October 2006 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 38

Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

Introduction

Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil surface or is present either at or near the surface of the 

soil all year or part of the year. The presence of water and subsequent lack of oxygen creates a particular type of soil (hydric soil) in which plants adapted to 

flooding can grow. Examples of flood tolerant plants, 

or hydrophytes, include cattails, sedges, smartweed, 

rushes, marsh marigolds, bur reed, cypress, and willows. The presence of hydrophytes, hydric soils, and 

water is used to identify wetland areas. 

Wetlands are dynamic, highly productive systems. In 

fact, wetlands, as measured by the amount of plant 

material produced (primary productivity), are one of 

world’s most productive ecosystems. High production of wetland plants is the result of rapid recycling 

of nutrients that occurs with changing water levels 

and breakdown of dead plant material catalyzed by 

wet conditions. Dead plant material, rapidly broken 

down in water by microorganisms, which in turn are 

fed upon by aquatic invertebrates, is the fuel that supports the abundance and diversity of wetland associated wildlife. 

This leaflet is intended for landowners or land managers who have wetlands on their property or whose 

properties historically contained wetlands. It is also 

intended for conservation planners seeking to understand and restore wetland functions by mitigating for 

the effects of habitat isolation. This leaflet describes 

wetland processes and functions, ecological and economic benefits of healthy wetlands, risks associated 

with wetland loss and degradation, and, finally, steps 

that might be undertaken to reduce the effects of isolation. 

Wetland functions and economic 

benefits

Wetlands are formed and maintained through various 

processes, depending on the hydrology, climate, and 

other factors related to the site. For example, in the 

northern plains of North America, numerous shallow 

depressions were created by glaciers that covered the 

region 12,000 to 25,000 years ago. These so-called potholes are filled in the spring with runoff from snowmelt or rain, or from elevated ground water tables 

that saturate porous lowland soils and provide a relatively constant source of water through the summer. 

Coastal wetlands are subject to daily and seasonal 

tidal influences, variable terrestrial inputs, and occaConversion of wetlands and adjacent habitats to agricultural uses has contributed to their functional isolation. Aerial photos of prairie pothole region before 

(a) and after (b) conversion of upland grasslands to 

cultivation. 

(a)

(b)

Ducks Unlimited
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sional catastrophic events such as hurricanes. In the

active delta of the Mississippi River, nutrient-rich sediments carried by late winter/spring floodwaters are 

released as river water leaves the main courses, forming extensive mudflats that are rapidly vegetated by 

wetland plants. Further up the river, the productivity of bottomland forests depends on nutrients delivered by winter/spring floodwaters and detrital-based 

processes that occur when bottomlands are flooded. 

The timing of flooding is highly variable, but it is generally delayed in the widely separated basins in the 

intermountain west that are fed by snowmelt from 

surrounding mountain ranges. These are just a few examples of the varied hydrological patterns in wetlands.

Historically, wetlands were not well understood, and 

they were undervalued and underappreciated. They 

were often regarded as wastelands and impediments 

to development and were readily converted into other land uses, leading to widespread wetland loss and 

isolation. Today, wetlands are recognized as important landscape features that provide numerous economic, ecological, and social benefits. Wetlands offer 

many services including flood control, ground water 

recharge and discharge, erosion control, water quality 

control, water for livestock, and recreational opportunities. In fact, it is estimated that the global value 

of wetland resources is $14.9 trillion, or 45 percent of 

the value of all natural ecosystems.

Wetlands are often compared to natural sponges, 

which slowly release stored surface water, rain, snowmelt, ground water, and floodwater. Wetland vegetation contributes to this process by slowing the water’s momentum and allowing it to percolate into and 

be stored in the underlying soils. This lowers flood 

heights, reduces erosion, and recharges ground water, 

which contributes to surface water flow during dry 

periods of the year. Wetlands help protect adjacent 

and downstream landowners from flood and/or erosion damage to crops or infrastructure. For example, 

under normal circumstances, a watershed composed 

of at least 30 percent wetlands can reduce flood water levels by 60 to 80 percent compared to watersheds 

containing no wetlands. 

Wetland vegetation absorbs and filters a variety of 

sediments, nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and other chemical and organic pollutants, thus 

maintaining water quality in rivers, streams, and 

lakes and reducing municipal water treatment costs. 

Wetland plants take up nitrogen, phosphorus, and other agricultural contaminants, while the hydric soils 

characteristic of wetlands chemically bind other pollutants. Studies have shown that a 1-acre wetland can 

effectively purify the nitrate runoff from about 100 

acres of cropland. Organic waste in wetlands is broken down by bacteria and other microorganisms in 

the water column and the mud. Wetlands are used 

to treat municipal wastes (urban storm water runoff, 

landfill leachate), runoff from feedlots, mining wastes, 

pulp mill wastes, and other industrial wastes.

Wetland loss and isolation 

Loss and degradation of wetlands in North America 

since European settlement has been substantial. 

Indeed, it is estimated that more than half of the wetlands in the United States have been drained and 

converted to other purposes. Ten states (Arkansas, 

California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 

Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, and Ohio) have lost 70 

percent or more of their original wetland acreage. The 

losses continue to this day—58,000 acres of wetlands 

are lost each year in the United States. Some categories have been especially impacted by human development. For example, the shallowest and most easily 

drained wetlands (wetlands receiving only temporary 

flooding) have been essentially eliminated from regions with intensive agricultural activity. As a result 

of wetland loss and degradation, remaining wetlands 

have become increasingly disconnected (isolated) 

from surrounding wetlands, resulting in a loss of critical habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species. 

The term isolated wetlands has many different meanings; wetlands can be isolated geographically, hydrologically, or ecologically. In this leaflet, isolated wetlands refers to ecologically isolated wetlands. 

Ecologically isolated wetlands are those that are not 

connected to each other or to other bodies of water 

by vegetated corridors or buffers, through which wildlife can easily disperse. Ecologically isolated wetlands 

include those that are separated from other bodies of 

water by a distance too great for a given wildlife species to move, as well as those isolated by natural or 

NRCS

Bottomland forest in central Mississippi
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

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human-made barriers, such as steep cliffs or roads, 

over or around which it is difficult for wildlife to pass. 

Ecological isolation can be viewed along a continuum, depending on the wildlife species in question. For 

example, some prairie pothole wetlands might be considered isolated for amphibians with limited capabilities for dispersal, but for waterfowl that are able to 

traverse longer distances, these same wetlands can be 

highly connected. While a few wetlands are naturally isolated, human activities, especially those related 

to urban and agricultural development, are major contributors to wetland isolation. 

Wetlands that are ecologically connected to one another (those that are not ecologically isolated) are referred to as wetland complexes. Wetland complexes 

consist of groups of wetlands that are functionally inter-connected by upland vegetated corridors or buffers, creating a mosaic of habitat for wildlife. Wildlife 

populations are most viable when a variety of wetland 

types exist in complexes and wildlife are able to move 

freely among diverse habitats to satisfy their complex life history needs. Where wildlife species may inhabit isolated wetlands, their survival, reproduction, 

and dispersal abilities may be impaired by isolation. 

Healthy populations of many wildlife species depend 

not just on a single wetland, but on a landscape that 

consists of a variety of wetlands connected with vegetated corridors: a wetland complex. Thus, a high diversity and abundance of smaller wetlands is critical 

in maintaining wildlife populations and is more often 

valuable to wildlife than a few larger wetlands of the 

same type. 

Wetland-adapted wildlife

A diverse assemblage of flora and fauna have adapted to, and are thus dependent on, the historic abundance and seasonality of wetlands for their life history needs. Wetlands are top producers of waterfowl, 

songbirds, shorebirds, wading birds, reptiles, amphibians, and many invertebrate species. Wetland complexes containing a variety of wetland types and connected to upland habitat are needed to meet the range 

of habitat requirements of wildlife populations that 

have evolved with the presence of wetlands. 

Even seasonal and temporary wetlands provide critical habitat for wildlife adapted to breeding exclusively in these areas. For example, many amphibians 

are adapted to ephemeral wetland habitats for breeding and rearing. In northern areas, they actively court 

and lay their eggs in the spring when wetlands contain lots of water due to snowmelt and spring rains. 

Seasonal and temporary wetlands are ideal nursing areas for developing amphibians because of the relatively warm water temperatures, abundant microorganisms for food, and lack of predators. Fully developed, 

amphibians emerge in summer and are able to move 

to surrounding aquatic, riparian, or upland habitat to 

forage or overwinter. Temporary wetlands provide 

ideal courtship and egg-laying location for amphibians 

because they tend to dry out in the summer, making 

them unable to support fish, which are effective predators of amphibian eggs, larvae, and adults. 

Like amphibians, many invertebrates require the fishfree aquatic environments of wetland in which to lay 

eggs and/or go through larval stages. Invertebrates 

also take advantage of the seasonality of wetlands as 

their egg and larval stages often correspond to wet 

times of the year. Invertebrates are vital to the survival of wetland ecosystems, as they form the base of the 

food chain. 

Waterfowl migration northward U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Restored Owego Wetland Complex in northwestern 

Iowa

Woodbury County Conservation Board
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

4

Migratory waterfowl are also adapted to seasonal wetland dynamics. During their migratory journey northward, migratory waterfowl have adapted to the seasonal occurrence and productivity of wetlands and 

wetland complexes. Smaller wetlands are of particular importance, as they tend to thaw sooner in the 

spring than larger wetlands thereby providing proteinrich invertebrates and high-energy seeds and tubers, 

required by waterfowl during this time. 

A significant number of species of conservation concern are dependent on wetland habitats. Wetlands 

provide habitat for one-third of federally listed endangered and threatened plant and animal species. A 

study by NatureServe found that at least 66 species 

listed as threatened, endangered, or candidate under 

the Endangered Species Act are supported by isolated wetland habitats. Nearly two-thirds of these listed 

species are completely dependent on isolated wetland 

habitat for their survival. Any further loss or degradation of wetland habitats could have a serious impact 

on the survival of these and other wildlife species. 

Wetland complexes aid in the dispersal and recolonization of suitable habitats for amphibians and other 

wildlife species. The loss of individual wetlands within complexes reduces the connectivity and threatens 

remaining species populations. It has been shown that 

amphibian species richness decreases with greater 

wetland isolation. For example, if a population of amphibians in one wetland dies out due to factors such 

as prolonged drought or disease, amphibians from 

neighboring wetlands will be able to recolonize the 

site. However, if a wetland becomes isolated, recolonizing by amphibian populations is not possible due 

to the distance or barriers between wetlands. This 

may place local populations at the risk of extirpation 

and overall biodiversity will decline over time.

As wetlands continue to be lost, degraded, or isolated, 

the health and survival of many wildlife populations is 

at risk. Wetland-adapted wildlife require connectivity 

among wetlands to meet their varied habitat requirements. For example, waterfowl may breed in small 

wetlands but move to upland areas to nest. For wildlife 

populations to be healthy, they must be able to access 

their required habitats. When wetlands become isolated from one another or from upland areas, wildlife are 

limited in their abilities to access their required habitats and the health of these populations can decline. 

Wetland restoration and enhancement

Because their ecological and economic values are 

now well understood, wetland restoration and enhancement projects are often undertaken to restore 

these values. Restoration refers to the return of a degraded or lost wetland to a pre-existing condition, or 

as close to that condition as possible. Enhancement 

refers to increasing one or more of the functions performed by an existing wetland beyond what currently 

or previously existed in the wetland. 

Specific recommendations for wetland restoration 

and enhancement are beyond the scope of this leaflet. However, the Environmental Protection Agency 

and the Natural Resources Conservation Service 

have developed a number of technical resources on 

this topic. These include the Interagency Workgroup 

on Wetland Restoration’s “An introduction and user’s guide to wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement,” available at http://www.epa.gov/owow/

wetlands/pdf/restdocfinal.pdf and Conservation 

Practice standards 644 (Wetland Wildlife Habitat 

Management), 657 (Wetland Restoration), and 659 

(Wetland Enhancement), available at http://www.wli.

nrcs.usda.gov/restoration/. Landowners should begin wetland restoration or enhancement projects by 

reviewing these documents and contacting natural resource professionals to discuss the development, implementation, and evaluation of a wetland restoration 

or enhancement project.

Planning, implementation, and evaluation—

Restoration and enhancement projects are often complicated, as the hydrology, climate, and current and 

historic plant and animal communities must be considered. Extensive planning must be done before 

a wetland restoration or enhancement project can 

be implemented. First, the landowner must understand the problems (wetland functions that have been 

lost) and opportunities (how lost functions can be 

restored) that exist. For wetland restoration or enhancement projects, the local landscape and historiBottomland hardwood restoration in Arkansas cal factors that led to the creation and function of the 

NRCS
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

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wetland in the first place must be understood. These 

factors include land use, topography, climate, precipitation patterns, soil types, ground and surface water 

flows, and vegetation communities. The factors contributing to the wetland loss or degradation must also 

be researched, as well as the possible opportunities to 

restore or enhance the wetland. 

Once the problems and opportunities are understood, objectives for restoration must be outlined. 

Objectives might include planting riparian buffers, 

fencing livestock from wetland areas, or reducing 

point and nonpoint sources of pollution. The available resources able to undertake the restoration 

or enhancement project must be inventoried and analyzed to formulate a plan of action and any alternative 

plans of action that might be considered. Available resources might include wetland restoration expertise 

or financial resources. Armed with all this information, landowners will be well equipped to make decisions and decide on the proper plan of action for their 

wetland restoration or enhancement project. 

Wetland restoration or enhancement plans can involve both passive and active activities, and often 

both are used at the same site. Passive restoration involves removing the factors that caused the loss or 

degradation in the first place, and allowing the natural 

recolonization of wetland plant and animal communities and the reestablishment of wetland hydrology 

and soils. Passive approaches to wetland restoration are most appropriate when the degraded site retains basic wetland characteristics. Active restoration involves direct control of the site processes, such 

as re-contouring, changing waterflow, and/or intensive planting and seeding. Active approaches to wetland restoration are most appropriate when a wetland 

is severely degraded or lost. For example, if a wetland 

has been drained and converted to cropland a number of years ago, and it does not retain hydric soils or 

hydrophytes, an active approach to restoration is necessary. Landowners and managers are strongly urged 

to discuss their wetland restoration or enhancement 

plans with experts from Federal, State, or local government agencies or qualified personnel from conservation organizations. These experts may also be 

available to help the landowner implement the plan. 

Evaluation of the plan throughout the planning process, as well as during and after its implementation, 

is key to the success of the project, as well as future 

wetland restoration and enhancement projects. 

Misguided restoration or enhancements—The restoration of lost wetlands can add ecological and economic value to the landscape. However, restoration 

that results in the establishment of isolated wetlands has limited value and may even be detrimental 

to wildlife populations or entire ecosystems. For example, in areas where the majority of wetlands have 

been lost, restoring a single wetland will not restore 

the values associated with historical wetland complexes. In these areas, restoration plans should be 

undertaken to restore not only a single wetland, but 

a number of wetlands that are ecologically connected in wetland complexes. In restoring wetland complexes, it is important to ensure that a variety of wetland types are created and that vegetated corridors 

between these wetlands are maintained. A mosaic of 

both wetland and upland areas on the landscape is essential for many wildlife species.

Wetland enhancement projects designed to increase a 

particular wetland function often degrades other important wetland functions. For example, adding more 

water to a wetland may create better fish habitat, 

but it may degrade habitat for amphibians and/or decrease the ability of the wetland to hold flood waters. 

The costs and benefits of each wetland enhancement 

project should be considered and project goals should 

include minimizing any decrease in existing wetland 

functions.

Assistance programs

Financial and technical assistance for wetland habitat projects are available from an array of government 

agencies and public and private organizations. Table 1 

lists the contact information of organizations that can 

provide information about wetland management, as 

well as other natural resource projects, and describes 

their associated conservation incentive programs. 

A brief history of wetland protection in 

the United States

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act gives the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers the authority to issue permits to 

dredge or fill navigable waters of the United States. Until 

recently, the Corps had used a working definition of navigable waters that afforded Federal protection for almost 

all of the Nation’s wetlands. However, in 2001, the United 

States Supreme Court issued a decision that restricted 

the Corps’ jurisdiction to navigable waters, their tributaries, and wetlands adjacent to these navigable waters and 

tributaries. Therefore, wetlands not connected to navigable waters by surface water flow are now excluded 

from the Clean Water Act, which provided one of the few 

Federal mechanisms for the protection of these unique 

ecological communities. While the Federal Endangered 

Species Act and the Swampbuster program may protect 

some of these wetlands, their protection now falls mainly on State, tribal, and local governments and individual 

landowners.
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

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Table 1 Technical and financial assistance to restore or enhance wetlands

Program Land eligibility Type of assistance

Wetland restoration or enhancement opportunities Contact

Conservation Reserve Program

Highly erodible land, wetland, and certain other lands with cropping history, stream-side areas in pasture land

50% cost-share for establishing permanent cover and conservation practices and annual rental payments for land enrolled in 10- to 15-year contracts. Additional financial incentives for some practices

Plant long-term, resource-conserving covers in wetland and upland areas to improve water quality, control erosion, and enhance wildlife habitat

NRCS or FSA State or local office

Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program 

Most degraded fish and/or wildlife habitat

Up to 100% financial and technical assistance to restore wildlife habitat under a minimum 10-year cooperative agreement

Restore wetland hydrology; plant native trees, shrubs, grasses, and other vegetation; install fencing and off-stream livestock watering facilities to allow for restoration of stream and riparian areas; remove exotic plants and animals

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service local office

Waterways for Wildlife

Private land Technical and program development assistance 

to coalesce habitat efforts of corporations and private landowners to meet common watershed level goals

Enhance wetland and adjacent upland habitats by planting buffers, creating habitat structures, and other activities Wildlife Habitat Council

Wetlands Reserve Program 

Previously degraded wetland and adjacent upland buffer

75% cost-share for wetland restoration under 10-year contracts and 30-year easements and 100% cost-share on restoration under permanent easements. Payments for purchase of 30-year or permanent conservation easements

Restore and protect wetlands and limited adjacent upland area; improve wetland wildlife habitat

NRCS State or local office

Wildlife at Work Corporate lands Technical assistance on developing habitat projects into programs that allow companies to involve employees and the community Enhance wetland and adjacent upland habi- tats by planting buffers, creating habitat struc- tures, and other activities Wildlife Habitat CouncilWildlife Habitat Incentives Program

High-priority fish and wildlife habitats Up to 75% cost-share for conservation practices under 5- to 10-year agreements Establish and improve fish and wildlife hab- itat including wetland and adjacent upland 

habitats, particularly those for wildlife species experiencing declining or significantly reduced populations

NRCS State or local office
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

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References

Online Sources

Chesapeake Bay Program Office. 2003. Wetlands: general info. http://www.chesapeakbay.net/wetlds1.

htm [Accessed 14 June 2004].

Farm Service Agency. n.d. Eligible farms. http://www.

fsa.usda.gov/mt/farmable%20wetlands%20fact%

20sheet04.htm [Accessed 10 June 2004].

Farm Service Agency Online. 2003. Conservation 

Reserve Program. http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/

publicatoins/facts/html/crp03.htm [Accessed 10 

June 2004].

Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2001. 

Farmable Wetlands Program. http://www.state.

ia.us/government/dnr/organiza/fwb/wildlife/

pages/farmablewet.htm [Accessed 10 January 

2002].

Iowa State University College of Agriculture. n.d. 

IWRACP about wetlands. http://www.ag.iastate.

edu/centers/iawetlands/About.html [Accessed 

24 November 2004].

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. 

Wetlands. http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/

[Accessed 29 July 2005].

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Sacramento District. 

2000. Wetlands and agriculture: section 404 of 

the Clean Water Act and Swampbuster in the 

Food Security Act. http://www.spk.usace.army.

mil/cespk-co/regulatory/SB.html [Accessed 9 

June 2004].

Printed Sources

Anderson, J.K., R.W. Spain, L.D. McKinney, and A. 

Sansom. 2000. Wetlands assistance guide to 

landowners. Texas Parks and Wildlife, Austin, 

TX.

Berry, C.R., Jr., and D.G. Buechler. 1993. Wetlands in 

the Northern Great Plains: a guide to values 

and management. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

and the Agricultural Extension Service, South 

Dakota State University, Brookings, SD.

Comer, P., K. Goodin, G. Hammerson, S. Menard, 

M. Pyne, M. Reid, M. Robles, M. Russo, L. 

Sneddon, K. Snow, A. Tomaino, and M. Tuffly. 

2005. Biodiversity values of geographically isolated wetlands: an analysis of 20 U.S. States. 

NatureServe, Arlington, VA.

Dahl, T.E. 1990. Wetlands losses in the United States 

1780’s to 1980’s. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.

npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/wetloss/wetloss.htm. 

Gibbons, J.W. 2003. Terrestrial habitat: a vital component for herpetofauna of isolated wetlands. 

Wetlands 23: 630-635.

Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration. n.d. 

An introduction and user’s guide to wetland restoration, creation, and enhancement. National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

Environmental Protection Agency, Army Corps of

Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Natural

Resources Conservation Service, USA. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/restdocfinal.pdf.

Lehtinen, R.M., S.M. Galatowitsch, and J.R. Tester. 

1999. Consequences of habitat loss and fragmentation for wetland amphibian assemblages. 

Wetlands 19:1-12.

Leibowitz, S.G. 2003. Isolated wetlands and their functions: an ecological perspective. Wetlands 23: 

517-531.

Petrie, M., J.P. Rochon, G. Tori, R. Pederson, and T. 

Moorman. 2001. The SWANCC decision: implications for wetlands and waterfowl. Ducks

Unlimited, Memphis, TN. Available at:

Tiner, R.W., H.C. Bergquist, G.P DeAlessio, and M.J. 

Starr. 2002. Geographically isolated wetlands: A 

preliminary assessment of their characteristics 

and status in selected areas of the United States. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, 

Hadley, MA. Available at: http://wetlands.fws.

gov/Pubs_Reports/isolated/report.htm.

Winter, T.C., and J.W. LaBaugh. 2003. Hydrologic 

considerations in defining isolated wetlands. 

Wetlands 23: 532-540.

http://www.ducks.org/conservation/404_report.asp.
Ecologically Isolated Wetlands

8

Primary author: Raissa Marks, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts review by Erika Smith and Rob Pauline, 

Wildlife Habitat Council; William Hohman and Mark Lindflott, Natural Resources Conservation Service; 

Mark Oja, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Leigh Frederickson, University of Missouri; Milton W. Weller, 

Texas A&M.

www.nrcs.usda.gov

Wildlife Habitat Council

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 588–8994

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council 

is to increase the amount of quality wildlife 

habitat on corporate, private, and public land. 

WHC engages corporations, public agencies, 

and private, nonprofit organizations on a 

voluntary basis as one team for the recovery, 

development, and preservation of wildlife 

habitat worldwide.

www.wildlifehc.org

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

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