reset the successional pathway. In the 

absence of fire, the grassland or sagebrush stages are followed by a limber pine and Douglas-fir sapling stand (C), 

where Douglas-fir is most successful in moist microsites. 

On severely dry, windswept sites, Douglas-fir may not 

successfully reproduce and will be absent from the stand. 

A low intensity fire during stage (C) would maintain the 

sapling stand and be less favorable for Douglas-fir than 

limber pine, which becomes fire resistant at a younger age. 

A moderate severity burn at stage (C) would completely 

reset the successional pathway. Following the sapling stage, 

a mature limber pine and Douglas-fir forest (D) develops. 

In the continued absence of fire, a climax forest (E) of 

closed, mixed-age limber pine and Douglas-fir develops. 

Several centuries may be required to attain climax. A low to 

moderate intensity burn at stages (D) or (E) will result in an 

open-canopied, coniferous woodland of mixed age limber 

pine and Douglas-fir (F). Open areas created by fire are attractive caching sites for Clark’s nutcracker, thus enhancing 

limber pine regeneration following low to moderate severity burns. Severe fires are more common in this ET than 

other limber pine Ecological Types due to a high concentration of fuels and adjacency to mountain big sagebrush 

communities. The risk of severe fires increases with stand 

age, and severe fires are most common in stages (D), (E), or 

(F), completely resetting the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The PIFL2/LEKI, Saddlehorse Family ET is not suited 

for timber harvest. This ET provides excellent foraging 

opportunities for domestic and wild ungulates. Bedding 

opportunities and thermal and hiding cover are also close at 

hand. Blue grouse are commonly found in this ecological 

type. Low to moderate severity controlled burns may be 

used to reduce fuels, stimulate forage production, and 

maintain the open character of these stands. However, 

managers should take care not to allow prescribed burns to 

escalate into severe fires, which may result in the extirpation of mountain big sagebrush, antelope bitterbrush, and 

spike fescue from these sites. Also, these sites are at risk of 

invasion by cheatgrass following severe burns.

Mountain big sagebrush is killed by even light severity 

fires and will not resprout from the root crown if the above 

ground portion of the plant is completely killed (Welch 

2005). Antelope bitterbrush is highly susceptible to fire kill 

and is often killed by summer or fall fire (Zlatnik 1999a). 

Antelope bitterbrush in some regions may sprout after light 

severity spring fire; however, the resprouting ability of 

antelope bitterbrush is dependent on a number of factors, 

including fire severity, season, plant genetics, carbohydrate 

stores, and age. Fire generally favors bluebunch wheatgrass and stimulates flowering, seed, and tiller production 

(Zlatnik 1999b). Seasonality of fires strongly affects 

mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass receives the least damage 

when burned while dormant in fall, winter, or early spring 

and the most damage when burned while actively growing 

in the late spring and summer. Soil moisture status prior 

to and following fires also affects mortality and recovery 

time. Recovery following fires is generally rapid (one-five 

years); however, a lack of adequate soil moisture following a burn can slow recovery and increase mortality. Low 

soil moisture prior to burning increases fire severity. Spike 

fescue is tolerant of periodic, low to moderate intensity 

fires, which typically kills the above ground portion of the 

plant. Spike fescue is considered an “increaser” following 

low to moderate intensity fires. High intensity fires may kill 

underground rhizomes, in which case post-fire regeneration 

is from off-site seed sources

Bluebunch wheatgrass is moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing “decreaser” since heavy 

grazing can result in lower root and stem carbohydrate 

reserves, a condition leading to decreased vigor or mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass is most sensitive to grazing 

during its active growth period in spring and early summer. 

Antelope bitterbrush is a highly palatable, nutrient- and 

protein-rich browse species utilized by a variety of wild and 

domestic ungulates (Zlatnik 1999a). Antelope bitterbrush is 

moderately browse tolerant and is considered a “decreaser” 

under heavy browsing pressure.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
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Table 65—Summary of environmental variables for the PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,651 2,600 2,694

Slope (%) 41 30 51

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 636 622 652

Degree days 16,090 15,570 16,640

Frost-free days 19.5 19.3 19.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -312 -343 -295

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.7 1.5 1.9

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 661 633 681

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,740 20,570 20,830

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 60 48 68

Clay (% in particle size control section) 21 15 28

pH (in particle size control section) 7.9 7.6 8.0

Available water capacity (mm/m) 72 56 89

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 8 2 15

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 13 5 25

Cobble 5 2 10

Stones 4 1 5

Boulders 7 2 10

Litter 23 15 35

Wood 3 2 3

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 37 20 50

Water 0 0 0
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Table 66—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 23 15 35

Saplings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 6 1 15

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 100 2 1 3

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 32 25 35

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 100 5 1 10

RICEP Ribes cereum var. pedicellare whisky currant 100 2 1 5

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 67 4 3 5

Forbs:

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 67 2 1 3

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 67 2 1 3

ASTRA Astragalus milk-vetch 67 1 1 1

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 67 8 1 15

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 100 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 67 1 1 1

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 67 2 1 3

ERAS2 Erysimum asperum sanddune wallflower 100 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 100 1 1 1

IPSP Ipomopsis spicata spiked ipomopsis 67 1 1 1

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 67 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 100 2 1 3

OXSE Oxytropis sericea white locoweed 67 1 1 1

PACA15 Packera cana woolly groundsel 100 1 1 1

PEHU Penstemon humilis low beardtongue 67 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 100 2 1 3

SEIN2 Senecio integerrimus lambstongue ragwort 100 2 1 3

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 67 1 1 1

VIOLA Viola violet 67 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 4 3 5

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 67 1 1 1

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 100 5 3 10

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 7 1 10

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min = 

minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.

Table 67—Stand characteristics for the PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIFL2 11.5 6.9–13.8 29.0 13.7–47.8 237 188–279

PSMEG 4.6 — 40.1 29.7–50.5 44 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIFL2 31.2 9 70

PSMEG 50.5 20 89
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LIMBER PINE SERIES

Miscellaneous Limber Pine Types

Limber Pine/Common Juniper, Como 

Family Ecological Type

Pinus flexilis/Juniperus communis

var. depressa

PIFL2/JUCOD, Como Family ET

N = 1

The limber pine/common juniper, Como Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the southern WRR within the 

granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET occurs between Frye Lake and Meyer Lookout and just 

to the west of the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt. It is 

a component of map unit 317L.

This ET occurs on summits, shoulders, and backslopes 

of steep outcrops of Louis Lake Granodiorite. Elevation 

ranges between 2,600 and 2,900 m. This ET was observed 

on slope gradients between 25 and 60%. The average an-

nual precipitation ranges between 59 and 65 cm. Parent 

materials were granodiorite colluvium over granodiorite 

residuum. Soils were generally shallow to moderately deep, 

sandy skeletal Typic Eutrocryepts. Soils were high in grav-

els and boulders.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the limber pine/

common juniper habitat type (Steele and others 1983). 

Within the higher elevation range of this ET, potential 

natural vegetation may be whitebark pine/common juniper 

habitat type common juniper phase. Limber pine co-occurs 

with whitebark and lodgepole pine in the overstory forming 

an open tree canopy (15–20%). Limber pine is present and 

vigorously regenerating in the understory canopy layer. 

Whitebark and lodgepole pine seedlings often occur as 

scattered individuals. At extremely bouldery sites, quaking 

aspen is often present in the understory.

Common juniper and russet buffaloberry are the most 

common shrub species present. Utah snowberry, antelope 

bitterbrush, and mountain big sagebrush are shrub species 

indicative of the warm, sunny conditions typical of this 

ecological type. The PIFL2/JUCOD, Como Family ET is 

similar in vegetation composition to the PIFL2/JUCOD, 

Lolo and PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family Ecological Types. 

However, the Como Family ET soils are formed from gra-

nitic parent materials, while the soils in the Lolo and Tyzak 

Family Ecological Types are formed from calcareous parent 

materials.
198 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Lodgepole Pine

Pinus contorta var. latifolia

Dougl. ex Loud. Engelm. Ex S. Wats.

Lodgepole pine has been classified into four geographically distinct varieties:P. contorta var. contorta from the 

Pacific Coast, P. contorta var. bolanderi from Mendocino 

County California, P. contorta var. murrayana from the 

Sierra Nevada Mountains, and P. contorta var. latifolia

from the Rocky Mountains (Lotan and Critchfield 1990). 

The remainder of the discussion will focus on the latter 

variety, P. contorta var. latifolia.

Lodgepole pine is a widely distributed tree species in the 

Rocky Mountain west, occurring in the north from southern 

Yukon Territory, southwestern Northwest Territory, and the 

inland mountains of southeastern Alaska, south through inland British Columbia and western Alberta (Kral 1993). In 

the south, lodgepole pine occurs in eastern Washington and 

Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana, south through northwestern Wyoming, northern Utah, and central Colorado. 

Disjunct populations occur in southwestern Saskatchewan, 

the Bighorn Mountains of central Wyoming, and the Black 

Hills in western South Dakota.

Lodgepole pine has a broad range of environmental 

tolerance, occurring in lower montane, subalpine, and 

timberline forests, on seasonally saturated soils to extremely droughty sites (Anderson 2003). A lack of adequate 

precipitation limits lodgepole pine at lower elevations, 

while a short growing season sets the upper elevation 

limit. Lodgepole pine typically grows where precipitation 

is greater than 460 mm but may survive at sites receiving 

as little as 250 mm. The elevation range of lodgepole pine 

is inversely related to latitude. For instance, in Idaho and 

Montana, the elevation range of lodgepole pine is 1670 

to 2,380 m and 1,370 and 2,700 m, respectively. At the 

southern end of its geographic range, in Colorado and Utah, 

the elevation range of lodgepole pine is 2,100 to 3,500 m 

and 1,820 to 3,350 m, respectively. In Wyoming, lodgepole 

pine occurs between 1820 and 3200 m. Lodgepole pine 

occurs on nearly every substrate type and on soils ranging 

from deep and well developed to shallow, extremely rocky, 

and poorly developed. Lodgepole pine is most productive 

on coarse-grained, non-calcareous substrates; however, it 

can be found growing on medium- to fine-grained, calcareous substrates as well (Anderson 2003). Lodgepole pine is 

tolerant of nutrient poor soils derived from rhyolite, tuff, 

pumice, and sandstone and is intolerant of saline soils and 

high concentrations of heavy metals, including zinc, copper, cadmium, and mercury.

Lodgepole pine is intolerant of shade, moderately to 

highly frost tolerant, and seral to more shade tolerant 

species across most of its geographic range. However, the 

successional status of lodgepole pine can be quite complex 

and depends on the specific topo-edaphic conditions at a 

site. Pfister and Daubenmire (1975) recognized four successional roles of lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountains, 

including minor seral, dominant seral, persistent, and 

climax. Minor seral status occurs on productive sites where 

lodgepole pine growth is rapid directly following disturbance, allowing it to maintain a competitive advantage for 

several years. Eventually, lodgepole pine is overtaken by 

more shade tolerant species, is unable to reproduce, and 

is eliminated from the stand within a relatively short time 

period (<100 years). Dominant seral status occurs when 

lodgepole pine is able to maintain a dominant overstory 

position for one to two centuries. Shade tolerant species 

slowly gain a foothold as individual lodgepole pines die. 

Lodgepole pine is eventually phased out of the community 

as it is unable to reproduce in the understory. Persistent 

status occurs when lodgepole pine maintains dominance for 

extensive periods of time, usually as the result of periodic 

fires that kill shade tolerant species before they can achieve 

dominance. Shade tolerant species may occur as scattered individuals but fail to obtain overstory dominance. 

Persistent lodgepole pine forests are often considered in an 

extended seral state; however, the endpoint of succession 

is often difficult to surmise. Lastly, climax status occurs 

when lodgepole pine forms self-regenerating stands at 

sites that are unsuitable for other conifer species. Climax 

status is usually associated with topo-edaphic, edaphic, or 

micro-climatic factors, including temporary soil saturation, extremely droughty soils, nutrient poor soils, or 

frost-pockets.

Lodgepole pine is a monoecious, two-needle pine with 

thin, scaly bark that reaches 13 to 45 m tall and achieves 

diameters greater than 76 cm on productive sites (Anderson 

2003). Cone size, shape, and serotiny vary within and 

among populations of lodgepole pine. In general, staminate 

cones are 8 to 10 mm long, while ovulate cones are 3 to 

6 cm long, ovoid, and somewhat lopsided. The seeds are 

relatively large (4–5 mm long), winged (8–16 mm), and fall 

close to the parent tree. The maturation process of cones 

requires two years, and good seed crops are produced at 

one- to three-year intervals. Lodgepole pine may begin to 

produce seed bearing cones when as young as five years 

in open stands and 15 to 20 years in older, denser stands. 

Early seed development is an adaptation allowing relatively 

young stands to regenerate quickly following fire. Cone 

serotiny, first expressed in trees 30 to 60 years of age, is 

a characteristic that allows seeds to be stored on the tree 

in cones sealed closed by resin until the next forest fire. 

Serotinous cones require high temperatures (45 to 50 oC) to 

melt the resin and release the seeds. The level of serotiny 

in populations of lodgepole pine is a legacy of fire history, 

geographic location, tree age, and elevation. In general, 

lodgepole pine stands originating from stand replacing fires 

feature a large number of trees with serotinous cones. Fire 

frequency and intensity also plays a role in cone serotiny. 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 199

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Frequent, low intensity fires may not burn hot enough to 

stimulate the opening of serotinous cones, whereas infrequent, high intensity fires may burn too hot and destroy the 

seed crop.

Lodgepole pine features a number of adaptations to 

forest fire, including serotinous cones, thin, resinous bark, 

early seed production, high seedling viability and survival, 

and rapid seedling growth (Anderson 2003). The thin, 

resinous bark of lodgepole pine is highly sensitive to fire. 

However, mature lodgepole pine with slightly thicker 

bark can survive low intensity fires. Natural fire regimes 

in forested stands where lodgepole pine is seral depend 

strongly on the associated shade tolerant species. For 

instance, fire return intervals range between 25 and 100 

years where lodgepole pine is seral to Douglas-fir, 35 and 

>200 years where lodgepole pine is seral to subalpine fir 

and Engelmann spruce, and 50 to 200 years where lodgepole pine is seral to whitebark pine. Natural fire regimes 

in persistent and climax lodgepole pine stands are wide 

ranging (25–340 years) and are strongly dependent on the 

interaction between disease, insect infestations, and fuel 

accumulation. Mixed-severity fire regimes, where a mosaic 

of fire severities occurs across space and time, are typical 

of all forests where lodgepole pine occurs. Periodic forest 

fire is essential for the health and maintenance of lodgepole 

pine forests. Fire exclusion encourages dwarf mistletoe 

infestations, fuel load increases due to mountain pine beetle 

mortality, and the establishment of shade-tolerant species, 

all of which increase fuel loads and the chance of damage 

by severe fires.

Lodgepole pine is susceptible to a variety of insect pests 

and diseases, the most prominent of which are described 

here. Of the insect pests, mountain pine beetle has been 

the most damaging to lodgepole pine. Large epidemics 

occur periodically (20–40 year intervals), killing most of 

the lodgepole pine in the infested area (Anderson 2003). 

Larger trees (≥36 cm) are generally attacked first. The 

adults and larvae of the mountain pine beetle feed on the 

phloem layer of the inner bark, eventually girdling the tree. 

Trees attacked by mountain pine beetle are inoculated with 

blue stain fungi, and individuals not killed directly by the 

beetle later succumb to the fungi (Hagle and others 2003). 

Mountain pine beetle epidemics that initiate in lower elevation lodgepole pine stands may subsequently move into 

upper elevation whitebark pine stands (Eggers 1990). Pine 

engraver beetles (Ips spp.) bore through the outer bark and 

feed in the phloem layer, introducing blue stain fungi along 

the way (Hagle 2003). Top-kill is a common symptom of 

trees attached by pine engraver beetles. When populations 

of pine engraver beetles are high, death of lodgepole pine 

may ensue. Pine cone beetle (Conophthorus ponderosae) 

and western conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus occidentalis) 

feed on the cones and developing seeds.

Comandra (Cronartium comandrae) and stalactiform 

(Cronartium coleosporioides) blister rusts are pathogenic 

fungi that cause branch and stem cankers, which can eventually girdle the branches and stem, causing top kill and 

death (Hagle and others 2003). Lodgepole pine is susceptible to a variety of root, butt, and stem diseases, including 

tomentosus root disease (Inonotus tomentosus), red belt 

fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola), and red ring rot (Phellinus 

pini). The lodgepole needle cast (Lophodermella concolor) 

is a fungus that attacks and kills primarily one-year-old 

foliage. The result is a loss in growth rate and, in smaller 

trees, death. Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium 

americanum) is a common parasite of lodgepole pine. 

Witches’ brooms form on infected trees. Top kill, stem 

cankers, and swellings are common symptoms of dwarf 

mistletoe infection. Trees infected by dwarf mistletoe are 

also more susceptible to mountain pine beetle attack.

Prescribed fire is a common management tool for 

removing shade tolerant species and renewing older, 

languishing lodgepole pine stands (Anderson 2003). 

Prescribed fire is an effective method for eliminating 

lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe from infected stands. 

Stand-replacing burns should be used in order to destroy 

all infected individual trees, which would otherwise act as 

a source of infection in the regenerating stand. Prescribed 

fire can also be used in fuels reduction and site preparation 

in conjunction with harvest and subsequent regeneration. 

Effective control of pine engraver beetles, which develop in 

logging slash, may be accomplished by burning slash following timber operations. Mountain pine beetle infestations 

can be controlled using silvicultural techniques. In stands 

with high density of suitable sized host trees (≥36 cm), 

clear-cutting followed by burning of logging slash is an 

effective method of control. In stands with high volume of 

smaller trees, selectively harvesting the larger individuals 

can help control outbreaks of mountain pine beetle. Please 

refer to Amman and others (1977), Cole and others (1983), 

and Klein (1978) for more information on the use of silvicultural techniques in the control of mountain pine beetles 

in lodgepole pine stands.

Lodgepole pine stands have been managed extensively 

for timber harvest largely due to its rapid growth, broad 

environmental tolerance, and consistent regeneration. 

Applicable silvicultural methods include clear-cutting, shelterwood, and group selection. The appropriate silivicultural 

method depends on management goals, stand conditions, 

windfall potential, disease and insect susceptibility, and 

fire potential. For instance, in stands with high windfall 

potential due to shallow soils, high water table, low stand 

density, or high exposure to wind, a silivicultural method 

that minimizes the risk of increased windfall potential of 

remaining trees, such as clear-cutting, should be utilized. 

In serotinous stands, logging slash provides a seed source. 

Slash should be burned in order to open the cones, release 

nutrients, reduce fuels, and enhance regeneration. In nonserotinous stands, careful consideration should be given to 

harvest opening size in relation to adjacent lodgepole pine 

seed trees. Alexander (1986), Alexander and Edminster 

(1981), and Benson (1982) provided in-depth reviews of 

silivicultural techniques in lodgepole pine forests.
200 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole pine is low in palatability and nutrient 

content; however, mule deer, moose, and elk will browse 

lodgepole pine when other food is scarce (Anderson 2003). 

Snowshoe hare, pocket-gophers, voles, squirrels, porcupines, and black bear feed on the cambium of lodgepole 

pine. Red crossbills and red squirrels rely heavily on the 

seeds of lodgepole pine, while blue grouse utilize the seeds 

and needles for sustenance. Woodpeckers feed on the larvae 

of mountain pine beetles, which develop just under the 

outer bark. Lodgepole pine forests provide nesting sites for 

northern goshawks. Lodgepole pine is highly recommended 

for rehabilitation of disturbed sites.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 201

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine/Oregon Grape, 

Agneston Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Mahonia repens, 

Agenston Family Ecological Type

PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, Agneston Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion 

of Chapman and others (2004). This ecological type occurs from northeast of Dickinson Park to just southwest of 

Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map unit 43LF. 

This ecological type occurs on the Flathead Sandstone 

Formation on northeast-facing slopes.

Environment

Aspect: East-northeast [1], northeast [3], north-northeast [2]

Landforms and Landscape Position: Footslopes and lower 

backslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium and residuum.

Bedrock for this ET consists of various members of the 

finer grained or lower member of the Flathead Sandstone 

Formation as described by Bell and Middleton (1978). The 

lower member of the Flathead Formation is characterized 

by medium-grained, clean sandstone that is locally shaley 

or comglomeratic at the base. In the southern geographic 

extent of this ET, around Ed Young Basin and Limestone 

Mountain, parent materials tend to be interbedded 

sandstone and shale colluvium over residuum. In the 

northern geographic extent of this ET, parent materials on 

backslopes tend to be sandstone colluvium over sandstone 

residuum, while parent materials on footslopes tend to be 

sandstone colluvium over sandy shale residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian sandstone, shale, and sandy-shale.

Bedrock for this ET consists of various members of the 

finer-grained or lower member of the Flathead Sandstone 

Formation as described by Bell and Middleton (1978). The 

lower member of the Flathead Formation is characterized 

by medium-grained, clean sandstone that is locally shaley 

or comglomeratic at the base. In the southern geographic 

extent of this ET, around Ed Young Basin and Limestone 

Mountain, bedrock tends to be interbedded sandstone and 

shale.

In the northern geographic extent of this ET, bedrock 

on backslopes tends to be sandstone, while bedrock on 

footslopes tended to be sandy shale.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 56 to 

65 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 68.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is 

lodgepole pine/Oregon grape community type. Lodgepole 

pine is the projected climax dominant tree species on 

unproductive sites. Subalpine fir is the projected climax 

dominant tree species on the coldest sites, where potential 

natural vegetation is predicted to be either the subalpine fir/

Oregon grape or subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica habitat types. 

Lodgepole pine is always found vigorously regenerating 

in the understory tree canopy layer especially at early seral 

sites. Douglas-fir seedlings may occur in the understory 

directly following disturbance but are projected to decrease 

in abundance as lodgepole pine monopolizes the overstory 

and forms a closed canopy. Quaking aspen occurs sporadically in all layers of the tree canopy. Oregon grape and/

or Oregon boxleaf, and russet buffaloberry were always 

present at low abundance in the shrub layer. Snowbrush 

ceanothus and grayleaf red raspberry are indicative of 

early seral sites. The understory layers of recently burned 

sites were highly depauperate, a result of the intense 

shading induced by dense lodgepole pine regeneration. 

Common herbaceous species include Wheeler’s bluegrass, 

heartleaf arnica, white-flowered hawkweed, and Ross’ 

sedge. Herbaceous species common to early seral stands 

include smooth brome and fireweed. Summaries of species 

constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in 

Tables 69 and 70, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ET 

are moderately deep and deep with a high degree of soil 

development, high coarse fragments (avg. 74%), and strong 

clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons (avg. 23%). 

A thin (1–3 cm thick) litter layer occurs at the surface. 

A typical soil features an E/Bt/C-Cr-R horizonation. 

Distinguishing soil horizons include an ochric epipedon 
202 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

(avg. 11 cm thick), and an argillic horizon (avg. 40 cm 

thick). Inceptisols lacked an argillic horizon, featuring 

instead a cambic horizon (48 cm thick). One soil featured a 

thick umbric epidepon (36 cm thick). Particle size class was 

primarily loamy-skeletal with one soil of the fine-loamy 

class. The soils were classified as Eutric Haplocryalfs [1], 

Typic Haplocryalfs [3], Umbric Haplocryalfs [1], and 

Typic Eutrocryepts [1]. The clay-rich soils of this ET are 

in large part related to the fine-grained parent materials, 

including sandy-shale and shale, which have low resistance 

to weathering. The result is an abundance of clay-sized soil 

particles. The E-horizon represents a zone of eluviation 

where clay particle and organic matter have been stripped 

out and deposited deeper in the soil profile, typically just 

above a restricting layer such as an R- or Cr-horizon.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Typic Haplocryalfs

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

E—2 to 13 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) cobbly fine sandy 

loam, light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), dry; 58% sand; 

17% clay; weak medium granular structure, and weak fine 

subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; and few fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and common very fine 

roots; few fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very fine pores; 6% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 9% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.8; abrupt smooth boundary.

Bt1—13 to 36 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/4) very cobbly sandy 

clay loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 64% sand; 22% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

medium subangular blocky structure; friable, hard, 

moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common coarse and common very fine 

pores; clay films on surfaces along pores and clay films on 

surfaces along root channels and 17% distinct clay films on 

all faces of peds; 12% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 16% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 27% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7; 

gradual wavy boundary.

Bt2—36 to 62 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely cobbly sandy clay loam, light brownish gray 

(10YR 6/2), dry; 59% sand; 27% clay; moderate fine 

subangular blocky structure, and weak very fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, extremely hard, moderately 

sticky, moderately plastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and few coarse roots and few very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and few coarse and 

few very fine pores; clay films on surfaces along pores 

and 5% faint clay films on all faces of peds; 19% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 24% nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 36% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.7; gradual wavy 

boundary.

R—62 cm: bedrock.

Ecology

The PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ET was 

characterized by recent disturbance, including forest fire 

and logging. The lodgepole pine cones in these stands are 

predominantly serotinous, regeneration was vigorous, and 

stand age was typically less than 100 years. The moderately 

deep-to-deep, clay-rich soils associated with the PICOL/

MARE11, Agneston Family ET have greater available 

water-holding capacity and cation exchange capacity (i.e., 

a greater ability to retain nutrients) than shallower, coarsergrained soils on the Flathead Formation. Lodgepole pine 

reach large sizes quickly and form uniform, even-aged 

stands in 120 to 150 years.

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL/MARE11, 

Agneston Family ET is considered to be dominant seral 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 203

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

on colder, mesic sites and climax on warmer, drier sites 

(Pfister and Daubenmire 1975). Sample sites fell within 

the LP-1 (immature stands) and LP-2 (mature stands) 

post-fire successional stages of the “Persistent Lodgepole 

Pine Community Types” of Bradley and others (1992). In 

stands where lodgepole pine is potential natural vegetation, 

lodgepole pine is the only tree present at the site. After 

stand-replacing disturbance events and in the absence of 

severe fire, a brief (10–20 years) herbaceous/shrub stage 

is followed by (1) a lodgepole pine seedling/sapling stage 

(10–40 years), (2) pole-sized stage (40–150 years), (3) mature forest (150–300 years), and (4) over mature stage 

(>300 years), at which point the overstory begins to break 

up and an uneven-aged stand develops. At the herbaceous/

shrub and seedling/sapling stages, a fire of any intensity 

will reset the successional pathway. At stages 2 through 4, 

low to moderate fires thin stands while severe fires reset the 

successional pathway. The climax forest approximates an 

all-aged lodgepole pine stand.

In stands seral to subalpine fir, the successional pathway 

is very similar to that described above, with the exception 

that subalpine fir seedlings are present in the understory 

of the mature forest stage (Bradley and others 1992). 

Subalpine fir seedlings may occur in the understory of the 

pole-sized stage if a low to moderate fire thins the stand, 

providing openings in which subalpine fir may establish. 

Subalpine fir gradually gains dominance as individual 

lodgepole pine, removed by mountain pine beetle and 

dwarf mistletoe mortality, are replaced in the overstory by 

subalpine fir. In seral stands where quaking aspen co-occurs 

with lodgepole pine, lodgepole pine seedlings and quaking 

aspen sprouts both establish during the initial herbaceous/

shrub phase (Bradley and others 1992). Quaking aspen 

quickly overtops lodgepole pine seedlings during the seedling/sapling stage, restricting lodgepole pine to openings in 

the canopy where quaking aspen suckers are absent. At this 

stage, low to moderate fires favor lodgepole pine seedling 

establishment and quaking aspen sprouts by opening up the 

stand and stimulating root suckering of quaking aspen. In 

the absence of fire, the quaking aspen overstory eventually 

breaks up and a mixed conifer stand develops featuring 

lodgepole pine in the overstory and subalpine fir in the 

understory. As the stand approaches climax, lodgepole pine 

drops out of the overstory and quaking aspen occasionally 

survives in small, emaciated patches.

Management considerations

The PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ET shows the 

most promise for timber management of all Ecological 

Types on the Flathead Sandstone Formation. The location 

of this ET on the lower half of the Flathead Formation 

and the gentle slopes (avg. 18%) provide for easy access 

to logging equipment. However, the clay-rich soils are at 

increased risk of compaction by heavy equipment. Soil 

compaction can lead to reduced rates of water infiltration 

and lower soil volume, factors resulting in reduced root 

penetration and overall water availability (Meurisse and 

others 1991). Forest managers should limit the number of 

logging roads developed in these stands and require equipment operators to remain on designated roads. Downed logs 

located away from roads may be retrieved using a cable and 

winch system attached to skidders.

The highly productive nature of this ET makes it ideal 

for short rotation harvests of large, high-quality timber. 

Since forested stands of this ecological type tend to be even 

aged, timber harvest should occur shortly after stands reach 

maturity, before mountain pine beetle outbreaks reach epidemic proportions. Harvest schedules should be designed to 

create age-class mosaics of the PICOL/MARE11, Agneston 

Family ET across the landscape (Bradley and others 1992). 

Broadcast burning of slash following timber harvest operations will effectively control dwarf mistletoe (Anderson 

2003) and open serotinous cones. Broadcast burning also 

removes duff, prepares mineral soil for lodgepole pine 

regeneration, and results in a pulse of biologically available 

nitrogen in the soils (Giardina and Rhoades 2001). Russet 

buffaloberry is important during the initial stages of stand 

regeneration due to its ability to transform atmospheric nitrogen into biologically available forms. Forage and browse 

production is high during the initial stages of this ecological type. Forage production drops continually as stand age 

increases, and Oregon grape may be the only species with 

appreciable forage value in climax stands. However, these 

stands are located directly adjacent to mountain big sagebrush and grassland communities and provide important 

thermal and hiding cover for deer and elk.

These stands are at high risk of mountain pine beetle 

infestation under future climate warming scenarios. 

Managers concerned with mountain pine beetle epidemics 

should consider closely monitoring the PICOL/MARE11, 

Agneston Family ET for signs of beetle activity. Fuel loads 

in these young stands are not suited to support large, standreplacing burns. Risk of catastrophic wildfire increases with 

stand age as (1) seedling density increases, creating ladder 

fuels necessary to carry fire into tree crowns; and (2) mountain pine beetle mortality results in increased fuel loads.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in that PNV in the Como Family ET is the lodgepole 

pine/heartleaf arnica or lodgepole pine/common juniper 

community types, while PNV in the Agneston Family ET is 

lodgepole pine/Oregon grape community type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ in that the 

soils in the Como Family ET are typically moderately deep 

and deep Entisols and Inceptisols, while the soils in the 

Agneston Family ET are typically deep, clay-rich Alfisols. 

Also, the Como Family ET occurs on upper backslope and 

shoulder positions, while the Agneston Family ET occurs 

on lower backslope and footslope positions.
204 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 68—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL/MARE11, Agneston 

Family ET.

General environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,612 2,476 2,751

Slope (%) 18 9 42

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 609 561 653

Degree days 16,870 15,490 18,330

Frost-free days 19.9 19.2 20.6

Site water balance (mm/year) -305 -351 -266

Average annual temperature (°C) 2.0 1.5 2.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 610 561 681

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,030 19,790 20,330

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 74 49 86

Clay (% in particle size control section) 23 18 33

pH (in particle size control section) 5.0 4.5 5.6

Available water capacity (mm/m) 50 39 66

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 7 0 20

Exposed bedrock 7 0 30

Gravel 3 0 5

Cobble 3 1 10

Stones 3 0 10

Boulders 2 0 5

Litter 26 15 30

Wood 18 10 30

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 30 20 50

Water 0 0 0
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Table 69—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL/MARE11, Agneston 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species: Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 19 10 35

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 12 3 40

Seedlings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 80 5 3 10

Shrubs:

CEVE Ceanothus velutinus shinyleaf ceanothus 40 2 1 3

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 40 5 5 5

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 100 3 1 5

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 40 1 1 1

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 100 2 1 5

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 40 1 1 1

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 40 1 1 1

ANRO2 Antennaria rosea rosy pussy-toes 40 1 1 1

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 40 3 1 5

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 5 3 10

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 40 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 40 2 1 3

EREA Erigeron eatonii Eaton’s fleabane 40 2 1 3

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 60 2 1 3

HIAL2 Hieracium albiflorum white-flowered hawkweed 80 2 1 5

ORSE Orthilia secunda sidebells wintergreen 40 1 1 1

OSDE Osmorhiza depauperata blunt-fruited sweet-cicely 40 2 1 3

VIOLA Viola violet 40 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides squirreltail 40 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 6 3 15

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum 40 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 80 2 1 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which 

the species occurred.

Table 70—Stand characteristics for the PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 17.4 6.9–41.3 22.9 11.9–31.8 637 240–1,210

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PICOL 19.1 16 91
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine/Common Juniper, 

Holland Lake Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Juniperus 

communis var. depressa, 

Holland Lake Family Ecological Type

PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake ET

N = 4

Distribution

The lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ecological type occurs on the lower extent (approximately east of the Louis Lake Loop Road) of the Louis 

Lake moraine unit. It is a component of map unit 327L.

Environment

Aspect: North-northeast [2], southeast [1], west [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Kames. Summit, 

shoulder, backslope, footslope.

Parent Materials: Glacial till

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 60 cm 

to 63 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 71.

Potential natural vegetation

At present, the vegetation of this ecological type falls 

into one of two community types: lodgepole pine/common 

juniper or the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry (Steele 

and others 1983). Based on examination of adjacent climax 

stands, potential natural vegetation of the lodgepole pine/

common juniper and lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry 

community types is projected to be whitebark pine/

common juniper habitat type on upper elevation exposed 

sites and subalpine fir/common juniper habitat type at 

more sheltered locations. On extremely unproductive 

sites, especially on droughty sites at lower elevations, the 

lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry community type may 

represent potential natural vegetation. Common juniper is 

always present in the shrub layer. In lodgepole pine/russet 

buffaloberry community type, common juniper is present at 

low abundance relative to russet buffaloberry. Other shrub 

species are either absent or occur as scattered individuals, 

except kinnikinnick, which may occur at high abundance 

when present. Relative to other lodgepole pine communities, the herbaceous layer of the lodgepole pine/common 

juniper, Holland Lake ET is species rich. Heartleaf arnica, 

manyray goldenrod, and harebell are the most common 

forbs. White-flowered hawkweed and alpine leafybract 

aster may be relatively abundant when they occur. Ross’ 

sedge, squirreltail, and Wheeler’s bluegrass are the most 

common graminoids. Summaries of species constancy/

cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 72 

and 73, respectively.

Soils

The soils in this ET are relatively old as they are derived 

from Bull Lake (>200–130 Ka) and older Pinedale age 

glacial till (22–15 Ka) (Dahms, D.E., pers. comm.). These 

soils have had a relatively long time to develop compared 

to soils derived from younger deposits. The soils were deep 

(>1 m), low in rock fragments (avg. 41%), and moderate 

high in illuvial clay (avg. 17%). Soils in this ET typically feature an A/E/Bt/CB-C horizon. Depth to C- or CB 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

material tended to be greater than one meter. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (avg. 8 cm thick), 

and an argillic horizon (avg. 82 cm thick). Inceptisols 

featured a cambic horizon (avg. 58 cm thick) in place 

of an argillic horizon. Particle size class was primarily 

loamy-skeletal with one sandy-skeletal soil. Soils included 

Eutric Glossocryalfs [2], Typic Eutrocryepts [1], and Typic 

Dystrocryepts [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Eutric Glossocryalfs

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oe—2 to 3 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

abrupt wavy boundary.

A—3 to 6 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very fine 

sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), dry; 

54% sand; 9% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, 

and weak fine granular structure; very friable, soft, 

nonsticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and many very 

fine roots; common fine and many very fine pores; 4% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250- mm unspecified 

fragments and 9% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, 

pH 5.5; abrupt wavy boundary.

E—6 to 18 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) medium gravelly sandy 

loam, light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), dry; 60% sand; 16% 

clay; weak coarse subangular blocky structure, and weak 

very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; many fine roots and common 

medium roots and common coarse roots and common very 

fine roots; many fine and common medium and common 

coarse and common very fine pores; 8% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 18% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.7; 

gradual wavy boundary.

EBt—18 to 45 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) very gravelly 

sandy loam, light gray (10YR 7/2), dry; 75% sand; 14% 

clay; weak very fine subangular blocky structure, and 

weak fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common very fine and 

fine roots and common medium roots and common coarse 

roots and common very coarse roots; common very fine 

and fine and common medium and common coarse and 

common very coarse pores; 5% patchy faint clay films 

on all faces of peds; 11% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 45% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.9; 65% of horizon 

is “E”; 35% of horizon is Bt.; clear wavy boundary.

Bt1—45 to 79 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) extremely gravelly 

sandy clay loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 70% sand; 

24% clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure, and 

moderate medium subangular blocky structure; firm, hard, 

moderately sticky, moderately plastic; common very fine 

and fine roots and few medium roots; common very fine 

and fine and few medium pores; 3% patchy faint clay films 

on surfaces along root channels and 4% patchy distinct 

clay films on rock fragments and 5% patchy faint clay films 

on all faces of peds; 23% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 54% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.7;Gravel: 3% 

paragravel and 51% gravel.; clear wavy boundary.

BCt—79 to 102 cm: olive brown (2.5Y 4/3) very cobbly 

sandy loam, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), dry; 

78% sand; 18% clay; weak medium subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine 

roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common very fine pores; 2% patchy faint clay films on 

all faces of peds; 21% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 29% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.6; Gravel: 2% 

paragravel and 27% gravel.

Ecology

Lodgepole pine is the first tree species to colonize 

granitic glacial moraines at lower elevations in subalpine 

forests of the eastern slope of the WRR following disturbance. The PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake Family ET was 

characterized by relatively large diameter trees (avg. 20.8 

cm DBH) and a young age distribution (50 to 125 years). 

The larger diameter of lodgepole pine in this ecological 

type relative to stand age suggests that these sites are some 

of the most productive lodgepole pine Ecological Types described for the eastern slope of the WRR. The soils, formed 

from older till deposits, have had significantly more time 

to develop than soils formed from younger till deposits. As 

a result, the soils in this ET were more highly developed 

and finer-grained than the soils from younger till deposits, 

including the PICOL/SHCA, Bohica and PIAL/VASC, 

Salt Chuck Family Ecological Types. Alfisols tend to have 

some of the highest cation exchange capacities and nutrient 

retention capabilities of all western forest soils, a characteristic that, in part, helps explain the higher productivity in 

this ecological type (Meurisse and others 1991). Also, the 

higher content in these soils added to the available water 

holding capacity, another factor influencing productivity.

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL/JUCOD, Holland 

Lake Family ET is considered to be dominant seral on 

colder, moist sites and persistent or climax on warmer, 

droughty sites (Pfister and Daubenmire 1975). This ET 

falls within the LP-2 (mature stands) post-fire successional stage of the “Persistent Lodgepole Pine Community 
208 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Types” of Bradley and others (1992). Lodgepole pine is 

the only tree present at the site in stands where lodgepole 

pine is potential natural vegetation. After stand-replacing 

disturbance events, and in the absence of severe fire, a brief 

(10–20 years) herbaceous/shrub stage is followed by (1) a 

lodgepole pine seedling/ sapling stage (10–40 years), (2) 

pole-sized stage (40–150 years), (3) mature forest (150–300 

years), and (4) over mature stage (>300 years), at which 

point the overstory begins to break up and an uneven-aged 

stand develops. At the herbaceous/shrub and seedling/sapling stages, a fire of any intensity will reset the successional 

pathway. At stages 2 through 4, low to moderate fires thin 

stands while severe fires reset the successional pathway. 

The climax forest approximates an all-aged lodgepole pine 

stand.

In mid- and lower elevation subalpine stands seral to 

subalpine fir or whitebark pine, the successional pathway 

is very similar to that previously described, except that 

subalpine fir or whitebark pine seedlings are present in the 

understory of the mature forest stage (Bradley and others 

1992). Subalpine fir or whitebark pine seedlings may occur 

in the understory of the pole-sized stage if a low to moderate fire thins the stand, providing openings in which the 

more shade tolerant species may establish. In stands seral to 

subalpine fir, the stand is gradually taken over by subalpine 

fir as individual lodgepole pine, removed by mountain pine 

beetle and dwarf mistletoe mortality, are replaced in the 

overstory by subalpine fir. In stands seral to whitebark pine, 

succession takes place very slowly as the slightly more 

shade tolerant (relative to lodgepole pine) whitebark pine 

steadily increases in abundance in the overstory (Steele and 

others 1983). Lodgepole pine often co-dominates in climax 

whitebark pine stands at these sites.

Management considerations

The PICOL/JUCOD, Bohica Family ET featured an 

even-age distribution and serotinous cones. This ET is not 

suited for timber harvest due to the extremely bouldery soil 

surface associated with the Louis Lake moraine. Mountain 

pine beetle epidemics often begin in lower elevation 

lodgepole pine stands and move into upper elevation forests 

(Eggers 1990). These stands are at high risk of mountain 

pine beetle infestation under future climate warming 

scenarios. Managers concerned with mountain pine beetle 

epidemics in whitebark pine forests may want to consider 

monitoring the PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake Family ET 

for signs of beetle activity. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain 

pine beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others 

(1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for more 

information on the use of silvicultural techniques to control 

mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands. Many of 

these stands are located in areas frequented by recreationists. Managers should consider leaving buffer zones along 

roads to maintain aesthetic appeal following silvicultural 

treatments. Buffer zones should also be created around the 

many kettle lakes associated with this ecological type.

Broadcast burning of slash following timber harvest operations will effectively control dwarf mistletoe (Anderson 

2003) and open serotinous cones. Broadcast burning also 

removes duff, prepares mineral soil for lodgepole pine 

regeneration, and results in a pulse of biologically available 

nitrogen in the soils (Giardina and Rhoades 2001). Russet 

buffaloberry is important during the initial stages of stand 

regeneration due to its ability to transform atmospheric 

nitrogen into biologically available forms.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry, Bohica Family 

ET

Floristic differences: The two types are similar floristically 

in that potential natural vegetation in both types may 

include the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry community 

type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Holland Lake Family ET 

occurs exclusively on the lower section of the Louis Lake 

moraine and features soils derived from Bull Lake age till, 

while the Bohica Family ET occurs on lower elevation 

(< approximately 3,000 m) glacial till deposits other than 

the Louis Lake moraine and features soils derived from 

Pinedale age till.
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Table 71—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,606 2,572 2,662

Slope (%) 17 6 29

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 612 602 633

Degree days 16,520 15,910 16,850

Frost-free days 19.7 19.4 19.9

Site water balance (mm/year) -283 -305 -253

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.9 1.6 2.0

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 635 627 639

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,450 20,140 20,800

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 41 8 77

Clay (% in particle size control section) 17 11 24

pH (in particle size control section) 5.3 4.9 5.7

Available water capacity (mm/m) 84 57 117

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 5

Cobble 4 0 10

Stones 5 0 10

Boulders 9 0 15

Litter 42 23 65

Wood 18 5 35

Moss and lichen 2 0 5

Basal vegetation 18 15 20

Water 0 0 0
210 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 72—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake 

Family ET.

Charactertistic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 28 20 35

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 4 3 5

Seedlings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 100 2 1 3

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 4 3 5

Shrubs:

ARUV Arctostaphylos uva-ursi kinnikinnick 100 8 1 15

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 4 3 5

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 3 3 3

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia harebell 100 1 1 1

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 100 1 1 1

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 100 2 1 3

PYCH Pyrola chlorantha green wintergreen 100 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 100 1 1 1

SYFO2 Symphyotrichum foliaceum alpine leafybract aster 100 6 1 10

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides squirreltail 100 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 100 3 3 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 73—Stand characteristics for the PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PIAL 2.3 — 25.7 — 44 —

PICOL 29.8 25.3–34.4 20.8 10.7–44.7 1163 385–1,899

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PIAL 25.7 12 87

PICOL 23.6 16 98
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 211

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine/Russet Buffaloberry, 

Bohica Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Shepherdia 

canadensis, Bohica Family Ecological Type

PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry, Bohica Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ecological type occurs in the area around Worthen 

Meadows Reservoir southeast to the headwaters of Sawmill 

Creek and east to the junction of Townsend and Sawmill 

Creeks. It is a component of map units 327W and 351L.

Environment

Aspect: North [1], north-northeast [2], north-northwest [1]

Landforms and Landscape Position: Glacial moraines. 

Upper backslopes and shoulders.

Parent Materials: Glacial till.

In the area around Worthen Meadows, Frye Lake, and the 

headwaters of Sawmill Creek, parent material tended to 

be granodiorite glacial till. In Burnt Gulch and the lower 

reaches of Sawmill Creek parent materials tended to be 

Flathead Sandstone colluvium over granodiorite glacial till.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton, Flathead 

Sandstone

In the area around Worthen Meadows, Frye Lake, and the 

headwaters of Sawmill Creek, bedrock is granodiotire 

of the Louis Lake Pluton. In Burnt Gulch and the lower 

reaches of Sawmill Creek, bedrock is Flathead Sandstone.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 57 to 

64 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 74.

Potential natural vegetation

At present, the vegetation of this ecological type falls 

within either the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry or 

lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge community type. These community types may occur on a number of habitat types 

(Steele and others 1983). Based on examination of adjacent 

climax stands, potential natural vegetation of the lodgepole 

pine/russet buffaloberry community type within this ET is 

projected to be whitebark pine/common juniper habitat type 

on upper elevation exposed sites and subalpine fir/heartleaf 

arnica habitat type on more sheltered sites. Potential natural 

vegetation is projected to be subalpine fir/Ross’ sedge 

habitat type. On extremely unproductive sites, especially 

on droughty sites at lower elevations, the lodgepole pine/

russet buffaloberry community type may represent potential 

natural vegetation.

Lodgepole pine is always found vigorously regenerating 

in the understory tree canopy layer. Whitebark pine regeneration occurs in the understory of higher elevation sites. 

At more mesic microsites, quaking aspen may occur in the 

lower tree canopy layer.

In the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry community 

type, russet buffaloberry dominates the shrub layer, while 

common juniper and kinnikinnick were always present at 

low abundance. Prickly currant and Scouler’s willow may 

occur at more mesic microsites. In the lodgepole pine/Ross’ 

sedge community type, shrub species occur at low abundance scattered throughout the understory. Kinnikinnick 

was present at low abundance at all sites sampled.

A low cover of herbaceous species and an abundance of 

exposed pine needle litter are common to both community 

types. In the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry community 

type, Wheeler’s bluegrass is the most consistent herbaceous 

species present. In the lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge community type, some common herbaceous species include Ross’ 

sedge, heartleaf arnica, Wheeler’s bluegrass, manyray goldenrod, and silvery lupine. Summaries of species constancy/

cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 75 

and 76, respectively.

Soils

The soils in this ET are relatively young as they are 

derived from Pinedale age glacial till deposited between 

22 and 15 Ka (Dahms 2004b). These soils have had 

relatively little time to develop compared to soils derived 

from older glacial till deposits, including Bull Lake till 

(>200-130 Ka). The soils were deep (>1 m) and moderately 

high in rock fragments (avg. 39%); however, they were 

sandy, minimally developed, and featured very little clay 

illuviation (avg. 11%). A thin (avg. 4 cm thick) litter layer 

may occur at the surface. A typical soil features an A/Bw/

CB-C horizonation. The soils of one plot featured an 18-cm 

thick highly leached eluvial (E-) horizon. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include a thin ochric epipedon (avg. 12 cm thick), 
212 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

and a cambic horizon (avg. 51 cm thick). Entisols featured 

no diagnostic subsurface horizons. Particle size class 

included coarse-loamy [2], loamy-skeletal [1], and sandyskeletal [1]. Soils were Typic Eutrocryepts [3] and Typic 

Cryorthents [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive 

Typic Eutrocryepts

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

A—2 to 10 cm: 65% dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) 

and 35% dark brown (10YR 3/3) sandy loam, 65% light 

brownish gray (10YR 6/2) and 35% brown (10YR 5/3), 

dry; 64% sand; 10% clay; weak medium subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; 11% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.3; clear smooth 

boundary.

Bw—10 to 41 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) sandy 

loam, light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), dry; 70% sand; 11% 

clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure, and weak 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and common coarse roots and common 

very fine roots; common fine and common medium and 

common coarse and common very fine pores; 5% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.3; clear smooth 

boundary.

CB—41 to 110 cm: 50% light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2) 

and 50% dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) medium 

gravelly sandy loam, 50% light gray (2.5Y 7/2) and 

50% very pale brown (10YR 7/3), dry; 77% sand; 12% 

clay; massive; friable, moderately hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; few fine roots and few medium roots and 

common very fine roots; many fine and common medium 

and common very fine pores; 20% patchy faint clay films 

on rock fragments; 16% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; moderately 

acid, pH 5.6.

Ecology

Lodgepole pine is the first tree species to colonize 

glacial moraines at lower elevations in subalpine forests 

of the eastern slope of the WRR following disturbance. 

The PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ET was characterized 

by small diameter trees (avg. 17.3 cm DBH) and a relatively young age distribution (81 to 133 years). The small 

diameter of lodgepole pine in this ecological type relative 

to stand-age suggests that these sites are not as productive 

as other lodgepole pine Ecological Types described for the 

eastern slope of the WRR. The soils, formed from younger 

till deposits, have had significantly less time to develop 

than soils formed from older till deposits. As a result, the 

soils in this ET were less developed and coarser-grained 

than the soils from older till deposits, including PICOL/

JUCOD, Holland Lake Family ET. The low available 

water-holding capacity of these minimally developed, 

coarse-grained soils may account, in part, for the low 

productivity of this ecological type. Also, coarse-textured 

soils, such as those in the PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family 

ET, usually have low cation exchange capacities, which, 

when combined with a Udic moisture regime, can result in 

significant nutrient losses from the soil (Fahey and others 

1985; Meurisse and others 1991).

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL/SHCA, Agenston 

Family ET is considered to be dominant seral on colder, 

more moist sites and persistent or climax on warmer, 

droughty sites (Pfister and Daubenmire 1975). This ET 

falls within the LP-2 (mature stands) post-fire successional 

stage of the “Persistent Lodgepole Pine Community Types” 

of Bradley and others (1992). In stands where lodgepole 

pine is potential natural vegetation, lodgepole pine is 

the only tree present at the site. After stand-replacing 

disturbance events and in the absence of severe fire a brief 

(10–20 years) herbaceous/shrub stage is followed by (1) 

a lodgepole pine seedling/ sapling stage (10–40 years), 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 213

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

(2) pole-sized stage (40-150 years), (3) mature forest stage 

(150-300 years), and (4) over-mature stage (>300 years), 

at which point the overstory begins to break up and an 

uneven-aged stand develops. At the herbaceous/shrub and 

seedling/sapling stages, a fire of any intensity will reset the 

successional pathway. At stages 2 through 4, low to moderate fires thin stands while severe fires reset the successional 

pathway. The climax forest approximates an all-aged lodgepole pine stand.

In mid- and lower elevation subalpine stands of seral to 

subalpine fir or whitebark pine, the successional pathway 

is very similar to that previously described, except that 

subalpine fir or whitebark pine seedlings are present in the 

understory of the mature forest stage (Bradley and others 

1992). Subalpine fir or whitebark pine seedlings may occur 

in the understory of the pole-sized stage if a low to moderate fire thins the stand, providing openings in which the 

more shade tolerant species may establish. In stands seral to 

subalpine fir, the stand is gradually taken over by subalpine 

fir as individual lodgepole pine, removed by mountain pine 

beetle and dwarf mistletoe mortality, are replaced in the 

overstory by subalpine fir. In stands seral to whitebark pine, 

succession takes place very slowly as the slightly more 

shade tolerant (relative to lodgepole pine) whitebark pine 

steadily increases in abundance in the overstory (Steele and 

others 1983). Lodgepole pine often co-dominates in climax 

whitebark pine stands at these sites.

Management considerations

The PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ET featured an 

uneven age distribution. The larger trees in these stands 

are approaching the optimal size for mountain pine beetle 

attack (~36 cm), while the smaller trees are unhealthy and 

suffering from dwarf mistletoe. The appropriate management of this ecological type includes timber harvest 

followed by broadcast burning of slash material. Broadcast 

burning of slash following timber harvest operations will 

effectively control dwarf mistletoe (Anderson 2003) and 

open serotinous cones. Broadcast burning also removes 

duff, prepares mineral soil for lodgepole pine regeneration, 

and results in a pulse of biologically available nitrogen in 

the soils (Giardina and Rhoades 2001).

Since the cones in this ecological type are nonserotinous, careful consideration should be given to harvest 

opening size in relation to adjacent lodgepole pine seed 

trees. Also, windfall is a potential hazard as these stands 

are located on exposed upper backslope and shoulder positions. A shelterwood cutting or a larger number of smaller 

clear-cuts should provide the proper balance between 

protection from windfall and seed source. Many of these 

stands are located in areas frequented by recreationists. 

Managers should consider leaving buffer zones along roads 

to maintain aesthetic appeal following timber harvest. 

Prescribed fire may be used as a management tool in areas 

located away from high human use and in areas where the 

terrain makes logging inefficient or impossible, including 

the headwaters of Sawmill Creek and Burnt Gulch Creek. 

The intensity of prescribed fires should approximate those 

of stand replacing burns.

These stands are at high risk of mountain pine beetle 

infestation under future climate warming scenarios. 

Managers concerned with mountain pine beetle epidemics 

should consider closely monitoring the PICOL/SHCA, 

Bohica Family ET for signs of beetle activity. Fuel loads in 

these young stands are not suited to support large, standreplacing burns. Risk of catastrophic wildfire increases with 

stand age as (1) seedling density increases, creating ladder 

fuels necessary to carry fire into tree crowns, and (2) mountain pine beetle mortality results in increased fuel loads. 

Russet buffaloberry and silvery lupine are important during 

the initial stages of stand regeneration due to its ability to 

transform atmospheric nitrogen into biologically available 

forms.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Lodgepole pine/common juniper, Holland Lake 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are similar floristically 

in that potential natural vegetation in both types may 

include the lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry community 

type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Holland Lake Family ET 

occurs exclusively on the lower section of the Louis Lake 

moraine and features soils derived from Bull Lake age till, 

while the Bohica Family ET occurs on lower elevation 

(< approximately 3000 m) glacial till deposits other than 

the Louis Lake moraine and features soils derived from 

Pinedale age till.
214 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 74—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL/SHCA, Bohica 

Family ET.

General environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,638 2,484 2,749

Slope (%) 17 7 43

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 611 566 644

Degree days 16,500 15,230 18,180

Frost-free days 19.8 19.1 20.6

Site water balance (mm/year) -266 -364 -213

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.9 1.3 2.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 587 498 660

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,630 18,700 20,190

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 39 14 64

Clay (% in particle size control section) 11 5 15

pH (in particle size control section) 5.3 4.7 5.5

Available water capacity (mm/m) 65 33 90

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 2

Cobble 3 0 5

Stones 4 1 10

Boulders 9 1 20

Litter 43 20 60

Wood 20 15 30

Moss and lichen 2 2 3

Basal vegetation 16 15 20

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 215

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 75—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 50 5 5 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 10 10 10

Subominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 50 15 15 15

Saplings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 50 1 1 1

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 12 10 15

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 3 3 3

Seedlings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 50 1 1 1

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 1 1 1

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 50 1 1 1

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 1 1 1

Shrubs:

ARUV Arctostaphylos uva-ursi kinnikinnick 100 1 1 1

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 1 1 1

RILA Ribes lacustre prickly currant 50 5 5 5

RIVI3 Ribes viscosissimum sticky currant 50 1 1 1

SASC Salix scouleriana Scouler’s willow 50 3 3 3

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 100 9 3 15

Forbs:

AQCO Aquilegia coerulea Colorado blue columbine 50 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 50 1 1 1

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia harebell 50 1 1 1

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 50 3 3 3

ORSE Orthilia secunda sidebells wintergreen 50 1 1 1

POTEN Potentilla cinquefoil 50 1 1 1

PYCH Pyrola chlorantha green wintergreen 50 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 50 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 2 1 3

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum 50 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 50 3 3 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.occurred.

Table 76—Stand characteristics for the PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 26.4 25.3–29.8 17.3 10.2–35.3 1,339 946–1,734

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

21.6 18 106
216 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine/Heartleaf Arnica, 

Como Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Arnica cordifolia, 

Como Family Ecological Type

PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET

N = 8

Distribution

The lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, Como Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion 

of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs from 

northeast of Dickinson Park to just southwest of Limestone 

Mountain. It is a component of map unit 43LF. This ecological type occurs on the Flathead and Tensleep Sandstone 

Formations on northeast-facing slopes.

Environment

Aspect: East [3], east-northeast [1], northeast [4].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Summits, shoulders, 

and upper backslopes.

Parent Materials: Sandstone colluvium and residuum.

On the Flathead formation, parent material tends to be 

of the coarse-grained upper member of the Flathead 

Formation as described by Bell and Middleton (1978). The 

upper member of the Flathead Formation is characterized 

by parallel stratification with coarse- to fine-grained 

sandstone and localized areas of interbedded fine-grained, 

clayey sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

Bedrock: Flathead or Tensleep Sandstone.

On the Flathead Formation, bedrock tends to be of the 

coarse-grained upper member of the Flathead Formation as 

described by Bell and Middleton (1978).

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime on the Flathead formation. On the Tensleep 

Formation, soil temperature regime is Frigid and soil 

moisture regime is Ustic. Estimated annual precipitation 

ranges from 61 to 68 cm on the Flathead Formation and 55 

to 61 cm on the Tensleep Formation.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 77.

Potential natural vegetation

In the WRR, where this ET becomes increasingly stable 

in age structure compared with other locations in the Rocky 

Mountains, the potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is either the lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica or 

lodgepole pine/common juniper community type (Steele 

and others 1983). Lodgepole pine is the projected climax 

dominant tree species on unproductive sites. On productive 

sites, usually where soils are locally fine-grained, this ET 

occupies the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica or the subalpine 

fir/common juniper habitat types.

In both the lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica and lodgepole pine/common juniper community types, lodgepole 

pine is always present in the overstory. Early seral sites 

typically exhibit a smaller size structure and open canopy 

layer (10-20% overstory cover). Later seral sites are typically closed canopy, and lodgepole pine regeneration is 

often limited to scattered seedling and understory individuals. Lodgepole pine may sometimes be accompanied by 

limber pine seedlings in the understory. Quaking aspen may 

occur in early seral stands especially on extremely rocky or 

more mesic microsites.

In the lodgepole pine/common juniper community type, 

common juniper occurs as a moderately dense shrub layer 

accompanied by Oregon grape and russet buffaloberry. 

In the lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica community type, 

common juniper and Oregon grape are often present in 

the shrub layer at low abundance. Snowbrush ceanothus 

and black chokecherry are indicative of early seral stands. 

Scouler’s willow is indicative of more mesic microsites.

Heartleaf arnica forms a prolific herbaceous layer and is 

always accompanied by Wheeler’s bluegrass. Ross’ sedge, 

sidebells wintergreen, slender hawkweed, and yellow coralroot are other common herbaceous species present in this 

ET. Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 78 and 79, respectively.

Soils

These minimally developed soils are moderately deep 

and deep, sandy, high in coarse fragments (avg. 75%), and 

low in illuvial clay (avg. 15%). A thin (avg. 3 cm thick) 

litter layer occurs at the surface. A typical soil in this ET 

features an A/E/Bw-Bt/C/R horizonation. Diagnostic soil 

horizons include a thin ochric epipedon (avg. 7 cm thick), 

and a cambic (avg. 33 cm thick) or weak argillic horizon 

(avg. 52 cm thick). Cambic and argillic horizons were 

lacking in Entisols. One soil featured a mollic epipedon 

(34 cm thick). Particle size class was sandy-skeletal with 

one fragmental soil. Alfisols and clay-rich Mollisols, 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

including Typic Haplocryalfs [1] and Typic Argicryolls 

[1], may occur in this ET in pockets of finer-grained parent 

materials. These more developed soils were relatively low 

in coarse fragments (avg. 52%), and high in clay (avg. 

28%). Soils in the PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET were 

typically Inceptisols, Entisols, and weak Alfisols, including Psammentic Haplocryalfs [1], Typic Haplustepts [1], 

Typic Eutrocryepts [1], Typic Ustorthents [1], and Typic 

Cryorthents [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Eutrocryepts

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

wavy boundary.

Oe—1 to 2 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

clear wavy boundary.

A—2 to 3 cm: black (10YR 2/1) cobbly loam, dark grayish 

brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 48% sand; 12% clay; weak very 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

moderately sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common very fine roots; common very fine and fine and 

common medium pores; 3% nonflat subrounded indurated 

250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 4% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 15% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, 

pH 4.9; clear wavy boundary.

Bw1—3 to 25 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely stony loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 51% 

sand; 17% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, and 

weak very fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and many medium roots and 

common coarse roots and common very coarse roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and many medium 

and common coarse and common very coarse and common 

very fine pores; 19% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 21% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 34% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.9; 

clear wavy boundary.

Bw2—25 to 54 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) extremely bouldery 

coarse sandy loam, light gray (10YR 7/2), dry; 72% sand; 

11% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

very fine pores; 16% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 19% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 20% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 25% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 

3000-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.8; abrupt smooth boundary.

2C—54 to 90 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/4) bouldery loamy 

coarse sand, light brown (7.5YR 6/3), dry; 87% sand; 

5% clay; single grain; loose, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common very fine and fine roots and few medium roots; 

common very fine and fine and few medium pores; 14% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments and 82% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 

3000-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.7; very abrupt smooth boundary.

2R—90 cm: bedrock.

Ecology

The PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET is characterized 

by small, slow-growing trees and limited regeneration. 

The lodgepole pines were stunted and tree cores revealed 

numerous tight growth rings, indicating long unproductive 

periods with minimal growth between years. The deep, 

sandy soils, high in rock fragments (avg. 75%) associated 

with the PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET are highly 

unproductive and drought stricken. Also, coarse-textured 

soils, such as those in the PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family 

ET, usually have low cation exchange capacities, which, 

when combined with a Udic moisture regime, can result 

in significant nutrient losses from the soil (Meurisse and 

others 1991).

Mollisols are most commonly associated with soils in 

grassland and sagebrush communities (Nimlos and Tomer 
218 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

1982). However, a handful of Mollisols occurred under 

north-facing conifer stands, sites more typical of Alfisols, 

Inceptisols, or Entisols, including one sample site in the 

PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET that featured scattered 

quaking aspen in the overstory. The quaking aspen influence at this site is most likely associated with the most 

recent stand replacing burn and represents the early to 

middle stages of the transition between seral quaking aspen 

and mature lodgepole pine forest.

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL/ARCO9, Como 

Family ET is climax on unproductive sites and dominant 

seral on fine-grained soils (Pfister and Daubenmire 

1975). This ET falls within the LP-2 (mature stands) 

post-fire successional stages of the “Persistent Lodgepole 

Pine Community Types” of Bradley and others (1992). 

Lodgepole pine is typically the only tree present at the site. 

Occasionally aspen will co-occur with lodgepole pine. 

After stand-replacing disturbance events, and in the absence of severe fire, a brief (10–20 years) herbaceous/shrub 

stage is followed by (1) a lodgepole pine seedling/ sapling 

stage (10–40 years), (2) pole-sized stage (40–150 years), 

(3) mature forest stage (150–300 years), and (4) overmature stage (>300 years), at which point the overstory 

begins to break up and an uneven-aged stand develops. At 

the herbaceous/shrub and seedling/sapling stages, a fire of 

any intensity will reset the successional pathway. At stages 

2 through 4, low to moderate fires thin stands while severe 

fires reset the successional pathway. The climax forest approximates an all-aged lodgepole pine stand.

In stands seral to subalpine fir, the successional pathway is very similar to that previously described, with the 

exception that subalpine fir seedlings are present in the 

understory of the mature forest stage (Bradley and others 

1992). Subalpine fir seedlings may occur in the understory 

of the pole-sized stage if a low to moderate fire thins the 

stand providing openings in which subalpine fir may establish. Subalpine fir gradually gains dominance as individual 

lodgepole pines, removed by mountain pine beetle and 

dwarf mistletoe mortality, are replaced in the overstory by 

subalpine fir.

In stands where quaking aspen co-occurs with lodgepole 

pine, lodgepole pine seedlings and quaking aspen sprouts 

both establish during the initial herbaceous/shrub phase 

(Bradley and others 1992). Quaking aspen quickly overtops 

lodgepole pine seedlings during the seedling/sapling stage, 

restricting lodgepole pine to openings in the canopy where 

quaking aspen suckers are absent. At this stage, low to 

moderate fires favor lodgepole pine seedling establishment 

and quaking aspen sprouts by opening up the stand and 

stimulating root suckering of quaking aspen. In the absence 

of fire, the quaking aspen overstory eventually breaks up 

and an all-aged lodgepole pine forest develops. As the 

stand approaches climax, lodgepole pine drops out of the 

overstory and quaking aspen occasionally survives in small, 

emaciated patches. At extremely rocky sites, quaking aspen 

may remain in the overstory on boulder piles and in the 

crevices between rock outcrops.

Management considerations

The PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET is not suited for 

timber harvest due to its low productivity and the difficulty 

inherent in accessing the rocky terrain with logging equipment. Of more importance to forest managers are dwarf 

mistletoe infestations and mountain pine beetle epidemics. 

The degree of dwarf mistletoe infections in lodgepole pine 

stands in the Medicine Bow National Forest in southeastern 

Wyoming were shown to positively correlate to the age of 

the stand by Kipfmueller and Baker (1998). Periodic stand 

replacing burns help control dwarf mistletoe infections and 

result in healthy lodgepole pine forests.

These stands are at high risk of mountain pine beetle infestation under future climate warming scenarios. Managers 

concerned with mountain pine beetle epidemics should consider closely monitoring the PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family 

ET for signs of beetle activity. Silvicultural techniques and 

prescribed fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain pine beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and 

others (1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for 

more information on the use of silvicultural techniques in 

the control mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands.

During the herbaceous stage, following severe fire, 

this ET may provide moderate amounts of forage. Russet 

buffaloberry is important during the initial stages of stand 

regeneration due to its ability to transform atmospheric 

nitrogen into biologically available forms. Forage production drops dramatically as stand age increases, with climax 

stands having little to no forage production.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, Agneston Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in that PNV in the Como Family ET is the lodgepole 

pine/heartleaf arnica or lodgepole pine/common juniper 

community types, while PNV in the Agneston Family ET is 

lodgepole pine/Oregon grape community type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ in that the 

soils in the Como Family ET are typically moderately deep 

and deep Entisols and Inceptisols, while the soils in the 

Agneston Family Et are typically deep, clay-rich Alfisols. 

Also, the Como Family ET occurs on upper backslope and 

shoulder positions, while the Agneston Family ET occurs 

on lower backslope and footslope positions.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 219

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 77—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL/ARCO9, Como 

Family ET.

General environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,664 2,429 2,811

Slope (%) 21 15 24

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 627 547 675

Degree days 16,060 14,470 18,500

Frost-free days 19.6 18.8 20.8

Site water balance (mm/year) -281 -350 -221

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.7 1.0 2.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 575 516 624

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,620 19,200 20,050

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 75 47 95

Clay (% in particle size control section) 15 7 30

pH (in particle size control section) 4.8 4.7 5.1

Available water capacity (mm/m) 38 8 87

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 5

Exposed bedrock 5 0 30

Gravel 2 0 5

Cobble 9 0 25

Stones 9 0 25

Boulders 2 0 5

Litter 34 15 60

Wood 14 5 25

Moss and lichen 4 0 18

Basal vegetation 21 10 35

Water 0 0 0
220 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 78—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL/ARCO9, Como 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 33 15 70

Subominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 50 15 15 15

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 83 3 1 5

Seedlings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 83 1 1 3

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 2 1 3

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 83 1 1 3

Forbs:

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 9 1 20

CARO2 Campanula rotundifolia harebell 50 1 1 1

COTR3 Corallorrhiza trifida yellow coralroot 67 1 1 1

EUGL13 Eucephalus glaucus gray aster 50 2 1 3

HITRG2 Hieracium triste var. gracile slender hawkweed 67 1 1 1

ORSE Orthilia secunda sidebells wintergreen 50 1 1 1

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 83 1 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots 

in which the species occurred.

Table 79—Stand characteristics for the PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 34.4 6.9–52.8 18.5 7.6–41.1 1512 393–2,873

POTR5 18.4 — 10.9 8.1–13.5 2114 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PICOL 22.1 14 96

POTR5 12.2 — —
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 221

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Targhee 

Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Carex rossii, 

Targhee Family Ecological Type

PICOL/CARO5, Targhee Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Targhee Family 

Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area within 

the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs in the area around Dickinson Park and the 

area south and east of Louis Lake. It is a component of 

map units 309L and 309A. To the south and east of Louis 

Lake, this ET occurs primarily on summits, shoulders, and 

backslopes of a network of diabasic gabbro dikes that have 

intruded into the Louis Lake Pluton. Near Dickinson Park, 

this ET occurs on shoulders, backslopes, and footslopes of 

low to moderate gradient mountain slopes in park-forest 

vegetation.

Environment

Aspect: North-northeast [1], south-southwest [1], westsouthwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro dikes 

and mountain slopes. Summits, shoulders, backslopes, 

footslopes

Parent Materials: Residuum and/or colluvium.

In the area south and east of Louis Lake, parent materials 

were granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton or diabasic 

gabbro. Near Dickinson Park, parent materials were 

porphoritic quartz monzonite.

Bedrock: Granodiorite or porphoritic quartz monzonite.

In the area south and east of Louis Lake, bedrock was 

granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. Near Dickinson Park 

bedrock was porphoritic quartz monzonite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 63 to 

66 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 80.

Potential natural vegetation

On exposed summits, shoulders, and upper backslopes, 

this ET occupies the whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge habitat 

type lodgepole pine phase (Steele and others 1983). On 

sheltered backslopes and footslopes, this ET occupies 

the subalpine fir/Ross’ sedge or subalpine fir/heartleaf 

arnica habitat types. Whitebark pine or subalpine fir is the 

projected climax dominant tree species. Lodgepole pine is 

always present in the overstory. Early seral sites typically 

exhibit a smaller size structure and closed canopy layer 

(30-55% overstory cover). Later seral sites typically exhibit 

a more open overstory with higher cover of whitebark pine 

or subalpine fir, and lodgepole pine regeneration is often 

limited to scattered seedling and understory individuals. 

Whitebark pine or subalpine fir regeneration becomes more 

prolific with increasing stand age.

Common juniper and kinnikinnick may occur at very 

low abundance or shrubs may be completely lacking. The 

herbaceous layer is highly depauperate. Ross’ sedge and 

Wheeler’s bluegrass are the most common graminoids. 

Umber pussy-toes, ballhead sandwort, varileaf cinquefoil, 

and manyray goldenrod are the most common forbs. 

Summaries of species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 81 and 82, respectively.

Soils

Soils on shoulders and summits in the PICOL/CARO5, 

Targhee Family ET are moderately deep with a low degree 

of soil development, high coarse fragments (67%), and 

little clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons. A patchy 

litter layer (0 to 2 cm thick) occurs at the surface. A typical 

soil features an A/Bw/C/Cr horizonation. The Cr-horizon 

was composed of grus, a type of partially decomposed 

bedrock that has weathered to gravel-sized rock fragments. 

The grus was dense, prohibitive to root penetration, and 

extremely low in clay. Diagnostic soil horizons include 
222 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

an ochric epipedon (9 cm thick), a cambic horizon (22 cm 

thick), and paralithic contact (55 cm depth). Soils were 

loamy-skeletal, mixed Typic Eutrocryepts [1].

On backslopes and footslopes, soils in this ET were 

deep, moderate in clay (avg. 22%), and low to moderate in 

coarse fragments (avg. 41%). A thin organic horizon (avg. 

1 cm thick) occurs at the surface. A typical soil features an 

A/Bt/C horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include an 

ochric epipedon (avg. 10 cm thick) and an argillic horizon 

(avg. 56 cm thick). Soils were fine-loamy and loamyskeletal, Eutric Haplocryalfs [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Eutrocryepts

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; Even 

within the forested sections of this plot, the thin “Oi” is not 

apparent everywhere. On average, this plot is covered with 

approximately 2 cm of litter; abrupt smooth boundary.

A—2 to 9 cm: very dark gray (10YR 3/1) sandy loam, 

dark gray (10YR 4/1), dry; 69% sand; 8% clay; weak 

very fine granular structure, and weak fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and many very fine pores; 14% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.2; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bw1—9 to 19 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) medium 

gravelly sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 77% sand; 

15% clay; weak fine granular structure, and weak medium 

subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and many medium 

roots and common coarse roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and many medium and common coarse and 

many very fine pores; 21% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- 

to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly 

acid, pH 5.1; clear wavy boundary.

Bw2—19 to 31 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/4) very gravelly sandy 

clay loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 77% 

sand; 21% clay; weak medium subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and common 

coarse roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and common medium and common coarse and common 

very fine pores; 5% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- 

to 3000-mm unspecified fragments and 50% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.2; clear smooth 

boundary.

CB—31 to 55 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

extremely gravelly sandy loam, light yellowish brown 

(10YR 6/4), dry; 82% sand; 17% clay; weak very fine 

subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common very 

fine roots; common fine and common very fine pores; 15% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments and 53% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, 

pH 5.2; Gravel: 53% is paragravel. Texture is GRX-SL 

(borderline COSL).; gradual smooth boundary.

Cr—55 to 107 cm: extremely gravelly coarse sand; 97% 

sand; 2% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; 

68% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.3; Gravel: 

68% is paragravel. Colors dry and moist are variegated.

Ecology

Lodgepole pine is one of the first species to regenerate 

on coarse-grained substrates following severe forest fire 

throughout the Rocky Mountains. Along the eastern slope 

of the WRR, lodgepole pine forests may reach a stable 

state akin to what some might consider climax vegetation, 

especially on the Flathead and Tensleep Formations and 

on lower elevation glacial moraines. However, the successional status of lodgepole pine can be quite complex and 

depends on the specific topo-edaphic conditions at a site. 

The lodgepole pine in the PICOL/CARO5, Targhee Family 

ET is considered to fall within the dominant seral and/or 

persistent successional classes of Pfister and Daubenmire 

(1975). Dominant seral status occurs when lodgepole pine 

is able to maintain a dominant overstory position for one 

to two centuries. Shade tolerant species slowly gain a 

foothold as individual lodgepole pine die. Lodgepole pine 

is eventually phased out of the community as it is unable to 

reproduce in the understory. Persistent status occurs when 

lodgepole pine maintains dominance for extensive periods 

of time, usually as the result of periodic fires that kill shade 

tolerant species before they can achieve dominance. Shade 

tolerant species may occur as scattered individuals but fail 

to obtain overstory dominance. Persistent lodgepole pine 

forests are often considered in an extended seral state; 

however, the endpoint of succession is often difficult to 

surmise. Similar sites adjacent to the PICOL/CARO5, 

Targhee Family ET support whitebark pine or subalpine fir 

forests, providing clues as to the potential natural vegetation of the Targhee Family ET. Contrary to the ecological 

type concept, which is based on potential natural vegetation 

(Winthers et al. 2005), the Targhee Family ET is based on a 

seral vegetation type. However, the Targhee Family ET was 

considered significant enough in spatial extent and, given 

the persistent natural of lodgepole pine in these stands, temporal extent to be classified as a separate ecological type for 

use and management purposes.

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL/CARO5, Targhee 

Family ET is dominant seral (Pfister and Daubenmire, 

1975). After a stand-replacing burn and in the absence of 

severe fire, a brief (10-20 years) herbaceous/shrub stage 

(A) is followed by a lodgepole pine seedling/ sapling stage 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 223

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

(B) and then by a pole-sized stage (C). The pole-sized stage 

is typically too dense for subalpine fir seedlings to gain a 

foothold; however, a low to moderate fire during the polesized stage thins the stand, providing openings in which 

subalpine fir may establish. In the absence of fire, the stand 

progresses to a mature forest with subalpine fir regeneration in the understory (D) and finally an over-mature stage 

(E), at which point the overstory begins to break up and 

an uneven-aged stand develops. Subalpine fir gradually 

gains dominance as individual lodgepole pines, removed by 

mountain pine beetle and dwarf mistletoe mortality, are replaced in the overstory by subalpine fir. At the herbaceous/

shrub and seedling/sapling stages, a fire of any intensity 

will reset the successional pathway. At stages 2 through 4, 

low to moderate fires thin stands while severe fires reset the 

successional pathway. The climax forest approximates an 

all-aged lodgepole pine stand.

Where lodgepole pine is seral to whitebark pine, post-fire 

succession begins with a brief herbaceous stage (A) in which 

Ross’ sedge regenerates rapidly from underground rhizomes 

and quickly dominates the site. Immediately following the 

fire during the initial herbaceous stage, Clark’s nutcrackers 

cache whitebark pine seeds across the burned area. The cones 

of lodgepole pine in this ET are typically non-serotinous, and 

regeneration of lodgepole pine is dependent on seeds from 

adjacent, unburned lodgepole pine. As lodgepole pine seeds 

gradually reach the site over the course of several years, an 

uneven-aged lodgepole and whitebark pine seedling/sapling 

stand (B) follows stage (A) (Bradley and others 1992). A 

fire of any intensity at stage (B) will completely reset the 

successional pathway. In the absence of fire, stage (B) is followed by an open, pole-sized lodgepole and whitebark pine 

stand (C), then by a mature lodgepole pine and whitebark 

pine stand (D), and eventually by a climax stand of mixed 

lodgepole and whitebark pine (E). Regeneration of lodgepole 

and whitebark pine at stage (E) is a continual and gradual 

process as gaps created in the forest canopy are slowly filled 

by seedlings of both species. Regeneration success tends to 

be greater for whitebark pine, which is slightly more shade 

tolerant than lodgepole pine. Low to moderate intensity fires 

at stages (C) through (E) will maintain the stand at each 

respective stage, while severe fires at stages (C) through (E) 

will completely reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The most important management consideration in these 

warm, lower elevation lodgepole pine forests is risk of 

mountain pine beetle infestations. Mountain pine beetles 

are favored by mild winters and warm, droughty summers—climatic factors responsible for epidemics (Howard 

2002). Temperatures at low and mid-elevations have historically been most favorable for mountain pine beetle broods, 

and lodgepole pine forests within this elevation range are 

at higher risk of attack. Mountain pine beetle epidemics 

often begin in lower elevation lodgepole pine stands and 

move into upper elevation forests (Eggers 1990). Managers 

concerned with mountain pine beetle epidemics in upper 

elevation whitebark pine forests may consider monitoring 

these lower elevation lodgepole stands for signs of beetle 

activity. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed fire can be 

used to treat these stands for mountain pine beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others (1977), Cole and 

others (1983), and Klein (1978) for more information on 

the use of silvicultural techniques in the control mountain 

pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands.

This ET is suited for timber harvest, especially on 

backslopes and footslopes, as it is moderately productive 

and the gentle terrain provides for easy access by logging 

equipment. Alexander (1986), Alexander and Edminster 

(1981), and Benson (1982) provided in-depth reviews of 

silivicultural techniques in lodgepole pine forests. During 

the herbaceous stage, directly following severe fire, this ET 

may provide moderate amounts of forage. However, forage 

production drops dramatically as stand age increases, with 

climax stands having little to no forage production.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Como Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in their successional status. The Como Family ET may 

represent potential natural vegetation of the Targhee Family 

ET on summits, shoulders, and upper backslopes in areas 

adjacent to Louis Lake.

Environmental differences: The two types are very similar 

environmentally.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Whitebark pine/Ross’ sedge, Frisco Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in their successional status. The Frisco Family ET may 

represent potential natural vegetation of the Targhee Family 

ET on summits, shoulders, and upper backslopes in and 

around Dickinson Park.

Environmental differences: The two types are very similar 

environmentally.

Ecological Type 3

Type: Subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically 

in their successional status. The subalpine fir/heartleaf 

arnica habitat type of the Marosa Family ET may represent 

potential natural vegetation of the Targhee Family ET on 

lower backslopes and footslopes.

Environmental differences: The Targhee Family ET occurs 

on granitic substrates, while the Marosa Family ET may 

occur on sandstone or granitic substrates. On granitic 

substrates, the two types are very similar. However, it 

is unknown whether the Targhee Family ET ccurs on 

sandstone.
224 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 80—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL/CARO5, Targhee 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2754 2665 2884

Slope (%) 5 3 8

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 649 634 663

Degree days 14850 13530 15750

Frost-free days 18.9 18.4 19.3

Site water balance (mm/year) -259 -288 -206

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.2 0.7 1.5

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 570 519 612

Summer radiation (KJ) 20520 20220 20850

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 50 32 67

Clay (% in particle size control section) 17 8 24

pH (in particle size control section) 5.4 5.2 5.6

Available water capacity (mm/m) 63 41 79

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 1 0 2

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 3

Cobble 1 0 2

Stones 1 0 2

Boulders 1 0 5

Litter 71 68 75

Wood 8 5 15

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 13 10 15

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 225

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 81—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL/CARO5, Targhee Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 23 15 35

Subdominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 13 5 25

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 67 4 3 5

Seedlings:

PIAL Pinus albicaulis whitebark pine 67 3 1 5

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 5 1 10

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 100 1 1 1

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 67 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 100 1 1 1

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 67 1 1 1

OSDE Osmorhiza depauperata blunt-fruited sweet-cicely 67 1 1 1

PODI2 Potentilla diversifolia varileaf cinquefoil 100 1 1 1

SOMUS Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum manyray goldenrod 100 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides squirreltail 67 1 1 1

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 3 1 5

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 100 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 82—Stand characteristics for the PICOL/CARO5, Targhee Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 32.1 23.0–36.7 24.9 13.5–42.2 741 593–889

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

28.7 11 148
226 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Lodgepole Pine Series, Corbly Family 

Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia Series, Corbly 

Family Ecological Type

PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The lodgepole pine series, Corbly Family Ecological 

Type, occurs in the southern study area within the granitic 

subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This ET 

occurs in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt and is a 

component of join unit 106D.

Environment

Aspect: North-northeast [1], North-northwest [1], southeast 

[2].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Lower backslopes and 

footslopes. Topographic depressions.

Parent Materials: Residuum. Granodiorite-amphibolite 

gneiss, granodiorite-graywacke gneiss, migmatite, and 

grantite.

Bedrock: This ET was located in the South Pass Greenstone 

Belt and includes a complex of metasedimentary rocks 

that form the Gneiss Belt, a border zone of contact 

metamorphism within the Greenstone Belt that features 

interlayered migmatite, graywacke gneiss, amphibolite, 

granite, and granodiorite (Hausel 1988).

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 59 to 

60 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 83.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

contains a number of different lodgepole pine communities, including lodgepole pine/Oregon grape, lodgepole 

pine/russet buffaloberry, lodgepole pine/heartleaf arnica, 

and lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge (Steele and others 1983). 

Lodgepole pine dominates the tree canopy and features 

strong regeneration in the understory. Limber pine cooccurs with lodgepole pine in the overstory with limited 

regeneration. Quaking aspen is commonly found scattered 

throughout the understory. Oregon grape is the more common shrub species. Common forbs include narrow-leaf 

collomia, small-flowered blue-eyed mary, and silvery 

lupine. Wheeler’s bluegrass and Ross’ sedge always occur and are sometimes joined by Idaho fescue and little 

ricegrass. Summaries of species constancy/cover and 

stand characteristics are provided in Tables 84 and 85, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the PICO Series, Corbly Family ET were 

moderately deep and deep with a low degree of soil development, moderately high (avg. 55%) in coarse fragments 

(particularly gravels), and low in clay (avg. 12%). A thin 

(avg. 2 cm thick) litter layer typically occurs at the surface. 

A typical soil features an A/Bw/BC-C/Cr-R horizonation. 

Diagnostic soil horizons include a mollic (avg. 26 cm thick) 

or ochric (avg. 14 cm thick) epipedon, a cambic horizon 

(avg. 21 cm thick), and lithic or paralithic contact (in moderately deep soils). One soil featured an ochric epipedon 

(15 cm thick), and a weakly developed argillic horizon 

(19 cm thick) over a gravelly C-horizon. Entisols lacked 

both a cambic and argillic horizon. Particle size class was 

primarily sandy-skeletal with one soil of the loamy-skeletal 

class. The soils included Entisols and weak Mollisols and 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 227

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Alfisols. Soils were Inceptic Haplustalfs, Typic Haplustolls, 

Entic Haplustolls, and Typic Ustorthents.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Entic Haplustolls

Oi—0 to 1 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; abrupt 

smooth boundary.

Oe—1 to 2 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 

clear smooth boundary.

A—2 to 12 cm: grayish brown (10YR 5/2) channery very 

fine sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) and 

very dark brown (10YR 2/2), moist; 68% sand; 15% clay; 

weak medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and many very fine pores; 6% flat angular indurated 

380- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 12% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 14% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.3; clear 

wavy boundary.

BA—12 to 31 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) very flaggy fine 

sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), 

moist; 71% sand; 17% clay; weak medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate very fine subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very fine pores; 11% flat angular indurated 

150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 15% flat 

angular indurated 380- to 600-mm unspecified fragments 

and 21% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 

5.3; clear wavy boundary.

Bw—31 to 42 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) extremely 

bouldery sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 79% sand; 

13% clay; weak very fine subangular blocky structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common medium 

roots and common very fine roots; common medium 

and common very fine pores; 30% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 55% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 5.0; 

clear wavy boundary.

2C—42 to 51 cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

extremely bouldery loamy sand, yellowish brown (10YR 

5/4), moist; 80% sand; 7% clay; massive; very friable, 

soft, nonsticky, nonplastic; common medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common medium and common 

very fine pores; 31% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 50% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; very strongly acid, pH 4.8; clear wavy 

boundary.

2R—51 cm: bedrock.

Ecology

The PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET was characterized 

by uneven-aged stands of lodgepole pine and moderately 

deep and deep, coarse-textured soils. Many of these sites 

were logged in the early Twentieth Century and the trees 

were used as railroad ties. Inspection of old tree stumps 

revealed that many of these sites were dominated by 

Douglas-fir in the past. However, Douglas-fir seedlings 

were rarely encountered in the understory of the sample 

stands. These sites may have been marginal Douglas-fir 

habitat prior timber harvest in the early Twentieth Century. 

Changes in micro-climate and soil nutrient status related to 

timber harvest may have resulted in a change in vegetative 

potential at these sites. Coarse-textured soils, such as those 

in the PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET, usually have low 

cation exchange capacities, which, when combined with 

a Udic moisture regime, can result in significant nutrient 

losses from the soil, especially when coupled with a loss 

of vegetation (Meurisse and others 1991). Despain (1973) 

cited the high (relative to lodgepole pine) nutrient requirements of Douglas-fir as a likely reason for the absence 

of Douglas-fir on sandy soils derived from granite and 

sandstone parent materials in the Bighorn Mountains of 

north-central Wyoming. Sandy soils tend to have a lower 

supply of nutrients in the original parent material and increased leaching, resulting in more nutrient poor conditions 

than finer soils (Anderson 1988). Water stress may also 

play a role in the absence of Douglas-fir on the metasedimentary and granitic soils of this ET.

Mollisols are most commonly associated with soils in 

grassland and sagebrush communities (Nimlos and Tomer 

1982). However, a handful of Mollisols occurred under 

north-facing conifer stands, sites more typical of Alfisols, 

including two sample sites in the PICOL Series, Corbly 

Family ET. Quaking aspen is seral to lodgepole pine in this 

ET following forest fire, and the early seral stages of these 

forested stands feature vigorous quaking aspen resprouts. 

Quaking aspen leaves, which have high concentrations 

of cations and decompose quickly due to a low carbon to 

nitrogen ratio, contribute strongly to the development of 

thick, dark, carbon-rich surface horizons with relatively 

high pH (typically >6.0) (Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 

1996; Legare and others 2005).

Succession

The successional status of the PICOL Series, Corbly 

Family ET is climax on these unproductive sites (Pfister 

and Daubenmire 1975). This ET falls within the LP-2 (mature stands) post-fire successional stages of the “Persistent 

Lodgepole Pine Community Types” of Bradley and others 
228 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

(1992). Lodgepole pine typically co-occurs with quaking 

aspen and limber pine. Following a stand-replacing burn, a 

brief (10–20 years) herbaceous/shrub stage (A) is followed 

by a lodgepole pine, limber pine, and quaking aspen seedling/sapling stage (B) (10–40 years). At the herbaceous/

shrub and seedling/sapling stages, a fire of any intensity 

will reset the successional pathway. In the absence of fire, 

quaking aspen quickly overtops lodgepole and limber pine 

seedlings during the seedling/sapling stage, restricting 

lodgepole and limber pine to openings in the canopy where 

quaking aspen suckers are absent. At stage (B), low to 

moderate fires favor lodgepole pine seedling establishment 

and quaking aspen sprouts by opening up the stand and 

stimulating root suckering of quaking aspen.

In the continued absence of fire, a pole-sized stage develops (C) (40–150 years), during which the quaking aspen 

overstory begins to break up and an all-aged lodgepole 

pine forest develops (D) (150–300 years). As the stand approaches climax, quaking aspen drops out of the overstory 

and occasionally survives in small, emaciated patches. At 

extremely rocky sites, quaking aspen may remain in the 

overstory on boulder piles and in the crevices between rock 

outcrops. At stages (C) and (D), low to moderate fires thin 

stands, while severe fires reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

The PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET shows promise 

for timber management. The location of this ET on gently 

undulating slopes (avg. 19%) provides for easy access of 

logging equipment. Since forested stands of this ecological 

type tend to be uneven-aged, timber harvest methods that 

select for mature trees, including single tree and group 

selection, should be used shortly after the first cohort of 

tree reaches maturity. Single tree and group selection techniques will also help mitigate changes in micro-climate at 

the forest floor that can negatively influence tree seedling 

survival. Low intensity broadcast burning of slash following timber harvest operations will effectively control dwarf 

mistletoe, open serotinous cones, remove duff, and prepare 

mineral soil for lodgepole pine regeneration (Anderson 

2003). Fire in lodgepole pine stands often results in a pulse 

of biologically available nitrogen in the soils (Giardina and 

Rhoades 2001) and increased forage production for big 

game in the years shortly after timber harvest. Mountain 

pine beetle epidemics often begin in lower elevation 

lodgepole pine stands and move into upper elevation forests 

(Eggers 1990). Managers concerned with mountain pine 

beetle epidemics in whitebark pine forests may consider 

monitoring the PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET for signs 

of beetle activity. Silvicultural techniques and prescribed 

fire can be used to treat these stands for mountain pine 

beetle infestations. Please refer to Amman and others 

(1977), Cole and others (1983), and Klein (1978) for more 

information on the use of silvicultural techniques in the 

control mountain pine beetles in lodgepole pine stands.

Forage and browse production is high during the initial 

stages of this ecological type. Russet buffaloberry and silvery lupine are important during the initial stages of stand 

regeneration due to their ability to transform atmospheric 

nitrogen into biologically available forms. Forage production drops continually as stand age increases, and Oregon 

grape may be the only species with appreciable forage 

value in climax stands. However, these stands are located 

directly adjacent to mountain big sagebrush and grassland 

communities and provide important thermal and hiding 

cover for deer and elk.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 229

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 83—Summary of environmental variables for the PICOL Series, Corbly 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,594 2,581 2,618

Slope (%) 19 12 24

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 597 589 602

Degree days 16,630 16,480 16,910

Frost-free days 19.8 19.7 19.9

Site water balance (mm/year) -321 -342 -290

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.9 1.8 2.0

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 623 606 639

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,170 19,710 20,550

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 55 33 75

Clay (% in particle size control section) 12 6 23

pH (in particle size control section) 5.2 5.1 5.4

Available water capacity (mm/m) 39 30 57

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 0 5

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 3 0 10

Cobble 5 0 15

Stones 3 0 10

Boulders 1 0 2

Litter 39 25 55

Wood 21 20 25

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 24 15 45

Water 0 0 0

Table 85—Stand characteristics for the PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 20.2 11.5–27.6 20.1 10.9–28.2 761 546–1,057

PIFL2 2.3 — 18.3 — 86 —

POTR5 9.2 — 16.5 5.3–27.9 1,420 —

PSMEG 2.3 — 23.6 14.2–32.3 74 27–143

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PICOL 20.3 14 85

PIFL2 18.3 11 83

POTR5 9.9 7 —

PSMEG 23.6 16 73
230 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Table 84—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the PICOL Series, Corbly Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 100 21 10 35

Subominant overstory trees:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 10 10 10

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 75 4 3 5

PSMEG Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir 50 2 1 3

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 8 5 10

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 1 1 1

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 5 5 5

Seedlings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 2 1 5

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 75 1 1 1

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 75 2 1 5

Shrubs:

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 75 4 1 10

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 50 2 1 3

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 50 2 1 3

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 50 4 3 5

COLI2 Collomia linearis narrow-leaf collomia 75 1 1 1

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 75 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 50 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 50 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 50 1 1 1

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine 75 1 1 1

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 50 1 1 1

SEIN2 Senecio integerrimus lambstongue ragwort 50 2 1 3

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 75 2 1 5

PIEX3 Piptatherum exiguum little ricegrass 75 3 1 7

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 4 1 7

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 100 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 231

LIMBER PINE SERIES LODGEPOLE PINE SERIES

Miscellaneous Lodgepole 

Pine Types

Lodgepole Pine/Grouse Whortleberry, 

Telcher Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Vaccinium 

scoparium, Telcher Family Ecological Type

PICOL/VASC, Telcher Family ET

N = 2

The lodgepole pine/grouse whortleberry, Telcher Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the eastern flank of the 

WRR in the dry, mid-elevation, sedimentary mountains 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). It is a component 

of map unit 43LF. This ET occurs on low gradient (avg. 

11%) backslopes, footslopes, and toeslopes of the Flathead 

Formation. Soils were moderately deep and deep, formed 

from sandstone residuum, low in rock fragments (18%), 

and moderately high in clay (17%). Soils were fine-loamy, 

Mollic Haplocryalfs and coarse-loamy, Ustic Eutrocryepts. 

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the lodgepole 

pine/grouse whortleberry habitat type (Steele and others 1983). Lodgepole pine dominates all canopy layers 

and is found successfully reproducing in the understory. 

Occasional whitebark pine seedlings may occur. Quaking 

aspen is always found scattered throughout this community 

as straggling isolated individuals. Grouse whortleberry 

is the dominant shrub species, usually occurring in irregularly spaced, isolated patches. Other shrub species 

occurring at low abundance include russet buffaloberry 

and Oregon grape. Important herbaceous species include 

heartleaf arnica, sidebells wintergreen, northern bedstraw, 

Virginia strawberry, Ross’ sedge, and Wheeler’s bluegrass. 

Woodland pinedrops, a saprophytic species that parasitizes the roots of lodgepole pine, sometimes occurs in 

this type. Quaking aspen is a major seral species in this 

ecological type, and provides abundant browse for wild 

ungulates in early seral stands. This ET is quite productive, 

and is suitable for timber harvest. Broadcast burning of 

slash following timber harvest operations will effectively 

control dwarf mistletoe, open serotinous cones on downed 

branches, remove duff, prepare mineral soil for lodgepole 

pine regeneration, and improve quaking aspen regeneration. 

The subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry, Marosa Family ET, 

when it occurs on sandstone, is similar environmentally 

to lodgepole pine/grouse whortleberry, Telcher Family 

Ecological Type. However, the PNV of the Marosa Family 

ET is subalpine fir, while the PNV of the Telcher Family 

ET is lodgepole pine.

Lodgepole Pine/Ross’ Sedge, Stecum 

Family Ecological Type

Pinus contorta var. latifolia/Carex rossii, 

Stecum Family Ecological Type

PICOL/CARO5, Stecum Family ET

N = 1

The lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge, Stecum Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the southern WRR within the 

granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others (2004). This 

ET occurs in between Frye Lake and Meyer Lookout and 

just to the west of the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt. 

It is a component of map unit 317L. This ET occurs on 

summits and shoulders of mountains formed from foliated 

outcrops of Louis Lake Granodiorite. Soils were generally 

shallow to moderately deep, sandy, high in rock fragments 

(84%), and low in clay (6%). Soils were sandy-skeletal 

Typic Cryorthents. Potential natural vegetation of this 

ET is the lodgepole pine/Ross’ sedge habitat type (Steele 

and others 1983). Lodgepole and limber pine occur in all 

canopy layers forming an open-canopy forest. Lodgepole 

pine seedlings are most prolific in the understory, cooccurring with limber pine and Douglas-fir seedlings. 

Scattered Utah snowberry, common juniper, mountain big 

sagebrush, and antelope bitterbrush attest to the warm, 

sunny conditions at these sites. An erosion pavement of 

coarse sands and gravels dominates the soil surface in the 

openings between trees, while a discontinuous litter layer 

occurs beneath forested patches. The sparse herbaceous 

layer is surprisingly species rich, including Ross’ sedge, 

rosy pussy-toes, many-flowered phlox, gray aster, spiny 

milkvetch, spiked ipomopsis, goosefoot violet, nineleaf 

biscuitroot, sulphur-flower buckwheat, little ricegrass, and 

Wheeler’s bluegrass. This ET is extremely unproductive 

and is not suited for timber harvest. Off-road vehicle trails 

are not recommended in this ET as the sandy soils with low 

vegetative cover are easily eroded. The ET differs from 

other lodgepole pine Ecological Types in that it occurs exclusively in map unit 317L in the foliated outcrops of Louis 

Lake Granodiorite located just to the west of the South Pass 

Granite-Greenstone Belt.
232 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Quaking Aspen Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Quaking Aspen

Populus tremuloides Michx.

The most widely distributed tree in North America, 

quaking aspen occurs continuously from Alaska, southeast 

across all Canadian Provinces, and into the north central 

and northeastern United States, including Minnesota, eastern Iowa, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Michigan, northern 

Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, New 

Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 

Island, and Maine (Howard 1996; USGS 1999; USDA 

NRCS 2007b). Quaking aspen occurs to the southeast 

in mountainous regions of Delaware, Maryland, West 

Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina and in scattered 

counties across Missouri and Arkansas (USDA NRCS 

2007b). In the western United States, the distribution of 

quaking aspen is more or less continuous along the Rocky 

Mountains from northern Idaho and western Montana, 

south through Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and northern 

New Mexico, and in the Pacific Northwest along the 

Cascade Ranges of Washington and Oregon and into the 

Sierra Nevada Mountains of California (USGS 1999). 

Scattered populations occur across mountain ranges of eastern Montana, Nevada, Arizona, and southern New Mexico. 

Disjunct populations occur in North and South Dakota, 

Nebraska, western Texas, and northern and central Mexico.

Across western North America, the topographic distribution of quaking aspen is strongly tied to latitude. Quaking 

aspen is one of the most northerly tree species and occurs 

in the southern reaches of the permafrost zone at elevations less than 910 m on south- and southwest-facing 

slopes where permafrost is locally absent (Howard 1996). 

Quaking aspen at its southern geographic limits is restricted 

to riparian zones and moist north-facing slopes at upper 

elevations. Between these two extremes, quaking aspen 

may occur on a variety of slope aspects so long as sites 

receive sufficient soil moisture. Quaking aspen is tolerant 

of a wide range of temperatures, such as is in Montana 

where temperatures range from as low as -57 oC in January 

to a summer high of 41 oC (Perala 1990). In the central 

Rocky Mountains, the lower altitudinal limit of quaking 

aspen strongly coincides with mean annual temperatures of 

approximately 7 oC.

In the arid central and southern Rocky Mountains, 

soil moisture is the most important factor limiting the 

distribution of quaking aspen. Quaking aspen is limited 

to environments where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, or in localized topographic depressions where 

groundwater mitigates the effects of summer drought. The 

elevation of quaking aspen ranges between 1,829 and 2,926 

m in Wyoming, 1,829 and 2,500 m in southeastern Idaho, 

2,100 and 3,350 m in Colorado, 2,280 and 3,350 m in 

Utah, and 1,980 and 3,050 m in New Mexico and Arizona 

(Mueggler 1988; Powell 1988; Perala 1990; Svalberg and 

others 1997). In Nevada, quaking aspen ranges from 1,981 

to 2,347 m in the northern part of the state, 2438 to 2957 

m in the southern part of the state, and as low as 1,535 m 

in riparian zones (Manning and Padgett 1995; Mueggler 

1988). In the Black Hills of South Dakota, quaking aspen is 

most prevalent between 1,219 and 1,902 m (Hoffman and 

Alexander 1987).

Quaking aspen occurs on a variety of soil types but 

is most productive on well drained to moderately well 

drained, deep loamy sands to heavy clay soils with high 

organic matter and nutrient content (Perala 1990). On 

extremely rocky sites, quaking aspen is found stunted and 

gnarled growing between boulders. Although quaking 

aspen is intolerant of long-term soil saturation, it is commonly found in riparian zones on streambanks, terraces, 

and floodplains with seasonally high water tables. Quaking 

aspen is found on soils derived from all major rock types, 

including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary; however, it is most productive on soils formed from basic igneous 

rock (basalt, andesite) or neutral to calcareous shales and 

limestones. Quaking aspen soils commonly have a thick, 

inky-black, carbon-rich surface horizon and relatively high 

pH (typically >6.0) that develops through the decomposition of fallen aspen leaves, which have high concentrations 

of cations and decompose quickly due to a low carbon to 

nitrogen ratio (Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 1996; 

Legare and others 2005).

Quaking aspen is a small- to medium-sized tree that is 

typically less than 15 m tall and 40 cm in diameter with 

thin bark and a relatively shallow root system (Howard 

1996). In the western United States, quaking aspen regenerates most often by sprouting of root suckers, often forming 

large clones connected to a central root system. In fact, 

the largest organism on Earth is an aspen clone located 

in Utah that encompasses an area of approximately 17 ha 

and supports 47,000 stems. Individual clones are typically 

less than 0.5 ha to several ha in size and either male or 

female, or occasionally both. Sprouting is controlled by the 

hormones auxin, which suppresses sprouting and maintains 

apical dominance, and cytokinin, which initiates sprouting 

following stem damage or mortality of the apical meristem. 

Sexual reproduction of quaking aspen occurs in the Rocky 

Mountains, perhaps more commonly than has previously 

been thought (Howard 1996). Flowering begins at two to 

three years of age; however, large seed crops are not produced until 10 to 20 years, with maximum seed production 

between 50 and 70 years (Perala 1990). Flowering, which 

is triggered by sustained temperatures above 12 oC, occurs 

in May or June before the leaves have fully expanded. 

However, the timing of flowering and leaf expansion is 

highly variable owing to inter-sexual and inter-clonal variation. Pollination is by wind, and seeds ripen between four 

and six weeks after flowering begins. The tiny seeds, surrounded by white silky hairs, are wind and water dispersed 

and can be carried many kilometers from the parent tree. 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 233

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Germination and seedling survival are strongly dependent 

on the type of seedbed, moisture, and temperature conditions, including bare mineral soil (especially fire exposed 

mineral soil), continuous soil moisture throughout the 

growing season, and optimal temperature conditions 

between 5 and 25 oC (Howard 1996). At optimal sites, 

seedlings may reach 15 to 61 cm in height with root growth 

to 18 to 25 cm deep within the first year. Quaking aspen is 

intolerant of shade and is seral to conifers in many upland 

sites throughout the Rocky Mountains. However, quaking 

aspen may attain topo-edaphic climax in moist, topographic 

depressions and along riparian zones.

Quaking aspen is highly adapted to fire (Howard 1996). 

Adaptations include thin bark, profuse root sprouting following top kill, and the ability to self-thin. Additionally, 

the extensive clonal root system allows sprouts to extract 

water, nutrients, and photosynthate, promoting rapid sprout 

growth immediately following a fire. The existence of a 

massive root system allows quaking aspen to quickly outcompete conifers attempting to develop from seed. Small 

diameter aspen are normally top-killed by even low severity surface fires. Older, larger diameter quaking aspen have 

developed thicker bark on the lower stem and are more 

resistant to low severity fires. However, moderate intensity 

burns usually top kill all size classes of quaking aspen. 

Periodic forest fire is a key factor in maintaining healthy, 

even-aged quaking aspen stands in the Rocky Mountains. 

Fire suppression can lead to decadent, diseased aspen 

stands with little to no regeneration. Fire frequencies of 100 

to 300 years help maintain most seral quaking aspen stands 

(Bradley and others 1992).

Prescribed burning is an excellent means of revitalizing 

decadent aspen stands and promoting new quaking aspen 

growth (Howard 1996). Clear-cutting and bulldozing may 

be used when prescribed burning is not feasible. However, 

the use of heavy machinery, when applied inappropriately, 

can cause soil compaction, extensive damage to quaking aspen roots, and increased susceptibility to pathogens. Slash 

removal will increase the density of quaking aspen sprouts 

following mechanical removal treatments by increasing 

the amount of sunlight in the understory. Herbicide treatments that kill aspen stems without killing the root system 

are an effective means of stimulating regeneration by root 

suckering (Schier and others 1985). Jones and Sheppard 

(1985) provided a comprehensive review of silivicultural 

techniques in aspen stands, including thinning, rotations, 

and harvesting. Quaking aspen is well suited for use in 

restoration and rehabilitation projects in disturbed sites, 

including riparian zones, mine spoils, and damage due to 

road construction (Howard 1996). Schier and others (1985) 

provided detailed information regarding artificial regeneration in quaking aspen.

Quaking aspen mortality results from a combination 

of both direct physical damage and disease (Perala 1990). 

Seedlings are commonly girdled and killed by bark-eating 

mammals, including meadow voles and snowshoe hares. 

Wild ungulate browsing and antler rubbing can cause 

severe stem damage and loss of seedling vigor. Elk and 

moose, attempting to reach the tender inner bark, can 

remove large areas of bark from larger stems, providing 

a vector for disease. Heavy browsing pressure from both 

domestic and wild ungulates that leads to serious reductions 

in stem density and severe root damage due to trampling 

can result in the eventual disappearance of affected aspen 

stands. Lastly, recreationists innocently scratching their 

initials into the trunk of an aspen can cause increased 

susceptibility to disease agents and death in as little as 10 to 

20 years.

Leaf spot and shoot blight is a disease caused by 

Marssonina populi and can result in severe defoliation, 

with repeated infections causing mortality (Perala 1990). 

Less serious is the leaf rust fungi, Melampsora spp., which 

leads to leaf discoloration, limited leaf mortality, and 

premature leaf drop. A number of bacteria and fungi result 

in stem, heart, butt, and root rot, which reduce vigor and 

usable log volume. Of the stem and heart rots, Phellinus 

tremulae and Fomes igniarius are the most notorious 

(Hinds 1985). Stem cankers are sometimes mortal but more 

often lead to a loss of usable log volume. Species causing 

stem cankers often infect quaking aspen through trunk 

wounds and insect vectors.

Insects that damage quaking aspen include defoliators, 

wood boring, and sucking insects. Defoliators include 

moths, butterflies, and beetles (Perala 1990). Defoliators 

generally lead to defoliation over broad spatial areas, 

last two to three years and result in significant growth 

loss. Wood boring insects include long horned beetles 

(Cerambycidae) and metallic borers (Buprestidea). 

Woodborers tunnel into the bole, often developing extensive galleries and sometimes girdling individual stems. 

Woodborers weaken stems, degrade wood, and lead to 

increased susceptibility to disease and stem breakage. 

Sucking insects, which typically cause minimal damage, 

include aphids and leaf hoppers. Hinds (1985) and Perala 

(1990) provided extensive reviews of insect and disease 

agents of quaking aspen.

Quaking aspen forests provide incredibly important 

habitat for a number of birds and mammals (Howard 

1996). Quaking aspen is highly palatable to all browsing 

livestock and wildlife species. Utilization of quaking aspen 

by browsing ungulates, including elk, moose, mule and 

white-tailed deer, domestic sheep, and cattle, is highest at 

early stages when stem density is highest, and stems are 

still within reach (≤five years). Quaking aspen is browsed 

throughout the year but is especially important in fall and 

winter when quaking aspen has relatively high protein levels compared with other browse species. Black bears will 

climb quaking aspen trees and feed on buds, leaves, and 

catkins (DeByle 1985). Lagomorphs, including rabbits and 

hares, and pikas feed on quaking aspen buds, twigs, and 

bark. Small mammals, including mice, voles, and shrews, 

feed on quaking aspen bark. Quaking aspen is an important 

food source and construction material for beavers.
234 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Across the western United States, quaking aspen and 

mixed conifer-aspen forests provide nesting, feeding, and 

breeding habitat for an incredible number of bird species, 

including ground, shrub, canopy, and cavity nesting birds, 

raptors, and game birds (DeByle 1985). Cavity nesting 

birds are strongly tied to mature aspen forests for nesting sites, where cavities are excavated from aspen stems 

suffering from heart rot. The soft, punky heartwood of 

diseased aspen is easily hollowed out by strong excavators, 

including woodpeckers and sapsuckers, to form nesting 

cavities. The nesting cavities are used primarily by strong 

excavators and secondarily by weak and non-excavating 

cavity nesting birds, bats, owls, and occasionally northern 

flying squirrels (DeByle 1985; Dobkin and others 1995; 

Kalcounis and Brigham 1998). Of the game birds, ruffed 

grouse are perhaps most strongly tied to quaking aspen 

forest in the western United States. A wealth of literature 

regarding the importance of quaking aspen to wildlife is 

available. DeByle (1985) and Howard (1996) provided 

extensive reviews of quaking aspen and wildlife.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 235

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Quaking Aspen/Sticky Purple 

Geranium, Bullflat Family Ecological 

Type

Populus tremuloides/Geranium 

viscosissimum, Bullflat Family 

Ecological Type

POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family ET

N = 8

Distribution

The quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat 

Family Ecological Type occurs in the northern and southern 

study areas within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary 

mountains and granitic subalpine zone ecoregions of 

Chapman and others (2004). It is a component of map units 

15L, 43L, 44L, and 402L.

Environment

Aspect: East-northeast [1], east-southeast [1], north [2], 

northeast [1], north-northeast [1], north-northwest [1], 

northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Landslide deposits, 

slumps, and seeps. Backslopes, footslopes, and toeslopes.

This ET occurs in topographic depressions where moisture 

accumulates, including nivation hollows and slumps, on 

limestone and shale slopes, and along riparian corridors. 

At toeslope positions, near the contact between the Gros 

Ventre and Flathead Formations, this ET occurs in narrow 

(<50 m), linear corridors, while on limestone and shale 

backslopes of low (5%) to moderate (25%) slope gradients, 

this ET forms small (1 ha) to large (20 ha) stands. On 

backslope and footslope positions such as the north slope 

of Indian Ridge, the occurrence and extent of this ET often 

corresponds with areas that have experienced mass wasting 

events, including landslides and slumps.

Parent Materials: Alluvium and colluvium.

In riparian areas, parent materials tend to be igneous 

or sedimentary alluvium or a mixture of igneous and 

sedimentary alluvium. On a seepy slope located on the 

south face of Fairfield Hill, this ET occurs on the Sinks 

Canyon moraine in granitic glacial till of Sacagawea Ridge 

age (600–770 Ka) (Dahms 2004b). On backslopes, parent 

materials were typically mixed sedimentary colluvium, 

including Madison or Gallatin Limestone, Bighorn 

Dolomite, or Gros Ventre Shale.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton, Flathead 

Sandstone, Gros Ventre Shale, Bighorn Dolomite, or 

Gallatin Limestone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 51 to 

58 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 86.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ET is the quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium habitat type. However, 

quaking aspen communities represent a topoedaphic climax 

along the eastern flank of the WRR. A decrease in soil 

moisture and/or a change in soil chemistry at these sites 

lends toward the predominance of conifiers in the overstory, 

to the detriment of quaking aspen.

Quaking aspen occurs in all canopy layers with vigorous 

regeneration from root suckers. Various conifer seedlings 

occur in the understory with limited abundance and vigor, 

including limber pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine. 

Woods rose, russet buffaloberry, common juniper, and 

Oregon grape are shrub species commonly found in this 

ecological type. Shrubby cinquefoil and twinberry honeysuckle are indicative of more mesic microsites. Scouler’s 

willow and Sitka alder are common when this ET occurs in 

riparian corridors.

The herbaceous layer is characteristically species rich 

with 100% foliar cover of forbs and graminoids. An abundance (>5%) of sticky geranium and/or false Solomon’s 

seal are indicative of this habitat type. Common herbaceous 

species include Colorado blue columbine, heartleaf arnica, 

northern bedstraw, western yarrow, slender cinquefoil, 

western meadowrue, and spike trisetum. Less common 

forbs include longhorn steer’s-head and baneberry. Field 

and scouringrush horsetails may be found in riparian corridors. Nodding helianthella, Kentucky bluegrass, tall fescue, 

and duncecap larkspur are species indicative of disturbance 

by cattle grazing. Summaries of species constancy/cover 

and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 87 and 88, 

respectively.

Soils

Soils in the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family ET are deep 

with a high degree of soil development, low to moderate 

coarse fragments (avg. 43%), very dark brown to black 
236 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

in upper soil horizons, and strong clay illuviation into 

subsurface soil horizons (avg. 29%). A thin (avg. 3 cm 

thick) litter layer of partially decomposed quaking aspen 

leaves typically occurs at the surface. A typical soil features 

an A-Bt horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a 

thick mollic epipedon (avg. 43 cm thick) and a thick argillic horizon (avg. 53 cm thick). One soil featured a calcic 

horizon (16+ cm thick) underlying an argillic horizon. 

When this ET occurs on floodplains, the soils may feature 

a buried A-horizon. In riparian zones and wetlands, redoximorphic features commonly occur deep in the soil profile. 

Particle size class included clayey-skeletal [1], fine-loamy 

[4], and loamy-skeletal [3]. The soils were classified as 

clayey Mollisols and organic-rich Alfisols, including Typic 

Argiudolls [4], Pachic Argiudolls [2], Calcic Argiudolls [1], 

and Mollic Oxyaquic Hapludalfs [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, frigid 

Typic Argiudolls

Oi—0 to 2 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; clear 

wavy boundary.

A—2 to 10 cm: black (10YR 2/1) very fine sandy loam, 

very dark gray (10YR 3/1), dry; 59% sand; 14% clay; weak 

fine subangular blocky structure, and weak fine granular 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

many fine roots and common medium roots and common 

coarse roots and common very fine roots; many fine and 

common medium and common coarse and common very 

fine pores; 1% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; very slight effervescence; slightly 

acid, pH 6.5; clear wavy boundary.

AB—10 to 36 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) and dark 

brown (10YR 3/3) sandy clay loam, very dark grayish 

brown (10YR 3/2) and brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 57% sand; 

22% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate fine granular structure; friable, moderately 

hard, moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots and 

common very coarse roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common coarse 

and common very coarse and common very fine pores; 

2% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; very slight effervescence; neutral, pH 6.9; 

abrupt smooth boundary.

Bt1—36 to 62 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/3) sandy clay loam, 

light brown (7.5YR 6/3), dry; 47% sand; 25% clay; 

moderate medium subangular blocky structure, and 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; firm, 

hard, moderately sticky, very plastic; common fine roots 

and common medium roots and common coarse roots and 

common very fine roots; many fine and common medium 

and common coarse and common very fine pores; 41% 

patchy distinct clay films on all faces of peds; 4% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

very slight effervescence; neutral, pH 7.0; gradual wavy 

boundary.

Bt2—62 to 83 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) medium gravelly 

sandy clay loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 59% sand; 

23% clay; moderate very fine subangular blocky structure, 

and weak medium subangular blocky structure; friable, 

moderately hard, moderately sticky, moderately plastic; 

common very fine and fine roots and common medium 

roots and common coarse roots; many fine and common 

medium and common coarse and common very fine pores; 

14% patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; 18% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; very slight effervescence; neutral, pH 7.1; 

Gravel is 4% paragravel and 14% gravel; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bt3—83 to 102 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) medium gravelly 

sandy clay loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), 

dry; 57% sand; 22% clay; moderate very fine subangular 

blocky structure, and weak medium subangular blocky 

structure; friable, moderately hard, moderately sticky, 

moderately plastic; common very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots; many fine and common medium 

and common coarse and common very fine pores; 2% 

patchy faint clay films on surfaces along root channels and 

2% patchy faint clay films on all faces of peds; 5% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 26% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; very slight effervescence; slightly 

alkaline, pH 7.4.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 237

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Ecology

“Topoedaphic climax” is a term first used by Steele 

and others (1981) and derived from the polyclimax theory 

of Tansley (1935) that refers to deviation from climatic 

climax (potential natural vegetation found on deep, loamy 

soils of gently undulating relief) due to a combination of 

topography and soils. The quaking aspen/sticky purple geranium, Bullflat Family ET is a topoedaphic climax related 

to concave topography where soil moisture accumulates 

and with carbon-rich soils characterized by high base 

saturation, pH, and nutrients. The increased soil moisture in 

topographic depressions meets the high evapotranspiration 

demands of quaking aspen. The carbon rich soils, high in 

pH and nutrients, develop and are maintained through the 

continual decomposition of fallen aspen leaves. Quaking 

aspen leaves have high concentrations of cations, acid buffering qualities, and decompose quickly due to a low carbon 

to nitrogen ratio (Cryer and Murray 1992; Howard 1996; 

Légaré and others 2005; Pylypec and Redmann 1984). The 

clay-rich soils of this ET have high water-holding capacity, 

which also favors quaking aspen at these sites. Quaking 

aspen is highly adapted to fire (Howard 1996). Periodic 

wildfire is a key factor in maintaining vigorous quaking 

aspen stands in the Rocky Mountains. Fire refreshes older 

stands by opening up the stands, stimulating root sprouting, 

and removing decadent and diseased trees.

Succession

Forest succession at sites with climax quaking aspen 

proceeds following stand replacing burns from an initial 

short-lived herbaceous stage (Bradley and others 1992). 

Resprouting from rootstock initiates a seedling stage, which 

typically occurs rapidly during the first year following fire. 

A fire of any intensity at this point will reset the successional pathway, and repeated fire can maintain quaking 

aspen in the seedling stage. In the absence of fire, the stand 

eventually progresses through an immature sucker stage 

to an even-aged mature aspen stage. In the absence of fire, 

the even-aged mature aspen stage will eventually give way 

to a mature stand where openings in the canopy created by 

individual aspen mortality are filled by regenerating suckers. Low intensity fire at the immature or mature stage will 

open the stand, lead to a second wave of resprouting, and 

result in a two-storied aspen stand. Moderate to severe fires 

at the immature and mature stage will reset the successional 

pathway. An all-aged climax aspen stand will result from 

a substantial fire-free period. Low intensity burns are less 

likely at the climax stage due to high fuel loads that have 

accumulated throughout the life of the stands. Moderate to 

high intensity burns will reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

Forest managers must consider a number of factors 

when managing the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family ET, 

including stand age, reproductive status, and grazing intensity. Young aspen stands (<100 years) that have vigorous 

regeneration and healthy adult trees require no management 

activity to maintain. In the absence of disturbance, older 

(>100 years) aspen stands will begin to deteriorate as they 

approach climax, resulting in reduced leaf fall (Cryer and 

Murray 1992). The carbon-rich mollic epipedon begins to 

lose organic matter and thickness with reduced leaf fall, 

resulting in increased water percolation, heightened rates of 

nutrient and organic matter leaching, and production of an 

eluvial (E-) horizon. Continued leaching results in a thickening of the eluvial horizon and acidification of the soils 

due to a reduction in base saturation. The deterioration of 

the stand parallels the deterioration of the soils as quaking 

aspen regeneration decreases through time. Clear-cutting 

older, deteriorating aspen stands in order to enhance root 

sprouting is not recommended as the lower soil nutrients 

and pH can result in poor post-harvest aspen regeneration. 

Prescription burning of older, deteriorating aspen stands 

increases soil pH, adds organic carbon, and contributes 

nutrients to the soil. Burning also stimulates dense regeneration of root suckers, which contribute to leaf fall and 

begin the development of carbon rich, high base saturation 

soils anew. Prescribed burns should be designed to create 

multi-aged mosaics of the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family 

ET across the landscape.

The second factor managers must consider is the interaction between grazing/browsing intensity and reproductive 

status. Quaking aspen stands that are grazed/browsed and 

feature regeneration adequate enough that openings in the 

canopy created by individual aspen mortality are filled 

by regenerating suckers, require no special management 

action. Grazed/browsed aspen stands that have little to 

no regeneration should be protected with exclosures until 

reproduction reaches pre-grazing levels (Mueggler 1988). 

Managers should consider a prescribed burn just before 

constructing exclosures in order to enhance resprouting 

and refresh the stands. Heavy grazed/browed aspen stands 

often need to be protected until seedlings grow beyond the 

reach of grazing/browsing animals (approximately 3 to 5 m 

in height). This ET is not suited for timber harvest or road 

construction due to the moist/wet, clay-rich soils that are 

prone to compaction by heavy equipment.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
238 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Table 86—Summary of environmental variables for the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,404 2,276 2,490

Slope (%) 14 5 30

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 545 506 576

Degree days 18,820 17,910 20,220

Frost-free days 20.9 20.4 21.4

Site water balance (mm/year) -292 -354 -210

Average annual temperature (°C) 2.8 2.4 3.3

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 650 582 720

Summer radiation (KJ) 19,510 17,990 20,380

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 43 4 81

Clay (% in particle size control section) 29 20 39

pH (in particle size control section) 6.5 5.3 7.6

Available water capacity (mm/m) 101 42 162

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 2 0 10

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 3

Cobble 1 0 3

Stones 1 0 3

Boulders 1 0 5

Litter 37 2 70

Wood 10 3 18

Moss and lichen 1 0 3

Basal vegetation 39 15 60

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 239

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Table 87—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 100 34 20 55

Saplings:

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 88 8 5 10

Seedlings:

PIFL2 Pinus flexilis limber pine 50 2 1 5

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 88 8 3 15

Shrubs:

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 75 2 1 3

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 75 2 1 5

PRVIM Prunus virginiana var. melanocarpa black chokecherry 62 2 1 3

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 100 2 1 3

SHCA Shepherdia canadensis russet buffaloberry 75 10 3 20

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 88 2 1 3

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 50 1 1 1

AQCO Aquilegia coerulea Colorado blue columbine 62 1 1 3

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 88 5 1 10

ASAUG Astragalus australis var. glabriusculus Indian milkvetch 50 4 1 10

CALI4 Castilleja linariifolia narrow-leaved paintbrush 50 2 1 3

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 50 1 1 1

FRVI Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry 88 1 1 3

GABO2 Galium boreale northern bedstraw 100 5 1 10

GEVI2 Geranium viscosissimum sticky purple geranium 75 2 1 3

HEQU2 Helianthella quinquenervis nodding helianthella 75 5 1 15

OSDE Osmorhiza depauperata blunt-fruited sweet-cicely 50 5 3 10

POGR9 Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil 62 1 1 3

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 75 2 1 3

THOC Thalictrum occidentale western meadowrue 50 2 1 5

VIOLA Viola violet 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

POPR Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass 75 6 1 20

TRSP2 Trisetum spicatum spike trisetum 50 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which 

the species occurred.

Table 88—Stand characteristics for the POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 4.6 — 26.9 22.6–31.0 87 —

POTR5 34.4 20.7–50.5 20.3 8.4–32.8 1,376 548–3,451

PSMEG 4.6 — 46.7 43.9–49.3 27 —

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

PICOL 31.0 17 100

POTR5 20.1 16 —

PSMEG 49.3 — 101
240 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Quaking Aspen/Utah SnowberryBoulder, Ledgefork Family Ecological 

Type

Populus tremuloides/Symphoricarpos 

oreophilus var. utahensis-Boulder, 

Ledgefork Family Ecological Type

POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The quaking aspen/Utah snowberry-Boulder, Ledgefork 

Family Ecological Type occurs in the southern study area 

within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others 

(2004). This ET occurs primarily to the south of Louis 

Lake. This ET is a component of map units 44L, 310A, and 

317L.

Environment

Aspect: East [1], east-southeast [1], southeast [1], southsouthwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Mountain slopes. 

Shoulders, backslopes, and footslopes.

Parent Materials: Granodiorite colluvium.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 61.9 to 

64.2 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 89.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is 

the quaking aspen/Utah snowberry plant association (Reed 

1971). The POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork Family 

ET is unique in that it occurs on steep, bouldery slopes. 

Quaking aspen is always present in the overstory and 

sometimes shares dominance with lodgepole pine. Quaking 

aspen forms an open-canopy forest and is always present 

and vigorously reproducing in the understory. Conifer 

seedlings often occur in the understory, including lodgepole 

pine and limber pine; however, regeneration is generally 

limited. Utah snowberry and Oregon grape are always 

present at low abundance. Common juniper may occur at 

high abundance when it is present. Other common shrubs 

include woods rose, snowbrush ceanothus, western serviceberry, and grayleaf red raspberry. The herbaceous layer 

is very species rich; however, only a few species are very 

abundant. Heartleaf arnica is always present. Fireweed, 

squirreltail, muttongrass, and Ross’ sedge are nearly always 

present. Spreading dogbane and three-nerve goldenrod are 

two species unique to this ecological type. Summaries of 

species constancy/cover and stand characteristics are provided in Tables 90 and 91, respectively.

Soils

Soils in the POTR5/SYORU, Ledgefork Family ET 

are moderately deep and deep, sandy, and extremely 

bouldery with a low degree of soil development, high 

coarse fragments (avg. 78%) and low clay (avg. 11%). A 

thin (avg. 5 cm thick) litter layer of partially decomposed 

quaking aspen leaves occurs at the surface. A typical 

soil features an A/Bw/C horizonation. The C-horizons 

tended to be extremely bouldery (60-90%). Diagnostic 

soil horizons include a thick mollic epipedon (avg. 51 cm 

thick). Inceptisols and Entisols featured an ochric epipedon 

(avg. 12 cm thick). Particle size class was loamy-skeletal 

[2] and sandy-skeletal [2]. The soils were classified as 

Pachic Haplocryolls [1], Typic Haplocryolls [1], Typic 

Eutrocryepts [1], and Typic Cryorthents [1].
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 241

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Haplocryolls

Oi—0 to 4 cm: slightly decomposed plant material; 32% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; abrupt wavy boundary.

Oe—4 to 9 cm: moderately decomposed plant material; 35% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; abrupt wavy boundary.

A1—9 to 32 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) very 

gravelly sandy loam, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 

66% sand; 17% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, 

and weak medium granular structure; friable, slightly hard, 

moderately sticky, nonplastic; common very fine and fine 

roots and many medium roots and common coarse roots; 

common very fine and fine and many medium and common 

coarse pores; 3% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 17% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 38% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, pH 5.5; gradual 

wavy boundary.

A2—32 to 58 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very gravelly 

loamy sand, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 88% sand; 7% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and common very coarse roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and common medium 

and common very coarse and common very fine pores; 5% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 35% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-

mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; strongly acid, 

pH 5.5; clear smooth boundary.

C—58 to 106 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) bouldery sandy clay 

loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 89% sand; 6% clay; 

single grain; loose, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

very fine and fine roots and common medium roots; 

common very fine and fine and common medium pores; 3% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 9% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 27% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 52% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 5.6.

Ecology

The extensive root system, root sprouting ability, and 

overall hardy nature of quaking aspen make it a successful 

pioneer species on harsh sites. On extremely rocky sites, 

quaking aspen is found stunted and gnarled growing between 

boulders. The extremely bouldery soil surface precludes 

conifers from reaching dominance, resulting in a stable 

aspen forest. The POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork 

Family ET represents upper elevation, relatively dry, quaking 

aspen forests on granitic parent materials. At these higher 

elevations, contiguous quaking aspen forests are limited to 

warmer, southerly slopes. The boulder-covered soil surface 

acts as a sink for heat from the sun. The heat collected in the 

boulders is re-radiated at night, resulting in a warmer microclimate and extending this ET to higher elevations.

Succession

Forest succession begins following a stand replacing 

burn from an initial short-lived herbaceous/shrub stage (A) 

(Bradley and others 1992). Resprouting of quaking aspen 

from rootstock and sprouting of scattered lodgepole pine initiates a mixed quaking aspen-lodgepole pine seedling stage 

(B), which typically occurs rapidly during the first year following fire. A fire of any intensity at this point will reset the 

successional pathway, and repeated fire can maintain quaking 

aspen in the seedling stage. In the absence of fire, the stand 

eventually progresses through an immature sucker stand with 

scattered lodgepole pine (C) to an open, even-aged, mature 

aspen stand with scattered, pole-sized lodgepole pine (D). 

In the absence of fire, the even-aged mature aspen stage will 

eventually give way to an open-canopied mature stand with 

scattered mature lodgepole pine (E) where openings in the 

canopy created by individual aspen mortality are filled by regenerating suckers. Lodgepole pine regeneration is generally 

limited as the understory begins to get shaded out beginning 

in stage (D). Low intensity fire at the immature or mature 

stage will open the stand, lead to a second wave of resprouting, and result in a two-storied aspen stand. Moderate to 

severe fires at the immature and mature stage will reset the 

successional pathway. An all-aged climax aspen stand will 

result from a substantial fire-free period. Low intensity burns 

are less likely at the climax stage due to high fuel loads that 

have accumulated throughout the life of the stands. Moderate 

to high intensity burns will reset the successional pathway.

Management considerations

This ET is not suited for timber harvest or cattle grazing due to the extremely bouldery soil surface. Prescribed 

burns can be used to refresh older stands by stimulating root 

sprouting, and removing decadent and diseased trees. This 

ET has high aesthetic and wildlife value. Elk and deer may 

browse aspen in these stands; however, use is generally low 

to moderate due to the bouldery nature of the soil surface. 

This ET provides important habitat for cavity nesting birds, 

grouse, owls, and small mammals. This ET contributes to 

the landscape mosaic of conifer, sagebrush, and grassland by 

adding patches of deciduous forest. In the fall of the year, the 

brilliant red, yellow, and orange quaking aspen foliage provides a perfect backdrop for recreationists enjoying National 

Forest lands.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
242 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Table 89—Summary of environmental variables for the POTR5/SYORUBoulder, Ledgefork Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,664 2,651 2,688

Slope (%) 49 28 57

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 627 619 642

Degree days 15,850 15,460 16,060

Frost-free days 19.4 19.2 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -347 -317 -292

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.5 1.4 1.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 614 579 651

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,370 19,960 20,600

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 78 70 82

Clay (% in particle size control section) 11 7 15

pH (in particle size control section) 5.3 4.8 6.0

Available water capacity (mm/m) 36 27 49

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 0 5

Exposed bedrock 5 0 10

Gravel 3 0 5

Cobble 4 3 5

Stones 5 5 5

Boulders 23 10 35

Litter 25 15 40

Wood 11 5 15

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 20 10 20

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 243

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Table 90—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Dominant overstory trees:

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 75 18 15 20

Subominant overstory trees:

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 50 6 3 10

Saplings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 2 1 3

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 100 19 5 25

Seedlings:

PICOL Pinus contorta var. latifolia lodgepole pine 75 3 3 3

POTR5 Populus tremuloides quaking aspen 100 7 3 15

Shrubs:

CEVE Ceanothus velutinus shinyleaf ceanothus 50 3 3 3

JUCOD Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 75 5 3 10

MARE11 Mahonia repens Oregon grape 100 3 1 5

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 75 2 1 5

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 100 3 1 5

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 50 1 1 1

ANRO2 Antennaria rosea rosy pussy-toes 50 2 1 3

ANTEN Antennaria pussy-toes 50 1 1 1

APAN2 Apocynum androsaemifolium spreading dogbane 50 2 1 3

ARCO9 Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica 100 5 1 10

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 50 1 1 1

CALI4 Castilleja linariifolia narrow-leaved paintbrush 50 1 1 1

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 75 2 1 5

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides squirreltail 75 2 1 3

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 50 1 1 1

PIEX3 Piptatherum exiguum little ricegrass 50 1 1 1

POFE Poa fendleriana muttongrass 75 6 1 15

POWH2 Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 50 2 1 3

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 75 4 3 5

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.

Table 91—Stand characteristics for the POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork Family ET.

Basal area Diameter at breast height (DBH) Trees per hectare

Species Average Range Average Range Average Range

---m2/ha--- -------Centimeters-------

PICOL 6.9 2.3–16.1 17.0 8.9–26.2 412 245–625

POTR5 17.7 11.5–25.3 14.5 7.6–22.4 1,368 931–2,060

Site tree averages

Species DBH Height Age

Centimeters Meters Years

14.0 — 35

14.2 — —
244 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES QUAKING ASPEN SERIES

Miscellaneous Quaking 

Aspen Types

Quaking Aspen/Red-Osier Dogwoodsitka Alder Habitat Type

Populus tremuloides/Cornus sericea-Alnus 

viridis var. sinuata Habitat Type

POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS HT

N = 2

The quaking aspen/red-osier dogwood-Sitka alder habitat type is the vegetation phase of two Ecological Types: 

(1) Mantador Family ET, and (2) Caryville Family ET. 

The Mantador Family ET occurs in the Granitic Subalpine 

Zone ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004) and is a 

component of map unit 351L. The Manador Family ET 

occurred in a seep on a moderately steep (8%) slope along 

the upper section of Sinks Canyon in the Middle Fork Popo 

Agie drainage. This ET likely occurs in map unit 302 along 

steep (typically <10%), bouldery stream reaches; however, 

this ET was never sampled in this map unit. Soils were low 

in coarse fragments (34%), sandy, and featured abundant 

redoximorphic features. Depth to water table was 60 cm. 

Soils were moderately deep, sandy-skeletal Aquic Pachic 

Hapludolls.

The Caryville Family ET occurred within the dry midelevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman 

and others (2004) and is a component of map unit 402L. 

This ET likely occurs in map unit 302 along steep (typically ≥10%), bouldery stream reaches; however, this ET 

was never sampled in this map unit. This ET occurred on 

the banks of a steep (>10%), narrow stream reach in mixed 

sandstone and granite alluvium over Flathead Sandstone 

residuum. Soils were low in coarse fragments (14%), sandy, 

and minimally developed. Soils were composed of increasingly younger alluvial deposits layered atop one another. 

A buried A-horizon (Ab) occurred between 43 and 63 cm. 

Soils were deep, loamy-skeletal, Mollic Udifluvents.

Potential natural vegetation of both the Matador Family 

ET and Caryville Family ET is the quaking aspen/red-osier 

dogwood-Sitka alder habitat type. This habitat type has 

not previously been described. Quaking aspen dominates 

all canopy layers. Lodgepole pine may co-occur in the 

overstory but generally has limited regeneration in the 

understory. Subalpine fir seedlings may occur on drier 

sites on the upper section of streambanks. Sitka alder and/

or red-osier dogwood are always present and growing in 

or near the stream channel. Other common shrubs include 

woods rose, black chokecherry, Rocky Mountain maple, 

twinberry honeysuckle, Canadian gooseberry, and northern 

black and prickly currants. Grouse whortleberry and kinnikinnick may be found higher on streambanks in drier soils. 

The herbaceous layer is especially species rich. Important 

indicator species include baneberry, white geranium, 

clasp-leaved twisted-stalk, fewflower meadow-rue, common cowparsnip, starry false lily of the valley, variegated 

scouring rush, and blue wildrye. James’ monkeyflower and 

American mannagrass may occur in wetter, lower gradient 

microsites. Sidebells and pink wintergreen, heartleaf arnica, 

fireweed, Ross’ sedge, and Columbia needlegrass may occur in drier soils high on the streambanks.

The POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS HT is important habitat 

for moose, which browse on young quaking aspen and redosier dogwood stems. Reptiles and amphibians also take 

refuge in this habitat type. The dense stems and strong roots 

of red-osier dogwood and Sitka alder provide streambank 

stability. The roots of Sitka alder have a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which can convert 

atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into biologically useful forms of 

nitrogen (NH3), thus enriching the soil.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 245

LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Upland Shrubland Series
246 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES

SUBALPINE FIR SERIES
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 247

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush 

Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush

Artemisia tripartita Rudb. var. 

rupicola (Beetle) Dorn

Three-tip sagebrush (Artemisia tripartita) includes 

two varieties that are morphologically and geographically 

distinct (McArthur and Taylor 2004). Variety tripartita, also 

called tall three-tip sagebrush, occurs as far north as central 

British Columbia, throughout the Columbia River Basin 

of northern Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, and into 

the Snake River Basin of western Wyoming, central and 

southern Idaho, and eastern Oregon, and is a free-branching 

shrub ranging from 20 to 150 cm in height (Shultz 2006). 

Variety rupicola, also called Wyoming three-tip sagebrush, 

occurs only in central Wyoming east of the Continental 

Divide and is a dwarf-shrub, with decumbent branches, 

ranging from 5 to 15 cm in height. Across the eastern slope 

of the WRR variety rupicola is the representative variety 

of three-tip sagebrush; therefore, the remainder of this 

description will focus primarily on this variety.

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush commonly occurs on dry, 

windy, south- and west-facing, shoulders, summits, and 

steep upper backslopes. Soils where Wyoming three-tip 

sagebrush grows are typically well-drained, moderately 

deep (50–100 cm) to deep (>100 cm) and sometimes shallow (<50 cm), gravelly (15–60%) in the upper horizons, 

and medium- to coarse-textured, including loam, fine 

sandy loam, sandy loam, coarse sandy loam, and loamy 

sand. Wyoming three-tip sagebrush occurs across a variety 

of substrate types, including limestone, dolomite, shale, 

siltstone, granodiorite, metagabbro, and metadiorite. On 

the east slope of the WRR in Wyoming, Wyoming threetip sagebrush occurs between roughly 1,800 and 3,200 m 

(Massatti 2007).

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush reproduces by seed and 

vegetatively by sprouting from the rootcrown or layering 

(Tirmenstein 1999a). However, sprouting ability varies by 

geographic location, suggesting ecotypic variation. Young 

flowerheads begin developing in July and flowering takes 

place between late August and early October. The small, 

light seeds ripen in October and are wind dispersed, allowing for rapid re-establishment in disturbed areas.

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush is moderately to severely 

damaged by fire (Tirmenstein 1999a). Root sprouting 

usually occurs following low to moderate severity fires, 

which kills the above ground portion of plants. However, 

resprouting ability is highly variable depending on geographic location and soil moisture status. Sprouting success 

is highest when Wyoming three-tip sagebrush burns in the 

late winter or early spring while soils are still moist. Severe 

fires lead to mortality of both above and below ground 

portions of the plants. Re-establishment following severe 

fires is exclusively from seed. Fire regimes in Wyoming 

three-tip sagebrush communities often match those of cooccurring species, including Idaho fescue (3–40 years) or 

bluebunch wheatgrass (17–62 years) and adjacent mountain 

big sagebrush communities (15–40 years) (Johnson 2000; 

Zlatnik 1999b; Zouhar 2000).

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush is one of the least palatable species for both domestic and wild ungulates within 

the genus Artemisia and is actually considered slightly 

toxic to domestic livestock (Tirmenstein 1999a). Wyoming 

three-tip sagebrush is of low cover value to large mammals 

and upland game birds due to its low stature. However, 

small mammals and ground nesting songbirds may take 

refuge in Wyoming three-tip sagebrush communities. 

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush also adds structural and 

biological diversity to the landscapes and is an integral part 

in reducing the effects of wind on soil erosion. Wyoming 

three-tip sagebrush is recommended for use in rehabilitation of disturbed sites. Trampling of Wyoming three-tip 

sagebrush by domestic livestock can negatively affect the 

abundance of this species in grazing allotments.
248 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Ledgefork Family Ecological 

Type

Artemisia tripartita var. rupicola/ 

Festuca idahoensis, Ledgefork 

Family Ecological Type

ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue, 

Ledgefork Family Ecological Type occurs in the southern 

study area within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman 

and others (2004). This ET occurs to the south and east of 

Louis Lake in a network of diabasic gabbro dikes that have 

intruded into the Louis Lake Pluton (Bayley and others 

1973). This ET is a component of map unit 309L.

Environment

Aspect: North-northwest [1], west [1], west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro dikes. 

Shoulders and upper backslopes.

Parent Materials: Diabasic gabbro colluvium over Louis 

Lake Granodiorite residuum. Louis Lake Granodiorite 

residuum.

Bedrock: Louis Lake Granodiorite, diabasic gabbro.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 67 to 

68 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 92.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

includes Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat 

type. At first glance, these sites look more like grasslands 

than a sagebrush community. The low growing (<10 cm) 

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush is hidden among the grasses 

and appears as if it had been strewn about at random. The 

herbaceous layer is scant and relatively unproductive when 

compared to sagebrush communities growing on calcareous parent materials. Idaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass, 

and bluebunch wheatgrass dominate the herbaceous layer, 

the latter indicative of the drier site conditions at these 

exposed upper backslopes, shoulders, and summits. Other 

common herbaceous species include timber milkvetch, 

ballhead sandwort, cutleaf daisy, cushion buckwheat, bitterroot, Hood’s and many-flowered phlox, and lance-leaved 

stonecrop. Mosses and lichens form a dense layer at the soil 

surface. The layer of mosses and lichens aids in protecting the soil surface from erosion by wind and water. Bare 

ground and gravels are also prevalent at the soil surface, 

forming an extensive erosion pavement. Table 93 provides 

a summary of species constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

The soils at these sites are shallow to moderately deep to 

grus (Cr-horizon), a type of partially decomposed bedrock 

that has weathered to gravel-sized rock fragments. The grus 

is dense, prohibitive to root penetration, and extremely low 

in clay. Soils occurring on or near dikes, and derived from 

diabasic gabbro colluvium over granodiorite residuum have 

an average pH higher than ~6.0, reflecting the greater concentration of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) in the diabasic gabbro.

Soils in the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET are 

mostly shallow to moderately deep and gravelly with a low 

to moderate degree of soil development, moderate to high 

coarse fragments (44–72%, avg. 54%), and low to moderate amounts of clay (5–23%, avg. 16%). A typical soil 

features an A/Bw-Bt/C-Cr horizonation. Distinguishing soil 

horizons include a mollic epipedon (avg. 25 cm thick), and 

shallow to moderately deep paralithic or lithic contact (avg. 

68 cm depth). Typic Argicryolls display an argillic horizon 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 249

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

(avg. 18 cm) between the mollic epipedon and paralithic 

contact (avg. 79 cm depth). One soil was deep, with a 26-

cm thick A-horizon over a thin Bw-horizon (15 cm thick), 

over a thick (64 cm thick), sandy (>90%), extremely gravelly C-horizon. The soils classified as loamy-skeletal Typic 

Argicryolls [2], and sandy-skeletal Typic Haplocryolls [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Haplocryolls

A1—0 to 8 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very gravelly 

coarse sandy loam, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 

70% sand; 9% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine granular structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots 

and many very fine roots; common fine and many very 

fine pores; 3% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 

10% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 28% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 

normal; neutral, pH 6.6; clear wavy boundary.

A2—8 to 27 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very gravelly 

coarse sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3), dry; 72% sand; 

8% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and many very fine roots; common fine and 

common medium and many very fine pores; 4% 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 15% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 34% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly 

acid, pH 6.5; clear smooth boundary.

Bw—27 to 41 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very gravelly loamy 

coarse sand, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 82% sand; 5% clay; 

weak medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and many very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and many very fine pores; 9% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 42% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly 

acid, pH 6.5; clear wavy boundary.

CB—41 to 72 cm: variegated; extremely gravelly coarse 

sand, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 88% sand; 4% clay; 

weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, slightly 

hard, nonsticky, nonplastic; common medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common medium and common 

very fine pores; 69% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.3; 

gradual broken boundary.

2C—72 to 97 cm: variegated; extremely gravelly coarse 

sand; 90% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; common very fine roots; common very 

fine pores; 81% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.2; 

abrupt smooth boundary.

2Cr—97 to 112 cm: variegated; 94% sand; 4% clay; single 

grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; common very fine roots; 

common very fine pores; 1% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 90% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.2.

Ecology

The ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET, with the 

exception of the dominant sagebrush species, is similar 

vegetatively to the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET. 

However the two Ecological Types inhabit distinctly different slope positions depending on the dominant sagebrush 

species. Mountain big sagebrush is most successful on 

deep, well-drained, medium- to coarse-textured soils and 

is most often found on loams or sandy-loams with high 

amounts of coarse fragments (35-70%) (Welch 2005). 

Unlike Wyoming three-tip sagebrush, which is adapted 

to cold, windswept, xeric conditions typical of upper 

backslope, shoulder, and summit positions, mountain big 

sagebrush in Wyoming has been shown to prefer lower, less 

exposed slope positions (Burke and others 1989). Wind deflation is an important geomorphic process at these sites, as 

is evidenced by extensive erosion pavement of gravel-sized 

rock fragments.

Management considerations

The ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET provides important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. 
250 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover are 

close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the 

ET is lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern 

slope of the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide 

appreciable forage in the spring and early summer. These 

summit and shoulder positions are typically blown free of 

snow during the winter months, resulting in very little protection from extremely cold temperatures, frigid wind chill 

effects, and physical abrasion from snow and ice particles. 

The unproductive nature of these communities results in 

a minimal accumulation of fuels. Fires in the ARTRR4/

FEID, Ledgefork Family ET, especially later in the season, 

are expected to be rapid and of low to moderate intensity, 

resulting in minimal damage to sagebrush or Idaho fescue. 

Response of Idaho fescue and Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 

is generally positive following low to moderate severity 

burns (Tirmenstein 1999a; Zouhar 2000).

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

the dominant sagebrush, including Wyoming three-tip 

sagebrush in the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET and 

mountain big sagebrush in the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

Environmental differences: The types differ 

environmentally in that the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET occurs on shoulders and upper backslopes, 

while the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET occurs 

on lower backslopes and footslopes and areas of gentle 

topography.

Table 92—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,776 2,768 2,792

Slope (%) 15 10 18

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 674 668 680

Degree days 14,570 14,480 14,670

Frost-free days 18.8 18.7 18.9

Site water balance (mm/year) -268 -280 -256

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.1 1.0 1.2

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 555 546 564

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,100 19,780 20,410

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 54 44 72

Clay (% in particle size control section) 16 5 23

pH (in particle size control section) 6.0 5.9 6.1

Available water capacity (mm/m) 33 23 42

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 1 5

Exposed bedrock 1 0 2

Gravel 23 15 30

Cobble 2 1 3

Stones 2 1 3

Boulders 1 0 2

Litter 13 10 15

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 20 15 25

Basal vegetation 28 15 40

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 251

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Table 93—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARTRR4 Artemisia tripartita Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 100 8 3 10

Forbs:

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 67 1 1 1

ERCA2 Erigeron caespitosus tufted fleabane 67 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 67 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 67 1 1 1

EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat 67 1 1 1

LERE7 Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 67 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 67 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 67 2 1 3

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 67 4 3 5

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 100 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 67 4 3 5

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 9 3 20

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 67 12 10 15

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
252 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Wyoming Three-tip Sagebrush/

Bluebunch Wheatgrass, Bigsheep 

Family Ecological Type

Artemisia tripartita var. rupicola/ 

Elymus spicatus, Bigsheep 

Family Ecological Type

ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET

N = 6

Distribution

The Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, Bigsheep Family Ecological Type occurs in the 

northern and southern study areas within the dry, midelevation, sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman 

and others (2004). In the northern study area, this ecological type occurs from Little Warm Spring Creek in the 

northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. In the southern 

study area, this ecological type occurs from just northeast 

of Dickinson Park southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a 

component of map unit 15L.

Environment

Aspect: South-southeast [1], south-southwest [3], southwest 

[1], west-southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Upper backslopes and 

shoulders.

Parent Materials: Bighorn Dolomite and/or Gallatin 

Limestone colluvium over residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gros Ventre Shale, Cambrian Gallatin 

Limestone.

This ecological type occurs on upper backslopes and 

shoulders near the contact between the Gros Ventre and 

Gallatin Formations. The type of bedrock at a particular 

site will vary depending on the slope position relative to the 

particular geologic stratigraphy at each site.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 56 to 67 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 94.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass 

habitat type. Upon a cursory look, these sites may appear 

to be grasslands, although further scrutiny reveals the 

low-growing Wyoming three-tip sagebrush and fringed 

sagewort growing beneath a dense layer of bluebunch 

wheatgrass and Sandberg bluegrass. Yellow rabbitbrush occurs regularly and at low abundance in this habitat type.

Forbs are generally sparse at these exposed and windy 

sites. Turpentine wavewing, white locoweed, woolly 

groundsel, and cushion plants, including Hood’s and 

many-flowered phlox, and stemless and narrowleaf mock 

goldenweeds are the most common and abundant forbs. 

Fremont’s bladderpod, an endemic species of mustard 

that occurs only in Fremont County, Wyoming, was found 

growing in this ecological type. Table 95 provides a summary of species constancy and cover for this ecological 

type.

Soils

Soils in the ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET are 

deep and calcareous with a low to moderate degree of soil 

development, moderate to high coarse fragments (39–73%, 

avg. 53%), and low to moderate clay (12–23%, avg. 17%). 

A typical soil featured an A/Bk horizonation. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include a gravelly mollic epipedon (avg. 34 

cm thick), and a thick (avg. 70 cm thick) calcic horizon. 

Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. Soils were Typic 

Calciustolls [5] and Pachic Calciustolls [1].
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 253

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Typic Calciustolls

A1—0 to 11 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) fine gravelly fine 

sandy loam, very dark brown (10YR 2/2), moist; 54% 

sand; 15% clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate medium granular structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common medium roots and common very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and common very fine 

pores; 1% fine faint carbonate nodules in matrix; 23% 2- 

to 75-mm unspecified fragments; slight effervescence, by 

HCl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.0; abrupt wavy 

boundary.

A2—11 to 21 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

very gravelly fine sandy loam, very dark grayish brown 

(10YR 3/2), moist; 58% sand; 14% clay; moderate 

medium subangular blocky structure parting to moderate 

fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, slightly 

hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

common very fine roots; common fine and common very 

fine pores; 10% fine faint carbonate nodules in matrix and 

1% medium distinct carbonate nodules in matrix; 15% 

flat 150- to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 37% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; slight effervescence, by 

HCl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.1; clear wavy 

boundary.

Bk1—21 to 55 cm: pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) very gravelly 

fine sandy loam, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/3), moist; 

51% sand; 17% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky 

structure parting to moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; prominent carbonate 

coats on rock fragments; 10% fine distinct carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 5% flat 150- to 380-mm unspecified 

fragments and 48% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

violent effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; strongly alkaline, 

pH 8.6; gradual smooth boundary.

2Bk2—55 to 101 cm: pale yellow (2.5Y 7/3) extremely 

gravelly fine sandy loam, light yellowish brown 

(2.5Y 6/4), moist; 62% sand; 16% clay; moderate fine 

subangular blocky structure, and moderate medium 

granular structure; friable, moderately hard, slightly 

sticky, slightly plastic; common fine roots; common fine 

pores; prominent carbonate coats on rock fragments; 10% 

distinct carbonate masses on surfaces along root channels 

and 10% faint carbonate nodules in matrix; 12% flat 150- 

to 380-mm unspecified fragments and 51% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; violent effervescence, by HCl, 1 

normal; strongly alkaline, pH 8.7.

Ecology

The reduced stature of Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 

is an adaptation to the cold, droughty conditions brought 

about by strong winds and intense solar radiation experienced at these steep, exposed upper backslope and shoulder 

positions. Many of the slopes where this ET occurred were 

west facing. The effect of solar radiation is more intense on 

west-facing than east-facing slopes because the air temperature in the afternoon, when the sun is shining directly on a 

west-facing slope, is higher than in the morning, when the 

sun is shining directly on an east-facing slope. West-facing 

upper backslopes and shoulders in the WRR are highly 

exposed to the prevailing westerly winds, further increasing 

drought conditions at these sites. During the winter months, 

these windswept upper backslopes and shoulders are 

continually blown free of snow, resulting in very little protection from extremely cold temperatures, frigid wind chill 

effects, and physical abrasion from snow and ice particles. 

Wind deflation is at a maximum at these sites, as evidenced 

by extensive erosion pavement.

Management considerations

The ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET provides 

important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover 

are close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the ET is 

lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide appreciable 

forage in the spring and early summer.

The unproductive nature of these communities results 

in a minimal accumulation of fuels. Fires in the ARTRR4/

ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET, especially later in the season, 

are expected to be rapid and of low to moderate intensity, resulting in minimal damage to Wyoming three-tip 

sagebrush. Response of Wyoming three-tip sagebrush is 

generally positive following low to moderate severity burns 

(Tirmenstein 1999a). However, fires that start in mountain 

big sagebrush communities located downslope from this 

ET may result in severe fires that move upslope into the 

ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET. In the case of 

severe fire, Wyoming three-tip sagebrush can be completely 

extirpated from a site, returning only very slowly from seed 

blown in from nearby plants.

Fire generally favors bluebunch wheatgrass and stimulates flowering, seed, and tiller production (Zlatnik 1999b). 

Seasonality of fires strongly affects mortality. Bluebunch 

wheatgrass receives the least damage when burned while 

dormant in fall, winter, or early spring and the most damage when burned while actively growing in the late spring 

and summer. Soil moisture status prior to and following 

fires also affects mortality and recovery time. Recovery 

following fires is generally rapid (one-five years); however, 

a lack of adequate soil moisture following a burn can slow 

recovery and increase mortality. Low soil moisture prior to 

burning increases fire severity.
254 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Bluebunch wheatgrass is moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing decreaser since heavy 

grazing can result in lower root and stem carbohydrate 

reserves, a condition leading to decreased vigor or mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass is most sensitive to grazing 

during its active growth period in spring and early summer. 

Trampling of Wyoming three-tip sagebrush by domestic 

livestock can negatively affect the abundance of this species in grazing allotments.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE

Table 94—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,628 2,429 2,753

Slope (%) 30 13 39

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 627 559 670

Degree days 16,300 15,080 18,570

Frost-free days 19.6 19.0 20.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -325 -422 -253

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.8 1.2 2.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 662 612 741

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,820 20,570 20,960

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 53 39 73

Clay (% in particle size control section) 17 12 23

pH (in particle size control section) 8.1 7.8 8.5

Available water capacity (mm/m) 59 36 94

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 8 2 15

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 35 15 60

Cobble 2 0 5

Stones 1 0 5

Boulders 1 0 2

Litter 8 5 10

Wood 1 0 3

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 46 25 70

Water 0 0 0
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 255

LIMBER PINE SERIES WYOMING TREE-TIP SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Table 95—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARFR4 Artemisia frigida fringed sagewort 67 5 1 10

ARTRR4 Artemisia tripartita Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 100 20 7 35

CHVI8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellow rabbitbrush 50 1 1 1

Forbs:

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 50 2 1 3

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 67 2 1 3

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 67 1 1 1

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 67 3 1 5

ERAS2 Erysimum asperum sanddune wallflower 67 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 67 2 1 3

ERRY Erigeron rydbergii northwestern fleabane 67 1 1 1

LEFR4 Lesquerella fremontii Fremont’s bladderpod 50 1 1 1

LILE3 Linum lewisii prairie flax 67 1 1 2

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 67 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 67 1 1 1

OXSE Oxytropis sericea white locoweed 100 5 1 15

PACA15 Packera cana woolly groundsel 83 1 1 3

PEHU Penstemon humilis low beardtongue 50 2 1 3

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 83 3 1 7

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 83 3 1 10

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 50 1 1 1

TAER2 Taraxacum eriophorum wool-bearing dandelion 50 2 1 3

ZIVEG Zigadenus venenosus var. gramineus grassy deathcamas 50 1 1 1

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 19 5 30

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 67 3 1 5

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 21 5 40

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Min = 

minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
256 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Mountain Big Sagebrush 

Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Mountain Big Sagebrush

Artemisia tridentata Nutt. var. 

vaseyana (Rydb.) Boivin

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) includes four 

widely recognized varieties or subspecies that are morphologically and ecologically distinct (Dorn 2001). Variety 

tridentata, also called Great Basin big sagebrush, is a tall 

shrub (1–2 m) common to deep, well-drained soils along 

valley bottoms, lower montane slopes, and drainages at 

elevations between 1,300 and 2,200 m in major basins 

across the western United States and Canada (Shultz 2006). 

Precipitation in Great Basin big sagebrush communities 

ranges between 26 and 44 cm. Variety wyomingensis is 

a low to moderately tall shrub (30–50 cm) that occurs in 

valleys and high plateaus at elevations between 800 and 

2,200 m across the western United States and Canada. 

Precipitation in Wyoming big sagebrush communities 

ranges between 20 and 32 cm (Welch 2004). Variety 

vaseyana, also called mountain big sagebrush, is a low to 

moderately tall shrub (60–80 cm) that occurs on mountain 

slopes between 1,200 and 3,200 m in British Columbia 

and all western states except Arizona and New Mexico 

(Shultz 2006; Svalberg and others 1997; Tweit and Houston 

1980). Precipitation in mountain big sagebrush communities ranges between 31 and 149 cm (Welch 2004). Variety 

spiciformis, considered by some a form of variety vaseyana

(A. tridentata var. vaseyana f. spiciformis), occupies the 

highest elevation range (2800-3250 m) of the big sagebrush varieties and is known to occur on high mountain 

slopes in British Columbia and all western states except 

Oregon, Arizona, and New Mexico (Shultz 2006; Welch 

2005). Across the study area, variety vaseyana is the most 

common variety of big sagebrush, and the remainder of 

the discussion will include specific information regarding 

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana. However, some information is general to big sagebrush (A. tridentata), and the 

terms “big sagebrush complex” or “big sagebrush” will be 

used when discussing this more general information.

On the east slope of the WRR in Wyoming, mountain 

big sagebrush occurs between roughly 2000 and 3000 m 

(Massatti 2007). Mountain big sagebrush is most successful 

on deep, well-drained, medium- to coarse-textured soils 

with low concentrations of salts (Welch 2005). Soil pH 

tends to range between slightly acidic to slightly alkaline 

with some strongly alkaline soils derived from calcareous 

parent materials (Johnson 2000). Mountain big sagebrush 

occurs across a wide range of soil textures but is most 

often found on loams or sandy-loams with high amounts of 

coarse fragments (35–70%) (Welch 2005). Mountain big 

sagebrush occurs on a variety of substrate types, including 

granite, rhyolite, andesite, argillite, basalt, greenstone, 

sandstone, limestone, shale, siltstone, dolomite, granodiorite, gneiss, mixed glacial till, and mixed alluvium (Johnson 

2004; Svalberg 1997; Tweit and Houston 1980). The type 

of substrate appears to be less important than soil texture 

and depth. Mountain big sagebrush occurs most often in 

moderately deep (50–100 cm) to deep (>100 cm) colluvial, 

glacial, or alluvial soils and occasionally on shallow, residual soils where it is often reduced in stature. Mountain big 

sagebrush is intolerant of soil saturation. However, it can be 

found growing in moderately well-drained to well-drained 

soils on stream terraces (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

Mountain big sagebrush is a native, perennial, woody, 

evergreen shrub that reproduces by seed, and vegetatively 

by layering (Johnson 2000). Flowers bloom in late July 

through September and seeds mature in late September 

and October. The non-dormant, small, lightweight seeds 

are wind dispersed and germination success is increased 

by cold, moist conditions and exposure to sunlight. The 

roots of mountain big sagebrush range in length from 1.5 to 

2.5 m, allowing it to meet some of its water requirements 

from water reserves deep below the soil surface (Welch 

2005). Lateral roots occur approximately 30 cm below the 

soil surface and can radiate out from 1 to 1.5 m from the 

stem of plants. The shallow, lateral roots make effective use 

of soil moisture that accumulates in the upper soil profile 

from winter snow and spring rain as well as convective 

thunderstorms throughout the summer. Mountain big sagebrush roots form a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizae 

fungi, which aid in the absorption of nutrients, especially 

phosphorus. A phenomenon referred to as “hydraulic lift” is 

associated with the big sagebrush complex. First observed 

by Richards and Caldwell (1987) for basin big sagebrush, 

hydraulic lift is a process by which water, deep in the soil 

profile, is transported to the upper soil profile via plant 

roots. The process is driven by a water potential gradient 

that reflects the daytime depletion of soil moisture due 

to evapotranspiration. The increased water in the upper 

surface horizons alleviates the water demands of shallow, 

lateral big sagebrush roots and other shallow rooted plants 

associated with big sagebrush communities.

Fire return intervals in mountain big sagebrush communities vary between 15 and 40 years (Johnson 2000) 

but may be as much as 50 to 100 years (Welch 2005). Fire 

return intervals below this range can lead to the exclusion 

of mountain big sagebrush, while fire suppression has led to 

greater fire return intervals and, subsequently, the encroachment of conifers, including Utah and Rocky Mountain 

junipers, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine, into mountain 

big sagebrush communities. Mountain big sagebrush is 

killed by even light severity fires and will not resprout from 

the root crown if the above ground portion of the plant is 

completely killed. Recolonization of burned sites is by 

seed. Plants may reach reproductive maturity within 3 to 

5 years, but 15 to 20 years is required to fully re-establish 
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a site (Bunting and others 1987). Germination success of 

mountain big sagebrush seeds on burned sites one year 

post-fire has been observed to be highly variable and a light 

heat treatment may increase germination success.

Prescribed fire is a common means of managing mountain big sagebrush communities (Bunting and others 1987). 

However, vegetative response to fire in mountain big 

sagebrush communities is complex and is highly dependent 

on geographic region, seasonality, and plant species composition. Pre-burn plant composition is one of the key factors 

in determining the response of mountain big sagebrush 

communities to prescribed fire. Managers should consider 

the fire ecology of species co-existing with mountain big 

sagebrush in order to better understand the consequences 

of prescribed burning in an area. The presence of exotic 

species, especially cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), in burned 

areas can permanently alter the community composition 

and fire regimes of post-fire mountain big sagebrush communities. Extensive plant surveys of areas considered for 

prescribed burning should be conducted before and after 

burning in order to assess pre- and post-fire conditions of 

the burned area. Bunting and others (1987) and Welch and 

Criddle (2003) provided comprehensive reviews of management considerations in big sagebrush communities.

Mountain big sagebrush suffers from a number of pests 

and diseases (Welch 2005). Winter kill can occur in low 

snow years in populations of mountain big sagebrush that 

normally receive enough snow to entirely cover the plants, 

insulating them from extreme cold temperatures and desiccation from strong winter winds. Snow depth, as it relates 

to the duration of snowmelt in spring, is related to a fungus 

that can lead to loss of vigor and sometimes death of mountain big sagebrush in deep snow pack years (Nelson and 

Sturges 1986). The snowmold fungus, Ascomycete, thrives 

in the snow around mountain big sagebrush at temperatures 

near 0 oC, and is most active in the spring during melt-off, 

infecting the foliage and fine stems. A fine balance exists 

for mountain big sagebrush between too little snow, resulting in mortality due to cold and desiccation, and too much 

snow, resulting in loss of vigor and death due to the snow 

mold fungus. Long-tailed, mountain, and meadow voles 

girdle mountain big sagebrush, causing extensive physical 

damage and death (Welch 2005). Black stem rust (Puccinia 

tanaceti) is a parasitic fungus whose fruiting bodies cause 

blackening of the inflorescence and results in defoliation, 

stunting of inflorescence, and inhibited floret development. 

Aphids can cause defoliation, leaf curling, and wilting of 

big sagebrush plants. The beetle, Trirhabda pilosa, is an 

obligate to big sagebrush and during heavy infestations can 

cause extensive defoliation and death of big sagebrush. Big 

sagebrush is host to a number of root parasitic plant species, including paintbrushes (Castilleja spp.), owl-clovers 

(Orthocarpus spp.), and broomrapes (Orobanche spp.). 

Welch (2005) provided a comprehensive review of the 

parasites and insect pests that attack big sagebrush.

Mountain big sagebrush is of low palatability to cattle 

but provides a highly nutritious and protein-rich browse 

for domestic sheep, elk, mule deer, pronghorn, and bighorn 

sheep (Johnson 2001). Sage grouse, dark eyed juncos, 

horned larks, and white-crowned sparrows feed directly 

on mountain big sagebrush (Welch and Criddle 2003). A 

variety of small mammals also feed on the foliage and bark 

of mountain big sagebrush, including deer mice, least chipmunk, Ord’s kangaroo rat, Pika, sagebrush voles, western 

cottontail, western harvest mice, and whitetail jackrabbits. 

Fifty-two species of aphids feed on the big sagebrush 

complex, which, in turn, are predated by a variety of 

wasps, ants, bees, sawflies, and ladybird beetles (Welch and 

Criddle 2003). Big sagebrush is an important component 

of the diets of Mormon crickets and grasshoppers, which 

can sometimes lead to extensive defoliation. Welch (2005) 

provided a comprehensive review of the many mammalian, 

bird, and insect species that use big sagebrush for food and 

cover. Mountain big sagebrush has high value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites and is easily propagated from seed 

(Johnson 2000).
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Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Shawmut Family Ecological 

Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/Festuca 

idahoensis, Shawmut Family Ecological Type

ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Shawmut 

Family Ecological Type occurs in the study area within 

the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion of 

Chapman and others (2004). In the northern study area, this 

ecological type occurs from Little Warm Spring Creek in 

the northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. In the southern 

study area, this ecological type occurs from Squaw Creek 

southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a component of map 

unit 15L.

Environment

Aspect: North-northeast [1], south-southwest [2], westsouthwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Landslide deposits, 

footslopes, alluvial terraces.

Parent Materials: Colluvium.

Parent materials for this ecological type are siltstone or 

shale colluvium mixed with limestone colluvium. On 

slopes of the Amsden Formation, the characteristic red to 

purplish soil colors are imparted by the Horseshoe Shale 

member of the Amsden Formation, while calcareous 

influence on the soil stems from the Ranchester Limestone 

member. On slopes of the Gros Ventre Formation, the 

soils typically display yellow-greenish colors and high 

carbonate content. Parent materials on Gros Ventre Slopes 

are calcareous shales of the Wolsey and/or Park Shale 

members of the Gros Ventre Formation mixed with Gallatin 

Limestone and/or Bighorn Dolomite colluvium.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gros Ventre Shale, late Mississippian/

early Pennsylvanian Amsden Siltstone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 51 to 66 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 96.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological 

type is mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type 

(Tweit and Houston 1980). The vegetation composition 

best represents the drier, lower elevation stands of the 

mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type described 

by Tweit and Houston (1980). Mountain big sagebrush 

forms a dense, low to moderately tall (≤1 m) shrub layer. 

Yellow rabbitbrush, antelope bitterbrush, Wyoming threetip sagebrush, and western serviceberry may also occur 

but rarely at great abundance. Idaho fescue, bluebunch 

wheatgrass, and Sandberg bluegrass are the predominant 

grass species. Spike sedge and grassyslope sedge are low 

growing, densely tufted sedges that sometimes occurs 

in this type. Sticky purple geranium and red avens are 

absent from these drier, lower elevation stands. The forb 

layer resembles that of adjacent mountain big sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Hoary or arrowleaf 

balsamroots and timber milkvetch are always present and 

may occur at high abundance. Other common herbaceous 

species include many-flowered phlox, oblongleaf bluebells, 

Holboell’s rockcress, sulphur-flower buckwheat, northern 

Idaho biscuitroot, bigleaf lupine, tapertip hawksbeard, and 

ballhead sandwort. Table 97 provides a summary of species 

constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET 

are deep and carbonate rich with a high degree of soil 
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development, including strong clay illuviation into subsurface soil horizons. A typical soil includes an A/Bt-Btk/

Bk horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a mollic 

epipedon (avg. 31 cm thick), a thick argillic horizon (avg. 

58 cm thick), and a calcic horizon (avg. 46 cm thick). 

Particle size class included loamy-skeletal [3] and fineloamy [1]. The soils were classified as clay-rich Typic 

Argiustolls [3] and Pachic Argiustolls [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Typic Argiustolls

A1—0 to 7 cm: dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) loam, very dark 

brown (7.5YR 2/2), moist; 51% sand; 15% clay; weak very 

fine granular structure; loose, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common medium roots and many 

very fine roots; common fine and common medium and 

many very fine pores; 11% nonflat subrounded indurated 

2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; 

moderately acid, pH 6.0; abrupt smooth boundary.

A2—7 to 21 cm: brown (7.5YR 4/3) fine sandy loam, dark 

brown (7.5YR 3/2), moist; 56% sand; 16% clay; moderate 

medium granular structure, and moderate medium 

subangular blocky structure; very friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and common medium and common very fine pores; 3% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 10% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; slightly 

acid, pH 6.1; abrupt smooth boundary.

Bt—21 to 39 cm: reddish brown (5YR 4/4) very cobbly 

sandy clay loam, dark reddish brown (5YR 3/3), moist; 

47% sand; 25% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, very hard, moderately sticky, slightly 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and common very fine pores; clay films on 

surfaces along pores and clay films on surfaces along root 

channels and 31% distinct clay films on faces of peds; 

carbonate, finely disseminated throughout; 1% flat angular 

indurated 380- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 

10% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified 

fragments and 11% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments; very slight 

effervescence; neutral, pH 6.7; clear wavy boundary.

Bk—39 to 74 cm: very pale brown (10YR 7/3) very 

cobbly sandy clay loam, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), 

moist; 49% sand; 28% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine subangular blocky 

structure; friable, hard, moderately sticky, moderately 

plastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and many very 

fine pores; 98% carbonate nodules around rock fragments; 

2% flat angular indurated 380- to 600-mm unspecified 

fragments and 13% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-mm 

unspecified fragments and 17% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 21% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

violent effervescence; slightly alkaline, pH 7.7; clear wavy 

boundary.

CBk—74 to 102 cm: light gray (10YR 7/2) extremely 

gravelly sandy clay loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 

6/4), moist; 53% sand; 29% clay; massive; very friable, 

moderately hard, moderately sticky, moderately plastic; 

common medium roots and common very fine roots; 

common medium and many very fine pores; 99% carbonate 

nodules around rock fragments; 3% flat angular indurated 

380- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 14% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 19% flat angular indurated 150- to 380-mm unspecified 

fragments and 38% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to

75-mm unspecified fragments; violent effervescence; 

slightly alkaline, pH 7.7.

Ecology

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Shawmut 

family ET is strongly tied to lower slope positions in soils 

derived in part from siltstone and shale due to higher available soil moisture relative to soils derived from limestone 

and dolomite on upper slope positions. Moisture availability tends to be more important than soil parent material 

in determining the distribution of Idaho fescue (Zouhar 

2000). However, soil parent material influences soil texture, 

which is an important factor influencing AWC of soils. 

Siltstone and shale are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that 

weather to form clay-rich soils that have high available 

water-holding capacity. Soil moisture is further increased 

by the accumulation of water at these lower slope positions 

due to gravity.

Management considerations

The ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET provides 

excellent foraging opportunities for domestic and wild 

ungulates. Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding 

cover are close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to 

adjacent forested stands. Idaho fescue is a highly preferred 

forage species of wild and domestic ungulates (Zouhar 

2000). Protein content is typically highest in the spring and 

decreases throughout the growing season. Light to moderate grazing can enhance Idaho fescue grasslands. However, 

Idaho fescue is only moderately tolerant of grazing and is 

considered a grazing decreaser under heavy grazing. The 

productive nature of these communities combined with fire 

suppression has resulted in an abundance of fuels in this 

ET. Invasive plants, including cheatgrass, also tend to be 

associated with roads that cut through this ET. Fires in the 

ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET are expected to be 

severe. Idaho fescue and mountain big sagebrush tend to 
260 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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respond negatively to severe burns (Johnson 2000; Zouhar 

2000), requiring at least 10 to 20 years to recover. Land 

managers planning prescribed burns of upslope sagebrush 

communities should avoid burning the ARTRV2/FEID, 

Shawmut Family ET in order to reduce the risk of spreading invasive plants.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Kiev Family 

ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The Kiev Family ET differs 

from the Shawmut Family ET in that the former features 

fine-loamy particle size and little to no subsurface clay 

accumulations, while the later features loamy-skeletal 

particle size and strong illuviation of clay into subsurface 

horizons.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Winspect Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the PNV of the Shawmut Family ET is the mountain 

big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type, while the PNV 

of the Winspect Family ET is the mountain big sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Shawmut Family ET occurs 

on lower slope positions and alluvial terraces, while the 

Winspect Family occurs on upper slope positions.

Table 96—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,489 2,292 2,700

Slope (%) 18 7 25

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 574 510 657

Degree days 17,920 15,410 20,070

Frost-free days 20.4 19.1 21.3

Site water balance (mm/year) -333 -377 -226

Average annual temperature (°C) 2.4 1.4 3.2

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 689 606 738

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,740 20,220 20,990

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 46 26 64

Clay (% in particle size control section) 27 24 33

pH (in particle size control section) 7.5 7.2 7.7

Available water capacity (mm/m) 88 66 123

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 16 10 20

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 12 3 20

Cobble 6 0 10

Stones 2 0 5

Boulders 1 0 3

Litter 11 1 30

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 43 30 70

Water 0 0 0
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Table 97—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

AMAL2 Amelanchier alnifolia western serviceberry 50 1 1 1

ARTRR4 Artemisia tripartita Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 75 2 1 3

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 42 20 65

CHVI8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellow rabbitbrush 75 1 1 1

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 50 1 1 1

Forbs:

ACMIL3 Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 75 2 1 3

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 75 2 1 3

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 75 2 1 5

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 100 5 1 15

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 50 9 3 15

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 50 2 1 3

BOEHOL Boechera holboellii Holboell’s rockcress 75 1 1 1

CAPA25 Castilleja pallescens palish Indian-paintbrush 50 2 1 3

CEAR4 Cerastium arvense field chickweed 50 3 1 5

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 50 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 75 1 1 1

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 50 3 1 5

DOCO Dodecatheon conjugens slimpod shooting star 50 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 75 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 50 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 100 2 1 3

LERE7 Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 50 1 1 1

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 75 1 1 1

LUPO2 Lupinus polyphyllus bigleaf lupine 75 2 1 3

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 75 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 50 3 1 5

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 100 2 1 5

SEIN4 Sedum integrifolium ledge stonecrop 50 2 1 3

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 75 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 4 3 5

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 20 15 25

KOMA Koeleria macrantha prairie junegrass 50 3 1 5

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 50 2 1 3

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 11 5 20

Graminoids:

CANA2 Carex nardina spike sedge 50 1 1 1

CAREX Carex sedge 50 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
262 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Ledgefork Family 

Ecological Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/

Festuca idahoensis, Ledgefork 

Family Ecological Type

ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork 

Family Ecological Type occurs in the northern study area 

within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and others 

(2004). This ET occurs to the south and east of Louis Lake 

in a network of diabasic gabbro dikes that have intruded 

into the Louis Lake Pluton (Bayley and others 1973) 

and on gently undulating hills formed from Louis Lake 

granodiorite located directly to the west of the South Pass 

Granite-Greenstone Belt. This ET is a component of map 

unit 309L.

Environment

Aspect: Southwest [2], west-southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro 

dikes and gentle, undulating hills. Lower backslopes and 

footslopes on dikes, all slope positions on hills.

Parent Materials: Diabasic gabbro colluvium over Louis 

Lake Granodiorite residuum. Louis Lake Granodiorite 

residuum.

Bedrock: Louis Lake Granodiorite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 61 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 98.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

includes the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat 

type. Mountain big sagebrush is reduced in stature due 

to the shallow to moderately deep, droughty soils. The 

herbaceous layer is scant and relatively unproductive when 

compared to sagebrush communities growing on calcareous 

parent materials. Idaho fescue and Sandberg bluegrass are 

the predominant herbaceous species. Idaho fescue achieves 

the highest cover on sheltered, concave slope positions and 

concave microsites. Common herbaceous species include 

timber milkvetch, ballhead sandwort, cutleaf daisy, cushion 

buckwheat, bitterroot, Hood’s phlox, northern Idaho biscuitroot, lance-leaved stonecrop, and Sandberg bluegrass. 

Bare ground and gravels are prevalent at the soil surface. 

Table 99 provides a summary of species constancy and 

cover for this ecological type.

Soils

The soils at these sites were all shallow to moderately 

deep to grus (Cr-horizon), a type of partially decomposed 

bedrock that has weathered to gravel-sized rock fragments. 

The grus was dense, prohibitive to root penetration, and 

extremely low in clay. Soils occurring on or near dikes, and 

derived from diabasic gabbro colluvium over granodiorite 

residuum had an average pH higher than ~6.0, reflecting 

the greater concentration of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) in the 

diabasic gabbro.

Soils in the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET were 

shallow to moderately deep and gravelly, with a low to 

moderate degree of soil development, moderate to high 
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coarse fragments (45–71%, avg. 61%), and low to moderate amounts of clay (4–19%, avg. 10%). A typical soil 

features an A/Bw-Bt/C/Cr-R horizonation. Distinguishing 

soil horizons include mollic epipedon (avg. 22 cm thick), 

and shallow to moderately deep paralithic or lithic contact 

(avg. 57 cm thick). The soils were sandy-skeletal Typic 

Haplocryolls [2] and loamy-skeletal Lithic Haplocryolls [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic 

Haplocryolls

A1—0 to 8 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very gravelly 

coarse sandy loam, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 

70% sand; 9% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine granular structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots 

and many very fine roots; common fine and many very 

fine pores; 3% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 

10% 251- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 28% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 

normal; neutral, pH 6.6; clear wavy boundary.

A2—8 to 27 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) very gravelly 

coarse sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3), dry; 72% sand; 

8% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky structure, 

and moderate fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and many very fine roots; common fine and 

common medium and many very fine pores; 4% 76- to 

250-mm unspecified fragments and 15% 251- to 600-mm 

unspecified fragments and 34% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly 

acid, pH 6.5; clear smooth boundary.

Bw—27 to 41 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very gravelly loamy 

coarse sand, brown (10YR 5/3), dry; 82% sand; 5% clay; 

weak medium subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium roots 

and many very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and many very fine pores; 9% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 42% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly 

acid, pH 6.5; clear wavy boundary.

CB—41 to 72 cm: variegated; extremely gravelly coarse 

sand, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 88% sand; 4% clay; 

weak fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, slightly 

hard, nonsticky, nonplastic; common medium roots and 

common very fine roots; common medium and common 

very fine pores; 69% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.3; 

gradual broken boundary.

2C—72 to 97 cm: variegated; extremely gravelly coarse 

sand; 90% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; common very fine roots; common very 

fine pores; 81% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.2; 

abrupt smooth boundary.

2Cr—97 to 112 cm: variegated; 94% sand; 4% clay; single 

grain; loose, nonsticky, nonplastic; common very fine roots; 

common very fine pores; 1% 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 90% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly acid, pH 6.2.

Ecology

The ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET, with the 

exception of the dominant sagebrush species, is similar 

floristically to the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET. 

However, the two ETs inhabit distinctly different slope 

positions depending on the dominant sagebrush species. 

Mountain big sagebrush is most successful on deep, welldrained, medium- to coarse-textured soils and is most 

often found on loams or sandy-loams with high amounts 

of coarse fragments (35-70%) (Welch 2005). Unlike the 

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush, which is adapted to cold, 

windswept, xeric conditions typical of upper backslope, 

shoulder, and summit positions, mountain big sagebrush in 

Wyoming has been shown to be associated with lower, less 

exposed slope positions (Burke and others 1989).

Management considerations

The ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET provides important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. 

Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover are 

close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the ET is 

lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide appreciable 

forage in the spring and early summer.

The unproductive nature of these communities results 

in a minimal accumulation of fuels. Fires in the ARTRV2/

FEID, Ledgefork Family ET, especially later in the season, 

are expected to be rapid and of low to moderate intensity, 

resulting in minimal damage to sagebrush or Idaho fescue. 

Response of Idaho fescue and mountain big sagebrush is 

generally positive following low to moderate severity burns 

(Johnson 2000; Zouhar 2000).

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue, 

Ledgefork Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

the dominant sagebrush, including Wyoming three-tip 

sagebrush in the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET and 

mountain big sagebrush in the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

Environmental differences: The types differ 

environmentally in that the ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET occurs on shoulders and upper backslopes, 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

while the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET occurs 

on lower backslopes and footslopes and areas of gentle 

topography.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 166D 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Corbly 166D Family ET occurs 

in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt, while the 

Ledgefork Family ET occurs elsewhere.

Ecological Type 3

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Lithic 

Argiustolls ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Lithic Argiustolls ET occurs 

in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt, while the 

Ledgefork Family ET occurs elsewhere.

Table 98—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,655 2,591 2,768

Slope (%) 4 2 5

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 609 605 613

Degree days 16,310 16,290 16,320

Frost-free days 19.6 19.5 19.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -340 -343 -336

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.7 1.7 1.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 647 647 647

Summer Radiation (KJ) 20,620 20,620 20,620

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 61 45 71

Clay (% in particle size control section) 10 4 19

pH (in particle size control section) 5.5 4.7 6.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 25 20 32

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 13 5 20

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 25 20 30

Cobble 1 1 1

Stones 2 1 3

Boulders 1 0 3

Litter 13 5 20

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 4 3 5

Basal vegetation 43 20 65

Water 0 0 0
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Table 99—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 27 15 40

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 67 1 1 1

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 67 4 3 5

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 67 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 67 1 1 1

EROC Erigeron ochroleucus buff fleabane 67 2 1 3

EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat 67 1 1 1

GETR Geum triflorum red avens 67 1 1 1

LERE7 Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 67 1 1 1

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 67 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 67 3 3 3

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 67 2 1 3

Grasses:

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 13 10 15

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 67 20 10 30

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which 

the species occurred.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Corbly 166D Family 

Ecological Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/ 

Festuca idahoensis, Corbly 166D 

Family Ecological Type

ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET

N = 4

Distribution

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 

166D Family Ecological Type occurs in the southern study 

area within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and 

others (2004). This ET occurs in the South Pass GraniteGreenstone Belt, and is a component of join unit 166D.

Environment

Aspect: North-northwest [2], southeast [1], southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro dikes 

and gentle, undulating hills. Shoulders and backslopes.

Parent Materials: Residuum. Diabasic gabbro, Louis 

Lake Granodiorite, granodiorite-amphibolite gneiss, 

granodiorite-graywacke gneiss, migmatite, and granite.

Bedrock: This ET is located in the South Pass Greenstone 

Belt and contains a complex of igneous intrusive and 

metasedimentary rocks, including diabasic gabbro, Louis 

Lake Granodiorite, and migmatite, graywacke gneiss, 

amphibolite, granite, and granodiorite of the Gneiss 

Belt, a border zone of contact metamorphism within the 

Greenstone Belt (Bayley and others 1973; Hausel1988, 

1991).

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 60 to 

62 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 100.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological 

type is the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat 

type. Mountain big sagebrush is reduced in stature due 

to the moderately deep, rocky soils. Yellow rabbitbrush 

is commonly associated with this type. The herbaceous 

layer is scant and relatively unproductive when compared 

to sagebrush communities growing on calcareous parent 

materials. Idaho fescue and Sandberg bluegrass are the 

predominant herbaceous species. Succulent and cushion 

plants, including lance-leaved stonecrop, bitterroot, Hood’s 

and many-flowered phlox, cushion and sulphur-flower 

buckwheat, and umber pussy-toes, are common to this 

ecological type and indicative of the windy, drought-ridden 

conditions typical at these sites. Other common herbaceous 

species include bluebunch wheatgrass, timber milkvetch, 

and oblongleaf bluebells. Gravels and cobbles are prevalent 

at the soil surface, at times forming patches of erosion 

pavement. Table 101 provides a summary of species constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

In general, soils in this area tended to have average 

weighted pH higher than ~6.0, reflecting the greater 

concentration of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) in the diabasic gabbro, metasedimentary, and ultramafic rocks. Soils formed 

in Louis Lake Granodiorite were shallow to moderately 

deep to grus (Cr-horizon), a type of partially decomposed 

bedrock that has weathered to gravel-sized rock fragments. 

The grus was dense, prohibitive to root penetration, and 

extremely low in clay. A typical soil features an A/Bw/CCr/R horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a thick 

mollic epipedon (avg. 42 cm thick), paralithic materials 
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(avg. 16 cm thick), and moderately deep lithic contact (avg. 

86 cm depth). Soils were sandy-skeletal Entic Haplustolls 

[1] and Pachic Haplustolls [1].

Soils derived from metasedimentary rocks of the Gneiss 

Belt (Hausel 1988) were moderately deep to fractured bedrock and high in coarse fragments (>60%). Clay minerals 

were generally low to moderate in abundance (≤15%). A 

typical soil features an A/C-Cr/R horizonation. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include a mollic epipedon (avg. 25-cm thick), 

and moderately deep lithic contact (avg. 77-cm depth). 

Particle size class included sandy-skeletal [1], and loamyskeletal [1]. Soils were Entic Haplustolls [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Sandy-skeletal, mixed, frigid Entic 

Haplustolls

A—0 to 9 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) fine 

gravelly coarse sand, very dark gray (10YR 3/1), moist; 

91% sand; 4% clay; weak fine granular structure; very 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and many very fine roots; common fine and many 

very fine pores; 23% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.3; 

abrupt wavy boundary.

AB—9 to 32 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) fine 

gravelly loamy sand, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 88% 

sand; 9% clay; moderate medium granular structure, and 

weak coarse subangular blocky structure; very friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; many fine roots 

and common medium roots and many very fine roots; 

many fine and common medium and many very fine pores; 

24% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, 

by HCl, 1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.4; clear smooth 

boundary.

Bw—32 to 60 cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

medium gravelly sand, dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), 

moist; 90% sand; 8% clay; moderate medium subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate medium granular structure; 

very friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; 

common fine roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and common very fine pores; 41% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

strongly acid,pH 5.5; abrupt smooth boundary.

Cr—60 to 79 cm: brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) extremely 

cobbly coarse sand, dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6), 

moist; 94% sand; 3% clay; single grain; loose, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots; common fine and common medium pores; 23% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 42% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

strongly acid, pH 5.5; abrupt smooth boundary.

R—79 cm: bedrock.

Ecology

The ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET is similar 

in many ways to the ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET, 

both occurring most often on hot, dry south-facing slopes 

and convex slope positions, adjacent to the PICO Series, 

Corbly Family ET, which occurs on cooler, more mesic 

north-facing slopes and concave slope positions. However, 

the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET inhabits less 

exposed slope positions and relatively deeper soils than the 

ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET. The reduced stature 

of mountain big sagebrush is most likely related to the 

moderately deep, droughty soils. Snow accumulation is low 

to moderate (<50 cm) at these sites.

Management considerations

The ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET provides 

important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover 

are close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the ET is 

lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide appreciable 

forage in the spring and early summer. The unproductive 

nature of these communities results in a minimal accumulation of fuels. Fires in the ARTEM/FEID, Ledgefork Family 

ET, especially later in the season, are expected to be rapid 

and of low to moderate intensity, resulting in minimal damage to sagebrush or Idaho fescue. Response of Idaho fescue 

and Mountain big sagebrush is generally positive following 

low to moderate severity burns (Johnson 2000; Zouhar 

2000).

Idaho fescue is a highly preferred forage species of wild 

and domestic ungulates (Zouhar 2000). Protein content is 

typically highest in the spring and decreases throughout the 

growing season. Light to moderate grazing can enhance 

Idaho fescue grasslands. However, Idaho fescue is only 

moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing decreaser under heavy grazing. The degree of grazing 

pressure that Idaho fescue can sustain depends on the 

interaction between wildlife and livestock using the range, 

plant phenology, type of grazing system used, competition 

from associated vegetation, plant vigor, and site conditions. 

Heavy grazing reduces the ability of Idaho fescue to compete with non-native species.

Simlar Ecological Types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Corbly 166D Family ET occurs 

in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt, while the 

Ledgefork Family ET occurs elsewhere.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Lithic 

Argiustolls ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Corbly 166D Family ET 

features moderately deep soils, while the Lithic Argiustolls 

ET features shallow soils.

Table 100—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,601 2,570 2,623

Slope (%) 8 1 15

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 606 599 615

Degree days 16,430 16,260 16,690

Frost-free days 19.6 19.5 19.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -339 -353 -318

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.8 1.7 1.9

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 638 613 650

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,350 19,910 20,610

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 69 60 78

Clay (% in particle size control section) 8 4 15

pH (in particle size control section) 6.3 5.4 7.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 21 13 30

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 9 5 15

Exposed bedrock 1 0 2

Gravel 30 15 55

Cobble 2 0 5

Stones 2 0 3

Boulders 2 0 5

Litter 11 5 15

Wood 2 0 5

Moss and lichen 2 0 5

Basal vegetation 35 20 65

Water 0 0 0

Ecological Type 3

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 351L 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Corbly 166D Family ET occurs 

in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt and features soils 

formed from metasedimentary and metamorphic residuum, 

while the Corbly 351L Family ET occurs in upper section 

of Sinks Canyon and features soils formed from granitic 

glacial till.
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Table 101—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 29 20 45

CHVI8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellow rabbitbrush 50 2 1 3

Forbs:

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 50 1 1 1

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 100 3 1 5

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 50 2 1 3

CAPA25 Castilleja pallescens palish Indian-paintbrush 75 1 1 1

EROC Erigeron ochroleucus buff fleabane 50 1 1 1

EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat 50 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 75 2 1 3

GETR Geum triflorum red avens 50 1 1 1

LERE7 Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 75 1 1 1

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 75 2 1 3

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 100 2 1 3

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 75 3 3 3

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 75 2 1 5

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 100 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides squirreltail 75 2 1 3

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 75 5 1 10

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 15 5 20

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 10 5 15

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Lithic Argiustolls Ecological 

Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/Festuca 

idahoensis, Lithic Argiustolls Ecological Type

ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET

N = 3

Distribution

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Lithic 

Argiustolls Ecological Type occurs in the southern study 

area within the granitic subalpine zone of Chapman and 

others (2004). This ET occurs in the South Pass GraniteGreenstone Belt, and is a component of join unit 166D.

Environment

Aspect: South-southwest [1], west [1], west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Diabasic gabbro dikes 

and gentle, undulating hills. Summits and shoulders.

Parent Materials: Residuum. Schist, serpentinite, 

granodiorite-amphibolite gneiss, granodiorite-graywacke 

gneiss, diabasic gabbro, migmatite, and granite.

Bedrock: This ET is located in the South Pass Greenstone 

Belt, and bedrock contains a complex of igneous intrusive, 

metasedimentary, and ultramafic rocks, including 

orthoamphibolite, schist, and serpentinite of the Diamond 

Springs Formation, diabasic gabbro, and migmatite, 

graywacke gneiss, amphibolite, granite, and granodiorite 

of the Gneiss Belt, a border zone of contact metamorphism 

within the Greenstone Belt (Bayley and others 1973; 

Hausel 1988, 1991).

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 60 to 

61 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 102.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type 

is the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type. 

Mountain big sagebrush is reduced in stature due to the 

shallow, rocky soils. Yellow rabbitbrush is commonly 

associated with this type. The herbaceous layer is scant 

and relatively unproductive when compared to sagebrush 

communities growing on calcareous parent materials. 

Idaho fescue and Sandberg bluegrass are the predominant herbaceous species. Succulent and cushion plants, 

including lance-leaved stonecrop, bitterroot, Hood’s and 

many-flowered phlox, cushion buckwheat, umber pussytoes, and stemless mock goldenweed, are common to this 

ecological type, and indicative of the windy, drought-ridden 

conditions typical at these sites. Other common herbaceous 

species include bluebunch wheatgrass, timber milkvetch, 

oblongleaf bluebells, nodding onion, and hoary balsamroot. 

The majority of the soil surface is composed of an extensive erosion pavement. Table 103 provides a summary of 

species constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

In general, soils in this ET tended to have average 

weighted pH higher than ~6.0, reflecting the greater concentration of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) in the diabasic gabbro, 

metasedimentary, and ultramafic rocks. Soils were shallow 

to bedrock, high pH (>6.0) and high coarse fragments 

(avg. 72%) with low to moderate amounts of clay minerals 

(12–21%, avg. 18%). A typical soil features an A/Bw-C/R 

horizonation. Diagnostic soil characteristics include a 
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relatively thick mollic epipedon (avg. 30 cm thick) and 

shallow lithic contact (avg. 42 cm depth). Soils were 

sandy-skeletal Lithic Argiustolls and loamy-skeletal Lithic 

Haplustolls.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Lithic Argiustolls

A—0 to 5 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) cobbly coarse sandy 

loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 75% 

sand; 12% clay; weak very fine granular structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; many fine roots 

and few medium roots and many very fine roots; many fine 

and few medium and many very fine pores; 7% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments 

and 12% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; slightly acid, pH 

6.2; clear wavy boundary.

BA—5 to 19 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) stony coarse sandy 

loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 77% sand; 16% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common very fine and fine roots and 

common medium roots; common very fine and fine and 

common medium pores; 2% nonflat subrounded indurated 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 16% nonflat 

subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 16% nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, 

pH 5.9; clear wavy boundary.

Bt—19 to 44 cm: 2% light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

and 1% yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) extremely stony 

sandy clay loam, 2% dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) 

and 1% brown (10YR 4/3), moist; 71% sand; 21% clay; 

weak very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly 

hard, moderately sticky, slightly plastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

very fine pores; 1% patchy faint clay films on surfaces 

along root channels and 1% patchy faint clay films 

between sand grains and 1% patchy faint clay films on rock 

fragments; 7% nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-

mm unspecified fragments and 26% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 40% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 600- to 3000-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 6.0; clear 

wavy boundary.

R1—44 to 81 cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) 

extremely stony fine sandy loam, dark yellowish brown 

(10YR 4/4), moist; 78% sand; 17% clay; weak very 

fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and few 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and few medium and common very fine pores; 8% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 76- to 250-mm unspecified 

fragments and 27% nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments and 49% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 6.0; clear wavy 

boundary.

R2—81cm: light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) stony sand, 

fragmental material, dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), 

moist; 91% sand; 5% clay; single grain; loose, nonsticky, 

nonplastic; few fine roots and common very fine roots; few 

fine and common very fine pores; 32% nonflat subrounded 

indurated 250- to 600-mm unspecified fragments and 61% 

nonflat subrounded indurated 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent; moderately acid, pH 6.0; 

colors: dry and moist are variegated.

Ecology

The ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET is similar in 

many ways to the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family 

ET, both occurring most often on hot, dry, south-facing 

slopes and convex slope positions adjacent to the PICO 

Series, Corbly Family ET, which occurs on cooler, more 

mesic north-facing slopes and concave slope positions. 

However, the ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET inhabits more exposed slope positions and shallower soils than 

the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET. Mountain 

big sagebrush is even more reduced in stature and cushion 

plants make up a greater majority of the herbaceous layer. 

These sites are extremely windy, as evidenced by the erosion pavement of gravels and the shallow to moderately 

deep bedrock limits root penetration to the upper 50 cm 

of soil. These summit and shoulder positions are typically 

blown free of snow during the winter months resulting in 

very little protection from extremely cold temperatures, 

wind chill effects, and physical abrasion from snow and ice 

particles.

Management considerations

The ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls ET provides important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. 

Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover are 

close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the ET is 

lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide important 

forage in the spring and early summer. The unproductive 

nature of these communities results in a minimal accumulation of fuels. Fires in the ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls 

Family ET, especially later in the season, are expected to be 

rapid and of low to moderate intensity, resulting in minimal 

damage to sagebrush or Idaho fescue. Response of Idaho 

fescue and Mountain big sagebrush is generally positive 

following low to moderate severity burns (Johnson 2000; 

Zouhar 2000).
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Ledgefork 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Lithic Argiustolls ET occurs 

in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt, while the 

Ledgefork Family ET occurs elsewhere.

Table 102—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic 

Argiustolls ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,600 2,596 2,602

Slope (%) 7 3 13

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 607 602 609

Degree days 16,360 16,190 16,580

Frost-free days 19.6 19.5 19.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -342 -363 -323

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.7 1.6 1.8

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 642 628 653

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,440 20,320 20,560

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 72 64 79

Clay (% in particle size control section) 18 12 21

pH (in particle size control section) 6.1 6.0 6.2

Available water capacity (mm/m) 22 9 31

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 1 5

Exposed bedrock 7 0 20

Gravel 27 15 40

Cobble 6 3 10

Stones 4 1 10

Boulders 1 0 3

Litter 10 5 20

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 5 3 6

Basal vegetation 37 20 45

Water 0 0 0

Ecological Type 2

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 166D 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types are very similar 

floristically.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Corbly 166D Family ET 

features moderately deep soils, while the Lithic Argiustolls 

ET features shallow soils.
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Table 103—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARFR4 Artemisia frigida fringed sagewort 67 2 1 3

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 25 10 35

CHVI8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellow rabbitbrush 100 1 1 1

Forbs:

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 67 1 1 1

ALCE2 Allium cernuum nodding onion 100 1 1 1

ANUM Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 67 1 1 1

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 100 2 1 3

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 100 1 1 1

BOEX2 Boechera exilis second rockcress 67 1 1 1

CAFL7 Castilleja flava yellow paintbrush 67 1 1 1

CRMO4 Crepis modocensis low hawksbeard 100 2 1 3

DOCO Dodecatheon conjugens slimpod shooting star 67 1 1 1

ERCA2 Erigeron caespitosus tufted fleabane 67 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 67 1 1 1

EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat 100 1 1 1

LERE7 Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 100 1 1 1

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 67 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 100 1 1 1

OXSE Oxytropis sericea white locoweed 67 2 1 3

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 100 2 1 3

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 67 2 1 3

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 67 2 1 3

STAC Stenotus acaulis stemless mock goldenweed 67 2 1 3

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 5 1 10

FEID Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 8 5 10

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 22 15 30

Graminoids:

CACA13 Carex capitata capitate sedge 67 1 1 1

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Bluebunch 

Wheatgrass, Winspect Family 

Ecological Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/Elymus 

spicatus, Winspect Family Ecological Type

ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET

N = 10

Distribution

The mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Winspect Family Ecological Type occurs in the study area 

within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). In the northern study 

area, this ecological type occurs from Little Warm Spring 

Creek in the northwest to Red Creek in the southeast. In 

the southern study area, this ecological type occurs from 

just northeast of Dickinson Park southeast to Limestone 

Mountain. It is a component of map units 12L, 15L, and 

351L.

Environment

Aspect: South [1], southeast [2], south-southeast [4], southsouthwest [3].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Backslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium. Colluvium over residuum. 

Colluvium over granitic glacial till.

In map unit 12L and 15L, parent materials are mixed 

Bighorn Dolomite and Madison/Gallatin Limestone 

colluvium. The colluvium is generally deep enough 

that residuum is not observed within 100 cm of the soil 

surface. On occasion, the colluvium is only a thin veneer 

(<100 cm) and residuum is present closer to the soil 

surface. In those instances, parent materials are mixed 

limestone and dolomite colluvium over limestone or shale/

siltstone residuum in map units 12L and 15L, respectively. 

In map unit 351L, parent materials are mixed dolomite and 

limestone colluvium over granitic glacial till.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gros Ventre Shale, Cambrian Gallatin 

Limestone, Mississippian Madison Limestone, late 

Mississippian/early Pennsylvanian Amsden Siltstone.

In map unit 12L, bedrock is either Madison or Gallatin 

Limestone, or Bighorn Dolomite. In map unit 15L, bedrock 

is Gros Ventre Shale or Amsden Siltstone. In map unit 

351L, bedrock is either Gros Ventre Shale or Flathead 

Sandstone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation is 43 to 63 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 104.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological type is 

the mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat 

type antelope bitterbrush phase. Mountain big sagebrush 

and antelope bitterbrush form a dense, moderately tall 

shrub layer, typically less than 1 m tall. Utah juniper 

co-dominates with mountain big sagebrush at sites lower 

than approximately 2,300 m. Yellow rabbitbrush and Utah 

snowberry are other common shrubs that may be present 

at high abundance especially at lower elevation sites. The 

herbaceous layer is dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Sandberg bluegrass, and spike fescue. Cheatgrass is common and may occur in high amounts at recently burned 

sites. Common herbaceous species include pale agoseris, 

hoary balsamroot, turpentine wavewing, sulphur-flower 

buckwheat, northern Idaho biscuitroot, oblongleaf 

bluebells, Hood’s and many-flowered phlox, and woolly 

groundsel. Species proliferated by fire include pale madwort, white sagebrush, sanddune wallflower, and western 

gromwell. Table 105 provides a summary of species constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils
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Soils in the ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET were 

deep and calcareous with a low to moderate degree of 

soil development, moderate to high coarse fragments (39-

86%, avg. 55%), and variable clay (10–30%, avg. 17%). 

Accumulations of clay minerals were the result of in situ 

weathering rather than pedogenic transport to subsurface 

horizons. A typical soil featured an A/Bk horizonation. 

Mollisols featured a mollic epipedon (avg. 31 cm thick), 

while Inceptisols featured a thin ochric epipedon (avg. 

12 cm thick). Diagnostic subsurface horizons included a 

thick calcic horizon (avg. 60 cm thick). One soil in Sinks 

Canyon was formed from mixed limestone and dolomite 

colluvium over granitic glacial till, and featured a sandy 

(94%) C-horizon (26+ cm thick) below a calcic horizon. 

Another soil in Sinks Canyon was formed from mixed 

limestone and dolomite colluvium over Dry Creek Shale 

(Gallatin Form.) residuum. This soil featured a massive, 

very gravelly, clay-rich (30%) C-horizon (30+ cm thick) 

below a calcic horizon. Lastly, one soil was formed from 

mixed dolomite and limestone colluvium over Gros Ventre 

Shale residuum. This soil featured a distinct color difference between parent materials, ranging from dark grayish 

brown to very dark grayish brown to pale brown (10YR 

3/2-4/2-6/3; dry) in the mixed colluvium to greenish 

brown-yellowish (2.5Y 7/3-8/2; dry) in the shale residuum. 

Particle size class was loamy-skeletal. The soils were 

Typic Calciustolls [7], Pachic Calciustolls [1], and Typic 

Calciustepts [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Typic Calciustolls

A1—0 to 10 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) very gravelly loam, 

very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 47% sand; 

15% clay; weak very fine granular structure; very friable, 

soft, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and 

many very fine roots; common fine and common very fine 

pores; 41% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; very slight 

effervescence, by Hcl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 

7.9; clear wavy boundary.

A2—10 to 27 cm: brown (10YR 4/3) medium gravelly 

loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2), moist; 49% 

sand; 16% clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and common very fine roots;common 

fine and common very fine pores; 1% fine carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 22% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

slight effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; slightly alkaline, 

pH 7.6; clear wavy boundary.

Bk1—27 to 43 cm: pale brown (10YR 6/3) fine gravelly 

loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 45% sand; 18% 

clay; weak fine subangular blocky structure, and moderate 

fine granular structure; very friable, soft, slightly sticky, 

moderately plastic; common fine roots and common 

coarse roots and common very fine roots; common fine 

and common coarse and common very fine pores; patchy 

faint carbonate coats on rock fragments; 1% fine carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 29% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

strong effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; moderately 

alkaline, pH 8.2; clear smooth boundary.

Bk2—43 to 74 cm: very pale brown (10YR 7/3) very 

gravelly sandy loam, brown (10YR 5/3), moist; 57% sand; 

13% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate medium subangular blocky structure; 

very friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine roots and common coarse roots and common very 

fine roots; common fine and common coarse and common 

very fine pores; 10% fine distinct carbonate nodules in 

matrix and 1% fine threadlike carbonate masses in matrix; 

8% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 50% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; violent effervescence, by 

HCl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.2; clear smooth 

boundary.

Bk3—74 to 102 cm: very pale brown (10YR 7/3) extremely 

gravelly loam, pale yellow (2.5Y 7/3), moist; 51% sand; 

12% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate medium subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; 

common fine roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and common very fine pores; 25% patchy carbonate 

coats on rock fragments; 10% fine distinct carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 62% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

violent effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; moderately 

alkaline, pH 8.2; abrupt smooth boundary.

Bk4—102 to 107 cm: light gray (10YR 7/2) very gravelly 

loam, olive brown (2.5Y 4/4), moist; 45% sand; 22% 

clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure parting to 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common very fine pores; patchy distinct carbonate coats on 

rock fragments; 10% medium distinct carbonate nodules 

in matrix; 45% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; violent 

effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 

8.2.

Ecology

The mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Winspect Family ET occurs on Gros Ventre and Amsden 

backslopes in mixed limestone and dolomite colluvium 

over shale or siltstone residuum. This ET is located 

between the ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET on footslope positions and the ARTRR4/ELSP3, Winspect Family 

ET on upper backslopes and shoulders. The environment 

in the mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Winspect Family ET is intermediate between the two adjacent types, being more exposed and drier than the footslope 

positions and less exposed and more mesic than the upper 

backslope and shoulder positions. The soils, which are 

derived from coarser-grained more resistant limestone and 

dolomite, typically have less clay, higher rock fragments, 
276 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

and lower available water-holding capacity than those 

derived from shale and siltstone in the ARTRV2/FEID, 

Shawmut Family ET. The intermediate environment is 

suitable for bluebunch wheatgrass, which is more drought 

tolerant than Idaho fescue but is also more sheltered, allowing for mountain big sagebrush, a less drought tolerant 

species than Wyoming three-tip sagebrush.

Management considerations

The ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET provides 

excellent foraging opportunities for domestic and wild 

ungulates. Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover are close at hand due to the proximity of this 

ET to adjacent forested stands. Bluebunch wheatgrass is 

moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing decreaser since heavy grazing can result in lower root 

and stem carbohydrate reserves, a condition leading to 

decreased vigor or mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass is 

most sensitive to grazing during its active growth period 

in spring and early summer (Zlatnik 1999b). Antelope 

bitterbrush is a highly palatable, nutrient- and protein-rich 

browse species utilized by a variety of wild and domestic 

ungulates (Zlatnik 1999a). Antelope bitterbrush is moderately browse tolerant and is considered a decreaser under 

heavy browsing pressure.

The productive nature of these communities, combined 

with fire suppression, has resulted in an abundance of 

fuels in this Ecological Type. Invasive plants, including 

cheatgrass and musk thistle, tend to be associated with fire 

in this ET. Fires in the ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family 

ET are expected to be severe. Land managers should proceed with caution when considering a prescribed burn in 

the ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET. Invasive plant 

surveys should be conducted prior to any prescribed burn in 

order to reduce the risk of spreading invasive plants, which 

often thrive following fire. Also, thinning and physical 

removal (of thinned material) of mountain big sagebrush 

and Utah juniper prior to prescribed burns may help reduce 

fire severity, thus increasing the success of mountain big 

sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass, and antelope bitterbrush 

regeneration.

Mountain big sagebrush is killed by even light severity 

fires and will not resprout from the root crown if the above 

ground portion of the plant is completely killed (Welch 

2005). Antelope bitterbrush is highly susceptible to fire kill 

and is often killed by summer or fall fire (Zlatnik 1999a). 

Antelope bitterbrush in some regions may sprout after light 

severity spring fire; however, the resprouting ability of 

antelope bitterbrush is dependent on a number of factors, 

including fire severity, season, plant genetics, carbohydrate 

stores, and age. Fire generally favors bluebunch wheatgrass and stimulates flowering, seed, and tiller production 

(Zlatnik 1999b). Seasonality of fires strongly affects 

mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass receives the least damage 

when burned while dormant in fall, winter, or early spring 

and the most damage when burned while actively growing 

in the late spring and summer. Soil moisture status prior 

to and following fires also affects mortality and recovery 

time. Recovery following fires is generally rapid (one-five 

years); however, a lack of adequate soil moisture following 

a burn can slow recovery and increase mortality. Low soil 

moisture prior to burning increases fire severity.

Lastly, in map unit 15L, where this ET is underlain by 

Gros Ventre Shale or Amsden Siltstone bedrock, landslide 

potential is high, especially following a wetter than normal 

winter/spring on steep (approximately >35%), recently 

burned slopes.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Kiev Family 

ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the PNV of the Kiev Family ET is the mountain big 

sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type, while the PNV of 

the Winspect Family ET is the mountain big sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Kiev Family ET occurs 

on footslopes, while the Winspect Family occurs on 

backslopes.

Ecological Type 2

Type: Mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Shawmut 

Family ET

Floristic differences: The two types differ floristically in 

that the PNV of the Shawmut Family ET is the mountain 

big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type, while the PNV 

of the Winspect Family ET is the mountain big sagebrush/

bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Shawmut Family ET occurs 

on footslopes, while the Winspect Family occurs on 

backslopes.
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Table 104—Summary of environmental variables for the ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,350 2,113 2,629

Slope (%) 27 15 42

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 525 431 627

Degree days 19,440 16,310 22,520

Frost-free days 21.2 19.6 22.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -423 -546 -322

Average annual temperature (°C) 3.0 1.8 4.2

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 759 675 834

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,760 19,930 20,960

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 55 39 86

Clay (% in particle size control section) 17 10 30

pH (in particle size control section) 8.1 7.9 8.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 64 30 93

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 12 1 20

Exposed bedrock 1 0 5

Gravel 11 1 40

Cobble 4 0 10

Stones 4 1 10

Boulders 5 0 15

Litter 16 3 40

Wood 2 0 5

Moss and lichen 1 0 2

Basal vegetation 49 20 70

Water 0 0 0
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Table 105—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARTRR4 Artemisia tripartita Wyoming three-tip sagebrush 60 3 1 5

ARTRV2 Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 28 3 40

CHVI8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellow rabbitbrush 60 2 1 5

JUOS Juniperus osteospema Utah juniper 40 10 1 20

PUTR2 Purshia tridentata antelope bitter-brush 90 16 1 30

ROWO Rosa woodsii woods rose 50 2 1 3

SYORU Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Utah snowberry 50 4 1 10

Forbs:

AGGL Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 70 1 1 1

ALAL3 Alyssum alyssoides pale madwort 40 2 1 5

ARLU Artemisia ludoviciana white sagebrush 40 2 1 3

ASAUG Astragalus australis var. glabriusculus Indian milkvetch 40 2 1 3

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 40 2 1 5

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 50 4 1 10

COPA3 Collinsia parviflora small-flowered blue-eyed mary 60 1 1 1

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard 40 2 1 3

CYTEA Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus turpentine wavewing 40 6 3 15

ERAS2 Erysimum asperum sanddune wallflower 40 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 40 1 1 1

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 50 2 1 3

LILE3 Linum lewisii prairie flax 50 1 1 1

LIRU4 Lithospermum ruderale western gromwell 50 1 1 3

LOOR Lomatium orientale Northern Idaho biscuitroot 70 1 1 1

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 60 2 1 3

PACA15 Packera cana woolly groundsel 60 1 1 1

PEHU Penstemon humilis low beardtongue 40 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 90 2 1 5

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 40 2 1 3

TAOF Taraxacum officinale common dandelion 40 1 1 1

Grasses:

BRTE Bromus tectorum cheatgrass 50 14 1 40

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 10 3 20

KOMA Koeleria macrantha prairie junegrass 60 4 1 10

LEKI2 Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 70 3 1 10

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 90 16 1 40

Graminoids:

CARO5 Carex rossii Ross’ sedge 40 5 1 10

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, 

Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES MOUNTAIN BIG SAGEBRUSH SERIES

Miscellaneous Mountain Big 

Sagebrush Types

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Kiev Family Ecological Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/

Festuca idahoensis, Kiev Family ET

ARTRV2/FEID, Kiev Family ET

N = 2

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Kiev Family 

Ecological Type occurs along the eastern flank of the 

WRR within the dry mid-elevation sedimentary mountains 

ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs 

on moderate to low gradient (avg. 21%) footslopes on the 

Gros Ventre and Amsden Formations. It is a component 

of map unit 15L. Parent materials were mixed limestone 

and dolomite colluvium over shale residuum. Soils had 

low coarse fragments (avg. 24%), relatively moderate clay 

(avg. 18%), and high available water-holding capacity (avg. 

116 mm/m). Soils were deep, fine-loamy Typic Calciustolls.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the mountain 

big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type (Tweit and Houston 

1980). Mountain big sagebrush forms a thicket shrub cover 

and is sometimes joined by yellow rabbitbrush and antelope 

bitterbrush. Forbs are especially species rich. Common 

species include western yarrow, timber milkvetch, pale 

agoseris, sulphur-flower buckwheat, spotted fritillary, 

northern Idaho biscuitroot, white locoweed, Hood’s and 

many-flowered phlox, and lambstongue ragwort. Idaho 

fescue always occurs at moderately high abundance (avg. 

18%) and is commonly joined by bluebunch wheatgrass, 

spike fescue, and Sandberg bluegrass.

The ARTRV2/FEID, Kiev Family ET differs from the 

ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ET in that the former 

features fine-loamy particle size and little to no subsurface 

clay accumulations, while the latter features loamy-skeletal 

particle size and strong illuviation of clay into subsurface 

horizons.

Mountain Big Sagebrush/Idaho 

Fescue, Corbly 351L Family 

Ecological Type

Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana/Festuca 

idahoensis, Corbly 351L 

Family Ecological Type

ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L Family ET

N = 1

The mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Corbly 

351L Family Ecological Type occurs within the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs on south-facing, rolling granitic glacial 

till deposits of Pinedale age (Dahms 2004b) along the 

upper extent of the Sinks Canyon moraine in the Middle 

Fork Popo Agie River drainage. It is a component of map 

unit 351L. Soils were high in coarse fragments (79%) and 

low in clay (avg. 4%). Soils were sandy-skeletal, Entic 

Haplustolls.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the mountain 

big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type (Tweit and Houston 

1980). Mountain big sagebrush, often joined by antelope 

bitterbrush, is reduced in stature due to the extremely 

rocky soils. Common juniper and Utah snowberry occur 

at low abundance throughout the community. Idaho fescue 

and Sandberg bluegrass are the predominant herbaceous 

species. Common forbs and graminoids occurring at low 

abundance include hoary and arrowleaf balsamroot, 

sulphur-flower buckwheat, red avens, bluebunch wheatgrass, and Columbia needlegrass. Cushion plants and 

succulents, including lance-leaved stonecrop, ballhead 

sandwort, bitterroot, umber pussy-toes, and many-flowered 

phlox, commonly occur and are indicative of the droughty 

conditions experienced at these sites.

The ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L Family ET provides 

important foraging grounds for domestic and wild ungulates. Bedding opportunities and thermal and hiding cover 

are close at hand due to the proximity of this ET to adjacent 

forested stands. Although the forage production of the ET is 

lower than other sagebrush types along the eastern slope of 

the WRR, these sites melt off early and provide appreciable 

forage in the spring and early summer.

The ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L Family ET differ 

environmentally from the ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D 

Family ET in that the Corbly 166D Family ET occurs in 

the South Pass Granite-Greenstone belt and features soils 

formed from metasedimentary and metamorphic residuum, 

while the Corbly 351L Family ET occurs in upper section 

of Sinks Canyon and features soils formed from granitic 

glacial till.
280 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES
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LIMBER PINE SERIES SUBALPINE FIR SERIES

Upland Grassland Series
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IDAHO FESCUE SERIES

Idaho Fescue Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Idaho fescue

Festuca idahoensis Elmer

Idaho fescue occurs throughout the Rocky Mountain 

and Pacific States from eastern British Columbia and 

Alberta, south to Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas 

(USDA NRCS 2007b; Zouhar 2000). To the east of the 

Rocky Mountains, Idaho fescue is a minor component of 

plains grasslands and occurs in the high plains of eastern 

Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, western South Dakota, 

and Saskatchewan.

Idaho fescue is a common bunchgrass found in sagebrush, grassland, woodlands, and dry-forest communities, 

occurring across a broad altitudinal gradient from 300 m 

in Oregon to 4,000 m in Colorado (Zouhar 2000). Idaho 

fescue occurs at elevations between 300 and 2,460 m in 

Oregon and Washington, 400 and 2100 m in Idaho, and 

1,500 and 2,400 m in Montana. On the east slope of the 

WRR in Wyoming, Idaho fescue occurs between roughly 

1,700 and 3,600 m (Massatti 2007). Mean annual precipitation in Idaho fescue communities is typically greater than 

380 mm but may be as low as 186 mm. In the northern portion of its geographic range, Idaho fescue inhabits the drier 

end of the moisture spectrum, while further south it shifts 

to more mesic sites at higher elevations and on north-facing 

slopes. Similarly, at higher elevations, Idaho fescue generally inhabits more xeric sites, while at lower elevations, 

it is limited to more mesic sites, including north-facing 

slopes, moist microsites, or soils with higher water holding 

capacity.

Idaho fescue occurs on soil derived from all major rock 

types, including sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic 

(Svalberg and others 1997). Moisture availability tends to 

be more important than soil parent material in determining 

the distribution of Idaho fescue (Zouhar 2000). However, 

soil parent material influences soil texture, which is an 

important factor influencing AWC of soils. Hironaka and 

others (1983), working in sagebrush/Idaho fescue communities in Idaho, stated that soil texture interacts with 

soil moisture, slope exposure (i.e., solar radiation), and/

or nutrients to affect the distribution of Idaho fescue. For 

instance, in mountain big sagebrush communities in the 

300–350 mm precipitation zone located on fine- to medium-textured soils, Idaho fescue was present on all slope 

aspects. However, Idaho fescue was absent on south-facing 

slopes in mountain big sagebrush communities located 

within the same precipitation zone on coarse-textured soils. 

Idaho fescue is intolerant of permanent soil saturation 

but is found in riparian areas in soils that are temporarily 

saturated early in the growing season and well drained the 

remainder of the year. Deep snow accumulation may also 

negatively affect Idaho fescue abundance in subalpine and 

alpine meadows (Zouhar 2000).

Idaho fescue is a native, cool-season, perennial, strongly 

caespitose bunchgrass with culms standing 30 to 100 cm 

high (Zouhar 2000). Idaho fescue reproduces from tillers 

and seeds. Reproductive success by seed is highly variable and dependent on proper environmental conditions, 

including an after-ripening period of six months, followed 

by adequate soil moisture. Tillers arise from a small budding zone within the root crown area. Idaho fescue is most 

productive in full sunlight conditions but is also tolerant of 

partial shade.

Idaho fescue is tolerant of low severity, rapid fires while 

moderate to high severity and long-lasting fires can destroy 

the root crown (Zouhar 2000). Idaho fescue receives the 

least damage when burned while dormant in fall, winter, 

or early spring and the most damage when burned while 

actively growing in the late spring and summer. Season of 

burn, as it affects soil moisture status prior to and following 

fires, is an important factor affecting mortality and recovery 

time. Low severity burns during periods of adequate soil 

moisture stimulate rapid tillering and seedling establishment with the onset of fall moisture. However, moderate to 

high severity burns will destroy after-ripened seeds stored 

in the soil from the previous summer. A lack of adequate 

soil moisture before and after a fire can increase fire severity, slow recovery, and increase mortality. Fire suppression 

can lead to an accumulation of fine fuels surrounding the 

root crown, and an increase in fire severity.

The species associated with Idaho fescue can affect 

the fire return interval and severity of fires, which in turn 

influences the morality and recovery rates of Idaho fescue. 

Fire return intervals range from 3 to 40 years in bluebunch 

wheatgrass-Idaho fescue grasslands, 20 to 70 years in big 

sagebrush steppe, and 25 to 100 years in Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir communities. Plant communities with high 

amounts of shrub cover can result in increased burn duration and temperature. In contrast, nearly pure stands of 

Idaho fescue typically have lower fuel loads, which result 

in shorter duration of moderate to low severity burns. Idaho 

fescue communities are susceptible to invasion by annual 

grasses such as cheatgrass, which can shorten fire return intervals (<10 years), increase fire intensity, and permanently 

change the fire regime at the expense of Idaho fescue.

Prescribed burns may be used in the management of 

Idaho fescue communities. However, managers should 

proceed with caution as guidelines for controlled burns 

are highly dependent on the species associated with Idaho 

fescue, time since last burn, site conditions (elevation, aspect, slope), soil moisture status, seasonality, and pre- and 

post-fire management activities. For more detailed guidelines, see the “Management Considerations” section of the 

Ecological Types that feature Idaho fescue as an important 

component of the plant community.

Idaho fescue is a highly preferred forage species of wild 

and domestic ungulates (Zouhar 2000). Protein content is 

typically highest in the spring and decreases throughout the 
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IDAHO FESCUE SERIES

growing season. Light to moderate grazing can enhance 

Idaho fescue grasslands. However, Idaho fescue is only 

moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing decreaser under heavy grazing. The degree of grazing 

pressure that Idaho fescue can sustain depends on the 

interactions among wildlife and livestock using the range, 

plant phenology, type of grazing system used, competition 

from associated vegetation, plant vigor, and site conditions. 

Heavy grazing reduces the ability of Idaho fescue to compete with non-native species, including spotted knapweed. 

Idaho fescue may be a good choice for rehabilitation of 

disturbed sites, although establishment can be slow. Zouhar 

(2000) provided an in-depth review of Idaho fescue in rehabilitating disturbed sites.
284 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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Idaho Fescue-Bluebunch WheatgrassColumbia Needlegrass, Elwood Family 

Ecological Type

Festuca idahoensis-Elymus spicatusAchnatherum nelsonii, Elwood 

Family Ecological Type

FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, Elwood Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass-Columbia 

needlegrass, Elwood Family Ecological Type occurs in 

the southern study area within the granitic subalpine zone 

of Chapman and others (2004). This ET occurs in an area 

of park-forest vegetation (Lynch 1998) north and east 

of Fiddlers Lake around Blue Ridge, the headwaters of 

Sawmill and Hidden Creek, and near Dickinson Park. It is a 

component of map unit 309A and 306L.

Environment

Aspect: South [1], south-southwest [1], southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Mountain slopes. 

Summits, shoulders, backslopes, footslopes, toeslopes.

Parent Materials: Colluvium, alluvium, residuum.

On shoulders and summits, parent materials are residuum.

On footslopes and toeslopes, parent materials are colluvium 

or alluvium, respectively.

Bedrock: Granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton, 

porphyritic quartz monzonite. In the area north and east of 

Fiddlers Lake, bedrock is granodiorite. In the area around 

Dickinson Park, bedrock is porphyritic quartz monzonite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Udic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 70 to 

72 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 106.

Potential natural vegetation

On summits, shoulders, and upper backslopes, the 

potential natural vegetation of this ET is the Idaho fescuebluebunch wheatgrass-Columbia needlegrass habitat type. 

This habitat is similar to the Festuca idahoensis-Agropyron 

spicatum-Stipa occidentalis habitat type of Tweit and 

Houston (1980). On lower backslopes, footslopes, and 

toeslopes, the potential natural vegetation of this ET is the 

Idaho fescue-red avens plant community type (Johnson 

2004). In each of the above vegetation types, Idaho fescue 

is the dominant grass species.

The Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass-Columbia 

needlegrass habitat type represents the drier end of the 

Idaho fescue series. Mountain big sagebrush and common 

juniper regularly occur as scattered, stunted individuals. 

Bluebunch wheatgrass and spike fescue co-dominate with 

Idaho fescue. Columbia needlegrass and Sandberg and 

Wheeler’s bluegrass are always present at low amounts. 

The soil surface is generally bouldery with large patches 

of exposed sands and gravels. Forbs are sparse and generally occur in small clusters dispersed across the landscape. 

The cushion plants many-flowered phlox, sulphur-flower 

buckwheat, ballhead sandwort, and umber pussy-toes are 

the most common and abundant forbs. Bitterroot, with its 

thick, fleshy taproot, is especially adapted to survive at 

these drought-stricken sites. Other common forbs include 

western yarrow, pale agoseris, timber milkvetch, cutleaf 

daisy, and oblongleaf bluebells.

The Idaho fescue-red avens plant community type represents the moist end of the Idaho fescue series. Sandberg 

bluegrass shares dominance with Idaho fescue, and 

Columbia needlegrass is never present. Similar to the Idaho 

fescue-red avens plant community type first described 

by Johnson (2004) for northeastern Oregon, buckwheat 

and goldenweed co-occur with red avens. In the WRR, 

sulphur-flower and cushion buckwheat and many-stemmed 

goldenweed replace the golden and creamy buckwheat 

and woolly goldenweed reported by Johnson (2004) for 

the northeastern Oregon type, respectively. Other common 

forbs include timber milkvetch, ballhead sandwort, umber 

pussy-toes, and Wyoming kittentail. Poverty oatgrass may 

also occur in low abundance. Table 107 provides a summary of species constancy and cover for this ecological 

type.

Soils

On backslopes, footslopes, and toeslopes, soils in the 

FEID, Elwood Family ET were moderately deep with a 

high degree of soil development, high rock fragments (avg. 

72%), moderate clay (avg. 19%), and dark brown in upper 

soil horizons. Soils typically feature an A/Bt/R horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a mollic epipedon 

(avg. 31 cm thick), a thick argillic horizon (avg. 47 cm 
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thick), and lithic contact (avg. 89 cm depth). Soils were 

loamy-skeletal, Typic Argicryolls.

On shoulders and summits, soils were shallow with a 

low degree of development, high rock fragments (>70%), 

and low clay (<12%). Particle size class was sandy-skeletal. 

Soils typically feature an A/Bw/Cr-R horizonation. 

Diagnostic soil horizons include an ochric epipedon (22 cm 

thick), and shallow to moderately deep paralithic or lithic 

contact (<100 cm depth). Soils were sandy-skeletal Typic 

Cryorthents.

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

Typic Argicryolls

A—0 to 34 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) very gravelly 

coarse sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3), dry; 62% sand; 

16% clay; moderate coarse subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very fine 

roots; common medium and many very fine pores; 3% 76- 

to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 33% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

strongly acid, pH 5.3; abrupt smooth boundary.

Bt1—34 to 62 cm: strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) very gravelly 

sandy clay loam, strong brown (7.5YR 5/6), dry; 65% sand; 

20% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common very fine pores; 3% faint clay films on surfaces 

along pores; 4% 76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 

38% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, 

by HCl, 1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.4; gradual wavy 

boundary.

Bt2—62 to 76 cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) extremely 

bouldery sandy clay loam, very pale brown (10YR 7/4), 

dry; 43% sand; 22% clay; weak fine subangular blocky 

structure, and moderate fine granular structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots 

and common very fine roots; common fine and common 

very fine pores; distinct clay films on surfaces along pores 

and 28% distinct clay films on all faces of peds; 39% 601- 

to 3000-mm unspecified fragments and 44% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

strongly acid, pH 5.3; clear wavy boundary 2Bt3—76 to 93 

cm: yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) extremely bouldery sandy 

clay loam, light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), dry; 68% 

sand; 23% clay; moderate fine subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common very fine pores; prominent clay films on all faces 

of peds and 60% prominent clay films on all faces of peds; 

40% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments and 43% 601- to 

3000-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 

1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.1; abrupt wavy boundary.

2R—93 to 118 cm: granodiorite bedrock.

Management considerations

The FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, Elwood Family ET provides 

important foraging grounds for wild and domestic ungulates, while adjacent forest patches (PIAL/CARO5, Como 

Family ET) provide close proximity to hiding and thermal 

cover. Grizzly bears may also forage on bulbs and tubers 

in these forest openings in the spring and early summer. 

Forage production is highest in the Idaho fescue-red avens 

plant community type. This ET also has high aesthetic 

value. Hikers, hunters, mountain bikers, and wranglers 

traveling through these forest openings will appreciate the 

open views of the surrounding high country, while adjacent 

forest patches provide an opportunity for shade and shelter 

from wind among the ancient whitebark pine. Historically, 

light ground fires sparked by lighting strikes were probably 

quite common in this ET. Low severity prescribed fire can 

be used to reduce fuel loadings and maintain the park-forest 

mosaic.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: None
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Table 107—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, Elwood 

Family ET.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Shrubs:

ARTRV2 S Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana mountain big sagebrush 100 5 5 5

JUCOD S Juniperus communis var. depressa common juniper 100 2 1 3

Forbs:

ACMIL3 F Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa western yarrow 100 1 1 1

AGGL F Agoseris glauca pale agoseris 100 2 1 3

ANUM F Antennaria umbrinella umber pussy-toes 100 4 3 5

ASMI9 F Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 100 1 1 1

ERCO24 F Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 100 2 1 3

ERCOD F Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 100 1 1 1

ERUM F Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat 100 4 3 5

GETR F Geum triflorum red avens 100 1 1 1

LERE7 F Lewisia rediviva bitterroot 100 1 1 1

MEVI4 F Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 100 1 1 1

PHMU3 F Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 100 3 3 3

Grasses:

ACNE9 G Achnatherum nelsonii Columbia needlegrass 100 1 1 1

FEID G Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue 100 12 5 20

LEKI2 G Leucopoa kingii spike-fescue 100 3 1 5

POSE G Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 3 3 3

POWH2 G Poa wheeleri Wheeler’s bluegrass 100 2 1 3

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species 

occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred.

Table 106—Summary of environmental variables for the FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, 

Elwood Family ET.

General Environment Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,909 2,898 2,918

Slope (%) 20 9 38

Climate Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 711 702 716

Degree days 13,520 13,350 13,780

Frost-free days 18.3 18.2 18.4

Site water balance (mm/year) -264 -282 -237

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.6 0.5 0.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 543 540 546

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,540 20,050 2,0800

Soils Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 77 59 88

Clay (% in particle size control section) 16 10 21

pH (in particle size control section) 5.1 4.9 5.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 27 9 56

Ground Surface Components; Cover Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 13 10 20

Exposed bedrock 8 0 15

Gravel 25 10 40

Cobble 7 0 10

Stones 7 0 10

Boulders 6 3 10

Litter 8 5 15

Wood 1 0 3

Moss and lichen 4 1 10

Basal vegetation 20 15 30

Water 0 0 0
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Miscellaneous Idaho Fescue Types

Idaho Fescue-Bluebunch Wheatgrass, 

Ledgefork Family Ecological Type

Festuca idahoensis-Elymus spicatus, 

Ledgefork Family Ecological Type

FEID-ELSP3, Ledgefork Family ET

N = 1

The Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass, Ledgefork 

Family Ecological Type occurs within the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs on a low to moderately sloping section of 

lateral moraine near Dickinson Park in compacted, granitic 

glacial till of Bull Lake age (Pearson and others 1973). It 

is a component of map unit 306L. Soils were moderately 

deep, high in coarse fragments (71%), sandy, and low 

in clay (avg. 10%). Soils were sandy-skeletal, Typic 

Haplocryolls.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the Idaho 

fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type (Tweit and 

Houston 1980). Fringed sagewort appears as scattered 

individuals. Due to the moderately deep, dense, and rocky 

nature of the soils, Idaho fescue and Sandberg bluegrass 

are not as robust as in Idaho fescue types on deeper soils. 

Wind deflation is at a maximum at these sites, as evidenced 

by the extensive erosion pavement of gravel-sized rock 

fragments (20%), high cover of moss and lichen (35%), 

and conspicuous number of succulents and cushion plants, 

including Hood’s and cushion phlox, twinflower sandwort, 

dwarf clover, plantain goldenweed, cushion buckwheat, 

lance-leaved stonecrop, ballhead sandwort, alpine bitter-

root, and umber pussy-toes.

The FEID-ELSP3, Ledgefork ET provides important 

winter range for wild ungulates. Although the forage 

production of the ET is lower than other grassland types 

along the eastern slope of the WRR, these sites are typi-

cally blown free of snow in the winter and melt off early, 

providing moderate levels of forage in the spring and early 

summer. This ET is intolerant of moderate to high levels of 

trampling and is best grazed lightly early in the season.
288 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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Bluebunch Wheatgrass Series

Principal Species Descriptions

Bluebunch Wheatgrass

Elymus spicatus (Pursh) Gould

Bluebunch wheatgrass occurs throughout western 

North America from southern Alaska and Yukon Territory, 

eastern British Columbia, and Alberta, south through all 

Rocky Mountain and Pacific states, and into Arizona and 

New Mexico (USDA NRCS 2007b; Zlatnik 1999b). To 

the east, bluebunch wheatgrass occurs in Saskatchewan, 

North and South Dakota, and northern Michigan.

Bluebunch wheatgrass is a common bunchgrass found 

in sagebrush and grassland communities with annual 

precipitation between 150 and 890 mm (Zlatnik 1999b). 

In the intermountain basins of the western United States, 

bluebunch wheatgrass occurs at sites typically receiving 

less than 432 mm of precipitation at elevations between 

91 and 1,524 m. In northeastern Oregon, bluebunch 

wheatgrass occurs at elevations between 365 m in the 

depths of Hell’s Canyon to 2,470 m in the Wallowa 

Mountains (Johnson 2004; Johnson and Simon 1987). 

In Wyoming, bluebunch wheatgrass occurs between 

1,000 and 2,835 m (Svalberg and others 1997; Tweit 

and Houston 1980). On the east slope of the WRR in 

Wyoming, bluebunch wheatgrass occurs between roughly 

1,700 and 2,900 m (Massatti 2007). In Utah, Arizona, and 

California, bluebunch wheatgrass occurs between 1,370 

and 2,900 m, 1,373 and 2,286 m, and 800 and 1,650 m, respectively (Zlatnik 1999b). Bluebunch wheatgrass occurs 

on a variety of substrates, including limestone, dolomite, 

sandstone, siltstone, granodiorite, quartz monzonite, 

gneiss, andesite, basalt, gabbro, serpentinite, and peridotite (Hironaka and others 1983; Johnson 2004; Svalberg 

and others 1997). Soils are typically well drained, moderately deep (50–100 cm) to deep (>100 cm), and gravelly 

to very gravelly and medium- to coarse-textured in upper 

horizons, including silt loams, loams, sandy loams, and 

loamy sands. Bluebunch wheatgrass is intolerant of prolonged soil saturation and saline soils.

Bluebunch wheatgrass is a native, cool-season, perennial, deep-rooting (1.4–2.0 m) bunchgrass with densely 

tufted culms standing 30–100 cm tall (Zlatnik 1999b). 

Bluebunch wheatgrass is one of the most drought-resistant 

native bunchgrasses due to its unusually broad range 

of osmoregulation and its ability to go dormant during 

droughty periods in late summer. Reproduction is generally accomplished vegetatively via tillers. Reproduction 

by seed does occur; however, bluebunch wheatgrass is 

highly self-sterile, does not flower and produce seed every 

year, and has a low success rate of seedling establishment.

Bluebunch wheatgrass is most productive in full sunlight 

conditions but is also tolerant of partial shade.

Mean fire return intervals in bluebunch wheatgrass 

communities are highly dependent on the associated 

species mix but are mostly less than 30 years (Zlatnik 

1999b). Bluebunch wheatgrass buds are protected below 

ground or by thick organic matter at the base of the plant, 

making it a fire hardy species. Fire generally favors 

bluebunch wheatgrass and stimulates flowering, seed, and 

tiller production. Seasonality of fires strongly affects mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass receives the least damage 

when burned while dormant in fall, winter, or early spring 

and the most damage when burned while actively growing 

in the late spring and summer. Soil moisture status prior 

to and following fires also affects mortality and recovery 

time. Recovery following fires is generally rapid (one–five 

years); however, a lack of adequate soil moisture following a burn can slow recovery and increase mortality. 

Low soil moisture prior to burning increases fire severity. 

Fire suppression can lead to an accumulation of fine fuels 

and an increase in fire severity in bluebunch wheatgrass 

communities. The species associated with bluebunch 

wheatgrass can affect the fire return interval and severity 

of fires, which in turn influences the mortality and recovery rates of bluebunch wheatgrass. Plant communities 

with high amounts of shrub cover can result in increased 

burn duration and temperature. In contrast, nearly pure 

stands of bluebunch wheatgrass typically have lower fuel 

loads, which result in shorter duration of moderate to low 

severity burns. Bluebunch wheatgrass communities are 

susceptible to invasion by annual grasses such as cheatgrass, which can shorten fire return intervals, increase fire 

intensity, and permanently change the fire regime at the 

expense of bluebunch wheatgrass.

Prescribed burns may be used in the management of 

bluebunch wheatgrass communities. However, managers 

should proceed with caution as guidelines for controlled 

burns are highly dependent on the species associated 

with bluebunch wheatgrass, time since last burn, site 

conditions (elevation, aspect, slope), soil moisture status, 

and seasonality. For more detailed guidelines, see the 

“Management Considerations” section of the Ecological 

Types that feature bluebunch wheatgrass as an important 

component of the plant community.

Bluebunch wheatgrass is incredibly important as a 

forage species for wild and domestic ungulates (Zlatnik 

1999b). Bluebunch wheatgrass communities provide 

important winter range for elk, deer, and pronghorn. 

Bluebunch wheatgrass is moderately tolerant of grazing and is considered a grazing “decreaser” since heavy 

grazing can result in lower root and stem carbohydrate 

reserves, a condition leading to decreased vigor or mortality. Bluebunch wheatgrass is most sensitive to grazing 

during its active growth period in spring and early summer. Bluebunch wheatgrass is highly effective at reducing 

soil erosion on the steep slopes often associated with 

this species. However, due to the difficulty in collecting 

seeds, inconsistency in seed set, and low success rate 

of seedling establishment, it is not recommended for 
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use in rehabilitating disturbed sites. Lastly, at disturbed 

sites, bluebunch wheatgrass communities are especially 

susceptible to invasion by introduced and invasive species, including diffuse (Centaurea diffusa) and spotted 

knapweed (C. maculosa), crested (Agropyron cristatum) 

and desert wheatgrass (A. desertorum), leafy spurge 

(Euphorbia esula), and medusahead (Taeniatherum 

caput-medusae).
290 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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Bluebunch Wheatgrass-Sandberg 

Bluegrass-Mock Goldenweed—

Scabland, Paunsaugunt Family 

Ecological Type

Elymus spicatus-Poa secunda-Stenotus—

Scabland, Paunsaugunt 

Family Ecological Type

ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, 

Paunsaugunt Family ET

N = 3

Distribution

The bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass-mock 

goldenweed scabland, Paunsaugunt Family Ecological 

Type occurs in the study area within the dry mid-elevation 

sedimentary mountains ecoregion of Chapman and others 

(2004). In the northern study area, this ecological type 

occurs from Little Warm Spring Creek in the northwest 

to Red Creek in the southeast. In the southern study 

area, this ecological type occurs from just northeast of 

Dickinson Park southeast to Limestone Mountain. It is a 

component of map unit 12L.

Environment

Aspect: East-northeast [1], northeast [1], south-southwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Summits and 

shoulders.

Parent Materials: Residuum.

Bedrock: Cambrian Gallatin Limestone, Mississippian 

Madison Limestone.

Climate: Frigid temperature regime and Ustic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation was 56 and 67 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 108.

Potential natural vegetation

The potential natural vegetation of this ecological 

type is bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass-mock 

goldenweed scabland habitat type. This habitat type is 

similar in concept to the bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg’s 

bluegrass scabland plant community type classified for 

northeastern Oregon by Johnson and Simon (1987). 

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, and prairie 

Junegrass form a disjunct grass cover growing in patches 

of deeper soil between bands of limestone flagstones and 

exposed bedrock. Cushion plants dominate the forb layer of 

this habitat type. Clusters of stemless or narrowleaf mock 

goldenweeds, Hood’s and many-flowered phlox, and lanceleaved stonecrop occur growing in the interstices between 

flagstones. Other common herbaceous species include 

timber milkvetch, oblongleaf bluebells, Cous biscuit-root, 

Wyoming kittentails, and diamondleaf saxifrage. Spike 

sedge is a low growing, densely tufted sedge that often occurs in this type. Table 109 provides a summary of species 

constancy and cover for this ecological type.

Soils

Soils in the ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, 

Paunsaugunt Family ET were shallow and moderately deep 

and carbonate rich with a low to moderate degree of soil 
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development, high coarse fragments (avg. 72%), low to 

moderate clay (5–21%, avg. 14%), and a relatively thick 

mollic epipedon (avg. 25 cm thick). A typical soil features 

an A/R horizonation. Diagnostic soil horizons include a 

mollic epipedon, and shallow to moderately deep lithic 

contact (avg. 34 cm depth). One soil was moderately deep 

(58 cm), and featured a 44-cm thick calcic horizon, and an 

extremely stony (60-90% flagstones) 28-cm thick argillic 

horizon directly above bedrock. Particle size class was 

loamy-skeletal. Soils were Typic Calciustolls [1] and Lithic 

Haplustolls [2].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, 

frigid Lithic Haplustolls

A1—0 to 12 cm: dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) extremely 

gravelly fine sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 

3/2), moist; 64% sand; 15% clay; weak very fine granular 

structure, and weak fine subangular blocky structure; very 

friable, soft, slightly sticky, slightly plastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and many very fine roots; 

common fine and common medium and many very fine 

pores; 1% fine faint carbonate nodules in matrix; 5% flat 2- 

to 150-mm unspecified fragments and 15% 76- to 250-mm 

unspecified fragments and 40% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; strong effervescence, by HCl, 1 normal; 

moderately alkaline, pH 7.9; abrupt smooth boundary.

A2—12 to 29 cm: brown (10YR 5/3) extremely bouldery 

sandy loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3), moist; 63% sand; 

17% clay; weak very fine granular structure, and weak 

fine subangular blocky structure; very friable, soft, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and many very fine roots; common fine and common 

medium and many very fine pores; 10% fine faint carbonate 

nodules in matrix; 9% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments 

and 9% flat 2- to 150-mm unspecified fragments and 11% 

76- to 250-mm unspecified fragments and 19% 251- to 

600-mm unspecified fragments and 35% 601- to 3000-mm 

unspecified fragments; violent effervescence, by HCl, 

1 normal; moderately alkaline, pH 8.0; gradual smooth 

boundary.

R—29 cm: limestone bedrock.

Ecology

Johnson and Simon (1987) defined scablands as sites 

located on gentle ridgetops and characterized by thin, 

rocky soils populated by drought tolerant plants. The 

ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, Paunsaugunt Family 

ET is similar to the scablands described by Johnson and 

Simon (1987) as they are located on low gradient (<20%), 

windswept, limestone shoulders and summits in shallow to 

moderately deep, rocky soils. However, Johnson and Simon 

(1987) consider their bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg’s 

bluegrass scabland plant community type to an ecotonal 

community, whereas the ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, 

Paunsaugunt Family ET is considered to be a topoedaphic 

climax. The distribution of this ET is strongly controlled 

by bedrock and topography, occurring where Gallatin and 

Madison Limestone form extensively weathered ridges. 

Gallatin and Madison Limestone tend to weather into large 

flagstones that overlap one another and form a banded 

pattern when viewed from above. Strong winds intensively 

erode these sites, leading to expansive wind deflation and 

an erosion pavement of flagstones that armor the soil surface from further wind erosion. The plant species occurring 

at these sites are adapted to extensive periods of summer 

drought and desiccation by wind. Adaptations include a 

cushion growth-form, enlarged taproots, succulent stems 

and leaves, and caespitose growth habit. Cushion plants 

resemble a pincushion in growth-form and avoid wind desiccation and cold temperatures due to a reduced stature and 

compact stems and leaves. Cushion plants are also capable 

of strongly adhering to soils in erosive environments, making them extremely effective pioneer species at harsh sites. 

The enlarged taproots of species such as Cous biscuit-root 

provide a generous reservoir for water storage. Spearleaf 

stonecrop features succulent stems and leaves that store 

water for use during droughty periods. Lastly, some sedges, 

including spike sedge, feature a caespitose growth habit 

where individuals form dense, low-growing, clonal tufts 

that are wind and cold hardy.

Management considerations

The ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, Paunsaugunt 

Family ET is not especially productive as forage grounds 

for domestic and wild ungulates. Bluebunch wheatgrass 

growing in patches of deeper soil between flagstones occasionally produces moderate amounts of forage. However, 

elk, deer, antelope, and domestic cattle and sheep do occasionally utilize this ET as foraging grounds. These sites 

are tolerant of low levels of trampling. Moderate to heavy 

trampling can damage the cushion plants and result in the 

initiation of wind erosion. Risk of trampling damage can 

be reduced by grazing these sites later in the summer when 

soils have dried following the flowering of bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Johnson and Simon 1987).

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: NONE
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Table 108—Summary of environmental variables for the ELSP3-POSA12-STENO7 

Scabland, Paunsangunt Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,614 2,454 2,697

Slope (%) 12 1 19

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 628 561 672

Degree days 16,450 15,410 18,540

Frost-free days 19.7 19.0 20.7

Site water balance (mm/year) -330 -411 -277

Average annual temperature (°C) 1.8 1.2 2.7

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 603 552 687

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,140 19,900 20,400

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 72 62 80

Clay (% in particle size control section) 14 5 21

pH (in particle size control section) 8.0 — —

Available water capacity (mm/m) 19 3 47

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 3 0 5

Exposed bedrock 3 0 5

Gravel 13 10 20

Cobble 12 10 15

Stones 10 5 15

Boulders 9 2 15

Litter 4 0 10

Wood 0 0 0

Moss and lichen 10 0 22

Basal vegetation 32 25 40

Water 0 0 0

Table 109—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the ELSP3-POSA12-STENO7 

Scabland, Paunsangunt Family ET.

Characteristics Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Forbs:

ASMI9 Astragalus miser timber milkvetch 100 2 1 3

BAIN Balsamorhiza incana hoary balsamroot 67 2 1 3

BEWY Besseya wyomingensis wyoming kittentail 67 1 1 1

CAPA25 Castilleja pallescens palish Indian-paintbrush 67 1 1 1

DOCO Dodecatheon conjugens slimpod shooting star 67 1 1 1

ERCA2 Erigeron caespitosus tufted fleabane 67 1 1 1

ERCO24 Eremogone congesta ballhead sandwort 67 1 1 1

ERCOD Erigeron compositus var. discoideus cutleaf daisy 67 1 1 1

LOCO4 Lomatium cous cous biscuit-root 67 6 1 10

MEVI4 Mertensia viridis oblongleaf bluebells 100 2 1 3

OXSE Oxytropis sericea white locoweed 67 1 1 1

PHHO Phlox hoodii Hood’s phlox 67 2 1 3

PHMU3 Phlox multiflora many-flowered phlox 100 2 1 3

SARH2 Saxifraga rhomboidea diamondleaf saxifrage 67 2 1 3

SELA Sedum lanceolatum lance-leaved stonecrop 100 2 1 3

STAC Stenotus acaulis stemless mock goldenweed 67 18 15 20

Grasses:

ELSP3 Elymus spicatus bluebunch wheatgrass 100 11 3 15

KOMA Koeleria macrantha prairie junegrass 100 9 3 20

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 100 17 10 25

Graminoids:

CANA2 Carex nardina spike sedge 67 6 1 10

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in which a species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred.
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Miscellaneous Bluebunch 

Wheatgrass Types

Bluebunch Wheatgrass-Sandberg 

Bluegrass, Wabek Family Ecological 

Type

Elymus spicatus-Poa secunda, Wabek 

Family Ecological Type

ELSP3-POSE, Wabek Family ET

N = 1

The bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass, Wabek 

Family Ecological Type occurs within the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion of Chapman and others (2004). 

This ET occurs on steep (53%), south-facing, granitic 

glacial till deposits of Pinedale age (Dahms 2004b) along 

Sinks Canyon in the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage. It is 

a component of map unit 351L. Soils were low in coarse 

fragments (40%), sandy, and low in clay (avg. 10%). Soils 

were deep, sandy-skeletal Entic Haplustolls.

Potential natural vegetation of this ET is the bluebunch 

wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass habitat type (Tweit and 

Houston 1980). Antelope bitterbrush and skunkbush sumac 

sometimes occur as scattered individuals. Bluebunch 

wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, and arrowleaf balsam-

root create a robust herbaceous layer. Prairie junegrass, 

needle and thread, and gray hawksbeard may also occur. 

Cheatgrass, western gromwell, and white sagebrush are 

indicative of recent fire.

The ELSP3-POSE, Wabek Family ET provides impor-

tant winter range for wild ungulates. Although the forage 

production of the ET is lower than other non-forested types 

along the eastern slope of the WRR, these sites melt off 

early and provide appreciable forage in the spring and early 

summer. Fires in the ELSP3-POSE, Wabek Family ET 

are expected to be severe. Land managers should proceed 

with caution when considering a prescribed burn in this 

ET. Invasive plant surveys should be conducted prior to 

any prescribed burn in order to reduce the risk of spreading 

invasive plants.
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Miscellaneous Graminoid Series

Parry’s Rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents 

Ecological Type

Juncus parryi, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET

JUPA, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET

N = 1

The Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents Ecological Type 

was located within the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregions 

of Chapman and others (2004). It is a component of map 

unit 310L. This ET occurred on ground moraines on glacial 

cirque floors in granitic glacial till at or near tree line. 

Soils were extremely bouldery (99%), sandy, and saturated 

within a meter of the soil surface for 20 or more consecutive days or 30 or more cumulative days throughout the 

growing season, yet lacked redoximorphic features typical 

of other semi- to permanently saturated soils. Soils were 

shallow, fragmental, Oxyaquic Cryorthents.

Potential natural vegetation was the Parry’s rush community type. Parry’s rush dominates a rich herbaceous 

community. Trace amounts of grayleaf willow or grouse 

whortleberry often occur on drier hummocks. Common 

forbs include alpine sagebrush, ballhead sandwort, subalpine fleabane, alpine daisy, tundra aster, American bistort, 

slender cinquefoil, and creeping sibbaldia. White marsh 

marigold may occur in wet microsites. Alpine timothy, 

Letterman’s bluegrass, spike trisetum, Falkland island 

sedge, Raynold’s sedge, and northern singlespike sedge are 

the most common graminoids.

This ET typically occurs in areas of snow accumulation 

and may be considered a type of late snowbank vegetation. 

Soil moisture remains high throughout the growing season 

due to the slow melting of deep snowdrifts. The Parry’s 

rush community type is highly productive for grazing 

animals, especially elk. Thermal and hiding cover are close 

at hand due to adjacent whitebark pine stands. This ET is 

tolerant of moderate levels of trampling and grazing, especially later in the season when the soils have dried out. The 

Parry’s rush, Oxyaquic Cryorthents ET differs from the late 

snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family ET in that the former 

occurs at or below timberline, while the latter occurs above 

timberline.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GRAMINOID SERIES
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Riparian and Wetland Series
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SUBALPINE FIR SERIES
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LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

Principal Species Descriptions

Willow

Salix L.

Introduction

Willows are a diverse group of trees and shrubs that occur in every state and territory of the United States, except 

Hawaii, and every Canadian Province (USDA NRCS 

2007b). The genus Salix includes roughly 150 accepted 

species, 18 accepted subspecies, and 17 accepted varieties 

(ITIS 2007). Despite the taxonomic diversity of this genus, 

its members share one important characteristic: a general 

affinity for abundant soil moisture, lending this genus to 

occur most often in riparian zones and wetlands. Eight species of willow were common along the eastern slope of the 

WRR: arctic (S. arctica var. petraea), snow (S. reticulata

var. nana), grayleaf (S. glauca var. villosa), planeleaf (S. 

planifolia), Wolf’s (S. wolfii), Missouri River (S. eriocephala), Drummond’s (S. drummondiana), and Scouler’s (S. 

scouleriana) willow. Following is a description of the ecology and management considerations of five of the willow 

species. Arctic, snow, and grayleaf willows were associated 

with sites at or above timberline, and as such are treated in 

the “Alpine Series” section.

General Characteristics

For the following willow species described, regeneration 

is primarily sexual via small, cottony seeds that germinate 

rapidly if a moist mineral soil seedbed is attained. All of the 

following willows reproduce asexually by sprouting from 

the rootcrown or a damaged stembase. Also, broken stems 

that become buried in moist substrates will sprout adventitious roots.

Fire is uncommon at the sites inhabited by the species 

below (with the exception of Scouler’s willow). In the rare 

event of a fire, willows typically resprout quickly from the 

rootcrown following a low to moderate intensity blaze. 

Flooding and ungulate browsing are more common forms 

of disturbance experienced by these species. Periodic flooding is critical for the success of willows by creating fresh 

mineral soil seedbeds, opening up gaps in the canopy and 

moistening the soil for successful seed germination. Also, 

the crowded stems and thick, tangled roots are extremely 

important in mitigating soil erosion in riparian areas.

Willows constitute a large portion of the diet of wild ungulates, especially moose, but also elk and deer. Domestic 

livestock readily consume willows. Willows resprout 

rapidly from the rootcrown or stem base following low to 

moderate browsing but can become stunted when browsed 

heavily. Willow is a preferred food and building material of 

beavers and muskrats. A number of bird species and small 

mammals take up residence in the dense thickets formed by 

willow stems.

Principal Species

Planeleaf willow

(Salix planifolia Pursh)

Planeleaf willow occurs across the boreal regions of 

North America, from New England and eastern Canada, 

west to the southern Yukon Territory and Alaska, and south 

to California and New Mexico (Uchytil 1991d). On the 

Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming, planeleaf willow 

occurs most often in riparian zones and wetlands in the 

mid- to upper-forested zone between 2,500 and 3,000 m 

elevation but may occur as low as 1,600 m and as high 

as 3,800 m (Fertig and Markow 2001). Some authorities 

recognize two varieties of planeleaf willow, including var. 

planifolia, and var. monica (Hitchcock and others 1964). 

The two varieties have unique growth-forms and have been 

shown in eastern and central Idaho to inhabit distinctly 

different ranges along the elevation gradient, the former is a 

moderately tall shrub (2–4 m) that is found at lower elevation, while the latter is a low shrub (<1 m) that is found 

at higher elevations (Brunsfeld and Johnson 1985). When 

this species occurs above timberline, it features a highly 

reduced growth-form.

Planeleaf willow is a thicket-forming shrub with 

shiny, reddish to purple twigs and leaves 3 to 5 cm long, 

lance-elliptic to ovate, shiny green above and glaucous 

below (Fertig and Markow 2001). The pistillate catkins 

are typically 1.5 to 5 cm long with hairy capsules, while 

staminate catkins are 1 to 3 cm long with dark brown to 

black, long, hairy, flowering bracts. Similar to most other 

willow species, planeleaf willow is intolerant of shade 

and prefers soils with a high water table that remain wet 

within the rooting zone throughout the growing season 

(Uchytil 1991d). This species often forms dense thickets 

along streams and lake margins and in wet meadows and 

seep areas. Soils are typically low in coarse fragments, finetextured, and often feature a thick (>30 cm) organic horizon 

over mineral soil.

Wolf’s willow

Salix wolfii Bebb

Wolf’s willow occurs throughout the central and 

southern Rocky Mountains from northeastern Oregon and 

southwestern Montana, south through central and western 

Wyoming, northeastern Utah, and northern Nevada, to 

central and western Colorado and northern New Mexico 

(USDA NRCS 2007b). On the Shoshone National Forest, 

Wolf’s willow is most commonly associated with montane 

and subalpine wet meadows, streamsides, and fens between 

2,292 and 3,182 m (Massatti 2007). Two varieties of 

Wolf’s willow, var. idahoensis and var. wolfii, occur on the 

Shoshone National Forest with the former occurring near 

the upper end of the above elevation range (2,951-3,182 m) 

and the latter near the lower end (2,292-3,122 m) (Massatti 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

2007). While the habitat preference of Wolf’s willow is 

somewhat broad, it tends to prefer soils that are drier or 

better drained than those occupied by planeleaf willow 

(Brunsfeld and Johnson 1985). However, Wolf’s and planeleaf willows commonly co-occur, especially within the 

middle to low elevation range of the two species. Wolf’s 

willow is a low shrub averaging 1 m tall with elliptic, graygreen, silvery-pubescent leaves (Fertig and Markow 2001). 

The pistillate catkins are typically 0.8 to 2 cm long with pubescent (var. idahoensis) or glabrous (var. wolfii) capsules. 

The staminate catkins are 1 to 2 cm long with dark brown 

to black, wooly-pubescent flowering bracts.

Missouri River Willow

Salix eriocephala Michx.

Missouri River willow occurs from California and 

eastern Oregon in the west to Montana, Wyoming, and 

New Mexico in the south and east (Fertig and Markow 

2001). On the Shoshone National Forest, Missouri River 

willow is most commonly associated with streambanks 

and floodplains in the mid- to lower-forested zone between 

1,859 and 2,564 m (Massatti 2007) but may occur as low as 

1,700 m (Fertig and Markow 2001).

Missouri River willow is a medium to tall shrub with 

lance-shaped to ovate leaves that are slightly toothed, contract abruptly to the petiole, and are dark green above and 

glaucous beneath (Fertig and Markow 2001). The pistillate 

catkins are typically 1 to 6 cm long on leafy branchlets with 

glabrous capsules attached to a white-wooly rachis. The 

staminate catkins are 2 to 5.2 cm long with dark brown to 

black, glabrate flowering bracts.

Drummond’s Willow

Salix drummondiana Barratt ex Hook.

Drummond’s willow occurs through western North 

America from the Yukon Territory south through inland 

British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California and 

in all western states except Arizona (Uchytil 1991c; USDA 

NRCS 2007b). On the Shoshone National Forest, Missouri 

River willow most commonly occurs in the mid- to upperforested zone between 2,530 and 3,079 m but may occur as 

low as 2,012 m and as high as 3,521 m (Fertig and Markow 

2001; Massatti 2007). At the lowest elevation, Drummond’s 

willow is confined to the edges of streams, while at higher 

elevations, it occurs across a broader range of habitats, 

including moist meadows, seeps, and stream and pond margins (Uchytil 1991c). Drummond’s willow prefers moist, 

well-aerated mineral soils. Drummond’s willow is a medium to tall shrub with finely pubescent twigs and narrowly 

elliptic to lanceolate, slightly involute leaves that are dark 

green above and densely silvery pubescent below (Fertig 

and Markow 2001). The pistillate catkins are typically 1.5 

to 4.5 cm long and sessile or nearly so with densely shorthairy capsules. The staminate catkins are sessile and 1.5 to 

3 cm long with dark brown to black, pubescent flowering 

bracts.

Scouler’s Willow

Salix scouleriana Barratt ex Hook.

Scouler’s willow is a widespread species that occurs 

throughout western North America, from Alaska and 

Yukon Territory south through all of the western states, 

into the mountains of northern Mexico, and east into the 

Black Hills of western South Dakota (Anderson 2001b). 

Scouler’s willow is a highly adaptable species, occurring 

on the Shoshone National Forest across a broad range of 

elevations (1,372–3,262 m) from the sagebrush zone to upper timberline (Fertig and Markow 2001). It is often found 

growing on upland sites in Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, and 

Engelmann spruce forests and may sometimes be found in 

riparian areas and wetlands (Anderson 2001b). Scouler’s 

willow prefers moderately well-drained to well-drained 

soils that are usually somewhat drier than those preferred 

by other willow species.

Scouler’s willow is a tall shrub or small tree with large 

(3–8 cm), elliptic to ovate leaves that are green above and 

glaucous below (Fertig and Markow 2001). The pistillate 

catkins are typically 1.5 to 5 cm long and sessile or on 

short branchlets. The staminate catkins are sessile and 1 

to 3 cm long and feature dark brown to black flowering 

bracts with long, silky hairs. Similar to most other willow 

species, Scouler’s willow is intolerant of shade, and at 

forested sites, shows the greatest regeneration immediately 

following a disturbance event (Anderson 2001b). Fire is 

more important at sites inhabited by Scouler’s willow than 

the moist riparian and wetland sites typical of most other 

willow species. Following low to moderate degree burns, 

Scouler’s willow responds rapidly by sprouting from the 

root crown. On severely burned sites with high coverage 

of exposed mineral soil, regeneration is limited to airborne 

seeds.
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Willow/Sedge, Moose River Family 

Ecological Type

Salix/Carex, Moose River Family ET

SALIX/CAREX, Moose River Family ET

N = 9

Distribution

The willow/sedge, Moose River Family Ecological Type 

occurs in the study area within the granitic subalpine and 

alpine zone ecoregions of Chapman and others (2004). The 

ecological type occurs along riparian zones and in wetlands 

in soil derived at least in part from granitic alluvium. It is a 

component of map unit 302 and 302L.

Environment

Aspect: east-southeast [1], north [1], northeast [1], northnortheast [1], south [2], southeast [1], south-southeast [1], 

west-northwest [1].

Landforms and Landscape Position: Toeslopes. 

Floodplains, seeps, fens, cobble bars, moist/wet meadows.

Parent Materials: Mixed granitic alluvium.

In the southern portion of the study area, south of the North 

Fork Popo Agie River, parent material tends to be alluvium 

derived from granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton. In the 

southern portion of the study area in the areas north of and 

including the North Fork Popo Agie River, parent material 

tends to be alluvium derived from porphyritic quartz 

monzonite. In the northern portion of the WRR, parent 

materials tend to be mixed migmatite and gneiss alluvium.

Bedrock: Precambrian granodiorite, porphyritic quartz 

monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

Climate: Cryic temperature regime and Aquic moisture 

regime. Estimated annual precipitation ranges from 62 to 

81 cm.

Additional environment data summaries are provided in 

Table 110.

Potential natural vegetation

This ecological type includes a variety of riparian and 

wetland plant communities. Potential natural vegetation 

includes Wolf’s willow/inflated sedge, Wolf’s willow/tufted 

hairgrass (Walford and others 2001), planeleaf willow/bluejoint reedgrass, planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain 

sedge (Walford and others 2001), Drummond’s willow/

mesic forb, Drummond’s willow/bluejoint reedgrass, 

inflated sedge, and tufted hairgrass (Walford and others 

2001). Table 111 provides a summary of species constancy 

and cover for the planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain 

sedge community type.

Wolf’s willow/inflated sedge community type (n = 1): 

This type occurred on a floodplain along Rock Creek in 

Grannier Meadows. Wolf’s, planeleaf, and Geyer willows 

occur on soil mounds, creating a dense medium to tall 

shrub canopy. Inflated sedge forms a dense sward, occurring between mounds and in abandoned stream channels, 

and leaving little space for other herbaceous species to 

reach high abundance. Other species that occur scattered 

throughout the understory include varileaf cinquefoil, 

red-pod stonecrop, largeleaf avens, meadow sedge, tufted 

hairgrass, and bluejoint reedgrass.

Wolf’s willow/tufted hairgrass community type (n = 1): 

This type occurred on a floodplain along Dinwoody Creek 

in Wilson Meadows. Wolf’s and planeleaf willows occur on 

soil mounds forming a thick moderately tall shrub canopy. 

Tufted hairgrass occurs scattered across the mounds along 

with a diversity of species, including western yarrow, 

varileaf cinquefoil, western mountain aster, American 

alpine speedwell, tall fringed bluebells, Rocky Mountain 

groundsel, spike trisetum, Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, 

Wheeler’s bluegrass, Falkland island sedge, and Kentucky 

bluegrass. The area between the mounds remained flooded 

for most of the year, and the only species occurring with 

appreciable coverage were northern reedgrass and silvery 

sedge.

Planeleaf willow/bluejoint reedgrass community type 

(n = 1): This type occurred in a complex of small stream 

channels created by melting snow from a nivation hollow 

at Burro Flat in the northern WRR. Planeleaf willow forms 

a nearly impenetrable low to moderately tall shrub layer. 

Bluejoint reedgrass, tufted hairgrass, smallflowered woodrush, fireweed, and western yarrow occurred in slightly 

drier portions of the site. Brook saxifrage and tall fringed 

bluebells were found growing along active stream channels, 

while Merten’s rush, mud sedge, and hairy arnica were 

found in the wettest portions of the site.

Planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge community type (n = 2): This type occurred in a fen located 

near Coon Lake and on a seepy floodplain along the North 

Fork Popo Agie river near Lonesome Lake. Planeleaf willow occurs in the wettest portions of the plot, forming a 

moderately dense shrub layer. Grayleaf willow and alpine 
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laurel sometimes occur on the slightly drier microsites. 

Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, white marsh marigold, 

and water speedwell occur in wetter portions of the site. 

Other common species include varileaf cinquefoil, red-pod 

stonecrop, elephant’s head, American alpine speedwell, 

alpine bentgrass, and water ragwort. Black alpine sedge, 

alpine timothy, and subalpine fleabane are generally limited 

to drier microsites.

Drummond’s willow/mesic forb community type (n = 

1): This type occurred on a cobble bar along a moderately 

steep (4%) tributary to the North Fork Popo Agie River 

near Lizardhead Meadow. Drummond’s, Wolf’s, and planeleaf willows occur jointly, forming a dense medium to tall 

shrub layer. Prickly currant occurs scattered throughout the 

willow overstory. Arrowleaf groundsel, tall fringed bluebells, brook saxifrage, and fringed grass-of-Parnassus occur 

on or near the active stream channel. Common cowparsnip, 

sticky purple geranium, Colorado blue columbine, manyray 

goldenrod, and subalpine fleabane occur on drier microsites 

further from the stream channel. Common graminoids 

include Letterman’s needlegrass in drier microsites and 

bluejoint reedgrass in wet microsites.

Drummond’s willow/bluejoint reedgrass community 

type (n = 1): This type occurred in a large fen along Slate 

Creek. Drummond’s and Tweedy’s willows were found 

growing in large clumps on soil mounds forming an 

open tall shrub layer. Canadian gooseberry and bog birch 

were found growing among the willow clumps. Bluejoint 

reedgrass forms a dense tall graminoid layer punctuated by 

beaked sedge and aquatic sedge in wet microsites. Other 

herbaceous species occurred as scattered individuals, 

including glaucus willowherb, largeleaf avens, fireweed, 

arrowleaf groundsel, field horsetail, swordleaf rush, and 

Kentucky bluegrass. Pink wintergreen and Fendler’s 

meadow-rue were found growing on soil mounds beneath 

the willow clumps.

Inflated sedge community type (n = 1): This type occurred on a floodplain of the Middle Fork Popo Agie River 

at Bills Park. Aquatic, inflated, and Sierra hare sedge form 

a dense sward. Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge and tufted 

hairgrass occur on slightly drier microsites. Narrow-spiked 

reedgrass and silvery sedge occur at low abundance in the 

wettest portions of the site.

Tufted hairgrass community type (n = 1): This type 

occurred on a floodplain of the Middle Fork Popo Agie 

River at Tayo Park. Tufted hairgrass and alpine timothy 

form a moderately dense moist meadow. Aquatic, inflated, 

and beaked sedge occur in wet microsites. A variety of 

subalpine forbs occur in this type, including American 

alpine speedwell, varileaf cinquefoil, subalpine fleabane, 

elephant’s head, cleftleaf groundsel, and western yarrow. 

Kentucky bluegrass occurs in this type, most likely the 

result of horse pasturing at this site.

Soils

On landforms with slope ≤3% (see “Typical Pedon 

Description” below), soils in the Salix/Carex, Moose River 

Family ET were deep, and aquic conditions were always 

present (avg. 87 cm depth). Coarse fragments (0–46%, avg. 

24%) and clay (10–32%, avg. 17%) were highly variable 

within and between soil profiles. The soils showed strong 

evidence of periodic flooding, including buried soil horizons and thin layers and pockets of gravel and sand within 

fine-textured mineral soil horizons. Redoximorphic features 

were also common within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface. Although the soils in this ET are highly variable due 

to their fluvial nature, they do share a number of common 

characteristics. A typical soil features an A/Bg/Ab/C horizonation. C-horizons tended to be sandy or gravelly. Sandy 

Bw-horizons occurred periodically throughout the soil 

profiles, indicating separate flood events. One soil featured 

a 21-cm thick Bt-horizon directly beneath the A-horizon. 

Diagnostic soil horizons include mollic (avg. 33 cm thick), 

umbric (avg. 32 cm thick), or ochric (avg. 20 cm thick) 

epipedons. Particle size class included loamy-skeletal [1], 

coarse-loamy [3], sandy-skeletal [2], and fine-silty [1]. 

Soils were Typic Cryaquents [4], Typic Cryaqualfs [1], 

Typic Cryaquolls [1], and Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts [1].

On landforms with slope >3%, soils in the Salix/Carex, 

Moose River Family ET were deep, and aquic conditions 

were sometimes present. Coarse fragments (23–81%, avg. 

52%) and clay (4–21%, avg. 13%) were highly variable 

within and between soil profiles. The soils showed strong 

evidence of periodic flooding, including buried soil horizons and thin layers and pockets of gravel and sand within 

fine-textured mineral soil horizons. Redoximorphic features 

were absent within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface. A 

typical soil features an A/C/Ab horizonation. Diagnostic 

soil horizons include an ochric (19 cm thick) or histic 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

(28 cm thick) epipedon. Particle size class included 

fine-loamy [1] and sandy-skeletal [1]. Soils were Mollic 

Cryofluvents [1] and Histic Cryaquepts [1].

Typical pedon description

Soil Classification: Coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, acid 

Typic Cryaquents

A1—0 to 8 cm: very dark brown (10YR 2/2) fine sandy 

loam, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), dry; 52% sand; 

10% clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure 

parting to moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common medium roots and many very 

fine roots; common fine and common medium and many 

very fine pores; 3% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; strongly acid, pH 5.2; 

clear smooth boundary.

A2—8 to 14 cm: dark brown (10YR 3/3) loam, brown 

(10YR 5/3), dry; 45% sand; 12% clay; moderate fine 

subangular blocky structure parting to moderate very fine 

subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly 

sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common medium 

roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common medium and common very fine pores; 5% faint 

yellowish brown (10YR 5/6), dry, masses of oxidized iron 

on faces of peds; 4% 2- to 75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

5.0; clear smooth boundary.

Bw—14 to 25 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) 

loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 38% sand; 15% clay; 

moderate medium subangular blocky structure parting 

to moderate fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine 

roots and common medium roots and common very fine 

roots; common fine and common medium and common 

very fine pores; 12% faint brownish yellow (10YR 6/6), 

dry, and dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4), moist, masses 

of oxidized iron on faces of peds; 10% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 4.8; abrupt smooth boundary.

2Abg—25 to 31 cm: dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2) loam, 

gray (2.5Y 6/1), dry; 39% sand; 21% clay; moderate 

coarse subangular blocky structure parting to moderate 

fine subangular blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, 

slightly sticky, nonplastic; common fine roots and common 

medium roots and common very fine roots; common 

fine and common medium and common very fine pores; 

23% distinct yellowish brown (10YR 5/8), dry, and dark 

yellowish brown (10YR 3/6), moist, masses of oxidized 

iron on faces of peds; 8% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very 

strongly acid, pH 4.9; abrupt smooth boundary.

2Bwb—31 to 38 cm: dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/6) 

medium gravelly coarse sandy loam, light yellowish brown 

(10YR 6/4), dry; 74% sand; 6% clay; weak fine subangular 

blocky structure, and moderate fine granular structure; very 

friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common medium 

and common very fine pores; 9% faint yellowish brown 

(10YR 5/6), dry, and dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), 

moist, masses of oxidized iron on faces of peds; 26% 2- to 

75-mm unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 

normal; strongly acid, pH 5.4; abrupt smooth boundary.

3Ab1—38 to 57 cm: very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) 

loam, pale brown (10YR 6/3), dry; 41percent sand; 20% 

clay; moderate medium subangular blocky structure parting 

to moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

moderately hard, moderately sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common medium and common very fine pores; 15% faint 

yellowish brown (10YR 5/6), dry, and dark yellowish 

brown (10YR 4/4), moist, masses of oxidized iron on 

faces of peds; 3% 2- to75-mm unspecified fragments; 

noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very strongly acid, pH 

5.0; clear smooth boundary.

4Ab2—57 to 72 cm: dark olive brown (2.5Y 3/3) loam, 

grayish brown (2.5Y 5/2), dry; 41% sand; 22% clay; 

moderate coarse subangular blocky structure parting to 

moderate very fine subangular blocky structure; friable, 

slightly hard, moderately sticky, nonplastic; common 

fine roots and common very fine roots; common fine and 

common very fine pores; 7% faint yellowish brown (10YR 

5/8), dry, and dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/6), moist, 

masses of oxidized iron on faces of peds; 8% 2- to 75-mm 

unspecified fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; 

very strongly acid, pH 5.0; clear smooth boundary.

5C—72 to 102 cm: dark olive brown (2.5Y 3/3) very 

gravelly coarse sandy loam, light yellowish brown (2.5Y 

6/3), dry; 72% sand; 12% clay; weak medium subangular 

blocky structure; friable, slightly hard, slightly sticky, 

nonplastic; few fine roots and few very fine roots; common 

fine and common medium and common very fine pores; 

10% faint yellowish brown (10YR 5/8), dry, and dark 

yellowish brown (10YR 3/6), moist, masses of oxidized 

iron on faces of peds; 46% 2- to 75-mm unspecified 

fragments; noneffervescent, by HCl, 1 normal; very 

strongly acid, pH 5.0.

Ecology

The willow/sedge, Moose River Family ET represents 

riparian and wetland plant communities occurring on 

floodplains, seeps, fens, cobblebars, and moist/wet meadows. The soils are typically permanently saturated and 

minimally developed, in large part due to a continual influx 

of sandy alluvium to the site. Flooding typically occurs 

each spring and continues until melt off. Willows feature 

several adaptations to periodic flooding, including strong 

flexible stems, an ability to resprout from broken or buried 

stems, and buoyant seeds (Karrenberg and others 2002). 

Sedges adapted to permanent soil saturation, including 
302 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

aquatic, bladder, and inflated, feature large hollow cells 

(aerenchymous tissue) in the roots to store air for metabolic 

use during periods of inundation (Kozlowski 1984).

Management considerations

In the Rocky Mountains, riparian zones, and wetlands, 

although encompassing only a small fraction of the surface 

area of the Earth, are exponentially important as epicenters 

of biodiversity, travel corridors for fish and wildlife, and a 

ready source of food and water for wildlife in a predominantly arid landscape. Riparian and wetland vegetation 

intercepts solar radiation, thus shading stream waters and 

maintaining cooler water temperatures—conditions necessary for the health and survival of salmonid populations 

(Wells 2006). Riparian and wetland vegetation also provides habitat for salmonids through overhanging stems and 

leaves. Many species of wildlife depend on riparian zones 

and wetlands for essential habitat, including moose, elk, 

sandhill cranes, muskrats, beavers, and a variety of reptiles 

and amphibians. In fact, willows are a highly preferred 

and nutritious browse for moose and elk. The strong stems 

and dense, tangled roots of willows and sedges physically 

buffer streambanks from the erosive power of spring flood 

events.

The most important management consideration for the 

willow/sedge, Moose River Family ET is cattle grazing. 

These riparian and wetland communitiy types are best 

grazed later in the summer after the soils have begun to 

dry. Grazing when the soils are wet will result in increased 

trampling, destruction of the dense sod created by sedge 

roots, and the initiation of soil erosion. Community types 

featuring tufted hairgrass or bluejoint reedgrass, including 

the planeleaf willow/bluejoint reedgrass, Drummond’s willow/bluejoint reedgrass, Wolf’s willow/tufted hairgrass, and 

tufted hairgrass community types, are highly preferred by 

cattle due to the relatively well-drained soils and abundance 

of highly palatable grasses. Prolonged grazing can lead to 

an increase in less palatable species, including Kentucky 

bluegrass and Baltic rush, at the expense of tufted hairgrass and bluejoint reedgrass (Walford and others 2001). 

Prolonged grazing in the planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky 

Mountain sedge, Wolf’s willow/inflated sedge, and inflated 

sedge community types may result in a decrease in the 

abundance of sedges, and an increase in tufted hairgrass, 

Kentucky bluegrass, and forbs. When logging adjacent 

upland forests, buffer strips of forested vegetation along 

riparian and wetland areas should be left intact in order to 

mitigate the effects of increased run-off on soil erosion and 

sedimentation following timber harvest operations.

Similar ecological types

Ecological Type 1

Type: Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET

Floristic differences: A number of vegetation types 

constitute the, Elvick Family ET, including some of those 

listed under the Moose River Family ET.

Environmental differences: The two types differ 

environmentally in that the Moose River Family ET 

soils are saturated within a meter of the soil surface 

throughout the growing season and feature characteristic 

redoximorphic features, whereas the Elvick Family ET 

soils are saturated within a meter of the soil surface for 20 

or more consecutive days or 30 or more cumulative days 

throughout the growing season, yet lack redoximorphic 

features typical of other semi- to permanently saturated 

soils.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

Table 110—Summary of environmental variables for the Salix/Carex, Moose River 

Family ET.

General environment: Average Min Max

Elevation (m) 2,969 2,630 3,271

Slope (%) 3 1 6

Climate: Average Min Max

Average annual precipitation (mm) 716 619 805

Degree days 12,190 8,862 16,040

Frost-free days 17.6 15.8 19.5

Site water balance (mm/year) -148 -256 -82

Average annual temperature (°C) 0.0 -1.5 1.6

Total annual potential evapotranspiration (mm) 489 399 627

Summer radiation (KJ) 20,300 18,720 20,840

Soils: Average Min Max

Coarse fragments (% in particle size control section) 30 0 81

Clay (% in particle size control section) 15 4 32

Ph (in particle size control section) 4.9 4.6 5.3

Available water capacity (mm/m) 104 29 159

Ground surface components, cover: Average Min Max

Exposed soil; < 2mm fraction (%) 1 0 2

Exposed bedrock 0 0 0

Gravel 1 0 5

Cobble 1 0 10

Stones 1 0 5

Boulders 0 0 0

Litter 31 10 50

Wood 1 0 5

Moss and lichen 7 2 16

Basal vegetation 53 25 70

Water 3 0 15

Table 111—Constancy/cover table for common plant species occurring in the Salix/Carex Moose 

River Family ET, planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge community type.

Characteristic Species Con Cov Min Max

Percent

Seedlings:

ABLA Abies lasiocarpa subalpine fir 100 3 1 5

PIEN Picea engelmannii Engelmann spruce 100 1 1 1

Shrubs:

SAPL2 Salix planifolia planeleaf willow 100 75 75 75

Forbs:

CALE4 Caltha leptosepala white marsh marigold 100 6 3 10

PODI2 Potentilla diversifolia varileaf cinquefoil 100 3 3 3

SEHY2 Senecio hydrophilus water ragwort 100 6 3 10

Grasses:

PHAL2 Phleum alpinum alpine timothy 100 1 1 1

Graminoids:

CANI2 Carex nigricans black alpine sedge 100 6 1 10

CASC12 Carex scopulorum Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge 100 15 15 15

Note: Con = A percentage of plots in this ET in which the species occurred; Cov = Average canopy cover in plots in which the 

species occurred, Min = minimum canopy cover in plots in which the species occurred, Max = maximum canopy cover in 

plots in which the species occurred.
304 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

Miscellaneous Riparian and 

Wetland Types

Willow/Sedge—Kettle Lake, 

Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts Ecological 

Type

Salix/Carex–Kettle Lake, 

Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts ET

SALIX/CAREX – Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic 

Cryaquepts ET

N = 1

The willow/sedge–kettle lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts 

Ecological Type occurs within the granitic subalpine zone 

of Chapman and others (2004). It is a component of map 

unit 327L. This ET occurs on the periphery of kettle lakes 

in the Louis Lake moraine unit in granitic alluvium and lacustrine sediments. Soils were deep, sandy, and aquic; low 

in rock fragments (35%); and clay (12%). Redoximorphic 

features and buried horizons were common. Soils were 

loamy-skeletal, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts. Wolf’s, planeleaf, 

and Geyer willows occur on soil mounds, creating a dense 

medium to tall shrub canopy. Inflated sedge forms a dense 

sward, occurring between mounds, leaving little space for 

other herbaceous species to reach high abundance. Other 

species that occur scattered throughout the understory 

include varileaf cinquefoil, red-pod stonecrop, largeleaf 

avens, meadow sedge, tufted hairgrass, and bluejoint 

reedgrass.

This ecological type provides important habitat for 

moose, songbirds, amphibians, and reptiles, and abundant 

water and browsing/grazing opportunities in a landscape 

dominated by unproductive (in terms of graze/browse) 

lodgepole pine and whitebark pine forests.

Oxyaquic Soils, Elvick Family 

Ecological Type

Oxyaquic Soils, Elvick Family ET

N = 2

The Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family Ecological Type 

was located within the Alpine Zone and Granitic Subalpine 

Zone ecoregions of Chapman and others (2004). It is a 

component of map unit 302. This ET occurred in riparian 

zones and wetlands in granitic alluvium. Elevation ranged 

between 2691 and 3261 m. Average annual precipitation 

ranged between 64 and 83 cm. Parent materials were granitic alluvium. Soils were deep, loamy skeletal, Oxyaquic 

Eutrocryepts, and Oxyaquic Haplocryolls.

The potential natural vegetation included the tufted 

hairgrass (Walford and others 2001) and planeleaf willow/

Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge community types. The tufted hairgrass community type occurred in a moist meadow 

along Rock Creek in Grannier Meadows. Tufted hairgrass, 

alpine timothy, Hall’s rush, and small-winged sedge 

combine to form a dense sward along with a variety of 

other forbs and graminoids, including red avens, American 

bistort, western yarrow, glandular willow-herb, varileaf 

cinquefoil, timber oatgrass, Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, 

western mountain aster, tickle-grass, and slender wheatgrass. Water sedge, hairy arnica, narrow-spiked reedgrass, 

Hayden’s sedge, and western dock were found in wet 

microsites. Field chickweed and Kentucky bluegrass are 

weedy species indicative of horse pasturing in this meadow.

The planeleaf willow/Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge 

community type occurred in a wetland in Ice Lakes 

cirque. Planeleaf willow forms a diffuse low shrub layer. 

Cascade willow, a low-growing miniature willow, occurs 

throughout the site forming a dense, net-like ground cover. 

Fewflower spikerush and white marsh marigold occur in 

the wettest portions of the site. Tufted hairgrass, elephant’s 

head, American bistort, American alpine speedwell, 

Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge, vivparous knotweed, and 

diamondleaf saxifrage are common species in moist soils. 

Alpine timothy, subalpine fleabane, alpine sagebrush, 

Ross’s avens, bog blueberry, tundra aster, Columbian stitchwort, and Rocky mountain fescue may be found on drier 

microsites.

The soils in the Oxyaquic soils, Elvick Family ET are 

saturated with water within a meter of the soil surface for 

20 or more consecutive days or 30 or more cumulative days 

throughout the growing season, yet lack redoximorphic 

features typical of other semi- to permanently saturated 

soils. The tufted hairgrass community type is highly productive for grazing animals. Early in the summer when still 

wet, these soils are easily damaged by even low levels of 

trampling. These sites are best grazed at low levels later 

in the summer after the soils have begun to dry. Grazing 

should be avoided, and land managers should encourage 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES WILLOW/SEDGE SERIES

backpackers and wranglers to avoid traveling across this 

ET, especially in the Alpine Zone ecoregion.

A number of vegetation types constitute the Oxyaquic 

soils, Elvick Family ET, including some of those listed 

under the late snowbank vegetation, Hargran Family ET. 

However, the two types differ environmentally in that the 

Hargran Family ET occurs above timberline and is associated with late snowbank environments, while the Elvick 

Family ET occurs in riparian zones and wetlands either 

above or below timberline.

Acknowledgments

We thank Region 2 of the U.S. Forest Service and the 

Shoshone National Forest for the financial support provided 

to complete this classification. We thank Eva Muller with 

the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) for 

her incredible knowledge base and her professionalism and 

patience as we worked through the technical aspects and 

finite details of a Cooperative National Soil Survey. The 

support of Tommy John, Claudia Regan, Ron Wright, and 

Jerry Freeouf with Region 2 of the U.S. Forest Service, 

and Chuck Gordon, State Soil Scientist of the Montana 

NRCS, is greatly appreciated. We thank Dennis Ferguson 

(retired) and Deborah Page-Dumroese with the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station for reviewing and sponsoring 

this publication, respectively. We thank Dr. Steve Cooper 

and Dr. Dennis Dahms for providing technical reviews of 

this manuscript. We appreciate Niklaus Zimmerman of the 

Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL for use of his climate 

models. A number of individuals provided expert opinions 

and technical reviews. We thank Dr. Ken Pierce for reviews 

and expert opinions of the glaciology section, Dr. Ronald 

Frost for a review and expert opinion of the Precambrian 

geology section, and Eva Muller for a review of the classification concepts section. We thank Dr. Jesse Logan and 

Dr. David Naftz for their expert opinions of the climate 

change section. The field technicians Tracy Christopheron, 

Mae Culumber, Brian McMullen, and Floye Wells, whose 

efforts are greatly appreciated, worked long hours in the 

field pushing both their mental and physical endurance. We 

thank Skip Shoutis, retired U.S. Forest Service Recreation 

Planner, and the Washakie Ranger District employees 

and volunteers that provided logistical support. We thank 

the Allen’s Diamond 4 Ranch in Lander, Wyoming, for 

horse packing support, and Wayfaring Travelers Ranch in 

Burlington, Wyoming, for llama packing support.
306 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

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Glossary

The following glossary provides definitions for technical terms used throughout this document. The definitions 

were obtained from a variety of sources. Definitions from 

sources listed in the “Bibliography” section of this document are cited using standard in text citations (e.g., Dorn, 

2001). The reader is directed to the “Bibliography” for 

the full citations. Definitions from sources not included 

in the “Bibliography” section have been given reference 

codes (see below) that are used to denote the source of 

the definition. Permission was granted to Aaron Wells by 

the American Geological Institute (AGI) to use various 

definitions. Permission was granted to Aaron Wells by the 

Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) to use various 

definitions. Modifications from original AGI and SSSA 

definitions are indicated by underlining the reference code.

Reference Codes

AGI—Neuendorf, K.K.E; J.P. Mehl, Jr.; and J.A. 

Jackson. 2005. Glossary of Geology, 5th Edition. 

Alexandria, VA: American Geological Institute. 800 p. 

Available: http://www.agiweb.org/pubs/glossary [2012, 

April 15]. © 2005 Glossary of Geology, published by 

the American Geological Institute and used with their 

permission. See www.agiweb.org/pubs for more.

NOAA—National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Association (NOAA). 2008. Online climate glossary. 

Climate Program Office. Available: http://www.climate.

noaa.gov/index.jsp?pg=page_glossary.jsp?alpha=all 

[2012, April 15].

NRCS—U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 2007. National Soil 

Survey Handbook, title 430-VI. Available: http://soils.

usda.gov/technical/handbook/ [2012, April 15].

PF—Pough, F.H. 1991. Peterson first guides: Rocks and 

minerals. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. 

128 p.

SSSA—Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). 2008. 

Glossary of soil science terms. Soil Science Society of 

America, Madison, WI. Available: https://www.soils.org/

publications/soils-glossary [2012, April 15].

WC—Wikipedia contributors (WC). 2008. Diabase. 

Wikipedia Foundation, Inc. Available: http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabase [2012, April 15].

A

albite—A feldspar with the chemical composition 

NaAlSi3O8 (PF).

alluvium—Unconsolidated, clastic material subaerially 

deposited by running water, including gravel, sand, silt, 

clay, and various mixtures of these (NRCS).

alpine—The area above the upper limits of (erect) tree 

growth (Wells 2006).

alpine turf—Alpine plant communities with a more 

continuous coverage of plants, and a lower percentage of 

rocks and erosion pavement at the soils surface than alpine 

fellfields (Johnson 2004).

amphibole—A large group of rock-forming calcium, 

iron, magnesium, and aluminum silicates. Amphiboles are 

similar to pyroxenes, but contain water (PF).

anaerobic—A condition characterized by the absence of 

free oxygen (Wells 2006).

annual—A plant that lives only one growing season and 

usually has a slender taproot or few fibrous roots (Dorn 

2001).

anticline—A convex fold in rock, the central part of which 

contains the oldest section of rock (Chernicoff and others 

1997).

aquic (soil moisture regime)—A reducing regime in a 

soil that is virtually free of dissolved oxygen because it is 

saturated by water (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

aspect—The compass direction (in degrees and accounting 

for declination) that a slope faces, looking downslope 

(in the direction that overland water would flow) 

(Schoeneberger and others 2002).

available water capacity (AWC)—An estimate of the 

water available to plants between permanent wilting point 

and field capacity after hydric soils have been drained by 

gravity (Wells 2006).

avalanche—A large mass of snow, ice, soil, or rock, or 

mixtures of these materials, falling, sliding, or flowing very 

rapidly under the force of gravity. Velocities may sometime 

exceed 500 km/hr (Schoeneberger and others 2002).

avalanche chute—The central channel-like corridor, 

scar, or depression along which at avalanche has moved. 

An eroded surface marked by pits, scratches, and grooves 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

average cover—The average percentage canopy cover 

of a species for the sample stands where it was recorded. 

For example, a vegetation type may be composed of 12 

sample stands, but a particular species may be present in 

only 5 of those stands. The average cover for that species 

is calculated as the average canopy cover in those 5 stands 

(Wells 2006).

B

backslope—The hill slope profile position that forms the 

steepest and generally linear, middle portion of the slope. 

In profile, backslopes are commonly bounded by a convex 

shoulder above and a concave footslope below. They may 

or may not include cliffs or rock outcrop. Backslopes are 

commonly erosional forms produced by mass movement, 

colluvial action, and running water; compare summit, 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

shoulder, footslope, and toeslope (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).

bank or streambank—The sloping land bordering a 

channel. The bank has a steeper slope than the bottom of 

the channel and is usually steeper than the land surrounding 

the channel (Wells 2006).

basal area—The area of the cross section of a tree trunk 

1.37 m above the ground, usually expressed as the sum of 

tree basal areas in square meters per hectare (Wells 2006).

basal vegetation (ground cover estimates)—Basal 

vegetation is the soil surface occupied by live basal or 

root crown portion of vascular plants, including live trees. 

Typically ranges between 3 and 7%; 15% is very high and 

rarely encountered (Winthers and others 2005).

basalt—A general term for dark-colored mafic igneous 

rocks, commonly extrusive but locally intrusive (e.g., as 

dikes), composed chiefly of calcium-rich plagioclase and 

pyroxenes; the fine-grained equivalent of gabbro (AGI).

basement (rock)— The crust of the Earth below 

sedimentary deposits. (AGI).

batholith—A massive discordant pluton with a surface 

area greater than 100 km2, typically having a depth of 

about 30 km. Batholiths are generally found in elongate 

mountain ranges after the country rock above them has 

eroded (Chernicoff and others 1997).

bedrock—A general term for the rock, usually solid, that 

underlies soil or other unconsolidated, superficial material 

(Winthers and others 2005). See also “lithic contact.”

biennial—A plant that lives for two growing seasons, 

usually forming a basal rosette of leaves the first season but 

not flowering until the second (Dorn 2001).

biotite—An iron-rich muscovite mica that is black in color 

(Pough 1991).

boulder—Rock fragments greater than or equal to 600 mm 

in diameter (Winthers and others 2005).

browse—Shrubby or woody forage used especially by big 

game (Wells 2006).

C

caespitose—Grows in tufts (Dorn 2001).

calcite—A common rock-forming mineral: CaCO3. Calcite 

is usually white, colorless, or pale shades of gray, yellow, 

and blue; it a vitreous lustet, and it readily effervesces in 

cold dilute hydrochloric acid. It is the principal constituent 

of limestone (AGI).

calcium carbonate or carbonate—See “calcite.”

calcareous—Of or pertaining to calcite. Often used as an 

adjective when describing soils with high concentrations of 

calcite.

canyon—A long, deep, narrow, very-steep sided valley 

with high and precipitous walls in an area of high local 

relief (Wells 2006).

chert—A hard, extremely dense or compact, dull to 

semivitreous, microcrystalline sedimentary rock, consisting 

dominantly of interlocking crystals of quartz less than 

about 0.03 mm in diameter; it may contain amorphous 

silica (opal). It sometimes contains impurities such as 

calcite, iron oxide, and the remains of siliceous and other 

organisms. It has a tough, splintery to conchoidal fracture, 

and may be white or variously colored gray, green, 

blue, pink, red, yellow, brown, and black. Chert occurs 

principally as nodular or concretionary segregations (chert 

nodules) in limestones and dolomites (AGI).

cirque or glacial cirque—A deep steep-walled half-bowllike recess or hollow, variously described as horseshoe- or 

crescent-shaped or semicircular in plan, situated high on the 

side of a mountain and commonly at the head of a glacial 

valley, and produced by the erosive activity of a mountain 

glacier. It often contains a small round lake, and it may or 

may not be occupied by ice or snow. French, from Latin 

“circus,” “ring” (AGI).

classification—The orderly arrangement of objects 

according to their differences and similarities.

clay—Soil particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter, see 

also “soil separates.” As a textural class, soil material that 

contains 40% or more clay, <45% sand, and <40% (SSSA).

clay films—Coatings of oriented clay on the surfaces of 

peds and mineral grains and lining pores. Also called clay 

skins, clay flows, illuviation cutans, or argillans (SSSA).

claystone—(a) An indurated sedimentary rock with more 

than 67% clay-sized minerals, (b) An indurated clay having 

the texture and composition of shale but lacking its fine 

lamination or fissility; a massive mudstone in which clay 

predominates over silt (AGI).

cleavage—The tendency of certain minerals to break along 

distinct planes in their underlying crystal structure where 

the bonds are weakest (Chernicoff and others 1997).

climate change—Climate change in IPCC usage refers to 

a change in the state of the climate that can be identified 

(e.g., using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/

or the variability of its properties, and that persists for 

an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers 

to any change in climate over time, whether due to 

natural variability or as a result of human activity. This 

usage differs from that in the United Nations Framework 

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where climate 

change refers to a change of climate that is attributed 

directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the 

composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition 

to natural climate variability observed over comparable 

time periods (IPCC 2007).

climax—Climax has been defined as the kind of plant 

community that will come to occupy a site under existing 

hydrology (flooding regime and mean annual water 

table depth ranges), soils (parent material, particle size, 

chemistry), microclimate and fluvial surface. It is the 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

“stable state” where change in the vegetation is minimal 

over time and competition is so great from prevailing 

species that “invaders” are excluded and “increasers” are 

held to low levels. The plant association is the climax plant 

community on a site (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

climax species—A species that is self-regenerating, in the 

absence of change in the hydrology, soils, and microclimate 

(see “climax”) with no evidence of replacement by other 

species.

cobble—Rock fragments greater than or equal to 75 mm 

and less than 250 mm in diameter (Winthers and others 

2005).

cobble bar, bar, gravel bar, or rocky bar—A general 

term for a ridgelike accumulation of sand, gravel, or other 

alluvial material formed in the channel, along the banks, 

or at the mouth of a stream where a decrease in velocity 

induces deposition: e.g., a channel bar or a meander bar 

(Wells 2006).

cold air drainage—The result of temperature inversions in 

areas of significant topographic relief when at night cooler 

air of upper slopes, having greater density than warmer air, 

drains down ravines and slides under the mass of warm air 

which has accumulated in the valley during the day (Lee 

1978).

colluvial—Pertaining to material transported and deposited 

by gravitational action and local unconcentrated runoff on 

and at the base of steep slopes (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002).

colluvium—Unconsolidated, unsorted earth material being 

transported or deposited on side slopes and/or at the base of 

slopes by mass movement (e.g., direct gravitational action) 

and by local, unconcentrated runoff (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).

component or soil map unit component—Describes 

the properties of natural bodies of soils in a particular 

landscape (National Soil Survey Center 2003). An 

individual component within a soil map unit embodies 

a collection of similar soils that represent a significant 

percentage of the land area of a soil map unit, and occur 

repetitively across the landscape. The two types of 

components are: major and minor.

major component—A map unit component composing 

>10% of the areal extent of a map unit. A minimum of three 

sample points was required to define a major component. 

However, less than three sample points may constitute a 

major component only if the component was also observed 

by the researcher to occur repeatedly across the landscape.

minor component—A map unit component composing 

≤10% of the areal extent of a map unit.

conglomerate—A coarse-grained clastic sedimentary 

rock, composed of rounded to subangular fragments larger 

than 2 mm in diameter (gravels, cobble, stones, boulders) 

typically containing fine-grained particles (sand, silt, clay) 

in the interstices, and commonly cemented by calcium 

carbonate, iron oxide, silica, or hardened clay (AGI).

constancy—A percentage of plots where a species occurs 

in the ecological type (Wells 2006).

convection—Transfer of heat by fluid motion between 

two areas with different temperatures. In meteorology, 

convection is the rising and descending air motion caused 

by heat. Atmospheric convection is almost always turbulent 

and is the dominant vertical transport process over tropical 

oceans and during sunny days over continents. The 

terms “convection” and “thunderstorms” are often used 

interchangeably, although thunderstorms are only one form 

of convection. In the ocean, convection is prominent in 

regions of high heat loss to the atmosphere and is the main 

mechanism for deep-water formation (NOAA).

cover—See “average cover.”

country rock—(a) The preexisting rock into which a 

magma intrudes. (b) The pre-existing rock surrounding a 

pluton (Chernicoff and others 1997).

craton—A part of the Earth’s crust that has attained 

stability and has been little deformed for a prolonged 

period. The term is now restricted to continental areas that 

have not been pervasively metamorphosed and deformed 

for at least about one billion years. Cratons include shield 

areas, where Precambrian rocks are exposed, and platform 

areas, where Precambrian rocks are overlain by a thin layer 

of Phanerozoic strata. Also spelled: kraton (AGI).

crust—The outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of 

relatively low-density rocks (Chernicoff et al. 1997).

cryic (soil temperature regime)—Soils in this temperature 

regime have a mean annual temperature lower than 8 °C 

but do not have permafrost (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

cryogenic solifluction—Solifluction caused by freeze-thaw 

processes (Davis 2001).

cuesta—An asymmetric ridge capped by resistant rock 

layers of slight to moderate dip, commonly less than 10o 

(or approximately <15% slope), produced by differential 

erosion of interbedded resistant and weak, easily 

weatherable rocks. A cuesta has a long gentle slope on one 

side (dipslope), that roughly parallels the inclined beds, 

and on the other side has a relatively short and steep or 

cliff-like slope (scarp) that cuts through the tilted rocks 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

D

depauperate—An unusually sparse coverage of 

undergrowth vegetation. This condition usually develops 

beneath an especially dense forest canopy, often on sites 

having a deep layer of duff (Wells 2006).

diabasic or diabase—similar to gabbro, but with 

fine-grained plagioclase crystals set in a finer matrix of 

pyroxene (WC).
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LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

Diameter at breast height (DBH)—Generally refers to the 

diameter of a tree stem at a point 1.4 m above the ground 

surface.

dike—An elongate, often linear igneous intrusion that 

cuts across the bedding or foliation of the country rock 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

diorite—A group of plutonic rocks intermediate in 

composition between acidic and basic, characteristically 

composed of dark-colored amphibole (especially 

hornblende), sodic plagioclase (oligoclase, andesine), 

pyroxene, and sometimes a small amount of quartz; also, 

any rock in that group; the approximate intrusive equivalent 

of andesite. Diorite grades into monzonite with an increase 

in the alkali feldspar content. In typical diorite, plagioclase 

contains less than 50% anorthite, hornblende predominates 

over pyroxene, and mafic minerals total less than 50% of 

the rock. Greek “diorizein,” “to distinguish,” in reference 

to the fact that the characteristic mineral, hornblende, is 

usually identifiable megascopically (AGI).

dip—The angle formed by the inclined plane of a 

geological structure and the horizontal plane of the Earth’s 

surface (Chernicoff and others 1997).

dip-slip fault—A fault in which two sections of rock have 

moved apart vertically, parallel to the dip of the fault plane 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

dip slope—A slope of the land surface, roughly determined 

by and approximately conforming with the direction and 

the angle of dip of the underlying rocks; specifically the 

long, gently inclined face of a cuesta (AGI).

disturbed or disturbance (anthropogenic)—Directly or 

indirectly altered, by humans, from a natural condition, 

yet retaining some natural characteristics (Crowe and 

Clausznizer 1997).

disturbed or disturbance (natural)—Any naturally 

occurring event (e.g., wildfire, landslide, avalanche, flood) 

that resets the successional dynamics of a vegetation 

community to an earlier state.

diversity—The number of species in a community, and 

their relative abundances, per unit area or volume (Wells 

2006).

division—An ecological unit in the ecoregion planning 

and analysis scale of the National Hierarchical Framework 

corresponding to subdivisions of a Domain that have the 

same regional climate (ECOMAP 1993).

dolomite (mineral)—A common rock-forming mineral: 

CaMg(CO3)2. Part of the magnesium may be replaced by 

ferrous iron and less frequently by manganese. Dolomite 

is white, colorless, or tinged yellow, brown, pink, or gray; 

it has a pearly to vitreous luster, and effervesces feebly in 

cold dilute hydrochloric acid (AGI).

dolomite (rock)—A carbonate sedimentary rock of which 

more than 50% by weight or by areal percentages under the 

microscope consists of the mineral dolomite, or a variety 

of limestone or marble rich in magnesium carbonate; 

specifically a carbonate sedimentary rock containing more 

than 90% dolomite and less than 10% calcite (AGI).

domain—An ecological unit in the ecoregion planning 

and analysis scale of the National Hierarchical Framework 

corresponding to subcontinental divisions of broad 

climatic similarity that are affected by latitude and global 

atmospheric conditions (ECOMAP 1993).

dominant overstory tree—A tree whose crown is 

positioned in the uppermost canopy layer in a forest.

E

ecological type (ET)—A category of land with a 

distinctive combination of landscape elements, including 

climate, bedrock geology, landform, and soils, and differing 

from other types in the kind and amount of vegetation it can 

produce and in its ability to respond to management actions 

and natural disturbances (Winthers and others 2005).

ecosystem—A complete interacting system of organisms 

and their environment (Wells 2006).

ecoregion—An ecological unit in the subregion planning 

and analysis scale of the National Hierarchical Framework 

corresponding to subdivisions of a Section into areas with 

similar surficial geology, lithology, geomorphic process, 

soil groups, subregional climate, and potential natural 

communities (ECOMAP 1993).

ecotone—A boundary between adjacent plant communities 

(Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

edaphic—Refers to soil (Steele and others 1983).

elevation—The height of a point on the Earth’s surface 

relative to sea level (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

eluviation—The removal of soil material in suspension (or 

in solution) from a layer or layers of a soil. Usually, the loss 

of material in solution is described by the term “leaching.” 

See also “illuviation” (SSSA).

end moraine—A ridge-like accumulation that is being or 

was produced at the outer margin of an actively flowing 

glacier at any given time; a moraine that has been deposited 

at the outer or lower end of a valley glacier (Schoeneberger 

and Wysocki 2002).

erosion—The wearing away of the land surface by running 

water, waves, moving ice and wind, or by such processes as 

mass wasting and corrosion (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002).

evapotranspiration—The sum of evaporation and 

plant transpiration. Potential evapotranspiration is the 

amount of water that could be evaporated or transpired 

at a given temperature and humidity, if there was plenty 

of water available. Actual evapotranspiration cannot be 

any greater than precipitation, and will usually be less 

because some water will run off in rivers and flow to the 

oceans. If potential evapotranspiration is greater than actual 
324 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

precipitation, then soils are extremely dry during at least a 

major part of the year (NOAA).

extratropical—In meteorology, the area north of the Tropic 

of Cancer and the area south of the Tropic of Capricorn, 

i.e., the area outside the tropics (NOAA).

F

fan—A gently sloping, fan-shaped mass of sediment 

forming a low-angle cone commonly at a place where there 

is a notable decrease in gradient (Schoeneberger 

and Wysocki 2002).

fault—A fracture dividing a rock into two sections that 

have visibly moved relative to one another (Chernicoff 

and others 1997).

feldspar—Any of a group of light-colored, aluminumsilicate, rock-forming minerals most often found in plutonic 

igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks and often containing 

potassium, sodium, or calcium (Chernicoff and others 

1997).

fellfield—Alpine sites characterized by relatively flat relief, 

very stony soils, erosion pavement, and low-growing, often 

widely spaced plants (Daubenmire 1978).

felsic (rock)—A rock that contains ≥70% silica, and is 

rich in potassium feldspar, aluminum-rich mica, and quartz 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

flagged (growth form)—trees that feature short, erect 

stems appearing much like a flag in a stout wind, with the 

only living branches on the leeward side of the tree (Grant 

and Mitton 1977). In the study area, this growth form 

occurs primarily in the upper timberline.

flocculation—The coagulation of colloidal soil particles 

due to the ions in solution. In most soils, the clays and 

humic substances remain flocculated due to the presence of 

doubly and triply charged cations (SSSA).

fluvial—Pertaining to or produced by the action of a stream 

or river (Wells 2006).

floodplain—The nearly level plain that borders a stream 

and is subject to inundation under flood-stage conditions. 

It is usually a constructional landform built of sediment 

deposited during overflow and lateral migration of the 

streams (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

foliate—A rock showing foliation. AGI

foliation—A general term for a planar arrangement of 

textural or structural features in any type of rock, especially 

the locally planar fabric in a rock defined by a fissility, a 

preferred orientation of crystal planes in mineral grains, 

a preferred orientation of inequant grain shapes, or from 

compositional banding. In igneous rocks, planar parallelism 

of flaky or tabular minerals and mineral aggregates, slabby 

xenoliths, or flattened vesicles as well as compositional 

layering. In metamorphic rocks, planar parallelism of flaky 

minerals and compositional layering (AGI).

footslope—The hillslope profile position that forms the 

concave surface at the base of a hillslope. It is transitional 

between upslope sites of erosion and transport (shoulder, 

backslope) and downslope sites of deposition (toeslope); 

compare summit, shoulder, backslope, and toeslope 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

footwall—the section of rock that lies below the fault plane 

in a dip-slip fault (Chernicoff and others 1997).

forage—The aboveground biomass (air-dried kilograms 

per hectare) of all grasses, sedges, and forbs. (Wells 2006).

forb—Any herbaceous plant, usually broad leaved, that is 

not a graminoid (Wells 2006).

forest or forested—An area of the Earth’s surface, greater 

than or equal to 0.04 ha, with greater than or equal to 

10% cover by tree species. Does not include areas with 

overhanging tree limbs (Wells 2006).

foundation species—A single species that defines much 

of the structure of a community by creating locally stable 

conditions for other species, and by modulating and 

stabilizing fundamental ecosystem processes (Ellison and 

others 2005).

freeze-thaw cycle—The cyclical transition of air 

temperatures across 0 °C resulting in the repeated freezing 

and thawing of water.

frigid (soil temperature regime)—A soil with a frigid 

temperature regime is warmer in the summer than a soil 

with a cryic temperature regime, but its mean annual 

temperature is lower than 8 °C and the difference between 

mean summer (June, July, August) and mean winter 

(December, January, February) soil temperatures is more 

than 6 °C either at a depth of 50 cm from the soil surface 

or at a densic, lithic, or paralithic contact, whichever is 

shallower (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

frost-free days—The number of days during the year that 

the mean air temperature is greater than 0 °C. In the climate 

models of Zimmerman and Roberts (2000), frost-free days 

were calculated by simply summing the number of days 

that the mean annual temperature exceeded 0 °C on a pixel 

by pixel basis.

frost boils—bare soil patches containing mostly silt 

and clay that form when the fine-grained soil particles 

are saturated to liquefaction, or the point where the soil 

particles begin to behave as a liquid, and boil up through 

the surface due to the stress imparted by the weight of 

overlying soil material (Davis 2001).

frost hummocks—The product of cryoturbation. Low 

(typically <1 m) soil mounds that are formed from frost 

heaving, or the uplifting of the ground surface resulting 

from the freezing of water within the soil (Peterson and 

Krantz 2003).
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G

gabbro—A group of dark-colored, basic intrusive igneous 

rocks composed principally of calcium-rich plagioclase and 

pyroxene. It is the approximate coarse-grained equivalent 

of basalt (AGI).

glacial—(a) [processes] Of or relating to the presence 

and activities of ice or glaciers, as glacial erosion, (b) 

[geomorphology] Pertaining to distinctive features and 

materials produced by or derived from glaciers and ice 

sheets, as glacial lakes, (c) [time period] pertaining to an 

ice age or region of glaciation (AGI).

glacial till—See “till.”

glacial outburst flood—A sudden, often annual release 

of melt-water from a glacier or glacier-damned lake 

sometimes resulting in a catastrophic flood, caused by a 

number of factors, including the melting of ice dams or 

drainage channels (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

glaciation—(a)The formation, movement, and recession of 

glaciers or ice sheets, (b) The covering of large land areas 

by glaciers or ice sheets (AGI).

glacier—A large mass of ice formed, at least in part, on 

land by compaction and recrystallization of snow, moving 

slowly by creep downslope or outward in all directions due 

to the stress of its own weight, and surviving from year to 

year (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

glaciofluvial deposit—Material moved by glaciers and 

subsequently sorted and deposited by streams flowing from 

the melting ice (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

gneiss—A coarse-grained metamorphic rock marked 

by bands of light-colored minerals such as quartz and 

feldspar that alternate with bands of dark-colored minerals 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

graminoid—A grass or grasslike plant, e.g., fescue 

(Festuca), sedge (Carex, Kobresia), rush (Juncus), and 

woodrush (Luzula) species.

granite— (a) A plutonic rock in which quartz constitutes 

10 to 50%of the felsic components and in which the 

alkali feldspar/total feldspar ratio is generally restricted 

to the range of 65 to 90%. (b) Broadly applied, any 

holocrystalline, quartz-bearing plutonic rock (AGI).

granitic—A general term used to describe granite and 

other silica rich igneous and metamorphic rocks, including 

granodiorite, quartz monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite.

granodiorite—A group of coarse-grained plutonic rocks 

intermediate in composition between quartz diorite 

and quartz monzonite (U.S. usage), containing quartz, 

plagioclase (oligoclase or andesine), and potassium 

feldspar, with biotite, hornblende, or, more rarely, 

pyroxene, as the mafic components; also, any member 

of that group. The ratio of plagioclase to total feldspar is 

at least 2:1 but less than 9:10. With less alkali feldspar it 

grades into quartz diorite, and with more alkali feldspar, 

into granite or quartz monzonite (AGI).

grassland—An area of the Earth’s surface, greater than 

or equal to 0.04 ha, with less than 10% cover by tree and 

shrub species, and greater than or equal to 10% cover by 

graminoid species.

gravel—Rock fragments greater than or equal to 2 mm and 

less than 75 mm in diameter (Winthers and others 2005).

greywacke—A type of poorly sorted sandstone with a 

mixture of quartz and feldspar grains, abundant dark rock 

fragments (often of volcanic origin), and fine-grained clay 

and mica particles (Chernicoff and others 1997).

greenschist—Metamorphosed basalt that is high in the 

minerals chlorite and epidote (Chernicoff and others 1997).

greenstone [meta]—A field term applied to any compact 

dark-green altered or metamorphosed mafic igneous rock 

(e.g., basalt, gabbro, diabase) that owes its color to the 

presence of chlorite, actinolite, or epidote (AGI).

ground moraines—(a) Commonly an extensive, low relief 

area of till, having an uneven or undulating surface, and 

commonly bounded on the distal end by a recessional or 

end moraine; (b) A layer of poorly sorted rock and mineral 

debris (till) dragged along, in, on, or beneath a glacier 

and deposited by processes including basal lodgement 

and release from downwasting stagnant ice by ablation 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

grus—The fragmental products of in situ granular 

disintegration of granite and granitic rocks, dominated by 

inter-crystal disintegration (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002). A type of paralithic material.

H

habitat type—All the land capable of producing similar 

plant communities at climax (Daubenmire 1968).

hanging wall—the section of rock that lies above the fault 

plane in a dip-slip fault (Chernicoff and others 1997).

headwall—A steep slope at the head of a valley; especially 

the rock cliff or steep rock slope at the back of a cirque 

(AGI).

herbaceous—Nonwoody vegetation, such as grasses and 

forbs (Wells 2006).

high-level erosion surface remnants—The remains of the 

once broad, flat erosion surface that developed during the 

Oligocene and early- to mid-Miocene and was subsequently 

uplifted and eroded as explained in Mears (1993). 

Examples include Horse Ridge, Goat Flat, and Ram Flat.

hornblende—The most common mineral of the amphibole 

group: (Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe+2,Fe+3,Al)5(OH)2 [(Si,Al)8O22]. 

It has a variable composition, and may contain potassium 

and appreciable fluorine. Hornblende is commonly black, 

dark green, or brown, and is the primary constituent of 

many acid and intermediate igneous rocks (granite, syenite, 

diorite, andesite) and less commonly of basic igneous 

rocks, and it is a common metamorphic mineral in gneiss 

and schist (AGI).
326 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

I

ice sheet—A glacier of considerable thickness and more 

than 50,000 sq km in area, forming a continuous cover of 

ice and snow over a land surface, spreading outward in all 

directions and not confined by the underlying topography; a 

continental glacier (AGI).

igneous (rock)—A rock made from molten (melted) 

or partly molten material that has cooled and solidified 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

illuviation—The process of deposition of soil material 

removed from one horizon to another in the soil; usually 

from an upper to a lower horizon in the soil profile. See 

also “eluviation” (SSSA).

indicator species—Indicator species are plants that 

designate thresholds of environmental change along 

gradients (Johnson 2004).

interglacial—Pertaining to or formed during the time 

interval between two successive glacial epochs or between 

two glacial stages. The term implies both the melting of 

ice sheets to about their present level, and the maintenance 

of a warm climate for a sufficient length of time to permit 

certain changes in vegetation to occur (AGI).

intrusive rock—An igneous rock formed by the entrance 

of magma into preexisting rock (Chernicoff and others 

1997).

J

jet stream—Strong winds concentrated within a narrow 

zone in the atmosphere in the upper troposphere, about 

9200 m aloft that generally move in an easterly direction 

that drive weather systems around the globe. In North 

America, jet streams are more pronounced in winter 

(NOAA).

K

kame—A low mound, knob, hummock, or short irregular 

ridge, composed of stratified sand and gravel deposited 

by a subglacial stream as a fan or delta at the margins of a 

melting glacier; by a supraglacial stream in a low place or 

hole on the surface of the glacier; or as a ponded deposit on 

the surface or at the margin of stagnant ice. (Schoeneberger 

and Wysocki 2002).

kettle or kettle lake—A steep-sided, bowl-shaped 

depression commonly without surface drainage in drift 

deposits, often containing a lake or swamp, and formed by 

the melting of a large, detached block of stagnant ice that 

has been wholly or partly buried in the drift. Kettle range in 

depth from 1 to tens of meters, and with diameters up to 13 

km (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

krummholz—Trees dwarfed and twisted because of severe 

climate (wind, low temperature, etc.) at the high-elevation 

limits of forest development (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

L

landform—Any physical, recognizable form or feature 

on the Earth’s surface, having a characteristic shape and 

range in composition, and produced by natural causes 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

landslide—A general, encompassing term for most types 

of mass movement landform and processes involving the 

downslope transport and outward deposition of soil and 

rock materials, caused by gravitational forces and which 

may not involve saturated materials (see “solifluction”) 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

late snowbank environment—A section of land surface 

that is influenced by snow that has been redistributed by 

wind and accumulated in sheltered sites, either directly 

by physically covering the site, or indirectly by providing 

melt-water throughout the growing season.

late snowbank vegetation—An assemblage of plant 

species occurring in a late snowbank environment. Similar 

in concept to snowbed communities (Douglas and Bliss 

1977) or snow-patch vegetation (Helm 1982).

lateral moraine—A low ridge-like moraine carried on, or 

deposited at or near, the side margin of a mountain glacier. 

It is composed chiefly of rock fragments loosened from the 

valley walls by glacial abrasion and plucking, or fallen onto 

the ice from the bordering slopes (AGI).

lava—Magma that comes to the Earth’s surface through 

a volcano or fissure in the Earth’s crust (Chernicoff and 

others 1997).

leeward— refers to the direction that a slope faces (slope 

aspect) relative to the direction of the prevailing winds 

in an area. Leeward slopes are those slopes that face the 

same direction in which the prevailing winds blow, and are 

thus sheltered from the full force of those winds (see also 

“windward”).

limestone—A sedimentary rock consisting chiefly (more 

than 50% by weight or by areal percentages under the 

microscope) of calcium carbonate, primarily in the form 

of the mineral calcite, and with or without magnesium 

carbonate; specifically a carbonate sedimentary rock 

containing more than 95% calcite and less than 5% 

dolomite (AGI).

lithic contact—The boundary between soil and a coherent 

underlying material, typically bedrock (Soil Survey Staff 

2003).

lithic material—See “bedrock.”

M

mafic (rock)—A rock having a silica content between 40% 

and 50%, abundant feldspar, and having high amounts of 

iron- and magnesium-rich minerals (Chernicoff and others 

1997).

magma—Molten (melted) rock that forms naturally within 

the Earth (Chernicoff and others 1997).
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 327

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

magmatic—Pertaining to magma.

magnetite—A magnetic iron ore with the chemical 

composition Fe3O4 (Pough 1991).

mantle—The middle layer of the Earth’s interior, lying 

just below the crust and consisting of relatively dense rock 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

metagreywacke—Metamorphosed greywacke.

metamorphic (rock)—A rock that has undergone chemical 

or structural changes. Heat, pressure, or a chemical reaction 

may cause such changes (Chernicoff and others 1997).

metasedimentary (rock)—Metamorphosed sedimentary 

rocks.

mica—A group of minerals of general formula: (K,Na,Ca)

(Mg,Fe,Li,Al)2-3(OH,F)2[(Si,Al)4O10]. It consists of 

complex phyllosilicates that crystallize in forms apparently 

orthorhombic or hexagonal (such as tabular six-sided 

prisms) but really monoclinic; that are characterized by low 

hardness and by perfect basal cleavage, readily splitting 

into thin, tough, somewhat elastic laminae or plates with 

a splendent pearly luster; and that range in color from 

colorless, silvery white, pale brown, or yellow to green or 

black. Micas are prominent rock-forming constituents of 

igneous and metamorphic rocks, and commonly occur as 

flakes, scales, or shreds (AGI).

microsites—Relatively small, scattered areas on a 

landform having environmental conditions uncharacteristic 

of the landform at large.

migmatite—A rock that incorporates both metamorphic 

and igneous materials (Chernicoff and others 1997).

mineral soil—Consist of mineral soil materials (less than 

2.0 mm in diameter) (a) if the soil is saturated with water 

for less than 30 days (cumulative) per year in normal years, 

contain less than 20% (by weight) organic carbon; or (b) 

if the soils are saturated with water for 30 days or more 

cumulative in normal years and, excluding live roots, has 

an organic carbon content (by weight): (a) less than 18% 

if the mineral fraction contains 60% or more clay; (b) less 

than 12% if the mineral fraction contains no clay; or (c) less 

than 12% + (0.1*clay percentage) if the mineral fraction 

contains less than 60%clay (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

moist meadow—A meadow, or part of a meadow, in which 

the soils are not completely saturated for any part of the 

year; or if so, saturated for only a short period early in the 

growing season (Wells 2006).

moraine—(a) [material] A mound, ridge, or other 

topographically distinct accumulation of unsorted, 

unstratified glacial drift, predominantly till, deposited 

predominantly by the direct action of glacial ice, in a 

variety of landforms, (b) [landform] A general term for a 

landform composed mainly of till that has been deposited 

by a glacier (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

mudstone—An indurated mud having the texture and 

composition of shale, but lacking its fine laminations or 

fissility; a blocky or massive, fine-grained sedimentary rock 

in which the proportions of clay and silt are approximately 

equal (AGI).

muscovite—The most common of a large group of sheetstructured silicate minerals having the chemical formula 

KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 (Pough 1991).

N

National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS)—A 

nationwide partnership of Federal, regional, state and 

local agencies; and private entities and institutions (USDA 

NRCS 2007a).

nunatak—An isolated hill, knob, ridge, or peak of bedrock 

that projects prominently above the surface of a glacier and 

is completed surrounded by glacier ice (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).

O

oligoclase— A feldspar with the chemical composition 

Na2Ca (Pough 1991).

organic soil—Soil material that contains more than the 

amounts of organic carbon described for mineral soils is 

considered organic soil material. Equivalent to Histosols in 

soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

orogeny—Literally, the process of formation of mountains 

or a mountain building episode. By present geological 

usage, orogeny is the process by which structures within 

fold-belt mountainous areas were formed, including 

thrusting, folding, and faulting in the outer and higher 

layers, and plastic folding, metamorphism, and plutonism 

in the inner and deeper layers (AGI).

P

paralithic material—Relatively unaltered materials 

that have an extremely weakly cemented to moderately 

cemented rupture resistance class (e.g., grus) (Soil Survey 

Staff 2003).

parent material—The unconsolidated and more or less 

chemically weathered mineral or organic matter from 

which the solum of soils is developed by pedogenic 

processes (SSSA).

pavement or erosion pavement—A soil surface that is 

covered by rock fragments as the result of wind deflation, 

or the removal of the fine-earth fraction (<2 mm) of a 

soil by the force of wind (Livingstone and Warren 1996; 

Seppälä 2004).

ped—A unit of soil structure such as a block, column, 

granule, plate, or prism, formed by natural processes (in 

contrast with a clod, which is formed artificially) (SSSA).

pedon—A three-dimensional body of soil with lateral 

dimensions large enough to permit the study of horizon 

shapes and relations (SSSA).

pedogenic—Pertaining to soil formation (AGI).
328 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

perennial—A plant that lives more than two years (Dorn 

2001).

perigynium or pergynia—sheath or sac which encloses 

ovary and fruit in Carex and Kobresia (Dorn 2001).

piedmont—n. An area, plain, slope, glacier, or other 

feature at the base of a mountain. adj. Lying or formed at 

the base of a mountain or mountain range (AGI).

plagioclase—A feldspar with the chemical composition 

(Ca,NA)AlSi3O8 (Chernicoff and others 1997).

plant community—An assemblage of plants living 

together and interacting among themselves in a specific 

location (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

plant community type—A set of plant communities with 

similar structure and floristic composition that are seral in 

nature and often follow directly from a disturbance event 

(fire, flooding, etc.). Assuming a constant environment over 

a given time, a plant community type will undergo a natural 

shift in floristic composition through plant succession 

(Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

pluton—An intrusive rock, as distinguished from the 

pre-existing country rock that surrounds it (Chernicoff and 

others 1997).

plutonic rock—Another name for intrusive rock, formed 

by entrance of magma into pre-existing rock (Chernicoff 

and others 1997).

porphyritic—Of or being an igneous rock containing some 

large grains within a smaller-grained matrix (Chernicoff 

and others 1997).

Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV)—the vegetation that 

would become established if all successional sequences 

were completed without natural disturbance or human 

interference under present climatic and edaphic conditions 

(Winthers and others 2005).

precipitation—Any form of water particles-liquid or 

solid-that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the ground 

(NOAA).

province (ecological unit classification)—An ecological 

unit in the ecoregion planning and analysis scale of 

the National Hierarchical Framework corresponding 

to subdivisions of a Division that conform to climatic 

subzones controlled mainly by continental weather patterns 

(ECOMAP 1993).

province (geologic)—An extensive region characterized 

throughout by similar geologic history or by similar 

structure, petrographic, or physiographic features (AGI)

pyrogenous—See “serotinous.”

pyroxene—A large group of rock-forming calcium, iron, 

magnesium, and aluminum silicates. Pyroxenes are similar 

to amphiboles, but contain no water (Pough 1991).

Q

quartz—Crystalline silica, an important rock-forming 

mineral: SiO2. It is, next to feldspar, the commonest 

mineral (AGI).

quartz diorite—A group of plutonic rocks having the 

composition of diorite but with an appreciable amount 

of quartz, i.e., between 5 and 20% of the light-colored 

constituents. Quartz diorite grades into granodiorite as the 

alkali feldspar content increases (AGI).

quartz monzonite—In former U.S. usage, granitic rock in 

which quartz comprises 10–50% of the felsic constituents, 

and in which the alkali feldspar/total feldspar ratio is 

between 35% and 65%. With an increase in plagioclase and 

femic minerals, it grades into granodiorite and with more 

alkali feldspar, into a granite. Now the term is applied by 

most British petrologists to granites with quartz constituting 

20–60% of the light-colored components and with a 

plagioclase/total feldspar ratio of 35/65 (AGI).

R

rainshadow—The region on the leeside of a mountain 

where the precipitation is noticeable less than on the 

windward side (NOAA).

recessional moraine—An end or lateral moraine built 

during a temporary but significant pause in the final retreat 

of a glacier. Also, a moraine built during a slight or minor 

re-advance of the ice front during a period of general 

recession (AGI).

redoximorphic concentrations—Pore linings, soft masses, 

nodules, concretions, and other features resulting from the 

accumulation of iron or manganese oxide. An indication of 

chemical reduction and oxidation resulting from saturation 

(Soil Survey Staff 2003).

redoximorphic depletions—Low-chroma zones from 

which iron and manganese oxide or a combination of iron 

and manganese oxide and clay has been removed. These 

zones are indications of the chemical reduction of iron 

resulting from saturation (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

redoximorphic features—Redoximorphic concentrations, 

redoximorphic depletions, reduced matrices, and other 

features indicating the chemical reduction and oxidation of 

iron and manganese compounds resulting from saturation 

(SSSA).

reduced matrix—A soil matrix that has low chroma in situ 

because of chemically reduced iron (Fe II). The chemical 

reduction results from nearly continuous wetness. The 

matrix undergoes a change in hue or chroma within 30 

minutes after exposure to air as the iron is oxidized (Fe III) 

(SSSA).

regolith—All unconsolidated earth materials above the 

solid bedrock. It includes material weathered in place from 

all kinds of bedrock and alluvial, glacial, eolian, lacustrine, 

and pyroclastic deposits. Soil scientists regard as soil only 

that part of the regolith that is modified by organisms and 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 329

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

soil forming processes. Most engineers describe the whole 

regolith, even to a great depth, as “soil” (Schoeneberger 

and Wysocki 2002).

residuum—Unconsolidated, weathered, or partly 

weathered mineral material that accumulates by 

disintegration of bedrock in place (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).

residual—Referring to a soil formed from residuum.

reverse fault—A dip-slip fault marked by a hanging wall 

that has moved upward relative to the footwall (Chernicoff 

and others 1997).

rhizome—Underground stem or rarely creeping along 

ground surface (Dorn 2001).

rhizomatous—With rhizomes (Dorn 2001).

riparian zone (ecosystem)—Riparian zones are defined as 

the strip of land along streams or rivers that is affected by 

stream processes (flooding, sedimentation, etc.) and that, in 

turn, affects stream structure and function (Wells, 2006).

rock fragments—Any pieces of rock larger than 2 mm 

located in a soil profile including gravels (2 to 75 mm), 

cobbles (75 to 250 mm), stones (250 to 600 mm), and 

boulders (>600 mm).

S

sand—Soil particles between 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm in 

diameter, see also “soil separates.” As a textural class, soil 

material that contains 85% or more of sand; percentage of 

silt, plus 1.5 times the percentage of clay, shall not exceed 

15% (SSSA).

sandy-shale—A sedimentary rock intermediate between 

sandstone and shale that is typically composed of thin 

layers of fine-grained sand held together by a cementing 

agent, such as calcium carbonate or silica.

sandstone—A medium-grained clastic sedimentary rock 

composed of abundant rounded or angular fragments of 

sand size with or without a fine-grained matrix (silt or clay) 

and more or less firmly united by a cementing material 

(commonly silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate) (AGI).

scarp slope—The relatively steeper face of a cuesta, 

facing in a direction opposite to the dip of the strata 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

schist—A strongly foliated crystalline rock, formed by 

dynamic metamorphism, that can be readily split into thin 

flakes or slabs because of the well-developed parallelism 

of more than 50% of the minerals present, particularly 

those of lamellar or elongate prismatic habit (e.g., mica and 

hornblende) (AGI).

section—An ecological unit in the subregion planning 

and analysis scale of the National Hierarchical Framework 

corresponding to subdivisions of a Province having broad 

areas of similar geomorphic process, stratigraphy, geologic 

origin, drainage networks, topography, and regional 

climate. Such areas are often inferred by relating geologic 

maps to Kuchler (1964) potential natural vegetation 

groupings (ECOMAP 1993).

sediment—Material, both mineral and organic, that is in 

suspension, is being transported, or has been moved from 

its site of origin by water, wind, ice or mass-wasting and 

has come to rest on the Earth’s surface either above or 

below sea level (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

sedimentary (rock)—A consolidated deposit of clastic 

particles, chemical precipitates, or organic remains 

accumulated at or near the surface of the earth under 

“normal” low temperature and pressure conditions. 

Sedimentary rocks include consolidated equivalents of 

alluvium, colluvium, drift, and eolian, lacustrine, marine 

deposits; e.g., sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, clay-stone, 

shale, conglomerate, limestone, dolomite, coal, etc. (USDA 

NRCS 2002a).

seep—An area, generally small, where water percolates 

slowly to the ground surface. For water, it may be 

considered as a seepage spring, but it is used in some 

cases for flows too small to be considered as springs 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

seral—(a) Vegetation—Refers to species, communities, 

or stands whose presence is due to disturbance, and in 

the absence of disturbance are eventually replaced with 

potential natural vegetation; (b) Stage—Refers to unique, 

recognizable assemblages of seral vegetation that represent 

the progression from the time period immediately following 

a disturbance event to the establishment of potential natural 

vegetation.

serotinous or serotiny—Used in relation to pine cones 

that require high temperatures to open and release seeds, 

particularly in lodgepole pine (Anderson 2003).

shale—A laminated, indurated rock with >67% clay-sized 

minerals; a claystone with fissility (AGI).

shoulder—The hill slope profile position that forms the 

convex, erosional surface near the top of a slope. If present, 

it comprises the transition between summit and backslope; 

compare summit, backslope, footslope, and toeslope 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

shrub—A woody plant that at maturity is usually less than 

6 m tall and generally exhibits several erect, spreading, or 

prostrate stems and has a bushy appearance; e.g., mountain 

big sagebrush or planeleaf willow.

shrubland—An area of the Earth’s surface, greater than or 

equal to 0.04 ha, with less than 10% cover by tree species, 

and greater than or equal to 10% cover by shrub species.

silt—Soil particles between 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm in 

diameter, see also “soil separates.” As a textural class, soil 

material that contains 80% or more silt-sized soil particles 

and less than 12% clay-sized particles (SSSA).

siltstone—An indurated silt having the texture and 

composition of shale but lacking its fine lamination or 
330 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

fissility; a massive mudstone in which the silt predominates 

over clay (AGI).

site water balance (SWB)—The difference between 

evapotranspiration and precipitation.

slope or slope gradient—The angle of the ground surface 

(in percent) through the site and in the direction that 

overland water would flow (Schoeneberger and others 

2002).

snow—Solid precipitation in the form of minute ice flakes 

that occur below 0 °C (NOAA).

snowpack—A horizontally layered accumulation of 

snow from snowfall events, which may be modified by 

meteorological conditions over time (NOAA).

soil—A natural body comprised of solids (minerals and 

organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land 

surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one 

or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are 

distinguishable from the initial material as a result of 

additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy 

and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a 

natural environment (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

soil map unit—A National Cooperative Soil Survey land 

unit classification concept that refers to a collection of 

areas defined and named the same in terms of their soil 

components and vegetation (Soil Survey Division Staff 

1993).

soil separates—Mineral particles, <2.0 mm in equivalent 

diameter, ranging between specified size limits. The names 

and size limits of separates recognized in the USA are: 

very coarse sand, 2.0 to 1.0 mm; coarse sand, 1.0 to 0.5 

mm; medium sand, 0.5 to 0.25 mm; fine sand, 0.25 to 0.10 

mm; very fine sand, 0.10 to 0.05 mm; silt, 0.05 to 0.002 

mm; and clay, <0.002 mm. The separates recognized by the 

International Society of Soil Science are: (i) coarse sand, 

2.0 to 0.2 mm; (ii) fine sand, 0.2 to 0.02 mm; (iii) silt, 0.02 

to 0.002 mm; and (iv) clay, <0.002 mm (SSSA).

soil moisture control section—The intent of the soil 

moisture control section is to facilitate estimation of soil 

moisture regimes from climatic data. The upper boundary 

of this control section is the depth to which a dry soil 

will be moistened by 2.5 cm of water within 48 hours. 

The lower boundary is the depth to which a soil will be 

moistened by 7.5 cm of water within 48 hours (Soil Survey 

Staff 2003).

soil moisture regime (SMR)—A soil taxonomy concept 

that refers to the presence or absence of ground water, 

or the amount of water in a given soil that is available to 

plants (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

soil temperature regime (STR)—A soil taxonomy concept 

that refers to the range of temperatures a soil experiences 

annually.

solar radiation—Energy received from the sun is solar 

radiation. The energy comes in many forms, such as visible 

light (that which we can see with our eyes). Other forms of 

radiation include radio waves, heat (infrared), ultraviolet 

waves, and x-rays. These forms are categorized within the 

electromagnetic spectrum (NOAA).

solifluction—The slow, viscous downslope flow of watersaturated regolith. Rates of flow vary widely. The presence 

of frozen substrate or even freezing and thawing is not 

implied in the original definition. However, one component 

of solifluction can be creep or frozen ground (see 

“cryogenic solifluction”). The term is commonly applied to 

processes operating in both seasonal frost and permafrost 

areas (Schoeneberger and others 2002).

solifluction lobe—Solifluction lobes are narrow, linear 

landforms resulting from the accumulation of soils due to 

solifluction that tend to develop on steeper slopes (Davis 

2001).

solifluction terrace—broad, bench-like landforms resulting 

from the accumulation of soils due to solifluction that tend 

to develop on shallower slopes (Davis 2001).

solum—A set of soil horizons that are related through 

the same cycle of pedogenic processes; the A, E, and B 

horizons (SSSA).

spire (growth form)—typical tree growth form with a 

central stem, and radiating branches (Grant and Mitton 

1977).

spring—An area where groundwater flows onto the Earth’s 

surface (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

stand—An existing plant community that is relatively 

uniform in composition, structure, and site conditions; thus, 

it may serve as a local example of a community type or 

habitat type (Wells 2006).

stolon—An elongate, creeping stem on the surface of the 

ground (Wells 2006).

stoloniferous—Bearing stolons (Wells 2006).

stone—Rock fragments greater than or equal to 250 mm 

and less than 600 mm in diameter (Winthers and others 

2005).

stone nets—A type of sorted ground and the product of 

cryoturbation. Stone nets occur on flat or gentle slopes 

(<7%), and feature a series of rock polygons, or “cells” of 

the “net,” interlaced with a net-like pattern of smaller rock 

fragments and soil material (Richmond, 1949). Stone nets 

are not only formed from stone in the technical sense (see 

“stone”), but rock fragments, including gravels, cobbles, 

stones, and boulders.

stone stripes—A type of sorted ground and the product 

of cryoturbation. The linear equivalent of stone nets that 

occurs on steeper slope gradients typically between 7% and 

27% (Richmond 1949).

subsection—see “ecoregion.”

succession—The progressive changes in plant communities 

toward a steady state. Primary succession begins on a 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 331

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

bare surface not previously occupied by plants, such as a 

recently deposited gravel bar. Secondary succession occurs 

following disturbances on sites that previously supported 

vegetation.

subdominant overstory tree—A tree whose crown is 

positioned slightly below the uppermost canopy layer of a 

forest.

summit—(a) The topographically highest position of 

a hill slope profile with a nearly level planar or slightly 

convex surface, compare — shoulder, backslope, footslope, 

toeslope; (b) A general term for the top, or highest area of 

a landform such as a hill, mountain, or tableland. It usually 

refers to a high interfluve area of relatively gentle slope that 

is flanked by steeper slopes (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002).

survey order—Levels of a soil survey that differ in the 

intensity of the field study, degree of detail in mapping, 

degree of abstraction in defining and naming map units, and 

map unit design (Soil Survey Division Staff 1993). There 

are five soil survey orders:

1st order—Very intensive, appropriate scales for field 

mapping and publication are 1:15,840 or larger.

2nd order—Intensive, appropriate scales for field 

mapping and publication are 1:12,000 to 1:31,680.

3rd order—Extensive, appropriate scales for field 

mapping and publication are 1:20,000 to 1:63,360.

4th order—Extensive, appropriate scales for field 

mapping and publication are 1:63,360 to 1:250,000.

5th order—Very extensive, appropriate scales for field 

mapping and publication are 1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000.

T

talus—Rock fragments of any size or shape (usually coarse 

or angular) derived from and lying at the base of a cliff or 

very steep rock slope. The accumulated mass of such loose 

broken rock formed chiefly by falling, rolling, or sliding 

(Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

tectonic—Pertaining to movements and deformation of the 

Earth’s crust.

terrace or stream terrace—One or a series of platforms 

in a stream valley, flanking and more or less parallel to 

the stream channel, originally formed near the level of the 

stream, and representing the remnants of an abandoned 

floodplain, streambed, or valley floor produced during a 

former state of fluvial erosion or deposition (i.e., currently 

very rarely or never floods, inactive cut and fill or scour and 

fill processes) (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

terrane—A fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent, 

characterized by a geologic history different from that 

of contiguous terranes or bounding continents. A terrane 

is generally considered to be a discrete allochthonous 

fragment of oceanic or continental material added to a 

craton at an active margin by accretion (AGI).

terrestrial ecological unit inventory (TEUI)—Ecological 

type approach to land classification developed by the U.S. 

Forest Service. TEUI is a field sampling protocol and 

ecological type classification system, the purpose of which 

is to collect information on the nature and distribution 

of ecosystems, and to classify ecosystem types and map 

land areas with similar capabilities and potential for 

management (Winthers and others 2005).

thrust fault—A reverse fault marked by a dip of 45o or less 

(Chernicoff and others 1997).

till—Dominantly unsorted and unstratified drift, generally 

unconsolidated and deposited directly by a glacier without 

subsequent reworking by meltwater, and consisting of a 

heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, stones, 

and boulders (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

timberline—(a)The elevational region, identifical by 

characteristic vegetation, between the subalpine and 

alpine zones. The boundaries between these zones vary 

considerably from one geographical region to another and 

with microclimatic conditions; (b) The relatively narrow 

elevation zone representing the upper limits of erect tree 

growth.

toeslope—The hillslope position that forms the gently 

inclined surface at the base of a hillslope. Toeslopes 

in profile are commonly gentle and linear, and are 

constructional surfaces forming in the lower part of a 

hill slope continuum that grades to valley floors or the 

topographical bottom of closed basins; compare summit, 

shoulder, backslope, and footslope (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).

topoedaphic—Refers to a combination of topography and 

soils (Steele and others 1983).

topography—The relative positions and elevations of the 

natural or manmade features of an area that describe the 

configuration of its surface (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 

2002).

tree—A woody plant that at maturity is usually 6 m or 

more in height and generally has a single trunk unbranched 

to about 1 m above the ground and a more or less definite 

crown (Wells 2006).

treeline (lower)—The lower elevation limits of tree 

growth.

treeline (upper)—see “timberline.”

tree islands—Scattered patches of forested vegetation 

separated from one another by sections of alpine meadow 

(Marr 1977). Tree islands occur mostly near timberline.

trellis drainage pattern—A drainage pattern characterized 

by parallel main streams intersected at, or nearly at, right 

angles by their tributaries, which in turn are fed by elongate 

secondary tributaries and short gullies parallel to the main 

streams, resembling in plan view, the stems of a vine on 

a trellis. This pattern indicates marked bedrock structural 

control rather than a type of bedrock (Schoeneberger and 

Wysocki 2002).
332 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES GLOSSARY

tuff—Consolidated or cemented volcanic ash and lapilli 

(AGI).

turf—See “alpine turf.”

U

udic (soil moisture regime)—A soil moisture regime in 

which the soil moisture control section is not dry in any 

part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years (Soil 

Survey Staff 2003).

ultramafic (rock)—A dark-colored rock dominated by 

the iron- and magnesium-containing minerals olivine and 

pyroxene, and having less than 40% silica (Chernicoff and 

others 1997).

understory tree—A tree with a diameter at breast height 

less than 13 cm.

upland—Land at a higher elevation than the floodplain or 

lowest stream terrace (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

ustic (soil moisture regime)—A soil in which moisture is 

limited but is present at a time when conditions are suitable 

for plant growth (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

V

valley—An elongate, relatively large, externally drained 

depression of the Earth’s surface (Wells 2006).

valley floor—The comparatively broad, flat bottom of a 

valley; it may be excavated and represent the level of a 

former erosion cycle, or it may be buried under a thin cover 

of alluvium (Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2002).

vegetation type—A general term referring to habitat type, 

plant community types, and plant communities.

W

water table—The depth beneath the soil surface below 

which the ground is saturated with water. The depth to 

standing water (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997).

weathering—All physical and chemical changes produced 

in rocks or other deposits at or near the Earth’s surface 

by atmospheric agents with essentially no transport of the 

altered material. These changes result in disintegration and 

decomposition of the material (Wells 2006).

wetland—Lands within or adjacent to, and hydrologically 

influenced by, streams, rivers, lakes, meadows, and seeps 

(Cowardin and others 1979).

wildfire—Any fire that occurs in an ecosystem that started 

by natural means, e.g., lighting strike.

windward—refers to the direction that a slope faces (slope 

aspect) relative to the direction of the prevailing winds in 

an area. Windward slopes are those slopes that face the 

opposite direction in which the prevailing winds blow, and 

are thus exposed to the full force of those winds (see also 

“leeward”).
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 333

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 1: SNOTEL Precipitation and Temperature Data SummariesName: South Pass Latitude: 42° 34’Site Number: 775 Longitude: -108° 50’Station ID: 08g03s Timeframe: 1986-2006Elevation: 2756 m

 2 years in 10 will have

Month avg. daily max avg. daily min avg. max temp >than min temp <than less than more than avg. 1st of month avg. 15th of month

January 0.4 -13.6 -7.7 5 -19 0 7.1 4.6 9.4 19.8 23.4

February 1.5 -13.8 -7.4 6 -19 0 6.6 3.0 8.4 26.9 30.2

March 4.7 -11.1 -4.2 9 -16 0 7.6 5.3 10.9 34.3 37.8April 8.3 -7.0 -0.2 13 -12 19 9.1 5.6 11.2 41.7 42.2May 11.9 -2.2 4.1 17 -5 151 7.6 5.1 9.7 40.6 30.5

June 17.5 2.1 9.2 23 -1 294 4.8 1.5 7.4 11.2 4.6July 22.7 5.8 13.5 26 3 443 2.5 0.3 4.3 0.0 0.0

August 21.7 5.4 12.6 25 3 421 3.0 1.3 4.8 0.0 0.0

September 15.9 1.1 7.5 21 -2 255 4.1 1.8 6.4 0.0 0.0

October 9.7 -3.7 2.0 15 -7 94 5.3 3.8 8.4 0.3 0.8

November 2.4 -10.5 -5.0 8 -16 0 7.9 4.3 10.2 3.8 7.1

December -0.4 -13.7 -8.2 5 -19 0 7.6 4.3 9.9 11.2 15.7Annual

Average 9.8 -5.1 1.4 14 -9

Extreme 31.9 -38.6

Total 1677 73.4 40.9 100.8

Table 1-1. SNOTEL precipitation and temperature data summaries for the South Pass station, Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, WY, 1986-2006.

a Refers to growing degree days, a unit of heat available for plant growth. It can be calculated on a daily basis by adding the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, and dividing the sum by 2.

 Temperature (Degrees C) Precipitation (cm)

avg. # total 

degree days 

per montha

avg. total 

monthly precip

2 years in 10, total monthly 

precip will be

Snow water equivalent 

(accumulated)

Appendix 1: SNOTEL Precipitation and Temperature Data 

Summaries
334 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 1 Name: Townsend Creek Latitude: 42° 41’

Site Number: 826 Longitude: -108° 53’Station ID: 08g07s Timeframe: 1990-2006Elevation: 2652 m

 2 years in 10 will have

Month avg. daily max avg. daily min avg. max temp >than min temp <than less than more than avg. 1st of month avg. 15th of month

January 1.0 -14.7 -6.9 5 -21 0 3.6 2.5 5.1 10.9 12.7

February 2.1 -15.5 -7.0 7 -22 0 4.3 2.0 6.4 14.2 16.3

March 5.1 -12.2 -3.7 10 -19 0 6.1 3.6 7.9 18.3 20.6

April 7.9 -7.5 0.2 13 -13 7 8.9 4.3 12.7 23.6 23.4May 12.6 -2.7 4.9 18 -6 153 7.6 4.8 10.9 19.3 10.9June 17.8 0.9 9.6 23 -2 280 5.3 1.5 8.9 2.5 0.8

July 23.1 4.0 13.7 26 1 421 2.8 1.3 4.3 0.0 0.0

August 22.5 3.9 13.0 25 2 409 3.3 2.0 3.8 0.0 0.0

September 16.8 -0.2 7.8 22 -3 249 4.8 3.0 6.1 0.0 0.0

October 10.4 -4.7 2.2 16 -8 87 5.8 2.8 8.1 0.3 0.5

November 3.6 -11.9 -4.3 9 -19 0 5.3 2.8 7.4 2.8 4.8

December 0.4 -15.1 -7.5 5 -21 0 3.6 1.8 5.1 7.1 8.9

Annual

Average 10.3 -6.3 1.9 15 -11

Extreme 32.6 -40.0

Total 1606 61.5 32.5 86.6

Table 1-2. SNOTEL precipitation and temperature data summaries for the Townsend Creek station, Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, WY, 1990-2006.

a Refers to growing degree days, a unit of heat available for plant growth. It can be calculated on a daily basis by adding the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, and dividing the sum by 2.

 Temperature (Degrees C) Precipitation (cm)

avg. # total 

degree days 

per montha

avg. total 

monthly precip

2 years in 10, total monthly 

precip will be

Snow water equivalent 

(accumulated)
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 1

Name: Hobbs Park Latitude: 42° 52’Site Number: 525 Longitude: -109° 5’Station ID: 09g03s Timeframe: 1990-2006Elevation: 3079 m

 2 years in 10 will have

Month avg. daily max avg. daily min avg. max temp >than min temp <than less than more than avg. 1st of month avg. 15th of month

January -2.3 -14.0 -7.8 2 -20 0 4.3 3.0 5.3 17.5 20.3February -0.9 -14.5 -7.8 4 -20 0 4.8 2.8 5.8 22.9 25.4March 2.0 -12.2 -5.3 6 -18 0 6.9 4.3 8.6 28.7 32.3

April 5.3 -8.7 -1.9 10 -14 0 9.9 6.1 14.5 36.1 38.6May 9.5 -3.6 2.8 14 -7 91 9.4 6.1 12.2 40.9 36.1June 14.0 0.5 7.4 18 -2 217 6.1 2.3 10.7 18.3 8.6

July 19.0 4.4 11.8 22 1 364 3.8 1.8 5.3 1.5 0.0

August 18.5 4.2 11.3 21 2 353 3.6 2.3 4.8 0.0 0.0

September 13.3 0.0 6.4 18 -3 200 4.3 2.5 6.9 0.0 0.0

October 7.3 -4.9 1.0 12 -9 38 5.8 2.5 8.4 0.5 1.8

November 0.6 -11.3 -5.3 6 -18 0 5.6 3.6 6.9 5.8 8.6

December -2.5 -14.0 -8.1 2 -20 0 4.3 2.8 5.6 12.2 15.0Annual

Average 7.0 -6.1 0.4 11 -11

Extreme 27.1 -37.2

Total 1263 68.8 40.1 95.0

Table 1-3. SNOTEL precipitation and temperature data summaries for the Hobbs Park station, Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, WY, 1990-2006.

a Refers to growing degree days, a unit of heat available for plant growth. It can be calculated on a daily basis by adding the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, and dividing the sum by 2.

 Temperature (Degrees C) Precipitation (cm)

avg. # total 

degree days 

per montha

avg. total 

monthly precip

2 years in 10, total monthly 

precip will be

Snow water equivalent 

(accumulated)
336 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 1

Name: Cold Springs Latitude: 43° 16’Site Number: 405 Longitude: -109° 26’Station ID: 09f25s Timeframe:1990-2006Elevation: 2935 m

 2 years in 10 will have

Month avg. daily max avg. daily min avg. max temp >than min temp <than less than more than avg. 1st of month avg. 15th of month

January -1.7 -11.9 -7.1 3 -17 0 3.3 2.3 4.1 9.4 10.9

February -0.5 -12.6 -7.1 4 -18 0 3.6 1.8 4.6 12.2 13.7March 2.7 -10.4 -4.5 7 -15 0 4.8 3.6 6.4 15.5 17.3

April 5.8 -7.1 -1.3 10 -12 0 7.4 3.8 10.7 18.8 15.2May 10.2 -2.4 3.2 15 -6 120 7.4 4.6 10.2 10.2 7.1June 15.0 1.7 7.8 20 -1 251 5.3 1.3 10.9 2.5 0.5July 20.4 5.8 12.4 24 3 405 3.3 1.3 4.8 0.0 0.0

August 19.9 5.5 11.8 23 3 394 3.3 2.0 4.8 0.0 0.0

September 14.4 1.4 7.0 19 -2 237 4.1 2.5 5.3 0.0 0.0

October 8.3 -3.6 1.6 14 -8 73 4.6 2.3 6.4 0.0 0.3

November 1.2 -9.5 -4.5 7 -15 0 4.8 3.3 6.9 2.0 4.1

December -2.2 -12.1 -7.3 3 -17 0 3.3 1.3 4.3 6.4 7.6

Annual

Average 7.8 -4.6 1.0 12 -9

Extreme 29.3 -37.5

Total 1480 55.1 30.0 79.2

Table 1-4. SNOTEL precipitation and temperature data summaries for the Cold Springs station, Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, WY, 1990-2006.

a Refers to growing degree days, a unit of heat available for plant growth. It can be calculated on a daily basis by adding the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, and dividing the sum by 2.

 Temperature (Degrees C) Precipitation (cm)

avg. # total 

degree days 

per montha

avg. total 

monthly precip

2 years in 10, total monthly 

precip will be

Snow water equivalent 

(accumulated)
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 337

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 2: TOTAL SPECIES LIST 

Description 

A listing of all plant taxa encountered during field sampling, including USDA code (USDA Plants Code [USDA, NRCS 

2007b]), Lifeform (LF), common name, scientific name, and author (author epithet, including species epithet and variety epithet, when available, seperated by a semi-colon). Appendix 2. Total species list sorted in alphabetical order by USDA Plants Code.USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

Trees

ABLA T subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

JUSC2 T Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.

PIAL T whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm. 

PICOL T lodgepole pine Pinus contorta var. latifolia Dougl. ex Loud.; Engelm. ex S. Wats.

PIEN T Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.PIFL2 T limber pine Pinus flexilis James

POTR5 T quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Michx.

PSMEG T Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Mirbel) Franco; (Beissn.) Franco

Shrubs

ACGL S Rocky Mountain maple Acer glabrum Torr.

ALVIS2 S Sitka alder Alnus viridis var. sinuata (Chaix) DC.; RegelAMAL2 S western serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.

ARAR8 S low sagebrush Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.

ARCA13 S silver sagebrush Artemisia cana Pursh

ARFR4 S fringed sagewort Artemisia frigida Willd.

ARTRR4 S Wyoming three-tip sagebrush Artemisia tripartita var. rupicola Rydb. (Beetle) Dorn

ARTRV2 S mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana Nutt.; (Rydb.) BoivinARUV S kinnikinnick Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

BEGL S bog birch Betula glandulosa Michx.

CEVE S snowbrush ceanothus Ceanothus velutinus Dougl. ex Hook.CHUMO S pipsissewa Chimaphila umbellata var. occidentalis (L.) W. Bart.; (Rydb.) BlakeCHVI8 S yellow rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus (Hook.) Nutt.

COSE16 S red-osier dogwood Cornus sericea L.

Appendix 2: Total Species List
338 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

DROCH3 S Hooker's mountain avens Dryas octopetala var. hookeriana L.; (Juz.) Breitung 

ERNAN5 S rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa var. nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) Nesom & Baird

HODU S rockspirea Holodiscus dumosus (Nutt. ex Hook.) Heller

JUCOD S common juniper Juniperus communis var. depressa L.JUOS S Utah juniper Juniperus osteospema (Torr.) Little

KAMI S alpine laurel Kalmia microphylla (Hook.) Heller

LOIN5 S twinberry honeysuckle Lonicera involucrata Banks ex Spreng.MARE11 S Oregon grape Mahonia repens (Lindl.) G. DonPAMY S Oregon boxleaf Paxistima myrsinites (Pursh) Raf.

PEFL15 S shrubby cinquefoil Pentaphylloides floribunda (Pursh) Love

PHEM S pink mountainheath Phyllodoce empetriformis (Sw.) D. Don

PRVIM S black chokecherry Prunus virginiana var. melanocarpa L.; (A. Nels.) Sarg.

PUTR2 S antelope bitterbrush Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC.

RHART2 S skunkbush sumac Rhus aromatica var. trilobata Ait.; (Nutt.) Gray ex. S. Wats.

RIBES S currant Ribes L.

RICEP S whisky currant Ribes cereum var. pedicellare Dougl.; Brewer & S. Wats.

RIHU S northern black currant Ribes hudsonianum Richards.RILA S prickly currant Ribes lacustre (Pers.) Poir.

RIMO2 S gooseberry currant Ribes montigenum McClatchie

RIOX S Canadian gooseberry Ribes oxyacanthoides L.RIVI3 S sticky currant Ribes viscosissimum Pursh

ROSA3 S prickly rose Rosa sayi Schwein.

ROWO S woods rose Rosa woodsii Lindl.

RUID S grayleaf red raspberry Rubus idaeus L.

SAARP5 S arctic willow Salix arctica var. petraea Pallas; (Anderss.) Bebb

SABR S short-fruit willow Salix brachycarpa Nutt.

SACA6 S cascade willow Salix cascadensis Cockerell

SACE3 S blue elderberry Sambucus cerulea Raf.

SADR S Drummond's willow Salix drummondiana Barratt

SAER S Missouri River willow Salix eriocephala Michx.SAEX S sandbar willow Salix exigua Nutt.

SAFA S farr's willow Salix farriae Ball

SAGE2 S Geyer willow Salix geyeriana Anderss.

SAGLV S grayleaf willow Salix glauca var. villosa L.; Anderss.

SAMBU S elderberry Sambucus L.

SAPL2 S planeleaf willow Salix planifolia Pursh

SARA2 S red elderberry Sambucus racemosa L.

SAREN2 S snow willow Salix reticulata var. nana L.; (Hook.) Anderss.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 339

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

SASC S Scouler's willow Salix scouleriana Barratt ex Hook.SATW S Tweedy's willow Salix tweedyi (Bebb ex Rose) Ball

SAWO S Wolf's willow Salix wolfii Bebb

SHCA S russet buffaloberry Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt.

SYORU S Utah snowberry Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Gray; (Rydb.) A. Nels.

VACE S dwarf bilberry Vaccinium cespitosum Michx.

VAOC S bog blueberry Vaccinium occidentale GrayVASC S grouse whortleberry Vaccinium scoparium Leiberg

ForbsACCO4 F monkshood Aconitum columbianum Nutt.

ACMIL3 F western yarrow Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa DC. ; (Nutt.) Piper

ACRU2 F baneberry Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd.

AGGL F pale agoseris Agoseris glauca (Pursh) Raf.

AGOSE F agoseris Agoseris Raf.

ALAL3 F pale madwort Alyssum alyssoides L.

ALCE2 F nodding onion Allium cernuum Roth

ALDE F desert alyssum Alyssum desertorum Stapf

ALSC F wild chives Allium schoenoprasum L.

ALTE F textile onion Allium textile Nels. & Macbr.

ANAN2 F tall pussy-toes Antennaria anaphaloides Rydb.ANCO F meadow pussy-toes Antennaria corymbosa E. Nels.

ANEMO F anemone Anemone L.ANMA F common pearly-everlasting Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H.ANME2 F Rocky Mountain pussytoes Antennaria media Greene

ANMI3 F littleleaf pussytoes Antennaria microphylla Rydb.

ANPAM F cutleaf anemone Anemone patens var. multifida L.; Pritz.

ANRA F raceme pussy-toes Antennaria racemosa Hook.

ANRO2 F rosy pussy-toes Antennaria rosea Greene

ANSES F pygmyflower rockjasmine Androsace septentrionalis var. subulifera L.; Gray

ANTEN F everlasting; pussy-toes Antennaria Gaertn.ANUM F umber pussy-toes Antennaria umbrinella Rydb.

APAN2 F spreading dogbane Apocynum androsaemifolium L.

AQCO F Colorado blue columbine Aquilegia coerulea James

ARCO9 F heartleaf arnica Arnica cordifolia Hook.

ARENA F sandwort Arenaria L.

ARFU3 F orange arnica Arnica fulgens Pursh
340 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

ARHI F hairy rockcress Arabis hirsuta (L.) Scop.

ARLA8 F broadleaf arnica Arnica latifolia Bong.

ARLU F white sagebrush Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.ARMO4 F hairy arnica Arnica mollis Hook.

ARRY F rydberg's arnica Arnica rydbergii Greene

ARSC F alpine sagebrush Artemisia scopulorum Gray

ASAG2 F field milkvetch Astragalus agrestis Dougl. ex G. Don

ASAL7 F alpine milkvetch Astragalus alpinus L.

ASAUG F Indian milkvetch Astragalus australis var. glabriusculus (L.) Lam.; (Hook.) Isely

ASEU2 F pretty milkvetch Astragalus eucosmus B.L. Robins.

ASKE F spiny milkvetch Astragalus kentrophyta Gray

ASMI9 F timber milkvetch Astragalus miser Dougl.

ASTER F aster Aster L.

ASTRA F milkvetch; orophaca Astragalus L.

BAIN F hoary balsamroot Balsamorhiza incana Nutt.BASA3 F arrowleaf balsamroot Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.

BEWY F wyoming kittentail Besseya wyomingensis (A. Nels.) Rydb.

BOAN6 F Drummond's rockcress Boechera angustifolia (Nutt.) Dorn

BOBR4 F toss the rockcress Boechera brachycarpa (T. & G.) Dorn

BOECHa F American rockcress Boechera Löve & Löve

BOEX2 F second rockcress Boechera exilis (A. Nels.) Dorn

BOEHOLa F Holboell's rockcress Boechera holboellii (Hornem.) Löve & Löve

BOFES F spoonleaf rockcress Boechera fendleri var. spatifolia (S. Wats.) Greene; (Rydb.) Rollins

BOLE5 F Lemmon's rockcress Boechera lemmonii (Wats.) Weber

BOLY F Lyall's rockcress Boechera lyallii (Wats.) DornBOMI3 F littleleaf rockcress Boechera microphylla (Nutt.) DornBONU F Nuttall's rockcress Boechera nutallii (Robins.) Dorn

BOPU5 F Fremont County rockcress Boechera pusilla (Rollins) Dorn

BOWI F Wind River rockcress Boechera williamsii (Rollins) DornBUAM2 F american thorough-wax Bupleurum americanum Coult. & Rose

CAAN7 F northwestern Indian paintbrush Castilleja angustifolia (Nutt.) G. DonCACU7 F Cusick's paintbrush Castilleja cusickii Greenm.CAEU F white mariposa lily Calochortus eurycarpus Wats.

CAFL7 F yellow paintbrush Castilleja flava S. Wats.

CALE4 F white marsh marigold Caltha leptosepala DC.CALI4 F narrow-leaved paintbrush Castilleja linariifolia Benth.

a Denotes species that did not have an USDA Plants Code as of April 2008. Local, six-letter plant codes were created for these species.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 341

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

CAMI12 F scarlet paintbrush Castilleja miniata Dougl.

CAMI2 F littlepod falseflax Camelina microcarpa Andrz.

CANU3 F sego-lilly Calochortus nuttallii T. & G.

CANU4 F musk thistle Carduus nutans L.

CAPA25 F palish Indian-paintbrush Castilleja pallescens (Gray) Greenm.

CAPIL F longspike Indian paintbrush Castilleja pilosa var. longispica (S. Wats.) Rydb.; (A. Nels.) N. Holmgren

CAPU10 F showy Indian-paintbrush Castilleja pulchella Rydb.

CARH4 F alpine paintbrush Castilleja rhexifolia Rydb.

CARO2 F harebell Campanula rotundifolia L.

CASTI2 F Indian-paintbrush; paintbrush Castilleja Mutis ex L. f.

CEAR4 F field chickweed Cerastium arvense L.CHAN9 F fireweed Chamerion angustifolium (L.) HolubCHDOM F Douglas' dustymaiden Chaenactis douglasii var. montana (Hook.) Hook. & Arn.; M.E. Jones

CIRSI F thistle Cirsium P. Mill.

CISU F western thistle Cirsium subniveum Rydb.

CLMU5 F lanceleaf springbeauty Claytonia multiscapa Rydb.COLI2 F narrow-leaf collomia Collomia linearis Nutt.

COPA3 F small-flowered blue-eyed mary Collinsia parviflora Lindl.

COTE F diffuse collomia Collomia tenella Gray

COTR3 F yellow coralroot Corallorrhiza trifida Chatelain

COWI2 F spring coralroot Corallorrhiza wisteriana Conrad

CRAC2 F tapertip hawksbeard Crepis acuminata Nutt.

CREPI F hawksbeard Crepis L.CRIN4 F gray hawksbeard Crepis intermedia Gray

CRMO4 F low hawksbeard Crepis modocensis Greene

CRRU3 F fiddleleaf hawksbeard Crepis runcinata (James) Torr. & Gray

CYEV F Evert's springparsley Cymopterus evertii R.L. Hartman & Kirkpatrick

CYLO10 F Henderson's wavewing Cymopterus longilobus (Rydb.) W.A. Weber

CYMOP2 F springparsley Cymopterus Raf.

CYNI3 F snowline springparsley Cymopterus nivalis S. Wats.

CYTEA F turpentine wavewing Cymopterus terebinthinus var. albiflorus (Hook.) Torr. & Gray; (Torr. & Gray) M.E. Jones 

DEIN5 F mountain tansymustard Descurainia incana (Bernh. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Dorn

DEOC F duncecap larkspur Delphinium occidentale (Wats.) Wats. 

DELPH F larkspur Delphinium L.

DENU2 F upland larkspur Delphinium nuttallianum Pritz. ex Walp.

DIUN F longhorn steer's-head Dicentra uniflora Kellogg

DOCO F slimpod shooting star Dodecatheon conjugens Greene

DODEC F shooting star Dodecatheon L.
342 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

DOPU F few-flowered shooting star Dodecatheon pulchellum (Raf.) Merrill

DRABA F draba Draba L.

DRAL4 F slender whitlow-grass Draba albertina Greene

DRAU F golden draba Draba aurea Vahl ex Hornem.DRCA4 F cushion draba Draba cana Rydb.DRCR2 F thickleaved draba Draba crassifolia R. Grah.

DRDE F denseleaf draba Draba densifolia Nutt.

DRIN2 F yellowstone whitlow-grass Draba incerta Payson

DRLO F lance-pod whitlow-grass Draba lonchocarpa Rydb.

DROL F few-seeded draba Draba oligosperma Hook.

DRPA F Payson's draba Draba paysonii J.F. Macbr.

ELRU F southwestern waterwort Elatine rubella Rydb. 

EPCI F fringed willowherb Epilobium ciliatum Raf.

EPGLF2 F glaucus willowherb Epilobium glaberrimum var. fastigiatum Barbey; (Nutt.) Trel. ex Jepson

EPHA F glandular willow-herb Epilobium halleanum Hausskn.

EPILO F willow-herb Epilobium L.

EPPA F marsh willowherb Epilobium palustre L.

EPPY4 F smooth spike-primrose Epilobium pygmaeum (Speg.) Hoch & Raven

ERAS2 F sanddune wallflower Erysimum asperum (Nutt.) DC.

ERCA2 F tufted fleabane Erigeron caespitosus Nutt.

ERCO24 F ballhead sandwort Eremogone congesta (Nutt.) S. Ikonnikov

ERCO5 F long-leaved fleabane Erigeron corymbosus Nutt.

ERCOD F cutleaf daisy Erigeron compositus var. discoideus (Engelm.) A.A. Eat.; Gray

EREA F Eaton's fleabane Erigeron eatonii Gray

ERFL4 F alpine golden buckwheat Eriogonum flavum Nutt.

ERFO3 F beautiful fleabane Erigeron formosissimus Greene

ERGR2 F slender fleabane Erigeron gracilis Rydb.

ERHOH2 F Hooker's sandwort Eremogone hookeri var. hookeri (Nutt.) W.A. WeberERIGE2 F daisy; fleabane Erigeron L.

ERLA F woolly fleabane Erigeron lanatus Hook.

ERLE6 F rockslide yellow fleabane Erigeron leiomerus Gray

ERLI F desert yellow fleabane Erigeron linearis (Hook.) Piper

ERLO F shortray fleabane Erigeron lonchophyllus Hook.

ERNA5 F dwarf fleabane Erigeron nanus Nutt. 

EROC F buff fleabane Erigeron ochroleucus Nutt.EROV F cushion buckwheat Eriogonum ovalifolium Nutt.

ERPES3 F subalpine fleabane Erigeron peregrinus var. scaposus (Banks ex Pursh) Greene; (Torr. & Gray) Cronq. 

ERPU2 F shaggy fleabane Erigeron pumilus Nutt.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 343

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

ERPU9 F basin fleabane Erigeron pulcherrimus HellerERRA2 F taproot fleabane Erigeron radicatus Hook.

ERRY F northwestern fleabane Erigeron rydbergii Cronq.ERSI3 F alpine daisy Erigeron simplex Greene

ERSP4 F showy fleabane Erigeron speciosus (Lindl.) DC.ERTW F Tweedy's daisy Erigeron tweedyi Canby

ERUM F sulphur-flower buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum Torr.

ERUR2 F bear river fleabane Erigeron ursinus D.C. Eat.

ERYSI F wallflower Erysimum L.

EUCO36 F eastern showy aster Eurybia conspicua (Lindl.) Nesom

EUEL2 F elegant aster Eucephalus elegans Nutt.EUGL13 F gray aster Eucephalus glaucus Nutt.EUIN9 F thickstem aster Eurybia integrifolia (Nutt.) Nesom FRAT F spotted fritillary Fritillaria atropurpurea Nutt.

FRSP F elkweed Frasera speciosa Dougl.FRVE F woods strawberry Fragaria vesca L.

FRVI F Virginia strawberry Fragaria virginiana Duchesne

GAAR F blanket-flower Gaillardia aristata Pursh

GABI F thinleaf bedstraw Galium bifolium Wats.

GABO2 F northern bedstraw Galium boreale L.

GARA2 F pinyon groundsmoke Gayophytum ramosissimum T.& G.GATR2 F threepetal bedstraw Galium trifidum L.

GATR3 F sweetscented bedstraw Galium triflorum Michx.GEAL2 F whitish gentian Gentiana algida PallasGEAM3 F northern gentian Gentianella amarella (L.) Borner

GEMA4 F largeleaf avens Geum macrophyllum Willd.

GERAN F geranium Geranium L.

GERI F white geranium Geranium richardsonii Fisch. & Trautv.

GEROT F Ross' avens Geum rossii var. turbinatum (R. Br.) Ser.; (Rydb.) C.L. Hitchc.

GETR F red avens Geum triflorum PurshGEUM F avens Geum L.

GEVI2 F sticky purple geranium Geranium viscosissimum F. & M.GYPA2 F smallflower gymnosteris Gymnosteris parvula Heller

HAPLO11 F goldenweed Haplopappus Cass.HEALA F alpine sweetvetch Hedysarum alpinum var. americanum L.; Michx.

HEPA11 F small-leaved alumroot Heuchera parvifolia Nutt.

HEQU2 F nodding helianthella Helianthella quinquenervis (Hook.) Gray

HESPL F common cowparsnip Heracleum sphondylium var. lanatum L.; (Michx.) Dorn
344 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

HEUN F one-flowered helianthella Helianthella uniflora (Nutt.) T. & G.

HIAL2 F white-flowered hawkweed Hieracium albiflorum Hook.

HIERA F hawkweed Hieracium L.

HITRG2 F slender hawkweed Hieracium triste var. gracile Willd. ex Spreng.; (Hook.) Gray

HYGR5 F graylocks four-nerve daisy Hymenoxys grandiflora (T. & G.) Parker

IPAG F scarlet gilia Ipomopsis aggregata (Pursh) V. GrantIPSP F spiked ipomopsis Ipomopsis spicata (Nutt.) V. GrantIVGO F Gordon's ivesia Ivesia gordonii (Hook.) Torr. & Gray

LEFR4 F Fremont's bladderpod Lesquerella fremontii Rollins & Shaw

LEPY2 F alpine bitteroot Lewisia pygmaea (Gray) B.L. Robins.

LERE7 F bitterroot Lewisia rediviva Pursh

LESQU F bladderpod Lesquerella S. Wats.

LIGLR F bulbous woodland-star Lithophragma glabrum var. ramulosum Nutt.; (Suksdorf) Boivin 

LILE3 F prairie flax Linum lewisii Pursh

LINUM F flax Linum L.

LIRU4 F western gromwell Lithospermum ruderale Dougl.

LOAT F tapertip desertparsley Lomatium attenuatum Evert

LOCO4 F cous biscuit-root Lomatium cous (Wats.) Coult. & RoseLODIM F carrotleaf biscuitroot Lomatium dissectum var. multifidum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance

LOMAT F biscuit-root; desert-parsley Lomatium Raf.

LOOR F Northern Idaho biscuitroot Lomatium orientale Coult. & Rose

LOTR2 F nineleaf biscuitroot Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) Coult. & Rose

LUAR3 F silvery lupine Lupinus argenteus Pursh

LULEU2 F Utah lupine Lupinus lepidus var. utahensis Dougl. ex Lindl.; (S. Wats.) C.L. Hitchc. 

LUPIN F lupine Lupinus L.

LUPO2 F bigleaf lupine Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl.

LUSE4 F silky lupine Lupinus sericeus PurshMACA2 F hoary tansyaster Machaeranthera canescens (Pursh) Gray

MAST4 F starry false lily of the valley Maianthemum stellatum (L.) Link

MEAL7 F alpine bluebells Mertensia alpina (Torr.) G. Don

MECI3 F tall fringed bluebells Mertensia ciliata (Torr.) G. DonMERTE F bluebells Mertensia Roth

MEVI4 F oblongleaf bluebells Mertensia viridis (A. Nels.) A. Nels.

MIAU3 F Columbian stitchwort Minuartia austromontana S.J. Wolf & Packer

MIGLJ F James' monkeyflower Mimulus glabratus var. jamesii Kunth; (Torr. & Gray ex Benth.) Gray

MIMA3 F House's stitchwort Minuartia macrantha (Rydb.) HouseMINU4 F Nuttall's sandwort Minuartia nuttallii (Pax) Briq.

MIOB2

F winflower sandwort t Minuartia obtusiloba (Rydb.) House
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 345

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

MONU F poverty weed Monolepis nuttalliana (Schultes) Greene

MOUN2 F single delight Moneses uniflora (L.) Gray

MUMO F mountain muhly Muhlenbergia montana (Nutt.) A.S. Hitchc.

NONI F meadow prairie-dandelion Nothocalais nigrescens (Henderson) HellerORAL4 F tundra aster Oreostemma alpigenum (Torr. & Gray) Greene

ORFA F clustered broomrape Orobanche fasciculata Nutt.

ORLU2 F yellow owl-clover Orthocarpus luteus Nutt.ORSE F sidebells wintergreen Orthilia secunda (L.) House

ORTO F Tolmie's owl's-clover Orthocarpus tolmiei Hook. & Arn. 

ORUNO2 F oneflowered broomrape Orobanche uniflora var. occidentalis L.; (Greene) Taylor & MacBrydeOSBE F sweetcicely Osmorhiza berteroi Hook. & Arn.

OSDE F bluntseed sweetroot Osmorhiza depauperata Phil.

OSMOR F sweetroot Osmorhiza Raf.OSOC F western sweet-cicely Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr.OSPU F purple sweetroot Osmorhiza purpurea (Coult. & Rose) Suksdorf

OXCA4 F slender crazyweed Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC.

OXDE2 F pendent-pod crazyweed Oxytropis deflexa (Pall.) DC.

OXLA2 F haresfoot locoweed Oxytropis lagopus Nutt.

OXPO F stalkpod locoweed Oxytropis podocarpa Gray

OXSE F white locoweed Oxytropis sericea Nutt.

PACA15 F woolly groundsel Packera cana (Hook.) W.A. Weber & A. Löve

PADI11 F splitleaf groundsel Packera dimorphophylla (Greene) W.A. Weber & A. Löve

PAFI3 F fringed grass-of-parnassus Parnassia fimbriata Koenig

PAST10 F Rocky Mountain groundsel Packera streptanthifolia (Greene) W.A. Weber & A. Löve

PASU40 F cleftleaf groundsel Packera subnuda (DC.) D.K. Trock & T.M. Barkl.

PEBRP2 F Payson's lousewort Pedicularis bracteosa var. paysoniana Benth.; (Pennell) Cronq.

PECO F coiled lousewort Pedicularis contorta Benth.

PEDE4 F hotrock penstemon Penstemon deustus Dougl. ex Lindl.PEDIC F lousewort Pedicularis L.PEGR2 F elephant's head Pedicularis groenlandica Retz.

PEHU F low beardtongue Penstemon humilis Nutt. ex Gray

PENST F penstemon Penstemon Schmidel

PEPA3 F Parry's lousewort Pedicularis parryi Gray

PEPR2 F small-flowered penstemon Penstemon procerus Dougl.

PERA2 F mat-root penstemon Penstemon radicosus A. Nels.

PERAA2 F sickletop lousewort Pedicularis racemosa var. alba Dougl. ex Benth.; Pennell

PERY F Rydberg's penstemon Penstemon rydbergii A. Nels.

PEST2 F 

Rocky Mountain penstemon Penstemon strictus Benth.
346 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

PHHA F silverleaf phacelia Phacelia hastata Dougl.PHHO F Hood's phlox Phlox hoodii Rich.

PHLO2 F long-leaf phlox Phlox longifolia Nutt.

PHLOX F phlox Phlox L.

PHMU3 F many-flowered phlox Phlox multiflora A. Nels.PHMU4 F musk phlox Phlox muscoides Nutt.

PHPU12 F prickly phlox Phlox pungens Dorn

PHPU5 F cushion phlox Phlox pulvinata (Wherry) Cronq.

PHSE F silky phacelia Phacelia sericea (Graham) Gray

PLDI3 F scentbottle Platanthera dilatata (Pursh) Lindl. ex Beck

PLSCH F sleeping popcornflower Plagiobothrys scouleri var. hispidulus (Greene) Dorn

POAR7 F tall cinquefoil Potentilla arguta Pursh

POBI10 F tansy cinquefoil Potentilla bipinnatifida Dougl. ex Hook.

POBI6 F american bistort Polygonum bistortoides Pursh

POBR5 F sparseleaf cinquefoil Potentilla brevifolia Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray

POCO13 F elegant cinquefoil Potentilla concinna Richards.

PODI2 F varileaf cinquefoil Potentilla diversifolia Lehm.

PODO4 F Douglas' knotweed Polygonum douglasii GreenePOGL9 F sticky cinquefoil Potentilla glandulosa Lindl.POGR9 F slender cinquefoil Potentilla gracilis Dougl.

POHI6 F woolly cinquefoil Potentilla hippiana Lehm.

POHO2 F Hooker cinquefoil Potentilla hookeriana Lehm.

POOV2 F sheep cinquefoil Potentilla ovina MacounPOPE8 F prairie cinquefoil Potentilla pensylvanica L.

POTEN F cinquefoil Potentilla L.

POUN2 F oneflower cinquefoil Potentilla uniflora Ledeb.

POVI F sticky polemonium Polemonium viscosum Nutt.

POVI3 F viviparous knotweed Polygonum viviparum L.PRTR4 F roughfruit fairybells Prosartes trachycarpa S. Wats.

PTAN2 F woodland pinedrops Pterospora andromedea Nutt.

PYAS F pink wintergreen Pyrola asarifolia Michx.

PYCH F greenflowered wintergreen Pyrola chlorantha Sw.

PYIN3 F many-stemmed goldenweed Pyrrocoma integrifolia (Porter ex Gray) Greene

PYMI F lesser wintergreen Pyrola minor L.

PYPI2 F white vein pyrola Pyrola picta Sm.

PYROL F wintergreen Pyrola L.

PYUN2 F plantain goldenweed Pyrrocoma uniflora (Hook.) Greene

RAGLE F elliptical buttercup Ranunculus glaberrimus var. ellipticus Hook.; (Greene) Greene
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 347

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

RAUN F little buttercup Ranunculus uncinatus D. Don ex G. Don

RUAQF F western dock Rumex aquaticus var. fenestratus L.; (Greene) Dorn

SAOD2 F brook saxifrage Saxifraga odontoloma Piper

SARH2 F diamondleaf saxifrage Saxifraga rhomboidea Greene

SECR F thickleaf ragwort Senecio crassulus Gray

SEFR3 F dwarf mountain ragwort Senecio fremontii T. & G.

SEHY F tall groundsel Senecio hydrophiloides Rydb.

SEHY2 F water ragwort Senecio hydrophilus Nutt.SEIN2 F lambstongue ragwort Senecio integerrimus Nutt.SEIN4 F ledge stonecrop Sedum integrifolium (Raf.) A. Nels.

SELA F lance-leaved stonecrop Sedum lanceolatum Torr.

SELU F black-tipped butterweed Senecio lugens Rich.

SENEC F groundsel; ragwort; butterweed Senecio L.

SERA F openwoods ragwort Senecio rapifolius Nutt.

SERH F red-pod stonecrop Sedum rhodanthum GraySERO2 F roseroot stonecrop Sedum rosea (L.) Scop.

SESE2 F tall ragwort Senecio serra Hook.

SEST2 F wormleaf stonecrop Sedum stenopetalum Pursh

SETR F arrowleaf groundsel Senecio triangularis Hook.

SIACS2 F moss campion Silene acaulis var. subacaulescens (L.) Jacq.; (F.N. Williams) Fern. & St. John

SIAN2 F sleepy catchfly Silene antirrhina L.

SIDR F Drummond campion Silene drummondii Hook.

SIKI F King's campion Silene kingii (S. Wats.) Bocquet

SIPA4 F Parry's silene Silene parryi (Wats.) Hitchc. & Mag.

SIPR F creeping sibbaldia Sibbaldia procumbens L.SOCA6 F Canada goldenrod Solidago canadensis L.SOLID F goldenrod Solidago L.SOMO F velvety goldenrod Solidago mollis Bartl.

SOMUS F manyray goldenrod Solidago multiradiata var. scopulorum Ait.; Gray

SOVE6 F threenerve goldenrod Solidago velutina DC.

SPRU F red sandspurry Spergularia rubra (L.) J.& K. Presl

STAC F stemless mock goldenweed Stenotus acaulis (Nutt.) Nutt.

STAM2 F clasping-leaved twisted-stalk Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC.STCA F northern starwort Stellaria calycantha (Ledeb.) Bong.

STELL F starwort; chickweed Stellaria L.

STENO7 F mock goldenweed Stenotus Nutt.

STLO2 F longstalk starwort Stellaria longipes Goldie

STMO2 F longstalk starwort Stellaria monantha Hultén
348 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

STST5 F narrowleaf mock goldenweed Stenotus stenophyllus (Gray) Greene

SWPE F felwort Swertia perennis L.

SYBO2 F northern bog aster Symphyotrichum boreale (Torr. & Gray) A.& D. LöveSYFO2 F alpine leafybract aster Symphyotrichum foliaceum (Lindl. ex DC.) Nesom

SYSP F western mountain aster Symphyotrichum spathulatum (Lindl.) NesomTACE F horned dandelion Taraxacum ceratophorum (Ledeb.) DC.TAER2 F wool-bearing dandelion Taraxacum eriophorum Rydb.

TAOF F common dandelion Taraxacum officinale Weber

TARAX F dandelion Taraxacum G.H. Weber ex Wiggers

TEACA2 F stemless four-nerve daisy Tetraneuris acaulis var. acaulis (Pursh) GreeneTHALI2 F meadowrue Thalictrum L.THFE F Fendler's meadowrue Thalictrum fendleri Engelm.

THOC F western meadowrue Thalictrum occidentale Gray

THSPS F fewflower meadow-rue Thalictrum sparsiflorum var. saximontanum Turcz. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Boivin

THVE F veiny meadowrue Thalictrum venulosum Trel.

TOLY F Lyall's goldenweed Tonestus lyallii (Gray) A. Nels.

TOSP F sword Townsend daisy Townsendia spathulata Nutt.

TRAGO F goatsbeard Tragopogon L.TRAL8 F American globeflower Trollius albiflorus (Gray) Rydb.TRDA2 F alpine clover Trifolium dasyphyllum T. & G.

TRDU F goat's beard Tragopogon dubius Scop.TRLA30 F Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon Tragopogon lamottei Rouy

TRNA2 F dwarf clover Trifolium nanum Torr.

TRPA6 F marsh arrowgrass Triglochin palustris L.

VEAN2 F water speedwell Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.

VERON F speedwell Veronica L.VEWO2 F American alpine speedwell Veronica wormskjoldii Roem. & Schult.VIOLA F violet Viola L.

VIPUV F goosefoot violet Viola purpurea var. venosa Kellogg; (S. Watson) Brainerd

ZIEL2 F glaucous deathcamas Zigadenus elegans Pursh

ZIPA2 F foothill deathcamas Zigadenus paniculatus (Nutt.) S. Wats.

ZIVEG F grassy deathcamas Zigadenus venenosus var. gramineus S. Wats.; (Rydb.) Walsh ex M.E. Peck 

GrassesACLE9 G Letterman's needlegrass Achnatherum lettermanii (Vasey) BarkworthACNE9 G Columbia needlegrass Achnatherum nelsonii (Scribn.) Barkworth 

ACOC3 G western needlegrass Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb.) Barkworth 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 349

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

AGHU G alpine bentgrass Agrostis humilis VaseyAGID G Idaho bentgrass Agrostis idahoensis NashAGSC5 G tickle-grass Agrostis scabra Willd.

AGVA G variable bentgrass Agrostis variabilis Rydb.

BRCA5 G mountain brome Bromus carinatus H. & A.

BRCI2 G fringed brome Bromus ciliatus L.

BRIN2 G smooth brome Bromus inermis Leys.

BROMU G brome Bromus L.

BRPU6 G hairy woodland brome Bromus pubescens Muhl. ex Willd.

BRTE G cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L.

BRVU G Columbia brome Bromus vulgaris (Hook.) Shear

CACA4 G bluejoint reedgrass Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.

CAIN G northern reedgrass Calamagrostis inexpansa Gray

CAPU G purple reedgrass Calamagrostis purpurascens R. Br.CASC G ditch reed-grass Calamagrostis scopulorum M.E. Jones

CAST36 G narrow-spiked reedgrass Calamagrostis stricta (Brid.) Kindb.

DAIN G timber oatgrass Danthonia intermedia VaseyDAPA2 G Parry's oatgrass Danthonia parryi Scribn.

DASP2 G poverty oatgrass Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv.

DEAT2 G Mountain Hairgrass Deschampsia atropurpurea (Wahl.) ScheeleDECE G tufted hairgrass Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv.DEEL G slender hairgrass Deschampsia elongata (Hook.) Munro

ELCI2b G Great Basin wildrye Elymus cinereus Scribn. & Merr.

ELEL5 G squirreltail Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey

ELGL G blue wildrye Elymus glaucus Buckl.ELLA3 G streambank wheatgrass Elymus lanceolatus (Scribn. & Sm.) Gould

ELRE4 G quackgrass Elymus repens (L.) Gould

ELSM3 G western wheatgrass Elymus smithii (Rydb.) Gould

ELSP3 G bluebunch wheatgrass Elymus spicatus (Pursh) Gould

ELTR3 G beardless wildrye Elymus triticoides Buckl.ELTR7 G slender wheatgrass Elymus trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex ShinnersFEAR3 G tall fescue Festuca arundinacea Schreb.

FEBR G alpine fescue Festuca brachyphylla J.A. Schultes ex J.A. & J.H. SchultesFEID G Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer

FERU2 G red fescue Festuca rubra L.

FESA G Rocky Mountain fescue Festuca saximontana Rydb.

b Species 

not encountered in field but mentioned in report.
350 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

FEVIK2 G northern fescue Festuca viviparoidea ssp. krajinae Krajina ex Pavlick; Frederiksen

GLGR G american mannagrass Glyceria grandis Wats

GLST G fowl mannagrass Glyceria striata (Lam.) A. S. Hitchc.

HECO26 G needle and thread Hesperostipa comata (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth

HECOC9 G needle and thread Hesperostipa comata var. comata J.A. Schultes ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes

KOMA G prairie junegrass Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Schultes

LEKI2 G spike fescue Leucopoa kingii (Wats.) Weber

MEBU G oniongrass Melica bulbosa Geyer

PHAL2 G alpine timothy Phleum alpinum L.

PIEX3 G little ricegrass Piptatherum exiguum (Thurb.) Barkworth, comb. nov. ined.

PIMI7 G littleseed ricegrass Piptatherum micranthum (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth

POA G bluegrass Poa L.

POAL2 G alpine bluegrass Poa alpina L.

POAR2 G arctic bluegrass Poa arctica R. Br.

POAR21 G Wasatch bluegrass Poa arnowiae SorengPOAR3 G plains bluegrass Poa arida VaseyPOCU2 G little mountain bluegrass Poa curtifolia Scribn. 

POCU3 G Cusick's bluegrass Poa cusickii Vasey

POFE G muttongrass Poa fendleriana (Steud.) Vasey

POGLR G timberline bluegrass Poa glauca var. rupicola Vahl; (Nash ex Rydb.) Boivin

POGR G slender bluegrass Poa gracillima Vasey

POJU G alkali bluegrass Poa juncifolia Scribn.POLE3 G Letterman's bluegrass Poa lettermanii Vasey

POPA3 G patterson bluegrass Poa pattersonii (Vasey) A. & D. Love & Kapoor

POPR G Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis L.

PORE G nodding bluegrass Poa reflexa Vasey & Scribn. ex Vasey

POSE G Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda Presl

POTR2 G rough bluegrass Poa trivialis L.POWH2 G Wheeler's bluegrass Poa wheeleri Vasey

PUCU G Nuttall's alkaligrass Puccinellia nuttalliana Weath.

STIPA G needlegrass Stipa L.

TRSP2 G spike trisetum Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richter

GrasslikesCAAL6 GL black-and-white-scaled sedge Carex albonigra Mack.CAAQ GL aquatic sedge Carex aquatilis Wahl.CAAT13 GL different nerve sedge Carex atrata auct. p.p. non L.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 351

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2

USDA code LF Common 

name Scientific 

name Author

CAAU3 GL golden sedge Carex aurea Nutt.

CABI10 GL arctic hare's-foot sedge Carex bipartita All.

CABRP3 GL Engelmann's sedge Carex breweri var. paddoensis Boott; (Suksdorf) Cronq.CACA11 GL silvery sedge Carex canescens L.

CACA13 GL capitate sedge Carex capitata L.

CADI6 GL two-seeded sedge Carex disperma Dewey

CAEL3 GL blackroot sedge Carex elynoides HolmCAFOV GL native sedge Carex foetida var. vernacula All.; (Bailey) Kükenth. 

CAGE2 GL elk sedge Carex geyeri Boott

CAHA6 GL Hayden's sedge Carex haydeniana Olney

CAHO5 GL Hood's sedge Carex hoodii Boott

CALE9 GL Sierra hare sedge Carex leporinella Mack.CALEP4 GL lakeshore sedge Carex lenticularis var. pallida Michx.; (W. Boott) Dorn 

CALI7 GL mud sedge Carex limosa L.CAMA9 GL falkland island sedge Carex macloviana d'Urv.

CAMI10 GL shortleaved sedge Carex misandra R. Br.

CAMI7 GL small-winged sedge Carex microptera Mack.

CANA2 GL spike sedge Carex nardina Fries

CANE3 GL Nelson's sedge Carex nelsonii Mackenzie

CANI2 GL black alpine sedge Carex nigricans C.A. Mey.CANOS2 GL Steven's sedge Carex norvegica var. stevenii Retz.; (Holm) Dorn 

CAOB4 GL obtuse sedge Carex obtusata Lilj.CAOR GL grassyslope sedge Carex oreocharis Holm

CAPA31 GL payson sedge Carex paysonis Clokey

CAPE42 GL wooly sedge Carex pellita Muhl ex Willd.

CAPH2 GL dunhead sedge Carex phaeocephala Piper

CAPR7 GL meadow sedge Carex praticola Rydb.

CAPY3 GL pyrenean sedge Carex pyrenaica Wahlenb.CARA6 GL raynolds' sedge Carex raynoldsii DeweyCAREX GL sedge Carex L.

CARO5 GL Ross' sedge Carex rossii Boott

CARU3 GL curly sedge Carex rupestris All.

CASA10 GL rock sedge Carex saxatilis L.CASC10 GL northern singlespike sedge Carex scirpoidea Michx.

CASC12 GL Holm's Rocky Mountain sedge Carex scopulorum Holm

CASCP2 GL western singlespike sedge Carex scirpoidea var. pseudoscirpoidea Michx.; (Rydb.) Cronq.

CAST40 GL needleleaf sedge Carex stenophylla Wahlenb.

CAUT GL beaked sedge Carex utriculata Boott
352 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 2 USDA code LF Common name Scientific name Author

CAVA3 GL valley sedge Carex vallicola Dewey

CAVE6 GL inflated sedge Carex vesicaria L.

CAVU2 GL fox sedge Carex vulpinoidea Michx.

CAXE GL whitescale sedge Carex xerantica Bailey

ELQU2 GL fewflower spikerush Eleocharis quinqueflora (F.X. Hartmann) Schwarz

ERAN6 GL tall cottongrass Eriophorum angustifolium Honckeny

JUBA GL baltic rush Juncus balticus Willd.JUCO2 GL Colorado rush Juncus confusus Coville

JUDR GL Drummond's rush Juncus drummondii E. MeyerJUEN GL swordleaf rush Juncus ensifolius Wikst.

JUHA GL Hall's rush Juncus hallii Engelm.

JUME3 GL Mertens' rush Juncus mertensianus Bong.JUPA GL Parry's rush Juncus parryi Engelm.

JUTR4 GL three-hulled rush Juncus triglumis L.

KOMY GL Bellardi bog sedge Kobresia myosuroides (Vill.) Fiori

LUMU2 GL common woodrush Luzula multiflora (Ehrh.) Lej.LUPA4 GL small-flowered woodrush Luzula parviflora (Ehrh.) Desv.

LUSP4 GL spike woodrush Luzula spicata (L.) DC.

LUWA GL Wahlenberg's woodrush Luzula wahlenbergii Rupr.

Ferns and HorsetailsCRAC3 FH American rockbrake Cryptogramma acrostichoides R. Br.

CYFR2 FH brittle bladder-fern Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh.

EQAR FH field horsetail Equisetum arvense L.

EQHYA FH scouringrush horsetail Equisetum hyemale var. affine L.; (Engelm.) A.A. Eat.

EQVA FH variegated scouring rush Equisetum variegatum Schleich. ex F. Weber & D.M.H. Mohr
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 353

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 3: AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY OF MINERAL SOILS BY TEXTURE

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, California Technical Note 15

Appendix 3. Available water capacity (AWC) of mineral soils as related to soil texture.

General term Texturea Probable range on basis of 

textureb

 (in/in)

Total permissible rangec

(in/in)

Fine Clay .12-.15 .12-.17

Silty clay .13-.16 .12-.17

Sandy clay .13-.16 .12-.17

Moderately fine Silty clay loam .18-.19 .17-.19

Clay loam .17-.18 .17-.19

Sandy clay loam .17-.18 .17-.19

Medium Silt loam .15-.17 .12-.17

Loam .14-.16 .12-.17

Very fine sandy loam .14-.16 .12-.17

Moderately coarse Fine sandy loam .10-.12 .08-.12

Sandy loam .09-.11 .08-.12

Loamy very fine sand .09-.11 .08-.12

Loamy fine sand .08-.10 .08-.12

Coarse Loamy sand .06-.08 .06-.08

Very fine sand .06-.08 .06-.08

Fine sand .06-.08 .06-.08

Sand .06-.08 .06-.08

Very coarse Coarse sand and gravel .03-.06 .03-.06

 

a Where gravel or other coarse fragments are present, values for textures shown above should be reduced by the percentage of 

coarse fragments in the soil mass.

b These figures represent the probable ranges for each textural class based only on texture. Soil structure, organic matter content, 

stratification, etc., may alter these figures but only within the total permissible range shown above. c AWC values for each textural class should not span more than 0.03 in/in on SCS-SOILS-5 forms.

Appendix 3: Available Water Capacity of Mineral Soils by 

Texture
354 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 4

Table 4-1 provides a cross-reference between the ecological types presented in this document and the soil map 

unit components from the eastern slope of the Wind River Range presented as part of the map unit descriptions of the 

Shoshone National Forest Soil Survey (USDA, NRCS 2008). The tables are organized by soil map unit and include the 

following: 

• Component—the soil map unit component, may include soil series name, soil subgroup, or miscellaneous 

areas; 

• Vegetation—the vegetation type (functional group, vegetation series, and habitat type); 

• Ecological Type—the ecological type synonymous with the soil map unit component; and 

• Percent—the areal extent of the ecological type in each map unit (may differ slightly from the soil map unit 

component percentages due to disparities mentioned below).

Objective two of this study was the simultaneous classification of the soil map unit components and ecological types of 

the eastern slope of the Wind River Range. Objective three was the publication of the ecological type classification such 

that is was compatible with the spatial and tabular data from the Wind River Range portion of the National Cooperative 

Soil Survey of the Shoshone National Forest. The last two objectives were completed successfully. However, a few 

minor disparaties exist between the ecological type classification and the soil map unit components related to differences 

between National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) and Terrestrial Ecological Unit Inventory (TEUI) protocols. These 

disparities are explained in Table 4-2.

Appendix 4: Cross-reference Between Ecological Types 

and Soil Map Unit Components
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 355

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 4

Table 4-1. Cross-reference among ecological types, soil map units, and soil map unit components, 

ecological type classification of the eastern slope of the Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, 

WY.

Map 

unit

Component Vegetation Ecological type Percent of 

map unit

311 Rock Outcrop NA NA 60

Enentah NA NA 20

Dystrocryepts and 

similar soils

PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET 10

 PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Sig Family ET 10

12L Lolo PIFL2/JUCOD PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family 

ET

40

Rock Outcrop NA NA 15

Shawmut PSMEG/JUCOD PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut 

Family ET

15

Paunsaugunt ELSP3-POSESTENO7ELSP3-POSE-STENO7, 

Paunsaugunt Family ET

10

Tyzak PIFL2/JUCOD PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family 

ET

10

Winspect ARTRV2/ELSP3 ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect 

Family ET

10

15L Winspect ARTRV2/ELSP3 ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect 

Family ET

45

Kiev ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Kiev Family 

ET

20

Bigsheep ARTRR4/ELSP3 ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep 

Family ET

15

Saddlehorse PIFL2/LEKI2 PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse 

Family ET

10

Bullflat POTR5/GEVI2 POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET

5 

Shawmut ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut 

Family ET

5 

43L Cloud Peak PSMEG/MARE11 PSMEG/MARE11, Cloud 

Peak Family ET

40

Redfist PSMEG/ACGL PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist 

Family ET

30

Frisco ABLA/MARE11 ABLA/MARE11, Frisco

Family ET

15

Bullflat POTR5/GEVI2 POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET

5 

Hierro ABLA/ARCO9 - 

CAD

ABLA/ARCO9 - CAD, Hierro 

Family ET

5 

NA PSMEG/SYORU PSMEG/SYORU, Typic 

Calciustepts ET

5 

43LF Como PICOL/ARCO9 PICOL/ARCO9, Como 

Family ET

40

Agneston PICOL/MARE11 PICOL/MARE11, Agneston 25
356 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 4

Map 

unit

Component Vegetation Ecological type Percent of 

map unit

Family ET

Rock Outcrop NA NA 20

Marosa ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family 

ET

5 

NA PIAL Series PIAL Series, Marosa Family 

ET

5 

Telcher PICOL/VASC PICOL/VASC, Telcher 

Family ET

5 

44L Bullflat POTR5/GEVI2 POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET

55

Ledgefork POTR5/SYORU - 

Boulder

POTR5/SYORU - Boulder, 

Ledgefork Family ET

40

Caryville POTR5/COSE16-

ALVIS

POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS, 

Caryville Family ET

5 

106D NA PICOL Series PICOL Series, Corbly Family 

ET

95

Rock Outcrop NA NA 5 

166D NA ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 

Family ET 166D

40

NA ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic 

Argiustolls ET

20

Rock Outcrop NA NA 5 

302/302L Moose River Salix/Carex Salix/Carex, Moose River 

Family ET

80

Elvick Oxyaquic Soils Oxyaquic Soils, Elvick Family 

ET

15

Southpaw NA NA NA

Water NA NA 5 

304L Agneston GEROT-CAEL3 

Alpine Turf

GEROT-CAEL3 Alpine Turf, 

Agneston Family ET

30

McCall GEROT Alpine 

Fellfield

GEROT Alpine Fellfield, 

McCall Family ET

30

Rubble-land NA NA 12

Elting ABLA/RIMO2 ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family 

ET

5 

Hargran Late snowbank 

vegetation

Late snowbank vegetation, 

Hargran Family ET

5 

Klootch Krummholz Krummholz, Klootch Family 

ET

5 

McCall SAREN2/KOMY SAREN2/KOMY, McCall 

Family ET

5 

Rock Outcrop NA NA 5 

Glaciers NA NA 2 

Water NA NA 1 

306L Ledgefork FEID-ELSP3 FEID-ELSP3, Ledgefork 

Family ET

90
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 357

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 4

Map 

unit

Component Vegetation Ecological type Percent of 

map unit

Elwood FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9 FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, 

Elwood Family ET

10

 

309A Elwood FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9 FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, 

Elwood Family ET

45

Como PIAL/CARO5 PIAL/CARO5, Como Family 

ET

40

Elting ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Elting Family 

ET

5 

Rock Outcrop NA NA 5 

Targhee PICOL/CARO5 PICOL/CARO5, Targhee 

Family ET

5 

309L Ledgefork ARTRR4/FEID ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET

30

Ledgefork ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Ledgefork 

Family ET

30

Como PIAL/CARO5 PIAL/CARO5, Como Family 

ET

15

Targhee PICOL/CARO5 PICOL/CARO5, Targhee 

Family ET

15

Elting ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Elting Family 

ET

5 

Rock Outcrop NA NA 5 

310A Marosa ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family 

ET

55

Rubble-land NA NA 25

Elting Warm subalpine fir 

forests

Warm subalpine fir forests, 

Elting Family ET

10

Ledgefork POTR5/SYORU - 

Boulder

POTR5/SYORU - Boulder, 

Ledgefork Family ET

10

310L Jeru PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET 40

Elting ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Elting Family 

ET

25

Rock Outcrop NA NA 15

Rubble-land NA NA 10

Frisco PIAL/CARO5 PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family 

ET

5 

NA JUPA JUPA, Oxyaquic Cryorthents

Family ET

5 

311L Rock Outcrop NA NA 60

Elting PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Elting Family 

ET

15

Jeru PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET 15

Sig PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Sig Family ET 10

 

317L Ledgefork POTR5/SYORU - 

Boulder

POTR5/SYORU - Boulder, 

Ledgefork Family ET

40
358 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 4

Map 

unit

Component Vegetation Ecological type Percent of 

map unit

Como PIFL2/JUCOD PIFL2/JUCOD, Como Family 

ET

30

Rock Outcrop NA NA 20

Stecum PICOL/CARO5 PICOL/CARO5, Stecum 

Family ET

10

319L Rock Outcrop NA NA 70

Rubble-land NA NA 30

 

327L Salt Chuck PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck 

Family ET

45

Holland Lake PICOL/JUCOD PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake 

Family ET

40

Fluvaquentic 

Cryaquepts

SALIX/CAREX SALIX/CAREX, Fluvaquentic 

Cryaquepts ET

10

Water NA NA 5 

327S Jeru PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET 45

Swapps ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, Swapps Family 

ET

34

McCall ABLA/VASC ABLA/VASC, McCall Family 

ET

15

NA ABLA/RIMO2 ABLA/RIMO2, Cranbay 

Family ET

5 

Water NA NA 1 

327W Bohica PICOL/SHCA PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family 

ET

85

Salt Chuck PIAL/VASC PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck 

Family ET

15

351L Corbly ARTRV2/FEID ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 

Family ET 351L

30

Winspect ARTRV2/ELSP3 ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect 

Family ET

25

Rock Outcrop NA NA 15

Bohica PICOL/SHCA PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family 

ET

10

Mantador POTR5/COSE16-

ALVIS

POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS, 

Mantador Family ET

10

Yourame PSMEG/ACGL PSMEG/ACGL, Yourame 

Family ET

10

NA ELSP3 ELSP3, Wabek Family ET 5 

402L Bullflat POTR5/GEVI2 POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat 

Family ET

50

Caryville POTR5/COSE16-

ALVIS

POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS, 

Caryville Family ET

50
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 359

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

Appendix 5: Narrative Soil Map Unit Descriptions

Description

The following section provides narrative descriptions of the soil map units of the Wind River Range 

portion of the Shoshone National Forest National Cooperative Soil Survey. Table 5-1 presents the areal 

extent of soil map units within the study area.

102–Cryaquepts, Cryaquolls, and Cryofluvents soils, 0 to 3% slopes, volcanic alluvium

This map unit encompasses 26.1 ha in the northern study area and is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation 

Sedimentary Mountains and Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregions (Chapman and others 2004). This map 

unit encompasses an undifferentiated group, including wetland soils formed from granitic alluvium on 

floodplains. There was insufficient data to assign ecotypes to this map unit.

260–Frisco-Taglake-Helmville Families, Complex, 5 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 1334.7 ha in the northern study area and is located in the Dry MidElevation Sedimentary Mountains and Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregions (Chapman and others 2004). 

This map unit is a complex of soils derived from granitic and gneissic till on moraines and soils derived 

from mixed sedimentary colluvium. Vegetation is typically conifer forest. There was insufficient data to 

assign ecotypes to this map unit.

266–Sigbird-Guffey-Geertsen Families, Complex, 15 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 146.7 ha in the northern boundary of the northern study area and is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004).This map 

unit includes a complex of soils derived from acidic volcanic breccia colluvium and mixed sedimentary 

colluvium on mountain slopes. There was insufficient data to assign ecotypes to this map unit.

268–Thornburgh-Goosepeak-Cundiyo FamiliesComplex, Complex, 15 to 50% slopes

This map unit encompasses 2398.6 ha in the northern study area and is located in the Dry MidElevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This map unit is a complex 

soils derived from limestone, sandstone, and shale colluvium. This map unit includes the Bighorn 

Dolomite, Madison Limestone, and Gallatin Limestone Formations. This map unit includes north- and 

east-facing limestone and dolomite backslopes, along steep canyon walls, and as narrow corridors along 

headwater drainages on northerly exposures. The vegetation is Douglas-fir and subalpine fir forests. This 

map unit is similar to unit 43L. There was insufficient data to assign ecotypes to this map unit.

Table 5-1—Areal extent in hectares of soil map units within the study area, including whether or not ecological types were assigned to each 

map unit, if the map unit is a join unit from an adjacent soil survey, and if the map unit exists outside the study area in the northern Shoshone 

National Forest (SNF), ecological type classification of the eastern slope of the Wind River Range, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. 

Ecological Does the map unit

Area within Percent of types assigned Join unit from extend outside the study 

Map unit study area (ha) study area to map unit? adjacent survey?1 area into the northern SNF?2

102 26.1 0.01% n — y

260 1,334.7 0.70% n — y

266 146.7 0.08% n — y

268 2,398.6 1.26% n — y

302 1,711.4 0.90% y — y

311 782.4 0.41% y — y
360 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

Table 5-1—Continued. 

Ecological Does the map unit

Area within Percent of types assigned Join unit from extend outside the study 

Map unit study area (ha) study area to map unit? adjacent survey?1 area into the northern SNF?2

323 57.6 0.03% n — y

327 79.9 0.04% n — y

350 2,228.9 1.17% n — y

402 1.3 0.00% y — y

505 3,197.3 1.67% n — y

12L 7,482.2 3.92% y — n

15L 4,366.0 2.29% y — y

302L 7,078.7 3.71% y — y

304L 36,371.0 19.04% y — n

306L 64.8 0.03% y — n

309A 3,252.3 1.70% y — n

309L 5,705.9 2.99% y — n

310A 2,207.0 1.16% y — n

310L 12,312.3 6.45% y — n

311L 15,187.8 7.95% y — n

317L 1,247.1 0.65% y — n

319L 21,367.5 11.19% y — n

327L 3,166.8 1.66% y — n

327S 26,089.4 13.66% y — n

327W 2,686.9 1.41% y — n

351L 1,454.9 0.76% y — n

402L 656.5 0.34% y — n

43L 5,436.6 2.85% y — n

43LF 5,866.2 3.07% y — n

44L 464.9 0.24% y — n

GLAC 4,029.7 2.11% n — y

IH2O 4.9 0.00% n — y

W 3,774.3 1.98% n — y

106D 1,478.4 0.77% y D n

107D 722.4 0.38% n D n

125D 162.1 0.08% n D n

130D 947.0 0.50% n D y

147D 9.8 0.01% n D n

149D 3.2 0.00% n D y

162D 78.9 0.04% n D n

163D 76.1 0.04% n D n

166D 1,627.5 0.85% y D n

168D 15.8 0.01% n D y

173D 435.0 0.23% n D y

180D 165.3 0.09% n D n

193D 10.5 0.01% n D y

194D 18.1 0.01% n D y

200D 104.1 0.05% n D y

209D 59.0 0.03% n D y

211D 25.3 0.01% n D n

219D 563.2 0.29% n D y

221D 43.9 0.02% n D y

229D 491.3 0.26% n D n

1701BT 23.6 0.01% n BT n

1801BT 165.3 0.09% n BT n

575T 110.6 0.06% n BT n

7602BT 142.8 0.07% n BT n

7621BT 596.9 0.31% n BT n

7643BT 702.7 0.37% n BT n

8004BT 3.1 0.00% n BT n

Total 191,020.5 100.00%

1 Indicates that the unit is not a join unit from an adjacent soil survey area; D = Map unit is a join unit from Fremont County, Wyoming, East Part and 

Dubois Area survey area (WY713); BT = Map unit is a join unit from Bridger National Forest, Wyoming, Eastern Part survey area (WY662).

2 This field indicates whether or not a soil map unit extends outside the study area boundary into the northern Shoshone National Forest; hence, areas 

reported above will differ from total area within the Shoshone National Forest. For complete spatial and tabular soil map unit data, please refer to 

USDA, NRCS (2008).
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 361

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

311–Rock outcrop-Dystrocryepts-Enentah Family Complex, 15 to 45% slopes

This map unit encompasses 782.4 ha in the northwest corner of the northern study area and is located 

in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This map unit encompasses a 

complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from granite bedrock and granitic till. Vegetation is rocky 

barrens and white park pine forests and woodlands with scattered subalpine grasslands. This map unit is 

similar to unit 311L. 

323–Broad Canyon Family-Typic Argicryolls Complex, 0 to 10% slopes

This map unit encompasses 57.6 ha in the northwest corner of the northern study area and is located 

in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This map unit encompasses a 

complex soils derived from granitic till. Vegetation is typically subalpine grassland. There was insufficient data to assign ecotypes to this map unit.

327–Enentah-Firada Families, Complex, 15 to 35% slopes

This map unit encompasses 79.9 ha in the northwest corner of the northern study area and is located 

in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This map unit includes a complex 

of soils derived from granitic till on moraines in mountain valleys. Vegetation is subalpine forest. This 

unit is similar to unit 327S. There was insufficient data to assign ecotypes to this map unit.

350–Frisco-Enentah Families, Complex, 5 to 30% slopes

This map unit encompasses 2228.9 ha in the northwest corner of the northern study area and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This map unit encompasses 

a complex soils derived from granitic till. Vegetation is subalpine forest. There was insufficient data to 

assign ecotypes to this unit.

505–Cheadle-Sawpit-Gany Families, Complex, 15 to 35% slopes 

This map unit encompasses 3197.3 ha in the northern study area including Whiskey and Arrow 

Mountains and is located in the Alpine Zone and Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion 

(Chapman and others 2004). This map unit is a complex soils derived from limestone, sandstone, and 

shale residuum and colluvium on mountain slopes and summits. Vegetation includes rocky barrens, 

alpine turf and fellfield, and subalpine woodlands and shrublands. There was insufficient data to assign 

ecotypes to this unit.

12L–Lolo Family-Rock outcrop-Shawmut Family Complex, 15 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 7482.2 ha and is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary 

Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This unit occurs in the northern study area from 

Warm Spring and Bald Mountain southeast to Arrow Mountain, and in the southern study area 

from Fairfield Hill southeast to Limestone Mountain. An isolated occurrence is directly northeast of 

Dickinson Park. This unit includes the Bighorn Dolomite, Madison Limestone, and Gallatin Limestone 

Formations. The Darby Formation is also included in the northern extent. This map unit includes southand west-facing limestone and dolomite summits, shoulders, ridgelines, vertical cliff faces, and limited 

amounts of northeast-facing limestone and dolomite dip slopes. Vegetation includes mixed Douglas-fir/

limber pine forests on northerly exposures and a mosaic of limber pine woodlands and mountain big 

sagebrush on southerly exposures. 

15L–Winspect-Kiev-Bigsheep Families Complex, 15 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 4405.1 ha, including 39.2 ha that occur just north and outside of the 

northern boundary of the northern study area. This map unit is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation 

Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). In the southern study area, it occurs 

from Fairfield Hill southeast to Limestone Mountain. An isolated occurrence is directly northeast of 

Dickinson Park. Geologic units include the Gros Ventre and Amsden Formations. Small amounts of the 

Phosphoria Formation occur along the eastern extent in the southern Wind River Range. In the north, 

limited areas of the Madison Limestone Formation are also included. This map unit includes south-, 
362 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

west-, and northwest-facing Gros Ventre and Amsden scarp slopes with gently rounded summits, 

and northeast-facing Phosphoria dip-slopes. Vegetation includes mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch 

wheatgrass, mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue, Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat types, Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass 

grasslands, scattered limber pine woodlands, and isolated quaking aspen stands located in topographic 

depressions.

43L–Cloud Peak-Redfist-Frisco Families Complex, 15 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 5436.6 ha and is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary 

Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It occurs in the northern study area, west and south 

of Dubois from Bald Mountain southeast to Arrow Mountain. In the southern study area, map unit 43L 

occurs from Fairfield Hill, southeast to Limestone Mountain. An isolated occurrence occurs directly 

northeast of Dickinson Park. This map unit includes the Bighorn Dolomite, Madison Limestone, and 

Gallatin Limestone Formations. The Darby Formation is also included in the northern extent. It also 

includes north- and east-facing limestone and dolomite backslopes, along steep canyon walls, and as 

narrow corridors along headwater drainages on northerly exposures. The vegetation is Douglas-fir and 

subalpine fir forests. This map unit is similar to unit 268.

43LF–Como-Agneston Families-Rock outcrop Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 5866.2 ha and is located in the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary 

Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It occurs in the southern study area from just northeast of Dickinson Park, southeast to Beaver Creek. This map unit includes northeast-facing dip slopes of 

Flathead and Tensleep sandstone. The vegetation is lodgepole pine and subalpine fir forests, and whitebark pine forests at the highest elevations.

44L–Bullflat-Ledgefork Families Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 464.9 ha and is located in the southeastern Wind River Range, including 

the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains and the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregions (Chapman 

and others 2004). In the Dry Mid-elevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion, 239 ha occur on slumps, 

landslide deposits, in topographic depressions, and along riparian zones from just north of Fairfield Hill 

southeast to Beaver Creek. Parent materials in the Dry Mid-elevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion 

were mixed calcareous colluvium at upland sites or sandy alluvium along streams. In the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion, 213 ha occur on seepy hillsides, bouldery slopes, topographic depressions, 

and along riparian zones. Parent materials in the Granitic Subalpine Zone are granodiorite or quartz 

monzonite colluvium or glacial till at upland sites, and mixed granitic alluvium along streams. The vegetation is quaking aspen forests.

106D–Ansel-Wix Family Complex, 5 to 45% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 1478.4 ha in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt. This unit includes the Goldman Meadows and Diamond Springs Formations, the Round Top Mountain Greenstone, 

and the Gneiss Complex. It also includes sheltered slopes on rolling hills and moderately steep mountain 

slopes and summits. Vegetation includes lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir forests and scattered quaking 

aspen stands.

107D–Ansel-Rock outcrop Complex, 5 to 25% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 722.4 ha in the extreme southeastern portion of the southern study 

area. This map unit includes a complex of fan aprons, hills, and rock outcrop in granodiorite of the Louis 

Lake Pluton. Vegetation includes a mosaic of lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir forests, and mountain big 

sagebrush/Idaho fescue rangelands. 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 363

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

125D – Brownsto, very bouldery-Anamac Family-Brownsto Complex, 1 to 50 % slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). This unit is approximately equivalent to map unit 351L on the 

Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 162.1 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area near Torrey Lake. This map unit is a complex of soils derived from mixed sedimentary 

and granitic glaciofluvial outwash and alluvium in basins and on hills and terraces. Vegetation is primarily bluebunch wheatgrass and Great Basin wildrye.

130D–Cloud Peak-Farlow Complex, 10 to 30% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). This unit is approximately equivalent to map units 12L and 43L 

on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 947.0 ha in the northeastern portion of the 

northern study area. This map unit is a complex of soils derived from limestone residuum and colluvium 

on mountain slopes and valley sides.

147D–Forelle-Luhon loams, 1 to 10% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 9.8 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area.

149D–Fornor-Decross Complex, 1 to 30% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 3.2 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area.

162D–Hoodle-Rock outcrop Complex, 1 to 8% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 78.9 ha in the extreme southeastern portion of the Wind River Range. 

This map unit includes a complex of alluvial terraces, rocky knobs, and summits of hills in granodiorite 

of the Louis Lake Pluton. Vegetation on the alluvial terraces is primarily bluebunch wheatgrass. 

163D–Hoodle-Gelkie association, 2 to 15% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 76.1 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit represents an association of soils derived from sandstone and granitic alluvium on gentle 

slopes. Vegetation is characterized by bluebunch and western wheatgrasses. 

166D–Irigul-Midelight-Rock outcrop Association, 1 to 15% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 1627.5 ha in the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt. This map unit 

includes Goldman Meadows and Diamond Springs Formations, Round Top Mountain Greenstone, and 

Gneiss Complex. It also includes exposed slopes on gently rolling hills and moderately steep mountain 

slopes and summits. Vegetation includes mountain big sagebrush, low sagebrush, and Idaho fescue.

168D–Lander-Meadowcreek Family, Complex, 0 to 3% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 15.8 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit is a complex of soils derived from mixed granitic and sedimentary alluvium in basins and on 

floodplains. Vegetation is characterized by willows and tufted hairgrass.
364 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

173D–Farlow Family-Nathrop Family-Starman Complex, 10 to 50% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). It encompasses 435.0 ha in the northeastern portion of the 

northern study area. This unit is approximately equivalent to map units 15L on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. This map unit is a complex of soils derived from limestone and sandstone residuum 

and colluvium on mountain slopes and valley sides. Vegetation is typified by bluebunch wheatgrass and 

Idaho fescue.

180D–Pensore-Rock outcrop Complex, 5 to 50% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). It encompasses 165.3 ha in the northeastern portion of the 

northern study area. There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. 

This map unit is a complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from limestone residuum on hillsides. 

Vegetation is dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass. 

193D–Rockinchair-Rock outcrop-Sinkson Complex, 2 to 40% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). It encompasses 10.5 ha in the northeastern portion of the 

northern study area. There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. 

This map unit is a complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from sandstone and shale residuum and 

colluvium on hillslopes and in basins, respectively. Vegetation is typically bluebunch wheatgrass and 

sagebrush. 

194D–Rockinchair-Sinkson Complex, 1 to 15% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). It encompasses 18.1 ha in the northeastern portion of the 

northern study area. There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. 

This map unit is a complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from sandstone and shale residuum and 

colluvium on hillslopes and in basins, respectively. Vegetation is typically bluebunch and western wheatgrasses and sagebrush.

200D–Roxal-Rock outcrop Complex, 20 to 65% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 104.1 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit is a complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from sandstone and shale residuum. Vegetation 

is characterized by Idaho and spike fescue, antelope bitterbrush, and sagebrush.

209D–Starman-Rock outcrop-Woosley Complex, 10 to 40% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 59.0 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit is a complex of rock outcrop and soils derived from limestone residuum on mountain slopes 

and mixed sedimentary alluvium on alluvial fans. Vegetation is characterized by Idaho and spike fescue, 

bluebunch wheatgrass, and sagebrush.

211D–Thermopolis-Sinkson association, 3 to 30% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 25.3 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit is an association of soils derived from siltstone residuum on ridges and mixed sandstone and 

siltstone alluvium on fan aprons. Vegetation is characterized by bluebunch and western wheatgrass and 

sagebrush.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 365

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

219D–Venapass-Silas Complex, 0 to 6% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). This join unit is approximately equivalent to map unit 302 and 

302L on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. Map unit 219D encompasses 563.2 ha spanning from 

the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt east to the Continental Divide, and another 181 ha in the northern Wind River Range and southern Absaroka Range to the northwest of Dubois, Wyoming. It includes 

floodplains and terraces composed of alluvium derived from a variety of igneous and metamorphic 

materials. Vegetation includes willow thickets, sedges, and moist grasses.

221D–Woosley-Decross-Starman association, 2 to 20% slopes

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 43.9 ha in the northeastern portion of the northern study area. This 

map unit is an association of soils derived from limestone residuum and colluvium on mountain slopes 

and hills. Vegetation is typified by Idaho fescue and sagebrush.

229D–Dumps, mine

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

Fremont County (USDA, NRCS 2007c). There were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National 

Forest soil survey. It encompasses 491.3 ha in the southeastern portion of the southern study area. This 

map unit includes an iron strip mine near Iron Mountain.

302/302L–Moose River-Elvick Families Complex, 3 to 25% slopes

These map units encompasses a total of 12,398 ha and are located in the Alpine Zone and Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregions (Chapman and others 2004), 8790.1 ha in the northern and southern study 

areas. They include riparian areas and wetlands that feature soils derived from mixed granitic alluvium. 

Vegetation includes forested alluvial terraces, willow thickets, and moist/wet sedge-grassland meadows 

and floodplains. 

304L–Agneston-McCall Families-Rubble land Complex, 15 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 36,3710 ha and is located in the Alpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and 

others 2004). It occurs from Shale Mountain and Ram Flat in the northwest to Christina Pass in the 

southeast, and includes all land above timberline that is not dominated by steep, cliffy rock outcrop. This 

map unit includes remnant summit erosion surfaces, alpine plateaus and ridges, mountain summits, and 

glacial cirques. In the southeastern Wind River Range, south of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, 

bedrock is Louis Lake Granodiorite. North of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is quartz 

monzonite. In the northern Wind River Range, parent material is quartz monzonite, gneiss, and/or migmatite. Vegetation includes alpine turf, alpine fellfields, krummholz, and alpine willows.

306L–Ledgefork Family, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 64.8 ha and is located in the southern study area in the Granitic Subalpine 

Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It is located at Dickinson Park to the southwest of Black 

Mountain. This map unit occurs on a lateral moraine of Bull Lake age and is composed of compacted 

granitic glacial till (Pearson and others 1973). Glacial erratics are common. Vegetation includes Idaho 

fescue grasslands.

309A–Elwood-Como Families Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 3252.3 ha and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion 

(Chapman and others 2004). It occurs primarily around Blue Ridge and the headwaters of Sawmill and 

Canyon Creeks. Small areas occur to the southwest of Louis Lake (348 ha) and at Dickinson Park (297 

ha). On Blue Ridge, the headwaters of Sawmill and Canyon Creeks, and in the area southwest of Louis 

Lake, bedrock is Louis Lake Granodiorite. At Dickinson Park, bedrock is quartz monzonite. Vegetation 

is park-forest vegetation, including a mosaic of whitebark pine forests and Idaho fescue grasslands on 

south-facing slopes, and subalpine fir forests on north-facing slopes. 
366 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

309L–Ledgefork-Como-Targhee Families Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 5705.9 ha and is located in the southern study area in the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It occurs from just south of Bayer Mountain in 

the north to Little Pine Creek in the southwest. This map unit includes a series of intersecting diabasic 

gabbro dikes that bisect the Louis Lake Granodiorite (Bayley and others 1973). Streams in this area 

occur in narrow valleys separated by the parallel dikes, forming a distinct trellis pattern, where the less 

resistant Louis Lake Granodiorite alternates with the resistant diabasic gabbro of the dikes (Chernicoff 

and others 1997). Vegetation is Wyoming three-tip sagebrush/Idaho fescue on south-facing dike upper 

backslopes and shoulders, mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue on south-facing dikes, lower backslopes 

and footslopes, and whitebark pine or subalpine fir forests on north-facing dike slopes.

310A–Marosa Family-Rubble land Complex, 7 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 2207.0 ha and is located in the southern study area in the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It occurs primarily around Louis Lake in the 

southeastern Wind River Range. A small area (184 ha) occurs to the east of Dickinson Park. This map 

unit includes mountain slopes and mountain summits. Parent material is granodiorite near Louis Lake 

and quartz monzonite east of Dickinson Park. Vegetation is subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and scattered 

aspen forests. Extensive talus slopes are common.

310L–Jeru-Elting Families-Rock outcrop Complex, 7 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 12,312.3 ha and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone (Chapman and 

others 2004). It occurs in the southern study area from the South Fork Little Wind River and Dickinson 

Park in the north, southeast to Christina Lake. Included are forested mountain slopes that extend from 

above till-mantled glacial valleys to timberline and the forested lower portion of glacial cirques. South 

of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, parent material is primarily granodiorite residuum, colluvium, 

or glacial till. North of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, parent material is primarily quartz monzonite residuum, colluvium, or glacial till. This map unit is characterized by whitebark pine and subalpine 

fir forests and scattered rock outcrop. In the lower portion of glacial cirques, and near timberline, vegetation is a mosaic of scattered stands of whitebark pine, and alpine grasslands.

311L–Rock outcrop-Elting-Jeru Families Complex, 15 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 15,187.8 ha and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion 

(Chapman and others 2004). It occurs southwest of Dubois, WY, in the upper Jakeys Fork drainage in 

the northern study area south to Stough Creek Basin in the southern study area. This map unit includes 

gently rounded, glacially scoured mountains dominated by moderately steep, rock outcrop. In the 

southern study area, south of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is Louis Lake Granodiorite. 

North of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is quartz monzonite. In the northern study area, 

parent material is quartz monzonite, gneiss, and/or migmatite. This map unit is largely composed of rock 

outcrop with scattered whitebark pine forests. This map unit is similar to unit 311.

317L–Ledgefork-Como Families-Rock outcrop Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 1247.1 ha and is located in the southern study area within the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It occurs northeast of Frye Lake and near South 

Pass. This map unit includes mountain slopes, ridges, and rock outcrop formed from foliated granodiorite of the Louis Lake Pluton (Bayley and others 1973). The vegetation includes open Douglas-fir and 

limber pine forests, small patches of mountain big sagebrush, and large, isolated quaking aspen stands at 

footslope positions and on boulder-strewn slopes.

319L–Rock outcrop-Rubble land Complex

This map unit encompasses 21,367.5 ha and is located in the Alpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman 

and others 2004). It occurs from Shale Mountain and Ram Flat in the northwest to Christina Pass in 

the south. Map unit 319L includes all land above timberline that is dominated by steep, cliffy rock 

outcrop. In the southern study area, south of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is Louis 

Lake Granodiorite. North of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, bedrock is quartz monzonite. In the 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

northern study area, parent material is quartz monzonite, gneiss, and/or migmatite. Vegetation is sparse 

or non-existent in this map unit.

327L–Salt Chuck-Holland Lake Families Complex, 3 to 25% slopes

This map unit encompasses 3166.8 ha and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion in 

the southern study area (Chapman and others 2004). It encompasses glacial moraines that extend from 

Christina Lake and Atlantic and Silas Canyons in the west to Louis Lake and Maxon Basin on the eastern periphery. This map unit is bound on the north by Blue Ridge. It includes granodiorite glacial till and 

features classic kettle and kame glacial topography. Numerous small kettle lakes occur scattered across 

the map unit. The vegetation is lodgepole pine forests at lower elevations and whitebark pine forests at 

upper elevations.

327S–Jeru-Swapps-McCall Families Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 26,089.4 ha and is located in the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion 

(Chapman and others 2004). It occurs in the northern study area along glacial valleys from the South 

Fork of Warm Spring Creek and Simpson Lake, southeast to the Middle Fork Bull Lake Creek. In the 

southern study area, it occurs along glacial valleys from the South Fork Little Wind River southeast to 

the Middle Fork Popo Agie River and the headwaters of Roaring Fork Creek. Throughout the study area, 

this map unit occurs on extensive lateral glacial moraines in glacially carved valleys. In the southern 

study area, south of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, parent material is primarily granodiorite 

glacial till. North of the Middle Fork Popo Agie drainage, parent material is primarily quartz monzonite 

glacial till. In the northern study area, parent material is mixed quartz monzonite, gneiss, and migmatite 

glacial till. Vegetation is subalpine fir and whitebark pine forests.

327W–Bohica-Salt Chuck Families Complex, 7 to 40% slopes

This map unit encompasses 2686.9 ha and is located in the southern study area within the Granitic 

Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). A small portion (~140 ha) extends down along 

Sawmill Creek into the Dry Mid-Elevation Sedimentary Mountains ecoregion. This map unit occurs 

in the north from Worthen Meadows and Frye Lake, south to the headwaters of Sawmill and Burnt 

Gulch Creek, and east along Sawmill Creek to just downstream of its junction with Townsend Creek. It 

includes extensive granitic glacial moraines of Pinedale age. Vegetation includes lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, and subalpine fir forest and scattered Idaho fescue parkland.

351L–Corbly-Winspect Families-Rock outcrop Complex, 7 to 60% slopes

This map unit encompasses 1454.9 ha and is located in the southern study area within the Dry MidElevation Sedimentary Mountains and the Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregions (Chapman and others 

2004). It encompasses the Sinks Canyon moraine and occurs along the lower reaches of the Middle 

Popo Agie River from roughly 6 km upstream of Popo Agie Falls downstream to the Shoshone National 

Forest Boundary. The upper portion is bounded on the north and south by the canyon rim. The lower 

portion is bounded on the north by outcrops of the Gallatin and Bighorn Formations and terminates to 

the south between 2200 and 2300 m elevation. Near the eastern extent of this map unit, 126 ha occur 

above the canyon rim along a section of the ridge that runs northeast from Fossil Hill near Deer Spring. 

Along the upper portion, soils are derived from granitic glacial till, while the soils of the lower portion 

are derived from a thin veneer of Bighorn and Gallatin colluvium over granitic glacial till. Vegetation 

includes Utah juniper, mountain big sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass, and Idaho fescue on southerly 

exposures, and lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, and quaking aspen groves on northerly exposures.

402/402L–Bullflat-Caryville Families Complex, 7 to 25% slopes

These map units encompasses 657.8 ha and are located in the Dry Mid-elevation Sedimentary 

Mountains ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). These map units include riparian areas and wetlands 

that feature soils derived from mixed sedimentary alluvium. Vegetation includes quaking aspen forests, 

willow thickets, and moist/wet sedge-grassland meadows and floodplains. 
368 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

575T–Lithic Cryorthents-Mollic Haplocryalfs-Typic Cryorthents Complex, 10 to 50% slopes

This is a join map unit, and there were no equivalent map units on the Shoshone National Forest soil 

survey. It encompasses 110.6 ha on the northwest boundary of the northern study area.

1701BT–Alpine Cirques, Rock outcrop-Tundra-Willow Complex

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). This unit is approximately equivalent 

to map unit 304L on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey, and it encompasses 23.6 ha along the 

Continental Divide near Sweetwater Gap. It includes soils derived from granitic residuum, colluvium, 

and glacial till and soils located in alpine glacial cirques. Vegetation includes willows and alpine tundra. 

1801BT–Alpine Ridges, Rubble Land-Tundra Complex

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). This join unit would be included in 

map unit 304L on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. This map unit encompasses 165.3 ha and 

includes rubble land and soils derived from granitic residuum and colluvium. Vegetation is typically 

sparse, but may include alpine turf and fellfield.

7602BT–Southeast Mountains sideslopes, Rock outcrop-Subalpine fir Complex

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). This join unit would be included in 

map units 310L or 327S on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 142.8 ha near 

Sweetwater Gap and includes till mantled mountain slopes, snow avalanche slopes, and rocky knobs 

along glacial mountain valleys. Rock outcrops are of granite gneiss, granodiorite, and quartz diorite. 

Vegetation includes subalpine fir/grouse whortleberry forests.

7621BT–Southeast Mountains sideslopes, Big sagebrush–Douglas-fir–Rock outcrop Complex

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). There were no equivalent map units 

on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 596.9 ha in the extreme southeastern portion of the Wind River Range. This map unit includes benches and sideslopes of smooth and broken 

mountain slopes. Rock outcrops are of granodiorite. Vegetation is a mosaic of Douglas-fir forests and 

mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue rangelands.

7643BT–Southeast Mountains sideslopes, Subalpine fir Complex

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part of 

the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). This join unit is approximately equivalent 

to map unit 310A on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 702.7 ha near Rennecker 

and Pabst Peaks in the extreme southeastern portion of the Wind River Range. This unit includes 

backslopes and benches of smooth mountain slopes in granodiorite bedrock. Vegetation tends toward 

the warmer end of the subalpine fir zone, including the subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica and subalpine fir/

Oregon grape habitat types.

8004BT–Rubble Land

This is a join map unit that was originally developed for the adjacent soil survey of the eastern part 

of the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Svalberg and others 1997). This join unit would be included in 

map units 319L or 304L on the Shoshone National Forest soil survey. It encompasses 3.1 ha along the 

Continental Divide near Sweetwater Gap and is composed of landslide deposits, avalanche debris, talus, 

scree slopes, and debris fans on mountain slopes, ridges, and peaks. Bedrock geology includes granodiorite or quartz monzonite. Alpine tundra vegetation occurs in small, isolated patches.
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 5

GLAC–Glaciers

This map unit encompasses 4029.7 ha and is located in the primarily along the eastern boundary of 

the northern study area, including the Alpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). It also encompasses glaciers and permanent snow fields in glacial cirques.

IH2O–Water, Aquepts, and Aquolls soils, 0 to 3% slopes

This map unit encompasses 4.9 ha and is located in primarily the southern study area. This unit encompasses small ponds and lake margins, including water and flooded soils.

W–Water

This map unit encompasses 3774.3 ha and is located throughout the north and south study area, 

primarily in the Alpine Zone Granitic Subalpine Zone ecoregion (Chapman and others 2004). This unit 

includes water in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.
370 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 6

Appendix 6: Additional Species Descriptions

Description

The following provides ecology and management information for 13 common plant species found 

along the eastern slope of the Wind River Range. This information supplements the principal species 

descriptions found in the “Ecological Type Descriptions” section.

Tree Species

Engelmann spruce

Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.

Engelmann spruce occurs in British Columbia south of approximately 55o Latitude from the eastern 

slope of Coast Range eastward into the Rocky Mountains of southwestern Alberta (Thompson and others 1999). In southern British Columbia and Alberta, the geographic distribution follows two separate 

paths. One path follows the eastern slope of the Cascade Ranges in Washington and Oregon south to 

Mount Shasta in northern California. The second path follows the Rocky Mountains through northern 

and central Idaho, western Montana, and northwestern Wyoming south through Utah, western Colorado, 

and northern New Mexico. Disjunct populations occur in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, 

Bighorn and Laramie Mountains of Wyoming, and scattered mountain ranges in northeastern Nevada, 

northeastern and southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico.

Engelmann spruce is a common, cold hardy conifer in subalpine and timberline forests. Average 

annual temperature in Engelmann spruce forests in the northern and central Rocky Mountains ranges 

between -1 and 2 oC (Alexander and Shepperd 1990). The range of average January and July temperatures in Engelmann spruce forests are -12 to -7 and 4 to 13 oC, respectively. Annual precipitation, most 

of which is deposited in the form of snow (avg. 381–889+ cm), ranges between 610 and 1,400 mm. In 

British Columbia and Alberta, Engelmann spruce is most common between 762 and 1,829 m. In the 

Rocky Mountains of Idaho, Montana, and eastern Washington and Oregon, Engelmann spruce is most 

common between 1,524 and 1,829 m, above which it is a minor forest component, and below which it 

is confined to cold air drainages, frost pockets, and moist microsites. In Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado, 

Engelmann spruce occurs between 2,743 and 3,353 m but may occur as low as 2,438 in cold air drainages and frost pockets. At the southern end of its range, in Arizona and New Mexico, it occurs between 

2,438 and 3,658 m.

Engelmann spruce occurs on a variety of substrates; however, in the central Rocky Mountains, 

contiguous, climax stands may be more common on basic volcanic rocks (especially andesite) and 

calcareous sedimentary rocks (Steele and others 1983). Engelmann spruce has been reported to occur on 

limestone, calcareous shale and sandstone, andesite, basalt, quartz monzonite, rhyolite, argillite, quartzite, gneiss, granite, granodiorite, breccia, tuff, schist, siltstone, peridotite, glacial till, colluvium, and 

alluvium (Pfister and others 1977; Steele and others 1981, 1983; Youngblood and Mauk 1985; Svalberg 

and others 1997; Johnston and others 2001; Johnson 2004). Regardless of parent material, Engelmann 

spruce is most productive on moderately deep and deep, well drained, loamy sands, silt loams, or clay 

loams (Alexander and Shepperd 1990). On coarser soils, developed from glacial till or sandy alluvium, 

direct access to the water table is more important than the physical properties of the soils. Engelmann 

spruce is tolerant of soil saturation and commonly produces pure, climax stands in wet meadows and 

springs and on floodplains, streambanks, and seepy slopes (Wells 2006). Soils in riparian zones and wetlands may include peat, organic-rich loams, silt loams, and sandy loams with seasonal surface flooding, 

and extended periods of soil saturation within the rooting zone of Engelmann spruce.

Engelmann spruce is intolerant of high temperatures and drought and is moderately shade tolerant 

(Alexander and Shepperd 1990). In the Rocky Mountains of northern Idaho and northwestern Montana, 

regions that experience a maritime influence, Engelmann spruce is seral to grand fir, mountain hemlock, 

and western red cedar (Steele and others 1983). In the Rocky Mountains outside of maritime influence, 

Engelmann spruce is typically seral to subalpine fir, a more shade-tolerant species. However, Engelmann 
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 6

spruce typically outlives subalpine fir and persists to climax, sharing dominance with subalpine fir 

(Uchytil 1991b). Engelmann spruce has higher tolerance to soil saturation than subalpine fir, and at wetter sites, Engelmann spruce forms pure climax stands.

Engelmann spruce is one of the largest native, high-elevation conifers in North America (Uchytil 

1991b). Mature trees average 14 to 40 m in height and 38 to 76 cm in diameter but may reach sizes 

in excess of 49 m tall and 102 cm in diameter. Engelmann spruce is also long-lived, commonly living 

between 350 and 600 years. It features a narrow, pyramid-shaped crown with short, compact branches. 

Dead lower limbs are usually persistent throughout the lifespan of an individual.

Engelmann spruce is monoecious and features male cones on lower crown and female cones near the 

end of branches on the upper crown (Alexander and Shepperd 1990). Seed production begins at 25 to 40 

years of age but is greatest between 150 to 250 years of age. Pollen is wind disseminated between late 

May and early July depending on elevation. The female cones are down turned, tawny to light brown 

in color, and 2.5 to 6.3 cm when they ripen in August to early September. Seeds are wind dispersed, 

and cones remain intact following seed drop. Engelmann spruce seeds require mineral soil seedbeds for 

successful germination (Uchytil 1991b). Germination and successful seedling development are favored 

by 40 to 60 percent of full shade (Alexander and Shepperd 1990). Seedlings are extremely susceptible 

to drought, high temperatures, and intense solar radiation up to five years of age. Adequate soil moisture 

and partial shade are essential components in the successful regeneration of Engelmann spruce. The species may reproduce by layering; however, compared to subalpine fir, layering is of minor importance to 

Engelmann spruce as a reproduction method in close-canopy stands.

Engelmann spruce is very sensitive to fire due to (1) thin, resinous bark; (2) shallow roots; (3) persistent, low growing, lichen covered branches; (4) a tendency to form dense stands; and (5) moderately 

flammable foliage (Uchytil 1991b). Fuel structure in the subalpine forests where Engelmann spruce 

occurs, including abundant fine needle and twig litter, and persistent low-growing branches promotes 

large stand replacing burns. Fires typically burn slowly near ground level at first until the flames reach 

the low growing branches and travel into the crown. Fire return interval in Engelmann spruce stands is 

typically greater than 150 years. Following clear-cutting of Engelmann spruce stands, broadcast burning 

can be used to prepare seedbeds for natural regeneration. Fires must burn hot enough to remove most 

of the duff layer, but not so hot as to leave deep ash layers, such as beneath slash piles or windrows. If 

slash piles or windrows are decided upon due to the large amounts of slash remaining after clear-cutting, 

piles should be small and spread out. Broadcast burning is not recommended following partial cuts, as 

residual Engelmann spruce will be injured or killed.

Wind throw is a common cause of mortality in Engelmann spruce (Alexander and Shepperd 1990). 

Windthrow is highest at sites with poor drainage or shallow and rocky soils, and at exposed slope positions. The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) and the western spruce budworm (Choristoneura 

occidentalis) are the most prolific of Engelmann spruce insect pests in the northern and central Rocky 

Mountains. Spruce beetle larvae and adults feed on the phloem layer (Hagle and others 2003). Trees are 

often completely girdled and killed. Trees attacked by spruce beetle are inoculated with blue stain fungi, 

and individuals not killed directly by the beetle later succumb to the fungi. Western spruce budworm 

larvae feed on new foliage throughout the spring and also mine buds, old needles, cones, and seeds. 

Defoliations can be severe and are typically followed by branch dieback, top kill, and tree mortality. 

Wood borers, including longhorned beetles (Family: Cerambycidae) and metallic wood borers (Family: 

Buprestidae), may also attack Engelmann spruce. Longhorned beetles and metallic wood borers rarely 

kill their hosts, they usually only attack weakened and recently downed trees.

Wood rotting fungi are the most common disease agents of Engelmann spruce (Alexander and 

Sheppard 1990). Wood rotting fungi result in reduced marketable volume and predispose trees to wind 

throw. Common stem and root diseases include Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum), 

Schweinitzii root and butt rot (Phaeolus schweinitzii), red belt fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola), and red 

ring rot (Phellinus pini) (Hagle and others 2003). Above timberline, where Engelmann spruce occurs in 

krummholtz stands, brown felt blight (Neopeckia coulteri) develops on needles that are buried in snow 

and keeps them moist for prolonged periods of time in the spring. The infected needles become matted 

together by a dark brown mat of mycelium and eventually are killed. Brown felt blight is rarely lethal.

Engelmann spruce is an unimportant browse species for wild and domestic ungulates (Uchytil 

1991b). However, associated understory species provide important browse and forage for a variety of 
372 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 6

wildlife. Dense stands of Engelmann spruce provide important thermal and hiding cover for elk, mule 

deer, moose, black and grizzly bear, and bighorn sheep. The seeds are readily eaten by small mammals 

and birds, including red squirrels, chipmunks, mice, voles, chickadees, nuthatches, crossbills, and pine 

siskin. Large Engelmann spruce snags provide important feeding and nesting opportunities for a variety 

of cavity nesting birds. Engelmann spruce is recommended for the rehabilitation of cool, moist, highelevation disturbed sites, especially mine spoils. Timber harvesting methods that reduce the susceptibility of residual Engelmann spruce to windthrow are recommended, including clear-cutting, shelterwood, 

and individual tree selection. If clear-cutting or shelterwood cuts are implemented, careful consideration 

should be given to locating wind-firm leave areas between cutting units (Alexander and Shepperd 1990).

Shrub Species

Rocky Mountain maple

Acer glabrum Torr.

Rocky Mountain maple is an upright, deciduous, tall shrub or small tree that ranges in height from 

2 to 10 m (Francis 2004a). Rocky Mountain maple is rarely single-stemmed, most often featuring a 

clumped growth form with multi-stems originating from a common base. The bark is thin, smooth, 

grayish-brown and occasionally reddish.

Rocky Mountain maple occurs continuously from southeast Alaska through British Columbia and 

western Alberta (Thompson and others 1999). In southern British Columbia and Alberta, the distribution 

of Rocky Mountain maple follows two separate paths. One path follows the Coast and Cascade ranges 

in Washington and Oregon, and continues southeast through the Sierra-Nevada Mountains of California. 

The second follows the Rocky Mountains through northern, central, and southeastern Idaho; western 

and central Montana and Wyoming; and south into Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico. Outliers 

from this general trend, include the Wallowa and Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, the Bighorn 

Mountains of north-central Wyoming, western South Dakota and Nebraska, and scattered mountain 

ranges across Nevada, Arizona, southern New Mexico, and northern Mexico (Francis 2004a). Six varieties of Rocky Mountain maple, corresponding to six distinct geographic regions, are currently recognized 

by taxonomists: var. diffusum from the Pacific southwest, var. douglasii from the Pacific Northwest, var. 

greenei from California, var. glabrum from the inland Rocky Mountains, var. neomexicanum from the 

inland southwest, and var. torreyi from Oregon, California, and Nevada.

Rocky Mountain maple occurs in riparian areas, along steep canyon walls, and on upland mountain 

slopes (Anderson 2001a). It is often restricted to riparian areas, topographic depressions, or north-facing 

slopes within the most arid range of its geographic distribution. In general, the elevation range of Rocky 

Mountain maple increases with decreasing latitude. In southeast Alaska, British Columbia, and Alberta, 

Rocky Mountain maple occurs between 350 and 1,450 m. Across the Pacific coast and into northeastern 

Oregon, northern Idaho, and northwestern Montana, the species occurs between 457 and 2,743 m. In 

the Rocky Mountains of central Idaho, southwestern Montana, and northwestern Wyoming, Rocky 

Mountain maple occurs between 1,160 and 2,530 m (Steele and others 1981,and others 1983). On the 

east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, Rocky Mountain maple occurs between roughly 1,800 

and 2,900 m (Massatti 2007). In the southern portion of its range, including Colorado, Utah, Arizona, 

and New Mexico, the species is generally restricted to north-facing upland slopes and riparian areas 

between 1,524 and 3,871 m.

Rocky Mountain maple grows on a variety of soil textures, including silty-clay loam, silt-loam, 

sandy-loam, loamy-sand, and sand. It also occurs on a variety of substrate types, including sandstone, 

limestone, basalt, gneiss, rhyolite, granite, and mixed alluvium (Anderson 2001a). Rocky Mountain 

maple is often found growing in extremely bouldery soils (Wells 2006), ccupies soils ranging from 

well drained to somewhat poorly drained, and is tolerant of periodic flooding and temporary saturation 

(Anderson 2001a). The species is weakly to moderately drought tolerant, responding to changes in moisture level by adjusting total leaf area through stomatal control and shifting leaf water potential.

Rocky mountain maple features both monoecious and dioecious trees, the flowers of which are 

small, greenish, and borne in loose, terminal, corymbose cymes (Francis 2004a). Flowers first develop 
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in early spring, and fruits mature by late summer or early autumn. The fruits are double-samaras, which 

feature wings to aid in dispersal by wind, and require approximately 6 months of chilling to germinate 

(Anderson 2001a). The species reproduces vegetatively by resprouting from the root crown following 

stem damage or top kill.

Rocky Mountain maple is considered shade intolerant to somewhat shade tolerant and is found in 

early seral to late seral and climax forested vegetation (Anderson 2001a). However, its presence has 

been found to decrease in later seral stages. This species is an important colonizer of disturbed sites, 

including avalanche paths, burned slopes, floodplains, and landslide deposits, and experiences its most 

rapid growth in open- to partially close-canopied stands within the first 20 years following a disturbance 

event. Rocky Mountain maple, a fire-dependent species, may decline in abundance with fire exclusion. This species readily colonizes burned areas by wind-dispersed seeds and root sprouting. Rocky 

Mountain maple is top-killed by even low intensity fires due to its thin bark. However, fire actually 

stimulates resprouting, and even high intensity burns are rarely fatal. 

Managers considering the use of prescribed fire to increase the abundance of Rocky Mountain maple 

should consider using low to moderate intensity burns, as high intensity burns can result in less successful regeneration and an overall loss of vigor. Silvicultural treatments, including thinning, clear-cutting, 

and shelterwood cuts, may also lead to an increase in the overall density of Rocky Mountain maple. 

However, severe damage to the root crown due to mechanical disturbance will decrease the abundance 

of Rocky Mountain maple following silvicultural treatments. Lastly, the abundance of Rocky Mountain 

maple stems may be increased by removing old stems above the root crown. 

Rocky Mountain maple is an important browse species for domestic and wild ungulates, and in early 

seral stands, provides hiding and thermal cover for a variety of wildlife, including mule deer, elk, birds, 

and small mammals (Anderson 2001a). Heavy browsing by ungulates in the early stages of development 

may arrest the development of Rocky Mountain maple, and result in a stunted growth form. In areas 

where browse intensity is low to moderate, Rocky Mountain maple will eventually grow above the reach 

of browsing ungulates. Rocky Mountain maple is commonly used in rehabilitation of disturbed sites 

following highway construction and for revegetation projects in riparian areas across the western United 

States. 

Red-osier dogwood

Cornus sericea (L.)

Red-osier dogwood is a widespread species that occurs across North America from Alaska and the 

Yukon Territory in the northwest to California, Arizona, and northern Mexico in the southwest (Crane 

1989). In the northeast, red-osier dogwood occurs across New England and into New Brunswick, 

Labrador, and Newfoundland. Across the Midwest and central eastern United States, red-osier dogwood 

occurs most prominently in previously glaciated areas, and in northern Kentucky, Virginia, and West 

Virginia at locally favorable sites.

Red-osier dogwood has high environmental plasticity and is tolerant of a wide array of soil and 

climatic conditions (Pijut 2004). It is most often found in riparian zones and wetlands in nutrient rich, 

medium- to coarse-textured, moist to wet soils (Crane, 1989). Permanent soil saturation within the upper 

rooting zone is detrimental to this species. Red-osier dogwood is found close to sea level near the Pacific 

Coast and in deep canyon (400–1,200 m), mid-montane (1,200–1,800 m), and lower subalpine (1,800–

2,700 m) riparian zones and wetlands throughout the Rocky Mountain region of eastern Oregon and 

Washington, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Nevada (Youngblood and others 1985; Hansen and others 

1995; Manning and Padgett 1995; Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997; Kovalchik and Clausnitzer 2004; Wells 

2006). On the east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, red-osier dogwood occurs between 

roughly 1,800 and 2,900 m (Massatti 2007). It occurs between 1,372 and 3,048 m in Colorado, 1,463 

and 2,896 m in Utah, and 1,524 and 2,743 m in Arizona (Crane 1989). Red-osier dogwood adapts to 

extremely cold winter temperatures by partial dehydration of stems in response to shortened day length.

Red-osier dogwood is a fast-growing, medium to tall (1–6 m), deciduous shrub with bright red stems 

and twigs (Crane 1989). Multiple stems sprout from a single root crown, often producing dense thickets 

along stream banks. The white- to cream-colored flowers are insect pollinated, and occur in cymes at the 

end of branches (Pijut 2004). The fruits are globose drupes that have a hard white- to gray-colored seed 
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coat and dormant embryos, and are primarily dispersed by mammals and birds. Seeds may be stored 

in the seedbank for extended periods of time, and germination is enhanced by cold stratification and 

scarification by fire or in the digestive tract of mammals or birds (Crane 1989). Red-osier dogwood also 

reproduces asexually by stolons, layering, adventitious roots, and stem suckering. Asexual reproduction 

is stimulated by mechanical damage to the plants, including fire, browsing, and damage due to spring 

flood events. Red-osier dogwood is an early to mid-seral species that has low shade tolerance, and requires moderate to full sunlight.

This species is semi fire tolerant and is able to sprout from surviving roots, stolons, and the base of 

aerial stems following low to moderate severity burns (Crane 1989). Severe burns causing intense heating of upper soil horizons may lead to root mortality. Fire stimulates germination of seeds stored in the 

seed bank. In general, red-osier dogwood responds favorably to low to moderate severity burns, and due 

to its vigorous growth, fire stimulated buds and seeds, is often the first species to regenerate following 

fire.

Red-osier dogwood is an important browse and cover species for moose, white-tailed and mule deer, 

elk, mountain goats, and snowshoe hares (Crane 1989). Livestock eat this species, but it is moderately 

unpalatable and not strongly preferred. The fruits, which remain on the plant well after the fruits of other 

plants have disappeared, are a preferred food item of many songbirds, grouse, black and grizzly bears, 

ducks, crows, and mice. Young stems and bark of red-osier dogwood are a preferred food item of deer 

mice and voles, while adult stems are used by beavers to build dams and lodges. Red-osier dogwood is 

extremely important in streambank stabilization owing to its strong roots and dense stems. This plant is 

strongly recommended for revegetating disturbed riparian zones and wetlands because it is easy to establish and grows rapidly, and its dense, interweaving roots help with soil stabilization. Red-osier dogwood 

may increase with light to moderate browsing pressure; however, prolonged, intense pressure by browsing ungulates may eliminate red-osier dogwood. 

Common juniper

Juniperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh

Common juniper is a widespread conifer species and includes five subspecies or varieties occurring on all continents throughout the northern hemisphere (Pojar and Mackinnon 1994). The variety 

Juniperus communis var. depressa is present in the Rocky Mountains and is a low shrub, typically 3 m 

tall or less. The species is intolerant of shade and prefers open canopy forested communities with high 

amounts of solar radiation (Ward 1982a). Common juniper is a hardy shrub tolerant of a wide range of 

environmental conditions (Ladyman 2004a). Despite its environmental plasticity and the availability of 

potential habitat types, the species’ distribution is often patchy, and the spatial distribution of common 

juniper is often difficult to explain (Diotte and Bergeron 1989).

This plant is a dioecious shrub with female cones that resemble berries in appearance, develop 

in April through May, and ripen in August through September every two–three years (Tirmenstein, 

1999b; Ladyman, 2004a). The seeds are dispersed primarily by birds and require a lengthy maturation 

and germination period, including 3 months of warm weather followed by 7 months of cold conditions (Livingston 1972). Also, reproductive success, including fecundity (sterility in 40–60% of old 

individuals) and viability of seeds (non-viability in 94.8% of seed producing old plants) decreases with 

increasing age of common juniper (Ward 1982b). Poor seed dispersal combined with low germination 

rates and decreased reproductive success of older individuals is considered an important factor influencing the often patchy distribution of common juniper relative to the distribution of potential habitat sites 

(Ladyman 2004a).

The mosaic of burned and unburned areas created by forest fire is another important factor influencing the patchy distribution of common juniper relative to the distribution of potential habitat sites. 

Common juniper is intolerant of forest fire and is generally killed or seriously damaged by moderate to 

severe burns and rarely re-sprouts from rootstock following fire (Tirmenstein 1999b). Following low 

intensity or spreading, patchy burns, individuals surviving in an area provide seed for regeneration. 

However, the success of regeneration from seed of surviving individuals depends strongly on the age 

of those individuals that survived. In the case of high intensity burns, where this species is completely 

obliterated across broad areas, birds and small mammals carry seeds from off-site, providing a pathway 
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for re-establishment. However, re-colonization from off-site is often extremely slow due to poor seed 

dispersal and low germination rates. Lastly, Diotte and Bergeron (1989) concluded that the restricted 

distribution of this species in the boreal forests of Quebec, despite an abundance of favorable habitats, 

was related to the imbalance between the slow colonization period and the elimination by fire. 

Common juniper is a valuable species for long-term rehabilitation projects and is useful in mitigating 

soil erosion (Tirmenstein 1999b). When planting this species for rehabilitation, the best results may be 

obtained by planting bare rootstock in the spring of the year. Mule deer sometimes browse common 

juniper in late winter and early spring. The cones of this species are consumed by songbirds, including 

American robins and chickadees. Domestic livestock rarely feed on common juniper, which may be 

poisonous to domestic goats. The seed cones of common juniper are used to flavor gin, and the word for 

this alcoholic beverage was derived from the Old French and Dutch words “genevre” and “genever,” 

respectively, which ultimately find their roots in the Latin word “juniperus.”

Oregon grape

Mahonia repens (Lindl.) G. Don

Oregon grape is an upright, recumbent, evergreen shrub with solitary stems arising from fibrous 

rhizomes and standing 12 to 40 cm in height (Francis 2004b). The alternate, pinnately compound leaves 

feature three to seven leathery, spiny-toothed leaflets. The yellow flowers occur clustered at the end of 

terminal racemes. The fruits are oblong to round, glaucous, blue berries, and appear much like a cluster 

of grapes.

Oregon grape occurs from east-central British Columbia and southern Alberta; south, central, 

and northwestern New Mexico; and the northeastern half of Arizona (Whittemore 1997). West of 

the Continental Divide, the geographic distribution of this species extends to the eastern slope of the 

Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon and into extreme northeastern California. In Nevada, the 

this species occurs primarily in the northeastern half of the state, with a small population in the extreme 

northwestern corner. East of the Continental Divide, the geographic range extends to southwestern 

North Dakota, extreme western South Dakota and Nebraska, and the front range of Colorado. Outliers 

to this general distribution include locations in north central Minnesota, northeastern South Dakota, and 

extreme western Texas.

 Oregon grape grows at elevations ranging from near sea level on the Pacific coast to nearly 3,350 

m in Colorado (Johnston and others 2001; Uley 2006). In the central Rocky Mountains, this species 

typically occurs from 1,370 to 2,700 m in Douglas-fir forests to 2,400 to 2,900 m in subalpine fir forests 

(Steele and others 1981,and others 1983). On the east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, it 

occurs between roughly 2,200 and 2,900 m (Massatti 2007). This species occurs on a variety of slope 

aspects across its geographic range. Generally, within the lower elevation range, it is restricted to cool, 

moist northerly aspects (Steele and others 1983; Youngblood and Mauk 1985). Within the upper elevation range, it shifts onto south- and west-facing slopes (Svalberg and others 1997; Youngblood and Mauk 

1985). At middle elevations, it may occur across all aspects. 

Oregon grape prefers medium-textured, well-drained sandy loam soils formed from a variety of parent materials, including sandstone, limestone, dolomite, andesite, conglomerate, basalt, granite, gneiss, 

schist, and glacial till (Steele and others 1983; Svalberg and others 1997; Uley 2006). This species may 

also occur on fine-textured soils derived from shale and siltstone (Svalberg 1997), and on coarse, rocky 

soils on exposed slope positions (Uley 2006) and tolerates strongly acid to mildly alkaline soils (pH 

4.6–7.6). Oregon grape is intolerant of prolonged soil saturation; however, this species commonly occurs 

on stream terraces in well-drained soils (Wells 2006) and in moist quaking aspen communities in topographic depressions (Mueggler 1988).

Oregon grape is a monoecious, seed banking species that is pollinated by bees and butterflies (Ulev 

2006). Good seed crops are produced nearly every year from cross-pollinated plants. Self-pollination 

may occur but often results in sterile fruits. The seeds require one to three months of cold-stratification 

for germination to occur. Seedling establishment and growth is rapid following a disturbance but 

generally decreases as stand age and overstory cover increases. This species regenerates asexually by 

rhizomes and layering.
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Oregon grape is tolerant of full sun and partial to deep shade (Uley 2006). It is present at all seral 

stages and is often considered a climax shrub species largely due to the ability of this species to tolerate 

the intense shade experienced in the understory of climax conifer stands. The ability of this species to resprout from underground rhizomes, makes it well adapted to forest fire. Low to moderate severity burns 

actually stimulate growth, often resulting in increased vigor in the years immediately following a fire. 

Also, forest fires may result in the germination of seeds stored in the seed bank. However, severe burns 

that remove the duff layer and heat the upper mineral soil may kill the underground rhizomes, resulting 

in mortality.

Oregon grape is slightly poisonous and unpalatable to domestic livestock (Uley 2006). However, it 

is an important browse species for wildlife, including mule deer, elk, grouse, black and grizzly bears, 

snowshoe hare, and small mammals. The ability of this species to spread via rhizomes and its hardy 

nature make it important in protecting slopes against erosion and for use in restoration projects. 

Gooseberry Currant

Ribes montigenum McClatchie

Gooseberry currant occurs continuously from British Columbia and Alberta; southeast through 

central Montana, Idaho, and northwestern and central Wyoming; and south through Utah, Colorado, 

Arizona, and New Mexico (Marshall 1995). To the west, this species occurs along the Cascade Range of 

Washington and Oregon, south to the Sierra-Nevada Mountains of California, and in scattered mountain 

ranges in Nevada. Gooseberry currant grows across a variety of sites ranging from the middle subalpine 

zone to timberline and occasionally in alpine plant communities. It is tolerant of extremely rocky soils 

such as talus or scree slopes and boulder fields as well as somewhat poorly drained soils and temporary 

soil saturation. This species occurs at elevations between 2,000 and 2,600 m in northeastern Oregon 

(Johnson 2004), between 2,273 and 3,485 m in Wyoming and Colorado, between 2,100 and 4,800 m 

in California, and between 2,135 and 3,660 m in Utah (Marshall 1995). On the east slope of the Wind 

River Range in Wyoming, it occurs between roughly 2,600 and 3,350 m (Massatti 2007).

Gooseberry currant is a native, deciduous, low to medium tall shrub ranging in height between 0.2 

and 1 meter (Marshall 1995). The glandular-pubescent, orbicular, five-lobed leaves occur alternately 

along spiny branches. The flowers occur in drooping three- to eight-flowered racemes,and the fruits 

are globose-subglobose, reddish, glandular-hairy berries (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1973). This species 

reproduces by seed and by rooting of adventitious roots. Fruiting usually begins after three years, and 

scarification is required to enhance germination (Marshall, 1995). Seeds are primarily animal and bird 

dispersed and may remain viable in the seed bank for many years.

Gooseberry currant is somewhat shade tolerant and is often found growing in moderately dense to 

dense conifer stands (Marshall 1995). Information on the fire ecology of gooseberry currant is limited. 

However, it is probable that fire enhances regeneration by scarification of seeds stored in the seed bank 

and that itmay resprout from the root crown following fire with varying success. Gooseberry currant is 

sensitive to fire and is probably killed by low to moderate severity burns. Its berries are an important 

food source for songbirds, chipmunks, and ground squirrels. However, this species has low palatability 

for domestic and wild ungulates. Gooseberry currant is one of a number of currant (Ribes spp.) species 

that provides an alternate host for white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), a lethal fungi that infects 

five-needle pines.

Russet buffaloberry

Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt.

Russet buffaloberry is a widespread species, occurring in western North America from Alaska and 

adjacent Yukon Territory, south along the Rocky Mountains to Arizona and New Mexico (Walkup 

1991). In central and eastern North America, it occurs from the Black Hills in South Dakota; east across 

Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Pennsylvania and Ohio, western New York, and Maine; and 

into Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The northerly limits of this species are located within the Arctic 

Circle across Alaska and northern Canada.
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Russet buffaloberry is found growing in soils derived from a number of parent materials, including 

granite, sandstone, basalt, limestone, dolomite, and shale (Steele and others 1983; Johnston and others 

2001). However, regardless of parent material, soils where this species is found are typically coarsetextured and rocky (Walkup 1991). Russet buffaloberry has relatively high environmental plasticity and 

can be found in extremely dry, rocky uplands and in mesic valley bottoms, on glacial moraines, and on 

alluvial terraces. It occurs at elevations between 1,500 and 1,600 m in Alberta, 1,829 and 2,439 m in 

northeastern Oregon (Johnson 2004), 1,219 and 2,378 m in Montana (Pfister and others 1977), 2,012 and 

2,499 m in Idaho (Walkup 1991), 2,255 and 2,652 m in eastern Idaho and western Wyoming (Steele and 

others 1983), and between 2,759 and 3,231 m in Colorado (Johnston and others 2001). On the east slope 

of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, it occurs between roughly 2,100 and 3,200 m (Massatti 2007). 

Russet buffaloberry is moderately shade tolerant and is one of the first species to inhabit a site following 

disturbance (Walkup 1991). 

Russet buffaloberry is a moderately tall to tall (0.9–3.9 m), native, deciduous, nitrogen-fixing shrub 

that is usually dioecious and occasionally monoecious (Walkup 1991). Regeneration is by seed or vegetatively by sprouting from the root crown or dormant buds on the taproot. It reaches sexual maturation at 

four to six years. Flowering occurs from mid-May to mid-June, and the fruits (drupe-like, ovoid achenes 

enclosed in a fleshy perianth) ripen and turn yellowish-red to bright red between July and early August. 

Germination, which can be highly erratic, is enhanced by cold stratification for a minimum of 60 days 

and scarification by fire, or in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals and birds.

Russet buffaloberry is moderately fire resistant and can sprout from surviving root crowns and 

dormant buds on the taproot (Walkup 1991). Low to moderate severity ground fires are critical to maintaining high density and vigor and increasing berry production in old-growth conifer stands, while severe 

fires can sometimes be fatal. It provides hiding and thermal cover for wildlife and has one of the highest 

protein levels of any browse species. However, it is of low palatability to domestic and wild ungulates 

and is only utilized in the absence of other more palatable browse species. The fruits are widely utilized 

by black bears, grizzly bears, and grouse. This species is highly recommended for revegetation of disturbed sites due to its nitrogen fixing capabilities and its importance as food and cover for wildlife. 

Utah snowberry

Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis Gray (Rydb.) A. Nels.

Utah snowberry is a native, deciduous shrub that occurs east of the Coast Range in British Columbia, 

east of the Cascade Ranges in Washington and Oregon, and into northeastern California, Nevada, and 

Arizona (USDA, NRCS 2007b). To the east, it occurs in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and scattered 

mountain ranges in New Mexico and Montana. Mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. 

oreophilus) is closely related to Utah snowberry and is limited to northern Mexico and the southwestern 

United States, including northern and eastern Nevada, southern Utah, northeastern Arizona, western 

New Mexico, and far western Texas.

Utah snowberry occurs most prolifically on warm, dry sites, in the lower to mid-forested zone, on 

moderately steep (30–45%) to steep (45–70%), south- or west-facing slopes, but also on gentle gradients 

and on northerly aspects. In northeastern Oregon, it occurs at elevations between 1,707 and 2,378 m 

(Johnson 2004). In the northern and central Rocky Mountains of Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho, it 

occurs at elevations between 1,738 and 2,134, 1,829 and 2,789, and 1,370 and 2,440 m, respectively 

(Steele and others 1981, 1983; Aleksoff 1999). On the east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, 

it occurs between roughly 2,200 and 2,900 m (Massatti 2007). In the southern Rocky Mountains of Utah 

and Colorado, it occurs at elevations between 1,220 and 3,200 m (Aleksoff 1999). This species occurs 

on a variety of substrates, including limestone, calcareous shale, sandstone, quartzite, basalt, andesite, 

rhyolite, quartz monzonite, and granodiorite (Steele and others 1981, 1983). Soils tend to be gravelly 

to extremely gravelly, and textures are generally medium to coarse, including loamy sand, sandy loam, 

loam, and silt loam.

Utah snowberry is a low (0.3–0.6 m) to medium (0.6–1.2 m) erect and sometimes trailing shrub that 

is weakly rhizomatous (Aleksoff 1999). The pinkish to white flowers, which begin to bloom from midJune to early July, occur in groups of two to four at leaf axils and terminally on branches (Hitchcock and 

Cronquist 1973). The fruits, which are white, drupe-like berries, ripen in mid-August and are mammal 
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and bird dispersed (Aleksoff 1999). Cold-stratification is required for full embryo development, and 

seeds are not stored in the seed bank for extended periods of time. It also regenerates vegetatively by 

sprouting from the root crown. This species is an early to mid-seral species that is intolerant of shade. 

However, it will persist in old-growth forests if trees are widely spaced, allowing appreciable amounts of 

sunlight to reach the understory.

Utah snowberry will resprout from basal buds on the root crown following low to moderate severity burns and often survive severe fires (Aleksoff 1999). It is not especially nutritious or palatable but 

remains an important browse species for domestic and wild ungulates, including cattle, domestic sheep, 

horses, pronghorn, elk, and mule deer. Low to moderate levels of browsing will stimulate Utah snowberry to sprout profusely, while heavy browsing can significantly reduce plant density. Grouse and magpies 

eat the fruits, and dense thickets provide thermal and hiding cover for songbirds, grouse, and a variety of 

small mammals. It is important for providing soil stability and reducing the effects of erosion, and it is 

recommended for rehabilitation of disturbed sites due to road building, severe fire, or logging.

Grouse whortleberry

Vaccinium scoparium Leib. ex Coville

 Grouse whortleberry occurs from eastern British Columbia and western Alberta, south through 

Washington and Oregon, mostly east of the Cascade Range, California, and in scattered mountain ranges 

in Nevada and Arizona (Johnson 2001b). To the east, it occurs in western Montana and northern and 

central Idaho, south through northwestern and central Wyoming, and into Colorado, Utah, and northern 

New Mexico. The eastern-most population occurs separate from the central distribution in the Black 

Hills of South Dakota.

Grouse whortleberry is a common low-shrub species in montane, subalpine, and timberline forests 

across its geographic distribution. It often extends above timberline where it grows in krummholz vegetation. The elevation range of this species, as with many montane species, increases with decreasing 

latitude. In northeastern Oregon and Montana, it occurs in montane and subalpine forests between 1,707 

and 2,652 m, and 1,829 and 2,469 m, respectively (Steele and others 1981; Johnson and Simon 1987; 

Johnson 2004). In Wyoming and eastern Idaho, conifer forests with a significant grouse whortleberry 

component occur between 1981 to 3,293 m, and in alpine vegetation above 3,293 m (Steele and others 

1983; Svalberg and others 1997). On the east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, it occurs 

between roughly 2,500 and 3,500 m (Massatti 2007). In the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, it occurs 

between 2,591 and 3,810 m (Johnston et al 2001). At the lowest elevations, it is typically limited to 

north-facing slopes and/or cold air drainages.

Grouse whortleberry typically grows on well drained, dry to moist, rocky (35–75% coarse fragments) 

soils with a thin (1–4 cm) to moderately thick (5–9 cm) litter layer. Soil textures of the first mineral 

horizon are often loamy, including silt loams, loams, sandy loams, fine sandy loams, or very fine sandy 

loams (Svalberg and others 1997). This species grows on a wide variety of substrates, including calcareous rock types. However, like most Vaccinium species, grouse whortleberry requires acidic soils (pH 

4.3–5.2) and is most commonly found on igneous, metamorphic, and non-calcareous sedimentary geologies, including gneiss, schist, granite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite, argillite, sandstone, quartzite, 

breccia, volcanic ash, basalt, and granitic glacial till (Steele and others 1981, 1983; Svalberg and others 

1997; Johnston and others 2001; Johnson 2004).

Grouse whortleberry is a rhizomatous, deciduous, low-growing shrub, reaching 10 to 51 cm in height 

(Johnson 2001b). It has the ability to reproduce vegetatively via rhizomes, which usually occur in the 

litter layer, or at the interface between the mineral soil and litter. Flowering begins in late spring or early 

summer, and the small, inconspicuous, urn-shaped flowers develop into bright red berries by early fall. 

Upon ripening, the seeds require no dormancy period and are dispersed primarily by birds and mammals, including black and grizzly bears.

Grouse whortleberry is moderately resistant to fire, resprouts from rhizomes following fire, and 

is adapted to low to moderate severity burns that do not kill the shallow rhizomes (Johnson 2001b). 

Severe burns that destroy the litter layer and kill the shallow rhizomes can extirpate it from an area. 

Management activities that severely destroy the litter layer and uproot it, including site preparation 

treatments, mechanical logging, and road building, may also have deleterious effects on the regeneration 
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success of this species. It is an important, energy-rich browse species for wild ungulates, including mule 

deer, elk, and moose in Montana, Wyoming, and Utah (Johnson, 2001b). The berries are a valuable food 

source for black and grizzly bears, chipmunks, red squirrels, fox, grouse, and a variety of songbirds. This 

species has low to moderate value for revegetation projects.

Herbaceous Species

Heartleaf arnica

Arnica cordifolia Hook.

Heartleaf arnica occurs across western North America from Yukon and Northwest Territories in the 

north to California, Arizona, and New Mexico in the south (Wolf 2006). It occurs to the east as far as 

Ontario and South Dakota. A disjunct population occurs in northern Michigan (Reed 1993).

Heartleaf arnica is a common woodland species, occurring in deep canyon (700–1,270 m), montane 

(1,050–1,829 m), subalpine (1,829–3,200 m), and upper timberline forests (3,000–3,500 m). On the east 

slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming it occurs between roughly 1,800 and 3,500 m (Massatti 

2007). This species occurs in uplands and on terraces in riparian areas on cool, dry to moist sites, in soils 

derived from all major rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (Steele and others 

1981, 1983; Johnson and Simon 1987; Svalberg and others 1997; Johnston and others 2001; Johnson 

2004; Wells 2006). Soils where this species occurs are highly variable but are typically well drained to 

moderately well drained and feature an organic surface layer over mineral soil.

Heartleaf arnica is a native, perennial herb that stands 10 to 60 cm tall and features erect stems 

arising individually from long creeping rhizomes (Reed 1993). This species reproduces sexually by 

wind-dispersed seeds and asexually from rhizomes. It may be found in early to late seral stands, largely 

due to its tolerance of both sun and shade. Often times, it is one of the only herbaceous species in closedcanopied, late seral conifer stands. The abundance of this species generally increases in the initial years 

following disturbance, after which it begins to slowly decline in abundance in mid-seral stands. In later 

seral stages, this species usually begins to show an increase in abundance possibly due to vegetative 

reproduction.

The above ground portions of heartleaf arnica are typically killed by fire (Reed 1993). However, the 

rhizomes generally survive low to moderate intensity burns that consume the litter layer. Following fire, 

it rapidly regenerates from rhizomes and inundates burned areas with heavy seed crops. This species is 

eaten by mule deer and elk and occasionally by domestic sheep and cattle and is susceptible to trampling 

by humans and livestock. 

Ross’ sedge

Carex rossii Boott

Ross’ sedge is a widespread western cordilleran species that occurs from Alaska, Yukon, and 

Northwest Territories south through British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, and in all western 

states to Arizona and New Mexico (Ball and Reznicek 2002). East of the Rocky Mountains, it occurs in 

Manitoba, Ontario, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

Ross’ sedge is a common woodland species, occurring in deep canyon (910–1,280 m), montane 

(1,280–1,820 m), subalpine (1820–3200 m), and upper timberline forests (3,000–3,640 m) (Cope 1992). 

On the east slope of the Wind River Range in Wyoming, it occurs between roughly 1,800 and 3,400 m 

(Massatti 2007). It occurs in uplands and on terraces in riparian areas on cool, dry to moist sites, in soils 

derived from all major rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (Steele et al 1983; 

Johnson and Simon 1987; Svalberg and others 1997; Johnston and others 2001; Johnson 2004; Wells 

2006). Soils where this species occurs are highly variable but are typically well drained to moderately 

well drained and feature an organic surface layer over sandy-loam to loam mineral soil.

Ross’ sedge is a native, densely cespitose, rhizomatous sedge with 7 to 30 cm tall flowering stems 

(Ball and Reznicek 2002). It reproduces sexually by seeds, which germinate best following heat 
380 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 6

treatment, and asexually from rhizomes (Cope 1992). Seeds may be stored in the soil for extended time 

periods before germination. This species is partially shade tolerant and increases following disturbance. 

Although Ross’ sedge gradually decreases in abundance through time, a few individuals commonly persist into climax stands. On especially dry and unproductive sites, it is often one of the only understory 

species in older lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, and whitebark pine stands.

Ross’ sedge resists low to moderate severity fires that do not completely consume the litter layer 

(Cope 1992). It reproduces prolifically following fire from buried rhizomes and seeds stored in the 

soil. This species is grazed by both wild and domestic ungulates. Nutritional value, including protein, 

phosphorus, calcium, and fat content, tends to increase throughout the growing season. It is an important erosion control species due to its extensive rhizomes and ability to resprout rapidly following 

disturbance. 

Tufted hairgrass

Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) P. Beauv.

Tufted hairgrass occurs circumglobally in arctic and temperate regions (Walsh 1995). In North 

America, it occurs in all Canadian Provinces and western States, including Alaska (USDA, NRCS 

2007b). The distribution of this species extends eastward across the Dakotas and Minnesota, through the 

mid-Atlantic States, and into New England. On the Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming, it occurs at 

elevations between roughly 2,300 and 3,800 m (Massatti 2007). This species is common in subalpine 

meadows, fens, floodplains, bogs, seeps, and late snowbank environments in the alpine zone. The persistence of soil moisture within the rooting zone throughout the growing season is a common feature of 

sites inhabited by this species. It occurs on a variety of soil textures, including sedge peat, sandy-loam, 

sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, silt-loam, loam, and loamy-clay (Kovalchick 1987; Hansen and others 

1995; Walsh 1995; Wells 2006).

Tufted hairgrass is a densely cespitose, native, cool-season, perennial bunchgrass with slender, hollow culms that stand 20–120 cm in height (Walsh 1995). The inflorescence is typically a loose, open 

panicle 10 to 30 cm long with whorled branches. It reproduces primarily by seed but will also sprout 

from the rootcrown following disturbance by fire and grazing. The seeds may remain viable in the seedbank for a number of years, and it will resprout from the rootcrown following low to moderately severe 

fires (Walsh 1995). Regeneration is primarily from seed following severe fires that destroy the above 

ground portions of the plant. This species provides excellent forage for all types of livestock and is an 

important food item for elk, mule deer, waterfowl, and small mammals. It is a decreaser and with excessive grazing will gradually give way to other species, especially Poa pratensis. However, this species is 

tolerant of moderate amounts of grazing, especially when (1) land managers choose a grazing practice 

that allows for significant seed production before grazing takes place, and (2) periodic graze free years 

are incorporated into the grazing schedule to allow time for recovery. Also, in order to avoid excessive 

sod damage and soil compaction, grazing should be postponed until later in the growing season when 

the soils have dried up (Kovalchik 1987).

Spike fescue

Leucopoa kingii (S. Wats.) W.A. Weber

Spike fescue is a native, perennial bunchgrass that occurs in the north from northeastern Oregon, 

to west-central and southeastern Idaho, to southwestern and central Montana (USDA, NRCS 2007b). 

To the south, it occurs in eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, and northwestern Colorado. The 

eastern extent of the range of this species includes South Dakota, western Nebraska, and Kansas.

Spike fescue occurs across a range of habitats, including plains grasslands, sagebrush steppe, subalpine forests, and alpine meadows (Anderson 2005). In forested communities, trees are widely spaced 

and the stands take on a savannah-like appearance. It is often found on warm, xeric, and droughty sites. 

This species occurs between 2,400 and 3,080 m in Idaho and between 1,341 and 2,530 m in Montana 

(Pfister and others 1977; Anderson 2005). In Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, it occurs at 1,670–3,050 m, 

1,830–3,400 m, and 1,370–3,660 m, respectively (Anderson 2005). On the east slope of the Wind River 

Range in Wyoming, it occurs between roughly 1800 and 3700 m (Massatti 2007). This species grows on 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 381

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 6

all major rock types, including sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic, and in a variety of soil textures, 

from gravelly and stony to clay-loam and silt. However, moderately deep, well-drained, loamy, slightly 

alkaline soils (pH ~7.4) are most preferred.

Spike fescue is a cool season, rhizomatous bunchgrass that forms dense tufts with 30 to 90 cm tall 

flowering stems (Anderson 2005). The rhizomes often grow in a circular pattern, forming large, ring-like 

tufts upwards of 2 m in diameter. It is most often a dioecious species that features intersexual habitat 

assortment. It reproduces vegetatively from creeping rhizomes and sexually from wind dispersed seed. 

Spike fescue is intolerant of deep shade and requires partial to full sun, and is tolerant of periodic, lowto moderate-intensity fires that typically kill the above ground portions of the plant (Anderson 2005). 

It is considered an increaser following fire, as the underground rhizomes vigorously resprout following 

low- to moderate-intensity fires. High intensity fires may kill underground rhizomes, in which case, 

post-fire regeneration is from off-site seed sources.

Spike fescue is a highly nutritious and palatable grass for domestic and wild ungulates, especially in 

the spring and early summer (Anderson 2005). The dense tufts of of this species are tolerant of moderate 

trampling and grazing pressure. However, spike fescue will decrease under constant heavy grazing pressure and continual trampling. 
382 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 7

Appendix 7: Environmental Characteristics for Minor 

Ecological Types

Abbreviations: stat = statistic (average, minimum, maximum); elev = elevation (m); slope = slope 

gradient (%), prec = average annual precipitation (mm); dd = degree days; ffd = frost free days; swb = 

site water balance (mm); temp = average annual temperature (°C); pet = potential evapotranspiration 

(mm); sumrad = summer radiation (Kj), frag = coarse fragments in the particle size control section (%), 

clay = clay in particle size control section (%), awc = available water capacity of soil (mm); pH = average weighted pH; aspect = cardinal direction of slope.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 383

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Ecological type n stat elev slope prec dd ffd swb temp pet sumrad frag clay awc pH aspectABLA/RIMO2, Cranbay 1 avg. 3009 17 703 11370 17.2 -102 -0.3 390 17370 28 21 64 4.9 NNW

ABLA/VASC, Swapps 2 avg. 3073 25 756 11070 17.5 -144 -0.5 461 20390 31 23 79 4.7 ENE, 

SSW

min. 3044 23 743 10470 16.7 -156 -0.8 456 19860 21 21 64 4.6

max 3102 27 769 11660 17.4 -133 -0.2 465 20920 41 24 93 4.8

ARTRV2/FEID, Kiev 2 avg. 2636 21 627 16370 19.7 -261 1.8 660 20980 24 18 116 8.1 SSW

min. 2570 20 607 15750 19.3 -294 1.5 627 20960 23 14 105 7.9

max 2701 22 647 16990 20.0 -228 2.0 693 21010 25 22 128 8.2

ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L 1 avg. 2503 19 577 17320 20.2 -392 2.2 699 20930 79 4 17 5.6 SSW

ELSP3-POSE, Wabek 1 avg. 2270 53 477 20840 21.9 -460 3.6 786 20500 40 10 45 6.3 SSE

FEID, Ledgefork 1 avg. 2851 6 673 13310 18.2 -237 0.6 504 20020 71 10 21 5.3 NNW

JUPA, Oxyaquic soils 1 avg. 3240 6 823 9360 16.0 -166 -1.3 423 20587 99 4 22 4.8

PIAL Series, Marosa 2 avg. 2772 31 669 14860 18.9 -178 1.1 543 19150 66 19 49 4.8 NE

min. 2560 19 604 12670 17.8 NA 0.2 484 18660 65 18 42 NA

max 2983 43 733 17050 20.0 NA 2.1 601 19630 67 20 57 NA

PIAL/VASC, Elting 1 avg. 3082 21 759 11580 17.2 -212 -0.2 504 20850 84 10 36 4.7 SE

PIAL/VASC, Sig 1 avg. 3182 10 795 10550 16.6 -146 -0.7 441 20310 30 16 48 4.9 W 

PICOL/CARO5, Stecum 1 avg. 2734 3 657 14950 19.0 -305 1.2 585 20680 84 6 17 4.9 SE

PICOL/VASC, Telcher 2 avg. 2671 11 631 15940 19.5 -242 1.6 601 19950 18 17 78 5.3 ENE

min. 2664 4 625 15870 NA -273 NA 588 19840 3 11 59 NA

max 2678 17 637 16000 NA -212 NA 614 20050 33 23 97 NA

PIFL2/JUCOD, Como 1 avg. 2648 47 627 15930 19.4 -324 1.6 633 20950 61 5 44 6.3 SW

POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS Habitat 

Type

2 avg. 2542 31 585 17340 20.3 -270 2.2 644 19860 24 13 92 6.1 ESE, 

SSW

min. 2531 19 578 16890 20.1 -327 2.0 594 18980 14 11 70 5.9

max 2552 42 592 17800 20.4 -213 2.3 693 20740 34 15 114 6.3

PSMEG/ACGL, Yourame 1 avg. 2273 56 490 20565 21.8 -223 3.5 607 17826 50 26 137 7.0 N 

PSMEG/SYORU, Typic Calciustepts 2 avg. 2440 61 567 18050 20.6 -158 2.5 486 16340 62 21 85 7.8 NNW, 

NW

min. 2391 57 556 17740 20.4 -163 2.4 483 16250 59 17 78 7.6

max 2488 65 577 18360 20.7 -154 2.6 489 16430 65 24 91 8.0

Oxyaquic soils, Elvick 2 avg. 2834 5 733 12520 17.7 -174 0.1 491 20260 43 12 71 5.2 ESE, 

NE

min. 2691 2 638 9509 16.1 -262 -1.3 393 19940 36 8 66 4.9

max 3261 7 827 15530 19.2 -87 1.4 588 20570 49 16 76 5.5

Salix/Carex–Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts ET

1 avg. 2671 2 642 15464 19.2 -256 1.4 613 20812 35 12 95 4.8 ESE
384 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8: Complete Constancy and Average Cover by 

Ecological Type of all Species Present Constancy (CON) refers to the percentage of sample stands in which each species occurs (located on the left side of the cell; e.g., CON | COV). Average Cover (COV) refers to the average percentage canopy cover of a species for the sample stands where it was recorded. For example, an ecological type may be composed of 12 sample stands, but a particular species may be present in only 5 of those stands. The average cover for that species is calculated as the average canopy cover in those five stands (located on the right side of the cell; e.g., CON | COV). Life form (LF) codes: DO = dominant overstory tree, SD = subdominant overstory tree, U = understory tree, SEED = seedling, S = shrub F = forb, G = grass, GL = grasslike, FH = ferns and horsetails. Appendix 8-1: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types: AB/AR-CAD Hierro = ABLA/ARCO9-CAD, Hierro Family ET AB/VA McCall = ABLA/VASC, McCall Family ET ABLA Elting = Warm ABLA Forests, Elting Family ET PIAL Marosa = PIAL Series, Marosa Family ET AB/MA Frisco = ABLA/MARE11, Frisco Family ET PI/CA Como = PIAL/CARO5, Como Family ET AB/RI Cranbay = ABLA/RIMO2, Cranbay Family ET PI/CA Frisco = PIAL/CARO5, Frisco Family ET AB/RI Elting = ABLA/RIMO2, Elting Family ET PI/VA Elting = PIAL/VASC, Elting Family ET AB/VA Elting = ABLA/VASC, Elting Family ET PI/VA Jeru = PIAL/VASC, Jeru Family ET AB/VA Swapps = ABLA/VASC, Swapps Family ET PI/VA Sig = PIAL/VASC, Sig Family ET AB/VA Marosa = ABLA/VASC, Marosa Family ET PI/VA Salt Chuck = PIAL/VASC, Salt Chuck Family ET Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7 ABLA DO 80 | 20 -- 50 | 10 -- 50 | 10 33 | 3 100 | 3 25 | 10 29 | 8 -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 3

PIAL DO 20 | 5 33 | 15 -- -- 100 | 8 67 | 10 50 | 5 25 | 8 57 | 14 100 | 15 57 | 11 75 | 10 100 | 30 91 | 16 100 | 25 43 | 9PICOL DO 60 | 10 67 | 8 -- -- -- 83 | 11 -- 100 | 14 29 | 12 50 | 1 71 | 17 100 | 10 -- 45 | 10 -- 100 | 10PIEN DO 20 | 3 -- -- 100 | 15 100 | 8 50 | 10 100 | 22 12 | 15 100 | 14 -- -- -- -- 91 | 6 100 | 1 14 | 10PIFL2 DO 20 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PSMEG DO 40 | 2 -- 100 | 21 -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --

ABLA SD 100 | 12 100 | 4 100 | 4 100 | 5 -- 50 | 4 50 | 10 62 | 6 100 | 2 -- -- -- -- 18 | 3 -- 14 | 3

PIAL SD 20 | 3 67 | 8 -- -- 50 | 5 83 | 5 50 | 5 50 | 5 57 | 9 50 | 20 57 | 10 100 | 5 100 | 10 82 | 12 100 | 10 57 | 6PICOL SD -- 100 | 5 50 | 3 -- -- 50 | 7 -- 62 | 4 43 | 2 50 | 35 71 | 11 100 | 8 -- 27 | 4 -- 86 | 11PIEN SD -- 33 | 1 -- 100 | 10 50 | 25 67 | 8 100 | 2 12 | 5 71 | 6 -- -- 25 | 5 -- 45 | 4 -- 14 | 3PIFL2 SD 20 | 1 -- 100 | 6 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POTR5 SD 60 | 3 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 3

APPENDIX 8: COMPLETE CONSTANCY AND AVERAGE COVER BY ECOLOGICAL TYPE OF ALL SPECIES PRESENT (style adopted from Hansen and others 1995)
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 385

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Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck

Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7

PSMEG SD -- -- 25 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ABLA U 100 | 10 100 | 5 100 | 3 100 | 10 100 | 10 83 | 5 100 | 3 88 | 6 100 | 5 -- -- 25 | 1 -- 36 | 2 -- 29 | 2JUSC2 U -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 3PIAL U -- 100 | 9 -- -- 100 | 6 83 | 2 -- 50 | 2 86 | 2 100 | 1 100 | 6 100 | 7 100 | 7 82 | 4 100 | 3 86 | 3PICOL U 20 | 5 100 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- 17 | 3 50 | 3 75 | 2 29 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 2 100 | 2 -- 27 | 2 -- 86 | 3

PIEN U -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 50 | 2 50 | 1 25 | 3 86 | 2 -- -- 25 | 3 100 | 3 64 | 1 -- --

PIFL2 U -- -- 100 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POTR5 U 20 | 3 33 | 15 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --

PSMEG U -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ABLA SEED 100 | 10 100 | 8 100 | 3 100 | 20 100 | 4 100 | 5 100 | 8 100 | 4 100 | 11 -- 14 | 3 50 | 1 -- 45 | 1 -- 43 | 2

PIAL SEED -- 100 | 6 -- -- 100 | 5 100 | 2 100 | 2 50 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 2 100 | 3 100 | 4 100 | 5 100 | 4 100 | 3 100 | 3PICOL SEED 20 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 2 -- 100 | 2 29 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 1 75 | 2 -- 18 | 1 -- 86 | 2PIEN SEED -- 67 | 1 -- 100 | 1 100 | 1 67 | 2 100 | 3 25 | 3 100 | 2 -- -- 25 | 1 100 | 3 82 | 2 -- 14 | 1PIFL2 SEED -- -- 50 | 6 -- -- -- -- 38 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POTR5 SEED 60 | 2 67 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- 50 | 1 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- 14 | 1PSMEG SEED -- -- 100 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ACGL S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --AMAL2 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ARTRV2 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ARUV S -- 67 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- 14 | 1 50 | 2 -- -- -- --CEVE S -- -- 25 | 10 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CHUMO S 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --JUCOD S 20 | 1 100 | 4 100 | 7 -- -- 50 | 3 -- 62 | 4 14 | 10 100 | 3 14 | 3 50 | 1 100 | 5 45 | 4 -- 43 | 2LOIN5 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1

MARE11 S 40 | 6 67 | 2 100 | 3 -- -- 17 | 1 -- 38 | 2 -- 50 | 1 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PHEM S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

PUTR2 S -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

RIBES S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

RICEP S -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

RILA S -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1RIMO2 S -- -- -- 100 | 10 100 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --RIVI3 S -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ROSA3 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1ROWO S 20 | 1 33 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SACE3 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SAGLV S -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18 | 2 -- --

SAMBU S -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SAPL2 S -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
386 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7 SARA2 S 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- SHCA S 60 | 5 100 | 4 100 | 12 -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 6 -- 50 | 15 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- 43 | 7 SYORU S 40 | 2 33 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

VASC S -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- 100 | 23 100 | 55 75 | 26 100 | 37 100 | 22 -- -- 100 | 50 100 | 50 100 | 1 100 | 34ACMIL3 F -- 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- 17 | 3 -- 12 | 1 -- -- 14 | 1 25 | 1 100 | 1 45 | 1 -- 14 | 1AGGL F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- 29 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- --ANEMO F -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ANMA F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1ANME2 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- 18 | 2 -- --ANPAM F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ANRA F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1ANRO2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 57 | 2 25 | 1 -- 9 | 1 -- --ANSES F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ANTEN F -- 33 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ANUM F -- 67 | 5 -- -- -- 17 | 1 50 | 1 12 | 3 -- -- 29 | 3 -- -- 27 | 1 100 | 3 --AQCO F 20 | 1 -- 50 | 3 100 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- -- 43 | 1 -- -- -- -- 18 | 1 -- 14 | 1ARCO9 F 100 | 7 33 | 3 100 | 5 100 | 1 -- 83 | 3 100 | 8 100 | 5 100 | 4 100 | 2 57 | 2 50 | 1 100 | 3 82 | 4 100 | 1 100 | 2ARLA8 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 9 | 1 -- --ARRY F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 3 -- --ARSC F -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- 18 | 1 -- --ASAL7 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --ASAUG F 20 | 20 -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ASEU2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ASKE F -- 67 | 2 -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 29 | 2 -- -- -- 100 | 1 --

ASMI9 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 29 | 2 -- -- -- -- --ASTER F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ASTRA F -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BAIN F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BASA3 F -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOAN6 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

BOEX2 F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

BOEHOL F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --BOLY F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

BOWI F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CALI4 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CARO2 F 40 | 2 -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CASTI2 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CHAN9 F 40 | 1 -- 25 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 5 50 | 1 100 | 1 88 | 1 43 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 45 | 1 -- 43 | 1
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 387

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Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck

Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7

CIRSI F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

CLMU5 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --COPA3 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1

COTR3 F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --COWI2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CRAC2 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CYLO10 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --DRCR2 F -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERAS2 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERCO24 F -- 67 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- 17 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- 57 | 2 25 | 1 100 | 1 27 | 1 100 | 1 --

ERCO5 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERCOD F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ERFO3 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERGR2 F -- 33 | 3 -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ERIGE2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --

ERLO F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --EROC F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 14 | 3 -- 29 | 2 -- -- -- -- --ERPES3 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --ERRA2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- --ERSI3 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --ERSP4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1ERUM F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 29 | 2 -- -- -- -- --ERUR2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18 | 2 100 | 1 --EUCO36 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1

EUEL2 F -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --EUIN9 F -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 3 -- 100 | 2 -- 29 | 6 -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --

FRSP F -- -- 100 | 2 -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 100 | 1 -- 100 | 1 --

FRVE F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --FRVI F 20 | 1 33 | 1 50 | 2 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

GABO2 F 40 | 2 -- 100 | 2 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

GEROT F -- -- -- -- 100 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --GETR F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --GEVI2 F 60 | 2 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --HEALA F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --HIAL2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

HITRG2 F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 100 | 3 62 | 1 29 | 1 -- -- -- -- 45 | 1 -- --

IVGO F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --LEPY2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 14 | 1
388 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7 LESQU F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- LUAR3 F 20 | 1 33 | 3 -- -- 50 | 7 17 | 1 -- 25 | 2 -- -- 57 | 3 -- -- -- -- 43 | 2 LUPIN F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1

LUPO2 F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- --LUSE4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 29 | 2 -- -- -- -- --MEAL7 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --MECI3 F -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --MEVI4 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --MIOB2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --

MOUN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

NONI F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 36 | 2 100 | 1 --

ORAL4 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18 | 1 -- --ORSE F 60 | 1 33| 1 50 | 1 100 | 1 -- 67 | 2 -- 62 | 1 14 | 1 50 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- 29 | 1

OSBE F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --OSDE F 60 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- -- -- -- 38 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1PACA15 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PAFI3 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

PEBRP2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- 27 | 2 -- 14 | 1

PECO F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PEDE4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- --PEGR2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PEHU F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PEPR2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- 9 | 1 100 | 1 --PERAA2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

PHMU3 F -- 67 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- --PHSE F -- -- 25 | 1 -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POBI10 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POBI6 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- 50 | 1 25 | 1 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- 27 | 2 100 | 1 14 | 1POCO13 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PODI2 F 20 | 1 -- 25 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 5 17 | 1 50 | 1 12 | 1 -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- 36 | 2 100 | 1 29 | 1POGL9 F 20 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --POGR9 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 18 | 1 -- --

POHO2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POTEN F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

POUN2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PYAS F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PYCH F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

PYMI F -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 12| 1 43 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck

Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7

PYPI2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1SARH2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --SEFR3 F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SEIN2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 29 | 1 -- -- -- -- --SELA F -- 100 | 1 25 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 14 | 1 25 | 1 -- 9 | 1 100 | 1 --SENEC F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

SERA F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SESE2 F -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SEST2 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SIAN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- --SIPR F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18 | 1 -- 14 | 1SOMUS F -- -- 75 | 1 -- 50 | 3 50 | 1 -- 38 | 2 14 | 1 -- 14 | 1 50 | 1 -- 27 | 1 -- 43 | 1STELL F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SWPE F 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SYFO2 F 20 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 9 | 1 -- --TAER2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- --TAOF F 20 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --THALI2 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --TOLY F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --TRAL8 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

VIOLA F -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 18 | 1 -- --

ACOC3 G -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BRIN2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --BROMU G 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1

CAIN G -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1CAST36 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --DECE G -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ELEL5 G -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- 29 | 2 25 | 1 100 | 1 9 | 1 -- 14 | 1ELGL G 20 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ELTR3 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 3 -- --FEBR G -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --FEID G -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 57 | 2 -- -- 9 | 1 -- --FESA G -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --KOMA G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --LEKI2 G -- 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- --PHAL2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --PIEX3 G -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- --PIMI7 G -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 43 | 1 -- -- -- -- --
390 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological type AB/AR-CAD Hierro ABLA Elting AB/MA Frisco AB/RI Cranbay AB/RI Elting AB/VA Elting AB/VA Swapps AB/VA Marosa AB/VA McCall PIAL Marosa PI/CA Como PI/CA Frisco PI/VA Elting PI/VA Jeru PI/VA Sig PI/VA Salt Chuck

Species LF n=5 n=3 n=4 n=1 n=2 n=6 n=2 n=8 n=7 n=2 n=7 n=4 n=1 n=11 n=1 n=7

POA G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 14 | 3 -- -- -- -- 14 | 1POAR21 G -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --POCU2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 3 -- --POCU3 G -- -- -- 100 | 1 100 | 4 -- 50 | 1 12 | 1 29 | 2 -- -- -- 100 | 3 9 | 3 -- --

POFE G 20 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- 17 | 1 50 | 1 12 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 27 | 2 -- 29 | 1POPA3 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --POPR G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

POSE G -- 33 | 1 25 | 1 -- 50 | 5 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- 29 | 2 25 | 1 100 | 1 27 | 2 100 | 1 14 | 1

POWH2 G 20 | 5 100 | 5 100 | 2 -- 50 | 5 67 | 2 50 | 1 88 | 3 57 | 2 50 | 1 86 | 4 100 | 1 -- 64 | 2 100 | 3 43 | 1STIPA G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1TRSP2 G 20 | 1 67 | 4 25 | 1 100 | 1 100 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 1 62 | 1 14 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1 36 | 2 -- 43 | 1

CALE9 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --CAMA9 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --CAPH2 GL -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CAPY3 GL -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CARA6 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --CARO5 GL 40 | 1 33 | 5 50 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 83 | 2 100 | 3 88 | 2 86 | 2 100 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 1 -- 64 | 3 100 | 3 57 | 2CARU3 GL 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CASC10 GL -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --CASC12 GL -- -- -- -- 50 | 7 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CASCP2 GL -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CAXE GL -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --JUDR GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

JUPA GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --

LUMU2 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --

LUSP4 GL -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9 | 1 -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8-2: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types:

PI/JU Como = PIFL2/JUCOD, Como Family ET PS/AC Redfist = PSMEG/ACGL, Redfist Family ETPI/JU Lolo = PIFL2/JUCOD, Lolo Family ET PS/JU Shawmut = PSMEG/JUCOD, Shawmut Family ETPI/JU Tyzak = PIFL2/JUCOD, Tyzak Family ET PS/MA Cloud Peak = PSME/MARE11, Cloud Peak Family ETPI/LE Saddlehorse = PIFL2/LEKI2, Saddlehorse Family ET PS/SY Typic Calc = PSMEG/SYORU, Typic Calciustepts ETPS/AC Yourame = PSMEG/ACGL, Yourame Family ETEcological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic CalcSpecies LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2PIAL DO 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

PICOL DO 100 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 25 --PIFL2 DO 100 | 5 100 | 18 100 | 18 100 | 23 -- -- 60 | 35 17 | 25 100 | 8

PSMEG DO -- 25 | 5 50 | 7 33 | 10 100 | 30 100 | 20 100 | 15 83 | 30 100 | 28ABLA SD -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- 17 | 5 -- -- --

JUSC2 SD -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1PICOL SD -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3 20 | 3 -- --PIFL2 SD -- 50 | 8 -- 33 | 5 -- 50 | 4 80 | 8 50 | 2 50 | 5

POTR5 SD -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 10 -- -- --

PSMEG SD -- 25 | 3 -- 33 | 3 -- 33 | 10 80 | 6 83 | 20 100 | 5

ABLA U -- 25 | 3 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

JUSC2 U -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --PICOL U 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 3 --PIFL2 U 100 | 3 100 | 4 83 | 3 100 | 6 -- 50 | 2 100 | 5 67 | 2 50 | 1

POTR5 U -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- 33 | 3 20 | 3 -- 50 | 1

PSMEG U -- -- 33 | 2 -- 100 | 1 100 | 4 80 | 4 100 | 5 100 | 4

ABLA SEED -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

PICOL SEED 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- 17 | 3 --PIFL2 SEED 100 | 1 100 | 2 83 | 2 100 | 2 -- 50 | 2 100 | 1 33 | 2 50 | 1

POTR5 SEED 100 | 5 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 2 20 | 1 -- 50 | 1

PSMEG SEED -- 50 | 2 50 | 1 33 | 1 -- 83 | 4 100 | 3 83 | 2 100 | 1

ACGL S -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 -- 100 | 5 100 | 6 60 | 2 33 | 2 100 | 1AMAL2 S -- -- -- 33 | 1 100 | 3 50 | 2 -- 17 | 1 100 | 1ARFR4 S -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

ARTRR4 S -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --ARTRV2 S 100 | 1 75 | 17 83 | 4 100 | 32 -- -- 60 | 2 17 | 1 --CHVI8 S -- 25 | 1 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --ERNAN5 S -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --HODU S -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --
392 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic Calc Species LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2 JUCOD S 100 | 3 100 | 4 83 | 4 -- 100 | 1 100 | 4 100 | 7 83 | 2 -- JUSC2 S -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LOIN5 S -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- --MARE11 S 100 | 1 75 | 1 50 | 1 -- 100 | 5 100 | 6 80 | 2 100 | 5 50 | 1

PAMY S -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 50 | 6 -- 83 | 3 100 | 4PEFL15 S -- -- 17 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- --PRVIM S -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 3 -- 17 | 1 --

PUTR2 S 100 | 1 75 | 3 67 | 4 100 | 5 -- -- 40 | 1 -- 50 | 1

RIBES S -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- --RICEP S 100 | 1 25 | 3 67 | 1 100 | 2 -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

RILA S -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

ROSA3 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --

ROWO S 100 | 1 25 | 1 50 | 1 -- 100 | 1 100 | 2 40 | 1 50 | 1 50 | 1

RUID S 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SHCA S 100 | 1 100 | 4 67 | 4 33 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 12 100 | 1 83 | 4 50 | 1SYORU S 100 | 3 100 | 2 83 | 2 67 | 4 100 | 15 83 | 5 100 | 3 67 | 2 100 | 10ACMIL3 F -- 75 | 1 67 | 1 33 | 1 -- 17 | 1 80 | 1 33 | 1 --

AGGL F -- 50 | 1 33 | 2 67 | 2 -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

ALCE2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ANCO F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ANMA F -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --ANMI3 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --ANPAM F -- -- -- -- -- -- 40 | 1 17 | 1 --ANRO2 F 100 | 1 -- 17 | 1 -- -- 33 | 1 20 | 1 -- --ANTEN F -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ANUM F -- -- 33 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --AQCO F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 2 20 | 1 33 | 1 --

ARCO9 F 100 | 1 50 | 1 17 | 1 -- 100 | 25 100 | 11 80 | 9 100 | 3 100 | 3

ARLA8 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --ASAUG F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- 20 | 5 33 | 6 100 | 2

ASMI9 F -- 50 | 2 67 | 3 67 | 2 -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

ASTER F -- 50 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --

ASTRA F -- -- 17 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

BAIN F -- 50 | 3 67 | 7 -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --

BASA3 F -- 75 | 3 67 | 2 67 | 8 -- -- 40 | 1 17 | 3 --BOEX2 F -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --BOEHOL F 100 | 1 -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic CalcSpecies LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2BOFES F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

BOMI3 F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --BONU F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --BOWI F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --BUAM2 F -- 25 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --CALI4 F 100 | 1 25 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- --CAMI2 F -- -- 17 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CAPA25 F -- 25 | 1 50 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CAPIL F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --CARO2 F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- 17 | 1 40 | 2 17 | 1 --

CASTI2 F -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --CHAN9 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- 17 | 1 20 | 1 17 | 5 --

CIRSI F -- -- 50 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

CISU F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

COPA3 F -- 50 | 1 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CRAC2 F -- 50 | 1 50 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- 40 | 1 17 | 1 --CREPI F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --CRIN4 F -- 25 | 3 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1CYEV F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --CYLO10 F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 100 | 5 -- 50 | 1

CYMOP2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --CYTEA F -- 50 | 3 83 | 2 67 | 2 -- -- 20 | 1 -- 50 | 1

DELPH F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --DENU2 F -- 25 | 1 33 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --DOCO F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --DODEC F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --DROL F -- -- 33 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

DRPA F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERAS2 F -- -- 50 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ERCA2 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERCO24 F -- 25 | 1 50 | 2 33 | 1 -- -- -- 17 | 1 --ERCO5 F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERCOD F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --EREA F -- -- 17 | 5 -- -- 17 | 1 40 | 1 17 | 1 --

ERHOH2 F -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --ERIGE2 F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 20 | 1 -- --ERLA F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --
394 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic Calc Species LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2 ERLI F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- ERNA5 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

EROC F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

EROV F -- 25 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERPU2 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERTW F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --ERUM F -- 50 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --EUEL2 F -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- 17 | 1 --EUGL13 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- 33 | 1 --FRAT F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --FRSP F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- 50 | 2 40 | 1 33 | 1 50 | 1FRVE F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --FRVI F -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 100 | 2 -- 50 | 1 50 | 1

GABO2 F -- 75 | 6 33 | 2 -- 100 | 1 100 | 2 60 | 1 67 | 2 100 | 1GERAN F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --GEUM F -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- --GEVI2 F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- 17 | 1 --

HEALA F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 3 -- --

HEPA11 F -- -- 17 | 1 33 | 1 100 | 1 83 | 1 60 | 1 -- --HEUN F -- -- 17 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- --IPSP F -- 75 | 1 -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- --LEFR4 F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

LERE7 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --LILE3 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --LIRU4 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --LOOR F -- 25 | 1 33 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- --LOTR2 F -- 25 | 1 33 | 2 33 | 1 -- -- -- 17 | 1 --LUAR3 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --LUPO2 F -- -- 17 | 3 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- --MACA2 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --MEVI4 F -- 75 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 2 -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

MINU4 F -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

MIOB2 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ORSE F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 2 -- 33 | 1 --ORTO F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --OSBE F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --OSDE F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 2 20 | 1 33 | 1 --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic CalcSpecies LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2OXSE F -- -- 17 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PACA15 F -- 50 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- 17 | 1 --PAST10 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --PEHU F -- 50 | 1 67 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --PENST F -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PHHA F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --PHHO F -- 25 | 1 50 | 2 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PHMU3 F -- 75 | 2 83 | 4 100 | 2 -- -- 60 | 1 17 | 1 --POBR5 F -- -- 17 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --POCO13 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 80 | 1 17 | 1 --PODI2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --POGL9 F 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --POGR9 F -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --POOV2 F -- 50 | 1 67 | 2 -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

POPE8 F -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --POTEN F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 20 | 1 17 | 1 --

PRTR4 F -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- --SEFR3 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 40 | 1 -- --

SEIN2 F -- 50 | 2 33 | 2 100 | 2 -- -- -- -- --SELA F -- 75 | 1 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --SELU F -- -- 17 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- --SERA F -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 17 | 1 --SOMO F 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SOMUS F -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- 17 | 1 80 | 1 33 | 1 --

STAC F -- 25 | 3 17 | 1 -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

STST5 F -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --SWPE F -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 --

SYFO2 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- 100 | 3 100 | 4 60 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 1TAER2 F -- -- 17 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --TAOF F -- -- -- 67 | 1 -- 17 | 1 40 | 1 -- --TEACA2 F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

TOSP F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --VIOLA F -- 25 | 1 17 | 1 67 | 2 -- 67 | 1 -- 33 | 1 --

ZIPA2 F -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ZIVEG F -- 50 | 1 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ACNE9 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 3 50 | 1 --ELEL5 G 100 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- --
396 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type PI/JU Como PI/JU Lolo PI/JU Tyzak PI/LE Saddlehorse PS/AC Yourame PS/AC Redfist PS/JU Shawmut PS/MA Cloud Peak PS/SY Typic CalcSpecies LF n=1 n=4 n=6 n=3 n=1 n=6 n=5 n=6 n=2ELGL G -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 4 -- -- --ELSM3 G -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --ELSP3 G -- 50 | 1 67 | 2 100 | 4 -- -- -- 17 | 1 --ELTR7 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- --

FEID G -- 50 | 2 17 | 5 67 | 1 -- -- -- 17 | 1 --

HECOC9 G -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --KOMA G -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --LEKI2 G -- 100 | 4 83 | 4 100 | 5 -- 67 | 2 100 | 2 17 | 1 50 | 1POA G -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --POAR21 G -- -- -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --POFE G -- 25 | 3 17 | 5 33 | 3 -- 33 | 3 60 | 1 17 | 1 50 | 1POGR G -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- --POSE G 100 | 1 100 | 2 67 | 3 100 | 7 -- -- 60 | 1 -- --

POWH2 G 100 | 3 25 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 83 | 3 -- 83 | 1 50 | 1

TRSP2 G -- -- -- -- -- 67 | 2 20 | 1 17 | 1 --

CAGE2 GL -- -- 17 | 3 -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --CANA2 GL -- -- -- 33 | 15 -- -- -- -- --CAOB4 GL -- -- 67 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- --CAREX GL -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- 17 | 1 -- -- --CARO5 GL 100 | 3 50 | 3 17 | 1 33 | 5 -- 17 | 1 60 | 2 67 | 2 --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8-3: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types:

PI/AR Como = PICOL/ARCO9, Como Family ET PI/VA Telcher = PICOL/VASC, Telcher Family ET PI/CA Stecum = PICOL/CARO5, Stecum Family ET PICO Corbly = PICOL Series, Corbly Family ETPI/JU Holland Lake = PICOL/JUCOD, Holland Lake Family ET PI/CA Targhee = PICOL/CARO5, Targhee Family ETPI/MA Agneston = PICOL/MARE11, Agneston Family ETPI/SH Bohica = PICOL/SHCA, Bohica Family ETEcological Type PI/AR Como PI/CA Stecum PI/JU Holland Lake PI/MA Agneston PI/SH Bohica PI/VA Telcher PICO Corbly PI/CA TargheeSpecies LF n=6 n=1 n=2 n=5 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=3

PIAL DO -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- --

PICOL DO 100 | 33 100 | 20 100 | 28 100 | 19 100 | 10 100 | 22 100 | 21 100 | 23

PIEN DO -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

POTR5 DO -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 5 --PSMEG DO -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 5 --PIAL SD -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- -- -- 67 | 3

PICOL SD 50 | 15 100 | 5 50 | 15 20 | 7 50 | 15 -- 75 | 10 100 | 13PIFL2 SD 17 | 3 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- 75 | 4 --

POTR5 SD 17 | 3 -- 50 | 3 -- -- 50 | 3 25 | 15 --PSMEG SD -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 2 --PIAL U -- -- 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --PICOL U 83 | 3 100 | 1 100 | 4 100 | 12 100 | 12 100 | 4 75 | 8 67 | 4PIFL2 U -- 100 | 10 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 33 | 1POTR5 U -- -- -- 20 | 20 50 | 3 50 | 5 50 | 5 --PSMEG U -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --PIAL SEED -- -- 100 | 2 -- 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- 67 | 3PICOL SEED 83 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 4 80 | 5 100 | 1 100 | 1 75 | 2 100 | 5

PIEN SEED -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --

PIFL2 SEED 50 | 2 100 | 1 -- 20 | 1 -- -- 75 | 1 33 | 1POTR5 SEED -- 100 | 1 50 | 1 20 | 15 50 | 1 50 | 1 75 | 2 --PSMEG SEED -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --AMAL2 S 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ARTRV2 S -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ARUV S -- -- 100 | 8 -- 100 | 1 -- 25 | 1 33 | 3

CEVE S -- -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- 25 | 3 --

JUCOD S 83 | 1 100 | 1 100 | 4 40 | 5 100 | 1 50 | 1 25 | 3 33 | 1MARE11 S 33 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 3 -- 100 | 1 75 | 4 --

PAMY S -- -- -- 20 | 10 -- -- -- --PRVIM S -- -- -- 20 | 3 -- -- 25 | 1 --
398 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type PI/AR Como PI/CA Stecum PI/JU Holland Lake PI/MA Agneston PI/SH Bohica PI/VA Telcher PICO Corbly PI/CA Targhee Species LF n=6 n=1 n=2 n=5 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=3 PUTR2 S -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 50 | 2 -- RHART2 S -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --

RIBES S -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --RICEP S -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --RILA S -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 -- -- --RIVI3 S 17 | 1 -- -- 20 | 5 50 | 1 -- -- --ROWO S -- -- 50 | 1 40 | 1 -- -- -- --RUID S -- -- -- 20 | 3 -- -- -- --SASC S -- -- -- 20 | 1 50 | 3 -- -- --SHCA S -- -- 50 | 3 100 | 2 100 | 9 100 | 3 25 | 15 33 | 1

SYORU S 17 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --

VASC S -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 24 -- --ACMIL3 F 33 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 40 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1AGGL F -- -- -- 40 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 33 | 1

ANCO F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

ANMI3 F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --ANRO2 F 33 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 40 | 1 -- -- -- --ANTEN F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 25 | 1 --ANUM F -- -- -- 40 | 3 -- -- 50 | 2 100 | 1

APAN2 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

AQCO F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --ARCO9 F 100 | 9 -- 100 | 3 100 | 5 50 | 1 100 | 6 50 | 4 67 | 1ARRY F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ASKE F -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

ASTER F 17 | 1 -- -- 20 | 3 -- -- -- --

BOAN6 F -- -- 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 33 | 1

BOBR4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --

BOECH F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOEX2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --BOWI F -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --CARO2 F 50 | 1 -- 100 | 1 20 | 5 50 | 1 50 | 1 25 | 1 33 | 1CHAN9 F 33 | 1 -- 50 | 3 40 | 1 -- -- -- --CLMU5 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --COLI2 F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- 75 | 1 --

COPA3 F -- -- 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- 75 | 1 --

COTR3 F 67 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 --

CRAC2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 399

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type PI/AR Como PI/CA Stecum PI/JU Holland Lake PI/MA Agneston PI/SH Bohica PI/VA Telcher PICO Corbly PI/CA TargheeSpecies LF n=6 n=1 n=2 n=5 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=3CYMOP2 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERCO24 F 33 | 1 -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- 50 | 1 100 | 1

EREA F -- -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- 25 | 1 --

EROC F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

ERUM F 17 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

EUEL2 F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --EUGL13 F 50 | 2 100 | 1 -- 20 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 --FRVI F 17 | 1 -- 100 | 1 60 | 2 -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1

GABO2 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --

GETR F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

GEVI2 F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --

HIAL2 F -- -- 50 | 3 80 | 2 -- -- -- 33 | 1HITRG2 F 67 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 -- 50 | 3 25 | 1 --

IPSP F -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --IVGO F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

LIGLR F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LOMAT F -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --LOTR2 F 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --LUAR3 F -- -- 100 | 2 20 | 5 50 | 3 -- 75 | 1 67 | 1

LUPIN F -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

LUPO2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

LUSE4 F -- -- -- 20 | 5 -- -- 25 | 3 --

ORSE F 50 | 1 -- -- 40 | 1 50 | 1 50 | 3 -- 33 | 1ORUNO2 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --OSBE F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- --

OSDE F -- -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- 25 | 1 67 | 1

OSMOR F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --

OSPU F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- --PEST2 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 25 | 1 --PHMU3 F 17 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 33 | 1PHSE F -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 33 | 1

POAR7 F 17 | 1 -- 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1POCO13 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --

PODI2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1

POGL9 F -- -- 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- --

POTEN F 33 | 1 -- -- 20 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --PTAN2 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --
400 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type PI/AR Como PI/CA Stecum PI/JU Holland Lake PI/MA Agneston PI/SH Bohica PI/VA Telcher PICO Corbly PI/CA Targhee Species LF n=6 n=1 n=2 n=5 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=3

PYCH F 17 | 1 -- 100 | 1 20 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --PYMI F 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --PYROL F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --SEIN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 2 --SELA F 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1SIDR F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --SOLID F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --SOMUS F 33 | 1 -- 100 | 1 20 | 7 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 2SYFO2 F 17 | 3 -- 100 | 6 20 | 1 -- -- -- --TAER2 F -- -- -- 20 | 5 -- -- -- --TAOF F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --THALI2 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --VIOLA F 17 | 1 100 | 1 -- 40 | 1 -- 50 | 1 25 | 1 33 | 1ACNE9 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 33 | 1ACOC3 G -- -- -- 20 | 3 -- -- -- --BRCI2 G -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --BRIN2 G -- -- -- 20 | 3 -- -- -- --ELEL5 G -- -- 100 | 1 40 | 1 -- -- -- 67 | 1ELGL G -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- --ELTR7 G -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --FEID G -- -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- 75 | 2 --

FESA G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

LEKI2 G -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

MEBU G -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 --PIEX3 G -- 100 | 3 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- 75 | 3 33 | 1POA G -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --POFE G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

POSE G -- 100 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 25 | 1 --

POWH2 G 100 | 2 100 | 1 100 | 1 100 | 6 100 | 2 50 | 3 100 | 4 100 | 3TRSP2 G -- -- 50 | 1 40 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --CARO5 GL 83 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 3 80 | 2 50 | 3 50 | 1 100 | 2 100 | 1
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 401

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8-4: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types:

GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston = GEROT-CAEL3, Agenston Family ETGEROT-turf McCall = GEROT-turf McCall Family ETKRUMMHOLZ Klootch = Krummholz, Klootch Family ETLate Snowbank DECE = Late Snowbank, Hargran Family ET- DECE Habitat TypeLate Snowbank JUPA = Late Snowbank, Hargran Family ET - JUPA Habitat TypeLate Snowbank SAGLV/DECE = Late Snowbank, Hargran Family ET - SAGLV/DECE Habitat TypeLate Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 = Late Snowbank, Hargran Family ET - SAREN2/CASC12 Habitat TypeSAREN2/KOMY McCall = SAREN2/KOMY, McCall Family ETEcological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCallSpecies LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3PIAL SEED 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1PIEN SEED -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --ABLA S -- -- 100 | 5 -- -- -- -- --

ARFR4 S -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --DROCH3 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67 | 10

KAMI S -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --

PHEM S -- -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PIAL S -- 20 | 1 100 | 9 -- -- -- -- --PIEN S -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --SAARP5 S -- -- 33 | 3 50 | 3 -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 10SABR S -- -- 33 | 5 -- -- -- -- --SAGLV S -- -- 67 | 10 100 | 2 50 | 3 100 | 18 -- 67 | 4

SAPL2 S -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- --SAREN2 S -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 25 100 | 13VASC S -- -- 67 | 3 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --

ACMIL3 F 50 | 1 -- 33 | 3 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --AGGL F 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --AGOSE F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ANME2 F -- 20 | 1 67 | 2 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- 100 | 5 33 | 1

ANMI3 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

ANSES F 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ANUM F 50 | 1 40 | 3 33 | 1 50 | 1 50 | 3 -- -- --AQCO F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --ARLA8 F -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- --ARMO4 F -- -- 33 | 5 -- -- -- -- --
402 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCall Species LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3 ARRY F -- -- 33 | 5 -- -- -- -- --

ARSC F 75 | 2 80 | 4 100 | 3 50 | 3 100 | 9 100 | 3 100 | 5 100 | 5

ASAL7 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

ASKE F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

ASTRA F -- 40 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

BEWY F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOAN6 F 25 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --BUAM2 F 25 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --CALE4 F -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --CAPU10 F -- 20 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --CARH4 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --CARO2 F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --CASTI2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CHAN9 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CYLO10 F 25 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- --CYNI3 F 25 | 1 20 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --DOPU F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --DRAU F 50 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --DRCA4 F 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --DRIN2 F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --DRLO F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

EPCI F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --

EPHA F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --EPILO F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --ERCO24 F 25 | 1 -- 67 | 2 -- 100 | 1 -- -- --ERCOD F 25 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --ERLA F -- 40 | 1 -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 --ERLE6 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --EROC F 25 | 3 20 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --EROV F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERPES3 F -- -- 67 | 3 50 | 3 100 | 8 -- 100 | 1 --ERSI3 F -- -- 33 | 3 -- 100 | 3 -- -- 33 | 1

ERUR2 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 10 -- --ERYSI F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --FRSP F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --GEAL2 F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 67 | 1
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 403

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCall

Species LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3

GEAM3 F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --

GEROT F 100 | 19 100 | 15 67 | 2 50 | 5 -- 100 | 9 100 | 5 100 | 15

HITRG2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 3 -- -- --

HYGR5 F 25 | 1 60 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1

LEPY2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- --

LOAT F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --MEAL7 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --MECI3 F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --MINU4 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- --MIOB2 F 50 | 3 60 | 3 33 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 3NONI F 50 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --ORAL4 F -- 40 | 2 33 | 1 -- 100 | 1 -- 100 | 3 --OXCA4 F 25 | 1 40 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 5

OXDE2 F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --OXLA2 F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --OXPO F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

PACA15 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PADI11 F 25 | 3 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 1PAST10 F 25 | 1 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --PECO F -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 --PEDIC F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PEGR2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- --PENST F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --PEPA3 F -- 20 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PEPR2 F -- 20 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --PHHO F -- 20 | 1 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

PHMU3 F -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- --

PHMU4 F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --PHPU5 F 100 | 2 80 | 2 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 3

POBI6 F 75 | 2 100 | 2 100 | 3 100 | 1 100 | 3 100 | 2 100 | 3 67 | 1PODI2 F 50 | 3 100 | 3 33 | 3 100 | 3 50 | 3 100 | 6 100 | 5 33 | 1POGR9 F 50 | 3 -- 67 | 5 -- 100 | 2 -- -- 67 | 3

POVI F 50 | 1 40 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3

POVI3 F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 100 | 1SARH2 F 50 | 1 40 | 1 67 | 1 -- 50 | 3 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1

SECR F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 67 | 1
404 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCall Species LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3 SEIN4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

SELA F 75 | 2 80 | 2 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

SENEC F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

SERH F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --SESE2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --SEST2 F 25 | 3 20 | 1 100 | 3 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1SIACS2 F 25 | 1 100 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 -- 100 | 2SIKI F 50 | 2 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --SIPA4 F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --SIPR F -- 20 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 2 100 | 4 -- -- --SOMUS F 50 | 1 60 | 2 67 | 2 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 3

STCA F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --STLO2 F -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --STMO2 F -- -- 33 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1

SYFO2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 --TACE F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

TAOF F 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --TOLY F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

TRAL8 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --TRDA2 F 25 | 5 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --TRNA2 F 75 | 4 60 | 5 33 | 1 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- --VERON F -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --VEWO2 F -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --CYFR2 FH -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --AGHU G -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --AGID G -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --AGVA G -- 20 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- --CAPU G 100 | 2 40 | 6 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 3

CASC G -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

DAIN G -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --DECE G -- 20 | 1 33 | 3 100 | 42 100 | 3 100 | 6 100 | 3 33 | 1

ELEL5 G 50 | 2 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

ELSM3 G 25 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ELTR7 G 75 | 2 40 | 2 33 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- -- --FEBR G 50 | 3 60 | 2 -- 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1FEID G 25 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 405

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCall

Species LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3

FESA G 50 | 4 80 | 4 67 | 3 -- -- -- -- 67 | 1

FEVIK2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

KOMA G -- 20 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- --

LEKI2 G 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --PHAL2 G -- -- 67 | 3 50 | 1 100 | 4 -- -- --POAL2 G 25 | 3 20 | 1 67 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --POAR2 G 50 | 3 60 | 2 33 | 1 50 | 5 -- 50 | 1 -- 100 | 6POCU3 G -- -- 67 | 6 -- -- -- -- --POGLR G 25 | 1 20 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1

POLE3 G -- -- -- -- 100 | 2 -- -- --

POPA3 G 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --POSE G 100 | 6 80 | 7 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 15 --

POWH2 G -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

TRSP2 G 75 | 2 80 | 2 100 | 1 50 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- 100 | 2CAAL6 GL 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3

CAAT13 GL 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CACA13 GL -- 20 | 3 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- --CAEL3 GL 100 | 18 80 | 3 67 | 5 -- -- -- -- --CALE9 GL -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- --CAMA9 GL 50 | 1 40 | 2 -- 100 | 2 100 | 3 50 | 1 -- --CAMI10 GL -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --CAMI7 GL -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CANE3 GL -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- --CANI2 GL -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --CANOS2 GL -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3

CAPA31 GL -- 20 | 5 33 | 10 -- -- -- -- 33 | 5

CAPH2 GL -- 40 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- --CARA6 GL -- 20 | 3 33 | 3 -- 100 | 3 -- -- --CAREX GL -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --CARO5 GL -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CARU3 GL -- 40 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --CASC10 GL 50 | 5 60 | 8 67 | 3 50 | 3 100 | 1 50 | 5 -- 67 | 2CASC12 GL -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- 50 | 30 100 | 25 --CASCP2 GL -- -- 33 | 3 -- 50 | 1 -- -- --JUDR GL -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- --JUPA GL -- -- -- -- 100 | 25 -- -- --
406 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type GEROT-CAEL3 Agneston GEROT-turf McCall KRUMMHOLZ Klootch Late Snowbank DECE Late Snowbank JUPA Late Snowbank SAGLV/DECE Late Snowbank SAREN2/CASC12 SAREN2/KOMY McCall Species LF n=4 n=5 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=3

JUTR4 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 --KOMY GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 19

LUMU2 GL 100 | 2 80 | 2 -- 50 | 3 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- 67 | 1LUPA4 GL -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- --LUSP4 GL -- 20 | 3 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 407

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8-5: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types:

ARTRR/EL Big = ARTRR4/ELSP3, Bigsheep Family ET ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L = ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 351L Family ETARTRR/FE Ledge = ARTRR4/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET ARTRV/FE Shawmut = ARTRV2/FEID, Shawmut Family ETARTRV/EL Win = ARTRV2/ELSP3, Winspect Family ET ELSP3 Wabek = ELSP3, Wabek Family ETARTRV/FE Corbly 166D = ARTRV2/FEID, Corbly 166D Family ET ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt = ELSP3-POSE-STENO7 Scabland, Paunsangunt Family ETARTRV/FE Kiev = ARTRV2/FEID, Kiev Family ET FE-EL Elwood = FEID-ELSP3-ACNE9, Elwood Family ETARTRV/FE Ledgefork = ARTV2/FEID, Ledgefork Family ET FEID Ledgefork = FEID, Ledgefork Family ETARTRV/FE Lithic Argi = ARTRV2/FEID, Lithic Argiustolls Family ETEcological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID LedgeforkSpecies LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1PIAL DO -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 --

PIFL2 DO 17 | 1 -- 30 | 3 25 | 1 50 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PIAL SEED -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

PICOL SEED -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

PIFL2 SEED -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

AMAL2 S -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- 50 | 3 --

ARAR8 S -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ARCA13 S 33 | 4 -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ARFR4 S 67 | 5 33 | 10 20 | 3 -- -- -- 67 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1

ARTRR4 S 100 | 20 100 | 8 60 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- 33 | 1 -- --ARTRV2 S 17 | 1 -- 100 | 28 100 | 29 100 | 45 100 | 27 100 | 25 100 | 35 100 | 42 -- -- 100 | 5 --

CEVE S -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CHVI8 S 50 | 1 -- 60 | 2 50 | 1 50 | 1 -- 100 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- -- -- --

JUCOD S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 2 --

JUOS S -- -- 40 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PRVIM S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 --

PUTR2 S -- -- 90 | 16 -- 50 | 3 -- -- 100 | 5 50 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- --RHART2 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- --RICEP S 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ROWO S 17 | 1 -- 50 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

SYORU S 17 | 1 -- 50 | 4 -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 25 | 1 -- -- 50 | 3 --

ACMIL3 F 17 | 1 -- 10 | 1 -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- 33 | 3 -- --AGGL F 50 | 2 -- 70 | 1 25 | 5 100 | 2 -- 67 | 1 100 | 1 75 | 2 -- -- 100 | 2 100 | 1ALAL3 F 17 | 1 -- 40 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ALCE2 F -- -- 20 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 100 | 1 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 50 | 1 --

ALDE F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
408 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID Ledgefork Species LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1 ALTE F -- -- 10 | 1 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ANAN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --

ANCO F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 10 -- 33 | 1 -- --ANMA F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --ANMI3 F 17 | 1 -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ANRO2 F 17 | 1 33 | 3 30 | 2 25 | 1 50 | 1 -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --

ANSES F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

ANTEN F -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --ANUM F 17 | 1 33 | 1 10 | 1 50 | 1 50 | 1 67 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 3 75 | 2 -- 33 | 1 100 | 4 100 | 5ARFU3 F -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --

ARHI F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ARLU F -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- --

ASAL7 F -- -- 10 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ASAUG F -- -- 40 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ASMI9 F 67 | 2 67 | 1 40 | 2 100 | 3 100 | 3 67 | 4 100 | 2 -- 100 | 5 -- 100 | 2 100 | 1 100 | 3ASTER F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ASTRA F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --BAIN F 67 | 1 -- 50 | 4 50 | 2 50 | 1 -- 100 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 9 -- 67 | 2 -- --BASA3 F -- -- 30 | 14 -- 50 | 25 -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 2 100 | 20 -- -- --BEWY F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 67 | 1 -- --BOAN6 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOECH F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --BOEX2 F -- 33 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- 67 | 1 100 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1

BOEHOL F -- 33 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- 75 | 1 -- -- -- --

BOLE5 F 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOMI3 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --BONU F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOPU5 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --BOWI F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --CAAN7 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --CACU7 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CAFL7 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

CALI4 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

CAMI2 F 17 | 1 -- 30 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CANU3 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CANU4 F -- -- 10 | 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID Ledgefork

Species LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1

CAPA25 F 33 | 1 -- -- 75 | 1 -- 33 | 1 33 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 2 -- 67 | 1 -- --CAPIL F -- -- 10 | 1 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --CASTI2 F 17 | 1 -- 10 | 1 -- 50 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- --CEAR4 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- -- --

CHDOM F 33 | 2 -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CIRSI F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --COPA3 F -- -- 60 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- -- --

CRAC2 F 17 | 1 -- 40 | 2 25 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 75 | 1 -- -- 50 | 3 --

CRIN4 F 17 | 1 -- 10 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- --CRMO4 F 33 | 1 33 | 1 -- 25 | 2 -- 33 | 1 100 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- --CYLO10 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

CYTEA F 67 | 3 -- 40 | 6 -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- 50 | 3 --

DENU2 F -- -- 10 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

DOCO F 33 | 1 -- 20 | 1 25 | 1 50 | 1 33 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- 67 | 1 -- --

DODEC F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

DOPU F -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --DRDE F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

DRAL4 F -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

DROL F 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3 -- --

ERAS2 F 67 | 1 -- 40 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --ERCA2 F 17 | 1 67 | 1 10 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- 67 | 1 -- --ERCO24 F 33 | 3 67 | 1 20 | 1 25 | 1 -- 67 | 1 33 | 1 100 | 1 75 | 1 -- 67 | 1 100 | 2 100 | 1ERCO5 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ERCOD F 67 | 2 67 | 1 40 | 1 25 | 1 50 | 1 67 | 1 67 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- 67 | 1 100 | 1 --

EREA F -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ERLA F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --

EROC F -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- 67 | 2 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --EROV F 33 | 1 67 | 1 10 | 1 50 | 1 50 | 3 67 | 1 100 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- 100 | 1

ERPU9 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ERRY F 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --

ERSI3 F 33 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ERTW F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --

ERUM F 33 | 1 -- 50 | 2 75 | 2 100 | 1 33 | 3 -- 100 | 3 100 | 2 -- -- 100 | 4 --FRAT F -- -- 20 | 1 -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --GAAR F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --GARA2 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
410 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID Ledgefork Species LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1 GETR F -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 67 | 1 33 | 1 100 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 --

GYPA2 F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --IPSP F 17 | 1 -- 10 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --IVGO F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

LEFR4 F 50 | 1 -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- --LEPY2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1LERE7 F -- 67 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- 67 | 1 100 | 1 100 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 --

LIGLR F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --LILE3 F 67 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --LIRU4 F -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 100 | 5 -- -- --LOCO4 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 67 | 6 -- --LODIM F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --LOMAT F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

LOOR F 67 | 1 33 | 1 70 | 1 75 | 2 100 | 2 67 | 1 67 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- --

LOTR2 F -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --

LUAR3 F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --

LUPIN F 17 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --LUPO2 F 17 | 1 -- 20 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- -- 50 | 1 --

MERTE F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --MEVI4 F 67 | 1 67 | 1 60 | 2 100 | 2 100 | 2 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- 75 | 1 -- 100 | 2 100 | 1 --

MIMA3 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

MINU4 F 17 | 1 -- 20 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

MIOB2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 5MONU F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

MUMO F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 5 -- -- -- --

ORFA F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

OXSE F 100 | 5 -- -- 25 | 1 100 | 1 -- 67 | 2 -- -- -- 67 | 1 -- --

PACA15 F 83 | 1 -- 60 | 1 -- -- -- 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

PEHU F 50 | 2 -- 40 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- 33| 1 100 | 1 -- -- 33 | 1 -- --PEPR2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --PERA2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --PERY F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --PHHO F 83 | 3 67 | 2 90 | 2 75 | 3 100 | 1 67 | 3 100 | 2 -- 50 | 3 -- 67 | 2 -- 100 | 1PHLO2 F -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --PHMU3 F 83 | 3 67 | 4 40 | 2 75 | 2 100 | 6 33 | 1 67 | 2 100 | 3 100 | 2 -- 100 | 2 100 | 3 --PHMU4 F -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 411

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID Ledgefork

Species LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1

PHPU12 F 17 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --PHPU5 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1PHSE F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

POBI6 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --POBI10 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --

POBR5 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --

POCO13 F 17 | 1 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1POGL9 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

POGR9 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

POHI6 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1POOV2 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --POTEN F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- --PYUN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1RAGLE F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

SARH2 F -- 33 | 1 10 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67 | 2 -- --

SEIN2 F -- -- 20 | 2 -- 100 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1 25 | 3 -- -- -- --

SEIN4 F -- -- 30 | 2 -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 2 -- -- -- --

SELA F 50 | 1 100 | 2 30 | 1 100 | 2 50 | 1 67 | 2 67 | 2 100 | 1 -- -- 100 | 2 50 | 1 100 | 3SERA F 17 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --SPRU F -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --STAC F 33 | 2 -- 30 | 3 25 | 1 -- -- 67 | 2 -- -- -- 67 | 18 -- --STST5 F 33 | 6 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 25 -- --TAER2 F 50 | 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

TAOF F 17 | 1 -- 40 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- -- -- --

TRAGO F 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --TRDU F -- -- 20 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

TRLA30 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

TRNA2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3

VIOLA F -- -- 30 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ZIEL2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --ZIVEG F 50 | 1 -- 30 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 33 | 1 -- --ACNE9 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 100 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1 --BRTE G 17 | 1 -- 50 | 14 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 40 -- -- --ELEL5 G -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- 33 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 100 | 1ELSP3 G 100 | 19 67 | 4 100 | 10 75 | 5 100 | 8 -- 100 | 5 100 | 1 100 | 4 100 | 15 100 | 11 50 | 3 --FEID G -- 100 | 9 20 | 1 100 | 15 100 | 18 100 | 13 100 | 8 100 | 20 100 | 20 100 | 3 -- 100 | 12 100 | 10
412 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type ARTRR/ EL Big ARTRR/ FE Ledge ARTRV/ EL Win ARTRV/FE Corbly 166D ARTRV/FE Kiev ARTRV/FE Ledgefork ARTRV/FE Lithic Argi ARTRV/FE Corbly 351L ARTRV/FE Shawmut ELSP3 Wabek ELSP3-PO Paunsaugunt FE-EL Elwood FEID Ledgefork

Species LF n=6 n=3 n=10 n=4 n=2 n=3 n=3 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=2 n=1

HECO26 G -- -- -- 24 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- --KOMA G 33 | 10 -- 60 | 4 -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 100 | 3 100 | 9 -- 100 | 3LEKI2 G 67 | 3 -- 70 | 3 25 | 3 100 | 3 -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 2 -- -- 100 | 3 --

PIMI7 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 --

POFE G -- -- 10 | 5 25 | 3 -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --POJU G -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

POPA3 G -- 33 | 3

POPR G -- -- 10 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --

POSE G 100 | 21 67 | 12 90 | 16 100 | 10 100 | 22 67 | 20 100 | 22 100 | 15 100 | 11 100 | 1 100 | 17 100 | 3 100 | 25POWH2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 2 --

CABRP3 GL 17 | 1 -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1CACA13 GL -- -- -- 29 | 1 -- -- 67 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --CAFOV GL -- 33 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CANA2 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 | 1 -- 50 | 1 -- 67 | 6 -- --CAOR GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --

CAREX GL -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --

CARO5 GL -- -- 40 | 5 -- 50 | 5 -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

CAST40 GL -- 33 | 1 10 | 1 25 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --CAVA3 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- --CAXE GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8-6: Constancy and average cover of all species present in the following ecological types:

DECE Elvick = Elvick, Oxyaquic Eutrocryepts - DECE Habitat TypePOTR5/COSE16 Mantador = POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS, Mantador Family ETPOTR5/COSE16 Caryville = POTR5/COSE16-ALVIS, Caryville Family ETPOTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat = POTR5/GEVI2, Bullflat Family ETPOTR5/SYORU Boulder = POTR5/SYORU-Boulder, Ledgefork Family ETSAPL2/CASC12 Elvick = Elvick, Oxyaquic Eutrocryepts SALIX/CAREX Moose River = SALIX/CAREX, Moose River Family ET - SAPL2/CASC12 Community TypeSALIX CAREX Kettle = SALIX/CAREX – Kettle Lake, Fluvaquentic Cryaquepts ETEcological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX KettleSpecies LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1

--

PICOL DO -- -- -- 12 | 3 25 | 20 -- -- --PIEN DO -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --POTR5 DO -- 100 | 10 100 | 5 100 | 34 75 | 18 -- -- --PSMEG DO -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- --ABLA SD -- -- 100 | 5 -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

JUSC2 SD -- -- -- 12 | 20 -- -- -- --PICOL SD -- -- 100 | 10 12 | 1 25 | 10 -- -- --

POTR5 SD -- -- -- 38 | 9 50 | 6 -- -- --

PSMEG SD -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ABLA U -- -- 100 | 3 -- 25 | 1 -- 50 | 1 --JUSC2 U -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --PICOL U -- -- 100 | 1 25 | 2 75 | 2 -- -- --PIEN U -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --PIFL2 U -- -- -- 38 | 4 25 | 1 -- -- --POTR5 U -- -- 100 | 25 88 | 8 100 | 19 -- -- --PSMEG U -- -- -- 38 | 3 -- -- -- --ABLA SEED -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 --PIAL SEED -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- --PICOL SEED -- -- 100 | 1 25 | 1 75 | 3 -- -- --PIEN SEED -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 --PIFL2 SEED -- -- -- 50 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --POTR5 SEED -- -- 100 | 3 88 | 8 100 | 7 -- -- --PSMEG SEED -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --ACGL S -- -- 100 | 10 12 | 1 -- -- -- --

ALVIS2 S -- 100 | 3 -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- --

AMAL2 S -- -- 100 | 5 25 | 2 25 | 3 -- -- --
414 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX Kettle Species LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1 -- ARTRV2 S -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- ARUV S -- -- 100 | 1 -- 25 | 3 -- -- --

CEVE S -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 -- -- --

COSE16 S -- -- 100 | 10 -- -- -- -- --JUCOD S -- -- 100 | 5 75 | 2 75 | 5 -- -- --KAMI S -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --LOIN5 S -- -- 100 | 5 12 | 1 -- -- -- --MARE11 S -- -- 100 | 3 75 | 2 100 | 3 -- -- --PAMY S -- -- -- 38 | 7 -- -- -- --PEFL15 S -- -- -- 25 | 2 -- -- -- --PRVIM S -- 100 | 1 100 | 5 62 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --PUTR2 S -- -- -- 12 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --RIHU S -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --RILA S -- -- 100 | 5 -- -- -- -- --RIOX S -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ROWO S -- -- 100 | 5 100 | 2 75 | 2 -- -- --RUID S -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

SACA6 S -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 25 -- --

SAER S -- -- 100 | 10 -- -- -- -- --SAGLV S -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 10 --

SAMBU S -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

SAGE2 S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 15

SAPL2 S -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 15 100 | 75 100 | 25

SAWO S -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 35

SASC S -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --SHCA S -- -- -- 75 | 10 25 | 5 -- -- --SYORU S -- -- -- 38 | 1 100 | 3 -- -- --VAOC S -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- --

VASC S -- -- 100 | 5 -- 25 | 10 -- -- --ACCO4 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ACMIL3 F 100 | 1 -- -- 88 | 2 50 | 1 -- 50 | 1 100 | 3ACRU2 F -- 100 | 1 100 | 1 25 | 2 -- -- -- --AGGL F 100 | 3 -- -- 50 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --ALSC F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ANME2 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 1 --

ANRO2 F -- -- 100 | 1 12 | 1 50 | 2 -- -- --ANTEN F -- -- -- 12 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX KettleSpecies LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1

--

ANUM F 100 | 3 -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- 100 | 1APAN2 F -- -- 100 | 3 -- 50 | 2 -- -- --AQCO F -- -- -- 62 | 1 -- -- -- --ARCO9 F -- -- 100 | 3 88 | 5 100 | 5 -- -- --ARMO4 F 100 | 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

ARSC F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 5 -- --

ASAG2 F -- -- -- 25 | 2 -- -- -- --ASAUG F -- -- -- 50 | 4 -- -- -- --ASMI9 F -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- --BAIN F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --BASA3 F -- -- -- 38 | 2 50 | 1 -- -- --BOAN6 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

BOECH F -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- --

BOEHOL F -- -- 100 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- --CAEU F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CALE4 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 100 | 6 --

CALI4 F -- -- -- 50 | 2 50 | 1 -- -- --CAMI12 F -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --CARH4 F -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- --CARO2 F -- -- 100 | 1 38 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --CASTI2 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

CEAR4 F 100 | 1 -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CHAN9 F -- 100 | 5 100 | 5 50 | 1 75 | 2 -- -- --COLI2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --COPA3 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --COTR3 F -- -- -- 38 | 1 -- -- -- --COWI2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CRAC2 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

CRRU3 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --DEIN5 F -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --DEOC F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --DENU2 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --DIUN F -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- --DOPU F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

ELRU F 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

EPCI F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --EPGLF2 F -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --
416 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX Kettle Species LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1 -- EPHA F 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- EPPA F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --

EPPY4 F -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --ERCO24 F -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- --ERPES3 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 3 --

ERSI3 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

ERUM F -- -- -- 12 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --ERUR2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1EUGL13 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

FRSP F -- -- -- 38 | 2 -- -- -- --FRVI F -- -- -- 88 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- 100 | 1GABO2 F -- -- 100 | 3 100 | 5 25 | 1 -- -- --GEMA4 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 1GERI F -- 100 | 3 100 | 3 12 | 1 25 | 3 -- 50 | 3 --GEROT F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 5 -- --

GETR F 100 | 1 -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --GEVI2 F -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- -- -- --HEQU2 F -- -- -- 75 | 5 -- -- -- --HESPL F -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --HIAL2 F -- -- 100 | 1 12 | 1 -- -- -- --LIRU4 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --LOMAT F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --LOTR2 F -- -- -- 38 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --LUAR3 F -- -- -- 38 | 1 -- -- -- --LUPO2 F -- -- -- 38 | 4 -- -- -- --MAST4 F -- 100 | 1 -- 38 | 1 -- -- -- --MEVI4 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --MIAU3 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

MIGLJ F -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --ORAL4 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

ORSE F -- -- 100 | 1 12 | 3 -- -- -- --OSBE F -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- --OSDE F -- -- 100 | 3 50 | 5 -- -- -- --OSPU F -- -- -- 25 | 2 -- -- -- --PAST10 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

PASU40 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --PEGR2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- 100 | 5 50 | 1 --
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LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX KettleSpecies LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1

--

PERY F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --PEST2 F -- -- 100 | 1 -- 25 | 1 -- -- --PHSE F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --PLSCH F 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

POAR7 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --POBI6 F 100 | 1 -- -- 38 | 1 -- 100 | 1 50 | 3 --PODI2 F 100 | 10 -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- 100 | 3 100 | 3PODO4 F -- -- 100 | 1 12 | 1 -- -- -- --POGL9 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --POGR9 F -- -- -- 62 | 1 -- 100 | 5 -- --POVI3 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- --

PRTR4 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --PYAS F -- -- 100 | 5 25 | 1 -- -- -- --RAUN F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --RUAQF F 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SARH2 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

SECR F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --SEHY F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --SEHY2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 6 --

SEIN2 F 100 | 1 -- -- 25 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --SEIN4 F -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- 100 | 1 -- --SERH F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 --SERO2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --SETR F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --SIDR F -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

SOCA6 F -- -- -- 25 | 2 -- -- -- --SOMUS F -- -- 100 | 5 -- -- -- -- --SOVE6 F -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- --

STAM2 F -- -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- --STLO2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1SYFO2 F -- -- -- 38 | 4 25 | 3 -- 50 | 1 --SYSP F 100 | 1 100 | 5 -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --TAER2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --TAOF F 100 | 1 100 | 1 -- 75 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --THALI2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --THFE F -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --THOC F -- -- -- 50 | 2 -- -- -- --
418 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX Kettle Species LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1 -- THSPS F -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- THVE F -- -- -- 12 | 10 -- -- -- --

TRAL8 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 10 --

VEAN2 F -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 3 --VEWO2 F -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 50 | 3 --

VIOLA F -- -- 100 | 1 50 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --ZIEL2 F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ZIVEG F -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --EQAR FH -- -- -- 25 | 2 -- -- -- --EQHYA FH -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --EQVA FH -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- --ACNE9 G -- -- 100 | 1 25 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --AGHU G -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

AGSC5 G 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

AGVA G -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --BRCI2 G -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- -- --BRIN2 G -- -- -- 25 | 2 25 | 1 -- -- --BRPU6 G -- -- -- -- 25 | 5 -- -- --BRVU G -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- --CACA4 G -- -- 100 | 5 -- -- -- 50 | 15 100 | 3CAIN G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CASC G -- -- -- 12 | 10 -- -- -- --CAST36 G 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

DAIN G 100 | 3 -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --DASP2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --

DEAT2 G -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 5 --

DECE G 100 | 45 -- -- 12 | 1 -- 100 | 15 50 | 1 100 | 1DEEL G -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --ELEL5 G -- -- -- -- 75 | 2 -- -- --ELGL G -- 100 | 1 100 | 5 12 | 5 25 | 3 -- -- --ELLA3 G -- -- -- -- 25 | 3 -- -- --ELRE4 G -- -- -- 12 | 3 -- -- -- --ELSM3 G -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- --ELSP3 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --ELTR7 G 100 | 3 -- -- 38 | 3 -- -- -- --FEAR3 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --FEID G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 419

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8

Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX KettleSpecies LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1

--

FESA G -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --GLGR G -- 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- --KOMA G 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

LEKI2 G -- -- 100 | 1 12 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --MEBU G -- -- -- 12 | 10 -- -- -- --PHAL2 G 100 | 5 -- -- 12 | 1 -- 100 | 3 100 | 1 --PIEX3 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 50 | 1 -- -- --PIMI7 G -- -- 100 | 1 -- 25 | 3 -- -- --POAR21 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --POAR3 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --POCU3 G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 --POFE G -- -- -- 25 | 3 75 | 6 -- -- --POJU G 100 | 3 -- -- 25 | 4 -- -- -- --POPR G 100 | 3 -- -- 75 | 6 -- -- -- --PORE G -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 7 --

POSE G 100 | 1 -- 100 | 3 12 | 1 25 | 1 -- -- --POTR2 G -- 100 | 1 -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --POWH2 G -- -- 100 | 1 25 | 3 50 | 2 -- -- --PUCU G -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --TRSP2 G -- -- -- 50 | 1 -- -- -- --CAAQ GL 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CACA13 GL -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3 -- --

CAGE2 GL -- -- -- 25 | 4 -- -- -- --CAHA6 GL 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CAHO5 GL -- -- -- 38 | 1 25 | 3 -- -- --CALEP4 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 3CAMA9 GL -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 1 -- --

CAMI7 GL 100 | 15 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CANI2 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 6 --

CAPE42 GL 100 | 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

CAPR7 GL -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- 100 | 3CAREX GL -- -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- --

CARO5 GL -- 100 | 1 -- -- 75 | 4 -- -- --CASA10 GL -- -- 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- --CASC12 GL 100 | 3 -- -- -- -- 100 | 5 100 | 15 --

CAVA3 GL -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CAVE6 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 65
420 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 8 Ecological Type DECE Elvick POTR5/COSE16 Mantador POTR5/COSE16 Caryville POTR5/GEVI2 Bullflat POTR5/SYORU- Boulder SAPL2/CASC12 Elvick SALIX/CAREX Moose River SALIX/CAREX Kettle

Species LF n=1 n=1 n=1 n=8 n=4 n=1 n=2 n = 1

--

CAVU2 GL -- -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- -- --CAXE GL -- -- -- 12 | 5 -- -- -- --ELQU2 GL -- -- -- -- -- 100 | 10 -- --

JUBA GL -- -- -- 25 | 1 -- -- -- --JUHA GL 100 | 10 -- -- 12 | 1 -- -- 50 | 1 --JUTR4 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --LUPA4 GL -- -- -- -- -- -- 50 | 1 --
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 421

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 9

Appendix 9: List of Animal and Fish and Pest and 

Disease Species Appendix 9 

List of animal and fish (Table 9-1) and pest and disease (Table 9-2) species discussed in body of 

text. 

Table 9-1. List of animal and fish species. 

Common name Scientific name 

American robin Turdus migratorius 

bat Family: Chiroptera

beaver Castor canadensis 

black bear Ursus americanus 

black-capped chickadee Poecile atricapilla 

blue grouse Dendragapus obscurus 

brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis 

chickadee Poecile spp.

chipmunk Eutamius spp.

Clark's nutcracker Nucifraga columbiana 

cougar Felis concolor 

coyote Canis latrans 

crossbill Loxia spp.

crow Corvus brachyrhynchos 

cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki 

dark eyed junco Junco hyemalis 

deer mice Peromyscus maniculatus 

domestic cattle Bos taurus 

domestic goat Capra hircus 

domestic sheep Ovis aries 

elk Cervus elaphus 

flycatcher Empidonax spp.

flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus 

fox Vulpes fulva 

golden trout Oncorhynchus aguabonita 

grizzly bear Ursus horribilis 

grouse Genus: Centrocerus, Perdix 

horned larks Eremophila alpestris 

horse Equus caballus 

juncos Junco spp.

kinglet Regulus spp.

lynx Lynx canadensis 

marmot Marmota flaviventris 

meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus 

moose Alces alces 

mountain chickadee Poecile gambeli 

mountain goats Oreamnos americanus 

mule deer Odocoileus hemionus 

muskrat Ondatra zibethicus 
422 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015.

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 9

Common name Scientific name 

northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis 

nuthatch Sitta spp.

Ord's kangaroo rat Dipodomys ordi 

owl Familes: Strigidae, Tytonidae 

pika Ochotona princeps 

pine marten Martes americana 

pine siskin Carduelis pinus 

pocket gopher Thomomys talpoides 

porcupine Erethizon dorsatum 

pronghorn Antilocapra americana 

rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss 

red crossbill Loxia curvirostra 

red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 

red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis 

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis 

ruffed grouse Bonasa umbellus 

sage grouse Centrocerus urophasianus 

sagebrush voles Lagurus curtatus 

sandhill crane Grus canadensis 

shrew Family: Soricidae 

snowshoe hare Lepus americanus 

thrush Family: Turdidae 

voles Microtus spp. and Lagurus spp.

western cottontail Sylvilagus nuttalli 

western harvest mice Reithrodontomys megalotis 

white-crowned sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys 

whitetail jackrabbit Lepus townsendi 

white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus 

woodpecker Family: Picidae 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-345. 2015. 423

LIMBER PINE SERIES APPENDIX 9

Table 9-2. List of pest and disease species. 

Common name Scientific name 

annosus root disease Heterobasidion annosum 

black stem rust Puccinia tanaceti 

black-felt fungus Herpotrichia nigra 

blue stain fungi Ceratocystis spp.

brown felt blight Neopeckia coulteri 

comandra blister rust Cronartium comandrae 

Douglas-fir beetle Dendroctonus pseudotsugae 

Douglas-fir cone moth Barbara colfaxiana 

dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium spp.

fir broom rust Melampsorella caryophyllacearum 

leaf rust fungi Melampsora spp.

leaf spot and shoot blight Marssonina populi 

limber pine dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium cyanocarpum 

lodgepole needle cast Lophodermella concolor 

lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium americanum 

longhorned beetles Family: Cerambycidae 

metallic wood borers Family: Buprestidae 

mormon cricket Anabrus simplex 

mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae 

pine cone beetle Conophthorus ponderosae 

pine engraver beetles Ips spp.

pine needle cast Lophodermella arcuata 

red belt fungus Fomitopsis pinicola 

red ring rot Phellinus pini 

schweinitzii root and butt rot Phaeolus schweinitzii 

snowmold fungus Ascomycete spp.

stalactiform blister rust Cronartium coleosporioides 

sugar pine tortrix Choristoneura lambertiana 

tomentosus root disease Inonotus tomentosus 

western balsam bark beetle Dryocoetes confusus 

western conifer seed bug Leptoglossus occidentalis 

western spruce budworm Choristoneura occidentalis 

white pine blister rust Cronartium ribicola 
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