Wildlife Habitat Management Institute

Wading Birds

May 2005 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 16

General information

Wading birds are most commonly associated with wetlands, streams, and other aquatic habitats. Most wading birds possess long legs and toes, and long and 

sometimes curved bills – adaptations enabling them to 

live and feed in shallow-water habitats. This leaflet addresses birds in the orders Ciconiformes (herons and 

their allies) and Gruiformes (cranes and their allies). 

Common wading birds of the United States are represented in table 1.

Wading birds rely heavily on wetland habitats including inland and coastal emergent marshes and wooded swamps. Throughout the history of the United 

States wetlands have been converted for agriculture, 

residential, commercial, and other land uses. More 

than half of the country’s original wetland acreage 

has been converted to other land uses in the last two 

centuries. California leads the United States in wetland acres drained followed by Ohio, each having lost 

more than 90 percent of their original wetland acreage. Many adjacent native grassland and forest habitats have also undergone significant land use changes. 

As a result, many species of wading birds that depend 

on these habitats have suffered significant population reductions, with some populations still in decline. 

Protecting and properly managing existing wetland 

communities can help maintain and enhance populations of wading birds and other wildlife species that 

live in similar habitats.

This leaflet is designed as an introduction to the habitat requirements of wading birds and to assist landowners and managers in developing comprehensive 

wading bird management plans. The success of any 

management plan depends on targeting specific needs 

of the species of interest and analyzing designated 

habitat areas to ensure all required habitat elements 

are provided. Practical habitat management activities 

that can be conducted on private lands to attract wading birds and help maintain existing populations are 

included. This leaflet encourages involving fish and 

wildlife professionals to identify and address additional management goals. 

Great blue heron (Ardea hedodias)

Range 

The ranges of various wading bird species in the 

United States differ greatly. Some non-migratory species have relatively restrictive ranges, whereas some 

migratory species have extensive ranges. Migratory 

waders common to the United States can possess 

ranges encompassing nearly the entire country.
Wading Birds 

Habitat requirements

General

Although there are similarities among many species’ 

habitat requirements, management to meet the needs 

of one species may not benefit other species. It is beyond the scope of this leaflet to identify detailed habitat requirements for individual wading birds in separate regions, but generalizations for groups of wading 

birds and broad concepts for managing their habitats 

are presented.

Wading birds are naturally adapted to wetlands, 

streams, and other aquatic ecosystems in North 

America. Habitats used by wading birds are diverse -

ranging from aquatic complexes to dry upland meadows, pastures, and crop fields (table 2). Inland freshwater ponds, lakes, streams, wetlands with emergent 

aquatic vegetation, coastal marshes, riparian and 

wooded wetlands and bogs, mangroves, and estuaries 

are the most common sites used for feeding and nesting. The cattle egret, a member of the heron family, 

relies almost totally on pasture and upland grassland 

habitats. However, the snowy egret seeks nest sites 

among mangroves and salt marshes. Upland forest 

communities and small clusters of trees and shrubs 

near wetland habitats provide nesting and roosting 

sites for some wading birds. Trees and shrubs are particularly important as nest sites for herons, egrets, 

and other colonial nesters.

Food

Fish, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and crustaceans are common foods consumed by wading birds. Diets also include wetland 

plant seeds, small mammals such as voles, shrews, 

and pocket gophers, and occasionally other birds. 

Most waders are opportunistic feeders, capturing 

food items using bills adapted to probe mud and animal burrows; spear fish, frogs, and other small animals; or to strain aquatic invertebrates and other 

edible material from the water. Many waders feed 

standing in or perching over shallow water less than 

12 inches deep. Most wading birds are migratory and 

occupy a variety of habitats ranging from coastal and 

freshwater shoreline habitats, grassland and scrub 

communities, and agricultural fields and pastures. 

Thus food items consumed vary among species, seasons, regions, and habitats.

Colonial and solitary nesting

Some wading bird species nest in colonies while others are solitary nesters. Improving foraging efficiency is the primary advantage of colonial nesting. Young 

birds of a nesting colony learn from older birds experienced in finding feeding grounds. For herons, foragAmerican bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus)

ing success improves with age. Adult great blue herons are twice as successful at locating feeding sites 

as juveniles. Protection from predators is a secondary 

benefit of colonial nesting. Individuals or nesting pairs 

within the colony protect or expose eggs and young 

to predation, depending on behaviors characteristic to 

the species. In a “selfish colony,” typically comprised 

of several hundred nesting pairs, protects the eggs 

and young of the dominant birds nesting in the center of the colony are protected while eggs and young 

of inexperienced pairs are left more subject to predation. The colonial behavior known as mobbing (where 

several birds attack as a group) also acts as a defense 

against predators.

Cover – colonial nesting

Colonial nesting sites hold a few pairs to thousands 

of pairs of nesting birds. Heronries contain single 

or mixed species. Ibises, egrets, and herons often 

nest together in clumps of woody vegetation close 

to fresh or salt water swamps and marshes, lakes or 

other bodies of water. Ibises nest in shrubs or low 

trees, sometimes over water. Egrets choose nesting 

sites in trees 5 to 40 feet off the ground. Herons nest 

in shrubs or trees up to 80 feet tall. Great blue herons usually take nesting sites in the tops of the tallest trees in large heronries of mixed species. Nesting 

cover for members of the order Ciconiiformes varies 

by region, but ranges from conifer and mixed hardwood forests, to shrubs, mangroves, bulrushes, and 

rock ledges. Colonial nesting sites can be noisy (especially after young hatch) and have an unpleasant odor. 

Ground cover under the heronry or rookery is usually 

splattered with fecal material and feathers.

Cover – solitary nesting

Most solitary nesters are secretive marsh birds of the 

order Gruiformes (rails and bitterns). Primary social 

units include the mated pair and brood. These wad2
Wading Birds

Table 1 Common wading birds in the United States

Order Family Species representatives

Ciconiiformes Ardeidae herons, bitterns, egrets

Ciconiidae wood stork

Threskiornithidae ibis, spoonbill

Gruiformes Aramidae limpkin

Gruidae cranes

Rallidae rails, coot, moorhen

Phoenicopteriformes Phoenicopteridae greater flamingo

Table 2 Habitat characteristics of common wading birds in the United States

Species

Emergent 

marsh

Habitat

Open 

water

Preference 1

Herbaceous 

uplands

Trees & 

shrubs

Nesting 

habits 2

American bittern F, N F F S

least bittern F, N F S

great blue heron F F N C

great egret F F N C, S

snowy egret F F N C

little blue heron F F N C

cattle egret F N C

green heron F, N F N S, C

black-crowned night heron F, N F N C

yellow-crowned night heron F F N C

white ibis F, N F N C

white-faced ibis F N C

wood stork F N C

yellow rail F, N F S

black rail F, N S

clapper rail F, N S

king rail F, N N S

Virginia rail F, N S

sora F, N S

purple gallinule F, N S

common moorhen F, N F F S, C

American coot N F F S

sandhill crane N F, N S

1

 F = Feeding, N = Nesting

2

 C = Colonial, S = Solitary

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Wading Birds 

ing birds prefer fresh or salt water marshes, swamps, 

and wet meadows, and depend on several kinds of 

emergent vegetation for cover and nest materials. 

The nests of rails and bitterns are hard to find because they are on the ground and canopied with vegetation. The natural camouflage of grasses and perennial plants in nesting areas and the elusive nature of 

these webless marsh birds makes estimating populations difficult.

Common wading bird food items

Fishes

• gizzard shad, herring, minnows, dace, 

shiners, carp, chubs, killifishes, suckers, 

pickerel, sticklebacks, catfishes, small 

eels, other small fishes

Aquatic insects

• water boatman, back swimmers, water scorpions, giant water bugs, diving 

beetles, dragonfly nymphs, caddisflies, 

mayfly nymphs, pillbugs, mosquito larvae, 

larvae of: flies, midges, crane flies, soldier 

flies, dance flies, snipe flies, horseflies, 

brine flies, flower flies, water beetles

Crustaceans and other aquatic invertebrates

• crayfish, snails, worms, mollusks, amphipods, blue crabs, fiddler crabs, hippa 

crabs, eggs of horseshoe crabs, shrimp, 

squid, clams, mussels, leeches

Reptiles and amphibians

• lizards, garter snakes, queen snakes, 

water snakes, and adults and tadpoles of 

frogs, toads, and salamanders

Terrestrial invertebrates

• grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, caterpillars, cutworms, earthworms, bloodworms, 

slugs, spiders, ants

Plants (roots, shoots, tubers, and seeds)

• grasses, sedges, cultivated and wild rice, 

wild berries, wheat, corn, sorghum, bulrushes, pondweeds, wigeon grass, smartweeds

Birds and mammals

• small birds, mice, voles, lemmings, small 

rats, shrews, ground squirrels, pocket 

gophers

Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax)

Sandhill cranes are also solitary nesters and establish nesting territories on prairie potholes, freshwater marshes, open mountain meadows, mixed conifer 

and hardwood forests, or lowland tundra areas. These 

wading birds need adequate emergent vegetation to 

build their nests, 4 to 5 feet in diameter, on mounds 

above water. Agricultural lands provide the bulk of 

their food on migration routes, so crop fields interspersed with wetlands create preferred habitat. 

Cover – winter

Winter habitat requirements differ little from those of 

summer months. Combinations of inland freshwater 

and coastal aquatic systems with grassland, agricultural, and upland habitats are used by wading birds 

throughout winter months. In the southern United 

States and California’s Central Valley, flooded crop 

fields (rice) provide extra nutrition to year-round residents and wintering waders.

Water

Foods consumed by wading birds provide an adequate amount of water.

Interspersion of habitat types

Interspersion of aquatic ecosystems and non-aquatic 

habitats helps maximize habitat quality for many wading bird species. However, many area-sensitive obligate wading species require large, unbroken blocks 

of aquatic complexes with little or no interspersion of 

other habitats. For this reason, it is important to consider landowner objectives, local landscape features, 

and future goals for species of concern when preparing management plans for wading birds.

Wading bird habitat management

Fashion trends in the early 1800s and 1900s nearly led 

herons, egrets, and others to extinction. The breed4
Wading Birds

ing plumage of these wading birds was sought after 

for decorating hats and dresses. Plumes in good condition from live birds were more highly valued than 

those found on the ground in heronries and rookeries. 

In response to the millinery trade and rapidly decreasing populations, the American Ornithologist’s Union 

proposed the Model Law in 1884 drafted “for the 

protection of North American Birds and their eggs, 

against wanton and indiscriminate destruction.” The 

Model Law was not a successful solution, but it promoted public awareness and helped jumpstart conservation legislation in North America.

Today, wetland habitat loss and degradation are primarily responsible for declining populations of wading birds. The effects of pesticides and herbicides on 

wading birds and their food sources also contribute to 

the decline.

The various species and groups of wading birds require a variety of habitat conditions (table 3). For example, nesting success of rails is directly related to 

water depth and distance to open water, and they preTable 3 General wading bird habitat requirements

Habitat component Habitat requirements

Food Fish – gizzard shad, herring, minnows, dace, shiners, carp, and others 

Aquatic invertebrates – midges, mosquito larvae, caddis flies, and others

Crustaceans and other aquatic invertebrates – crayfish, snails, mollusks, crabs, and 

others 

Reptiles and amphibians – lizards, snakes, adult and tadpoles of frogs, toads, and 

salamanders

Terrestrial invertebrates – spiders, crickets, beetles, caterpillars and others

Plants – grasses, sedges, rice, wild berries, roots and tubers of aquatic plants, wheat, 

corn, sorghum, seeds of bulrushes, pondweeds, wigeon grass, and smartweeds

Birds and mammals – small shore and wading birds and small mammals

Cover – colonial On the ground in dry uplands or swampy prairies, or along pond or lakeshores; in 

nesting shrubs or low trees, conifer and mixed hardwood forests, mangroves, or rock ledges; 

all nesting cover should be in close proximity to water – fresh or salt water swamps 

and marshes, lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, and coastal tidal marshes

Cover – solitary Perennial vegetation (bulrushes, cordgrass, etc.) in fresh or salt water marshes and 

nesting swamps, mudflats, wet meadows, or open prairie adjacent to crop fields

Winter cover A wetland complex of inland fresh and salt water areas and coastal aquatic systems 

adjacent to grassland or agricultural areas

Water Daily foraging activities and the types of foods eaten provide daily water needs

Interspersion Some wading bird species prefer interspersion of various types of aquatic ecosystems 

and a mixture of aquatic and non-aquatic habitats

Minimum habitat size Size of nesting and feeding habitat can vary considerably between different species of 

wading birds

fer a certain degree of salinity and moderate level of 

vegetation structure. Habitat management plans designed for rails should focus on maintaining natural 

structure and function of tidal marshes. Management 

actions could include maintaining or restoring altered 

tidal flow. Periodic prescribed burning has been used 

to reduce overgrown grasses, allowing rails to move 

freely through vegetative cover.

Sandhill cranes require adequate wetland habitat 

for pair formation and foraging. The suppression of 

fire in the southern breeding ranges has increased 

brush and litter and allowed open lands to convert to 

pine forests. The accumulation of litter and succession of open lands to forest has reduced food availability and suitable nesting cover for sandhill cranes. 

Prescribed burning in Florida’s Okefenokee Swamp 

and in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, has been shown to 

benefit sandhill crane populations. These fires also reduce invading vegetation on sedge meadows and increase earthworm activity, an important food item for 

juvenile sandhill cranes.

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Wading Birds 

Conducting appropriate grassland and prairie management practices such as prescribed burning, managed grazing, and rotational mowing can help increase 

nesting and brood-rearing cover for some species 

of wading birds. Other waders benefit from wetland 

management by seasonal water drawdown, planting 

of native wetland vegetation, and various practices of 

forest management such as prescribed burning and 

stand thinning.

Minimum habitat area

The amount of habitat required for nesting and feeding varies among wading bird species. Great blue herons will travel up to 18 miles to find food, but typically forage within three miles of suitable nesting 

habitat. Some species, like the sora, require little cover and nest in small patches of marsh vegetation. 

Distribution and interspersion of food and cover resources greatly affect the suitability of wading bird 

habitat. For colonial and solitary nesters, the proximity of suitable nesting habitat to foraging habitat is 

usually the main factor affecting wading bird use of 

the area.

Limiting factors

Based on the above habitat requirement descriptions, 

use table 4 to rate availability and quality of wading 

bird habitat in a defined planning area. Habitat communities and components that are absent or rated low 

are probably limiting habitat quality.

Management prescriptions 

Management treatments should address habitat components that are determined as limiting wading bird 

habitat potential. For planning purposes, select from 

Table 4 Limiting factors for habitat components

Green heron (Butorides virescens)

possible action items listed in table 5 to improve the 

quality or availability of each limiting habitat component. NRCS Conservation Practices (table 6) and various programs (table 7) may provide financial or technical assistance to carry out specific management 

practices and are listed where applicable.

Available assistance

Corporate and private landowners interested in improving wading bird habitat can work with the 

Wildlife Habitat Council and NRCS, and encourage interested employees to volunteer. Schools and community groups in conjunction with Federal, state, and 

non-profit organizations also produce successful habitat projects. Environmental education programs offered by state agencies, universities and non-profit 

groups heighten public awareness of wading bird habitat and conservation issues. Table 7 provides general 

information on a variety of assistance programs available through public and private institutions.

Habitat Component Availability/Quality

High Medium Low Absent

Food

Cover – colonial nesting

Cover – solitary nesting

Winter cover (may not apply to areas in 

which wading birds do not winter)

Interspersion of habitat components

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Wading Birds

Table 5 Management options, conservation practices, and assistance programs

Habitat component Management options for increasing quality or availability Conservation 

practices and 

assistance programs

Food Protect and restore coastal and freshwater wetlands, marshes, 

lakes and ponds from siltation and non-point source pollution 

by fencing livestock and providing bank stabilization through 

aquatic and bank vegetation plantings

390, 643, 657, WRP, 

WHIP, EQIP, PFW, 

CRP

Restore natural hydrology and vegetation to the previously 

degraded wetlands

Reduce herbicide use on grasslands, especially near water, 

where application results in reduction of invertebrates (either 

terrestrial, marine, or freshwater) used for food

Cover – colonial 

nesting

Protect large forested tracts that support large colonies of colonial nesting birds391

Cover – solitary nestingEncourage native vegetation in grassland meadows and prairies, and conduct appropriate grassland management practices 

such as prescribed burning, managed grazing, and rotational 

mowing

327, 338, 528A, 645 

WHIP, EQIP, PFW

Restore natural hydrology and vegetation to the previously 

degraded wetlands

Reduce herbicide use when application results in loss of 

nesting, loafing, brood-rearing, or winter cover

Winter cover Protect and restore coastal and freshwater wetlands, marshes, 

lakes and ponds from siltation and non-point source pollution 

via fencing of livestock

390, 643, 657 

WHIP EQIP, PFW, 

CRP, WRP

Restore natural hydrology and vegetation to the previously 

degraded wetlands

Interspersion and 

minimum habitat size

Combine above prescriptions to increase interspersion of 

habitat components and amount of suitable habitat.

Table 6 NRCS conservation practices that may apply to wading bird management

Code Conservation practice

327 Conservation cover

338 Prescribed burning

390 Riparian herbaceous cover

391 Riparian forest buffer

528A Prescribed grazing

643 Restoration of declining habitats

645 Upland wildlife management

657 Wetland restoration

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Wading Birds 

Table 7 Financial and technical assistance available to landowners to develop habitat

Program Land eligibility Type of assistance Contact

Conservation Reserve 

Program (CRP)

Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)

North American 

Waterbird Conservation Plan

Partners for Fish 

and Wildlife Program 

(PFW)

Waterways for Wildlife

Wetlands Reserve 

Program (WRP)

Wildlife Habitat 

Incentives Program 

(WHIP)

Wildlife at Work

State fish and wildlife 

agencies and private 

groups may

have assistance programs or other useful 

tools in your area.

Highly erodible land, 

wetland and certain 

other lands with cropping history Streamside areas in pasture 

land

Cropland, range, grazing land and other agricultural land in need of 

treatment

Corporate, private, or 

public lands, or individuals and organizations

Most degraded fish 

and/ or wildlife habitat

Private land

Previously degraded 

wetland and adjacent 

upland buffer, with 

limited amount of 

natural wetland, and 

existing or restorable 

riparian areas

High-priority fish and 

wildlife habitats

Corporate lands

50% cost-share for establishing permanent cover and conservation practices, 

and annual rental payments for land 

enrolled in 10- to 15-year contracts. Additional financial incentives available for 

some practices

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation 

practices in accordance with 5- to 10-year 

agreements. Incentive payments for certain management practices

Provides technical expertise and implementation plan to meet regional and 

national waterbird conservation goals

Up to 100% financial and technical assistance to restore wildlife habitat under 

minimum 10-year cooperative agreements

Technical and program development 

assistance to coalesce habitat efforts of 

corporations and private landowners to 

meet common watershed level goals

75% cost-share for wetland restoration 

under 10-year contracts and 30-year 

easements, and 100% cost-share on 

restoration under permanent easements. 

Payments for purchase of 30-year or permanent conservation easements

Up to 75% cost-share for conservation 

practices under 5- to 10-year agreements.

Technical assistance on developing 

habitat projects into programs that allow 

companies to involve employees and the 

community

NRCS or FSA 

state or local 

office

NRCS state or 

local office

Local office of 

the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife 

Service

Local office of 

the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife 

Service

Wildlife Habitat 

Council

NRCS State or 

local office

NRCS state or 

local office

Wildlife Habitat 

Council

State or local

contacts

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Wading Birds

References

Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. The Birder’s 

Handbook: A Field Guide to North American 

Birds. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York. 785 

pp. 

Gough, G.A., J.R. Sauer, and M. Iliff, 1998, Patuxent 

Bird Identification InfoCenter, http://www.mbrpwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html.

Mattheissen, P. Wildlife in America. The Viking Press, 

New York. 304 pp.

Sauer, J.R., J.E. Hines, I. Thomas, J. Fallon, and G. 

Gough. 1999. The North American Breeding 

Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966 - 1998. 

Version 98.1, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research 

Center, Laurel, MD 

Tacha, T.C. and C.E. Braun, eds. 1994. Migratory Shore 

and Upland Game Bird Management in North 

America. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas. 223 

pp.

Terres, J.K. 1991. The Audubon Society Encyclopedia 

of North American Birds. Wings Books, New 

York. 1110 pp.

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Wading Birds 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute

100 Webster Circle, Suite 3

Madison, Mississippi 39110

(601) 607-3131

In cooperation with partners, the mission of the 

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute is to develop and disseminate scientifically based technical materials that will assist NRCS field staffs and 

others to promote conservation stewardship of 

fish and wildlife, and deliver sound habitat management principles and practices to America’s 

land users.

Wildlife Habitat Council

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 588-8994

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council is to 

increase the amount of quality wildlife habitat on 

corporate, private, and public land. WHC engages 

corporations, public agencies, and private, nonprofit organizations on a voluntary basis as one 

team for the recovery, development, and preservation of wildlife habitat worldwide.

www.whmi.nrcs.usda.gov www.wildlifehc.org

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equal opportunity provider and employer.

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