Water Quality in the

Western Lake Michigan Drainages

Wisconsin and Michigan, 1992–95

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156

science for a changing world
Chief, NAWQA Program

U.S. Geological Survey

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, M.S. 413

Reston, VA 20192

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE 

NATIONAL WATER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT (NAWQA) PROGRAM:

Coordination among agencies and organizations is an integral part of the NAWQA Program. We thank the following 

agencies and organizations who contributed to the design of the studies and helped to review data presented in this report.

The following U.S. Geological Survey personnel responsible for implementing the NAWQA Program in the Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages are acknowledged for their dedication and hard work: 

Stephen Rheaume, James Setmire, Elise Giddings, Morgan Schmidt, Heather Whitman, Dale Weaver, Michelle Greenwood, Ross Bagwell,

Brian Dalsing, Amy Matzen, Evan Bloyer, Lucy Fox, Bart Manion, Ty Sabin, James Rauman, Eileen Cashman, Travis Buros, Winston 

Nunes, Andrew Legg, Mitchell Harris, Donna Myers, John Tertuliani, Dennis Finnegan, Wallace Larson, James Ellis, John Knudsen, Kevin 

Metzker, Kelly Warner, James Cerveny, Mary Ann Thomas, Bill Morrow 

Illustrations by Michelle M. Greenwood and Morgan A. Schmidt

Edited by Michael Eberle and Betty Palcsak

Technical review by William C. Sonzogni, John Koss, and scientists on the NAWQA national synthesis team

Manuscript preparation by Heather E. Whitman and Morgan A. Schmidt

Cover and interior photographs by U.S. Geological Survey, Wisconsin District personnel: Front cover - Peshekee River; Back

cover - Lower Fox River Valley (left), Popple River (center), farmland in southeastern Wisconsin (right)

Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit, contact:

District Chief or NAWQA Chief

U.S. Geological Survey

8505 Research Way

Middleton, WI 53562

Information on the NAWQA Program is also available on the Internet via the World Wide Web. You may 

connect to the NAWQA Home Page using the Universal Resources Locator (URL)

http://wwwrvares.er.usgs.gov/nawqa/

The Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit’s Home Page is at URL:

http://wwwdwimdn.er.usgs.gov/nawqa/

This Circular is also available on the Internet via the World Wide Web, at URL:

http://water.usgs.gov/lookup/get?circ1156

• American Water Resources Association — 

Wisconsin Chapter

• Bay-Lake Regional Planning Commission

• Brown County Regional Planning 

Commission

• East Central Wisconsin Regional Planning 

Commission

• Fox Wolf Basin 2000

• Great Lakes Environmental Research 

Laboratory

• Green Bay Metropolitan Sewage District

• Marquette County Land Conservation District

• Menominee Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin

• Michigan Department of Environmental 

Quality

• Michigan Department of Natural Resources

• Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency

• National Wildlife Federation

• The Nature Conservancy

• North Central Wisconsin Regional Planning 

Commission

• Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin

• Outagamie County Land Conservation 

District

• Portage County Land Conservation District

• River Alliance of Wisconsin (Tomorrow/

Waupaca Watershed Association)

• Sheboygan County Land Conservation 

District

• Southeast Wisconsin Regional Planning 

Department

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

• U.S. Department of Agriculture

• U.S. Department of the Interior

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

• U.S. Public Health Service

• University of Wisconsin—Extension Service

• University of Wisconsin—Green Bay

• University of Wisconsin—Madison

• University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point

• University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee

• Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and 

Letters

• Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, 

and Consumer Protection

• Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

• Wisconsin Electric Power Company

• Wisconsin Geological and Natural History 

Survey

• Wisconsin Project First

• Wisconsin Sea Grant

• Wisconsin State Climatologist

• Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene

• Wolf River Lakes and Streams Association

• Wolf River Trout Unlimited

A COORDINATED EFFORT
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR

Water Quality in the Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 1992–95

1156

By C.A. Peters, D.M. Robertson, D.A. Saad, D.J. Sullivan, 

B.C. Scudder, F.A. Fitzpatrick, K.D. Richards, J.S. Stewart, 

S.A. Fitzgerald, and B.N. Lenz

CONTENTS

National Water–Quality Assessment Program ................... 1

Summary of major issues and findings................................. 2

Environmental setting and hydrologic conditions .............. 4 

Major issues and findings........................................................ 8

Levels of some naturally occurring chemicals have the 

potential to affect human health and aquatic life........ 8

Fertilizers and livestock wastes increase nutrients

in streams and ground water ......................................... 10

Various factors control pesticide occurrence in

streams and ground water.............................................. 12

Urban areas are a source of trace elements and

organic compounds ......................................................... 14

Environmental setting and land use influence

aquatic life ......................................................................... 16

Water-quality conditions in a national context .................... 20

Study design and data collection ........................................... 24

Summary of compound detections and concentrations ..... 26

References .................................................................................. 32

Glossary ..................................................................................... 36

Italicized words are defined in the glossary.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publications Data

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes only and

does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Government

Free on application to the

U.S. Geological Survey

Information Services

Box 25286 Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Thomas J. Casadevall, Acting Director

Water quality in the Western Lake MIchigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 1992–95 / by C.A. 

Peters ... [et.al.].

p. cm. -- (U.S. Geological Survey circular ; 1156)

Includes bibliographic references (p. ).

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.4/2:1156-G

ISBN 0-607-89146-7

1. Water quality--Michigan, Lake, Watershed. 2. Water quality--Michigan. 3. Water quality--

Wisconsin. I. Peters, Charles A. II. Series.

TD223.3.W38 1998

363.739’42’09774 -- dc21

1998

98-20090

CIP

ISBN 0-607-89146-7
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 1

Began in 1991

Began in 1994

Began in 1997

Not scheduled yet

EXPLANATION

“NAWQA has been 

enormously helpful in 

synthesizing data and 

developing a better 

understanding of a key 

ecoregion of the Great 

Lakes. Contributions 

from this study will be 

useful for years to come 

as this region is managed 

as an integrated natural 

resource.” 

William C. Sonzogni,

University of 

Wisconsin–Madison,

State Laboratory of

Hygiene

“The NAWQA program 

is generating water 

quality and ecological 

information that will be 

useful to the Oneida 

Environmental, Health 

and Safety Department 

in managing tribal water 

resources. As the Tribe 

engages in efforts to 

improve conditions of its 

watershed, NAWQA 

data and reports should 

serve as a reference 

against which future 

changes in water quality 

can be compared.”

Patrick J. Pelky,

Oneida Tribe of

Indians of Wisconsin,

Environmental, 

Health and Safety

Department 

NATIONAL WATER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT PROGRAM

Knowledge of the quality of the Nation’s streams and aquifers is important because

of the implications to human and aquatic health and because of the significant costs

associated with decisions involving land and water management, conservation, and

regulation. In 1991, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds for the U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS) to begin the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program

to help meet the continuing need for sound, scientific information on the areal extent

of the water-quality problems, how these problems are changing with time, and an

understanding of the effects of human actions and natural factors on water-quality

conditions. 

The NAWQA Program is assessing the water-quality conditions of more than 50 of

the Nation’s largest river basins and aquifers, known as Study Units. Collectively,

these Study Units cover about one-half of the United States and include sources of

drinking water used by about 70 percent of the U.S. population. Comprehensive

assessments of about one-third of the Study Units are ongoing at a given time. Each

Study Unit is scheduled to be revisited every decade to evaluate changes in waterquality conditions. NAWQA assessments rely heavily on existing information collected by the USGS and many other agencies as well as the use of nationally consistent study designs and methods of sampling and analysis. Such consistency simultaneously provides information about the status and trends in water-quality conditions

in a particular stream or aquifer and, more importantly, provides the basis to make

comparisons among watersheds and improve our understanding of the factors that

affect water-quality conditions regionally and nationally. 

This report is intended to summarize major findings that emerged between 1992

and 1995 from the water-quality assessment of the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

Study Unit and to relate these findings to water-quality issues of regional and national

concern. The information is primarily intended for those who are involved in waterresource management. Indeed, this report addresses many of the concerns raised by

regulators, water-utility managers, industry representatives, and other scientists, engineers, public officials, and members of stakeholder groups who provided advice and

input to the USGS during this NAWQA Study-Unit investigation. Yet, the information contained here may also interest those who simply wish to know more about the

quality of water in the rivers and aquifers in the area where they live. 

 Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist
2 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

LEVELS OF SOME NATURALLY OCCURRING CHEMICALS HAVE THE POTENTIAL 

TO AFFECT HUMAN HEALTH AND AQUATIC LIFE. (p. 8)

Concentrations of naturally occurring constituents are variable in surface water and ground water of the study area. At 

some sites the concentrations exceed those considered harmful to human health and aquatic life.

• Dissolved solids concentrations above the United States Environmental 

Protection Agency’s (USEPA) secondary maximum contaminant 

levels (SMCL) for drinking water were detected in 26 percent of samples 

from the confined part of the drinking-water aquifer.

• Arsenic concentrations in fine sediments in streams exceeded the Ontario 

Ministry of Environment and Energy lowest effect level (LEL), for 

aquatic biota, at 48 percent of sites sampled and the severe effect level 

(SEL) at one site.

• Radon, a carcinogen, was detected in all 29 drinking-water aquifer wells 

sampled in the study area. Radon activities in 66 percent of the wells 

exceeded the previously proposed USEPA standard of 300 picocuries per 

liter (pCi/L).

• Concentrations of dissolved iron exceeded the previously proposed 

USEPA maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water of 

300 micrograms per liter (μg/L) in 38 percent of drinking-water 

aquifer wells sampled.

FERTILIZERS AND LIVESTOCK WASTES INCREASE NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS IN STREAMS AND 

GROUND WATER. (p. 10)

Phosphorus and nitrate concentrations in surface water and ground water are highest in agricultural land-use areas. 

Nutrient concentrations in surface waters were highest during periods of precipitation runoff.

• Ninety-six percent of anthropogenic phosphorus input to the study area

is from fertilizer and livestock wastes.

• Median phosphorus concentrations in surface water at four

agricultural study sites exceeded the recommended USEPA limit to

discourage excessive biotic growth in flowing water of

 0.1 milligrams per liter (mg/L).

• Analysis of historical data indicated that phosphorus concentrations in

surface water downstream from urban areas decreased significantly

during the 1970s due to the reduction of phosphorus in detergents and 

improvements in sewage-treatment facilities.

• Nitrate concentrations in surface water from 92 percent of samples from 

agricultural Indicator Sites were high enough to contribute to algal blooms 

(greater than 0.3 mg/L) observed at several sites.

• Nitrate concentrations exceeded the USEPA MCL (10 mg/L) during three 

storms at the East River agricultural Indicator Site, in 9 percent of the 

samples from the drinking water aquifer, and 22 percent of the surficial

alluvial aquifer samples.

• Nitrate concentrations, in the shallow alluvial aquifer where the surficial

deposits were most permeable, exceeded the USEPA MCL in 37 percent

of the samples.

SUMMARY OF MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

WIS.

MICH.
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 3

SUMMARY OF MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

VARIOUS FACTORS CONTROL PESTICIDE OCCURRENCE IN STREAMS AND GROUND WATER. (p. 12)

Fifteen pesticides were detected in ground water and 33 in surface water. Drinking water standards for atrazine were 

exceeded in 6 percent of surface-water samples and standards for simazine and alachlor were exceeded in 1 percent 

of the samples.

• Pesticides commonly applied to farm fields were typically detected in 

surface water in intensively farmed areas at concentrations 100 times 

higher than in less intensively farmed areas.

• Atrazine was detected in all 143 surface water samples collected, 

including some at very low concentrations (0.005 mg/L) from forested 

areas. Detection in forested areas is probably due to the presence of 

pesticides in precipitation in the area.

• Highest concentrations of pesticides in surface water occur during runoff 

in agricultural areas soon after pesticide applications to the farm fields.

• Pesticides were detected in 97 percent of samples from surficial aquifers 

in intensively farmed areas underlain by relatively permeable surficial 

deposits. Concentrations of atrazine plus deethylatrazine exceeded the 

State of Wisconsin’s preventive action limit of 0.3 μg/L in 22 percent 

of surficial aquifer wells.

• Pesticides were detected in 25 percent of drinking water aquifer wells

sampled. Eighty-six percent of these detections were in samples from

wells in the part of the aquifer not covered by the relatively

impermeable Sinnipee unit.

URBAN AREAS ARE A SOURCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. (p. 14)

Concentrations of cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc and of many toxic synthetic organic compounds 

were highest in fine sediments in streams that drained urban areas compared to other land uses. 

• Concentrations of PCBs in streambed sediments and fish tissue are 10 

times higher in large-river sites draining urban areas than in smaller 

urban, agricultural, or forested land-use areas.

• Concentrations of DDT remain high in streambed sediments in urban 

areas and large-river sites more than 20 years after being banned.

• Eight trace elements in fine streambed sediment exceeded established 

LEL for bulk sediment. The chromium LEL was exceeded in all 

42 samples collected. The LEL is the concentration that 95 percent of 

benthic biota can tolerate.

• Eighty percent of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) analyzed for 

were detected in at least one sample. Two classes of SVOCs (PAHs and 

phthalates) were detected more frequently and in higher concentrations at 

urban-affected sites.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND LAND USE INFLUENCE AQUATIC LIFE. (p. 16)

Water quality, as indicated by aquatic life, was most influenced by land 

use and type of surficial deposit.

• Aquatic life was most degraded in urban areas and least degraded in 

forested areas.

• Indexes of biotic integrity indicated degraded water quality at sites with 

clay surficial deposits.

• Water quality in streams in primarily agricultural areas was least degraded 

in the basins with the highest percentage of forested land use.

• In general, there was good agreement between biological indicator scores 

calculated for habitat, algae, benthic invertebrates, and fish. 
4 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

 The Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit drains 

a 20,000-square-mile area in 

eastern Wisconsin and the Upper 

Peninsula of Michigan. The 

study area is comprised of the 

Fox-Wolf, Milwaukee, Menominee, Oconto, and Peshtigo River 

Basins in Wisconsin and the 

Ford and Escanaba River Basins 

in Michigan. 

The overall population in the 

study area is about 2,435,000 

(U.S. Department of Commerce, 

1991). Major cities include Milwaukee, Green Bay, Racine, and 

Appleton. The Green Bay area, 

along the lower Fox River, has 

one of the highest densities of 

paper mills in the world. Lake 

Winnebago, a 137,000-acre lake 

in the Fox River Basin, is a major 

surface-water feature.

The primary water-quality 

issues in the study area include 

contamination and nutrient

enrichment of surface water and 

ground water by agricultural 

chemicals, contamination of bed 

sediments of rivers and harbors by 

toxic substances, contamination 

and nutrient enrichment of rivers 

and lakes from industrial and 

municipal waste discharges, and 

acidification and mercury contamination of lakes and wetlands in the forested part of 

the study area

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

Source: Seaber

and others, 1986.

89°

88°

87°

46°

45°

44°

43°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Lake Winnebago

Milwaukee R

Wolf

R

Duck

Cr

Oconto R

Peshtigo R

Menom ni ee

R

Ford R

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Fox R

L

a

k e

M i c h i g a n

East R

G r e e n

B a y

Peshekee R

Popple R

Tomorro w R

Pensaukee R

N. Br. Mi wl .R

Lincoln Creek

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Escanaba

EXPLANATION

Basin boundary

County boundary

Stream

Appleton

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN

Racine
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 5

Land use ranges from forests in the north to

agriculture and urbanized land in the southern and

eastern parts of the study area.

About 50 percent of the area is forested, with streams

and lakes offering excellent fishing, canoeing, and other

recreational opportunities. Agriculture is a major activity

in the study area, with 37 percent of the area devoted to

cropland and pasture land. 

The topography of the study area was shaped by

glaciation. Surficial deposits range in thickness

from zero to several hundred feet.

The bedrock underlying the study area is

composed of igneous, metamorphic and

sedimentary (sandstone, carbonate, and shale)

rock. Bedrock dips southeast toward Lake

Michigan. The oldest rock subcrops in the

northwest and the youngest in the southeast.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

89°

46°

45°

44°

43°

88°

87°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Igneous and

Metamorphic

Green Ba y

Lake

Michigan

Sandstone

Carbonate

Shale

EXPLANATION

Bedrock type

EXPLANATION

Land use

Forest

Green Bay

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

89°

46°

88°

87°

45°

44°

43°

Lake

Michigan

Water

Urban

Wetland

Agriculture 0

10

20

30

40

50

5

15

25

35

45

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

Forest

Agriculture

Wetland

Urban

Water

AREA, IN SQUARE MILES

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL AREA

LAND USE IN 1983

89°

46°

88°

87°

45°

44°

43°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Surficial deposit

Sand and gravel

Green Bay

Lake

Michigan

Peat

Clay

Loam

Sand
6 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95 TOTAL PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Agriculture Ag/

Forest Forest Urban

Ag1Ag23Ag2Ag3AF20F16F22 U9

0.002

2.0

0.005

0.01

0.05

0.1

0.5

1.0

RHU Sites

Indicator Fixed Sites

Average concentration

in RHU

Water quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages 

is affected by natural and anthropogenic factors. In order to 

study the important water-quality issues, the basin was 

divided into 28 relatively homogeneous units (RHUs) with 

unique combinations of land use, surficial-deposit texture, 

and bedrock by overlaying digital thematic maps (p. 5) of 

these land features (Robertson and Saad, 1995). 

Not all of the 28 RHUs could be sampled; therefore, 

specific RHUs were selected for sampling on the basis of the 

major water-quality issues in the RHU. Eleven stream sites, 

called Fixed Sites, were chosen to describe the variability in 

streamflow and concentrations of nutrients, major ions, suspended sediment, and biological communities. Eight of the 

11 Fixed Sites were Indicator Sites, sites selected to represent the quality of water draining from a specific RHU. Four 

Indicator Sites were on streams representing agricultural 

RHUs, two were on streams representing forested RHUs, 

and one each was on a stream representing an urban RHU 

and a mixed agriculture and forest RHU. The remaining 

three sites were Integrator Sites, sites located near the 

mouths of major rivers, where water quality is affected by 

various combinations of land use, surficial deposits, and bedrock geology. Each of these 11 sites was sampled at least 

monthly for 2.5 years.

 Additionally, short-term synoptic studies were done to 

better define the variability in water quality throughout the 

study area. Figures on p. 24 and the table on p. 25 provide 

details of those studies.

One of the synoptic studies was conducted to determine 

if monitoring results from the Indicator Fixed Sites were representative of specific RHUs and the basin as a whole. The 

Indicator Fixed Site data were compared to results from a 

study of 83 sites throughout the basin. Results of that study, 

conducted during base-flow conditions, indicate that the 

Indicator Fixed Sites provide a fair representation of specific 

RHUs and the entire basin.

Fixed site (RHU) Area

(mi2)

Land use 

(percent)

Surficial deposit 

(percent) Bedrock

Duck Cr. (Ag1) 95 Agriculture (89) Clay (76) Carbonates

Pensaukee R. (Ag2) 36 Agriculture (86) Loam (99) Carbonates

N. Br. Milwaukee R.

 (Ag3)

51 Agriculture (88) Sand (89) Carbonates

East R. (Ag23) 47 Agriculture (92) Clay (95) Shale

Tomorrow R. (AF20) 44 Agriculture (58)/

Forest (31)

Sand (39)/

Sand & Gravel (61)

Igneous/

Metamorphic

Peshekee R. (F16) 49 Forest (98) Loam (100) Igneous/

Metamorphic

Popple R (F22) 139 Forest (90) Sand (24)/

Sand & Gravel (76)

Igneous/

Metamorphic

Lincoln Cr. (U9) 10 Urban (100) Clay (100) Carbonates

Menominee R. 3,901 Integrator Integrator Integrator

Fox R. 6,035 Integrator Integrator Integrator

Milwaukee R. 688 Integrator Integrator Integrator

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

Indicator Fixed Site data are representative of

the specific RHUs they were selected to

represent (Robertson, 1998).

Water quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages is

affected by natural and anthropogenic factors.

Fixed Sites in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages.

Indicator Fixed Site

RHU

Mixed area

Integrator Fixed Site

EXPLANATION

Abbreviations

Ag

F

AF

U

Agriculture

Forest

Agriculture/

Forest

Urban

F19

Milwaukee R.

Fox R.

Menominee R.

Green Bay

Lake Michigan

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

44°

43°

45°

46°

89°

88°

87°

F18

F19

F16

F22

F7

AF12

F7

F

14

F17

AF12

F21 Ag24

AF20 Ag15 Ag2

F19

U9

U10

Ag2

Ag28

Ag27

Ag25

23

U9

U11 AF26

Ag1

U9

F8

F

14

Ag

AF5

F6

F13

Ag3

Ag1 Ag4 

Ag3

Ag3

U9
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 7

Ground water studies were also designed to look at the 

effects of land use, surficial deposit texture, and bedrock 

geology on water-quality variability. Ground water from the 

Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer, the most-used drinking-water 

aquifer in the study area, and from shallow aquifers associated with agricultural land use and two different surficial 

deposits were sampled to indicate this variability.

Understanding hydrologic and climatic conditions is 

important for interpreting water-quality data. During wetweather periods, runoff can carry materials into the stream 

from the land, and concentrations of nutrients, pesticides, 

and sediment can increase above those at normal streamflow. 

Periods of excessive precipitation can cause ground-water 

levels to rise, contributing a larger ground-water component 

to streamflow and causing changes in streamwater 

chemistry. During dry periods, point-source discharges to

streams may degrade stream-water quality. The seasonal timing of precipitation can also affect stream-water quality. For 

example, precipitation causing runoff early in the growing 

season, before crops come up and after pesticides and fertilizers have been applied, can produce significant potential for 

water contamination.

The average precipitation in the Wisconsin part of the 

study area during all of 1993 was about 39 inches, or 122 

percent of the 30-year statewide average. Annual runoff in 

1993 ranged from 240 to 280 percent of normal in the southern part of the study area. Precipitation in the study area 

measured about 31 inches during 1994 and about 29 inches 

during 1995. Annual runoff was near normal during both 

years.

Public suppliers provide about 371 million gallons of water

per day (Mgal/d), of which 69 Mgal/d is from ground-water

sources. Rural domestic users obtain about 21 Mgal/d, of

which 13 Mgal/d is from ground-water sources. Lakes

Michigan and Winnebago provide most of the surface-water

supply (Horn, written communication, 1997).

Extensive flooding occurred in the study area in the spring of

1993. These photos of the North Branch of the Milwaukee River

were taken from near the same location (note location of bridge

abutment) during normal flows in 1995 and during the spring

1993 floodflows.

Annual discharge measured at the Milwaukee River in 1993

was the fourth largest recorded since the start of

measurement (historical streamflow data covers the period

of record from 1914–96).

Water use in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

Precipitation varies seasonally with 60 percent occurring

between May and September (Peters, 1997). The 1993 growing

season was much wetter than normal and was the wettest period

during the 3-year investigation. PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES, AT STEVENS POINT, WIS.

AVERAGE PRECIPITATION (1961-90), 

IN INCHES, AT STEVENS POINT, WIS.

FMA MJ JA SOND J FMAM J JA SOND J FMAM J J ASON

1993 1994 1995

10

8

6

4

2

0

10

8

6

4

2

0 J D

12 12

Long-term average precipitation, 1961-90 

Monthly precipitation during study

10,000

10

100

1,000

1994

DISCHARGE,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

Milwaukee River at Milwaukee, Wis.

1993 1995

AMJ J ASOND J FMAMJ J ASOND J FMAMJ J AS

Discharge

Middle 60 percent of historical streamflow

5,000

4,500

4,000

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 (580) (1,991)

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

WATER WITHDRAWALS

ESTIMATED WATER WITHDRAWALS IN 1990,

IN MILLIONS OF GALLONS PER DAY

Total

Public supply

Domestic supply

Commercial

Industrial and mining

Irrigation and livestock

Thermoelectric

Ground water

Surface water

Populations served,

in thousands (1,991)
8 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95 DISSOLVED SOLIDS, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Surface water, forested land use

Surface water, agricultural land use

Ground water, shallow alluvial aquifer

Ground water,drinking water aquifer, unconfined

Ground water, drinking

water aquifer, confined

10

10,000

20

50

100

200

500

1,000

2,000

5,000

(100)(175) (19) (10) (58)

SMCL = 500

(15) (9) (5) (3) (8)

ERM

SEL

LEL

ERL

ARSENIC AND SELENIUM CONCENTRATIONS,

IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM DRY WEIGHT 

MAJOR LAND USE

0.2

0.5

1

2

5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1,000

Agriculture/

Forest

Urban

Integrator

Forest

Agriculture

0.1

(Arsenic

levels only)

Arsenic

Selenium

Many naturally occurring chemicals 

are present in streams and ground 

water. It is important for water and 

land managers to understand the natural water chemistry in order to assess 

the effects of human activities on water 

quality. 

Dissolved constituents in rivers and 

ground water include the major cations 

(calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium), major anions (bicarbonate, 

chloride, and sulfate), nutrients, trace 

elements (including iron and manganese), and radionuclides (uranium, 

radium, and radon).

The most common ions in most 

waters in the study area are calcium, 

magnesium, and bicarbonate. These 

ions provide many of the dissolved 

solids in study-area waters. Median

dissolved-solids concentrations in surface waters range from about 50 milligrams per liter (mg/L) in forested parts 

of the study area to about 500 mg/L in 

agricultural basins. Median concentrations of dissolved solids in ground 

water range from about 250 mg/L in 

shallow alluvial aquifers to more than 

2,500 mg/L in the drinking-water aquifer where it is confined by the Sinnipee 

confining layer (Richards and others, 

in press; Saad, 1996 and 1997).

Concentrations of dissolved solids 

exceeded the USEPA secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) of 500 

mg/L in 22 percent of surficial aquifer 

wells and 17 percent of deep drinking 

water wells sampled (Saad, 1996 and 

1997).

Concentrations of arsenic and selenium in streambed sediment are variable in the study area. Median arsenic 

concentrations are highest in the forested land use area and are correlated 

with the igneous/metamorphic bedrock. Arsenic concentrations exceeded 

the concentrations that 95 percent of 

the benthic biota can tolerate, the Lowest Effect Level (LEL), at 48 percent of 

sites sampled.

The chemical composition of natural

water is primarily derived from the

dissolution of minerals in surficial

deposits and bedrock.

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Levels of Some Naturally Occurring Chemicals Have the Potential to Affect Human 

Health and Aquatic Life

Runoff in agricultural areas may

contribute significant suspended

solids to stream water, resulting in

streams with a muddy appearance.

Forested land use was related to high concentrations of arsenic and selenium in

streambed sediment (Scudder and others, 1997). The igneous/metamorphic bedrock

and sand and gravel surficial deposits that are found in most of the forested areas may

be a source for these elements in the study area. Ontario Ministry of Environment and

Energy values (Persaud and others, 1993) are shown for the Lowest Effect Level (LEL)

and Severe Effect Level (SEL). Sediment effect criteria from Ingersoll and others (1996)

for Effects Range Low (ERL) and Effects Range Median (ERM) are for arsenic only.

Dissolved solids concentrations are

variable in the study area. Highest

concentrations are found in the confined

part of the drinking water aquifer, which

may increase treatment costs. SMCL is

secondary maximum contaminant level.

EXPLANATION

(35) Number of

observations

Median

75th percentile

25th percentile

Highest value

Lowest value
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 9

Concentrations of iron in ground 

water varied from near zero to 23,000 

micrograms per liter (μg/L). Concentrations of dissolved iron exceeded the 

USEPA SMCL of 0.3 mg/L in 38 percent of samples collected from drinking-water wells and 10 percent of 

shallow alluvial wells (Saad, 1996 and 

1997). The source of the iron in the 

drinking water aquifer is probably the 

minerals in the Cambrian/Ordovician 

aquifer geologic material. The source 

of iron in the shallow alluvial aquifers 

may be the minerals in the alluvial 

materials derived from the igneous and 

metamorphic bedrock or possibly from 

supplemental iron that is in some fertilizers.

Radon, which can cause lung cancer, is a radioactive, odorless, and 

chemically inert gas that occurs naturally in the air, soil, and ground water. 

Radon is a decay product of radium, 

which in turn is a decay product of uranium. Rocks break down mechanically 

and chemically to form sediments thatcontain various amounts of uranium, 

depending on the source rocks.

Radon in ground 

water affects radon 

concentrations in 

indoor air in homes 

because it escapes to 

the indoor air as people 

use water. Open waterdistribution systems 

allow ground water to 

aerate and radon to 

escape. In small, 

closed water-distribution systems with short 

transit times, radon 

cannot escape from the 

system; therefore it 

escapes into the indoor 

air. Research suggests 

that ingestion of water 

with high radon concentrations also may 

pose risks, although 

these risks are believed 

to be much lower than 

those from inhalation 

of radon.

Until late 1996, the 

USEPA had proposed 

an MCL of 300 

picocuries per 

liter (pCi/L) for radon in drinking 

water. However, this proposed maximum contaminant level (MCL) was 

withdrawn by USEPA for further evaluation; thus, no proposed MCL currently exists. Radon concentrations 

measured during this study were larger 

than the previously proposed MCL in 

66 percent of the drinking-water aquifer wells (Saad, 1996).

Radon concentrations greater than 

300 pCi/L were detected in a variety of 

geohydrologic environments throughout most of the study area, with the 

exception of the southwest (Saad, 

1996). Elevated radon concentrations 

do not appear to be related to a particular geologic formation or land use.

Radon, a known carcinogen, exceeds the previously

proposed USEPA standard of 300 picocuries per liter in many

deep wells.

The three cancer risks greater than radon are all factors that can be controlled

through life-style changes. This figure accounts for all exposures to radon,

not only radon in water (not all factors are shown). Source: American Institute

for Cancer Research (1992).

Dissolved iron concentrations are

variable in the study area. SMCL is

secondary maximum contaminant level.

44°

89°

45°

88°

46°

87°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Drinkingwater

aquifer

survey

Radon, in

picocuries per liter

Aquifer regionally unconfined 

Aquifer regionally confined 

Aquifer not present

Water

EXPLANATION

130 – 299

300 – 599

600 – 899

900 – 1400

Diet

Tobacco

Occupation

Radon

Pollution

Medical X-Rays

35

30

4

2–3

2

0.5

PERCENTAGES OF CANCER DEATHS

ATTRIBUTED TO VARIOUS FACTORS

DISSOLVED IRON,

IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

Surface water, igneous and metamorphic bedrock

Surface water, carbonate bedrock

Ground water, shallow alluvial aquifer

Ground water, drinking water aquifer, unconfined

Ground water, drinking

water aquifer, confined

100

100,000

200

500

1,000

2,000

5,000

10,000

20,000

50,000

(134)(167) (19) (10) (58)

50

20

10

5

2

1

SMCL =

300

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Levels of Some Naturally Occurring Chemicals Have the Potential to Affect Human

Health and Aquatic Life
10 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Animal manure is spread on farm fields,

typically in the fall or winter months, as a

fertilizer. Improper or excess application

can result in runoff to streams or

infiltration to ground water. The advent of

“precision farming” methods will allow

application of fertilizers to specific parts of

fields based on need, and may lead to

reduced inputs.

Applications of phosphorus and 

nitrogen to croplands, urban lawns, 

and golf courses, in the form of commercial fertilizers and(or) animal 

manure, are common in the study area. 

In drinking water, concentrations of 

nitrate in excess of 10 mg/L can cause 

methemoglobinemia or “blue-baby 

syndrome” which can be fatal to 

infants.

Phosphorus is naturally 

occurring and present in many 

clay soils in the study area. 

Man supplements this naturally occurring phosphorus 

with total annual inputs to the 

study area of 34 thousand tons 

(6.8 pounds per acre).

Phosphorus concentrations 

at the 11 Fixed Sites were primarily related to land use and 

secondarily related to clayey 

surficial deposits in the basin. 

Median phosphorus concentrations exceeded the USEPA 

suggested maximum total 

phosphorus concentration for 

flowing water of 0.1 mg/L 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986) in 57 percent of samples collected at 

the four agricultural sites 

(Richards and others, 1998). 

Nitrate was detected in all 

412 stream-water samples 

collected during the study. 

Concentrations in 66 percent 

of all stream samples and 92 

percent of samples from agricultural sites were high 

enough to contribute to algal 

blooms (0.3 mg/L).

Median nitrate concentrations at the four agricultural 

sites and the mixed agriculture and forested sites were 

slightly higher than at the 

urban site and considerably 

higher than at the forested 

sites. Nitrate concentrations at 

the agricultural East River site 

exceeded the USEPA MCL 

(10 mg/L) during three storms 

in 1994 and 1995. Median 

nitrate concentrations in river 

water from Lincoln Creek, the 

urban site, were similar to the 

national average concentration (Smith and others, 1993) 

in urban areas and are probably elevated relative to forested land use areas due to the 

use of fertilizers on lawns and 

gardens.

Nutrients are essential for aquatic plants;

however, in high concentrations they can

cause eutrophication, leading to

nuisance algal blooms. Algal blooms can

be detrimental to fish and other aquatic

organisms.

Phosphorus concentrations in stream water at

agricultural sites were considerably higher than at

urban and forested sites during base flow conditions.

(RHU labels correspond to the RHU figure on p. 6.)

More than 96 percent of the total

anthropogenic phosphorus input to the

study area is in the form of commercial

fertilizers and livestock manures. Point

sources such as sewage-treatment plants

contribute only about 1.2 percent of the

total input (Robertson, 1996a).

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Fertilizers and Livestock Wastes Increase Nutrients in Streams and Ground Water

Median nitrate concentrations, during base-flow

conditions, at two of the agricultural sites and the

mixed agriculture and forested sites were twice the

national average concentration for agricultural

areas (Smith and others, 1993). (RHU labels

correspond to the RHU figure on p. 6.)

Atmosphere (2.2%)

Point sources (1.2%)

Manure (41.7%)

Commercial

fertilizers (54%)

Sources of 

Phosphorus Inputs 

TOTAL PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION,

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Agriculture Ag/

Forest Forest Urban

Ag1

Ag23

Ag2

Ag3

AF20

F16

F22

U9

MCL = 0.1

(35) (28) (25) (35) (29) (20) (21) (21)

0.002

2.0

0.005

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.5

1.0

(35) (27) (25) (35) (29) (20) (21) (21)

0.02

0.01

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.5

1.0

2.0

5.0

10.0

DISSOLVED NITRITE PLUS NITRATE,

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Agriculture Ag/

Forest Forest Urban

Ag1

Ag23

Ag2

Ag3

AF20

F16

F22

U9
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 11

AMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JAS

1993 1994 1995

0.01

10,000

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

STREAMFLOW,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

0

8

2

4

6

NITRATE, 

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Duck Creek at Seminary Road near Oneida, Wis. 10

Streamflow 100,000

Routine sample

Storm sample

AMJ J ASONDJFMAMJ J ASONDJFMAMJ J AS

1993 1994 1995

0.01

10,000

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

STREAMFLOW,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

0

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

TOTAL PHOSPHORUS,

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Duck Creek at Seminary Road near Oneida, Wis. 1.0

Streamflow 100,000

Routine sample

Storm sample

45°

44°30'

89°30'

44°

89°30' 89°

88°30'

43°30'

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Less than 0.05

0.05–1.9

2.0–9.9

Greater than 10

Dissolved nitrate as N, 

in milligrams per liter

Land-use study area 1

Land-use study area 2

AREA 2

AREA 1

SHAWANO

WAUPACA

LANGLADE

MARATHON

PORTAGE

WAUSHARA

MARQUETTE

ADAMS

COLUMBIA

FOND

D U

LAC SHEBOYGAN

MANITOWOC

CALUMET

OZAUKEE

WASHINGTON

GREEN

LAKE

WINNEBAGO

Lake Michigan

MICHIGAN

WISCONSIN

Area detailed below

Nutrient concentrations vary seasonally in streams throughout the 

study area. The highest concentrations 

occur during stormwater runoff. At 

two agricultural streams in the study 

area, more phosphorus was carried 

during storms in June 1993 than during 

the next 24 months combined. Highest 

phosphorus concentrations during 

periods when storm runoff is absent 

(base flow) generally occur during the 

growing season (March to August), 

and the lowest concentrations occur 

during the winter (January and February). Highest nitrate concentrations 

during base-flow periods generally 

occur during the winter months. This 

may be due to the seasonal change in 

contributions from ground-water discharge to streams or to the seasonal 

cycle of algae growth in streams.

Nitrate was detected in all 76 

ground-water samples collected. Concentrations of nitrate exceeded the 

USEPA MCL of 10 mg/L in 9 percent 

of samples from the drinking-water 

aquifer and in 22 percent of samples 

from the surficial alluvial aquifers.

In general, ground water 

had higher concentrations of 

nitrate in areas of agriculture or mixed agriculture 

and forested land use than in 

urbanized and forested 

watersheds. Ground water 

from the surficial alluvial 

aquifer generally had higher 

concentrations of nitrate 

than that from wells in the 

Cambrian-Ordovician 

drinking-water aquifer 

(Saad, 1996 and 1997). 

Concentrations of nitrate in 

the drinking water aquifer 

were highest in areas where 

the Sinnipee confining unit 

is not present. Ground water 

in areas where the surficial 

deposits were sand and 

gravel had higher nitrate 

concentrations than in areas 

where the surficial deposits 

were sand and clay glacial 

till (Saad, 1996).

The highest nutrient concentrations occurred during periods

of precipitation runoff.

More than 20,000 samples from more

than 500 stream sites and nearly 1,000

samples from about 800 wells in the

study area were analyzed by various

agencies for nutrients between 1970 and

1991 (Robertson and Saad, 1996; Saad

1994). Retrospective analysis of these

data indicated that agricultural land use

was the primary factor affecting the distribution of nutrient concentrations.

Phosphorus concentrations decreased

significantly in surface water downstream from urban areas during the

1970s because of the reduction of phosphorus in detergents and improvements

in sewage-treatment facilities.

Water samples from 22 percent of shallow alluvial wells

sampled in agricultural land-use areas exceeded the

USEPA maximum contaminant level for nitrate as

nitrogen of 10 mg/L. Nitrate concentrations were higher

in land use area 2 where surficial deposits were more

permeable (Saad, 1997). Typically, these shallow wells

are not drinking-water sources. 

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Fertilizers and Livestock Wastes Increase Nutrients in Streams and Ground Water
12 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

2,4-D

Acetochlor

Alachlor

Benfluralin

Bentazon

Butylate

Cyanazine

DCPA

Diazinon

EPTC

Diuron

Metolachlor

Metribuzin

Pebulate

Pendimethalin

Prometon

Propachlor

Simazine

Tebuthiuron

PERCENTAGE OF SAMPLES

Terbacil

Triclopyr

Trifluralin

WITH DETECTIONS 0

50

100

Atrazine

25

75

Dichlobenil

Diethylaniline

Thiobencarb

Triallate

Row crops;

corn and beans

Turfgrass, pasture,

and specialty crops

0

.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Miscellaneous uses

USE OF PESTICIDE IN WISCONSIN,

IN MILLION POUNDS OF

ACTIVE INGREDIENT PER YEAR

Deethylatrazine

No information on

pesticide use 

Surface-water detection

Ground-water detection

Pesticide use

Fifteen pesticides were detected in 

ground water and 33 in surface water 

(Sullivan and Richards, 1996; Saad, 

1996 and 1997). Most of the pesticides 

detected in surface water and ground 

water are herbicides used on corn, soy 

beans, small grains, and hay. However, 

there are a number of herbicides and 

insecticides, more commonly used on 

lawns and for specialty crops, that 

have been detected as well. The use of 

specific pesticides fluctuates over time 

as new pesticides are developed or as 

more information is ascertained 

regarding health effects and persistence. 

Drinking-water standards (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 

1996) were exceeded in only 11 of 143 

surface-water samples. However, there 

are established standards for only 

about 20 percent of the 88 pesticides 

that were analyzed for as part of this 

study. There is no clear evidence that 

currently used pesticides 

are adversely effecting 

aquatic or human health; 

but at the same time, 

potential effects of longterm human and environmental exposure to both 

individual pesticides and 

to complex mixtures of 

pesticides and their degradation products are 

unknown (Goodbred and 

others, 1997; Girvin, 

1996). The continuing 

presence of the once widely 

used insecticide DDT and 

its degradation products 

such as DDE, despite the 

ban on DDT use that was

imposed in the early 1970s, demonstrates the persistence of certain toxic 

chemicals in the environment. Therefore, continued study of the types and 

amounts of pesticides in streams and 

ground water, coupled with the latest 

information on effects of pesticides on 

aquatic or human health, is in order.

Concentrations of pesticides were 

100 times higher in intensively farmed 

(row crop) areas of the study area than 

in nonagricultural areas or in less 

intensively farmed areas where grazing, hay production, and less herbicide-intensive crops are raised.

Pesticide concentration in streams 

show a seasonal pattern (Sullivan and 

Richards, 1996). The highest pesticide 

concentrations typically occur during 

the first several periods of runoff following the application of pesticides.

Numerous pesticides have been 

detected in precipitation in the study 

area (Majewski and Capel, 1995). 

Atrazine concentrations in precipitation in the study area are typically 

about 0.2 μg/L (Goolsby and others, 

1994). The presence of atrazine in 

stream water from the two forested 

Indicator Sites at concentrations less 

than 0.005 μg/Lis probably due to 

atmospheric deposition.

Atrazine, the herbicide most commonly used on corn in the study area (Gianessi and Puffer, 1991) was detected in all

of the stream samples and in more than half of the ground-water samples (Sullivan and Richards, 1996; Saad, 1996

and 1997). The herbicides simazine, metolachlor, cyanazine, prometon, and alachlor were detected in more than onehalf of the stream samples.

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Various Factors Control Pesticide Occurrence in Streams and Ground Water

Approximately 1,100 tons of pesticide

active ingredient are applied to

agricultural land in the study area

each year.

Pesticide concentrations are highest

during storms that occur soon after the

herbicide application period. Pesticide

concentrations exceeded USEPA MCLs

on several occasions during these

runoff periods.

Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept

1994

STREAMFLOW,

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

CONCENTRATION,

IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

Approximate period of

herbicide application

Duck Creek near Oneida, Wis.

Atrazine

MCL = 3.0

0

3,000

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

0.001

0.005

0.01

0.05

0.1

0.5

1

5

10

EXPLANATION

Streamflow

Cyanazine

Metolachlor

Atrazine
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 13

Pesticides applied at the land 

surface can be carried through the 

soil and subsoil to ground water 

with infiltrating rainfall. Pesticides were detected most 

frequently and in highest concentrations in ground water samples 

from shallow wells in intensively 

cultivated agricultural areas 

underlain by relatively permeable

surficial deposits (Saad, 1997).

Pesticides were also 

detected in deeper groundwater aquifers that are used as 

drinking-water supplies. 

Pesticides detected in the 

deep ground water are generally from areas where the 

aquifer is not covered by the 

relatively impermeable Sinnipee confining unit (Saad, 

1996).

Between 1983 and 1995, a total of 32,064 pesticide

analyses were done on samples from 4,155 wells in the

study area (Matzen and Saad, 1996). In 29 percent of the

sampled wells, at least one pesticide was detected.

Atrazine and its degradation products exceeded the

Wisconsin preventive action limit (PAL) of 0.3 microgram

per liter in about 10 percent of all wells sampled.

Thousands of potential pesticide degradation products

exist and these compounds are rarely included in

laboratory analyses for pesticides. Therefore, it is likely

that pesticide and degradation product occurrences in

both surface and ground water have been, and currently

are, underestimated in the study area and across the

Nation. 

Pesticides were detected in seven drinking-water

aquifer wells. Most of the detections were in wells in

agricultural areas where the aquifer is not covered

by the Sinnipee confining unit (Saad, 1996).

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Various Factors Control Pesticide Occurrence in Streams and Ground Water

89°

88°

87°

46°

45°

44°

43°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Location of wells

where pesticides

were:

detected

not detected

EXPLANATION

Atrazine concentrations in shallow ground water were

highest in areas with the most permeable surficial

deposits. The shallow ground water targeted by these

agricultural land use studies is seldom used for a

drinking-water source.

44°

89°

45°

88°

46°

87°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Drinkingwater

aquifer

Aquifer regionally unconfined 

Aquifer regionally confined 

Aquifer not present

Lake

EXPLANATION

Pesticide or metabolite

not detected

Pesticide or metabolite

detected

Milwaukee

Green Bay

0

0

25 50 MILES

25 50 KILOMETERS

Sand and clay

surficial deposits

Surficial deposit/

bedrock description

Sand and gravel

surficial deposits

EXPLANATION

Atrazine plus

deethylatrazine,

in micrograms

per liter

< Detection limit

> Detection limit

and < 0.30 

0.30 – 3.0

> 3.0

89°

88°

87°

45°

44°

43°
14 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95 CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM

0

4

1

2

3

Duck Cr.

Lincoln Cr.

Menominee R.

Fox R.

Milwaukee R.

Ag1 U9 FI UI UI

Total PCBs

in fish tissue

(wet weight)

Total PCBs

in sediment

(dry weight)

CHLOROPHYLL a,

IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

PARTICULATE PCB,

IN NANOGRAMS PER LITER50

0

40

30

20

10

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Milwaukee River at

Hayton

Thiensville

Pioneer Road

Estabrook

Concentrations of PCBs are 10 times higher

in streambed sediments and biotic tissues at

urban Integrator sites (Scudder and others,

1997) than in smaller urban, agricultural or

forested land use areas. RHU labels

correspond to the RHU figure on p. 6, “I”

represents large-river (Integrator) sites.

Industrial activities in urban areas of 

the study area have introduced contaminants into surface water and 

stream-bed sediments. Parts of the 

Menominee, Fox, Sheboygan, and 

Milwaukee Rivers have been designated “areas of concern” (AOCs) by 

the International Joint Commission, 

which represents U.S. and Canadian 

environmental and resource interests 

in the Great Lakes Region (International Joint Commission, 1989). Water, 

sediment, and biota in these four 

AOCs have been found to contain a 

wide array of inorganic and synthetic 

organic compounds (Wisconsin 

Department of Natural Resources, 

1978 and 1993; Sullivan and Delfino, 

1982). The severity of contamination 

in the AOCs has restricted the use of 

water for human and animal consumption and has limited the recreational 

uses. 

Concentrations of chemicals in the 

aquatic environment are of concern 

whenever and wherever organisms, 

including humans, may be at risk. One 

way to assess this risk is to measure 

the amount of contaminants biologically available to organisms, known as 

bioavailability. Measuring concentrations of contaminants in streambed 

sediments and in biotic tissues can provide information on the bioavailability 

of contaminants in sediments to particular organisms.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 

a set of 209 related chlorinated organic 

compounds, had various industrial 

uses in the study area such as in 

hydraulic fluids, cutting oils, sealants, 

and pesticides. Despite a manufacturing ban in the mid-1970s, PCBs continue to be of concern because of their 

persistent toxicity to organisms. 

PCBs are a listed contaminant in all of 

the designated AOCs. 

Data collected during the bed-sediment and tissue studies in the study 

area indicate that PCB concentrations 

in the Lower Fox River and in the Milwaukee River may be linked to algal 

productivity. Highest particulate PCB 

concentrations were measured during 

the algae-rich summer months. Incorporation of PCBs into algae (Swackhamer and Skoglund, 1993) provides a 

pathway for these compounds to move 

from contaminated river sediments 

into other organisms, including fish 

and humans.

The relation between algae measured as chlorophyll-a and PCBs

indicates that algal growth, sedimentation, and sediment

resuspension may be important processes controlling the fate of

PCBs in rivers (Fitzgerald and Steuer, 1996).

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Urban Areas are a Source of Trace Elements and Organic Compounds

The industrialized lower Fox River Valley

supports one of the largest

concentrations of paper mills in the world.

Contaminants attached to sediments can be transported from the land

surface to surface water systems. The contaminants can enter the food

chain and lead to bioaccumulation in larger species.

1. Contaminants

are washed

into stream

with sediment.

2. Bottom-feeding fish and

aquatic invertebrates

bioaccumulate contaminants.

3. Predator species of fish

and fish-eating wildlife

consume prey that

have taken up

contaminants.

Figure source: Bruce Lindsey, USGS
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 15

0

0.12

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

CONCENTRATION,

IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM

Total DDT in

fish tissue

Total DDT in

sediment

Total chlordane

in fish tissue

Total chlordane

in sediment

Chlordane

analyzed for,

but not detected

Ag1 Ag3 AF20 U9 I I

Duck Cr.

Tomorrow R.

Lincoln Cr.

Menominee R.

Fox R.

Milwaukee R.

FI

N. Br. Milwaukee R.

Acute exposure (short term, high 

concentration) to certain trace elements can kill organisms, whereas 

chronic exposure (long term, low concentration) can result in mortality or 

nonlethal effects, such as stunted 

growth, reduced reproductive success, 

or deformities. 

Concentrations of cadmium, copper, 

mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc were 

significantly higher in fine river sediments from large-river and urban sites

than in other areas (Scudder and others, 1997). Trace elements and synthetic organic compound 

concentrations in sediment and fish tissue exceeded aquatic-life criteria at 

some sites.

Semivolatile organic compounds 

(SVOCs) were analyzed for in streambed sediments. Eighty percent of the 

SVOCs analyzed for in the study area 

were detected in at least one sample. 

Two classes of SVOCs (polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, and 

phthalates) were detected more frequently and in higher concentrations at 

urban-affected sites (Scudder and others, 1997).

Concentrations of many toxic synthetic organic compounds

were elevated in streambed sediments and tissues from

urban and large-river sites relative to other land uses. (RHU

labels refer to RHU figure on p. 6; “I” represents large-river

(Integrator) sites.

Trace-element concentrations in streambed sediment.

Trace 

element

Number of 

samples

OMEE

LEL

SEC

ERL

OMEE

SEL

SEC

ERM

Arsenic 40 18 12 1 1

Cadmium 41 25 19 0 2

Chromium 42 42 38 3 1

Copper 42 30 9 3 0

Mercury 42 8 -- 2 --

Nickel 42 25 16 0 0

Lead 42 12 10 1 5

Zinc 42 17 17 1 3

Trace-element concentrations in fine (less than 63 micrometers) streambed

sediment exceeded guidelines for bulk sediment in many samples. Comparisons

of trace-element concentrations in fine sediment to bulk sediment guidelines may

overestimate potential effects on biota. A number of observations from the

Western Lake Michigan Drainages equaled or exceeded published guidelines for

trace-element concentrations in sediment.

[Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy values (Persaud and others, 1993) are for

the Lowest Effect Level (OMEE LEL) and Severe Effect Level (OMEE SEL). The

sediment effect criteria (SEC) are from Ingersoll and others (1996) for Effects Range

Low (SEC ERL) and Effects Range Median (SEC ERM); --, no guidelines.]

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Urban Areas are a Source of Trace Elements and Organic Compounds

Median concentrations of lead and mercury in

streambed sediment exceeded the “lowest

effect level” at urban and large river sites (see

table at right). Lead is a known urban

contaminant whose historical source is

probably gasoline (Callender and Van Metre,

1997). LEAD CONCENTRATION IN SEDIMENT,

SEL

ERM

ERL

LEL

IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM, DRY WEIGHT

MAJOR LAND USE

Forest

Agriculture

Agriculture/Forest

Lincoln Cr.

Integrator

2

5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1,000
16 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Green Bay

Lake

Michigan

44°

45°

46°

89°

88°

87°

43°

0

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

25 50 MILES

Hibbards Creek

Casco Creek

Little Scarboro Creek

Krok Creek

Tisch Mills Creek

Mullet River

Watercress

Creek

Nichols Creek

East Br.

Milwaukee River

Pine River

Willow Creek

Mecan River

Chaffee

Creek

Lawrence

Creek

Neenah

Creek

Camp Creek

Whitcomb

Creek

Silver Creek

Smith Creek

West Branch

Red River

Indicator Fixed Site

Benchmark Stream Site

Surface-water sampling site

EXPLANATION

AF20

AF26

Ag1

Ag3

AF20

AF26

Ag3

Ag1

RHU (see p.#6)

Stream ecology can be affected by a 

wide variety of human and natural factors. Sampling stream habitat and 

communities of fish, benthic invertebrates, and algae provides a unique 

assessment of the overall health of 

streams. Relating these findings to 

information about the natural and 

human features found in the sampled 

basins can provide important information for management of land and water 

resources.

Nearly 500 biological studies conducted in the study area between 1891 

and 1996 were identified that relate to 

water-quality conditions. Most of these 

studies focused on populations and 

community structure of aquatic biota 

in streams thought to be degraded as a 

result of human activity (Scudder and 

others, 1996).

Indexes of biotic integrity were calculated for each of the four ecological 

components for 28 streams in the study 

area. These biotic indexes were developed to provide an indication of water 

quality based on the ecological component sampled. Results of the calculated 

indexes for the Indicator and benchmark sites were compared to land use, 

surficial deposit, and bedrock information in each basin to determine the 

influence of these environmental factors on aquatic life in the basin.

The number of each type of fish species

present in streams provides an indication

of stream-water quality. Twenty-one of the

28 streams sampled were classified as

coldwater trout streams (Sullivan, 1997;

Sullivan and Peterson, 1997).

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Environmental Setting and Land Use Influence Aquatic Life

Twenty benchmark streams in a predominantly agricultural part of the study area

were selected for detailed ecological studies (Rheaume, Stewart, and Lenz, 1996).

These studies were also done at the eight Indicator Fixed Sites (Sullivan and others,

1995). The ecological studies conducted at the 28 sites were designed to study the

effects of environmental setting on aquatic life. The studies conducted at the 20

benchmark stream sites were also designed to define aquatic life conditions in lessdegraded watersheds located in primarily agricultural areas.
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 17

In general, there was good 

agreement between individual ecological component 

scores. At only one of the 20 

benchmark streams did results 

vary by more than one quality 

category. At four of the eight 

Indicator Fixed Sites scores 

varied by two quality categories.

Overall water quality at the 

benchmark streams, as indicated by the four ecological 

component scores, varied little within each of the four 

RHUs sampled. Biotic 

indexes indicated that water 

quality at the benchmark 

streams in RHU 26 were of 

slightly higher quality than 

benchmark streams in RHU 3. 

Benchmark streams in RHU 

26 had nearly twice as much 

forested land in their basins 

than did RHU 3 streams.

Water quality, as indicated 

by biotic indexes, varied considerably between Indicator 

Fixed Sites. The urban site 

had the worst water quality 

and the forested sites the best 

water quality. At the agricultural Indicator Fixed Sites, 

water quality varied considerably. Scores were nearly as 

low as the urban site where 

percent agriculture in the 

basin was highest; and scores 

were as high as the forested 

sites where agricultural land

use percentage was lowest.

Lowest overall scores were

from basins with clay surficial

deposits. There was no 

apparent correlation between

biotic indexes and bedrock

type or drainage basin area.

Caddisfly larvae are generally found where habitat and water

quality conditions are good. Additional discussion of habitat

conditions and invertebrate communities in the study area can be

found in Fitzpatrick and Giddings, 1997; Fitzpatrick, Peterson and

Stewart, 1996; and Rheaume, Lenz, and Scudder, 1996.

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Environmental Setting and Land Use Influence Aquatic Life

Biological indexes for habitat (Great Lakes Environmental Assessment, GLEAS; Michigan

Department of Natural Resources, 1991), algae (Index of Biological Integrity, IBI; Bahls, 1993),

benthic invertebrates (Hilsenhoff Biotic Indexes, HBI and FBI; Hilsenhoff, 1987), and fish (Index

of Biological Integrity, IBI; Lyons, 1992 and Lyons and others, 1996) indicate the water quality of

streams in the study area. Total score determined by assigning point values for each quality

score as shown in parentheses. Abbreviations: Ag, agriculture; F, forest; W, wetland;

Scores: Excellent (4); Good (3); Fair (2); Poor (1); Very Poor (0)

Peshekee River

Popple River

Pensaukee River

Duck Creek

Tomorrow River

East River

N. Br. Milwaukee R.

Lincoln Creek

Tisch Mills Creek

Krok Creek

Little Scarboro Creek

Casco Creek

Hibbards Creek

E. Br. Milwaukee R.

Nichols Creek

Mullet River

Watercress Creek

Whitcomb Creek

W. Br. Red River

Silver Creek

Smith Creek

Camp Creek 

Lawrence Creek 

Neenah Creek

Chaffee Creek

Mecan River

Willow Creek

Pine River

Habitat Fish

InvertAlgae ebrates

Area

(mi ) 2 RHU Land use (percent)

Total

River name score

Ecological Component

Indicator Fixed Sites Benchmark Streams

49

139

36

95

44

47

51

10

16

78

1

15

16

53

5

46

12

8

37

16

2

5

8

25

9

29

16

21

16

22

2

1

20

23

3

9

1

1

1

1

1

3

20

26

26

26

26

26

26

3

3

3

20

20

20

20

F (98)

F (90)

Ag (86)

Ag (89)

Ag (58)/F (39)

Ag (92)

Ag (88)

U (100)

Ag (81)/W (11)

Ag (61)/W (36)

Ag (94)

Ag (89)/F (7)

Ag (73)/F (14)

Ag (56)/F (32)

Ag (81)/F (19)

Ag (72)/F (15)

Ag (66)/F (31)

F (63)/Ag (30)

F (52)/Ag (38)

F (45)/Ag (35)/W (19)

F (60)/W (35)

F (54)/W (28)/Ag (18)

Ag (49)/F (46)

Ag (58)/F (38)

Ag (44)/F(26)/W (17) 

Ag (59)/F (40)

F (52)/Ag (41)

Ag (58)/F (42)

13

12

11

10

13

7

13

6

13

11

13

12

11

13

10

10

11

14

16

11

13

15

13

14

12

13

14

11
18 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Green Bay

Lake

Michigan

45°

44°

43°

0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN

North Branch

Milwaukee River

Silver Creek

Mecan

River

Neenah

Creek

Duck Creek

Milwaukee

River

Study area

enlarged

above

Manitowoc River

Wolf

River

Water-chemistry site

Biological site

Sampling sites

Aquatic-biology method comparisons were done at six sites

and water-chemistry method comparisons at three sites in the

study area.

Control of water pollution became a 

major environmental priority during 

the last three decades, and in response, 

water-quality monitoring has expanded 

rapidly. Today, Federal, State and local 

water-resource management agencies 

make a considerable investment in the 

collection of water-quality information. A wide variety of procedures are 

used to collect this information, often 

depending upon the objectives of the 

collection effort. A lack of information 

regarding the quality and comparability of the data collected can result in 

duplicated sampling efforts or the 

underutilization of available waterquality information.

To address these concerns, studies 

were done to determine the comparability of water-chemistry and aquaticinvertebrate data collected by different 

methods in Wisconsin (Lenz and 

Miller, 1996; Wisconsin Department 

of Natural Resources and U.S. Geological Survey, 1994).

These studies were coordinated with 

the Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources (WDNR), U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and a volunteer group, 

Water Action Volunteers (WAV), in 

conjunction with the Wisconsin Water 

Resources Coordination Project, a 

pilot program implementing the recommendations of the Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water 

Quality (ITFM).

During 1993 and 

1994, a study was 

done to compare 

water-chemistry 

results obtained 

using methods of 

the USGS and the 

WDNR (Wisconsin 

Department of Natural Resources and 

U.S. Geological 

Survey, 1994). 

Water-chemistry 

samples were collected four times, 

twice during base 

flow conditions and 

twice during storm 

runoff conditions, at 

three streams of various size that were 

chosen to represent stream variability 

in the study area. Duplicate samples 

were collected at each location using 

each collection, processing, and preservation method for analyses at both 

the USGS National Water-Quality 

Laboratory and the Wisconsin State 

Laboratory of Hygiene.

Total phosphorus, dissolved chloride, and suspended solids (sediment) 

were the water-chemistry parameters 

studied. Total phosphorus was chosen 

as an indicator constituent for nutrient 

concentrations, and dissolved chloride 

was chosen as an indicator for dissolved major ion concentrations. 

Dissolved chloride in samples collected using the two agencies’ methods 

were similar during both high- and 

low-flow conditions. Results indicated 

that concentrations of total suspended 

solids and suspended sediment concentrations were significantly higher 

for samples collected by the equalwidth increment (EWI) sample method 

than using the grab sample method

during high-flow conditions. Surprisingly, total phosphorus concentrations 

also were similar for each collection 

method and flow condition. It had been 

anticipated that total phosphorus 

would more closely mimic the suspended solids (sediment) results during high-flow conditions. There were 

significant differences between laboratories for analyses of concentrations of 

total phosphorus and dissolved chloride.

In general, laboratory analytical differences were more important than 

sample-collection-method differences. 

Samples collected for phosphorus and 

chloride by the two methods were 

comparable when analyzed by the 

same laboratory.

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Are Biological and Water-Quality Data Collected by Different Methods Comparable?

Results of USGS/WDNR water-chemistry methods comparison

Method tested Total phosphorus Dissolved chloride

Suspended

sediment (SS)/

total suspended

solids (TSS)

Differences between 

field-sampling 

methods

No difference No difference Concentrations of 

both SS and TSS 

were significantly 

higher in EWI 

samples

Within fieldsampling method 

variability

No difference No difference SS concentrations 

more variable than 

TSS

Differences between 

field-processing 

methods

No difference No difference No difference

Differences between 

laboratories

USGS concentrations 

significantly lower

USGS concentrations 

significantly lower

Not applicable
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 19

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Silver Cr.

Neenah Cr.

Mecan R.

N. Br. Milwaukee R.

Milwaukee R.

Duck Cr.

U.S. Geological Survey

Wis. Dept. of Natural Resources

U.S. Forest Service

NUMBER OF TAXA COLLECTED

Aquatic-macroinvertebrate 

sampling methods used by the 

USGS, WDNR, and the USFS at 

riffle areas of streams were compared at six streams of various 

sizes in the study area. A volunteer 

group, WAV, performed an in-field 

invertebrate water-quality rating at 

one of the streams.

Results of the study indicated 

that differences in field-collection 

methods resulted in assessments of 

different habitats and the collection of different total numbers and 

proportions of individual species, 

indicating that field-collection 

methods need to be considered 

when comparing macroinvertebrate data among agencies (Lenz 

and Miller, 1996). However, the 

sampling methods resulted in similar water-quality ratings using the 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI) a 

common benthic invertebrate environmental-tolerance measure.

In another study, USGS and 

WDNR data bases describing 

benthic macroinvertebrate communities in streams in the study 

area were paired with waterchemistry data to determine 

whether the data bases predicted 

water-quality conditions similarly. On the basis of the limited 

paired data available, the two 

data bases were shown to predict 

water-quality similarly using 

HBI (Lenz, 1997). However, 

results also indicated that benthic 

invertebrate data collected at different seasons should not be 

combined when using the data 

for water-quality assessments.

Different invertebrate sampling techniques resulted in

different numbers of species collected.

Federal and State agencies work together to provide

more comparable aquatic biology results.

 The Intergovernmental Task Force On Monitoring Water Quality (ITFM), was a national program designed to 

coordinate monitoring programs; define efficient roles for Federal, State, and local agencies; evaluate diverse 

descriptions of aquatic conditions and trends; and to develop a national water-information network (Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality, 1994). The National Water-Quality Assessment Monitoring 

Council was established in May 1997 as the permanent successor to the ITFM.

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI) of environmental tolerance

results from the three agencies and a volunteer group

predicted water quality similarly.

MAJOR ISSUES AND FINDINGS

Are Biological and Water-Quality Data Collected by Different Methods Comparable?

 The Intergovernmental Task Force On Monitoring Water Quality (ITFM) was a national program designed to 

coordinate monitoring programs; define efficient roles for Federal, State, and local agencies; evaluate diverse 

descriptions of aquatic conditions and trends; and develop a national water-information network (Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality, 1994). The National Water-Quality Assessment Monitoring 

Council was established in May 1997 as the permanent successor to the ITFM.

Silver Cr.

Neenah Cr.

Mecan R.

N. Br. Milwaukee R.

Milwaukee R.

Duck Cr.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

excellent very 

good

good fair fairly

poor

very

poor

poor

USGS–NAWQA upstream riffle

USGS–NAWQA downstream riffle

WDNR riffle replicates

USFS riffle sample

HILSENHOFF BIOTIC INDEX VALUE

WATER-QUALITY RATING

WAV water quality invertebrate rating
20 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Greater than the 75th percentile

(among the highest 25 percent nationally)

Between the median and the 75th percentile

Between the 25th percentile and the median

Less than the 25th percentile

(among the lowest 25 percent nationally)

Ranking relative to national conditions–

Darker colored circles generally indicate

poorer quality. Bold outline of circle 

indicates one or more aquatic-life criteria

were exceeded.

EXPLANATION

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Seven major water-quality characteristics were evaluated for stream sites in each 

NAWQA Study Unit. Summary scores for each characteristic were computed for all 

sites that had adequate data. Scores for each site in the Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages were compared with scores for all sites sampled in the 20 NAWQA Study 

Units during 1992–95. Results are summarized by percentiles; higher percentile 

values generally indicate poorer quality compared with other NAWQA sites. Waterquality conditions at each site also are compared to established criteria for 

protection of aquatic life. Applicable criteria are limited to nutrients and pesticides 

in water and semivolatile organic compounds, organochlorine pesticides, and PCBs 

in sediment. (Methods used to compute rankings and evaluate aquatic-life criteria 

are described by Gilliom and others, in press.)

Nutrient concentrations in the 

study area were principally 

related to land use of the 

drainage basin. Relative to 

other Study Units nationally, 

low, moderate, and high 

nutrient levels were found in 

forested, urban, and 

agricultural basins, 

respectively. One agricultural 

site exceeded drinking-water 

standards during periods of 

stormwater runoff. Fertilizer 

and manure application to 

croplands is the major 

anthropogenic source of 

nutrients; however, point 

sources and atmospheric 

deposition also contribute to 

nutrient loading.

Atrazine was detected at all 

nine fixed sites where 

samples were analyzed for 

pesticides. However, 

concentrations were 

generally low, especially at 

sites draining basins with a 

low percentage of 

agricultural land use. At the 

three sites where sufficient 

data exist for comparison, 

pesticide concentrations 

were at or below the median 

national NAWQA 

concentration.

NUTRIENTS in water

PESTICIDES in water

ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES and PCBs 

in bed sediment and biological tissue

WATER-QUALITY CONDITIONS IN A NATIONAL CONTEXT

Comparison of Stream Quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

with Nationwide NAWQA Findings

Concentrations of PCBs and

organochlorine compounds in three 

streams that drain urban areas were 

among the highest of all NAWQA 

Study Unit sites nationally. The 

three urban sites also exceeded 

aquatic-life criteria; PCB 

concentrations in fish have been 

high enough to prompt bans on fish 

consumption for the protection of 

human health. A metabolite of the 

persistent compound DDT 

(p,p’-DDE) is also commonly 

detected at urban sites. 

Concentrations at agricultural sites 

were moderately high, whereas 

those in forested basins were low 

compared to other national 

NAWQA sites. 
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 21

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

CONCLUSIONS

In the Western Lake Michigan Drainages, compared to other NAWQA Study Units:

• Nutrient and pesticide concentrations are

elevated in agricultural basins.

• Sites draining urban areas have elevated

concentrations of trace elements, SVOCs,

and PCBs. 

• Northern forested basins have relatively

good surface-water quality; however, trace

element concentrations are slightly

elevated and fish community quality is

moderate.

Rivers in urban settings had some 

of the highest concentrations of 

SVOCs of all NAWQA sites 

nationwide. Three urban sites, the 

lower Fox and Milwaukee Rivers 

and Lincoln Creek, had 

concentrations of SVOCs that 

exceeded aquatic-life criteria. 

Forested and agricultural sites 

had low to moderate 

concentrations of SVOCs 

compared to sites nationwide.

Assessment of fish community 

degradation was based on several 

factors, including presence of 

non-native and pollutant-tolerant 

species, and percentage of 

diseased fish. Most sites within 

the study area have relatively 

high quality fish communities 

compared to the NAWQA sites in 

the rest of the Nation. However, 

Lincoln Creek, an urban site, had 

highly degraded fish community 

quality compared to other 

NAWQA sites.

Some of the highest traceelement concentrations at 

NAWQA sites nationally were 

from the lower Fox and 

Milwaukee Rivers, major rivers 

in urban settings. Concentrations 

of arsenic, selenium, and mercury 

in forested basins in the study 

area were near the median of all 

NAWQA sites nationwide. Sites 

dominated by agricultural land 

use typically had low levels of 

trace elements compared to other 

NAWQA sites nationwide.

TRACE ELEMENTS in bed sediment

FISH COMMUNITY DEGRADATION

SEMIVOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

 in bed sediment

Degradation of stream 

habitat was based on 

several factors such as 

bank erosion, stream 

modification, and the 

stability and density of 

bank vegetation. The 

degree of stream-habitat 

degradation within the 

Study Unit depended on 

stream size and land use. 

Sites on streams draining 

agricultural or urbanized 

landscapes were degraded 

compared to NAWQA 

sites nationwide.

WATER-QUALITY CONDITIONS IN A NATIONAL CONTEXT

Comparison of Stream Quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

with Nationwide NAWQA Findings

Escanaba R

Fox R

Wolf R

Green Bay

Milwaukee

STREAM HABITAT DEGRADATION
22 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Greater than the 75th percentile

(among the highest 25 percent nationally)

Between the median and the 75th percentile

Between the 25th percentile and the median

Less than the 25th percentile

(among the lowest 25 percent nationally)

Ranking relative to national conditions–

Darker colored circles generally indicate 

poorer quality. Bold outline of circle 

indicates one or more drinking-water 

standards or criteria were exceeded.

EXPLANATION

Aquifer unit (drinking water)

Cambrian–Ordovician aquifer, west

of Maquoketa Shale

Land-use studies (shallow ground water)

Corn and alfalfa in glacial till

Corn and alfalfa in sand and gravel 

Five major water-quality characteristics were evaluated for ground-water studies in each 

NAWQA Study Unit. Ground-water resources were divided into two categories:

(1) drinking-water aquifers and (2) shallow ground water underlying agricultural or 

urban areas. Summary scores were computed for each characteristic for all aquifers and 

shallow ground-water areas that had adequate data. Scores for each aquifer and shallow 

ground-water area in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages were compared with scores 

for all aquifers and shallow ground-water areas sampled in the 20 NAWQA Study Units 

during 1992–95. Results are summarized by percentiles; higher percentile values 

generally indicate poorer quality compared with other NAWQA ground-water studies. 

Water-quality conditions for each drinking-water aquifer also are compared to 

established drinking-water standards and criteria for protection of human health. 

(Methods used to compute rankings and evaluate standards and criteria are described by 

Gilliom and others, in press.)

Nitrate concentrations in the shallowaquifer area underlain by sand and 

gravel are some of the highest among 

the NAWQA sites nationwide, 

probably because highly permeable 

surficial deposits allow agriculturally 

derived nutrients to infiltrate to the 

ground water. The CambrianOrdovician drinking-water aquifer and 

the shallow aquifer overlain by glacial 

till both had low concentrations of 

nitrates compared to other national 

NAWQA data. All three areas had a 

few samples in which nitrate 

concentrations exceeded the drinkingwater standard, a common occurrence 

in the Midwest farm belt. 

Radon levels for the CambrianOrdovician aquifer ranked relatively 

high among the national NAWQA 

sites. A natural product of the decay of 

uranium, radon is a radioactive gas that 

was detected in all samples collected 

from the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer. 

Two-thirds of the samples exceeded a 

previously proposed maximum 

contaminant level of 300 picocuries per 

liter, although few samples in the 

southwestern part of the aquifer had 

high concentrations. The lack of data 

restricts the ability to speculate about 

the presence of radon in the shallow 

aquifers.

RADON

NITRATE

WATER-QUALITY CONDITIONS IN A NATIONAL CONTEXT

Comparison of Ground-Water Quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

with Nationwide NAWQA Findings

Milwaukee

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Green Bay
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 23

There was only one VOC 

(Trihalomethanes) detected 

in the Study Unit, and VOC 

concentrations at the two 

wells where detected were 

low. None of the samples 

tested above drinking-water 

standards. Industrial byproducts and some pesticides 

are potential sources of 

VOCs in ground water.

DISSOLVED SOLIDS

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

PESTICIDES

CONCLUSIONS

In the Western Lake Michigan Drainages, compared to other NAWQA Study Units:

• Nitrate and pesticide concentrations in

shallow wells in agricultural areas were

elevated; in areas with permeable surficial

deposits, they were among the highest in

the Nation. 

• Drinking-water standards were exceeded

in a few samples in each of the three

ground-water study areas for nitrates and

dissolved solids.

• Radon was elevated above the previously

proposed maximum contaminant level in

the drinking-water aquifer where it was

sampled for.

• Land use is the primary influence on

ground-water quality, whereas surficial

deposits overlying an aquifer have a

secondary influence. The confining unit

overlying parts of the Cambrian-Ordovician

aquifer provides some protection of the

drinking water from the effects of human

activities.

WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS IN A NATIONAL CONTEXT

Comparison of Ground-Water Quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

with Nationwide NAWQA Findings

Concentrations of dissolved 

solids were relatively high 

compared to those in other 

Study Units. A few samples 

from each aquifer had 

concentrations of dissolved 

solids that exceeded the 

secondary maximum 

contaminant level. However, 

the shallow aquifers are 

seldom used as a drinkingwater source. The area 

overlain by glacial till had 

among the highest 

concentrations of dissolved 

solids compared to other 

NAWQA sites nationally.

Pesticide detections in the 

Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer 

were similar to the median 

value from NAWQA sites; 

however, pesticide 

concentrations were high in 

both land-use study areas 

compared to aquifers in other 

Study Units. None of the 

ground-water samples 

exceeded drinking- water 

standards for pesticides; 

however, maximum 

contaminant levels (MCLs) 

have been established for only 

a small percentage of the 

pesticides detected.

Milwaukee

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Green Bay

Milwaukee

Green Bay
24 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

0

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

25 50 MILES

EXPLANATION

Northern Lakes

and Forests

North Central

Hardwood

Forests

Southeastern

Wisconsin

Till Plains

Central Corn

Belt Plains

Intensiveassessment site

Synoptic site

Ecoregions

Stream ecology

sites

0

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

25 50 MILES

Ground-water/

surface-water

interaction site

ITFM waterquality site

ITFM invertebrate

site

Special study

sites

EXPLANATION

0

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

25 50 MILES

Silurian–Devonian

aquifer

Sinnipee

confining unit

Cambrian–

Ordovician aquifer

Crystalline rocks

Bedrock aquifers and

confining units

Flow-path location

Drinking-water

aquifer survey

Ground–water chemistry sites 

Land-use survey

(sand and clay,

shallow ground water)

Land-use survey

(sand and gravel,

shallow ground water)

Water

EXPLANATION

Intensive ecological assessments were done at the 11 Fixed 

Sites to define existing biological 

conditions to which future monitoring results will be compared 

and to assess temporal variations. 

Synoptic studies were designed to 

evaluate the spatial distribution of 

aquatic biological community 

structure.

To evaluate the effects of agricultural 

land use and surficial deposits on shallow ground-water quality, one aquifer 

overlain by sand and clay and the other 

by sand and gravel were studied. A 

drinking-water aquifer survey assessed 

the water-quality in the most heavily 

used aquifer in the Study Unit. A study 

in an agricultural area was designed to 

determine changes in nutrient and pesticide concentrations along shallow 

ground-water flow paths.

STREAM CHEMISTRY

STREAM ECOLOGY

GROUND-WATER CHEMISTRY

SPECIAL STUDIES

Additional studies provided important information on the water resources of the study 

area. The interaction between ground water and surface water was investigated using 

water-chemistry data. A comparison of water-quality sample collection, preservation, 

shipping, and laboratory techniques of the USGS and the Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources (WDNR) were studied to determine comparability of water-chemistry 

results. Differences in macroinvertebrate-collection techniques of three agencies were 

investigated to evaluate comparability of results.

Fixed Sites were established to examine differences in stream-water quality due to the 

environmental setting (land use, surficial deposits, and bedrock type) of the study area. 

Intensive Fixed Sites were sampled more frequently to determine seasonal variability in 

water quality and to test for 88 pesticides. Synoptic studies focused on sampling high 

and low flows to characterize concentration and spatial distribution of nutrients, 

pesticides, sediment, and other water-quality characteristics. Streambed sediments, 

aquatic insects, and fish tissue were analyzed for trace elements and organic compounds.

STUDY DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

0

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

25 50 MILES

Stream-chemistry

sites

Fixed Sites

Intensive Fixed

Sites

Synoptic sites

Streambed

sediment sites

Aquatic biota

tissue sites

Urban

Agriculture

Forest

Water

Generalized

land use

Mixed

EXPLANATION
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 25

SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTION IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES STUDY UNIT, 1992–95

Study

component What data were collected and why Types of sites sampled Number of sites

Sampling frequency 

and period

Stream Chemistry

Fixed Sites

-- general water 

chemistry

Streamflow was measured continuously and samples were 

collected monthly for major ions, nutrients, organic carbon, suspended sediment, and physical properties to 

describe concentration, seasonal variability, and loads.

Streams draining basins ranging in size 

from 10 to 6,332 square miles and representing forested, agricultural, urban, and 

mixed land uses.

11 Monthly plus storms; 

April 1993-July 1995

Intensive Fixed 

Sites

-- pesticides

In addition to the above constituents, samples were analyzed for 88 dissolved pesticides to describe concentration and seasonal variations.

A subset of Fixed Sites draining agricultural and urban land-use areas.3 Monthly during growing 

season; 

20 per year, 1993-94

Synoptic sites

-- water

chemistry

Streamflow, nutrients, pesticides, suspended sediments, and 

physical properties were determined for high- and(or) 

low-flow conditions to describe concentrations and 

spatial distributions.

Streams draining basins ranging in size 

from 2 to 6,332 square miles and representing forested, agricultural, urban, and 

mixed land uses.

145 total

42 high flow

59 low flow

95 low flow

Spring and summer 1994,

summer 1994

July 1995

Contaminants

-- streambed

sediments

Streambed sediments were analyzed for trace elements and 

hydrophobic pesticides and other organic compounds to 

determine occurrence and spatial distribution.

Depositional zones at all Fixed Sites and 

numerous synoptic sites.

31 6-9 Fixed Sites in 1992(6), 

1994(8), 1995(9);

7-12 synoptic sites in 

1992(12), 1995(7)

Contaminants

-- aquatic biota

Trace elements in fish livers and organic compounds in 

whole insects and whole fish were sampled and analyzed 

to determine occurrence and spatial distribution.

All Fixed Sites and some synoptic sites. 25 4-8 Fixed Sites in 1992(4), 

1994(8), 1995(7);

6-7 synoptic sites in 

1992(7), 1995(6)

Stream Ecology

Intensive

assessments

Fish, benthic invertebrates, algae, and aquatic and riparian 

habitats were sampled and described to assess aquatic 

biological community structure in different land uses and 

associated habitats.

Stream reaches collocated with Fixed Sites. 

Sites represent the variety of land uses, 

bedrock geology, and surficial texture 

within the basin.

11 8 Indicator Sites annually, 

1993-95; three reaches 

sampled at 3 sites;

3 Integrator Sites, 1995 

Synoptic studies Fish, benthic invertebrates, algae, and aquatic and riparian 

habitats were described to assess spatial distribution of 

aquatic biological community structure of relatively pristine streams in an agricultural setting.

Benchmark stream reaches chosen to represent relatively pristine conditions in 

agricultural areas. Comparison sites 

determine variability within RHUs.

34 20 Benchmark sites, once 

in spring/summer 1993 

and 1995; 12 RHU Comparison sites, 1993

Ground-Water Chemistry

Land-use effects

-- sand and clay 

-- shallow 

ground water

Major ions, nutrients, pesticides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), tritium, dissolved organic carbon 

(DOC), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, and uranium were sampled and analyzed 

for to determine effects of agriculture on the quality of 

recently recharged ground water in the alluvial aquifer.

Newly installed monitoring wells completed at water table located using a 

statistically random selection process. 

Predominantly agricultural land use 

(80%): corn and alfalfa are the main 

crops.

26 wells, 2 

springs

Once in September 1993 

and summer 1994

Land-use effects

-- sand and 

gravel

-- shallow 

ground water

Major ions, nutrients, pesticides, VOCs, tritium, DOC, 

CFCs, and isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, and uranium 

were sampled and analyzed for to determine effects of 

agriculture on the quality of recently recharged ground 

water in the alluvial aquifer.

Sites with monitoring wells completed at 

water table chosen using a statistically 

random selection process. Predominantly agricultural land use (48%): corn 

and alfalfa are the main crops.

30 Once in September 1994

Drinking-water 

survey

-- sandstone

Major ions, nutrients, pesticides, VOCs, radon, tritium, and 

DOC were sampled and analyzed for to assess the condition of ground-water quality in the most used aquifer in 

the study area (40% of ground-water use).

Existing domestic, institutional, or public 

supply wells completed in bedrock 

(<900 ft.) chosen using a statistically 

random selection process.

29 Once in June and August 

1995

Flow path Major ions, nutrients, pesticides, tritium, DOC, CFCs and 

isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen and gas composition were sampled and analyzed to determine 

changes in nutrients and pesticides along a flow path.

Clusters of wells, lysimeters, and minipiezometers along an approximate line of a 

ground-water flow path (2,500 ft) in an 

agricultural area in Sheboygan County.

10 wells,

8 lysimeters,

8 minipiezometers, stream

1-3 times each in June 

1994, May 1995, and 

August 1995

Special Studies

Ground-water/

surface-water 

interactions

Major ions, nutrients, pesticides, and oxygen and hydrogen 

isotopes were analyzed to study ground-water/surfacewater interaction in the vicinity of the flowpath study 

area.

Tributaries to North Branch Milwaukee 

River and shallow ground- water samples from three cross sections from the 

North Branch Milwaukee River.

10 tributaries,

12 minipiezometers

Once in August 1993

ITFM

--water quality

Total phosphorus, dissolved chloride, and suspended sediment were determined to compare water-quality collection, preservation, shipping, and laboratory techniques 

used by the USGS and WDNR.

Rivers under low-flow and high-flow conditions.3 August 1993-July 1994; 4 

times each (2 low flow and 

2 high flow)

ITFM

--Benthic 

invertebrates

Benthic-invertebrate community structure in riffles was 

assessed to determine if various sampling methods predict water quality similarly.

Streams ranging in drainage area from 15 

to 696 square miles, from cold to warm 

water, draining different land uses.

6 Once in May 1995

STUDY DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages
26 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Herbicide

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/L

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000

The following tables summarize data collected for NAWQA studies from 1992–1995 by showing results for the We

Michigan Drainages Study Unit compared to the NAWQA national range for each compound detected. The data were coll

wide variety of places and times. In order to represent the wide concentration ranges observed among Study Units, logarit

are used to emphasize the general magnitude of concentrations (such as 10, 100, or 1,000), rather than the precise number

plete dataset used to construct these tables is available upon request.

Concentrations of herbicides, insecticides, volatile organic compounds, and nutrients detected in ground and surface water

Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit. [mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; pCi/L, picocuries per l

percent; <, less than; - -, not measured; trade names may vary]

EXPLANATION

Range of surface-water detections in all 20 Study Units

Detection in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit

Range of ground-water detections in all 20 Study Units

Drinking-water standard or guideline a

Freshwater-chronic criterion for the protection of aquatic life a

Herbicide

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/L

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 

Metribuzin (Lexone,

Sencor)

9%

0%

Pebulate (Tillam) <1%

0%

Pendimethalin

(Prowl, Stomp)

5%

0%

Prometon (Gesagram, prometone)

46%

4%

Propachlor (Ramrod,

propachlore)

<1%

0%

Simazine (Aquazine,

Princep, GEsatop)

82%

4%

Tebuthiuron (Spike,

Perflan)

5%

1%

Terbacilc (Sinbar) 1%

0%

Triallate (Far-Go) 0%

<1%

Triclopyr (Garlon,

Grazon, Crossbow)

1%

0%

Trifluralin (Treflan,

Trinin, Elancolan)

<1%

0%

Insecticide

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/L

Carbarylc (Sevin,

Savit)

7%

0%

Carbofuranc

(Furadan, Curaterr)

6%

1%

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS

Acetochlor 27%

0%

Alachlor (Lasso) 46%

1%

2,6-Diethylaniline

(Alachlor metabolite)

0%

<1%

Atrazine (AAtrex,

Gesaprim)

99%

34%

Desethylatrazinec

(Atrazine metabolite)

92%

47%

Benfluralin (Balan,

Benefin, Bonalan)

<1%

0%

Bentazon (Basagran,

bentazone)

4%

0%

Butylate (Sutan,

Genate Plus, butilate)

1%

0%

Cyanazine (Bladex,

Fortrol)

76%

1%

2,4-D (2,4-PA) 4%

0%

DCPA (Dacthal, chlorthal-dimethyl)

<1%

<1%

Dacthal, mono-acid

(Dacthal metabolite)

1%

0%

Dicamba (Banvel,

Mediben, MDBA)

1%

0%

Diuron (Karmex,

Direx, DCMU)

3%

0%

EPTC (Eptam) 34%

0%

Metolachlor (Dual,

Pennant)

65%

3%
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1

Chlorpyrifos (Dursban, Lorsban)

1%

0%

p,p’-DDE (p,p’-DDT

metabolite)

<1%

<1%

Diazinon 5%

0%

Dieldrin (Panoram D31, Octalox)

1%

0%

Fonofos (Dyfonate) 5%

0%

gamma-HCH 1%

0%

Malathion (maldison,

malathon, Cythion)

2%

0%

Methyl parathion

(Penncap-M)

<1%

0%

Phorate (Thimet,

Rampart)

2%

0%

Propargite (Comite,

Omite, BPPS)

<1%

0%

Volatile organic

compound

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/L

total Trihalomethanes --

2%

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000

Dissolved ammonia 92%

86%

Dissolved ammonia

plus organic nitrogen

as nitrogen

95%

45%

Dissolved phosphorus as phosphorus

80%

48%

Dissolved nitrite plus

nitrate

86%

56%

Other Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in pCi/L

Radon 222 --

100%

1 10 100 1,000 

Nutrient

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in mg/L

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 

Insecticide

(Trade or common

name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/L

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENT
28 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Herbicides, insecticides, volatile organic compounds, and nutrients not detected in ground and surface waters of the Weste

Michigan Drainages Study Unit.

Herbicides

2,4,5-T

2,4,5-TP (Silvex, Fenoprop)

2,4-DB (Butyrac, Butoxone, Embutox Plus, Embutone)

Acifluorfen (Blazer, Tackle

2S)

Bromacil (Hyvar X, Urox

B, Bromax)

Bromoxynil (Buctril, Brominal)

Chloramben (Amiben,

Amilon-WP, Vegiben)

Clopyralid (Stinger, Lontrel, Reclaim, Transline)

Dichlorprop (2,4-DP, Seritox 50, Kildip, Lentemul)

Dinoseb (Dinosebe)

Ethalfluralin (Sonalan, Curbit)

Fenuron (Fenulon, Fenidim)

Fluometuron (Flo-Met,

Cotoran, Cottonex, Meturon)

Linuron (Lorox, Linex, Sarclex, Linurex, Afalon)

MCPA (Rhomene, Rhonox,

Chiptox)

MCPB (Thistrol)

Molinate (Ordram)

Napropamide (Devrinol)

Neburon (Neburea, Neburyl, Noruben)

Norflurazon (Evital, Predict, Solicam, Zorial)

Oryzalin (Surflan, Dirimal)

Picloram (Grazon, Tordon)

Pronamide (Kerb, Propyzamid)

Propanil (Stam, Stampede,

Wham, Surcopur, Prop-Job)

Propham (Tuberite)

Thiobencarb (Bolero, Saturn, Benthiocarb, Abolish)

Insecticides

3-Hydroxycarbofuran (Carbofuran metabolite)

Aldicarb sulfone (Standak,

aldoxycarb, aldicarb metabolite)

Aldicarb sulfoxide (Aldicarb metabolite)

Aldicarb (Temik, Ambush,

Pounce)

Azinphos-methyl (Guthion,

Gusathion M)

Disulfoton (Disyston, DiSyston, Frumin AL,

Solvirex, Ethylthiodemeton)

Ethoprop (Mocap, Ethoprophos)

alpha-HCH (alpha-BHC,

alpha-lindane, alphahexachlorocyclohexane,

alpha-benzene hexachloride)

Methiocarb (Slug-Geta,

Grandslam, Mesurol)

Methomyl (Lanox, Lannate, Acinate)

Oxamyl (Vydate L, Pratt)

Parathion (Roethyl-P, Alkron, Panthion, Phoskil)

cis-Permethrin (Ambush,

Astro, Pounce, Pramex, Pertox, Ambushfog, Kafil, Perthrine, Picket, Picket G,

Dragnet, Talcord, Outflank,

Stockade, Eksmin, Coopex,

Peregin, Stomoxin, Stomoxin P, Qamlin, Corsair,

Tornade)

Propoxur (Baygon, Blattanex, Unden, Proprotox)

Terbufos (Contraven,

Counter, Pilarfox)

Volatile organic

compounds

1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane

(1,1,1,2-TeCA)

1,1,1-Trichloroethane

(Methylchloroform)

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (Freon 113,

CFC 113)

1,1,2-Trichloroethane

(Vinyl trichloride)

1,1-Dichloroethane (Ethylidene dichloride)

1,1-Dichloroethene

(Vinylidene chloride)

1,1-Dichloropropene

1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene

(1,2,3-TCB)

1,2,3-Trichloropropane

(Allyl trichloride)

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene

(Pseudocumene)

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP, Nemagon)

1,2-Dibromoethane (EDB,

Ethylene dibromide)

1,2-Dichlorobenzene (oDichlorobenzene, 1,2-

DCB)

1,2-Dichloroethane (Ethylene dichloride)

1,2-Dichloropropane (Propylene dichloride)

1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene

(Mesitylene)

1,3-Dichlorobenzene (mDichlorobenzene)

1,3-Dichloropropane (Trimethylene dichloride)

1,4-Dichlorobenzene (pDichlorobenzene, 1,4-

DCB)

1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene (o-Chlorotoluene)

1-Chloro-4-methylbenzene (p-Chlorotoluene)

2,2-Dichloropropane

Benzene

Bromobenzene (Phenyl

bromide)

Bromochloromethane

(Methylene chlorobromide)

Bromomethane (Methyl

bromide)

Chlorobenzene

(Monochlorobenzene)

Chloroethane (Ethyl chloride)

Chloroethene (Vinyl chloride)

Chloromethane (Methyl

chloride)

Dibromomethane (Methylene dibromide)

Dichlorodifluoromethane

(CFC 12, Freon 12)

Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride)

Dimethylbenzenes

(Xylenes (total))

Ethenylbenzene (Styrene)

Ethylbenzene (Phenylethane)

Hexachlorobutadiene

Isopropylbenzene

(Cumene)

Methyl tert-butyl etherd

(MTBE)

Methylbenzene (Toluene)

Naphthalene

Tetrachloroethene (Perchloroethene)

Tetrachlorom

bon tetrachlo

Trichloroeth

Trichlorofluo

(CFC 11, Fre

cis-1,2-Dich

((Z)-1,2-Dic

cis-1,3-Dich

((Z)-1,3-Dic

n-Butylbenz

nylbutane)

n-Propylben

umene)

p-Isopropylt

Cymene)

sec-Butylben

tert-Butylbe

trans-1,2-Di

((E)-1,2-Dic

trans-1,3-Di

((E)-1,3-Dic

Nutrients

No non-dete

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

--

4%

1,2-Dichlorobenzene --

17%

1,2-Dimethylnaphthalene

--

33%

1,4-Dichlorobenzene --

21%

1,6-Dimethylnaphthalene

--

42%

1-Methyl-9H-fluorene --

25%

1-Methylphenanthrene

--

38%

1-Methylpyrene --

38%

2,2-Biquinoline --

4%

2,3,6-Trimethylnaphthalene

--

38%

2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene

--

62%

2,6-Dinitrotoluene --

4%

2-Ethylnaphthalene --

29%

2-Methylanthracene --

29%

4,5-Methylenephenanthrene

--

29%

4-Chloro-3-methylphenol

--

4%

9H-Carbazole --

33%

Concentrations of semivolatile organic compounds, organochlorine compounds, and trace elements detected in fish tissue 

sediment of the Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit. [μg/g, micrograms per gram; μg/kg, micrograms per kilogram

<, less than; - -, not measured; trade names may vary]

EXPLANATION

Range of detections in fish tissue in all 20 Study Units

Detection in bed sediment in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit

Range of detections in bed sediment in all 20 Study Units

Guideline for the protection of aquatic life e

Detection in fish tissue in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit

Semivolatile organic

compound

Rate of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/kg

0.1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1

Semivolatile organic

compound

Rate of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/kg

0.1 10 100 1,1

9H-Fluorene --

42%

Acenaphthene --

38%

Acenaphthylene --

42%

Acridine --

21%

Anthracene --

54%

Anthraquinone --

29%

Benz[ a ]anthracene --

50%

Benzo[ a ]pyrene --

50%

Benzo[ b ]fluoranthene

--

54%

Benzo[ ghi ]perylene --

46%

Benzo[ k ]fluoranthene

--

50%

Butylbenzylphthalate --

38%

C8-Alkylphenol --

13%

Chrysene --

50%

Di- n -butylphthalate --

75%

Di- n -octylphthalate --

13%

Dibenz[ a,h ]

anthracene

--

29%

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENT
30 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Dibenzothiophene --

38%

Diethylphthalate --

42%

Dimethylphthalate --

17%

Fluoranthene --

58%

Indeno[1,2,3- cd ]

pyrene

--

42%

Isoquinoline --

17%

Naphthalene --

42%

N-Nitrosodiphenylamine

--

4%

Phenanthrene --

58%

Phenanthridine --

21%

Phenol --

92%

Pyrene --

58%

Quinoline --

21%

bis(2-Ethylhexyl)phthalate

--

75%

p-Cresol --

79%

total-Chlordane 11%

8%

p,p’-DDE 61%

33%

total-DDT 61%

33%

Dieldrin (Panoram D31, Octalox)

6%

8%

Heptachlor epoxide 6%

0%

Hexachlorobenzene 6%

--

PCB, total 28%

25%

Trace element Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/g

Arsenic 33%

100%

Cadmium 33%

97%

Chromium 83%

100%

Copper 100%

97%

Lead 0%

100%

Mercury 50%

88%

Nickel 17%

100%

Selenium 100%

100%

Zinc 100%

100%

0.01 0.1 1 10 1

Semivolatile organic

compound

Rate of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/kg

0.1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1

Organochlorine

compound

(Trade name)

Rate

of

detection b

Concentration, in μg/kg

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1

Semivolatile organic compounds, organochlorine compounds, and trace elements not detected in fish tissue and bed sedim

Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit.

Semivolatile organic

compounds

1,3-Dichlorobenzene (mDichlorobenzene)

2,4-Dinitrotoluene

2-Chloronaphthalene

2-Chlorophenol

3,5-Dimethylphenol

4-Bromophenyl-phenylether

4-Chlorophenyl-phenylether

Azobenzene

Benzo [c] cinnoline

Isophorone

N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine

Nitrobenzene

Pentachloronitrobenzene

bis (2-Chloroethoxy)methane

Organochlorine

compounds

Aldrin (HHDN, Octalene)

Chloroneb (chloronebe,

Demosan, Soil Fungicide

1823)

DCPA (Dacthal, chlorthaldimethyl)

Endosulfan I (alphaEndosulfan, Thiodan,

Cyclodan, Beosit, Malix,

Thimul, Thifor)

Endrin (Endrine)

Heptachlor (Heptachlore,

Velsicol 104)

Isodrin (Isodrine, Compound 711)

Mirex (Dechlorane)

Pentachloroanisole (PCA,

pentachlorophenol metabolite)

Toxaphene (Camphechlor,

Hercules 3956)

alpha-HCH (alpha-BHC,

alpha-lindane, alphahexachlorocyclohexane,

alpha-benzene hexachloride)

beta-HCH (beta-BHC,

beta-hexachlorocyclohexane, alpha-benzene

hexachloride)

cis-Permethrin (Ambush,

Astro, Pounce, Pramex,

Pertox, Ambushfog, Kafil,

Perthrine, Picket, Picket G,

Dragnet, Talcord, Outflank,

Stockade, Eksmin,

Coopex, Peregin, Stomoxin, Stomoxin P, Qamlin, Corsair, Tornade)

delta-HCH (delta-BHC,

delta-hexachlorocyclohexane, delta-benzene

hexachloride)

gamma-HCH (Lindane,

gamma-BHC, Gammexane, Gexane, Soprocide,

gamma-benzene hexachloride, gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, gammabenzene)

o,p’-Methoxychlor

p,p’-Methoxychlor (Marlate, methoxychlore)

trans-Permethrin(Ambush,

Astro, Pounce, Pramex,

Pertox, Ambushfog, Kafil,

Perthrine, Picket, Picket G,

Dragnet, Talcord, Outflank,

Stockade, Eksmin,

Coopex, Peregin, Stomoxin, Stomoxin P, Qamlin, Corsair, Tornade)

Trace elem

No non-detec

a

 Selected water-quality standards and guidelines (Gilliom and others, in press).

b Rates of detection are based on the number of analyses and detections in the Study Unit, not on national data. Rates of detection for h

insecticides were computed by only counting detections equal to or greater than 0.01 μg/L in order to facilitate equal comparisons a

pounds, which had widely varying detection limits. For herbicides and insecticides, a detection rate of “<1%” means that all detecti

than 0.01 μg/L, or the detection rate rounds to less than 1 percent. For other compound groups, all detections were counted and minim

limits for most compounds were similar to the lower end of the national ranges shown. Method detection limits for all compounds i

are summarized in (Gilliom and others, in press).

c Detections of these compounds are reliable, but concentrations are determined with greater uncertainty than for the other compounds an

as estimated values (Zaugg and others, 1995).

d The guideline for methyl tert-butyl ether is between 20 and 40 μg/L; if the tentative cancer classification C is accepted, the lifetime he

will be 20 μg/L (Gilliom and others, in press).

e

 Selected sediment-quality guidelines (Gilliom and others, in press).

SUMMARY OF COMPOUND DETECTIONS AND CONCENT
32 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

American Institute for Cancer 

Research, 1992, Everything 

doesn’t cause cancer: Washington, D.C., 4 p.

Bahls, L.L., 1993, Periphyton bioassessment methods for Montana 

streams: Water Quality Bureau, 

Montana Department of Health 

and Environmental Sciences,

Helena, Montana, 38 p. plus 

appendixes.

Callender, E. and Van Metre, P.C., 

1997, Reservoir sediment cores 

show U.S. lead declines: Environmental Science and Technology, 

v. 31, no. 9, p. 424A-428A.

Fitzgerald, S.A., 1997, Results of quality-control sampling of water, bed 

sediment, and tissue in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages 

Study Unit of the National WaterQuality Assessment Program: 

U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 

97-4148, 24 p.

Fitzgerald, S.A., and Steuer, J.J., 1996, 

The Fox River PCB transport 

study — Stepping stone to a 

healthy Great Lakes ecosystem: 

U.S. Geological Survey Fact 

Sheet FS-116-96, 4 p.

Fitzpatrick, F.A., and Giddings, 

E.M.P., 1997, Stream habitat 

characteristics of fixed sites in the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 

1993–95: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4211-B, 58 p.

Fitzpatrick, F.A., Peterson, E.M., and 

Stewart, J.S., 1996, Habitat characteristics of benchmark streams 

in agricultural areas of eastern 

Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4038-B, 35 p.

Gianessi, L.P., and Puffer, C., 1991, 

Herbicide use in the United 

States: Quality of the Environment Division, Resources for the 

Future, Washington, D.C., 128 p.

Gilliom, R.J., Mueller, D.K., and Nowell, L.H., in press, Methods for 

comparing water-quality conditions among National WaterQuality Assessment Study Units, 

1992–95: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-589.

Girvin, K.M., 1996, Herbicide transport in surface waters and potential effects in aquatic ecosystems: 

Madison, University of Wisconsin, Master’s thesis, 160 p.

Goodbred, S.L., Gilliom, R.J., Gross, 

T.S., Denslow, N.P., Bryant, W.L., 

and Schoeb, T.R., 1997, Reconnaissance of 17Β-Estradiol, 11-

Ketotestosterone, Vitellogenin, 

and Gonad Histopathology in 

Common carp of United States 

Streams: Potential for Contaminant-Induced Endocrine Disruption: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 96-627, 47 p.

Goolsby, D.A., Thurman, E.M., Pommes, M.L., and Battaglin, W.A., 

1994, Temporal and geographic 

distribution of herbicides in precipitation in the midwest and 

northeast United States, 1990-91, 

in Weigmann, D.L., ed., New 

directions in pesticide research, 

development, management, and 

policy: Proceedings of the Fourth 

National Pesticide Conference, 

Richmond, Virginia, November 

1-3, 1993.

Hilsenhoff, W.L., 1987, An improved 

biotic index of organic stream 

pollution: Great Lakes Entomologist, v. 20, p. 31-39.

Horn, Marilee, March-May 1997, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written communication.

Ingersoll, C.G., Haverland, P.S., Branson, E.L., Canfield, T.J., Dwyer, 

F.J., Henke, C.E., Kemble, N.E., 

Mount D.R., and Fox, R.G., 1996, 

Calculations and evaluations of 

sediment effect concentration for 

the amphipod Hyalella azteca and 

the midge Chironomus riparius: 

Journal of Great Lakes Research, 

v. 22, no. 3, p. 602-623.

Influence of the natural environment was considered when

investigating water chemistry.

REFERENCES
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 33

Effects of agriculture on water quality was a focus of the

Western Lake MIchigan Drainages study.

Intergovernmental Task Force on 

Monitoring Water Quality, 1994, 

The Strategy for improving water 

quality monitoring in the United 

States – Final Report of the Intergovernmental Task Force on 

Monitoring Water Quality: U.S. 

Geological Survey, Office of 

Water Data Coordinations, 

Reston, Va, 25 p.

International Joint Commission, 1989, 

Report on Great Lakes water 

quality: Windsor, Ontario, Great 

Lakes Water Quality Branch, 

128 p.

Lenz, B.N., 1997, Feasibility of combining two aquatic invertebrate 

databases for water-quality 

assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-132-97, 4 p.

Lenz, B.N., and Miller, M.A., 1996, 

Comparison of aquatic macroinvertebrate samples collected 

using different field methods: 

U.S. Geological Survey Fact 

Sheet FS-216-96, 4 p.

Lyons, J.D., 1992, Using the Index of 

Biotic Integrity (IBI) to measure 

environmental quality in warmwater streams of Wisconsin: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service General Technical Report 

NC-149, 51 p.

Lyons, J.D., Wang, L., and Simonson, 

T.D., 1996, Development and validation of an index of biotic integrity for coldwater streams in 

Wisconsin: North American Journal of Fisheries Management,

v. 16, no. 2, p. 241-256.

Majewski, M.S., and Capel, P.D., 

1995, Pesticides in the atmosphere – Distribution, trends and 

governing factors, Volume One of 

Pesticides in the Hydrologic System: Ann Arbor Press, Inc., 

Chelsea, Mich., 214 p.

Matzen, A.M., and Saad, D.A., 1996, 

Pesticides in ground water in the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 

1983–1995: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-192-96, 4 p.

Michigan Department of Natural 

Resources, 1991, Qualitative biological and habitat survey protocols for wadeable streams and 

rivers: Michigan Department of 

Natural Resources, Surface Water 

Quality Division, Great Lakes 

and Environmental Assessment 

Section, GLEAS Procedures 51, 

40 p.

Persaud, D., Jaagumagi, R., and Hayton, A., 1993, Guidelines for the 

protection and management of 

aquatic sediment quality in 

Ontario: Ontario Ministry of 

Environment and Energy, Water 

Resources Branch, August 1993, 

27 p.

Peters, C.A., editor, 1997, Environmental setting and implications 

for water quality in the Western 

Lake Michigan Drainages: U.S. 

Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 

97-4196, 79 p.

Rheaume, S.J., Lenz, B.N., and Scudder, B.C., 1996, Benthic invertebrates of benchmark streams in 

agricultural areas of eastern Wisconsin —Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4038-C, 39 p.

Rheaume, S.J., Stewart, J.S., and Lenz, 

B.N., 1996, Environmental setting of benchmark streams in 

agricultural areas of eastern Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 96-4038-A, 50 p.

Richards, K.D., Sullivan, D.J., and 

Stewart, J.S., in press, Surfacewater quality at Fixed Sites in the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 

and the effects of natural and 

human factors, 1993–95: U.S. 

Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 

97-4208.

Robertson, D.M., 1996a, Sources and 

transport of phosphorus in the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages: U.S. Geological Survey 

Fact Sheet FS-208-96, 4 p.

REFERENCES
34 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

____, 1996b, Use of frequency-volume analyses to estimate regionalized loads of sediment, 

phosphorous, and polychlorinated 

biphenyls to Lakes Michigan and 

Superior: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4092, 47 p.

____ in press, An evaluation of the 

surface-water quality sampling 

design and the environmental factors affecting water quality in the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages during base flow: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 98-4072.

Robertson, D.M., and Saad, D.A., 

1995, Environmental factors used 

to subdivide the Western Lake 

Michigan Drainages into relatively homogeneous units for 

water-quality site selection: U.S. 

Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS220-95, 4 p.

____1996, Water-quality assessment 

of the Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages – Analysis of available information on nutrients and 

suspended sediment, Water Years 

1971–90: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4012, 165 p.

Saad, D.A., 1994, Nitrate in ground 

water in the Western Lake Michigan Drainage Basin, Wisconsin 

and Michigan: U.S. Geological 

Survey Fact Sheet FS-070-94, 

2 p.

____1996, Ground-water quality in the 

western part of the CambrianOrdovician aquifer in the Western 

Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 96-4231, 

40 p.

____1997, Effects of land use and geohydrology on the quality of shallow ground water in two 

agricultural areas in the Western 

Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 96-4292, 69 p.

Scudder, B.C., Sullivan, D.J., Fitzpatrick, F.A., and Rheaume, S.J., 

1997, Trace elements and synthetic organic compounds in biota 

and streambed sediment of the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages, 1992–1995: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 97-4192, 

34 p.

Scudder, B.C., Sullivan, D.J., 

Rheaume, S.J., Parsons, S.R., and 

Lenz, B.N., 1996, Summary of 

biological investigations relating 

to water quality in the Western 

Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 96-4263, 

89 p.

Seaber, R.R., Kapinos, F.P., and 

Knapp, G.L., 1986, Hydrologic 

unit maps: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2294, 

63 p.

Setmire, J.O., 1991, National WaterQuality Assessment Program - 

Western Lake Michigan Drainage Basin: U.S. Geological Survey Water Fact Sheet, Open-File 

Report 91-161, 2 p.

Smith, R.A., Alexander, R.B., and 

Lanfear, K.J., 1993, Stream water 

quality in the conterminous 

United States—Status and trends 

of selected indicators during the 

1980’s, in Paulson, R.W. and others, Compilers, National Water 

Summary 1990-91: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 

2400, p. 111-140.

Sullivan, D.J., 1997, Fish communities 

of Fixed Sites in the Western 

Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 1993–95: 

U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 

95-4211-C, 23 p.

Sullivan, D.J., and Peterson, E.M., 

1997, Fish communities of benchmark streams in agricultural areas 

of eastern Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 96-4038-D, 

23 p.

Atrazine, an herbicide commonly used on corn, has been detected in

surface water, ground water and precipitation in the study area.

REFERENCES
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 35

Sullivan, D.J., Peterson, E.M., and 

Richards, K.D., 1995, Environmental Setting of Fixed Sites in 

the Western Lake Michigan 

Drainages, Michigan and Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 95-4211-A, 30 p.

Sullivan, D.J., and Richards, K.D., 

1996, Pesticides in streams of the 

Western Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, 

1993-95: U.S. Geological Survey 

Fact Sheet FS-107-96, 4 p.

Sullivan, J.R., and Delfino, J.J., 1982, 

A select inventory of chemicals 

used in Wisconsin’s lower Fox 

River Basin: University of Wisconsin, Madison, Sea Grant Institute Publication WIS-SG-82-238, 

176 p.

Swackhamer, D.L., and Skoglund, 

R.S., 1993, Environmental toxicology and chemistry: v. 1,

p. 831-838.

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1991, 

1990 Census of population and 

housing, summary population and 

housing characteristics, Wisconsin: Bureau of the Census, CPH–

1–51, 370 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1986, Quality criteria for 

water, 1986, and update no. 1 and 

update no. 2 (May1, 1987): Washington, D.C., EPA-44015-86-001 

[variously paginated].

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1996, Drinking water 

regulations and health advisories: 

Washington, D.C., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office 

of Water, EPA-822-B-96-002, 

11 p.

Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources, 1978, Investigation of 

chlorinated and nonchlorinated 

compounds in the Lower Fox 

River Watershed: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

EPA/905-3-78-004., 229 p.

Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources, 1993, Upper Green 

Bay Basin Water Quality Management Plan: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 

PUBL-WR-319-93, 238 p.

Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources and U.S. Geological 

Survey, 1994, A comparison of 

water-quality sample collection 

methods used by the U.S. Geological Survey and the Wisconsin 

Department of Natural Resources 

in “Findings of the Wisconsin 

Pilot for the Intergovernmental 

Task Force on Monitoring Water 

Quality”: U.S. Geological Survey, 

Reston, Va., 42 p.

Zaugg, S.D., Sandstrom, M.W., Smith, 

S.G. and Fehlberg, K.M., 1995, 

Methods of Analysis by the U.S. 

Geological Survey National 

Water Quality Laboratory—Determination of pesticides in water by C–18 solidphase extraction and capillarycolumn gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with 

selected-ion monitoring: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open FileReport 95-181, 49p.

REFERENCES
36 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

The terms in this glossary were compiled from numerous sources. Some 

definitions have been modified and 

may not be the only valid ones for 

these terms.

Alluvial aquifer - A water-bearing 

deposit of unconsolidated material (sand and gravel) left behind 

by a river or other flowing water.

Anthropogenic - Occurring because 

of, or influenced by, human activity.

Aquatic-life criteria - Water-quality 

guidelines for protection of 

aquatic life. Often refers to U.S. 

Environmental Protection 

Agency water-quality criteria for 

protection of aquatic organisms. 

See also Water-quality guidelines 

and Water-quality criteria.

Aquifer - A water-bearing layer of 

soil, sand, gravel, or rock that will 

yield usable quantities of water to 

a well.

Atmospheric deposition - The transfer of substances from the air to 

the surface of the Earth, either in 

wet form (rain, fog, snow, dew, 

frost, hail) or in dry form (gases, 

aerosols, particles).

Base flow - Sustained, low flow in a 

stream; ground-water discharge is 

the source of base flow in most 

places.

Basin - See Drainage basin.

Bedrock - General term for consolidated (solid) rock that underlies 

soils or other unconsolidated 

material.

Bed sediment - The material that 

temporarily is stationary in the 

bottom of a stream or other watercourse.

Bed sediment and tissue studies - 

Assessment of concentrations and 

distributions of trace elements 

and hydrophobic organic contaminants in streambed sediment and 

tissues of aquatic organisms to 

identify potential sources and to 

assess spatial distribution.

Benchmark streams - Sites selected 

to represent standards of reference for comparison to other 

streams in similar physical settings.

Benthic - Refers to plants or animals 

that live on the bottom of lakes, 

streams, or oceans.

Benthic invertebrates - Insects, mollusks, crustaceans, worms, and 

other organisms without a backbone that live in, on, or near the 

bottom of lakes, streams, or 

oceans.

Bioaccumulation - The biological 

sequestering of a substance at a 

higher concentration than that at 

which it occurs in the surrounding 

environment or medium. Also, 

the process whereby a substance 

enters organisms through the 

gills, epithelial tissues, dietary, or 

other sources.

Bioavailability - The capacity of a 

chemical constituent to be taken 

up by living organisms either 

through physical contact or by 

ingestion.

Biota - Living organisms.

Blue-baby syndrome - A condition 

that can be caused by ingestion of 

high amounts of nitrate resulting 

in the blood losing its ability to 

effectively carry oxygen. It is 

most common in young infants 

and certain elderly people. 

Carbonate rocks - Rocks (such as 

limestone or dolostone) that are 

composed primarily of minerals 

(such as calcite and dolomite) 

containing the carbonate ion 

(CO3

-2).

Climate - The sum total of the meteorological elements that characterize the average and extreme 

conditions of the atmosphere over 

a long period of time at any one 

place or region of the Earth’s surface.

Community - In ecology, the species 

that interact in a common area.

GLOSSARY

Cattle may destroy habitat and increase nutrient concentrations in streams.
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 37

Concentration - The amount or mass 

of a substance present in a given 

volume or mass of sample. Usually expressed as micrograms per 

liter (water sample) or micrograms per kilogram (sediment or 

tissue sample).

Confined aquifer (artesian aquifer) - 

An aquifer that is completely 

filled with water under pressure 

and that is overlain by material 

that restricts the movement of 

water.

Confining layer - A layer of sediment 

or lithologic unit of low permeability that bounds an aquifer. 

Constituent - A chemical or biological substance in water, sediment, 

or biota that can be measured by 

an analytical method.

Contamination - Degradation of 

water quality compared to original or natural conditions due to 

human activity.

Criterion - A standard rule or test on 

which a judgment or decision can 

be based.

Cubic foot per second (ft3/s, or cfs) - 

Rate of water discharge representing a volume of 1 cubic foot passing a given point during 1 second, 

equivalent to approximately 7.48 

gallons per second or 448.8 gallons per minute or 0.02832 cubic 

meter per second.

Degradation products - Compounds 

resulting from transformation of 

an organic substance through 

chemical, photochemical, and/or 

biochemical reactions.

DDT - Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. An organochlorine insecticide no longer registered for use 

in the United States.

Discharge - Rate of fluid flow passing 

a given point at a given moment 

in time, expressed as volume per 

unit of time.

Dissolved constituent - Operationally 

defined as a constituent that 

passes through a 0.45-micrometer 

filter.

Dissolved solids - Amount of minerals, such as salt, that are dissolved 

in water; amount of dissolved solids is an indicator of salinity or 

hardness.

Drainage basin - The portion of the 

surface of the Earth that contributes water to a stream through 

overland runoff, including tributaries and impoundments.

Drinking-water standard or guideline - A threshold concentration 

in a public drinking-water supply, 

designed to protect human health. 

As defined here, standards are 

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency regulations that specify 

the maximum contamination levels for public water systems 

required to protect the public welfare; guidelines have no regulatory status and are issued in an 

advisory capacity.

Ecological studies - Studies of biological communities and habitat 

characteristics to evaluate the 

effects of physical and chemical 

characteristics of water and 

hydrologic conditions on aquatic 

biota and to determine how biological and habitat characteristics 

differ among environmental settings in NAWQA Study Units.

Effects Range Low (ERL) - Concentration below which effects are 

rarely observed or predicted 

among sensitive life stages and 

(or) species of biota for Sediment 

Effect Concentrations used to 

evaluate sediment concentrations 

of trace elements and synthetic 

organic compounds.

Effects Range Median (ERM) - Concentration above which effects are 

frequently or always observed 

among most species of biota for 

Sediment Effect Concentrations 

used to evaluate sediment concentrations of trace elements and 

synthetic organic compounds.

Environmental setting - Land area 

characterized by a unique combination of natural and humanrelated factors, such as row-crop 

cultivation or glacial-till soils.

Equal-width increment (EWI) sample - A composite sample across a 

section of stream with equal spacing between verticals and equal 

transit rates within each vertical 

that yields a representative sample of stream conditions.

Eutrophication - The process by 

which water becomes enriched 

with plant nutrients, most commonly phosphorus and nitrogen.

Fertilizer - Any of a large number of 

natural or synthetic materials, 

including manure and nitrogen, 

phosphorus, and potassium compounds, spread on or worked into 

soil to increase its fertility.

Fish community - See Community.

GLOSSARY
38 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Fixed Sites - Sites on streams at which 

streamflow is measured and samples are collected for temperature, 

salinity, suspended sediment, 

major ions and metals, nutrients, 

and organic carbon to assess the 

broad-scale spatial and temporal 

character and transport of inorganic constituents of streamwater 

in relation to hydrologic conditions and environmental settings. 

See also Intensive Fixed Sites.

Flow path - An underground route for 

ground-water movement, extending from a recharge (intake) zone 

to a discharge (output) zone such 

as a shallow stream.

Flow path study - Network of clustered wells located along a flowpath extending from a recharge 

zone to a discharge zone, preferably a shallow stream. The studies 

examine the relations of land-use 

practices, ground-water flow, and 

contaminant occurrence and 

transport. These studies are 

located in the area of one of the 

land-use studies.

Glacial till - An unsorted deposit of a 

wide range of grain sizes directly 

related to a glacier.

Grab sample - A sample collected 

from one to three points in a 

stream using a Van Dorn sampler.

Ground water - In general, any water 

that exists beneath the land surface, but more commonly applied 

to water in fully saturated soils 

and geologic formations.

Habitat - The part of the physical 

environment where plants and 

animals live.

Herbicide - A chemical or other agent 

applied for the purpose of killing 

undesirable plants. See also Pesticide.

Indicator Sites - Stream sampling 

sites located at outlets of drainage 

basins with relatively homogeneous land use and physiographic conditions; most 

Indicator-Site basins have drainage areas ranging from 20 to 200 

square miles.

Integrator or Mixed-Use Site - 

Stream sampling site located at an 

outlet of a drainage basin that 

contains multiple environmental 

settings. Most Integrator Sites are 

on major streams with relatively 

large drainage areas.

Intensive Fixed Sites - Fixed Sites 

with increased sampling frequency during selected seasonal 

periods and analysis of dissolved 

pesticides for 1 year. Most 

NAWQA Study Units have one to 

two Integrator Intensive Fixed 

Sites and one to four Indicator 

Intensive Fixed Sites.

Land-use Study - A network of shallow wells in an area having a relatively uniform land use. These 

studies are to be as a subset of the 

Study-Unit Survey and have the 

goal of relating the quality of 

shallow ground water to land use. 

See also Study-Unit Survey.

Lowest Effect Level (LEL) - Concentration that 95% of the benthic 

biota can tolerate as part of the 

Ontario Ministry of Environment 

and Energy’s established guidelines for evaluating sediment concentration of trace elements and 

synthetic organic compounds as 

based on freshwater biota.

Major ions - Constituents commonly 

present in concentrations exceeding 1.0 milligram per liter. Dissolved cations generally are 

calcium, magnesium, sodium, and 

potassium; the major anions are 

sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, 

and those contributing to alkalinity, most generally assumed to be 

bicarbonate and carbonate.

Maximum contaminant level (MCL)

- Maximum permissible level of a 

contaminant in water that is delivered to any user of a public water 

system. MCLs are enforceable 

standards established by the U.S. 

Environmental Protection 

Agency.

Median - The middle or central value 

in a distribution of data ranked in 

order of magnitude. The median 

is also known as the 50th percentile.

GLOSSARY

Indexes of biological integrity were calculated for fish, algae,

invertebrates and habitat at 28 sites in the study area.
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1156 39

Metabolite - A substance produced in 

or by biological processes.

Micrograms per liter (μg/L) - A unit 

expressing the concentration of 

constituents in solution as weight 

(micrograms) of solute per unit 

volume (liter) of water; equivalent to one part per billion in most 

stream water and ground water. 

One thousand micrograms per 

liter equals 1 mg/L.

Milligrams per liter (mg/L) - A unit 

expressing the concentration of 

chemical constituents in solution 

as weight (milligrams) of solute 

per unit volume (liter) of water; 

equivalent to one part per million 

in most streamwater and ground 

water. One thousand micrograms 

per liter equals 1 mg/L.

Monitoring - Repeated observation or 

sampling at a site, on a scheduled 

or event basis, for a particular 

purpose.

Monitoring well - A well designed for 

measuring water levels and testing ground-water quality.

Nitrate - An ion consisting of nitrogen 

and oxygen (NO3

-

). Nitrate is a 

plant nutrient and is very mobile 

in soils.

Nutrient - Element or compound 

essential for animal and plant 

growth. Common nutrients in fertilizer include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

Organochlorine compound - Synthetic organic compounds containing chlorine. As generally 

used, term refers to compounds 

containing mostly or exclusively 

carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. 

Examples include organochlorine 

insecticides, polychlorinated 

biphenyls, and some solvents 

containing chlorine.

Permeable - The ability to allow fluids or gases to move through 

material such as ground water 

moving through a porous aquifer.

Pesticide - A chemical applied to 

crops, rights of way, lawns, or 

residences to control weeds, 

insects, fungi, nematodes, rodents 

or other “pests.”

Phosphorus - A nutrient essential for 

growth that can play a key role in 

stimulating aquatic growth in 

lakes and streams.

Picocurie (pCi) - One trillionth (10-12) 

of the amount of radioactivity 

represented by a curie (Ci). A 

curie is the amount of radioactivity that yields 3.7 x 1010 radioactive disintegrations per second 

(dps). A picocurie yields 2.22 disintegrations per minute (dpm) or 

0.037 dps.

Point source - A source at a discrete 

location such as a discharge pipe, 

drainage ditch, tunnel, well, concentrated livestock operation, or 

floating craft.

Pollutant - Any substance that, when 

present in a hydrologic system at 

sufficient concentration, degrades 

water quality in ways that are or 

could become harmful to human 

and(or) ecological health or that 

impair the use of water for recreation, agriculture, industry, commerce, or domestic purposes.

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) - A 

mixture of chlorinated derivatives 

of biphenyl, marketed under the 

trade name Aroclor with a number designating the chlorine content (such as Aroclor 1260). PCBs 

were used in transformers and 

capacitors for insulating purposes and in gas pipeline systems 

as a lubricant. Further sale for 

new use was banned by law in 

1979.

Precipitation - Any or all forms of 

water particles that fall from the 

atmosphere, such as rain, snow, 

hail, and sleet.

Radon - A naturally occurring, colorless, odorless, radioactive gas 

formed by the disintegration of 

the element radium; damaging to 

human lungs when inhaled.

Recharge - Water that infiltrates the 

ground and reaches the saturated 

zone.

Retrospective analysis - Review and 

analysis of existing data in order 

to address NAWQA objectives, to 

the extent possible, and to aid in 

the design of NAWQA studies.

Riffle - A shallow part of the stream 

where water flows swiftly over 

completely or partially submerged obstructions to produce 

surface agitation.

Runoff - Excess rainwater or snowmelt that is transported to streams 

by overland flow, tile drains, or 

ground water.

Secondary Maximum Contaminant 

Level (SMCL) - The maximum 

contamination level in public 

water systems that, in the judgement of the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA), are 

required to protect the public welfare. SMCLs are secondary (nonenforceable) drinking water 

regulations established by the 

USEPA for contaminants that 

may adversely affect the odor or 

appearance of such water.

Sediment - Particles, derived from 

rocks or biological materials, that 

have been transported by a fluid 

or other natural process, suspended or settled in water.

GLOSSARY
40 WATER QUALITY IN THE WESTERN LAKE MICHIGAN DRAINAGES, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN, 1992–95

Semivolatile organic compound 

(SVOC) - Operationally defined 

as a group of synthetic organic 

compounds that are solventextractable and can be determined 

by gas chromatography/mass 

spectrometry. SVOCs include 

phenols, phthalates, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 

(PAHs).

Severe Effect Level (SEL) - Concentration at which pronounced 

effects can be expected for the 

benthic community as part of the 

Ontario Ministry of Environment 

and Energy’s established guidelines for evaluating sediment concentration of trace elements and 

synthetic organic compounds as 

based on freshwater biota.

Streamflow - A type of channel flow, 

applied to that part of surface runoff in a stream whether or not it is 

affected by diversion or regulation.

Study Unit - A major hydrologic system of the United States in which 

NAWQA studies are focused. 

Study Units are geographically 

defined by a combination of 

ground- and surface-water features and generally encompass 

more than 4,000 square miles of 

land area.

Surface water - An open body of 

water, such as a lake, river, or 

stream.

Surficial deposits - Material, usually 

unconsolidated, overlying bedrock. Surficial deposits in the 

Study Unit are primarily glacial 

and alluvial related.

Suspended (as used in tables of chemical analyses) - The amount (concentration) of undissolved 

material in a water-sediment mixture. It is associated with the 

material retained on a 0.45- 

micrometer filter.

Tissue study - The assessment of concentrations and distributions of 

trace elements and certain organic 

contaminants in tissues of aquatic 

organisms.

Trace element - An element found in 

only minor amounts (concentrations less than 1.0 milligram per 

liter) in water or sediment; 

includes arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, 

nickel, and zinc.

Urban Site - A site that has greater 

than 50 percent urbanized and 

less than 25 percent agricultural 

area.

Water-quality criteria - Specific levels of water quality which, if 

reached, are expected to render a 

body of water unsuitable for its 

designated use. Commonly refers 

to water-quality criteria established by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency. Water-quality 

criteria are based on specific levels of pollutants that would make 

the water harmful if used for 

drinking, swimming, farming, 

fish production, or industrial processes.

Water-quality guidelines - Specific 

levels of water quality which, if 

reached, may adversely affect 

human health or aquatic life. 

These are nonenforceable guidelines issued by a governmental 

agency or other institution.

Water-quality standards - Stateadopted and U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency-approved 

ambient standards for water bodies. Standards include the use of 

the water body and the waterquality criteria that must be met 

to protect the designated use or 

uses.

Watershed - See Drainage basin.

Water table - The point below the 

land surface where ground water 

is first encountered and below 

which the earth is saturated. 

Depth to the water table varies 

widely across the country.

Wetlands - Ecosystems whose soil is 

saturated for long periods seasonally or continuously including 

marshes, swamps, and ephemeral 

ponds.

GLOSSARY

Logging can increase sediment concentrations and reduce habitat in streams.
Peters and others • Water Quality in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages

USGS Circular 1156 • 1998

Lake Michigan

Milwaukee 

Green Bay

Green Bay

Wolf R.

Fo x R.

Milwaukee R.

Lake Winnebago

Menominee R.

MICHIGAN

WISCONSIN

National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program

Western Lake Michigan Drainages

NAWQA