October 2006 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 37

Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

Introduction

Any event that disrupts an ecosystem or plant or wildlife population structure and changes its resources, 

substrates, or physical environment is called a disturbance. Disturbances are natural components of virtually all of the world’s ecosystems and can include 

fires, floods, droughts, storms, herbivory, and disease 

outbreaks. Disturbances are critically important for 

maintaining healthy and productive ecosystem functions. For example, periodic disturbances are essential for early successional plants and animals, overall 

biotic diversity, enhancing the capacity of ecosystems 

to produce clean air and water, and allowing nutrient 

cycling to occur. 

Disturbances interact in a complex manner with climate and soils to produce and maintain a plant community that is unique to that site. In a healthy ecosystem, the plant community is in a state of dynamic 

equilibrium, and there is variability in its species composition and successional stages following disturbance. This variability is desirable because such habitats can accommodate a diverse wildlife community 

adapted to different plant species and successional 

stages. 

Fully functioning ecosystems have a natural resistance and resilience to disturbances. Resistance refers to the ecosystem’s ability to retain its plant and 

animal communities during and after a disturbance. 

Resilience refers to the magnitude of disturbance an 

ecosystem can withstand and regain its original function after the disturbance. As an ecosystem is degraded, its resistance and resilience to disturbance 

weaken. In these cases, a disturbance can push an 

ecosystem past a certain threshold. Once that threshold is reached, ecosystem processes change, resulting 

in changes in the plant and animal communities. As 

these changes occur, the ecosystem is in a transition 

from its original state to a new state. 

The purpose of this leaflet is to provide landowners with an improved understanding of natural disturbances and their ecological importance. Three examples of disturbance-adapted systems are used to 

demonstrate the importance of disturbance on the 

landscape. Disturbance management options are discussed, with suggestions for incorporating disturbance into management plans.

Fire-adapted systems

Fire has historically been an integral factor in maintaining native prairies, shrublands, and forests across 

North America. While fire frequency and severity vary 

by region and ecosystem type, all fires are influenced 

by the plant community and climate of a site. In turn, 

the severity and frequency of a fire influences the 

plant community that will recolonize a site and the 

wildlife species that will inhabit it during the successional stages following the fire. 

The flora and fauna in native prairies, shrublands, and 

forests have lived with periodic fire for thousands of 

years. Many plant species have specific adaptations 

that allow them to continue to survive in a post-fire 

environment. Cottonwoods and oaks exhibit epicormic sprouting, which means that new branches resprout if old ones are burned. Other trees, such as 

willows, have the ability to resprout from their roots 

after a fire. Some trees, such as the ponderosa pine, 

Wes Burger, Mississippi State University

Oak savannahs maintained by periodic fire
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management



have thick bark, which protects them from fire. Many 

plants actually depend on fire to complete their life 

cycles. For example, many pine trees have cones that 

will not open until heated by fire; blueberries exhibit 

fire-enhanced flowering and fruit production. 

Fire releases nutrients and uncovers bare soil. The 

blackened, bare soil warms quickly, which stimulates soil microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and plant 

growth. In forests, fire opens up part of the canopy 

to sunlight, which allows sun-loving plant species to 

recolonize the site. In prairies, fire can remove dead 

vegetation that hinders new growth, reduce invasive 

plants, encourage native species, and create wildlife 

habitat. 

Following fires, plant communities go through successional changes. Many native wildlife species and 

popular game species, such as bobwhite quail, whitetailed deer, and wild turkey, are dependent on periodic fire to create and maintain suitable habitat. Surface 

fires can stimulate the growth of herbaceous foods 

for deer, elk, moose, and hares, and can enhance berry production for black bears and other wildlife. Small 

mammal populations generally increase in response 

to new vegetation growth, providing a food source for 

carnivores. Fire can also reduce internal and external 

parasites on wildlife. 

Fire suppression has been widespread throughout 

North America since European settlement. Fire suppression causes fuels to accumulate and can result 

in high-intensity, more destructive fires. Many native 

plant and animal species find it difficult to adapt to 

fire suppression. Fire intolerant species are able to invade and displace native species in areas protected 

from fire. In the Pacific Northwest, increased disease 

and insect outbreaks appear to be related to fire suppression. However, the benefits of wildfire are becoming better known and fire suppression has given rise 

to managed fires in many areas. 

Herbivory-adapted systems

Herbivory is an important disturbance in many rangeland ecosystems. Before European settlement, bison, elk, prairie dogs, and other herbivorous wildlife 

grazed the North American rangelands. Today, livestock have replaced native herbivores in many rangeland ecosystems. So, past and present herbivores exert a strong influence on a site’s plant community. 

Steve Dinsmore

Steve Dinsmore

Steve Dinsmore

Underbrush in various successional stages after fire at 

Tall Timbers Research Station in Florida

1 year

2 years

3 years
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

Woody plants, for example, cannot establish themselves in areas that are moderately or heavily grazed. 

Instead of woody plants, grasses and forbs make up 

most of the plant community in rangeland ecosystems. Herbivores influence ecosystem properties such 

as nutrient cycling and productivity by compacting 

soils and adding organic material to them. 

Native rangeland plants have adapted to grazing by 

developing extensive root systems or an ability to resprout quickly. In turn, many wildlife species have 

adapted to grassland plant communities and are highly dependent on rangeland ecosystems for their habitat needs. Rangeland plant communities provide 

food, escape, nesting, and brood-rearing cover for 

many mammals, birds, and reptiles. For example, the 

bunching nature of native grasses provides excellent 

nesting habitat for ground nesting birds, such as the 

northern bobwhite quail. Rangeland grasses and forbs 

support a wide variety of insects, which serve as food 

for many grassland bird species. 

Rangeland ecosystems are adapted to a certain level 

of grazing; however, overgrazing can be severely detrimental to these ecosystems. If a site is overgrazed, 

a threshold is reached and ecosystem processes may 

change. The subsequent loss of vegetation, redistribution of nutrients, and dispersal of exotic plant species can increase erosion, degrade water quality, and 

alter the hydrology, fire regime, and plant and animal community of a site. Conversely, if grazing were 

completely removed from rangeland ecosystems, the 

plant community would go through a number of successional stages, leading to a dominance of woody 

plants. Woody encroachment in rangelands reduces 

their attractiveness for grassland-dependent wildlife 

species. 

Flood-adapted systems

The interface between water and land can be subject to daily, seasonal, and long-term changes. Plants 

found within this dynamic zone must be tolerant of 

short- to long-term inundation, have sufficient structure to withstand the physical force of moving water, 

or be capable of rapidly colonizing flood-prone areas 

between events.

In river and stream ecosystems, floods move water 

and sediment through the channel and onto the flood 

plain. High water flows maintain ecosystem productivity and diversity by removing fine sediments that 

would otherwise fill the interstitial spaces in productive gravel habitats. Floods bring leafy and woody material into the channel, which creates structure and 

provides detrital foods for aquatic species. Many temporary habitats, such as river bars and riffle-pool sequences, are formed and maintained by high flows.

Animals associated with areas subject to flooding 

have adapted to varying flow regimes, including seasonal flooding and droughts, and long-term, more intense flood events. The timing of floods is important 

because the life cycles of many aquatic and riparian species are timed to either avoid or exploit floods 

and/or droughts. For example, the seed release of riparian trees such as willows and cottonwoods is synchronized with the timing of spring-flood recession 

to maximize dispersal efficiency. Native fish in desert 

streams avoid being affected by flash floods by sensing higher flow speeds and moving to sheltered areas 

within the stream. Stoneflies and other aquatic insects 

enter their diapause stage (a period during which 

growth or development is suspended and physiological activity is diminished) during the drought season. 

Several species of fish exhibit seasonal movement to 

escape drought or post-flood spawning. Adaptations 

such as these allow plants and animals to persist in 

seemingly harsh floods and droughts.

The natural flow regimes of river and stream ecosystems have been important in the evolution of the 

plants and animals therein. However, these natural 

flow regimes have been severely altered by the use of 

rivers for transportation, waste disposal, and hydroelectricity, intensive agriculture, flood-control projects, and other human activities. In the United States, 

only 2 percent of rivers remain in their natural, unmodified condition. The natural functions of large 

river-flood plain ecosystems have practically disappeared, principally because of human efforts to contain flooding. The alteration of flow regimes by human activity has resulted in species extirpations, 

fishery closures, ground water depletion, declines 

in water quality and availability, invasions by nonna- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

North American bison
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management



tive species, and more frequent and intense flooding. 

However, many river restoration projects are increasingly attempting to return to a more natural flow regime. 

Many of the important and highly productive depressional wetlands (prairie potholes) of the upper 

Midwest have been altered or destroyed due to increased agricultural and commercial development. As 

a result, only an estimated 40 to 50 percent of the region’s original prairie pothole wetlands remain today. 

More than 78 percent of the remaining wetlands are 

smaller than one acre in size. These potholes, which 

seasonally flood with snowmelt and rain, are home to 

more than 50 percent of North American migratory 

waterfowl, with many species dependent on the potholes for breeding and feeding.

Disturbance management

When managing ecological sites, it is important to recognize the historical disturbance regime of the site, 

their importance, and how they continue to influence 

the ecosystem. The goal of disturbance management 

should be to restore ecosystem processes (e.g. energy flow, nutrient cycling, or water cycling) to support sustainable use of the land. When management 

actions are focused on restoring these processes, the 

outcome will be an ecosystem in sustained, dynamic 

equilibrium, with natural interactions among disturbances, soils, and the plant and animal community.

Prescribed burning

From a biological and ecological perspective, the only 

known substitute for wildfires is prescribed burning. 

Prescribed burning is an inexpensive way to restore 

ecosystems and landscapes to their historical levels of 

biological diversity and productivity. Prescribed burning is a necessary management tool for maintaining 

wildlife habitat in forestlands, shrublands, and grasslands, including successional habitat for some endangered or threatened species such as the lesser and 

greater prairie-chickens. Using prescribed burning, 

landowners can suppress nonnative or invasive species, improve forage production and palatability, improve timber production by reducing logging debris 

and leaf litter, control diseases and parasites in livestock and wildlife, reduce the risk of wildfires, and enhance ecosystem productivity and biodiversity. 

To be safe and effective, prescribed burning must be 

planned carefully. Burn plans will vary greatly, based 

on climate and weather, vegetation type and desired 

response, topography, proximity to homes or utilities, and management goals. Consultation with fire 

management specialists is highly recommended (and 

Cycle of drying (a and b) and reflooding (c) for a pothole in central Minnesota

Bill Hohman, NRCS

(b)

Bill Hohman, NRCS

(a)

Bill Hohman, NRCS

(c)
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

is often required by law); they can help landowners develop a customized burn plan and ensure that 

landowners are operating within state and local laws. 

Local NRCS or Conservation District offices can offer 

assistance in developing a prescribed burn management plan to meet specific objectives.

Burns are generally not conducted every year. The frequency of prescribed burns varies among forestlands, 

grasslands, and shrublands, depending on the historical fire regimes of the ecological site. Within grassland systems, frequency of burning increases with annual moisture from 2 to 4 years in tallgrass prairies to 

over 10 years in shortgrass prairies. The frequency of 

burns also depends on management goals. To control 

sprouting woody plants such as oak, elm, mesquite, 

osage orange, blackberry, or sagebrush, burning every 

2 years is necessary. To control nonsprouting woody 

plants, such as eastern red cedar or Ashe’s juniper, 

burning every 5 to 10 years is sufficient.

The burn season varies depending on management 

goals. Some prefer to burn as late as possible in the 

spring, when warm-season grasses are initiating 

growth. However, waiting until late spring can result 

in destruction of ground nesting bird and mammal 

nests, so late winter or early spring is often better. 

However, summer or fall burns may be needed for 

specific vegetation management problems. Many prescribed burns are conducted during cool, moist conditions to reduce the chance of the fire spreading 

out of control. Landowners should not burn during a 

drought, or if there is a forecasted frontal passage or 

wind shift within 12 hours. The 60:40 rule states that 

burns should be conducted when the air temperature 

is less than 60 degrees Fahrenheit, the relative humidity is greater than 40 percent, and the wind speed is 

5 to 15 miles per hour, measured at 6 feet above the 

ground.

Firebreaks are used to contain the fire within the 

boundary of the burn unit and to assist with reducing 

fuel along the boundary. Firebreaks vary in type and 

can include mowed, disked, plowed, or dozed areas, 

roads, or bodies of water. The best firebreak method will be determined by the characteristics specific to the land area that is to be burned. In general, the 

width of the firebreak on the downwind side of the 

fire should be 10 times the height of flammable vegetation. The firebreak should be prepared at least 6 

months ahead of the burning date. 

Grazing

Rangeland ecologists consider herbivory to be a key 

natural disturbance in the evolution of rangeland ecosystems. While the numbers of large herbivorous wildlife have decreased substantially in the last two centuries, this natural disturbance can be replicated using 

livestock as the primary grassland grazers. In the absence of livestock or other herbivores, haying and/or 

mowing can be used to simulate the effects of grazing.

When planning a grazing program, landowners should 

determine the carrying capacity of the land, that is, 

the amount of forage that can be grazed before degrading the ecosystem, losing soil to erosion, or losing 

biodiversity. If livestock graze at a rate higher than the 

carrying capacity, then production of desirable forage 

species will decline, livestock production will decline, 

and the necessity for supplemental feed and weed 

control will increase.

Planned grazing systems provide opportunities to optimize harvest efficiency, as well as periodic rest to 

allow plants to recover from grazing. A rotational 

grazing system, allowing plants a periodic rest from 

grazing during the growing season, is most beneficial to rangeland vegetation. Two, three, or four pasture systems allowing a rest for plants in the early 

growing season (May, June) or the late growing season (August, September) are improvements over continuous grazing. If enough land is available, the same 

herd of livestock could rotate through eight or more 

paddocks, although fewer paddocks will work. As the 

number of paddocks increases, the total rest for each 

paddock increases.

Patch burning/rotational grazing without 

fencing

In many ecosystems, natural disturbances interact 

with each other. Historically, rangeland ecosystems 

have been shaped by two major natural disturbances: 

fire and grazing. This type of interactive disturbance 

is re-created with a process called patch burning, also 

known as rotational grazing without fencing. Patch 

burning systems vary the season, frequency, and severity of fires, as well as the size and location of grazNRCS

Prescribed burning
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

ing areas, resulting in an uneven distribution of grazing and fire that is similar to what occurred before 

European settlement. Patch burning re-creates the 

natural disturbance pattern on the landscape, increasing biodiversity and wildlife habitat. This management 

tool can also improve livestock production by increasing the diversity of forage species that livestock consume.

Patch burning uses prescribed fire, rather than fences, to control livestock herbivory. When using patch 

burning, spatially discrete fires are applied to a portion of total grazing area each year. Though they have 

access to the entire area, livestock will focus their 

grazing on recently burned patches due to the highquality regrowth after fire. New portions of the pasture are burned periodically, and grazing animals shift 

to more recently burned patches. As grazing shifts, 

successional processes lead to changes in the plant 

community, which will eventually return to the preburn state, ready to be burned again. Patch burning 

creates a landscape that is always changing, but always includes heavily disturbed communities, moderately disturbed communities, and undisturbed communities. Ideal patch size and fire-return intervals 

depend on management goals and the amount of time 

required for patches to recover. For example, in North 

American tallgrass prairies, a landowner could burn 

one-third of a pasture each year (half of the third in 

the summer and half in the spring), which allows an 

interval between burns of 3 years.

Restoring natural flow regimes

Every aquatic system has a unique natural flow regime that is characterized by flow quantity, timing, 

and variability. Variability can take place over hours, 

days, seasons, years, or longer, and it is this variability 

that is critical to healthy aquatic ecosystem functions 

and biodiversity. When managing aquatic ecosystems, 

such as wetlands or rivers and their flood plains, the 

most important management goal should be to reestablish natural flow regimes. This may involve removing dams and spillways, reducing irrigation, or safeguarding against upstream development and land uses 

that alter runoff and sediment in the waterway. 

The first step in reestablishing a natural flow regime is 

to determine what that flow regime actually is. Once 

the natural flow regime has been defined, management actions to restore it can take a number of forms. 

Some systems may need a restoration of low flows, 

while others may require a return to historical timing, 

magnitude, and duration of peak flows. Unfortunately, 

it is not always possible to define a system’s natural 

flow regime, due to human alterations of the system 

or a lack of historical data. If this is the case, landowners should consult with natural resource professionals to design the most appropriate flow regime 

management plan based on the site’s climate, hydrology, and plant and animal community.

Landowner assistance

Landowners may require additional information 

(about permits, regulations, historical fire and/or water regimes, local best management practices) before undertaking a disturbance management plan. 

Landowners may also need financial assistance to 

manage disturbance on their properties. There are a 

number of governmental agencies and other organizations willing to provide assistance to landowners 

wishing to manage disturbance. Landowners are encouraged to begin their disturbance management activities by contacting these organizations. State and/

NRCS

Rancher practices rotational grazing

Bill Hohman, NRCS

Grasses resprout quickly after prescribed burning
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

or local contacts for a number of relevant government 

agencies can be found by visiting the Web sites listed 

in table 1 or by consulting the local telephone directory. Table 2 lists programs that can provide technical 

and/or financial assistance for disturbance management practices. 

Organization Web site

Farm Service Agency http://www.fsa.usda.gov/edso/statedefault.htm

Natural Resources Conservation Service http://offices.sc.egov.usda.gov/locator/app

State Fish and Wildlife Departments http://www.lib.washington.edu/fish/fandg/fandglist.html

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service http://www.fws.gov/offices/directory/listofficemap.html

Wildlife Habitat Council http://www.wildlifehc.org 

Table 1 Organizations providing assistance for disturbance management

Conclusion

Until recently, land managers have not recognized 

the value of natural disturbances and have often suppressed these disturbances. However, natural disturbance such as fires, floods, and herbivory are critical 

in maintaining valuable ecosystem functions and creating and restoring wildlife habitat. With assistance 

from conservation and governmental organizations, 

landowners can learn to recognize natural disturbances and re-create them on their properties.
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

Program Description Land eligibility Opportunities for disturbance management ContactConservation Reserve Program (CRP)

Up to 50% cost-share for establishing permanent cover and conservation practices, and annual rental payments for land enrolled in 10- to 15-yr contracts. 50% cost-share for management activities

Highly erodible land, wetland, and certain other lands with cropping history, stream-side areas in pasture land

Annual rental payments may include an additional amount up to $5/a/yr as an incentive to performcertain maintenance obligations, including disturbance management activities

NRCS or FSA State or local office

Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)

Cost-share and incentive payments for conservation practices in accordance with 1- to 10-yr contracts

Cropland, range, grazing land, and other agricultural land in need of conservation

Incentive payments may be provided for up to 3 years to encourage producers to carry out management practices, including disturbance management practices, that may not otherwise be carried out

NRCS State or local office

Grassland Reserve Program (GRP)

Financial incentives, technical assistance, and cost-share for enhancement and restoration of grasslands in permanent or 30-yr easements or rental agreements

Restored, improved or natural grassland, rangeland, pastureland, shrubland, and certain other lands

Participants must follow a site-specific grassland resources conservation plan, which can include disturbance management practices for the sustainability of forage health and habitat enhancement for declining populations of grassland dependant wildlife

NRCS State or local office

Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program (PFW)

Up to 100% financial and technical assistance to restore wildlife habitat under a minimum 10-yr cooperative agreement

Most degraded fish and/or wildlife habitat

Restoration projects may include restoring wetland hydrology or performing prescribed burning to restore natural disturbance regimes

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service local office

Waterways for Wildlife

Technical and program development assistance to coalesce habitat efforts of corporations and private landowners to meet common watershed level goals

Private lands Can provide State-specific advice and/or contacts for 

prescribed burning, managed grazing, restoration of flow regimes, or other disturbance management practices

Wildlife HabitatCouncil

Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP)

Technical and financial assistance to address wetland, wildlife habitat, soil, water, and related natural resource concerns in an environmentally beneficial and cost-effective manner; 75% cost-share for wetland restoration under 10-yr contracts and 30-yr easements; 100% cost-share on restoration under permanent easements

Previously degraded wetland and adjacent upland buffer, with limited amount of natural wetland and existing or restorable riparian areas

Can provide technical and financial assistance for disturbance management, provided these activities are consistent with the protection and enhancement of the wetland

NRCS State or local office

Wildlife at Work Technical assistance on developing habitat 

projects into programs that allow companies to involve employees and the community

Corporate lands Can provide State-specific advice and/or contacts for 

prescribed burning, managed grazing, restoration of flow regimes, or other disturbance management practices

WildlifeHabitatCouncil

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP)

Technical assistance on developing habitat projects into programs that allow companies to involve employees and the community

High-priority fish and wildlife habitats

Technical assistance is provided to help the participant maintain wildlife habitat, which may include disturbance management activities

NRCS State or local office

Table 2 Assistance programs for disturbance management 
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management



References

Success stories

American Rivers, Friends of the Earth, and Trout 

Unlimited. 1999. Dam removal success stories. 

Available at: http://www.foe.org/res/pubs/pdf/

successstories.pdf.

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, Canaveral National Seashore. 2003. Fire 

management. Titusville, FL. Available at: http://

www.nps.gov/fire/download/pub_fir03_cana_

scrubjay.pdf. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, Southern Plains Fire Park Group, 

Meredith National Recreation Area. 2003. 

Fire management: prescribed fire. Fritch, TX. 

Available at: http://www.nps.gov/fire/download/

pub_fir03_lamr_spfpg.pdf. 

U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service. 

2003. Redwood uses prescribed fire to manage 

cultural landscapes. Available at: http://www.

nps.gov/fire/public/pub_fir03_redw_cultural.

html.

Online sources

Forest Health Protection. n.d. The role of disturbance 

in ecosystem management. http://www.fs.fed.

us/r10/spf/fhp/role_disturb.htm [Accessed 21 

February 2005].

Printed sources

Bayley, P.B. 1995. Understanding large river flood 

plain ecosystems. BioScience 45: 153–158. 

Bidwell, T.G. Grazing management on rangeland for 

beef production E–926. Oklahoma Cooperative 

Extension Service, Division of Agricultural 

Sciences and Natural Resources, Oklahoma 

State University.

Bidwell, T.G., D.M. Engle, J.R. Weir, R.E. Masters, and 

J.D. Carlson. Fire prescriptions for maintenance 

and restoration of native plant communities. 

Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, 

Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural 

Resources, Oklahoma State University.

Bidwell, T.G., J.R. Weir, J.D. Carlson, M.E. Moseley, 

R.E. Masters, R. McDowell, D M. Engle, S.D. 

Fuhlendorf, J. Waymire, and S. Conrady. 2003. 

Using prescribed fire in Oklahoma. Oklahoma 

Cooperative Extension Service, Division of 

Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, 

Oklahoma State University; USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service; Oklahoma 

Department of Agriculture, Food, and Forestry; 

and Oklahoma Department of Wildlife 

Conservation.

Dwire, K.A., and J.B. Kauffman. 2003. Fire and riparian ecosystems in landscapes of the western 

USA. Forest Ecology and Management

178: 61–74.

Fuhlendorf, S.D., and D.M. Engle. 2004. Application of 

the fire-grazing interaction to restore a shifting 

mosaic on tallgrass prairie. Journal of Applied 

Ecology 41: 604–614.

Fuhlendorf, S.D., and D.M. Engle. 2001. Restoring 

heterogeneity on rangelands: Ecosystem management based on evolutionary grazing patterns. 

BioScience 51: 625–632.

Higgins, K.F., A.D. Kruse, and J.L. Piehl. 1989. 

Prescribed burning guidelines in the Northern 

Great Plains. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Jamestown, ND. Available at: http://www.npwrc.

usgs.gov/resource/tools/burning/burning.htm. 

Lotan, J.E., and J.K. Brown. 1985. Fire’s effects 

on wildlife habitat–symposium proceedings: Missoula, Montana, March 21, 1984. 

Intermountain Research Station, Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ogden, UT. 

Lytle, D.A., and N.L. Poff. 2004. Adaptation to natural 

flow regimes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 

19: 94–100.

Miller, D., C. Luce, and L. Benda. 2003. Time, space, 

and episodicity of physical disturbance in 

streams. Forest Ecology and Management

178: 121–140. 

Pickett, S.T.A., and P.S. White. 1985. The ecology 

of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. 

Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

10

Poff, N.L., J.D. Allan, M.B. Bain, J.R. Karr, K.L. 

Prestegaard, B.D. Richter, R.E. Sparks, and J.C. 

Stromberg. 1997. The natural flow regime: A paradigm for river conservation and restoration. 

BioScience 47: 769–84. 

Reice, S.R. 2001. The silver lining: the benefits of 

natural disasters. Princeton University Press, 

Princeton, NJ. 

Stringham, T.K., P.J. Mieman, and L.E. Eddleman. 

2001. States, transitions, and thresholds: further 

refinement for rangeland applications. Special 

Report 1024, Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.

Swanson, F.J., S.L. Johnson, S.V. Gregory, and S.A. 

Acker. 1998. Flood disturbance in a forested 

mountain landscape. BioScience 48: 681–689.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service. 2003. National range and 

pasture handbook. Washington, D.C.
Importance of Disturbance in Habitat Management

11

Primary author: Raissa Marks, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts reviewed by Rob Pauline, Wildlife Habitat 

Council; William Hohman and Pat Graham, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Jim Herkert, 

The Nature Conservancy; Roger Pederson, Ducks Unlimited; Tim McCoy, Nebraska Parks and Game 

Commission; Wes Burger, Mississippi State University

www.nrcs.usda.gov

Wildlife Habitat Council

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 588–8994

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council 

is to increase the amount of quality wildlife 

habitat on corporate, private, and public land. 

WHC engages corporations, public agencies, 

and private, nonprofit organizations on a 

voluntary basis as one team for the recovery, 

development, and preservation of wildlife 

habitat worldwide.

www.wildlifehc.org

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

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The Natural Resources Conservation Service 

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