Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water 

Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000

By Robert A. Renken, Joann Dixon, John Koehmstedt, Scott Ishman, A.C. Lietz, Richard L. Marella, Pamela Telis, 

Jeff Rodgers, and Steven Memberg

Prepared as part of the 

U.S. Geological Survey Greater Everglades Priority Ecosystems Science Program

Circular 1275

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
ii

U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

For more information about the USGS and its products:

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Renken, R.A., Dixon, Joann, Koehmstedt, John, Lietz, A.C., Ishman, Scott, Marella, R.L., Telis, Pamela, Rogers, Jeff, 

and Memberg, Steven, 2005, Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1275, 77 p. 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Impact of anthropogenic development on coastal ground-water hydrology in southeastern Florida, 1900-2000 / by Robert A. Renken ...

 [et al.] ; prepared as part of the U.S. Geological Survey Greater Everglades Priority Ecosystems Science Program.

 p. cm. -- (Circular ; 1275)

 Includes bibliographical references.

 ISBN 0-607-96286-0 (alk. paper)

 1. Water-supply--Florida--Management--Environmental aspects. 2. Land use--Environmental aspects--Florida. 3. Water resources 

development--Environmental aspects--Florida. 4. Groundwater--Florida. I. Renken, Robert A. II. U.S. Geological Survey Greater 

Everglades Priority Ecosystems Science Program. III. Geological Survey (U.S.) IV. U.S. Geological Survey circular ; 1275. 

 TD224.F6I57 2005

 

 2005040409
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................3

Sources of Land-Use and Population Information..........................................................................3

Description of Study Area ............................................................................................................................4

Hydrogeology.........................................................................................................................................7

Hydrochemistry...................................................................................................................................11

Changes in Land Use and Population Trends.................................................................................14

Water and Land Uses..................................................................................................................................18

Municipal Withdrawals......................................................................................................................18

Agricultural Water and Land Uses...................................................................................................25

Land-Use Classification............................................................................................................26

Methods Used to Estimate Water Use...................................................................................26

Findings on Agricultural Water Use........................................................................................26

Mining .........................................................................................................................................27

Use of Alternative Aquifers for Supply and Wastewater Management....................................34

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of 

Southeastern Florida .....................................................................................................................37

Water-Table Fluctuations of the Surficial Aquifer System...........................................................42

Predevelopment Water-Table Conditions and Ground-Water Flow..................................42

Average 1940-44 Water-Table Conditions..............................................................................45

Average 1970-74 Water-Table Conditions..............................................................................49

Average 1990-94 Water-Table Conditions..............................................................................50

Ground-Water Level Changes Over Time .......................................................................................50

Surface-Water Discharge .................................................................................................................54

Assessment of Saltwater Intrusion .................................................................................................56

Changes in the Marine Ecosystem of Biscayne Bay....................................................................61

Summary........................................................................................................................................................70

Selected References...................................................................................................................................72
iv

Compact Disc

[In pocket]

Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern 

Florida, 1900-2000 with Appendix of Geographic Information System (GIS) Data Layers

Figures

1. Map showing location of the urban-agricultural corridor of southeastern Florida ..........3

2. Graph showing population growth in southeastern Florida, 1900 to 2000...........................4

3-5. Maps showing:

3. Typical average annual, wet-season, and dry-season rainfall patterns in 

southern Florida....................................................................................................................5

4. Anticipated rainfall during an extreme 3-day rainfall event for a 100-year 

return period in southern Florida.......................................................................................6

5. Physiographic provinces in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties.......6

6. Hydrogeologic section showing geologic formations, aquifers, and confining 

units of the surficial aquifer system in central Miami-Dade County....................................7

7. Maps showing configuration of bedrock surface underlying peat deposits and 

distribution of peat deposits in southeastern Florida.............................................................8

8. Schematics showing Everglades drainage conveyance features that contributed 

to a gradual loss of peat and peat soils through subsidence, compaction, and 

oxidation.........................................................................................................................................9

9. Map showing base and extent of the surficial aquifer system in southeastern 

Florida ...........................................................................................................................................10

10. Map showing distribution of transmissivity within the surficial aquifer system in 

southeastern Florida ..................................................................................................................11

11. Fence diagram showing hydrochemical facies within the surficial aquifer system 

in southeastern Florida ..............................................................................................................12

12. Maps showing distribution of dissolved chloride and specific conductance at 

depths of 50, 100, and 150 feet within the surficial aquifer system in southeastern 

Florida ...........................................................................................................................................13

13-15. Maps showing land-use conditions and population in southeastern Florida during:

13. 1900 and 1920 ......................................................................................................................15

14. 1940 and 1960 ......................................................................................................................16

15. 1980 and 2000 ......................................................................................................................17
16. Graph showing water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties, 

1965-2000......................................................................................................................................18

17. Pie charts showing ground- and surface-water uses in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach Counties by category, 1965 and 2000 ........................................................19

 18-20. Maps showing municipal ground-water withdrawals in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

andPalm Beach Counties in:

18. 1930, 1940, and 1950 ...........................................................................................................22

19. 1965, 1970, and 1980 ...........................................................................................................23

20. 1985, 1990, and 1995 ...........................................................................................................24

21. Photograph showing workmen cultivating a field of tomatoes near 

Pompano Beach..........................................................................................................................25

22. Maps showing estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach Counties during 1953 and 1977, and, 1988 and 1995 ...............................30

23. Maps showing the extent of limestone borrow pit mines in the Lake Belt area

in 1963 and 1975, and, 1984 and 1992.......................................................................................32

24. Photographs showing Lake Belt limestone borrow-pit mine in Miami-Dade County .....34

25. Photographs showing artificial lakes along the Sawgrass Expressway in 

reclaimed wetland areas adjoining water-conservation areas in Broward County.......35

26. Maps showing hypothetical aquifer storage and recovery pressure buildup 

in the Upper Floridan aquifer using the Hantush-Jacob (1955) analytical model, 

assuming relatively high transmissivity and confining bed leakance or relatively 

low transmissivity and confining bed leakance ....................................................................36

27. Map showing surface-water conveyance features in Miami-Dade, Broward,

 and Palm Beach Counties in 1920, 1930, and 1940 ...............................................................38

28. Poster used to attract buyers of newly drained agricultural lands....................................39

29. Photograph showing dredging of the Miami Canal at Hialeah in 1919 and the 

South New River Canal at Davie in 1920.................................................................................39

30. Political cartoons published for the “Back to Broward League”.......................................40

31. Poster announcing the historic completion of Hoover Dike at Lake Okeechobee..........41

32. Photographs showing extensive flooding in Hialeah and Fort Lauderdale caused 

by major hurricanes that hit southeastern Florida in 1947 and 1948, respectively..........41

33. Photograph showing the “weeping cow” ..............................................................................42

34. Maps showing surface-water conveyance system in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach Counties in 1950 and 1960 ...........................................................................43

35. Maps showing surface-water conveyance system in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach Counties in 1970 and 1990 ...........................................................................44

36. Photograph showing gated coastal control structure at the eastern end of

Snake Creek Canal .....................................................................................................................45
v

i

37. Diagrams showing canals of southern Florida exhibiting both gaining and losing 

characteristics depending on relative stage level................................................................45

 38-40. Maps showing average water levels in the surficial aquifer system in 

southeastearn Florida during:

38. April 1940-44 and October 1940-44 ..................................................................................46

39. April 1970-74 and October 1970-74 ..................................................................................47

40. April 1990-94 and October 1990-94 ..................................................................................48

41. Photographs showing City of Miami water well in 1899(?) located at the Miami 

River headwaters and unidentified man withdrawing water from freshwater 

spring in Biscayne Bay in 1890.................................................................................................49

42-44. Maps showing average difference in water levels between:

42. April 1940-44 and April 1990-94 and between October 1940-44 and 

October 1990-94..................................................................................................................51

43. April 1940-44 and April 1970-74 and between October 1940-44 and 

October 1970-74..................................................................................................................52

44. April 1970-74 and April 1990-94 and between October 1970-74 and 

October 1990-94..................................................................................................................53

45. Hydrograph showing average departure in rainfall from monthly mean 

average conditions at 14 sites in southeastern Florida........................................................54

46. Hydrographs showing dampening of variations in ground-water levels following 

emplacement of the Everglades-South Dade Conveyance System...................................55

47. Map showing location of selected surface-water sites used to monitor canal stage 

and flow in southeastern Florida..............................................................................................57

 48. Hydrographs showing long-term mean monthly stage and discharge during the 

wet season (May-October) and dry season (November-April) at selected surfacewater sites along the coastal reach of major canals in southeastern Florida.................58

 49. Hydrographs showing long-term mean monthly stage and discharge during the 

wet season (May-October) and dry season (November-April) at selected surfacewater sites along the western margin and urban reach of major canals in 

southeastern Florida ..................................................................................................................59

50. Map showing line depicting the landward limit of the saltwater interface in 

southeastern Florida in 1996 .....................................................................................................60

51. Cross sections through the Cutler Ridge area showing lines of equal chloride 

concentration and the results from a flow-net analysis, September 18, 1958 .................61

52. Cross section through the Silver Bluff area showing the zone of diffusion......................62

53. Maps showing saltwater intrusion near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 

1904-43..........................................................................................................................................63
vii

54. Maps showing saltwater intrusion near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 

1946-62..........................................................................................................................................64

55. Maps showing saltwater intrusion near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 

1969-95..........................................................................................................................................65

56. Map showing saltwater intrusion in southern Broward and northern MiamiDade Counties in 1945, 1969, and 1993 ....................................................................................66

57. Schematic diagram showing movement of the saltwater interface near the 

Hallandale Well Field in southern Broward County, 1976-1999...........................................67

58. Distribution of selected fauna related to underlying hydrologic factors in the 

Cutler Ridge area ........................................................................................................................68

59. Map showing salinity estimates in Biscayne Bay during 1850-1900 and 

August 1996..................................................................................................................................69

60. Graphs showing relative abundance of three benthic foraminifera (Articulina 

mucronata, Archaias angulatus, and Miliolinella circularis) in cores FB1 and 

MB1 from Biscayne Bay............................................................................................................69

Tables

1. Municipal water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties from 

1930 to 1995..................................................................................................................................20

2-5. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach 

Counties in:

2. 1953.......................................................................................................................................27

3. 1977.......................................................................................................................................28

4. 1983.......................................................................................................................................28

5. 1995.......................................................................................................................................29
viii

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, Acronyms and 

Vertical Datum

Multiply By To obtain

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter

inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day

foot per year (ft/yr) 0.3048 meter per year

foot squared per day (ft2/d) 0.09290 meter squared per day

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.028317 cubic meter per second

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer

acre 0.4047 hectare

gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06308 liter per second

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second

ton, short 0.9072 megagram (Mg)
ix

Additional abbreviated units

mg/L milligrams per liter

ppt parts per thousand

μS/cm microsiemens per centimeter

Acronyms

ASR Aquifer storage and recovery

CERP Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

GIRAS Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis System

GIS Geographic Information System

LWDD Lake Worth Drainage District

SFWMD South Florida Water Management District

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) 

as follows:

°C = (°F − 32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum 

of 1929 (NGVD 1929); horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North 

American Datum of 1983 (NAD83).

Abstract

Southeastern Florida is an area that has been subject to widely conflicting 

anthropogenic stress to the Everglades and coastal ecosystems. This stress is a direct 

consequence of the 20th century economic competition for limited land and water 

resources needed to satisfy agricultural development and its expansion, its displacement by burgeoning urban development, and the accompanying growth of the limestone mining industry. The development of a highly controlled water-management 

system designed to reclaim land for urban and agricultural development has severely 

impacted the extent, character, and vitality of the historic Everglades and coastal 

ecosystems. An extensive conveyance system of canals, levees, impoundments, surface-water control structures, and numerous municipal well fields are used to sustain 

the present-day Everglades hydrologic system, prevent overland flow from moving 

eastward and flooding urban and agricultural areas, maintain water levels to prevent 

saltwater intrusion, and provide an adequate water supply. Extractive mining activities expanded considerably in the latter part of the 20th century, largely in response to 

urban construction needs. 

Much of the present-day urban-agricultural corridor of southeastern Florida lies 

within an area that is no more than 15 feet above NGVD 1929 and formerly characterized by freshwater marsh, upland, and saline coastal wetland ecosystems. MiamiDade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties have experienced explosive population 

growth, increasing from less than 4,000 inhabitants in 1900 to more than 5 million 

in 2000. Ground-water use, the principal source of municipal supply, has increased 

from about 65 Mgal/d (million gallons per day) obtained from 3 well fields in 1930 

to more than 770 Mgal/d obtained from 65 well fields in 1995. Water use for 

agricultural supply increased from 505 Mgal/d in 1953 to nearly 1,150 Mgal/d in 

1988, but has since declined to 764 Mgal/d in 1995, partly as a result of displacement 

of the agricultural industry by urban growth. Present-day agricultural supplies are 

obtained largely from surface-water sources in Palm Beach County and ground-water 

sources in Miami-Dade County, whereas Broward County agricultural growers have 

been largely displaced. 

The construction of a complex canal drainage system and large well fields has 

substantially altered the surface- and ground-water hydrologic systems. The drainage system constructed between 1910 and 1928 mostly failed to transport flood 

flows, however, and exacerbated periods of low rainfall and drought by overdraining the surficial aquifer system. Following completion of the 1930s Hoover Dike 

levee system that was designed to reduce Lake Okeechobee flood flows, the Central 

and Southern Florida Flood Control Project initiated the restructure of the existing conveyance system in 1948 through canal expansion, construction of protective 

levees and control structures, and greater management of ground-water levels in the 

surficial aquifer system.

Gated canal control structures discharge excess surface water during the wet 

season and remain closed during the dry season to induce recharge by canal seepage 

and well withdrawals. Management of surface water through canal systems has successfully maintained lower ground-water levels inland to curb urban and agricultural 

flooding, and has been used to increase ground-water levels near the coast to impede 

saltwater intrusion. Coastal discharge, however, appears to have declined, due in part 

to water being rerouted to secondary canals, and to induced recharge to the surficial 

aquifer system by large municipal withdrawals. 

Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water 

Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000

By Robert A. Renken, Joann Dixon, John Koehmstedt, A.C. Lietz, Scott Ishman, Richard Marella, Pamela Telis, Jeff Rogers, and Steven Memberg

Abstract   
Southeastern Florida is underlain by Holocene- to Tertiary-age karstic limestone 

deposits that form (in descending order): a highly prolific surficial aquifer system, a 

poorly permeable intermediate confining system, and a permeable Floridan aquifer 

system. Prior to construction of a complex drainage network, a widespread uppermost veneer of fresh wetland peat and muck deposits served to store water, maintained a higher water table (prolonging the Everglades hydroperiod), and ultimately 

helped to limit movement of the coastal saltwater interface. The highly permeable 

Biscayne aquifer, which is part of the surficial aquifer system, yields 1,000 to more 

than 7,000 gallons per minute to wells. By 2000, the Floridan aquifer system was 

used for aquifer storage and recovery and reverse osmosis at some sites in southern 

Florida, but primarily was used for wastewater injection purposes; the efficacy of 

such systems has been increasingly the subject of public scrutiny.

Prior to construction of the drainage system, the ground-water table reflected 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge topography, and springs reportedly discharged as freshwater 

boils. Everglades surface waters discharged southward toward Florida Bay and in 

the transverse glade areas. The modern-day ground-water table reflects the effect of 

canal systems, levees, impoundments, and the drawdown effects of larger well fields. 

The saltwater interface forms a broad zone of diffusion, and its position is 

largely a function of lateral movement of seawater from the Atlantic Ocean, seepage 

from tidal canals, and upconing of relict seawater. Emplacement of conveyance and 

drainage canals, subsequent compaction and oxidation of inland peat and muck soils 

(which served previously to maintain higher water levels within the surficial aquifer 

system, including the Biscayne aquifer), and increased withdrawals from municipal 

supply wells collectively altered the natural balance between freshwater and saltwater considerably. Saltwater intrusion has been a concern in southeastern Florida 

since the early 1930s; its effects were most pronounced in Miami-Dade and Broward 

Counties during the 1940s and 1950s, respectively. Canal drainage appears to have 

had the most widespread impact on saltwater intrusion, lowering water levels in the 

surficial aquifer system and contributing to landward movement of the interface. 

Core sample paleontologic observations of salinity and the distribution of 

seagrass in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay suggest that the coastal marine ecosystem 

system during the 20th century has been impacted considerably by anthropogenic 

activities. Land use and water-management practices have increased nutrient loads 

and other pollutants and increased bay turbidity. Prior to 1900, the Biscayne Bay 

ecosystem was characterized by much lower marine salinities, including the extreme 

southern part of the bay, which contained waters that were nearly fresh. Consistent 

with the progressive inland saltwater intrusion into the surficial aquifer system and 

the Biscayne aquifer, the increase in salinity interpreted for surface- and groundwater resources in the early 1900s through the 1970s is the result of increased urban 

development and construction of a canal drainage system. Post-1940 water-management practices to control water discharge greatly affected the Biscayne Bay 

ecosystem by increasing the frequency, and particularly the magnitude of salinity 

fluctuations in the 1940s. Clearly, the changes in land use and water-management 

practices over the long term have had a profound effect on the ground-water 

hydrology of southeastern Florida.

Introduction

The urban and agricultural corridor of southeastern Florida generally lies 

between the Everglades and water-conservation areas to the west and the 

Atlantic Ocean to the east but includes the Everglades Agricultural Area south of 

Lake Okeechobee (fig. 1). The area in eastern Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm 

Beach Counties is subject to widely opposing stresses on the environment. A highly 

controlled water-management system evolved during the 20th century to provide 

drained land for a rapidly expanding population. Drainage of Everglades wetland 

areas during the last 75 years has provided continuous opportunity for the westward 

expansion of agricultural, mining, and urban activities. The population of southeastern Florida increased from about 3,500 inhabitants in 1900 to about 5 million in 2000 

(fig. 2). The tri-county area under cultivation expanded from about 223,000 acres 

in 1953 to more than 590,000 acres in 1988, but declined to about 535,000 acres by 

1995.

Surface water is impounded in water-conservation areas that lie west of a 

protective levee system, partly to: sustain an Everglades ecosystem, keep overland 

sheetflow from moving eastward and flooding urban and agricultural areas, and use 

for urban and agricultural water supply. In coastal areas of the urban-agricultural 

corridor, parallel environmental conflicts exist. Coastal residential and urban areas 

must be drained for flood control; the underlying surficial aquifer system simultaneously serves as the principal source of water supply, and ground-water levels must be 

maintained to prevent coastal saltwater intrusion. Ground-water flow patterns have 

been altered and a reduction in ground-water discharge to coastal bays has modified 

shallow marine salinity and affected the local ecology.

Rapid urban development and population growth have placed extraordinary 

demands on the coastal environment in southeastern Florida. Changes in the coastal 

hydrology of the surficial aquifer system in the region are the direct consequences 

of water-management practices and concurrent agricultural and urban development. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), as part of its Priority Ecosystem Science 

Program, conducted a study to: (1) assess the hydrologic character of the surficial 

aquifer system, (2) review the impact of water-management controls on the groundwater system, and (3) examine the manner in which urban and agricultural areas have 

affected the ambient quality of ground water.

   Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Purpose and Scope

This report provides both a historical and synoptic (predevelopment to the late 

1990s) view of the ground-water hydrologic system in southeastern Florida that is 

of great importance to water managers and urban and environmental planners. The 

purposes of this report are to:

 • Provide a temporal and spatial overview of changes in land use, population, 

and water management systems;

 • Evaluate long-term trends in ground-water withdrawal rates for municipal and 

agricultural supply;

 • Examine long-term change in ground-water levels, trends in surface-water 

flow, and the change in ground-water chloride concentrations;

 • Review causal relations between the position of the saltwater interface and 

water-management practices; and

 • Illustrate the impact of urban development on coastal ground-water hydrology 

and its effect on the shallow marine hydrology.

Maps, graphs, charts, and photographs are presented to illustrate and define historic 

and present-day hydrologic conditions in the eastern urban and agricultural corridor 

of southern Florida. 

Sources of Land-Use and Population Information

All of the land-use maps in this report are compilations from several different 

sources of historical content, including the following:

 • Broward County Department of Land Use, Broward County Planning Council, Fort Lauderdale (Don Waldron, Senior Planner),

 • Florida Department of State, Division of Library and Information Services, 

Bureau of Archives and Records Management, Tallahassee,

 • Historical Museum of Southern Florida, Research Center, Miami,

 • Miami-Dade Department of Planning and Zoning, Office of Public Works, 

Miami (Frank McCuene, Administrator),

 • Palm Beach County Department of Planning, Zoning and Building, West 

Palm Beach (Dick Morely, Principal Planner; Marty Hodgkins, Director of 

Zoning),

MARTIN COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami

West

Palm

Beach

PALM BEACH COUNTY

EVERGLADES

AGRICULTURAL

AREA

COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Lake

Okeechobee

PALM BEACH COUNTY

80°45 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

WCA1

WCA 2A

WCA 2B

WCA3A

WCA3AB

STUDY

AREA

Urban-agricultural

corridor

Tamiami Canal

Tamiami Trail

Figure 1. Location of 

the urban-agricultural 

corridor of southeastern Florida. The 

April 1999 map image 

modified from Earth 

Satellite Corporation 

(2004).

Introduction 
Description of Study Area

Low topographic relief characterizes southeastern Florida, with most areas lying 

less than 15 ft above NGVD 1929. Prior to development, Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach Counties included a broad array of aquatic, semiaquatic, and upland 

habitats. Many of these habitats now have been altered or destroyed as a result of 

agricultural and urban development. Populated urban areas continue to encroach 

upon inland agricultural lands and wetland areas.

A warm dry season (November-April) and a hot, humid wet season (MayOctober) characterize the climate of southeastern Florida. The tri-county area 

(Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties) is subject to high rates of evapotranspiration, periodic floods and droughts, and infrequent but highly destructive 

hurricanes. Annual precipitation averages 50 to 62 in., with greatest rainfall amounts 

occurring in coastal areas (fig. 3A). Between 65 and 80 percent (or between 38 and 

46 in.) of the average annual rainfall occurs from May to September due to a nearly 

daily pattern of thunderstorms and occasional tropical waves and hurricanes 

(fig. 3B). Rainfall during November to April ranges from 10 to 17 in., with greatest rainfall occurring near coastal Palm Beach County (fig. 3C). Rainfall patterns in 

southern Florida exhibit a minor bimodal wet-season peak and a 5- to 6-year cycle 

that parallels global climate patterns (Duever and others, 1994). Annual rainfall has 

ranged from a low of 37 in. to a high of 106 in. Periodic extreme climatic events 

(fig. 4) are generally associated with floods and droughts (South Florida Water Management District, 2000). Mean monthly temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, generally 

ranges from the 60s during the winter to the 80s during the summer. Evapotranspiration losses generally range from 70 to 90 percent of the annual precipitation (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers and the South Florida Water Management District, 1999). 

Southeastern Florida consists of several physiographic provinces including the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge, Big Cypress Swamp, coastal marshes and mangroves, the 

Everglades, and the Sandy Flatlands (fig. 5). The Atlantic Coastal Ridge comprises 

areas of greatest relief in the tri-county area and forms a natural barrier to drainage 

from interior areas. The ridge extends northward from southeastern Miami-Dade 

to Palm Beach County and locally is bisected by the natural sloughs and drainage 

canals. The ridge rises from 8 ft to as much as 24 ft in the north and ranges from 

2 to 10 mi wide. The low-lying Sandy Flatlands area lies west of the Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge. Farther west, the Everglades forms a 30- to 40-mi-wide natural trough (lower 

than the Sandy Flatlands) that extends southward from Lake Okeechobee and is 

subject to seasonal flooding. A coastal marsh and mangrove region borders southernmost Miami-Dade County and some parts of Broward and Palm Beach Counties. 

The Big Cypress Swamp extends into limited areas of northwestern Miami-Dade and 

southwestern Broward Counties. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS, IN THOUSANDS

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

YEAR

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

EXPLANATION

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Figure 2. Population growth in southeastern Florida, 1900 to 2000. 

Compiled from files of the U.S. Bureau of the Census (2004).

 • University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida History Collection 

(James Cusick, Curator; Mil Willis, Archivist),

 • University of Miami, Coral Gables, Special Collections 

(Daniel Blazek, Department Head), and

 • USGS historical topographic map collections, 1:24,000 scale.

The 1900-1960 land-use maps were compiled, in part, from 1900 and 1953 

land-use maps developed by Robert Costanza, Ph.D., University of Maryland. The 

1960-2000 land-use maps were compiled, in part, from city or county land-use planning maps, historical maps obtained from the above-mentioned sources, USGS landuse and land-cover maps, and South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) 

map data.

 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Hillsboro Canal

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Beach Canal

River Canal

West Palm

North

New

Hillsboro Canal

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Canal

River Canal

West

Palm

Beach

North New

Hillsboro Canal

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Canal

River Canal

West Palm

Beach

North

New

West

Palm

Beach

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

West Palm

Beach

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

West Palm Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami

A B C

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES EXPLANATION

50 LINE OF EQUAL RAINFALL -- Shown in inches.

Dashed where estimated. Interval is 2 inches

50

50

52

54

56

60

62

62

44

38

40

42

44

46

46

44

40

34

10

11

12

14

16

17

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Figure 3. Typical average (A) annual, (B) wet-season, and (C) dry-season rainfall patterns in southern Florida. From South Florida Water Management District (2000).

Description of Study Area 
Figure 4. Anticipated 

rainfall during an 

extreme 3-day rainfall 

event for a 100-year 

return period in southern Florida. From South 

Florida Water Management District (2000).

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

West

Palm

Beach

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

EVERGLADES

Lake

Okeechobee SANDY

FLATLANDS

ATLANTIC OCEAN

COASTAL MARSHES & MANGROVES

ATLANTIC COASTAL

RIDGE

BIG

CYPRESS

SWAMP

EVERGLADES

Biscayne Bay

Florida Bay

EXPLANATION

ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE

SANDY FLATLANDS

COASTAL MARSHES &

MANGROVES

EVERGLADES

BIG CYPRESS SWAMP

Hillsboro Canal

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami

Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

River

Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

North

New

12

14

15

16

18

20

EXPLANATION

12 LINE OF EQUAL RAINFALL–Shown in

inches. Dashed where approximately

estimated. Interval is 2 inches

Figure 5. Physiographic 

provinces in MiamiDade, Broward, and 

Palm Beach Counties. 

Modified from Davis 

(1943), and Parker and 

others (1955).

 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
The historic Everglades formed an approximate 3,860 mi2

 freshwater wetland 

marsh, extending from Lake Okeechobee to mangrove estuaries that border Florida 

Bay (fig. 5). Under natural predevelopment conditions, surface water exited the 

southern shoreline of Lake Okeechobee within eight rivers that traversed a dense 

custard apple tree swamp (Williams, 1883; Davis, 1943), that transitioned southward 

into sawgrass plains. Surface water then moved southward into sloughs that formed 

the Everglades (Davis and others, 1994). The Atlantic Coastal Ridge restricted eastward movement of surface water from the Everglades except in the transverse glades 

areas of lower elevation that effectively divide the Atlantic Coastal Ridge areas into a 

series of topographic “islands.” The predevelopment Everglades physiographic area 

generally was covered by surface water over much of its extent, and the low-lying 

Sandy Flatlands was subject to seasonal flooding.

Hydrogeology

Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach County are underlain by deposits of 

Holocene to Tertiary age, which comprise the surficial aquifer system, intermediate 

confining unit, and Floridan aquifer system. Holocene deposits that include inland 

freshwater peat and marl, coastal marsh peat, and beach deposits form a thin veneer 

overlying the surficial aquifer system − the principal source of water for the 

tri-county area. The intermediate confining unit underlies the surficial aquifer system 

and separates it from the deeper Floridan aquifer system (fig. 6)

Large-scale deposition of freshwater peat deposits began about 5,700 to 

4,800 years before present, infilling an elongated bedrock trough (fig. 7) that 

separates the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and Big Cypress Swamp (Gleason and others, 

1984). Classified on the basis of plant components (Davis, 1943; Cohen and 

Lower clastic unit of Tamiami Formation

Limestone and sandstone of

Tamiami Formation

Fort Thompson Formation Miami Oolite

Biscayne aquifer Fort Thompson Formation

Key Largo

Limestone

Pamlico Sand

Anastasia Formation

Semiconfining unit

Gray limestone aquifer

Intermediate confining unit

Upper clastic unit of Tamiami Formation

Gray limestone of Tamiami Formation

Base of surficial aquifer system

Hawthorn Formation

0 5 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

WEST EAST

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

EXPLANATION

FEET FEET

40

40

80

120

160

200

240

280

NGVD 1929

40

40

80

120

160

200

240

280

NGVD 1929

HYDROSTRATIGRAPHIC

BOUNDARY

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC

BOUNDARY

Figure 6. Geologic formations, aquifers, and confining units of the surficial aquifer system in central Miami-Dade County. From Fish and Stewart (1991).

Description of Study Area 
Figure 7. (A) Configuration of bedrock surface underlying peat deposits and (B) distribution of peat deposits in southeastern Florida. 

Modified from Parker and others (1955) and Gleason and others (1984).

 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000

A B

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

West Palm

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

Miami

Canal

Tamiami Canal

West Palm

Biscayne Bay

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

6

7

8

3 4 5

9

2

1 0

10

12

14 9

3

8

4

8

3

10

6

3

7

8

1

4

5

8

6

10

8

9

10 8 8

8

6

4

2

8

7

9

8

9

5

6

1

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

West

Palm

Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

West

Palm

Beach

Miami

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

EXPLANATION

CONFIGURATION OF

BEDROCK SURFACE–

Shown in feet. Interval

is 1 foot

LIMESTONE CALCITIC

MUD AND SAND

CALCITIC MUD

EVERGLADES PEAT

LIMESTONE

LOXAHATCHEE PEAT

OKEELANTA PEATY MUCK

SAND

0 5 10 15 MILES

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

PEAT DEPOSITS

Modified from Parker and others (1955) Modified from Gleason and others (1984)

1
Spackman, 1984; Jones, 1948), Holocene peat deposits were formed in freshwater marsh areas in which 

the hydroperiod exceeded 270 days per year (Duever 

and others, 1994). Lengthy hydroperiods maintain 

anaerobic conditions that are needed to insure accumulation of plant vegetation and minimize dry season 

oxidation, consolidation, and compaction of organic 

sediments. 

Prior to development of the modern Everglades 

Agricultural Area, peat deposits ranged from 6 to 

17 ft thick (Stephens and Johnson, 1951). The stage 

level of surface water overlying these peat deposits 

ranged from 18 to 24 ft near Lake Okeechobee. Peat 

deposits thinned where they extend southward and 

were reported to have been 2.5 ft thick in the southern 

part of the Everglades (Gleason and others, 1984). In 

the northernmost part of the Everglades, a calcareous marl sequence separates the peat deposit from 

underlying limestone bedrock; freshwater marl is considered indicative of a shorter hydroperiod that cannot 

support peat accumulation (Gleason and others, 

1984). Drainage works in agricultural areas designed 

to control flooding south of the lake have contributed 

greatly to oxidation- and compaction-driven subsidence of peat deposits (fig. 8). Subsidence ranged from 

3 to 9 ft in the Everglades Agricultural Area and was 

as much as 3 ft in nonirrigated areas to the south and 

southeast (Ingebritsen and others, 1999).

 Hydroperiods characterized by lengthy flooding 

and anaerobic conditions supported the accumulation of dead plants into deposits of peat (Cohen and 

Spackman, 1984). Predevelopment peat deposits 

within the location of the modern Everglades Agricultural Area ranged from 6 to17 ft thick (Stephens 

and Johnson, 1951) with land-surface altitudes of 18 

to 24 ft near Lake Okeechobee (South Florida Water 

Management District, 2003). The average thickness of peat deposits thinned to 2.5 ft 

in the southern Everglades (Gleason and others, 1984). Near Fort Lauderdale along 

the North New River Canal in eastern Broward County (fig. 7, the subsidence of peat 

deposits lowered land-surface altitude as much as 5 ft between 1915 and the early 

1950s (Stephens, 1984). 

The surficial aquifer system of southeastern Florida is wedge shaped, 

thickening eastward toward the Atlantic Ocean. The system ranges from less than 

360 ft thick in western Broward and north-central Palm Beach Counties to greater 

than 400 ft thick in coastal areas of northeastern Broward and southeastern Palm 

Beach Counties (fig. 9). In the Miami-Dade County area, the surficial aquifer system 

ranges from 140 to 240 ft thick.

Miami

Eastern

levee

5

5

3

3

3

1

1

Florida Bay

Line of approximately

equal land subsidence,

compaction, or oxidation

of peat soils, in feet relative

to predevelopment conditions

Historic

freshwater

Everglades

20

Land surface

Limestone bedrock

Sand

Marl

Peat soil

1940

1970*

2000*

1912

10

0

0 1 0 2 0

DISTANCE, IN MILES

ALTITUDE OF LAND SURFACE,

IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 1929

30 40

Canals (built between 1912 and 1917)

A A'

10 KILOMETERS

0

0

10 MILES

A

A'

Everglades Agricultural Area

Subsidence data compiled

from the files of the South

Florida Water Management

District * Estimated 0 30 KILOMETERS

0 30 MILES

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

GULF OF MEXICO

Agricultural

area

Lake

Okeechobee Levees

West Palm Beach

Hillsbo

North

ro

New River

Main

Canals

Figure 8. Everglades drainage conveyance features that contributed to a gradual loss of peat and peat soils through 

subsidence, compaction, and oxidation. Modified from Stephens and Johnson (1951) and Ingebritsen and others (1999).

Description of Study Area   
The surficial aquifer system (Fish, 1988; Fish and Stewart, 1991) comprises a 

sequence of highly permeable limestone, quartz sand, shell, and terrigeneous mudstone of Pliocene to Holocene age. The sand content of the surficial aquifer system is 

high to the north and east; limestone and sandstone are more prominent to the south 

and west. Lithologic units that compose the surficial aquifer system are thin and lens 

like, and the complete stratigraphic sequence is not present at any one place. Some 

rock units interfinger, whereas other units are considered lateral equivalents of one 

another.

The surficial aquifer system has been divided into separate aquifers and semiconfining (leaky) units of quartz sand, terrigeneous mudstone, and limestone (Fish, 

1988; Fish and Stewart, 1991). The Fort Thompson Formation, Anastasia Formation, 

and Key Largo Limestone yield the most water and constitute the prolific Biscayne 

aquifer (fig. 6). Defined as a sole-source aquifer (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1979), the karstic Biscayne aquifer comprises highly permeable limestone 

and less-permeable sandstone and sand of Pleistocene and late Pliocene age. The 

Biscayne aquifer generally is considered to extend northward from southeastern 

Monroe County and southernmost Miami-Dade County into southern Palm Beach 

County. The Miami Limestone, Pamlico Sand, Fort Thompson Formation, Anastasia 

Formation, and Key Largo Limestone make up the Biscayne aquifer in Miami-Dade 

and Broward Counties. In southern Palm Beach County, the Anastasia and Fort 

Thompson Formations compose the Biscayne aquifer and are considered equivalent 

to the “cavity-riddled” zone (Fischer, 1980) or “zone of secondary permeability” 

(Swayze and Miller, 1984). The Biscayne aquifer does not extend into central and 

northern Palm Beach County; however, a moderately to highly transmissive limestone sequence forms its lateral hydrogeologic equivalent and has been defined as the 

non-Biscayne production zone (Shine and others, 1989). 

In western Miami-Dade County, the Biscayne aquifer is characterized as an 

eogenic karst limestone containing diffuse carbonate comprising small scale-scale 

vugs and matrix, interlayered with carbonate rock units forming conduit-type, preferential flow zones. These flow zones are formed by large touching vugs; pervasive 

solution features seem to extend over a area (Cunningham and others, 2003). Karst 

features that include sinkholes and caves have been documented in Miami-Dade 

County along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge extending southward from south Miami 

to Everglades National Park (Cressler, 1993). Parker and others (1955, p. 269) have 

described cavernous permeability and solution holes within the Miami Limestone 

and Fort Thompson Formation that create turbulent flow conditions in some wells. 

Paleotopographic relief on karstic subaerial exposure surfaces (paleokarst) are 

well documented in the Lake Belt area of north-central Miami-Dade County (Cunningham and others, 2004). Although karst features have not been documented in 

Broward or Palm Beach Counties, the “cavity-riddled” zone (Fischer, 1980) is likely 

associated with karst dissolution.

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Hillsboro Canal

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

Lake

Okeechobee

160

240

200

280

320

360

200

280

360

160

120

160

140

160

200280

240

320

200

200

180

180 200

220

180

160

200

200

180 160

200

EXPLANATION

EXTENT OF SURFICIAL AQUIFER SYSTEM

STRUCTURE CONTOUR–Shows altitude of the base

of the surficial aquifer system, in feet below NGVD

1929. Dashed where approximately located.

Interval is 20 feet

180

Figure 9. Base and 

extent of the surficial 

aquifer system in southeastern Florida.

Modified from Fish 

(1988), Shine and others 

(1989), and Fish and 

Stewart (1991).

10 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Permeability of the surficial aquifer system is highest in areas where the Biscayne aquifer has been subject to extensive dissolution. Transmissivity of limestonerich areas is greater than 1,600,000 ft2

/d, but decreases to about 54,000 ft2/d where 

the aquifer mostly consists of sand (fig. 10). Because of high permeability and large 

withdrawals, the Biscayne aquifer is subject to contamination by saltwater intrusion. 

Yields of 1,000 to more than 7,000 gal/min are reported for some wells.

The intermediate confining unit separates the surficial aquifer system from the 

more deeply buried Floridan aquifer system—a 1,000-ft-thick sequence of poorly 

permeable carbonate rock, clay, clay-rich sand, and sand that form the Hawthorn 

Group (Miller, 1997, fig. 6.24). Permeable limestone and lesser dolomitic rocks 

compose the Floridan aquifer system, which mostly contains brackish to saline water 

in southeastern Florida. The Floridan aquifer system is not hydraulically connected 

to the Biscayne aquifer. Use of the Floridan aquifer system in Miami-Dade, Broward, 

and Palm Beach County is limited to aquifer storage and recovery (ASR), reverse 

osmosis, and wastewater injection within the deeply buried Boulder Zone. 

Hydrochemistry

The regional quality of ground water within the surficial aquifer system can be 

characterized by the hydrochemical facies of the water and its dissolved-solids concentration. Hydrochemical facies are determined by the dominant anions and cations 

in the ground water. For example, calcium bicarbonate water is one in which calcium 

ions are more than 50 percent of the total cations in the water, and bicarbonate ions 

are more than 50 percent of the anions. 

Calcium bicarbonate waters are dominant in shallow parts of the surficial 

aquifer system in most of the tri-county area (fig. 11). In western Miami-Dade and 

Palm Beach Counties, however, calcium bicarbonate waters are limited in extent, and 

mixed ion (sodium bicarbonate) and sodium chloride water occur at shallow depths. 

This combination is attributable to lower permeability within rocks that comprise the 

surficial aquifer system and the incomplete flushing of relict seawater by meteoric 

water. Mixed ion (sodium bicarbonate) and sodium chloride waters, however, mostly 

dominate deeper parts of the surficial aquifer system. A general comparison of the 

distribution of hydrochemical facies and permeability within the surficial aquifer 

system (fig. 11) suggests that calcium bicarbonate waters tend to have the greatest 

vertical extent in areas where permeability is high. Sodium chloride water is also 

common along the coast where the surficial aquifer system contains seawater. 

The specific conductance and concentration of dissolved chloride can be used in 

southeastern Florida to evaluate the relative quality of ground water. Specific 

conductance is a measure of the ability of water to carry an electric current and 

provides an approximate estimate of the quantity of dissolved ions in solution. 

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

West

Palm

Beach

EXPLANATION

TRANSMISSIVITY, IN FEET

SQUARED PER DAY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

300,000 to 1,000,000

< 300,000

> 1,000,000

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Hillsboro Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Figure 10. Distribution 

of transmissivity within 

the surficial aquifer 

system in southeastern 

Florida. Modified from 

Fish (1988), Shine and 

others (1989), and Fish 

and Stewart (1991).

Description of Study Area 11
250 feet

CALCIUM BICARBONATE

SODIUM BICARBONATE

SODIUM CHLORIDE

EXPLANATION

NOT TO SCALE

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

80°00 ́

250 feet

250 feet

NGVD 1929

250 feet

NGVD 1929

NGVD 1929

NGVD 1929

Figure 11. Hydrochemical facies within the surficial aquifer system in southeastern Florida. Modified from data in the files of the U.S. Geological Survey 

and sections shown in Scott and others (1977), Howie (1987), and Sontag 

(1987).

12 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Dissolved chlorides can be used to provide insight to the potable nature of ground 

water. The standard for potable water set forth by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (1999) is 250 mg/L.

Specific conductance has been mapped at selected depths in the tri-county area 

(fig. 12) to determine where: (1) potable water and relict seawater exist, and 

(2) seawater has intruded landward (Howie, 1987; Sonntag, 1987). Specific 

Canal

North New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

West Palm

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

A

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

B

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

C

Canal

North New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

West Palm

EXPLANATION

DISSOLVED CHLORIDE

CONCENTRATION, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE,

IN MICROSIEMENS

PER CENTIMETER

0-50

50-100

100-175

175-300

300-500

>500

0-500

500-1,000

1,000-1,500

1,500-3,000

3,000-5,000

>5,000

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 80°15 ́

26°45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

25°

30 ́

25°15 ́

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 80°15 ́

26°45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 80°15 ́

26°45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

0

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5 10 MILES

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Beach Canal

Hillsboro

River Canal

Beach Canal

Hillsboro

River Canal

Canal

North New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro

River Canal

South New River Canal South New River Canal South New River Canal

Figure 12. Distribution of dissolved chloride and specific conductance at depths of (A) 50, (B) 100, and (C) 150 feet within the 

surficial aquifer system in southeastern Florida. Modified from 

Scott and others (1977). Howie (1987), Sonntag (1987), and data in 

the files of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Description of Study Area 13
conductance (and chloride concentration) is generally less than 1,000 μS/cm in areas 

with high transmissivity, except along the coast where the surficial aquifer system 

has been subject to saltwater intrusion. Low specific conductance within the surficial 

aquifer system is reported in eastern Palm Beach County, eastern Broward County, 

and much of central Miami-Dade County. With the exception of areas where saltwater intrusion has occurred, such as coastal Miami-Dade County, high specific 

conductance measurements are considered representative of relict seawater. Relict 

seawater is inferred to underlie an area that extends southeast of Lake Okeechobee 

into southwestern Broward County.

Changes in Land Use and Population Trends

Land-use and land-cover change in southeastern Florida parallels 20th century 

anthropogenic change observed on a global scale. Land-use and land-cover transformation occurs through a successive conversion of one land class to another use—forests are cleared and wetlands are drained to promote agricultural development, and 

cultivated lands are converted for urban use in response to an accompanying increase 

in population (Turner and Meyer, 1994). 

Urban and agricultural growth and accompanying land-use change in southeastern Florida has greatly affected the ecological health and stability of the Everglades 

and Biscayne Bay ecosystems. Land-cover and population data illustrate changes 

in land use and population density in response to cultivation of drained wetlands 

and the southward expansion of the Florida East Coast Railroad, the 1920s land 

boom and subsequent bust, post-World War II development and redevelopment, and 

large-scale immigration. Population growth has been extraordinarily rapid—in 1900, 

southeastern Florida included a few small towns with a population of 3,592 people. 

Today, urban areas of southeastern Florida have grown to more than 5 million residents.

In the early part of the 20th century, southern Florida was a largely pristine environment of marsh wetlands, sawgrass plains, swamp forests and wet prairies 

(fig. 13A). Drainage canals were under construction, but the Everglades had not yet 

been drained. The Florida East Coast Railroad was completed as far south as Miami. 

In 1900, Miami and Coconut Grove had populations of 1,681 and 850 people, 

respectively (fig. 13B). Dania became the first incorporated Broward community in 

1904, followed by Pompano Beach in 1908, and Fort Lauderdale in 1911 (fig. 13C).

The transfer of Federal land to the State initiated the “land boom” era from 1903 

to 1926, signaled by the construction and completion of the primary drainage canals. 

The conversion of drained wetlands for tropical farm products, however, proved to be 

far more difficult than that which had been promoted by optimistic land sales companies and hopeful State officials (McNally, 1999). Efforts to cultivate the southern 

rim of Lake Okeechobee fell short of expectations due to difficulties associated with 

clearing land; infertile, copper-deficient muck soils; oxidation and compaction of 

peat soils; and dry-season muck fires. Cultivation of drained areas proved to be more 

successful along inland areas west of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, especially near 

Pompano Beach (fig. 13C). 

Inherent design flaws associated with the “Wright drainage plan” (U.S. 

Congress, 1911; Mead and others, 1912), failure to complete proposed structural 

improvements outlined in the “Randolph drainage plan” (U.S. Congress, 1913), 

inadequate funding, and catastrophic climatic events all helped slow the progress of 

agricultural development during the 1920s (McNally, 1999). Shoreline development 

during the 1920s resulted in modification of the barrier islands separating Biscayne 

Bay from the Atlantic Ocean due to construction of bridges, coastal channels, 

shoreline bulkheading, development of artificial islands, and other landfill activities 

(Cantillo and others, 2000). Urban and agricultural development activities were interrupted considerably by the 1926 and 1928 hurricanes, which devastated Miami, West 

Palm Beach, flooded the city of Hollywood, damaged structures in Fort Lauderdale, 

and resulted in the death of more than 2,000 workers south of Lake Okeechobee.

Economic development largely stalled during the 1930s but was followed by a 

period of recovery with the end of the Great Depression. Numerous military air-training bases were constructed in the 1940s military in Miami-Dade and Broward Counties and were accompanied by the influx of military personnel who inhabited the area 

during World War II (fig. 14B). 

During the 1950s and 1960s, Miami and Fort Lauderdale grew quickly into 

modern cities (fig. 14C). During that time, growth was not limited to the larger cities. 

Outlying municipalities expanded and new municipalities were established. From 

1940 to 1960, the Fort Lauderdale population increased from about 18,000 to 84,000 

people, the Hollywood population increased from about 6,200 to 35,200 people, and 

the Miami population increased from about 172,000 to more than 290,000 people 

(fig. 14D). Construction of inland flood protection levees in Broward County contributed to lower ground-water levels, making former cypress and pine forests areas ideal 

for development in the late 1950s.

A mid-1970s economic recession curtailed the rate of urban development, but 

development expanded further in the late 1970s and through the 1980s (fig. 15A). 

As the availability of coastal property and other land diminished, the construction 

of condominium high rises helped to attract retirees for year-round housing. Urban 

areas continued to encroach upon and replace agricultural areas. In Broward County, 

for example, most agricultural areas were displaced entirely by the late 1990s. The 

1980s marked the large-scale influx of immigrants from Latin and South America, 

which continued unabated into the 21st century (fig. 15D). By the close of the 

20th century, approximately 65 percent of the historic Everglades area was permanently lost to agricultural and urban development (fig. 15A), with the greatest loss of 

freshwater marsh areas having occurred in the Everglades Agricultural Area south of 

Lake Okeechobee (fig. 1)

14  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́ 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

26° 26°45 ́ 45 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

26°00 ́ 26°00 ́

15 ́ 15 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

45 ́ 45 ́

25°15 ́ 25°15 ́

NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

C D

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Fort

Lauderdale

Coconut Grove

Miami

Boca

Raton

Delray

Beach

Jupiter

Lake Park

Homestead

Pompano Beach

Hollywood

Dania

Jupiter

Boca

Raton

Coconut Grove

Delray

Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Park

Lake Worth

Miami

West Palm

Beach

Homestead

Pompano Beach

Hollywood

Dania

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́ 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

26°45 ́ 26°45 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

26°00 ́ 26°00 ́

15 ́ 15 ́

30 ́

30 ́

45 ́ 45 ́

25°15 ́

25°15 ́

West Palm

Beach

Lake Worth

A B

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

West Palm

Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami

West Palm

Beach

Biscayne Bay

Florida Bay

Florida Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

EXPLANATION

Coconut Grove

LAND USE, 1900 POPULATION, 1900 LAND USE, 1920 POPULATION, 1920

LAND USE POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

26,001 to 43,000

16,001 to 26,000

16,000 or Less

WETLANDS

BARREN LAND

UPLAND FOREST

OPEN WATER

AGRICULTURAL

URBAN AND BUILT-UP

Figure 13. Land-use conditions and population in southeastern Florida during (A, B) 1900 and (C, D) 1920. Compiled from Broward County Department of Land Use; 

Florida Department of State; Historical Museum of Southern Florida; Miami-Dade Department of Planning and Zoning; Palm Beach County Department of Planning, 

Zoning and Building; University of Florida; University of Miami; and U.S. Geological Survey topographic map collections. More details are presented in the 

“Sources of Land-Use and Population Information” section of this report.

Description of Study Area 15
LAND USE

WETLANDS

BARREN LAND

UPLAND FOREST

OPEN WATER

AGRICULTURAL

RESIDENTIAL

COMMERCIAL

INDUSTRIAL

AIRPORTS

TRANSPORTATION

AND UTILITIES

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

201,000 orGREATER

43,001 to 200,000

26,001 to 43,000

16,001 to 26,000

16,000 or LESS

EXPLANATION

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Jupiter

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coral Gables

Delray Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Hialeah

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

West Palm

Beach

Homestead

Hollywood

Cutler Ridge

Jupiter

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coral Gables

Delray Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Hialeah

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

West Palm

Beach

Homestead

Hollywood

Cutler Ridge

Pompano

Beach

Dania

Pompano

Beach

Dania

A B 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́ 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́ 45 ́

27°00 ́

30 ́ 26°

26°00 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́ 26°

30 ́

30 ́

45 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

25°15 ́

·

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Jupiter

Boca Raton

Pompano

Beach

Boynton

Beach

Coral Gables

Delray Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Hialeah

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

West Palm

Beach

Homestead

Hollywood

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Kendall

Cutler

Ridge

Pompano

Beach

Dania Dania

C D 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́ 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́ 45 ́

27°00 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

26°00 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́ 15 ́

30 ́

30 ́

45 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

25°15 ́

West Palm

Beach

Bal Harbour

Belle Glade

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Cooper City

Coral Gables

Cutler Ridge

Delray Beach

Fort Lauderdale

Hialeah

Homestead

Jupiter

Kendall

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

Miramar

Tequesta

Hollywood

NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE

Florida Bay

LAND USE, 1940 POPULATION, 1940 LAND USE, 1960 POPULATION, 1960

Figure 14. Land-use conditions and population in southeastern Florida during (A, B) 1940 and (C, D) 1960. The population density distribution for 1940 is partly based on a 

poorly defined land-use data set that outlines the extent of residential areas. At first glance, its comparison with the 1960 population density falsely implies that the population declined in southern Florida, paralleling an apparent reduction in the extent of residential areas. A closer examination of these maps reveals population density has 

increased, further substantiated by figure 2. Compiled from Broward County Department of Land Use; Florida Department of State; Historical Museum of Southern Florida; 

Miami-Dade Department of Planning and Zoning; Palm Beach County Department of Planning, Zoning and Building; University of Florida; University of Miami; and U.S. 

Geological Survey topographic map collections. More details are presented in the “Sources of Land-Use and Population Information” section of this report.

16  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

·

201,000 or GREATER

43,001 to 200,000

26,001 to 43,000

16,001 to 26,000

16,000 or LESS

LAND USE

WETLANDS

BARREN LAND

UPLAND FOREST

OPEN WATER

AGRICULTURAL

RESIDENTIAL

COMMERCIAL

INDUSTRIAL

AIRPORTS

TRANSPORTATION

AND UTILITIES

POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION

LAND USE, 1980 POPULATION, 1980 LAND USE 200 , 0 POPULATION, 2000

NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE

EXPLANATION

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

A B 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́ 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

26°45 ́ 26°45 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

26°00 ́ 26°00 ́

15 ́ 15 ́

30 ́ 30 ́

45 ́ 45 ́

25°15 ́ 25°15 ́

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

D 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

26°45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Lake

Okeechobee

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

C 80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

26°45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Miami

Kendall

Hialeah

Tequesta

Bal Harbour

Belle Glade

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coconut Creek

Cooper City

Coral Gables

Cutler Ridge

Delray Beach

Fort

Lauderdale

Homestead

Jupiter

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

Beach

Miramar

West Palm

Beach

Hollywood

Pompano Beach

Plantation

Dania

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coconut Creek

Cooper City

Coral Gables

Cutler Ridge

Delray Beach

Belle Glade

Fort

Lauderdale

Pompano Beach

Jupiter

Kendall

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

Hialeah

West Palm

Beach

Hollywood

Homestead

Dania

Jupiter

Lake Park

Tequesta

Belle Glade

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coconut

Creek

Coral Gables

Cutler Ridge

Delray Beach

Hialeah

Homestead

Kendall

Lake Worth

Miami

Pembroke Pines

Sunrise

West Palm

Beach

Davie Fort

Lauderdale

Hollywood

Coral

Springs

Cooper City

Pompano Beach

Plantation

Miami

Beach

Highland Beach

Belle Glade

Boca Raton

Boynton Beach

Coconut Creek

Cooper City

Coral Gables

Cutler Ridge

Delray Beach

Hialeah

Homestead

Jupiter

Kendall

Lake Park

Lake Worth

Miami

Pembroke Pines

Sunrise

West Palm

Beach

Davie

Hollywood

Fort

Lauderdale

Coral Springs

Plantation

Pompano Beach

Lake

Okeechobee

Figure 15. Land-use conditions and population in southeastern Florida during (A,B) 1980 and (C, D) 2000. Compiled from Broward County Department of Land Use; Florida 

Department of State; Historical Museum of Southern Florida; Miami-Dade Department of Planning and Zoning; Palm Beach County Department of Planning, Zoning and 

Building; University of Florida; University of Miami; and U.S. Geological Survey topographic map collections. More details are presented in the “Sources of Land-Use and 

Population Information” section of this report.

Description of Study Area 17
Water and Land Uses

Total water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties increased 

from 875 to about 2,148 Mgal/d between 1965 and 2000, respectively (fig. 16). As 

the principal source of freshwater in southeastern Florida, the surficial aquifer system 

provided about 1,085 Mgal/d in 2000 to meet municipal, agricultural, recreational, 

industrial, and power-generation needs as shown in figure 17 (U.S. Geological 

Survey, 2004). Ground water is the principal source for public supply in southeastern 

Florida, because it is readily available and requires little treatment prior to distribution (Marella, 1992). Surface water also provides a substantial portion of the overall 

water supply in the tri-county area. In 2000, surface-water use totaled about 

1,063 Mgal/d in the tri-county area, with most of this water used to satisfy agricultural needs in Palm Beach County (Marella, 1999). Public supply and agriculture 

generally have represented the major water-use categories for ground water in Palm 

Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade Counties. The increase in water use for public 

supply and recreation reflects the growth of urban areas. Total water use for public 

supply increased about two and three-quarter times (316 to 882 Mgal/d) between 

1965 and 2000, respectively. 

Municipal Withdrawals

Ground water is the principal source of water for municipal supply and the sole 

source of drinking water for about 3.8 million people in southeastern Florida. West 

Palm Beach is the only major municipality in southeastern Florida that uses surface 

water (obtained from nearby lakes) as its principal supply. In West Palm Beach, 

surface-water use increased from about 4 Mgal/d in 1930 to about 25 Mgal/d in 

1995. Near Lake Okeechobee, several small rural communities use surface water for 

municipal supply. 

Municipal withdrawals in Broward, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach Counties 

have increased more than 11 fold over 65 years (figs. 18-20), from about 70 Mgal/d 

in 1930 to about 790 Mgal/d in 1995 (table 1). Increased withdrawals from the 

surficial aquifer system have combined with substantial land-use changes to affect 

the balance between freshwater and saltwater in the ground-water flow system. In 

1930, only three municipal well fields operated in southeastern Florida, withdrawing 

about 66 Mgal/d (fig. 18); surface water supplied about 4 Mgal/d to West Palm 

Beach. By 1965, withdrawals from 41 well fields in the tri-county area exceeded 

348 Mgal/d (fig. 19). Thirty years later (1995), 68 well fields withdrew about 

790 Mgal/d (fig. 20). By 2020, municipal water demands are projected to reach 

1,200 Mgal/d and serve 6 million people (South Florida Water Management District, 

2000, p. 3). 

The expansion of existing well fields and development of new municipal supply well fields have paralleled urban development. Temporal and spatial analyses 

of well-field locations and withdrawals during the 20th century illustrate a westward 

shift in construction away from the coast in an effort to mitigate saltwater intrusion 

(figs. 18-20 and table 1). Recommendations are outlined in the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water 

Management District, 1999) to further shift large well-field withdrawals from the 

coastal areas to western facilities. The relocation of existing or construction of new 

municipal well fields in western urban areas, however, is tempered by concern that 

they may adversely affect Everglades and water-conservation area ecosystems.

Centralized and decentralized well-field infrastructure development is evident 

in figures 18 to 20. In Miami-Dade County, a few large-capacity well fields withdraw the bulk of the municipal supply. Although 1995 ground-water withdrawals 

in Miami-Dade County were estimated to be about 394 Mgal/d, only 14 well fields 

were operational (table 1). Five of these well fields withdrew more than 344 Mgal/d 

in 1995, which accounted for about 87 percent of all county withdrawals. 

Municipalities of eastern Broward and Palm Beach Counties employ a decentralized system, illustrated by a wide distribution and numerous well fields withdrawing less than 10 Mgal/d (figs. 18-20). To help meet local supply needs, most of these 

municipalities developed their own water utilities and well fields. As municipalities 

became established and local populations grew, new well fields were constructed. In 

Figure 16. Water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties, 

1965-2000. From U.S. Geological Survey (2004).

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

1995

2000

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

WATER USE, IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY

GROUND WATER

SURFACE WATER

TOTAL

EXPLANATION

YEAR

18  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
846.92

17.13

47.95

129.51

41.55

2.08

EXPLANATION

PUBLIC SUPPLY

DOMESTIC

INDUSTRIAL, MINING

AGRICULTURAL

RECREATIONAL

POWER GENERATION

SURFACE-WATER USE

GROUND-WATER USE

1965

418.57

456.86

TOTAL WATER USE

1,085.14 1,062.51 Ground

water

Surface

water

TOTAL = 1,085.14

35.27

13.21

931.10

82.93

300 26.70

10.70

118.47

0.99

TOTAL = 456.86

TOTAL = 418.57

Surface

water

Ground

water

TOTAL = 875.43

2000

TOTAL = 2,147.65

396.97

15.9 5.7

TOTAL = 1,062.51

Figure 17. Ground- and surface-water uses in 

Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties 

by category, 1965 and 1995. Values shown in million 

gallons per day. Derived from water-use data in the 

files of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Water and Land Uses 19
Table 1. Municipal water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties from 1930 to 1995

[Data compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey. The West Palm Beach system is a surface-water source. The dashes indicate that year is unknown. OL indicates thta the municipality/utility system was offline for the year indicated]

 Municipality/utility system

Year in 

service

Water withdrawals (million gallons per day)

1930 1940 1950 1965 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995

Miami-Dade County

Miami Dade (Miami-Hialeah)

— 65.0 77.3 134.2 134.2 137.0 161.6 68.5 63.6 123.3

Homestead

— .5 2.7 2.9 3.4 5.0 6.9 5.8 6.4

Miami Dade (Alexander Orr) 1949 54.8 54.8 54.8 54.8 54.8 54.8 68.5

North Miami Beach

— .7 11.4 17.9 26.0 16.4 15.3 15.4

Opa-Locka

— .4 1.2 2.3 3.7 3.3 OL OL

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority 1952 4.1 5.5 8.6 11.3 12.1 14.1Miami Dade (Southwest/Preston) 1953 13.7 20.5 41.9 54.8 82.2 95.9

Miami Dade (Leisure City) 1954 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.4 3.3 3.5

North Miami 1963 6.4 9.4 12.4 7.6 6.6 7.2

Miami Dade 

(South Miami Heights)

— 13.7 13.7 23.6 1.4 OL OL

Florida City

— .3 .5 .9 1.8 1.9 2.3

Miami Dade (Newton) 1970 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.6

Miami Dade (Snapper Creek) 1976 37.2 35.6 11.0 13.7

Miami Dade (Northwest) 1980 95.9 95.9 41.1Miami Dade (Everglades) 1981 .3 .1 .5Miami Dade (Water Tank) 1982 1.0 1.7 .2Miami Dade (Point Royal)

— .3 OL OL

Miami Dade (Bel-Aire)

— .1 OL OL

Broward County

Fort Lauderdale 

(Dixie and Prospect)

— .6 1.9 6.8 28.6 40.7 48.4 47.3 48.3 48.7

Hollywood 1936 .5 4.1 7.0 13.6 20.0 19.1 18.0 19.3Margate

— 1.9 2.7 3.6 6.8 6.2 7.0 8.3

Deerfield Beach

— .3 2.6 4.1 8.8 8.6 9.2 11.0

Dania

— .5 1.0 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.5

Hallandale 1951 1.8 3.4 5.8 5.6 3.7 3.5

Pompano Beach 1952 8.1 14.0 22.0 19.3 13.9 16.2Hillsboro Beach 1952 .8 .8 1.0 .9 .8 .9

Broadview Park Water 1955 .4 .5 .6 .6 .6 OL

Miramar 1955 1.2 2.0 2.9 3.0 4.0 4.2

Pembroke Pines 1957 2.1 3.0 4.8 4.3 6.3 9.3

Broward County (System 1B) 1957 1.4 1.8 0.0 2.3 OL

Broward County 

(Broadview Utilities) 1957 0.1 .1 .5 .5 .7 OL

Lauderhill 1959 2.7 3.0 6.4 6.8 7.1 7.4

Davie 1959 .5 1.0 1.5 2.2 2.3 3.0

Plantation

— 2.1 4.1 5.5 8.2 9.0 13.9

Broward County (System 1A)

— 5.5 5.5 5.8 7.7 7.4 9.3

Oakland Park

— 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 4.1 4.4

Coral Springs 1967 .4 3.0 4.1 6.2 7.2

Ferncrest Utilities 1967 .3 .4 .5 .8 .8Tamarac 1969 2.7 4.9 4.9 4.5 5.6

20 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
 Municipality/utility system

Year in 

service

Water withdrawals (million gallons per day)

1930 1940 1950 1965 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995

Coral Springs Improvement 

District 1972 1.3 2.7 3.6 4.1

Cooper City 1974 1.3 1.7 2.4 3.5

Cooper City (East) 1974 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1

North Lauderdale 1975 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0

Cooper City (West) 1977 .3 .7 1.5 2.4Broward County (System 3B) — 4.2 3.4 .2 2.2Broward County (System 3C) — .1 .5 .5 OL

Broward County (District 2A) — 10.4 12.0 11.4 14.5

Broward County (District 3A) — 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Sunrise (Well Field II) — 1.8 2.1 4.4 6.4

Parkland Utilities 1980 .1 .2 .2South Broward Utilities 1983 .5 .7North Springs Improvement 

District 1984 .6 1.4

Palm Beach County

West Palm Beach — 3.8 4.1 6.8 13.7 16.4 23.3 23.3 23.1 25.2

Boca Raton 1941 .7 3.0 10.8 24.0 33.2 32.4 35.9

Delray Beach 1944 1.4 3.0 5.4 12.0 10.2 10.9 12.2Boynton Beach 1946 .5 3.0 3.6 7.9 8.8 10.2 8.8Lake Worth Utilities 1946 4.1 3.8 4.3 6.4 6.6 6.1 7.2

Manalapan — .3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.0

Lantana 1953 .3 2.0 1.3 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.1

Seacoast Utilities (Richard Road) 1956 .0 2.7 4.4 2.0 3.6 2.7

Palm Springs Village 1957 1.1 1.6 2.9 3.8 3.8 4.0

Meadowbrook Utility 1958 .2 .3 .6 .7 .4 OL

Riviera Beach (Main System) 1959 2.5 3.7 6.5 7.1 7.9 8.8

Seacoast Utilities (Hood Road) 1959 .0 4.1 5.8 8.0 9.3 4.2

Village of Tequesta 1960 .0 .0 .0 1.2 1.0 1.4Mangonia 1961 .3 .3 .4 .3 .3 .3

Consolidated Utility (Grammercy 

Park) 1962 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2

Seacoast Utilities (Lilac Street) 1963 .0 1.4 2.0 1.4 1.5 9.7

National Mobile Industries 

(Lake Worth Village)

— .1 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2

Atlantis Utilities 1966 0.1 0.1 OL OL .1 .6 .7 .7 OLCentury Utilities 1968 1.0 1.0 1.0 .8 .8Palm Beach County (System 9) 1970 4.1 5.5 7.0 8.9 11.0

Jupiter 1970 3.4 6.2 9.4 11.5

Highlands Beach 1971 .8 1.3 1.1 1.1

Village of Golf 1971 .3 .3 .3 .4ACME Development Company

(Wellington) 1972 .9 1.7 2.9 4.0

Royal Palm Beach 1972 .5 1.4 1.8 2.2

Palm Beach County 

(System 1 and 8) 1976 2.4 6.7 8.8 11.3

Palm Beach County (System 2) — 2.2 1.8 5.1 7.4

Palm Beach County (System 3) — 1.7 2.1 4.0 4.7

Total water use 69.5 84.4 220.5 348.1 439.9 679.3 688.8 703.2 789.6

Water and Land Uses 21
0

0

5

5

10

10

15 MILES

15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

0.0 - 2.5

2.6 - 10.0

10.1 - 25.0

25.1 - 50.0

50.1 - 80.0

80.1 - 100.0

100.1 - 165.0

MUNICIPAL

WITHDRAWALS, IN

MILLION GALLONS

PER DAY

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Miami-Hialeah

Dixie and

Prospect

1930

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

1940

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Miami-Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Alexander Orr

1950

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Miami-Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

FLORIDA KEYS

FLORIDA KEYS

FLORIDA KEYS

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

Figure 18. Municipal ground-water withdrawals in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in 1930, 1940, and 1950. Derived from the files of the U.S. Geological 

Survey.

22 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Southwest

Alexander Orr

Florida City

1965

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Miami-Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Florida City

Alexander Orr

1970

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Miami-Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Florida City

Alexander Orr

Southwest

1980

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Miami-Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

0

0

5

5

10

10

15 MILES

15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

0.0 - 2.5

2.6 - 10.0

10.1 - 25.0

25.1 - 50.0

50.1 - 80.0

80.1 - 100.0

100.1 - 165.0

MUNICIPAL

WITHDRAWALS, IN

MILLION GALLONS

PER DAY

FLORIDA KEYS

FLORIDA KEYS

FLORIDA KEYS

Figure 19. Municipal ground-water withdrawals in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in 1965, 1970, and 1980. Derived from the files of the U.S. Geological 

Survey.

Water and Land Uses 23
Florida City

Alexander

Orr Southwest

1985

0

0

5

5

10

10

15 MILES

15 KILOMETERS

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

MiamiHialeah Northwest

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

EXPLANATION

0.0 - 2.5

2.6 - 10.0

10.1 - 25.0

25.1 - 50.0

50.1 - 80.0

80.1 - 100.0

100.1 - 165.0

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

FLORIDA KEYSFLORIDA KEYSFLORIDA KEYS

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MUNICIPAL

WITHDRAWALS, IN

MILLION GALLONS

PER DAY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

Florida City

Alexander

Orr Southwest

1990

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

MiamiHialeah Northwest

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Deerfield

Beach

Pompano

Beach Sunrise

Davie Hollywood

Hallandale

North

Miami

Beach

Preston

Florida City

Alexander

Orr Southwest

1995

Lake

Okeechobee

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Biscayne Bay

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

MiamiNorthwest Hialeah

Homestead

Dixie and

Prospect

West Palm Beach

(surface water)

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

Preston Preston

Boca Raton Boca Raton Boca Raton

North

Miami

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

Figure 20. Municipal ground-water withdrawals in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in 1985, 1990, and 1995. Derived from files of the U.S. Geological 

Survey.

24  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
1995, 30 and 26 well fields were operational in Broward and Palm Beach 

Counties, respectively (table 1). Only the Fort Lauderdale Well Field (combination 

of the Dixie and Prospect Well Fields) in Broward County withdrew more than 

20 Mgal/d of ground water. The Boca Raton Well Field in Palm Beach County 

withdrew more than 35 Mgal/d of ground water; however, the remaining well fields 

in the county withdrew less than 13 Mgal/d of ground water.

The Miami-Hialeah (Hialeah-Miami Springs), Northwest, and Alexander Orr, 

Southwest, and Preston (Snapper Creek) Well Fields in northeastern and east-central 

Miami-Dade County (fig. 20) are among the largest and most productive well fields 

in Florida. In 1995, these five well fields withdrew more than 125,000 Mgal (about 

343 Mgal/d) of ground water from the surficial aquifer system, accounting for about 

87 percent of all the county well withdrawals. Despite historic problems associated with saltwater intrusion (Klein and Ratzlaff, 1989), the Miami-Hialeah Well 

Field has consistently served as a major source of water in southern Florida since its 

construction. About 162 Mgal/d of ground water were withdrawn from the HialeahMiami Springs Well Field in 1980. Well-field withdrawals diminished considerably 

(about 69 Mgal/d) in 1985 due to low-grade toxic contamination reported in some 

supply wells; consequently, production was increased from the Northwest Well Field. 

In 1995, withdrawal rates from the Miami-Hialeah Well Field subsequently increased 

to about 123 Mgal/d (table 1). Smaller well fields located in southern Miami-Dade 

County serve the needs of Homestead, Florida City, and the Everglades. MiamiDade County also has exported ground-water supplies to the Florida Keys in Monroe 

County (Marella, 1999).

Saltwater intrusion has been a concern or has been detected near coastal well 

fields in Broward County, including Deerfield Beach, Hallandale, Pompano Beach, 

and the Davie Well Fields and has resulted in some local reduction or curtailment of 

production in selective wells. Additionally, saltwater contamination incidents have 

been of concern due their proximity to a number of well fields in Broward County 

including Fort Lauderdale (Dixie and Prospect), Broward County 2A and 3A, 

Plantation, and Sunrise. 

Saltwater intrusion has been a concern near the Boca Raton Well Field in 

coastal southern Palm Beach County. Well fields have been constructed inland, and 

production along the coast has been reduced. 

Agricultural Water and Land Uses

Surface and ground water are used to meet the needs of agricultural producers 

in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties. In Palm Beach County, agricultural users rely on surface water from Lake Okeechobee and canals for the cultivation 

of sugar cane and other field and row crops in the Everglades Agricultural Area 

(fig. 1). In this region, the underlying surficial aquifer system contains ground water 

that is highly mineralized, and the yield to wells is low (Miller, 1988). Regulatory 

release of surface water from Lake Okeechobee is made to major conveyance canals 

and agricultural canals including the L-10 borrow canal, Miami Canal, North New 

River Canal, and Hillsboro Canal. (fig. 3). In the Everglades Agricultural Area, 

growers have developed local canal systems to complement the regional conveyance 

systems; subirrigation systems are used to maintain desired water levels in fields 

used for sugar cane and vegetable crops. The same fields are used in rotation with 

rice crops, which are flooded with surface water during the summer. 

In Miami-Dade County, ground water is the principal source of water for irrigation. Water is withdrawn from shallow uncased wells and conveyed using truckmounted pump and spray irrigation systems. Ground-water levels generally 

are maintained by closing control structures on the eastern edge of the Everglades 

Agricultural Area in Miami-Dade County. Most agricultural land in southern 

Miami-Dade County is used for field and row crops (truck crops), primarily tomatoes 

and small vegetables.

Once considered the Nation’s principal source of winter bean, tomato, and 

pepper crops during the1920s and 1940s, the agricultural industry of Broward 

County has been largely displaced by residential and urban development (fig. 21). 

Broward County agricultural producers relied mostly on surface-water supplies 

between 1945 and 1960, subsequently converting to ground water as a primary 

source of water for irrigation.

Figure 21. Workmen cultivating a field of tomatoes near 

Pompano Beach. Photo courtesy of the Historical Museum 

of Southern Florida, January 1942.

Water and Land Uses 25
Land-Use Classification

To better understand agricultural water use, the hierarchical Anderson land-use 

classification system (Anderson and others, 1976) was used in this study to categorize 1953, 1977, 1988, and 1995 agricultural land types from general to specificuse characterizations. Different land-use databases were developed separately with 

different classification schemes and contain inherent inconsistencies. For example, 

the 1953 land-use data (Costanza, 1975) were developed as part of an analysis of 

vegetative changes in the Everglades. Acquired from the USGS Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis System (GIRAS), 1977 land-cover spatial data were 

compiled and redefined using aerial photography. The 1988 and 1995 land-use 

spatial data sets, prepared by the SFWMD, employ different classification schemes, 

use digital data obtained from county land-use planning maps, and include field and 

aerial photographic verification. The 1988 and 1995 data sets were classified by 

SFWMD using its own land-use coding system, patterned after the Florida Land Use 

and Cover Classification System used by the Florida Department of Transportation 

(1985).

As part of this analysis, agricultural land-use data were reassembled using 

Anderson categories in separate spatial data layers and redefined using a standard 

classification scheme. Where possible, crop types were grouped in the following 

major categories: improved pasture, sugar cane, citrus groves, grass, container ornamentals, tomatoes, and small vegetables.

Methods Used to Estimate Water Use

Agricultural consumptive water use can be estimated using direct or indirect 

methods. A direct method requires use of metering devices to accurately assess the 

amount of water applied to a cultivated field (R.L Marella and V.D. Singleton, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., 1988). However, most agricultural areas in 

southeastern Florida are not metered. Therefore, the water-management districts in 

Florida indirectly estimate agricultural water use on the basis of crop acreage, a use 

coefficient, and crop irrigation model (Marella, 1999, p. 4). This indirect methodology was applied for 1953, 1977, 1988, and 1995 and used to develop multicounty 

spatial and temporal agricultural water-use maps (figs. 22A and 22B). Agricultural 

water-use estimates in this report may not directly correspond to previous estimates 

(Marella, 1999) due to the assignment of variables weighed differently herein by the 

USGS or those by the SFWMD. For purposes of this analysis, agricultural withdrawals were limited to irrigation withdrawals; nonirrigation withdrawals (mostly for 

livestock purposes) were not estimated.

A modified Blaney-Criddle formulation with crop coefficients is used by 

three State of Florida water-management districts, including the SFWMD (Jacobs 

and Satti, 2001), to estimate consumptive crop water use. Consumptive water use 

includes both losses mostly associated with evapotranspiration but also the small 

amount of water consumed by incorporation in the plant tissue. For purposes of this 

report, the modified Blaney-Criddle equation (Blaney and others, 1952) was used to 

estimate evaporative losses (Jensen and others, 1990). The empirical equation relates 

rates of evapotranspiration with mean air temperature and mean percentage daytime 

hours. The original procedure was developed for estimating seasonal evapotranspiration, but later modified to estimate short-period use. Modifications include the use of 

climatic coefficients directly related to the mean air temperature for consecutive short 

growing seasons and coefficients that reflect the influence of the crop growth stage 

on consumptive use rate. Consumptive use rates may vary with temperature, length 

of day, and available moisture. Additionally, an allocation program was used to 

calculate a maximum monthly supplemental crop requirement and an average annual 

supplemental crop requirement using the modified Blaney-Criddle program.

Input data for the modified Blaney-Criddle program include mean rainfall, 

evapotranspiration, crop type, the number of plantings and plant growth duration 

(dependent on the crop type), an allocation coefficient, soil type, and the method 

of irrigation. Rainfall estimates were determined by averaging information from 

selected cities in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties. For example, 

Belle Glade, Jupiter, and West Palm Beach (fig. 15) were used to estimate precipitation in Palm Beach County. The period of record for mean rainfall in Palm Beach 

County was 35 years; Broward County (fig. 15, Pompano Beach and Fort Lauderdale) estimates are based on 41 years of record, whereas Miami-Dade County 

(fig. 15, Hialeah, Miami, and Homestead) includes 46.5 years of rainfall data. 

Consumptive water use was determined for crop types that include sugar cane, 

tomato, small vegetable, grass, citrus, and pasture. Tomatoes and small vegetable 

plants were assumed to be cultivated three times annually, whereas other crop types 

were considered to have been under cultivation for the entire year. An allocation 

coefficient was applied to different crop types, and a soil type factor of 0.8 was 

applied for all crops, except container ornamentals in which a factor of 1.5 was used. 

In this analysis, it is assumed that a sprinkler irrigation system is used for all crop 

types. Consumptive water use for specific crop types was estimated by county and 

used to determine evaporative losses for selected years. 

Findings on Agricultural Water Use

Agricultural acreage in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties 

expanded dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century. Areas under cultivation increased from more than 223,000 acres in 1953 to more than 535,000 acres 

in 1995 (fig. 22B). Completion of the West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, North New 

River, and Miami Canals by 1921 and construction of a levee along the southern 

26  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
rim of Lake Okeechobee provided opportunities for expansion of cultivated land 

near the lake, along major canals, and near some coastal areas. Areas under cultivation expanded nearly continuously in both Miami-Dade and Palm Beach Counties 

between 1953 and 1988 (fig. 22A). Southeastern Florida has experienced a decline 

in cultivated land since 1988 (fig. 22B); reduction in the agricultural economy of 

Broward County began in the 1950s largely due to encroachment by urban and residential areas. By the late 1980s, urban and residential development reduced Broward 

County agriculture to a minor factor in the county economy (Knetsch and Ethridge, 

1992). In 1992, powerful winds from Hurricane Andrew swept across the southern 

Miami-Dade agricultural area, causing widespread damage and a financial loss to the 

agriculture industry that exceeded $1 billion (Hebert and others,1992; 1993) and contributed further to the regional decline in cultivated lands.

Estimated agricultural water use in the tri-county area increased from about 

355 to 979 Mgal/d between 1953 and 1988, respectively, but decreased to about 632 

Mgal/d in 1995 (tables 2-5). The greatest increase in consumptive water use occurred 

in Palm Beach County, paralleling construction of the Everglades Agricultural Area 

during the latter half of the 1950s and an increase in sugar production in the United 

States during the 1960s.

Mining

Limestone and sand and gravel have been mined in southeastern Florida for 

construction and road material since the early 1920s (Gunter, 1927). Limestone 

extraction has played an important role in the westward expansion of urban areas, 

representing an inexpensive source of building material. The Venetian Pool, listed 

on the National Register for Historic Places and located in residential Coral Gables 

(fig. 15) was built in 1924. The public pool is the site of a former quarry used for 

construction materials during the early development of Coral Gables. By 1953, five 

companies extracted about 5.9 million tons of limestone in Broward, Miami-Dade, 

and Palm Beach Counties (Calver, 1957), increasing to 21.3 million tons by 1971. 

As early as 1974, the U.S. Bureau of Mines recognized that limited land 

availability and mineral resource statutory restrictions place mining activities in 

conflict with urban development. Urban sprawl merely increased demand for crushed 

rock and construction aggregate at the same time as residential developers for the 

same land resource (Edgerton, 1974). The 89-mi2 Lake Belt area in Miami-Dade 

County has become an area of intense resource competition (figs. 23A and 23B). 

Located on the eastern margin of the Everglades Shark River Slough historic flowway, the underlying limestone bedrock is characterized by high transmissivity and 

location of the largest well field in Florida—the Northwest Well Field (fig. 20). The 

same area represents the largest source of high-quality construction aggregate used 

for cement, building, and road material in Florida (Dade County Lake Belt Plan 

Category

Estimated

land use

(acres)

Adjusted

land use

(acres)

Irrigation

requirement

(million 

gallons

per acre)

Allocation

coefficient

Estimated

total water use

(million gallons

per day)

Miami-Dade County

Improved pasture 8,192 — — — —

Vegetable crops 

(row and field)

 75,135 41,324 13.69 1.30 54.71

Tree Crops 

(citrus and fruit)

 12,416 6,829 20.91 1.30 13.81

Sugar cane — — — — —

County total 95,743 48,153 68.52

Broward County

Improved pasture — — — — —

Vegetable crops 

(row and field)

55,886 50,297 16.04 1.30 78.03

Tree crops 

(citrus and fruit)

2,048 1,843 22.94 1.30 4.09

Sugar cane — — — — —

County total 57,934 52,141 82.11

Palm Beach County

Improved pasture 16,640 — — — —

Vegetable crops 

(row and field)

62,512 56,261 14.07 1.30 76.56

Tree crops 

(citrus and fruit)

128 115 21.15 1.30 .24

Sugar cane 143,950 129,555 20.59 1.40 277.83

County total 223,230 185,931 354.62

Table 2. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach 

Counties in 1953

[Dashes indicates no data]

Water and Land Uses 27
Category

Estimated

land use

(acres)

Adjusted

land use

(acres)

Irrigation

requirement 

(million 

gallons

per acre)

Allocation 

coefficient

Estimated

total water use

(million gallons

per day)

Miami-Dade County

Improved pasture 6,934 — — — —

Sugar cane — — — — —

Citrus groves 8,238 6,305 20.51 1.30 12.51

Fruit orchards 12,692 14,630 20.51 1.30 29.02

Sod farms — — 27 1 .00

Container ornamentals 3,126 6,403 21.31 1.30 13.20

Golf courses 5,229 3,888 26.66 1.30 10.02

Truck crops (row and field) 59,935 51,808 13.69 1.30 68.59

County total 96,154 83,034 133.34

Broward County

Improved pasture 26,045 — — — —

Sugar cane — — — — —

Citrus groves 3,060 589 22.15 1.30 1.26

Fruit orchards — — — — —

Sod farms — — — — —

Container ornamentals 766 2,453 23.73 1.30 5.63

Golf courses 8,378 6,662 29.09 1.30 18.74

Truck crops 

(row and field)

3,325 5,793 16.04 1.30 8.99

County total 41,573 15,497 34.62

Palm Beach County

Improved pasture 23,003 445 13.34 1.30 .57

Sugar cane 478,242 323,433 20.59 1.40 693.60

Citrus groves 23,735 15,545 20.51 1.30 30.83

Fruit orchards 37 — — — —

Sod farms 13,137 21,429 26.74 1.40 59.68

Container ornamentals 5,480 1,349 21.80 1.30 2.84

Golf courses 14,304 17,457 26.74 1.30 45.15

Truck crops (row and field) 33,476 107,205 14.07 1.30 145.88

County total 591,414 486,863 978.56

Table 4. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach 

Counties in 1988

[Dashes indicate no data]

Category

Estimated

land use

(acres)

Adjusted

land use

(acres)

Irrigation

requirement

(million 

gallons

per acre)

Allocation

coefficient

Estimated

total water use

(million gallons

per day)

Miami-Dade County

Cropland and 

pasture

39,620 39,620 13.69 1.30 52.46

Orchards, groves, 

and nurseries

13,098 13,098 20.91 1.30 26.49

Other agricultural 

land

37 37 26.66 1.30 .09

County Total 52,754 52,754 1.40 79.04

Broward County

Cropland and 

pasture

60,340 45,255 16.04 1.30 70.20

Orchards, groves, 

and nurseries

6,219 4,664 22.94 1.30 10.35

Other agricultural 

land

117 88 22.15 1.30 .19

County total 66,677 50,007 80.74

Palm Beach County

Cropland and 

pasture

577,615 288,807 17.33 1.30 484.05

Orchards, groves, 

and nurseries

20,744 10,372 21.15 1.30 21.22

Other agricultural 

land

455 228 26.74 1.30 .59

County total 598,814 299,407 505.86

Table 3. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach 

Counties in 1977

[Dashes indicate no data]

28  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Category

Estimated

land use

(acres)

Adjusted

land use

(acres)

Irrigation

requirement

(million

gallons

per acre)

Allocation 

coefficient

Estimated 

total water use

(million gallons

per day)

Miami-Dade County

Improved pasture 4,462 — — — —

Sugar cane — — — — —

Citrus groves 3,884 1,668 20.51 1.30 3.31

Fruit orchards 59 10,400 20.51 1.30 20.63

Sod farms 60 — — — —

Container ornamentals

7,066 8,403 21.31 1.30 17.32

Golf courses 5,237 4,223 26.66 1.30 10.89

Row crops 43,760 42,760 13.14 1.30 54.34

Field crops 17,874 — — — —

Tree nurseries 79 — — — —

County total 82,480 67,454 106.48

Broward County

Improved pasture 13,961 — — — —

Sugar cane — — — — —

Citrus groves — — — — —

Fruit orchards — — — — —

Sod farms — — — — —

Container ornamentals

827 2,668 23.73 1.30 6.12

Golf courses 8,105 7,360 29.09 1.30 20.71

Row crops 2,123 350 18.52 1.30 0.63

Field crops 51 — — — —

Tree nurseries 898 — — — —

County total 25,965 10,378 27.46

Table 5. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in 1995

[Dashes indicate no data]

Category

Estimated

land use

(acres)

Adjusted

land use

(acres)

Irrigation

requirement

(million

gallons

per acre)

Allocation 

coefficient

Estimated 

total water use

(million gallons

per day)

Palm Beach County

Improved pasture 3,171 — — — —

Sugar cane 464,165 334,837 10.50 1.40 366.18

Citrus groves 20,042 12,885 20.51 1.30 25.56

Fruit orchards 165 — — — —

Sod farms 399 20,000 26.74 1.40 55.70

Container ornamentals

4,327 4,807 21.80 1.30 10.13

Golf courses 17,862 16,210 26.74 1.30 41.92

Row crops 21,961 63,295 18.97 1.30 116.12

Field crops 1,506 18,364 9.17 1.30 16.29

Tree nurseries 1,158 — — — —

County total 534,756 470,398 631.90

Water and Land Uses 29
Figure 22A. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties during 1953 and 1977.

Tamiami Canal

Hillsboro Canal

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Beach Canal

West

Palm

Beach

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

1977

L-10

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Tamiami Canal

Hillsboro Canal

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

East

Glades Agricultural Area

Miami Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Beach Canal

L-10

West

Palm

Beach

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

1953

South NewRiver Canal

ATLANTIC OCEAN

East

Glades Agricultural Area

West Palm

West Palm

South NewRiver Canal

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

EXPLANATION

AGRICULTURAL WATER USE, IN

MILLION GALLONS PER DAY

<0.5

0.5-3

3-5

5-10

10-20

20-50

50-75

75-100

>125

100-125

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

30 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Tamiami Canal

Hillsboro Canal

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Beach Canal

West

Palm

Beach

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

1988

L-10

ATLANTIC OCEAN

East

Glades

Agricultural

Area

1995

L-10

East

Glades Agricultural Area

Tamiami Canal

Hillsboro Canal

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami Canal

NorthNewRiverCanal

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

Beach Canal

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

West Palm Beach

West Palm

South NewRiver Canal South NewRiver Canal

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

EXPLANATION

AGRICULTURAL WATER USE, IN

MILLION GALLONS PER DAY

<0.5

0.5-3

3-5

5-10

10-20

20-50

50-75

75-100

>125

100-125

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

West Palm

Figure 22B. Estimated agricultural water use in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties during 1988 and 1995.

Water and Land Uses  31
BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

80°30 ́

25°55 ́

25°50 ́

25 ́ 80°20 ́

Data Sources: Miami-Dade County 1:3,600 Aerial Photographs (1960’s, 1970’s, 1980’s, 1990’s)

.

Data Compiled by EAS Engineering, Inc.

Miami-Dade Department of Environmental Resources, 2001 data

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Levee 30

1963

WCA 3B

PENNSUCO WETLANDS

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

80°30 ́

25°55 ́

25°50 ́

25 ́ 80°20 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Levee 30

1975

WCA 3B

PENNSUCO WETLANDS

EXPLANATION

0

0

2

2

4 MILES

4 KILOMETERS

LAKE

LESS THAN 50 PERCENT

MELALEUCA

GREATER THAN 50 PERCENT

MELALEUCA

TREE ISLAND

DISTURBED AREA

CANAL

Figure 23A. Extent of limestone borrow pit mines in the Lake Belt area in 1963 and 1975. Courtesy of E.A. Swayon, EAS Enginnering, Inc. (written commun., 2003).

32 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

80°30 ́ 25 ́ 80°20 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Levee 30

1992

WCA 3B

PENNSUCO WETLANDS

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

80°30 ́

25°55 ́

25°50 ́

25 ́ 80°20 ́

Data Sources: Miami-Dade County 1:3,600 Aerial Photographs (1960’s, 1970’s, 1980’s, 1990’s).

Miami-Dade Department of Environmental Resources, 2001 data.

Data Compiled by EAS Engineering, Inc.

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Levee 30

1984

WCA 3B

PENNSUCO WETLANDS

25°55 ́

25°50 ́

EXPLANATION

0

0

2

2

4 MILES

4 KILOMETERS LAKE

LESS THAN 50 PERCENT

MELALEUCA

GREATER THAN 50 PERCENT

MELALEUCA

TREE ISLAND

DISTURBED AREA

CANAL

Figure 23B. Extent of limestone borrow pit mines in the lake Belt area in 1984 and 1992. Courtesy of E.A. Swayon, EAS Enginnering, Inc. (written commun., 2003).

Water and Land Uses  33
Implementation Committee, 1997). By the close of the 20th century, 35 to 40 million 

tons of limestone were extracted in northwestern Miami-Dade County on an annual 

basis (Northwest Dade County Freshwater Lake Plan Implementation Committee, 

1997).

Mining operations in northwestern Miami-Dade County have been active since 

the 1950s but their size and extent were comparatively limited until the 1980s 

(figs. 23A, 23B, and 24). Florida’s 1984 Henderson Wetlands Act recognized that 

there was substantial economic value in the limestone mineral reserves in MiamiDade County; although this legislative act was designed to mitigate wetland destruction, it exempted mining in wetland areas bordering Everglades National Park 

heavily infested with exotic melaleuca trees. Borrow-pit mining is transforming 

wetland areas into deep quarry lakes, 30 to 80 ft in depth. Proposed expansion of 

mining operations and the conversion of abandoned quarries to in-ground reservoirs 

as part of the Everglades restoration have created unresolved public health concerns 

regarding increased well-field vulnerability to surface-water pathogen contamination, 

and environmental concerns associated with the potential increase in seepage from 

water-conservation areas and the nearby Pennsuco wetlands area (figs. 23A and 23B). 

 During the 1980s and 1990s, limestone extraction methods increased the available urban residential waterfront property through excavation of artificial lakes in 

western and central Palm Beach and Broward Counties (fig. 25). Residential artificial 

lakes are largely multipurpose in nature, having served to: (1) provide construction fill for roads, (2) elevate low-lying lands for development in former marginal 

wetland areas, (3) reduce urban flooding, and (4) help increase land values due to 

their aesthetic appearance (Frederick and others, 1997). In Palm Beach County, water 

is pumped from the Hillsboro Canal into Lake Worth Drainage District canals near 

Boca Raton, in part, to maintain water levels within local community artificial lakes. 

Use of Alternative Aquifers for Supply and 

Wastewater Management

As previously mentioned, increased withdrawals and substantial land-use 

changes have adversely affected the balance between freshwater and saltwater in the 

surficial aquifer system in southeastern Florida. Mitigation of an aquifer contaminated with saltwater is costly, difficult, and achieved only after a lengthy period of 

time. Some well fields have been consolidated, some coastal well fields have been 

abandoned, and others have been constructed farther inland accompanied by the 

adoption and enforcement of wellhead protection plans. Construction of additional 

municipal well fields in the western part of the urban corridor, however, is ultimately 

limited by competing supply needs of agriculture, the Everglades ecosystem and 

Figure 24. Lake Belt limestone borrow-pit mine in 

Miami-Dade County. Photographs courtesy of the 

South Florida Water Management District archives.

34  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 25. Artificial lakes along the Sawgrass Expressway in 

reclaimed wetland areas adjoining water-conservation areas in 

Broward County. These artificial lakes have served as a source of 

artificial fill for residential construction and to capture stormwater 

runoff. Photographs courtesy of the South Florida Water 

Management District archives.

water-conservation areas, and expanding mining interests. Alternate sources of water 

and effective means of storage have been of critical interest to resource managers. 

Experimental freshwater aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) systems were 

first constructed in Miami-Dade and Palm Beach Counties during the 1970s; the 

Boynton Beach ASR facility represents the first operational system (1992). Most 

existing southern Florida ASR wells are completed in the Upper Floridan aquifer, 

the upper of two regional aquifers that form the extensive carbonate Floridan aquifer 

system that underlies the intermediate confining unit (fig. 6). By the end of the 20th

century, ASR was being evaluated to meet growing urban, agricultural, and ecosystem supply demands (Fies and others, 2002; Reese, 2002). Five new systems were 

under operational testing by 2000, and a network of 330 large-capacity ASR wells 

for restoration purposes was being evaluated as part of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) (U.S. Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water 

Management District, 1999; National Research Council, 2001; 2002). Considerable 

scientific, engineering, and cost-related feasibility issues must be resolved, however, 

and it is uncertain whether an ASR infrastructure of unprecedented scale can meet 

ecosystem restoration, agricultural and urban needs. Pilot and regional studies have 

been initiated to characterize the regional hydrology and geologic framework, assess 

the potential impact on the regional ground-water flow system (fig. 26), characterize biogeochemical reactions, and examine ecosystem sensitivity to recovered water 

(Fies and others, 2002; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water 

Management District, 2002; Ward and others, 2003).

Utilization of water withdrawn from the Upper Floridan aquifer for publicsupply purposes is limited by salinity that exceeds U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (1999) secondary drinking-water standards. Reverse-osmosis treatment of 

Upper Floridan aquifer water for municipal use represents a growing watersupply trend, particularly in Palm Beach County, which has been projected to have a 

public-supply demand of 338 million gallons by 2020 (Marella, 1992). Palm Beach 

reverse-osmosis production wells that obtain water from the Upper Floridan aquifer 

have been constructed in Highland Beach, Jupiter, and Tequesta (fig 15D). Reverse 

osmosis also is used in Broward County to treat Upper Floridan aquifer water for the 

city of Hollywood. 

Historically, the cost of treating wastewater effluent in southeastern Florida was 

accompanied by concern that an expanded system of ocean outfalls would degrade 

coastal beach areas. Such concern in the 1970s contributed to public acceptance 

that deep well injection represented the preferred wastewater management alternative (Garcia-Benochea and others, 1973). First applied in Broward County in 1959 

(Hickey and Vecchioli, 1986), the disposal of liquid wastewater into saline carbonate 

rocks by deep well injection has been used increasingly during the latter half of the 

20th century for municipal and industrial wastewater and for disposal of reverseosmosis concentrate. More than 20 Class I injection municipal and industrial 

Water and Land Uses  35
EXPLANATION

10

A

Lake

Okeechobee

B

Lake

Okeechobee

HENDRY

COUNTY

PALM

BEACH

COUNTY

MARTIN

COUNTY

ST.

LUCIE

COUNTY

OKEECHOBEE

COUNTY

HIGHLANDS

COUNTY

GLADES

COUNTY

81°15 ́ 81°00 ́ 45 ́ 80°30 ́

26°45 ́

27°00 ́

15 ́

27°30 ́

2

10

100

100

100

500

500

500

2

10

HENDRY

COUNTY

PALM

BEACH

COUNTY

MARTIN

COUNTY

ST.

LUCIE

COUNTY

OKEECHOBEE

COUNTY

HIGHLANDS

COUNTY

GLADES

COUNTY

81°15 ́ 81°00 ́ 45 ́ 80°30 ́

26°45 ́

27°00 ́

15 ́

27°30 ́

0 10

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

20 MILES

10

10

1

10

1

250 feet at radius = 100 feet

250 feet at radius = 100 feet

250 feet at radius = 100 feet

1

Caloos

i ah v atchee R e r

Caloos

i ah v atchee R e r

C-44

C-44

LINE OF HYPOTHETICAL INCREASE

IN WATER LEVEL–In feet

HYPOTHETICAL ASR WELL

Figure 26. Hypothetical aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) pressure buildup in the Upper Floridan aquifer using the Hantush-Jacob (1955) analytical model, 

assuming (A) relatively high transmissivity and confining bed leakance or (B) relatively low transmissivity and confining bed leakance. This analytical model can be 

used to bracket uncertainty associated with large-scale head buildup using a known range of Upper Floridan aquifer hydraulic parameters. Although not mechanically possible, it was assumed that 1 billion gallons of water could be injected into three wells located about 12 miles apart for a time period of 180 days and one 

for a period of 2.5 years. Steady-state conditions were achieved in 180 days. The Hantush-Jacob analytical model greatly simplifies potential hydraulic responses 

within the Upper Floridan aquifer; however, the model can be used to assess the relative impact of likely range aquifer and confining unit hydraulic parameters 

including transmissivity (T=100,000 square feet per day), time (t=0.5 and 2.5 years), storage (S=0.005), underlying confining unit leakance (K’/b’=0.01 day -1), and 

discharge (Q=3.33 x 10 8 gallons per day per well). This example illustrates sensitivity to water-level changes in terms of uncertainty is ASR storage zone hydraulic 

parameters. From L.C. Murray, U.S. Geological Survey (written commun., 2002) and Fies and others (2002).

36  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
facilities were operating in Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade Counties by 

2000, injecting treated wastewater into the highly permeable Boulder Zone of the 

Lower Floridan aquifer at depths of 2,000 to 3,000 ft below NGVD 1929. In recent 

years, however, deep well injection has received considerable scrutiny because of the 

uncertain efficacy of overlying confining units and the reported upward leakage of 

effluent that has been observed in some monitoring wells. 

Okeechobee (fig. 26) helped to lower lake levels and created downstream drainage 

issues. Disston’s reclamation efforts were ultimately hampered financially because 

of poor investment return on reclaimed land and the nationwide economic Panic of 

1893. Pro-reclamation proponents, however, supporting drainage of the Everglades 

held strong convictions that drainage efforts would ultimately transform wetland 

muck into fertile farmland soil. The extension of the railroad to Miami in 1896 by 

industrialist Henry Flagler was combined with development of small cities and 

“Our swamps are the greatest single menace that remains to public health. As a people we cannot feel that our full duty has been 

performed until we have made these swamp land centers of prosperity and comfort for ourselves and those who shall come after.....

They are not unproductive; they can be made sources of great national wealth.”

 M.O. Leighton 

 Chief Hydrographer 

 U.S. Geological Survey, 1912

Development of Water-Management System and 

Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida

During the 19th and throughout most of the 20th century, the American 

freshwater wetland (swamps) and coastal estuary paradigm differed considerably 

from scientific and environmental perspectives expressed in the 1990s. Swamps 

were considered to be vast wastelands that could better serve the Nation if drained 

into productive agricultural lands. For many Americans, the Nation’s wetlands 

represented a potential source of disease and pestilence. In speeches presented to 

the National Irrigation Congress (Chicago) and National Drainage Congress (New 

Orleans) in 1912, the Chief Hydrographer of the USGS, Marshall O. Leighton, 

declared the reclamation of America’s swamps to be a “matter of National necessity.” 

Furthermore, Leighton (1912) stated that wetlands were “the greatest single menace 

that now remains to public health,” describing them as “a source of weakness in our 

National economy.”

During the latter part of the 1800s and early 1900s, the ceding of Federal land to 

the State of Florida was accompanied by reclamation activities to develop a tropical-based agriculture. Drainage efforts by entrepreneur Hamilton Disston provided 

modest success within wetland areas of the Kissimmee River Basin in central 

Florida. Canals built by Disston linked the Caloosahatchee River south with Lake 

resorts along southeastern Florida coast that, in part, were designed to attract the 

Nation’s most wealthy vacationers (George, 1996). 

Reclamation continued south of the lake with completion of the West Palm 

Beach (1907), Hillsboro (1907), North New River (1913), and Miami (1913) Canals 

by the Everglades Drainage District (fig. 27A). Construction of a low levee that 

rimmed the southern side of Lake Okeechobee (1924) increased the amount of land 

available for agricultural development, especially along the major canals and tracts 

of land south of the lake (fig. 28). The canals served to increase the rate of flow from 

the Everglades, which reduced the extent of inundated land and lowered groundwater levels near drainage canals and along the western edge of the Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge (fig. 5). Early drainage construction efforts (figs. 29 and 30) proved only 

modestly successful as the principal canals generally failed to transport the imposed 

flood load (Parker and others, 1955). Additional improvements were made during the 

late 1920s to the Caloosahatchee River and C-44 Canal (fig. 26) to more effectively 

drain Lake Okeechobee. 

The Tamiami Canal, a major component of the Everglades drainage system, 

extends westward from its terminus at the Miami Canal to the southwestern coast of 

Florida discharging near Naples (west of the study area). The Tamiami Canal, completed in 1928, was not designed for drainage purposes, but was used to provide fill 

to build a road (fig. 1, Tamiami Trail) along its length, linking Miami with Naples. 

The central and western reaches of the canal collect water as sheetflow and funnel 

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  37
Hillsboro Canal

South New

Miami Canal

New River Canal

New River

Canal

New River

Canal

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee West Palm

West Palm

West Palm

Beach

Hillsboro Canal

South New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Hillsboro Canal

South New

Miami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Beach Canal

Beach

River Canal River Canal River Canal

Canal Canal

Tamiami Canal

ATLANTIC OCEANATLANTIC OCEAN

West Palm Beach

Fort Lauderdale

Miami

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

Lake Worth

Drainage District

Fort Lauderdale

West Palm Beach

Miami

West Palm Beach

Fort Lauderdale

Miami

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

Lake Worth

Drainage District

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

80°

27°

26°

80°

27°

26°

80°

27°

26°

A (1920) B (1930) C (1940)

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 27. Surface-water conveyance features in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in (A) 1920, (B) 1930, and (C) 1940. Modified from data and files of the 

South Florida Water Management District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey.

38  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 28. Poster (circa 1910) used to attract buyers of newly drained agricultural lands. courtesy of the Davie, Florida Historical Society.

Figure 29. Dredging of the (A) Miami Canal at Hialeah in 1919 and 

(B) the South New River Canal at Davie in 1920. Digitized photographs held by the Historical Museum of Southern Florida, Miami, 

Florida. From the C.C. Matlack Collection.

A

B

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  39
it through culverts southward into Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress 

Basin (Swamp). Landfilling construction activities associated with development of 

Flagler’s Florida Keys railroad helped to alter Florida Bay circulation patterns, and 

water-management practices reduced surface flow to the bay and ultimately modified 

its salinity and ecology (McIvor and others, 1994; Halley and Roulier, 1999; Halley, 

2002). The impact of the Tamiami Trail on surface-water flows to Florida Bay was 

less certain (Light and Dineen, 1994, p. 55). 

The Lake Worth Drainage District (LWDD) was developed during the late 

1920s (fig. 27B). This major early water-management feature was constructed to 

reclaim and improve land within its boundaries, and to offer water control and water 

supply for urban settlement and agriculture. The LWDD occupies about 200 mi2 in 

Palm Beach County and extends from West Palm Beach to the Broward County line. 

Management of water resources in the LWDD is achieved by use of 50 east-west 

lateral canals and 4 north-south equalizing canals. Whereas drainage of the Everglades wetland areas affected coastal ground-water levels, the LWDD is designed to 

maintain higher coastal ground-water levels, withdrawing water from the Hillsboro 

and West Palm Beach Canals.

By 1930, the network of mostly uncontrolled canals (fig. 27B) drained large 

quantities of freshwater from the Everglades into the Atlantic Ocean, lowering water 

levels in the Everglades as much as 6 ft (Kohout, 1964). In response to the hurricanerelated flooding and mortality in agricultural lands south of Lake Okeechobee in 

1926 and 1928, a larger elevated dike (Hoover Dike) was completed on the southern 

and northern parts of Lake Okeechobee in 1938 (figs. 27C and 31). 

The drought of 1943-46 and hurricanes of 1947 and 1948 (fig. 32) served as an 

impetus to the development and formation of the Central and South Florida Flood 

Control Project and District, established in 1949. Known as the “Comprehensive 

Plan,” the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers initiated a major construction project in 

an effort to harness the “erratic” nature of the southern Florida Everglades (fig. 33). 

The project was designed to remove flood waters rapidly, provide surface-water 

storage for regional water supply, prevent canal overdrainage and saltwater intrusion, protect developed land, supply water to Everglades National Park, help preserve 

fish and wildlife, and serve recreational and navigational needs. The Central and 

South Florida Flood Control District was the predecessor of the South Florida Water 

Management District, which formed in 1972 when the State of Florida established 

five water-management districts to manage regional water resources and protect the 

environment.

Canal and levee construction expanded greatly during the 1950s and 1960s. 

(fig. 34). Major canals were enlarged and an eastern protective levee was built during 

the 1950s to protect urban and eastern agricultural lands. Prior to the 1950s, U.S. 

Highway 27 served as a north-south protective levee system; however, it proved to be 

ineffective during the 1947 flood (Merritt, 1996a, p. 19).

Figure 30. Political cartoons published for the “Back to Broward 

League” (Carson, 1916). The Back to Broward League was formed 

by a group of Fort Lauderdale residents actively promoting efforts 

to drain the Everglades, and had criticized the State government 

for its failure to adequately finance ongoing drainage efforts. 

Courtesy of Florida International University digital library and 

Historical Museum of Southern Florida.

40 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
During the latter half of the 1950s, canals, levees and control structures were 

constructed on the southern side of Lake Okeechobee to form the Everglades 

Agricultural Area (fig. 34B). The storage of surface water was accomplished by 

developing water-conservation areas during the 1960s (fig. 34B) in which water was 

held within sawgrass prairie areas. These conservation areas were designed to: 

(1) help delay runoff and prevent the overland flow of flood waters into urbanized 

areas; (2) control seepage to the surficial aquifer system; (3) supply recharge to well 

fields; (4) maintain stage levels within canals and water levels in the surficial aquifer 

system; (5) limit saltwater intrusion during drought periods; and (6) control the 

southward flow of water to Everglades National Park.

Figure 31. Poster announcing the historic completion of Hoover Dike at Lake Okeechobee. 

Courtesy of the South Florida Water Management District photographic archives.

A

B

Figure 32. Photographs showing extensive flooding in (A) Hialeah and 

(B) Fort Lauderdale caused by major hurricanes that hit southeastern 

Florida in 1947 and 1948, respectively.

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  41
Additional changes in the surface-water conveyance system were made in 

the 1970s (fig. 35A) to meet the hydrologic needs of the park. By the 1970s, gated 

control structures were installed at the coastal end of the primary canals to discharge 

excess water during the wet season, and retard the landward movement of saltwater 

during the dry season (fig. 36). Secondary controls on the inland reaches of canals 

were installed to regulate flow eastward, control inland and agricultural flooding, 

and maintain higher water levels in the surficial aquifer system where appropriate. 

Surface-water pump stations in the Everglades Agricultural Area were added to regulate water levels for agricultural purposes, and new municipal well fields were either 

constructed or expanded. Canal system development reached its final phase in the 

1980s (fig. 35B) with completion of the Everglades-South Dade conveyance system, 

which was constructed to meet agricultural water-supply needs, control flooding, and 

mitigate saltwater intrusion.

Water-Table Fluctuations of the Surficial Aquifer System

The surficial aquifer system generally is considered to contain water under 

unconfined or water-table conditions. Discharge occurs by seepage to canals, the 

Atlantic Ocean, and evapotranspiration. Canal seepage has a major effect on water 

levels due to the highly transmissive nature of the surficial aquifer system in southeastern Florida. Canals display both gaining or losing flow characteristics depending 

on whether ground water is discharged from the surficial aquifer system to canals or 

surface water in canals seeps into the aquifer system (fig. 37). Ground-water levels 

are highest near the impounded water-conservation areas and lowest near the coast; 

consequently, the hydraulic gradient in southeastern Florida is seaward and discharge 

to the Atlantic Ocean occurs near the coast, except under extreme drought conditions 

in Miami-Dade County (Schroeder and others, 1958; Sherwood and Klein, 1963). 

For this study, a comparative analysis of average water-table conditions was 

used to evaluate temporal and spatial changes in the flow system resulting from 

drainage of the former wetland areas by a surface-water conveyance system. 

“Average-condition” maps were prepared to illustrate the evolution of the watermanagement system and its impact on the configuration of the water table in southeastern Florida. The major features of the flow system in the surficial aquifer system, 

illustrated in a series of potentiometric surface maps showing average conditions 

between 1940-44, 1970-74, and 1990-94 (figs. 38-40), were prepared using groundwater level and stage data from the files of the USGS, SFWMD, and the LWDD. In 

southeastern Florida, water levels are highest in September or October (end of wet 

season) and lowest during April or May (end of dry season). Instead of portraying 

synoptic conditions, a 5-year interval of time was used to dampen or smooth the 

effect of unusually wet or dry months.

Predevelopment Water-Table Conditions and Ground-Water Flow

Few data are available to evaluate the configuration of the predevelopment water 

table at the beginning of the 20th century, and only limited data document conditions 

prior to 1939. The water table probably formed a subtle reflection of Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge topography, with stage levels in the adjoining Everglades of sufficient height 

to discharge surface water through the intervening transverse glades. In Miami-Dade 

County, Everglades wetland areas were reported to lie within 3 mi of the coastal 

community of Coconut Grove (fig. 15B) in 1887 (Shaler, 1890), with a reported 

surface-water stage of 10 ft above NGVD 29 (Parker and others, 1955, p. 580). In 

Palm Beach County, historic surface-water outflows from marsh areas exited along 

the Loxahatchee-Hungryland Sloughs or from an outlet of the Hillsboro Marsh (Land 

and others, 1973). Fresh ground water discharged along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge 

Figure 33. Photograph showing the “weeping cow.” The illustration was used to 

dramatize the severity of flood conditions and to emphasize the need to develop a 

comprehensive water-management plan for southern Florida. Courtesy of the South 

Florida Water Management District digital photographic archives.

42 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 34. Surface-water conveyance system in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in (A) 1950 and 

(B) 1960. Modified from data and files of the South Florida Water Management District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

and U.S. Geological Survey.

New River

Canal

New River

Canal

West Palm

West Palm

Beach

South New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Hillsboro

South New

Miami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Beach Canal

River Canal River Canal

Canal

Tamiami Canal

ATLANTIC OCEANATLANTIC OCEAN

L-40 L-36

L-30 L-31 L-37 L-33

NorthRiverCanal

Canal

Hillsboro Canal

Lake Worth

Drainage District

Fort Lauderdale

West Palm Beach

Miami

West Palm Beach

Fort Lauderdale

Miami

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

Lake Worth

Drainage District

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

EVERGLADES

AGRICULTURAL

AREA WCA 1

WCA 2

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

80°

27°

26°

80°

27°

26°

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

A (1950) B (1960)

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  43
New River

Canal

West Palm

West Palm

South New

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Hillsboro

South New

Lake

Okeechobee

Beach Canal

River Canal River Canal

Tamiami Canal

ATLANTIC OCEANATLANTIC OCEAN

L-40 L-36

L-30 L-31 L-37 L-33

NorthRiverCanal

Canal

Hillsboro Canal

Miami Canal

New River

Canal

Beach Canal

L-40 L-36

L-30 L-31 L-37 L-33

NorthRiverCanal

Lake Worth

Drainage District

Fort Lauderdale

West Palm Beach

Miami

West Palm Beach

Fort Lauderdale

Miami

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

BROWARD

COUNTY

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

Lake Worth

Drainage District

PALM BEACH

COUNTY

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

EVERGLADES

AGRICULTURAL

AREA WCA 1

WCA 2

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

EVERGLADES

AGRICULTURAL

AREA WCA 1

WCA 2

WCA 3A

WCA 3B

80°

27°

26°

80°

27°

26°

A (1970) B (1990)

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 35. Surface-water conveyance system in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties in (A) 1970 and (B) 1990. 

Modified from data and files of the South Florida Water Management District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and 

U.S. Geological Survey.

44  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
shoreline and offshore as submarine springs. Springs reportedly discharged nearshore 

as freshwater boils in the shallow waters of Biscayne Bay; freshwater discharge in 

some areas occurred in sufficient quantities to permit mariners to collect fresh drinking water directly from the bay in a boat (fig. 41B). Discharging freshwater springs 

were labeled on the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1896) map of Biscayne Bay 

(Parker and others, 1955, Kohout and Kolipinski, 1967). 

Peat and muck deposits were an extremely important predevelopment 

component of Everglades surface- and ground-water hydrology. These deposits 

functioned as a storage reservoir to a water column that extended upward from 

the underlying aquifer, helping to maintain a higher water table and to prolong the 

hydroperiod (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1969; Stephens, 1984). Assuming 

peat deposits were fully saturated during predevelopment conditions, the combined 

height of the water column contributed largely to coastal ground-water hydrology, 

thereby restricting movement of a coastal saltwater interface. The SFWMD’s Natural 

Systems Model, a two-dimensional coupled surface- and ground-water flow model 

designed to simulate predevelopment response of the Everglades system (MacVicar 

and others, 1984), provides some insight to possible predevelopment ground-water 

flow conditions. Simulated hydraulic gradients were greatest near the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge with ground water flowing to the coast and to the west (Fennema and 

others, 1994). 

Average 1940-44 Water-Table Conditions

The April and October 1940-44 maps (fig. 38) show conditions in the surficial 

aquifer system before the extensive, modern-day drainage and conveyance system 

was developed as part of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project of 

the 1950s and 1960s. The five major canals (St. Lucie, West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, 

Figure 36. Gated coastal 

control structure at the 

eastern end of Snake Creek 

Canal. Photograph courtesy 

of the South Florida Water 

Management District digital 

photographic archives.

A

B

Water table

Water table

Figure 37. Canals of southern Florida exhibiting both (A) gaining and (B) losing 

characteristics depending on relative stage level. Modified from Klein and others 

(1975).

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  45
3

West Palm

West Palm

Fort

Lauderdale

A

BROWARD COUNTY

Canal

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

Beach Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New River Canal

South New River Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne 

Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

EXPLANATION

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New

South New River Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

B

Beach Canal

Canal

River Canal

Miami

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

14

1012

16

5

5

5

4

6

8

4

2

4

4

3

3

3

2 1

1

3

2

2

1

1

6

8

4

2

5

6

7

7

7

16

14

12 10

6

5 4

3 2

6

5 4

3

2 1

4

3

2

1

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

1

Hillsboro

Hillsboro

LINE OF EQUAL WATER LEVEL–Interval

is 1 and 2 feet. Dashed where

approximate. Hachure indicates cone

of depression. Datum is NAD 1927

WELL CONTROL POINT

Figure 38. Average water levels in the surficial 

aquifer system in southeastern Florida during 

(A) April 1940-44 and (B) October 1940-44. Derived 

from data and files of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

South Florida Water Management District, and 

Lake Worth Drainage District.

46  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Hillsboro

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New

South New River Canal

Canal

Hillsboro

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New

South New River Canal

Canal

River Canal

River Canal

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 1

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 1

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Biscayne 

Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lake

Okeechobee

A

Lake

Okeechobee

B

Fort

Lauderdale

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West Palm Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Miami

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

5

5

5

5 6

6

6

6

6 6

7

7

9

7

7

2

4

4

4

4

3

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

8

8

8

7 7

9 10

11

14

14

17

16

15

14

13 12

11

10 8 6 4 2

1413

1211

5

13

12

1110

10

9

9

14

13

13

12 12

11

11

10

9

10

9

12

7

2

1

1

1

3

-3 4 2

1

2

2

3

7

3

4 4 2

1

2

2 4 3

5

6

8

11

13

9

10

15

15

1514

13

1211 10 9

6

4

14

13

12

11

18

17

15 14

13

12 11 10

6 8

4 2

16

10 9

16

14

3 3

6 7 7

5 6 7

4

5

6

7 8

9

13

12

11

10

9

2

EXPLANATION 1

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

LINE OF EQUAL WATER LEVEL–

Interval is 1and 2 feet. Hachures

indicate cone of depression.

Datum is NAD 1927

WELL CONTROL POINT

Figure 39. Average water levels in the 

surficial aquifer system in southeastern 

Florida during (A) April 1970-74 and 

(B) October 1970-74. Derived from data and 

files of the U.S. Geological Survey, South 

Florida Water Management District, and 

Lake Worth Drainage District.

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  47
Lake

Okeechobee

A

Fort

Lauderdale

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 1

Lake EXPLANATION Okeechobee

B

Fort

Lauderdale

BROWARD COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY HENDRY COUNTY

West

Palm Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 1

Miami Miami

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

26°00 ́

15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

25°15 ́

Hillsboro

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New

South New River Canal

Canal

Hillsboro

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

St. Lucie Canal

North New

South New River Canal

Canal

River Canal

River Canal

4

4

2

2

2

2 2

2

2

3

3

4

4

4

2

4 3

4

4

34 2

7 8

9

10 11

12

10

11

12

14

16

16

16

14

12

12

16

12 8 8

6

4

2

6

4

2

18

20

22

24

14

14

14 12

10

5

6

2

4

1 3

2

3 2

-3

3

4

3

4

5

6

7

8

8

9

9

1

2

4

5

6

2

3

1

1

1

1

2

9

4

1 2

3

1

1

2

5 4 3

6 1

3

2

3

7

8 9

10

16

12

1614

12

14

16

16 14 8

6 4 2

12 10

18

20

22

14 12 10

12 11

2

2

4

6

2

1

7

8

7

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

3 LINE OF EQUAL WATER LEVEL–

Interval is 1 and 2 feet.

Hachures indicate cone of

depression. Datum is NAD

1927

SURFACE-WATER CONTROL

POINT

WELL CONTROL POINT

Figure 40. Average water levels in the 

surficial aquifer system in southeastern 

Florida during (A) April 1990-94 and 

(B) October 1990-94. Derived from data and 

files of the U.S. Geological Survey, South 

Florida Water Management District, and 

Lake Worth Drainage District.

48  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
North New River, and Miami Canals) that extend from Lake Okeechobee to the 

southeastern coast and the Tamiami Canal were the largest existing man-made 

hydrologic features. Smaller and less extensive canal systems also were present 

in Miami-Dade and Palm Beach Counties. An extensive levee system, gated canal 

structures along the coast to prevent saltwater intrusion, and impoundment structures 

had not yet been built.

Everglades drainage efforts remained uncontrolled through the early 1940s, 

causing a lowering of water levels in the surficial aquifer system underlying the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge, wetland areas adjoining the ridge, and along major drainage canals. The uncontrolled drainage contributed to movement of saline water 

into canals and the surficial aquifer system. The lowest water levels in the surficial 

aquifer system, recorded in 1945, were attributed to the combined effect of long-term 

uncontrolled canal drainage and an extended drought (Schroeder and others, 1958, 

fig. 14)

South of the Tamiami Canal in Miami-Dade County, ground water discharged 

to the east and southeast; an eastward hydraulic gradient characterized the water 

table between the Tamiami and Miami Canals. The highest reported water levels 

between 1939 and 1946 were on September 23, 1940, along the Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge between the Tamiami and Miami Canals (Parker and others, 1955, p. 211). 

The water table formed a large mound with ground-water movement toward both the 

Everglades and the coast. 

A cone of depression adjoining the Miami Canal surrounded the City of Miami 

Well Field during the early 1940s. Now referred to as the Hialeah-Miami Springs 

Well Field (fig. 18, Miami-Hialeah), its primary source of recharge was the Miami 

Canal. The LWDD in Palm Beach County generally maintained higher water levels 

than those in Broward and Miami-Dade Counties (Parker and others, 1955, p. 173). 

Sparse water-level control points limited analysis of conditions during the 1940-44 

time frame north of the LWDD. 

Average 1970-74 Water-Table Conditions

The 1970-74 water-table maps (fig. 39) represent average hydrologic conditions 

in the surficial aquifer system following completion of the Central and Southern 

Florida Flood Control Project. Engineered features that affected the altitude and 

configuration of the water table in the surficial aquifer system during this period 

include coastal gated canal structures, extensive levees and surface-water impoundments (water-conservation areas), pump systems, improved secondary canals, and the 

construction/expansion of several large well fields. By the 1970s, hydraulic gradients 

were greatest near landward conservation areas (Fennema and others, 1994), whereas 

the lower ground-water levels and shallower coastal hydraulic gradients increased 

potential for saltwater intrusion (Leach and others, 1972). 

A

B

Figure 41. (A) City of Miami 

water well in 1899(?) at the 

Miami River headwaters and 

(B) unidentified man withdrawing 

water from freshwater spring in 

Biscayne Bay in 1890. Photographs courtesy of Historical 

Museum of South Florida, Ralph 

Middleton Monroe Collection.

The highest water levels in Miami-Dade County typically occurred in the waterconservation areas. South of the Tamiami Canal, the hydraulic gradient was predominately to the south and southeast, whereas north of the Tamiami Canal, the hydraulic 

gradient was eastward. In Broward County, water was diverted from major canals 

by free flow or was pumped into local canals to maintain water levels in the surficial 

aquifer system, and to artificially recharge local well fields by canal seepage. Water 

levels were highest in Broward County near the water-conservation areas and also 

in the northeastern part of the county (fig. 39). In the latter area, surface water was 

pumped from the Hillsboro Canal into secondary canals, creating an artificial mound 

(Fish, 1988, p. 68). A steep hydraulic gradient separated this mound from the northwestern edge of the Prospect Well Field (fig. 19).

In Palm Beach County, water levels were highest in Water Conservation Area 1, 

the LWDD, and the northwestern part of the county (figs. 35 and 39). Gated canals 

and lateral canals maintained 16-ft-high water levels in the LWDD. These multipurpose canals were used to drain excess surface water during the wet season, maintain 

water levels in the surficial aquifer system, and minimize saltwater intrusion caused 

by coastal well withdrawals. 

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  49
Closed depressions in the water-table surface evident in the 1970-74 maps 

(fig. 39) and also the 1990-94 maps (fig. 40), discussed next, are attributable to large 

water withdrawals from municipal well fields in Miami-Dade and Broward Counties. 

These cones of depression are associated with withdrawals from the Miami-Hialeah, 

Alexander Orr, Southwest, Northwest, Dixie, Prospect, and Pompano Beach Well 

Fields (figs. 19 and 20). Withdrawals from other smaller well fields, including those 

in Broward and Palm Beach Counties, have resulted in similar but smaller hydrologic 

features not evident on the water-table maps of this scale.

Average 1990-94 Water-Table Conditions

By 1990-94, a water-management system had evolved to include hydraulic 

control structures and a system of levees, impoundments, and gated conveyance 

canals that collectively affected the altitude and configuration of the water table. 

The 1990-94 water-table maps (fig. 40) illustrate average conditions during a dryseason month (April) and wet-season month (October). The overall configuration 

of the water table in the surficial aquifer system is similar to that seen for average 

conditions during 1970-74 (fig. 39). For example, the highest water levels are 

maintained in the water-conservation areas, and the movement of ground water is 

east and southeast toward the coast. In Miami-Dade County, withdrawals from the 

Northwest Well Field (fig. 20), constructed in the early 1980s, helped to lower water 

levels. Well-field withdrawals are in evidence by the occurrence of a cone of depression not previously seen. The Northwest Well Field was built as an alternative 

municipal water supply following contamination concerns associated with 

Hialeah-Miami Springs supply wells. Withdrawals were curtailed in the 

Hialeah-Miami Springs Well Field from 1984 to 1992 (Sonenshein and Koszalka, 

1996), but reinitiated following the completion of a new treatment facility. 

Withdrawals from the Northwest Well Field have been subsequently reduced.

The configuration of the potentiometric surface in Broward County in 1990-

94 (fig. 40) is largely the same as in 1970-74 (fig. 39). Prior to 1985, agricultural 

users in the Deerfield Beach area relied on water pumped from the Hillsboro Canal 

to supply irrigation canals, also helping to recharge the surficial aquifer system. In 

northwestern Palm Beach County, water levels exceeding 20 ft were maintained. 

Stage levels in Water Conservation Area 1 and the LWDD canals (fig. 35) were 

both greater than 16 ft during the wet and dry seasons. An increase in municipal 

and domestic withdrawals, combined with regulatory change in canal stage, have 

cumulatively affected the altitude and configuration of the water table in Palm Beach 

County (Miller, 1988, p. 190). The City of Boca Raton withdraws water from the 

Hillsboro Canal to maintain coastal ground-water levels, prevent saltwater intrusion, 

and recharge the surficial aquifer system in the vicinity of the city’s western well 

field (McKenzie, 1995).

Ground-Water Level Changes Over Time

Temporal and spatial water-level changes that have occurred during 

the last 60 years of the 20th century are depicted in figures 42, 43, and 44. Specifically, these maps spatially portray “5-year average” temporal water-level differences 

that occurred between 1940-44 and 1990-94, 1940-44 and 1970-74, and 1970-74 and 

1990-94 during April (dry season) and October (wet season).

Average ground-water levels declined in large inland areas in April 1990-94 and 

October 1990-94 in comparison to those conditions observed in April 1940-44 and 

October 1940-44 (fig. 42). The water-level declines are attributable to water-management drainage efforts to control urban and agricultural flooding. The departure 

in monthly mean average dry-season precipitation from normal conditions in April 

1940-44 and 1990-94 and the prior months was similar in magnitude (fig. 45). This 

contrasts considerably with the departure from normal wet-season (October) rainfall 

that was considerably below average in 1940-44 when compared to 1990-94. On a 

spatial basis, however, water levels in 1990-94 appear to have been 1 to 3 ft lower 

over a wide area in Miami-Dade and Broward Counties. This spatial pattern illustrates that management controls had a far greater effect on ground-water levels than 

temporal rainfall patterns, and is indicative of the permanent change that occurred as 

part of a highly controlled drainage system infrastructure. 

Average ground-water levels along the coast were higher in 1990-94 than in 

1940-44, which probably is the result of long-term management efforts to reduce 

saltwater intrusion in the surficial aquifer system. Comparison of average water 

levels in 1940-44 and 1970-74 indicates similar distributions in water-level change 

(fig. 43). Generally, canal management and water levels in the surficial aquifer 

system had been established during the 1970s. The similarity in the distribution of 

water-level change between maps (figs. 43) suggests that management controls on 

water levels in the surficial aquifer system had matured by 1990-94. 

A comparison of 1970-74 and 1990-94 average ground-water levels (fig. 44) 

shows that average dry-season ground-water levels in April 1990-94 remained 

constant or were only 1 or 2 ft higher than 1970-74 ground-water levels in most of 

Miami-Dade and southern Broward Counties. In northern Palm Beach County, 

1990-94 average wet-season ground-water levels were higher than in 1970-74, 

except near the coast and along a corridor between the L-8 and L-10 Canals (fig. 44).

Differences in average ground-water level conditions in northern Palm Beach 

County during the dry season in October 1970-74 and 1990-94 are similar to the 

wet-season differences observed during the same time period (fig. 44), presumably resulting from modifications that were made in water-management practices. 

Average dry-season water levels that occurred in the 1990s remained unchanged or 

were slightly lower in developed areas of Miami-Dade, Broward, and southern Palm 

Beach Counties. 

50 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

A

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

B

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

EXPLANATION

AVERAGE DIFFERENCES

IN WATER LEVELS, IN FEET

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Figure 42. Average difference in water 

levels between (A) April 1940-44 and 

April 1990-94 and between (B) October 

1940-44 and October 1990-94. Derived 

from files of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  51
Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

B

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

A

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

EXPLANATION

AVERAGE DIFFERENCES

IN WATER LEVELS, IN FEET

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Figure 43. Average difference in water levels 

between (A) April 1940-44 and April 1970-74 and 

between (B) October 1940-44 and October 1970-74. 

Derived from the files of the U.S. Geological Survey.

52 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

A

West Palm Beach Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

West Palm Beach Canal

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

B

L-10 Canal

L-8 Canal

L-10 Canal

L-8 Canal

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

EXPLANATION

AVERAGE DIFFERENCES

IN WATER LEVELS, IN FEET

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Figure 44. Average difference in water levels 

between (A) April 1970-74 and April 1990-94 and 

between (B) October 1970-74 and October 1990-94. 

Derived from the files of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  53
The volume of water lost by long-term drainage of ground water can be 

estimated by multiplying storativity (specific yield), surface area of the drained 

aquifer, and the average decline in head (figs. 42 and 43). The specific yield of 

the Biscayne aquifer has been reported to range from 0.10 to 0.35 in Broward and 

Miami-Dade Counties (Schroeder and others, 1958), with a similar estimate that has 

been assumed for near-surface water-bearing rocks in Palm Beach County. About 

2 to 9 billion gallons of ground water were lost permanently from the system through 

aquifer drainage between 1940-44 and 1970-74. A comparison of April 1940-44 and 

1990-94 water levels suggests that the Biscayne aquifer lost between 1.6 and 

7.4 billion gallons of water between these periods within the area shown in figures 42 

and 43. This water loss only includes drainage of the Biscayne aquifer and does not 

include water loss resulting from reclamation of overlying wetland areas.

Short-term fluctuations in water levels in the surficial aquifer system result 

from daily to seasonal variations in recharge and discharge in the aquifer system. 

Generally, the surficial aquifer system is recharged directly by precipitation through 

a moderately thin soil cover or by seepage from canals that are hydraulically well 

connected to the aquifer system. The biannual variation in water levels in the 

surficial aquifer system can range from 2 to 10 ft/yr in response to seasonal (dry or 

wet) rainfall patterns. Ground-water levels generally are highest during the latter 

part of the wet season and the earliest part of the dry season (September-December). 

Lowest ground-water levels occur during the end of the dry season and the earliest 

part of the wet season (April-June). Extremely low water levels occur during lengthy 

periods of below-normal precipitation, or in areas that have been affected by the 

drawdown of municipal and agricultural wells. 

Construction and completion of the Everglades-South Dade Conveyance 

System served to dampen the seasonal variability of ground-water levels in the 

1980s. This conveyance system diminished the seasonal amplitude in ground-water 

levels, thereby lessening the observed water-level extremes during flood and drought 

conditions as seen at well S-196A (fig. 46A). Similar relations are observed in nearby 

well G-789 (fig. 46B).

Surface-Water Discharge

Since its inception, the canal conveyance system in southeastern Florida has 

had a major impact on both coastal ground-water hydrology and ecosystem ecology 

by increasing the flow of water from the Everglades to the Atlantic Ocean (Leach 

and others, 1972). This is evident in the long-term temporal variations in discharge 

and canal stage, which were assessed at selected surface-water sites near the coast 

and along the western edge of the urban-agricultural corridor (figs. 47-49). Mean 

monthly canal discharge and stage were averaged for the dry (November to April) 

and wet season (May to October) along the West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, North New 

River, and Miami Canals.

Observed variability in canal stage and canal flow prior to the 1960s is largely 

attributable to an incomplete drainage system under construction that responded 

directly to changes in the hydrologic system. Shallow, pre-1960s Everglades Agricultural Area canals that drained to major canals had limited capacity and were not yet 

regulated by control structures. Upstream areas tended to be overdrained during the 

wet season and lacked storage capacity during the dry season. Operational changes 

were put in place by the 1960s that helped to dampen or reduce high flow rates during high runoff events and increase low flow rates during droughts. The seasonal 

dampening of discharge is evident in some hydrographs at coastal structures 

(figs. 48B, D, F).

Long-term measured discharge along the coastal reach of major canals largely 

declined during the latter half of the 20th century (fig. 48B, D, F, H), whereas stage 

varied by season. Specifically, coastal canal stage levels (fig. 48A, C, E, G) were 

maintained mostly at higher levels during the dry season than during the wet season, 

presumably to help prevent urban flooding. Long-term wet- and dry-season canal 

stage along the coastal reach of the Miami River (fig. 48G) gradually increased 

between 1960 and 2000, possibly helping to minimize saltwater intrusion; less 

-3.0

-2.5

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

1940-44

1970-74

1990-94

AVERAGE DEPARTURE IN RAINFALL

FROM MONTHLY MEAN 

AVERAGE,

IN INCHES

Figure 45. Average departure in rainfall from monthly mean average conditions at 

14 sites in southeastern Florida. Data from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration.

54  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 46. Dampening of variations in ground-water levels following emplacement of the Everglades-South Dade Conveyance System. Derived from the files of the 

U.S. Geological Survey.

0 5 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 80°15 ́

26°00 ́

25°15 ́

30 ́

45 ́

27

1

Tamiami Canal

826

1

27

836

874

95

1

FLORIDAS TURNPIKE

41

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

MONROE COUNTY

Levee

67A

Levee 67C

Levee 67

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

Levee 30 Levee 31N

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

BARNES

SOUND

Biscayne Bay

EXPLANATION

WELL LOCATION

AND NUMBER

S-196A

G-789

S-196A

S-196 A

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

G-789

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

A

B

JANUARY 1

JANUARY 1

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE

AND BELOW NGVD 1929

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  55
dramatic, but similar stage relations were exhibited along the coastal reach of the 

Hillsboro canal (fig. 48C). The long-term stage relations of the West Palm Beach and 

North New River Canals (fig. 48A, E) is more complex; stage was maintained at 

wet-season levels that gradually increased (May-October), but remained relatively 

stable or diminished slightly during the dry season (November-April).

Long-term flow and stage relations along the western margin and urban reach 

of major canals (fig. 49) are more difficult to explain than stage-discharge relations 

observed near the coast. Long-term flow into the urban area declined along the West 

Palm Beach and Miami Canals (fig. 49B, H), whereas Hillsboro and North New 

River Canal inflows (figs. 49D, F) were relatively consistent following emplacement 

of water-management controls. Conversely, long-term canal stage levels increased 

along the western urban reach of the Hillsboro and North New River Canals 

(figs. 49C, E), but decreased along the West Palm Beach and Miami Canals 

(figs. 49A, G). 

The decrease in canal discharge within urban areas may be from municipal 

ground-water withdrawals that have helped to induce canal recharge. Withdrawals 

from the surficial aquifer system in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties 

increased from 85 to 770 Mgal/d in 1940 and 1995, respectively. Urban canal 

discharge decreases also may be due to the rerouting of surface-water flow to 

secondary canals, such as the LWDD (fig. 35). The rerouting is designed to elevate 

local coastal ground-water levels or recharge local well fields by canal seepage. 

Assessment of Saltwater Intrusion 

Under predevelopment conditions, the freshwater-saltwater interface in 

southeastern Florida extended close to the coastline, and freshwater was discharging 

from springs on the floor of Biscayne Bay, where the aquifer extends and is hydraulically connected to the Atlantic Ocean (Parker and others, 1955). The natural balance 

between freshwater and saltwater was first altered following the emplacement of 

canal drainage works accompanied by the oxidation and compaction of peat soils that 

functioned as a sponge, helping to maintain higher ground-water levels in the 

underlying aquifer. Designed to control deadly catastrophic flooding in the late 

1920s, completion of the protective Hoover Dike at Lake Okeechobee in 1937 

signaled the demise and subsidence of a large natural peat storage reservoir, funneling surface water into narrow channels that debouched surface water at the coastline. 

Natural overland flow processes served to supply water to the surficial aquifer 

system; however, once severed, saltwater intrusion issues accelerated. Although 

ground-water movement extends into the shallow surface marine environment, as 

recently documented in southern Biscayne Bay between Coconut Grove and 

Homestead (Langevin, 2001), only a limited part of the present-day submarine 

ground-water discharge to Biscayne Bay is fresh—most is recirculated seawater 

(Kohout and Kolipinski, 1967, Langevin, 2001). 

 Saltwater intrusion has been an issue of concern in southeastern Florida since 

the early 1930s, with its most severe effect evident during the 1940s. Following a 

lengthy drought and prolonged period of uncontrolled drainage, the water supply 

in Miami-Dade County experienced its greatest threat by saltwater contamination 

in May-June 1945, also recording its lowest water levels (Leach and others, 1972). 

Uncontrolled drainage of the Everglades, peat and muck soil loss due to oxidation-compaction processes, associated lowering of the water table within the peat 

mantle and underlying surficial aquifer system, and coastal well-field withdrawals 

have collectively contributed to the landward advance of saltwater in the surficial 

aquifer system as exemplified along the coastal reach of the Miami Canal. Saltwater 

intrusion concerns of the 1930s and 1940s centered mostly on contamination of the 

Miami-Hialeah Well Field (fig. 18) and other private wells for agricultural supply 

with little regard to the impact on the local ecology. In Broward County, saltwater 

intrusion became an issue during the drought of 1945-46 (Parker and others, 1955, 

p. 677) because of tidal canal seepage near the Fort Lauderdale (Dixie) Well Field 

(fig. 18).

The mechanics and character of saltwater intrusion in the surficial aquifer system in southeastern Florida have been evaluated extensively in previous 

studies. Some of the researchers include Parker (1945), Parker and others (1955), 

Klein (1957), Kohout (1960; 1964), Cooper (1959), Leach and others (1972), Hughes 

(1979), Klein and Waller (1985), Koszalka (1995), Sonenshein and Koszalka (1996), 

Merritt (1996b), Sonenshein (1997), and Langevin (2001). The position of the 

present-day saltwater interface (fig. 50) is a result of three principal mechanisms: 

(1) lateral landward movement of seawater in the surficial aquifer system from the 

Atlantic Ocean, (2) seepage from tidal canals containing saline water, and (3) upconing of relict seawater in response to well-field withdrawals. 

In coastal areas under natural conditions, saltwater is present only near the 

shoreline and is balanced by a relatively higher onshore freshwater table having 

relatively high levels. Under equilibrium conditions, a slightly higher column of 

freshwater is necessary because freshwater is less dense than saltwater. Assuming static ground-water flow conditions of the Ghyben-Herzberg principle, there is 

approximately a 40-ft column of freshwater below sea level for each foot of freshwater above sea level. The lowering of Everglades surface-water stage levels by 

gravity drainage in combination with intensive municipal withdrawals for water 

supply has helped to create an imbalance between freshwater and saltwater levels, 

contributing to the landward movement of saltwater.

Recognizing that the position of the saltwater front in the Biscayne aquifer 

during the 1950s was dynamically stable seaward of a position predicated by the 

Ghyben-Herzberg principle, Kohout (1964) concluded that dynamic equilibrium 

56  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
STATION LOCATION AND NUMBER

EXPLANATION

S-5A

S-39

G-56

G-54

C6.L30

C6.NW36

C6.NW36

S-34

Hillsboro Canal

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

West Palm Beach Canal

North New River Canal

South New River Canal

S-155

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE

COUNTY

MARTIN COUNTY

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3B

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 3A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2A

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 1

WATER

CONSERVATION

AREA 2B

Figure 47. Location of selected surface-water sites used to monitor canal stage and flow in southeastern 

Florida.

assumptions of static saltwater were incorrect. He determined that 

freshwater discharged coastward and upward beneath Biscayne 

Bay on the basis of fluid pressure and chloride concentration field 

observations, a mappable zone of diffusion, and flow net analyses. 

Saltwater flows back in a landward cycle from the seabed floor into 

the zone of diffusion, then upward and back to the sea floor (figs. 51 

and 52). Tidal fluctuations, freshwater head change, and head loss 

within the landward cycle of saltwater movement help to minimize 

intrusion in a coastal aquifer (Cooper, 1959).

Saltwater encroachment in the surficial aquifer system in 

northern and central Miami-Dade County and southern Broward 

County (figs. 53-56) has been well documented by several researchers, including Parker and others (1955), Kohout (1960), Leach and 

Grantham (1966), Leach and others (1972), Hughes (1979), Merritt 

(1996b), and Sonenshein (1997). Uncontrolled drainage from the 

principal conveyance canals between 1904 and the early 1940s lowered ground-water levels nearly 6 ft in the Everglades area, providing considerable opportunity for increased lateral intrusion into the 

surficial aquifer system (fig. 53). Large withdrawals from the Hialeah-Miami Springs Well Field (fig. 50) further contributed to canal 

seepage and the intrusion of tidal seawater into the Miami Canal. 

Seepage of saltwater from coastal tidal canals further contributed to 

saltwater intrusion problems. 

During the 1940s, saltwater intrusion was mitigated mostly 

through use of temporary sheet-pile dam control structures. Salinity 

control structures in Miami-Dade County were constructed by 1946 

to prevent overdrainage and increase water levels in the coastal part 

of the surficial aquifer system, and also to allow the timely release 

of water during floods. Ultimately, these measures helped reverse 

saltwater intrusion in central Miami-Dade County. The construction 

of surface-water control structures and improved water-management 

practices have considerably reduced the area of saltwater contamination from its maximum extent during the 1950s and early 1960s 

(fig. 54). During the 1970s, Tamiami Canal salinity coastal structures were replaced with a new structure located 3 mi downstream, 

further reducing the intrusion of tidal canal water south and west of 

the Hialeah-Miami Springs Well Field (figs. 50 and 55) according to 

Klein and Ratzlaff (1989). During the 1980s and 1990s, chloride 

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  57
WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

WET SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASON

2.04.

3.5

3.0

2.5

0

5.0

4.5

1.

1.4

1.2

1.0

6

2.

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

6

6.

6.0

5.5

5.0

3.0

2.8

5

7.0

7.5

7.

8.0

0

8.

7.8

7.6

7.4

7.2

0

9.0

8.8

8.6

8.4

8.2

0

500

1,50

1,000

0

2,0002,500

-100-600

900

400

1,90

1,400

0

-200-400

0

60

400200

0

800

1,20

1,000

0

1,400

-200

-400-600

0

800

600

400

200

1,000

1,4001,200

A BC DE FG H

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST

S-155 S-155G-56 G-56G-54 G-54C6.NW36 C6.NW36

YEAR YEAR

YEAR

YEARYEAR

YEAR

YEARYEAR

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

Figure 48. Long-term mean monthly stage and discharge during the wet season (May-October) and dry season (November-April) at selected surface-water sites along the coastal reach of major canals in southeastern Florida. Site locations are shown in figure 47.

58  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 49. Long-term mean monthly stage and discharge during the wet season (May-October) and dry season 

(November-April) at selected surface-water sites along the western margin and urban reach of major canals in southeastern Florida. Site locations are shown in figure 47.

A BC DE FG H

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND

AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST AGE, IN FEET MEAN ST S-39 S-39

S-5A S-5AS-34 S-34C6.L33 C6.L30

YEAR YEAR

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

YEAR YEAR

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

YEAR YEAR

1930

1930

1935

1935

1940

1940

1945

1945

1950

1950

1955

1955

1960

1960

1965

1965

1970

1970

1975

1975

1980

1980

1985

1985

1990

1990

1995

1995

2000

2000

YEAR YEAR

9.5

9.0

13.0

12.5

12.0

11.5

11.0

10.5

10.0

10

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

18

17

1615

14

13

12

11

9.5

9.0

8.5

8.0

7.5

7.0

12.0

11.5

11.0

10.5

10.0

-100-600

900400

1,9001,400

-200-400

0

800600400200

1,4001,2001,000

-200-400-600

0

800600400200

1,4001,2001,000

0

800600400200

1,4001,2001,000

WET SEASONWET SEASON

DRY SEASON

DRY SEASONWET SEASONDRY SEASON

WET SEASONDRY SEASON

WET SEASONDRY SEASON

WET SEASONDRY SEASON

WET

WET SEASONDRY SEASON

SEASON

DRY SEASON

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  59
concentrations continued to decline as indicated in monitoring wells near the 

well field (fig. 55) because of a reduction in well withdrawals (table 1) as 

reported by Sonenshein and Koszalka (1996).

The temporal saltwater encroachment near Miami Canal, Miami-Dade 

County, has been well illustrated (figs. 53-55). Sparse well data having a 

suitable chloride sampling period and wide distribution, however, limit 

preparation of a similar temporal map series over a larger, multicounty area. 

Minor divergence between the mapped position of the 1984 interface (Klein 

and Waller, 1985) and the 1995 interface (Sonenshein, 1997) is attributable 

to interpretive differences resulting from limited well control data and not 

caused by a change in long-term hydrologic conditions.

The saltwater interface extended no more than 1 mi from the coastline in 

most of Broward County prior to 1948, with the greatest intrusion occurring 

along the North New River Canal (Vorhis, 1948). Movement of the interface 

in Broward County is partly attributed to Central and Southern Florida Flood 

Control Project drainage canal construction during the 1950s and 1960s. 

Enhanced drainage helped to lower the ground-water table, and convert marginal wetland areas to suitable land for development. The saltwater interface 

lies well inland along the North and South New River Canals in east-central 

Broward County (fig. 56) where control structures have been constructed 

several miles inland to provide access for boating. 

Landward movement of the interface in southeastern Broward and northeastern Miami-Dade County is evident in figure 56 (Merritt, 1996b). Saltwater intrusion forced closure of the Sunny Isles and East Side Well Fields in 

1972 and 1977 (Merritt, 1996b). Additionally, tidal canal seepage and coastal 

saltwater intrusion have increased chloride concentrations near the Dania 

Cutoff, South New River, and Hollywood Canals (Merritt, 1996b, p. 25), 

affecting supply wells at the Dania, Broward 3A, and Hollywood Well Fields. 

Water managers in southeastern Broward County, cognizant of low 

topography and its effect on saltwater encroachment, have closely monitored 

wells located east of the Hallandale Well Field since 1970. The westward 

progression of the saltwater interface (fig. 57) seems to maintain a similar 

physical structure to the “diffuse” coastal transition zones mapped near 

Cutler Ridge and Silver Bluff in Miami-Dade County (figs. 51 and 52). At 

the Hallandale Well Field (fig. 57), the 1,000-mg/L chloride concentration 

line is nearly horizontal at depths of about 75 and 160 ft below land surface 

but vertical at greater depths, indicating vertical and horizontal concentration 

EXPLANATION

TQ

JU

Hillsboro Canal

North New River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami Canal

South New River Canal

Lake

Okeechobee

West

Palm

Beach

80°45 ́ 30 ́ 15 ́ 80°00 ́

27°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

15 ́

26°00 ́

45 ́

30 ́

25°15 ́

West Palm Beach Canal

HENDRY COUNTY COLLIER COUNTY MONROE COUNTY

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PALM BEACH COUNTY

PALM BEACH COUNTY

BROWARD COUNTY

BROWARD

MIAMI-DADE

MARTIN COUNTY

COUNTY

COUNTY

Fort

Lauderdale

Miami

Florida Bay

S-18C

S-197

S-20

S-20A

S-179 S-20F

S-20G

S-21A

S-21

S-123

S-22

G-93

S-25 S-25A

S-25B

S-26 S-27

S-28

G-58

S-29

S-13

G-54

S-33

S-36

S-37B S-37A

G-65 G-57

G-56

S-40

S-41

S-155

S-44

S-46

S-29

HA

HMS

BB

BR

HB

DB

B3A

DA

ES

HO

SI

0

0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

5 10 15 MILES

SALTWATER INTRUSION

LINE

CONTROL STRUCTURE

AND NUMBER

WELL FIELD AND NAMES

BR Boca Raton

BB Boynton Beach

B3A Broward District 3A

DA Dania

DB Delray Beach

ES East Side

HA Hallandale

HMS Hialeah-Miami

Springs

HB Highland Beach

HO Hollywood

JU Jupiter

SI Sunny Isles

TQ Tequesta

Figure 50. Line depicting the landward limit of the saltwater interface in southeastern Florida in 1996. 

Modified from Koszalka (1995), Merritt (1996b), Sonenshein (1997), Fitterman and Deszcz-Pan (1999), and 

Hittle (1999).

60 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 51. Cross sections through the Cutler Ridge area showing (A) lines 

of equal chloride concentration and (B) the results from a flow-net analysis, 

September 18, 1958. From Kohout (1964).

A

B

18,500

18,000

17,000

16,000

15,000

5,000

10,000

1,000

800

600

400

GHYBEN-HERZBERG LINE

Water table

Water table

ZERO HORIZONTAL GRADIENT

ZERO HORIZONTA

NT

L GRADIE

Base of Biscayne aquifer

Base of Biscayne aquifer

BISCAYNE BAY

BISCAYNE BAY

DISTANCE FROM SHORE, IN METERS

DISTANCE FROM SHORE, IN METERS

ELEVATION, IN METERS ABOVE OR

BELOW SEA LEVEL (NGVD 1929)

ELEVATION, IN METERS ABOVE OR

BELOW SEA LEVEL (NGVD 1929)

Land surface

Land surface

-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200

10

5

0

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

15

10

5

0

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

STREAMLINE

400 LINE OF EQUAL CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION--In milligrams

per liter. Dashed where estimated; interval irregular

BOTTOM OF FULLY CASED WELL

BOTTOM OF FULLY CASED WELL

-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200

gradients, respectively. Merritt (1989) suggested that these chloride 

concentration gradients are indicative of preferential high-permeability 

flow zones. 

Coastal well field withdrawals, elevated ground-water levels, and 

the effect of the canal drainage system are principal factors influencing the movement of the saltwater interface in Palm Beach County. For 

example, the LWDD maintains ground-water levels as high as 

15 ft above NGVD 1929 using a system of pumps, control structures, 

and equalizing canals (fig. 50). Accordingly, the influence of saltwater 

intrusion is substantially less in this area; however, saltwater intrusion has occurred in other areas of Palm Beach County near coastal 

well fields (fig. 50). The interface is reported to underlie the Highland 

Beach, Delray Beach, and Boynton Beach Well Fields and the coastal 

well fields of Boca Raton (Hittle, 1999). In response to increased 

salinity in coastal wells, the City of Boca Raton reduced withdrawals 

in those wells and has increased production from supply wells in the 

inland well fields. Saltwater intrusion also has been reported near the 

Tequesta Well Field in northeastern Palm Beach County (Scott and 

others, 1977), where the position of the interface probably reflects 

the effect of Loxahatchee River drainage lowering water levels in the 

aquifer (Hittle, 1999).

Changes in the Marine Ecosystem of Biscayne Bay

Shallow-water marine organisms are very sensitive to environmental changes in salinity, temperature, nutrient input, and dissolved 

oxygen. Temporal and spatial salinity patterns in Biscayne Bay have 

profoundly affected the marine ecosystem caused by water-management driven changes in surface- and ground-water discharge. In 

addition to those changes caused by natural events, long-term change 

in land and water uses during the 20th century in the bay watershed contributed greatly to the deterioration of marine conditions. Water quality 

has been greatly degraded by increased nutrient loads, trace metals, and 

other pollutants. Dredging and artificial channels that were cut within 

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  61
Figure 52. Cross section through the Silver Bluff area showing the zone of diffusion. From Kohout (1960).

the bay affected the water quality by removing natural seagrass beds and increasing 

turbidity (Wanless and others, 1984). 

Although predevelopment spring discharge diminished considerably from 

pre-1907 flow conditions, Kohout and Kolipinski (1967) determined that the effect 

of coastal ground-water discharge on bay salinity was apparent in the broad zone 

of diffusion where chloride levels ranged from slightly saline (400 mg/L) near the 

shoreline to concentrations that were equivalent to native seawater farther offshore. 

According to Kohout and Kolipinski (1967), the upward movement of ground water 

in the littoral zone was manifest as salinity-controlled biological zonation of fauna 

and flora (fig. 58). On a more localized scale, Kohout and Kolipinski (1967, p. 491) 

observed that brackish, shallow water, nearshore spring discharge in Biscayne Bay 

BISCAYNE BAY

DISTANCE FROM BISCAYNE BAY, IN FEET

(VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED)

WEST

20

Sea Level

(NGVD 1929)

20

40

60

80

100

120

140 12,000

200

1,000

10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0

EAST

20

Sea Level

(NGVD 1929)

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Water table

Base of Biscayne aquifer

Lines of equal chloride

concentration, in milligrams per liter

(dashed where approximate)

10,000

15,000

17,000

19,000

5,000

DEPTH, IN FEET ABOVE

AND BELOW SEA LEVEL

was characterized by subcircular “ponds,” formed by the restricted growth of 

seagrass sensitive to changes in salinity. 

Sediment core profiling in 150 years of deposition in Biscayne Bay has revealed 

distinct changes in the marine ecosystem, which was different in the early to mid1850s than today. The salinity of bay coastal areas was much lower than the normal 

marine salinities of modern times (fig. 59). The water in Manatee Bay at the extreme 

southern end of Biscayne Bay was very nearly fresh. The central bay also was lower 

in salinity, but cores indicate lower magnitudes of change from normal marine salinity. Faunal evidence indicates possible lowered oxygen or higher organic concentrations in the surficial sediments by the late 1800s, which may have had a substantial 

effect on the abundance or density of seagrass present during that time.

62 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 53. Saltwater intrusion (shown in red) near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 1904-43.

1943

Modified from Parker and others (1955) Modified from Parker and others (1955) Modified from Parker and others (1955)

1904 1918

Miami

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Flagler St

Biscayne Bay

Canal

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Flagler St

Biscayne Bay

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

Road

27th Avenue

79th Street

36th Street

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Biscayne Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

Biscayne Bay

Miami Canal

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

25°45’

80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

50’

25°55’ 80°20’ 15’ 80°10’ 80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

25°45’

50’

25°55’

25°45’

50’

25°55’

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  63
Figure 54. Saltwater intrusion (shown in red) near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 1946-62.

Biscayne Bay

Biscayne Canal

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

27th Avenue

Road

79th Street

36th Street

Canal

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

Biscayne Bay

Biscayne Canal

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

27th Avenue

Road

79th Street

36th Street

Canal

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

Biscayne Canal

Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

Biscayne Bay

27th Avenue

Road

79th Street

36th Street

Canal

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

Modified from Parker and others (1955) Modified from Parker and others (1955) Modified from Leach and Grantham (1966)

25°45’

80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

50’

25°55’ 80°20’ 15’ 80°10’ 80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

1946 1953 1962

25°45’

50’

25°55’

25°45’

50’

25°55’

64  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 55. Saltwater intrusion (shown in red) near the Miami Canal in Miami-Dade County, 1969-95.

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

Biscayne Bay

27th Avenue

79th Street

36th Street

Road

Biscayne Canal Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Coral Gables Canal

Canal

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

FLORIDAS TURNPIKE

Levee 30

Arch

Creek

Levee 31 

W

Levee 31 

N

C-111

Biscayne Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Tamiami Canal

Miami Canal

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

Area shown

in A-H

27

1

826

1

27

836

874

95

Ù1

Miami

Biscayne Canal Arch

Creek

Little River Canal

Miami Canal

Tamiami

Coral Gables Canal

Flagler Street

Coral Way

Red

Biscayne Bay

27th Avenue

79th Street

36th Street

Road

Canal

Miami

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

80°30’

25°45’

25°30’

80°15’

0

0

2.5

2.5

5 MILES

5 KILOMETERS

1969 1977 1995

25°45’

80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

50’

25°55’ 80°20’ 15’ 80°10’

25°45’

50’

25°55’

Modified from Leach and others (1972) Modified from Hughes (1979) Modified from Sonenshein (1997)

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  65
BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

80°15’ 10’ 80°05’

26°05’

26°00’

25°55’

G-54

Dixie

S-13

Broward

3A

Turnpike

Hollywood

Canal

Dania

Hollywood Blvd. Hollywood

Hallandale

Florida’s

Snake Creek

Oeffler

Biscayne Canal

Sunny

Isles

East Side

West Side

S-28

G-58

Arch

Creek

S-29

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

ATLANTIC OCEAN

South New

North

River

River

Canal

Canal

1

95

Dania Cutoff

Canal

Canal

New

S-28

EXPLANATION

1993 SALTWATER LINE

1969 SALTWATER LINE

1945 SALTWATER LINE

WELL FIELD

CONTROL STRUCTURE

AND NUMBER

Figure 56. Saltwater intrusion in southern Broward and northern Miami-Dade 

Counties in 1945, 1969, and 1993. Modified from Merritt (1996b).

Sediment from the early 1900s reflect the first marked change in 

salinity, which reached levels close to normal seawater. This increase 

is reflected by a substantial increase in the abundance of typical Atlantic Continental Shelf faunal components. Fossil evidence indicates that 

seagrass became more abundant from the early 1900s to present in the 

central bay (fig. 60). A similar record of ecosystem change is recorded 

in Manatee Bay (fig. 59), with a substantial change in salinity to mesohaline (5 to 18 ppt) conditions occurring in the early 1900s (Ishman 

and others, 1998). Coastal vegetation changes during this time, such 

as the first appearance of red mangrove in this region, are consistent 

with marine records and indicate increased salinity (Ishman and others, 

1998). 

Biscayne Bay salinity remained relatively stable until the early 

1940s when it increased from about 18 to 40 ppt on average, but was 

probably subject to broad fluctuations. The occurrence and increasing abundance of epiphytal and macroalgal habitat dwelling organisms indicate a change in substrate conditions and increased seagrass 

abundance during this time (Ishman and others, 1998). These latter 

changes appear to coincide with the construction of an enhanced canal, 

levee, and water-conservation area system designed to better manage 

water resources in the urban corridor and the Everglades. From the 

late 1980s to present, salinity decreased slightly in Manatee Bay, and 

field observations in this region suggest deteriorating conditions in the 

health of the seagrass (Ishman and others, 1998). 

The freshwater-saltwater interface in southernmost Miami-Dade 

County is well inland of Florida Bay (fig. 50), according to Fitterman and Deszcz-Pan (1999), and ground-water discharge to overlying 

surface flows is considered to be relatively small compared to surfacewater outflows (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida 

Water Management District, 1999). The lowering of the water table 

associated with the construction of an extensive drainage network 

helped to reduce surface flow in the lower part of the Everglades as 

experienced along the southeastern coast; such reductions in flow 

contributed to, and appeared to be closely timed with, the increase in 

salinity in Florida Bay (Halley and others, 1998). 

66  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
0

50

100

150

200

250

G-1473

G-2328

G-2409

G-2295

G-2294

G-2351A

G-1434

G-1433

G-1432

G-1432 1994

1984

1976

0

0 0.5 KILOMETERS

0.5 MILES

G-1473

G-2328

G-2409

G-2410

G-1435

G-2294

G-2295

G-2351A

G-1434 G-1433

G-1432

G-1435

1999

1994

1984

1976

1999

–

–

200

2,400

30

1,400

6,000

–

–

7,000

9,800

–

300

6,000

10,100

– 4000

8,000

10,000

–

8,000

10,000

10,100

–

–

30

150

100

DEPTH, IN FEET BELOW

LAND SURFACE

G-1433

G-2410

EXPLANATION

Hallandale

Well Field

EXPLANATION

BROWARD COUNTY

MIAMI-DADE COUNTY

G-1435

C-9

80°12 ́ 80°08 ́

25°56 ́

26°00 ́

0

0

1

1

2 KILOMETERS

2 MILES

G-2409

G-2410

G-1473

G-2328

G-1433

G-1432

G-1434

G-2294

G-2295

G-2351A

1,000 MILLIGRAMS PER LITER CHLORIDE

CONCENTRATION LINE

WELL LOCATION AND NUMBER—Red

numbers are chloride concentration, in

milligrams per liter for the indicated year

1,000 MILLIGRAMS PER LITER CHLORIDE

CONCENTRATION LINE

WELL LOCATION AND NUMBER

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Hallandale

Well Field

8,000

10,000

10,100

–

1976

1984

1995

1999

Figure 57. Movement of the saltwater interface near the Hallandale Well Field in southern Broward County, 1976-1999. Derived from data and files of the 

U.S. Geological Survey.

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  67
ALTITUDE, IN FEET REFERENCED

TO SEA LEVEL (NGVD 1929)

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300

DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE, IN FEET

NUMBERS OF FAUNA

COLLECTED 20

0

30

0

100

0 500

0

50

0

COLUMBELLA RUSTICOIDES

(gastropod, high-salinity preference)

LAGODON RHOMBOIDES

(pinfish, juvenile, high-salinity preference)

TAPHROMYSIS BOWMANI

(mysid, strictly brackish)

LUCANIA PARYA

(shellfish, brackishy)

NERITINA VIRGINEA

(gastropod, strictly brackish)

T-1 T-2 T-3 T-4 T-5 T-6 T-7 T-8 T-9

BISCAYNE BAY

LAND SURFACE

WATER TABLE

FLOW LINE

MEAN HIGH WATER

MEAN LOW WATER

1

A 25

180

B

140

G

D 715

710

J

L 635

590

G934

3800

30

26

21

28

22

13

27

19

5

F

1020

E

1820

F

1020

30

26

21

EXPLANATION

T-5

MAXIMUM

AVERAGE

MINIMUM

SALINITY, IN PARTS

PER THOUSAND

TRAWL NUMBER

WELL IDENTIFICATION AND

CHLORIDE CONTENT, IN PARTS

PER MILLION ON FEBRUARY 4, 1964

}

Figure 58. Distribution of selected fauna related to underlying hydrologic factors in the Cutler Ridge area. From Kohout and Kolipinski (1967).

68  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Figure 59. Salinity estimates in Biscayne Bay during (A) 1850-1900 and (B) August 1996. 

Modified from Ishman and others (1997).

MB-1

FB-1

ATLANTIC OCEAN

A B

Manatee

Bay

0

0

5 10 15 MILES

5 10 15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION AUGUST 1996

SALINITY, IN PART

PER MILLION

0-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

MB-1 COREHOLE LOCATION

AND NUMBER

0

0

5 10 15 MILES

5 10 15 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

MB-1

FB-1

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Manatee

Bay

AUGUST 1996

SALINITY, IN PART

PER MILLION

0-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

MB-1 COREHOLE LOCATION

AND NUMBER

FB-1 MB-1

Articulina mucronata

Archaias angulatus

Miliolinella circularis

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

PERCENT ABUNDANCE

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0

0

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

5

6

6

7

7

8

8

9

9

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 10

YEAR

YEAR

YEARYEAR

YEARYEAR

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

Figure 60. Relative abundance of three benthic foraminifera (Articulina mucronata, Archaias angulatus, and Miliolinella circularis) in 

cores FB1 and MB1 from Biscayne Bay. Significant shifts in their 

relative abundance in the cores are highlighted in blue to illustrate 

major changes in salinity and seagrass abundance/density from the 

late 1800s to present. Location of cores FB1 and MB1 are shown in 

figure 59. Modified from Ishman and others (1998).

Development of Water-Management System and Impact on the Hydrology of Southeastern Florida  69
increased from three well fields producing about 66 Mgal/d in 1930 to about 65 well 

fields producing 770 Mgal/d in 1995. West Palm Beach is the only large municipality 

that uses surface water for supply purposes. Miami-Dade County uses a centralized 

well-field infrastructure in which five large-capacity well fields withdraw the majority of the supply. A decentralized well-field infrastructure has been constructed in 

Broward and Palm Beach Counties, in which municipalities have relied on developing their own source of supply to meet local demand. On the basis of temporal analysis of well-field locations and production levels, there has been a historic shift from 

large well fields near the coast to more western facilities partly designed to mitigate 

saltwater intrusion.

Surface water is the primary source of water for cultivation of sugar, field, and 

row crops in much of Palm Beach County, particularly in the Everglades Agricultural Area; conversely Miami-Dade agricultural growers primarily rely on ground 

water withdrawn from shallow wells and conveyed using truck-mounted pump and 

spray irrigation systems. The agricultural industry of Broward County has been 

largely displaced by residential and urban development, despite once having been 

the Nation’s primary winter producer of tomato, pepper, and bean crops, between the 

1920s and 1940s. Broward County producers mostly relied on surface-water supplies 

until about 1960, when they converted to the use of ground water. Whereas agricultural activities in Broward County had become a minor factor in the county economy, 

cultivated lands expanded considerably in Miami-Dade and Palm Beach Counties 

between 1953 and 1988. Damage caused by Hurricane Andrew, which resulted in 

an agricultural financial loss exceeding $1 billion, appears to have contributed to the 

decline in cultivated lands in Miami-Dade County since 1992. Agricultural water use 

in the tri-county area increased from 505 Mgal/d in 1953 to almost 1,150 Mgal/d in 

1988, declining to 764 Mgal/d in 1995. 

The surficial aquifer system, the principal source of ground water in southeastern Florida, is a wedge-shaped, eastward thickening sequence of limestone, quartz 

sand, shell, and terrigeneous mudstone of Pliocene to Holocene age. The prolific 

Biscayne aquifer, a sole-source aquifer, is the most transmissive of three separate 

aquifers that comprise the surficial aquifer system. Transmissivity of limestone-rich 

areas is greater than 1,600,000 ft2/d but decreases to 54,000 ft2/d where the surficial 

aquifer system mostly consists of sand; yields of 1,000 to 7,000 gal/min are reported 

from some wells completed in the cavernous part of the surficial aquifer system. 

Well fields have been constructed farther inland during the latter part of the 20th

century because of coastal saltwater intrusion. Competition between agriculture, the 

Everglades ecosystem, and mining interests ultimately limits construction of new 

well fields along the western margin of the urban corridor. The underlying Floridan 

aquifer system is viewed as an alternative source of water for municipal supply either 

by treatment of saline water through reverse-osmosis processes, or by storage of 

Summary

The urban and agricultural corridor of southern Florida lies between the 

Everglades and water-conservation areas to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the 

east. The area, which includes eastern Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach 

Counties, has experienced explosive population growth (from less than 4,000 residents in 1900 to 5 million residents in 2000), and as such is subject to widely 

conflicting stresses on the environment. A highly controlled water-management 

system evolved during the 20th century largely to provide drained land for a rapidly 

expanding population. Reclamation of Everglades wetland areas provided the opportunity for westward expansion of agricultural, mining, and urban activities. Surface 

water is impounded in water-conservation areas that lie west of the protective levee 

system, partly to: (1) sustain an Everglades ecosystem, (2) keep overland sheetflow 

from moving eastward and flooding urban and agricultural areas, and (3) use for 

water supply. Parallel environmental interests exist in coastal areas of the urbanagricultural corridor. Coastal residential and urban areas must be drained for flood 

control, whereas the underlying surficial aquifer system must simultaneously serve as 

the principal source for water supply, and ground-water heads must be maintained to 

prevent saltwater intrusion. Changes in predevelopment ground-water flow patterns 

and the associated reduction in ground-water discharge to coastal bays have altered 

salinity and affected the local ecology. Active since the early 1920s, extractive 

mining has increased considerably, largely to satisfy urban construction needs. The 

limited availability of limestone that meets construction requirements and simultaneous competition for land by both industries have placed both in direct conflict. 

Surface- and ground-water systems were altered considerably by the 

construction of a complex system of canals and levees as well as by heavy municipal 

withdrawals. Between 1900 and 1948, uncontrolled canal drainage increased the 

rate of flow from the Everglades, reduced the extent of inundated land, and lowered 

ground-water levels. These canals failed, however, to transport the load imposed 

during flood events and worsened drought conditions through overdrainage of the 

surficial aquifer system. Drought and hurricane-related flooding provided the 

impetus for the 1949 establishment of the Central and Southern Florida Flood 

Control Project and District; canals were enlarged, conveyance structures and 

controls were installed, and protective levees were constructed. The southern Dade 

conveyance system was completed as the final phase of the project during the 1980s, 

and involved redirecting surface-water flow and controlling ground-water levels in 

southeastern Miami-Dade County.

Ground water represents the principal source of water for municipal supply 

in the tri-county area of Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties and has 

70 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Calcium bicarbonate water is dominant in shallow parts of the surficial aquifer 

system, whereas sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride water are dominant in 

more deeply buried parts of the aquifer system or along the coast. Chloride concentrations generally are less than 100 mg/L at depths shallower than 50 ft, except in 

coastal areas and southeast of Lake Okeechobee. Chloride concentrations are less 

than 100 mg/L at the 150-ft depth in eastern Palm Beach County, eastern Broward 

County, and much of central and northwestern Dade County. 

A broad zone of diffusion characterizes the saltwater interface in southeastern 

Florida in which the position of the interface is a consequence of three principal 

mechanisms: westward lateral movement of seawater within the surficial aquifer 

system, seepage from tidal canals, and upconing of relict seawater. Prior to 1945, 

uncontrolled drainage contributed considerably to lowering the water table of the 

surficial aquifer system along the Miami Canal. Water levels were lowered further 

by heavy municipal withdrawals, inducing tidal seepage into the aquifer system. 

Canal drainage contributed greatly to intrusion of the saltwater interface in Broward 

County, lowering ground-water levels with the subsequent landward movement of 

saltwater in the surficial aquifer system from the Atlantic Ocean. Well-field

withdrawals and tidal seepage are an important, but less important, source of 

saltwater intrusion. 

Predevelopment freshwater spring discharge in Biscayne Bay diminished 

considerably following the emplacement of canal drainage networks and the loss and 

compaction of inland peat deposits that formerly maintained higher water levels in 

the ecosystem, and stored excess surface water that helped to recharge the 

underlying aquifer. Changes in land use and water-management practices have 

greatly impacted the marine ecosystem of Biscayne Bay, resulting in increased 

nutrient loads and other pollutants, and increased turbidity. Prior to construction of 

the major canals, the salinity of the southernmost part of Biscayne Bay was much 

lower than normal marine salinity, especially near the coastline from Manatee Bay 

to possibly as far north as the Coral Gables Canal. The increase in salinity interpreted for both Biscayne and Florida Bays in the early 1900s through the 1970s is 

likely related to the increased development of the canal system and modifications 

in surface-water drainage. This is consistent with the progressive inland saltwater 

intrusion. Post-1940 water-management practices to control water discharge greatly 

affected the Biscayne Bay ecosystem by increasing the frequency, and particularly 

the magnitude, of salinity fluctuations. By altering the natural variability in freshwater discharge to Biscayne Bay, the natural cycles of the nearshore marine 

organisms were disrupted, resulting in biotic fluctuations similar to the frequency 

and magnitude of the salinity changes. 

freshwater by use of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR). A large network of ASR 

wells is being evaluated for Everglades restoration purposes if regional hydrologic 

and local geotechnical, hydraulic, and water-quality issues can be resolved. The 

lower part of the Floridan aquifer system is used for disposal of liquid waste by deep 

well injection for municipal industrial wastewater and reverse-osmosis concentrate. 

More than 20 Class I injection wells were operating in the tri-county area by 2000, 

injecting treated wastewater into the Boulder Zone at depths of 2,000 to 3,000 ft 

below NGVD 1929. Deep well injection is under greater scrutiny in recent years 

largely because of a growing need to use the aquifer for purposes other than for 

waste disposal.

Few data are available to accurately document the predevelopment conditions 

within the surficial aquifer system; the water table probably subtly reflected the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge topography. Peat and muck deposits, an important predevelopment component of Everglades surface- and ground-water hydrology, functioned 

as a storage reservoir to a water column that extended upward from the underlying 

aquifer and maintained a higher water table that prolonged the hydroperiod and 

restricted movement of a coastal saltwater interface. Surface-water stage within the 

adjoining Everglades was sufficient to allow water to discharge through traverse 

glades areas, and shoreline and submarine springs discharged freshwater. Uncontrolled canal drainage and a lengthy drought in 1945-46 caused water levels to reach 

their lowest recorded levels, exacerbating municipal well-field saltwater intrusion 

problems. The modern-day water table largely reflects the hydrologic influence of 

numerous engineering features, including primary and secondary canal systems, 

gated control structures, levees, impoundments, pump systems, and the drawdown 

effects of the larger well fields. Ground-water movement is largely coastward and 

water levels are highest near the water-conservation areas, except locally in southeastern Palm Beach County and northeastern Broward County, where surface water 

is pumped from the Hillsboro Canal into secondary canals to artificially maintain 

water levels. Regional water-level comparison maps of the difference in “average 

conditions” show that improved drainage systems built during the 1950s lowered 

inland ground-water levels and increased land areas for urban and agricultural 

development. 

Gated coastal canal structures are used to retard landward movement of saline 

water during the dry season through maintenance of stage higher than local water 

levels, inducing seepage into the aquifer. Management of canal stage has helped to 

increase ground-water levels in some coastal areas. Long-term canal coastal discharge appears to have declined, but coastal canal stage has been maintained 

gradually at higher levels, presumably to impede saltwater intrusion. Diminished 

coastal discharge is attributed to the rerouting of surface water to secondary canals, 

and induced recharge to the aquifer caused by increased municipal withdrawals. 

Summary  71
Selected References

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and Witmer, R.E., 1976, A land use and 

land cover classification system for use with remotely sensed data: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, 28 p.

Blaney, H.F., Rich, L.R., Criddle, W.D., and others, 1952, Consumptive use of water: 

Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, no. 117, p. 948-967.

Blaney, H.F., and Criddle, W.D., 1950, Determining water requirements in irrigated 

areas from climatological and irrigation data: U.S. Soil Conservation Service 

Technical Paper 96, 48 p.

Blaney, H.F., and Criddle, W.D., 1962, Determining consumptive use and irrigation 

water requirements: U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 1275, 

64 p.

Calver, J.L., 1957, Mining and mineral resources: Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 

39, 125 p.

Cantillo, A.Y., Hale, K., Collins, E., Pikula, L., and Caballero, R., 2000, Biscayne 

Bay: Environmental history and annotated bibliography: National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS CCMA 145, 

116 p.

Carson, J.M., 1916, Back to Broward: Pamphlet for “Back to Broward League,” 28 p.

Cohen, A.D., and Spackman, Jr., William, 1984, The petrology of peats from the 

Everglades and coastal swamps of southern Florida; in P.J. Gleason, ed., Environments of South Florida, Present and Past II: Miami Geological Society, p. 352-

374.

Cooper, H.H., Jr., 1959, A hypothesis concerning the dynamic balance of fresh water 

and salt water in a coastal aquifer: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 64, no. 4, 

p. 461-467.

Cooper, H.H., Jr., 1964, A hypothesis concerning the dynamic balance of fresh water 

and salt water in a coastal aquifer; in H.H. Cooper, Jr., F.A. Kohout, H.R. Henry, 

and R.E. Glover, Sea Water in Coastal Aquifers: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 1613-C, p. C1-C12.

Costanza, Robert, 1975, The spatial distribution of land use subsystems, incoming 

energy and energy use in south Florida from 1900 to 1973: University of Florida, 

M.A. Thesis, 204 p.

Cressler, Alan, 1993, The Caves of Dade County, Florida, in Georgia Underground: 

Dogwood City Grotto, Inc. of the National Speleological Society, Inc., v. 30, no. 3, 

p. 9-16.

Cunningham, K.J., 2004, Application of ground-penetrating radar, digital optical 

borehole images, and cores for characterization of porosity, hydraulic conductivity, and paleokarst in the Biscayne aquifer, southeastern Florida, USA: Journal of 

Applied Geophysics, v. 55, p. 66-76.

Cunningham, K.J., Carlson, J.L., Wingard, G.L., Robinson, Edward, and Wacker, 

M.A., 2004, Characterization of aquifer heterogeneity using cyclo-stratigraphy 

and geophysical methods in the upper part of the Biscayne aquifer, southeastern 

Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 03-4208, 

66 p., 5 pls.

Cunningham, K.J., Renken, R.A., Wacker, M.A., and Zygnerski, Michael, 2003, 

Application of carbonate cyclostratigraphy to delineate porosity and preferential 

flow and to assess advective transport in karst limestone of the Biscayne aquifer, 

SE Florida, USA: Abstract, Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, 

Abstracts with Programs, Seattle, Washington. 

Dade County Lake Belt Plan Implementation Committee, 1997, Progress Report, 

December 1997: http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/pld/proj/lakebelt/documents/lakebelt97.pdf (accessed August 5, 2003).

Davis, J.H., Jr., 1943, The natural features of southern Florida, especially the 

vegetation, and the Everglades: Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 25, 311 p.

Davis, S.M., Gunderson, L.H., Park, W.A., Richardson, J.R., and Mattson, J.E., 

1994, Landscape dimension, composition, and function in a changing Everglades 

Ecosystem; in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its 

Restoration: Delray Beach, Florida, St. Lucie Press, p. 419-444.

Duever, M.J., Meeder, J.F., Meeder, L.C., and McCollom, J.M., 1994, The climate 

of south Florida and its role in shaping the Everglades ecosystem; in Everglades − 

The ecosystem and its restoration: Delray Beach, Florida, St. Lucie Press, 

p. 225-289. 

Earth Satellite Corporation, 2004, Satellite image of southeastern Florida, April 

1999: EarthSat, Baltimore, Maryland.

72 Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Edgerton, C.D., 1974, Effects of urbanization upon the availability of construction 

minerals in southeastern Florida: Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8664, 

U.S. Department of the Interior.

Fennema, R.L., Neidrauer, C.J., Johnson, R.A., MacVicar, T.K., and Perkins, W.A., 

1994, A computer model to simulate natural Everglades hydrology, in Everglades 

− The ecosystem and its restoration: Delray Beach, Florida, St. Lucie Press, 

p. 249-289.

Fies, M.A., Renken, R.A., and Komlos, S.B., 2002, Considerations for regional ASR 

in restoring the Florida Everglades, USA; in P.J Dillion, Management of Aquifer 

Recharge for Sustainability − Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on 

Artificial Recharge, Adelaide, Australia, September 22-26, 2002: The Netherlands, 

A.A. Balkema Publishers, p. 341-346.

Fischer, J.N., 1980, Evaluation of a cavity-riddled zone of the shallow aquifer near 

Riviera Beach, Palm Beach County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 80-60, 39 p. 

Fish, J.E., 1988, Hydrogeology, aquifer characteristics, and ground-water flow of the 

surficial aquifer system, Broward County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 87-4034, 92 p, 10 pls.

Fish, J.E., and Stewart, Mark, 1991, Hydrogeology of the surficial aquifer system, 

Dade County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 90-4108, 50 p, 11 pls.

Fitterman, D.V., and Deszcz-Pan, M., 1999, Geophysical mapping of saltwater intrusion in Everglades National Park: 3rd International Symposium on Ecohydraulics, 

Salt Lake City, Utah, July 12-16, 1999, p. 18.

Florida Department of Transportation, 1985, Land use, land cover and forms 

classification system manual, procedure number 550-010-001-A.

Frederick, Rod, Goo, Robert, Corrigan, Mary Beth, Bartow, Susan, and Billingsley, 

Michelle, 1997, Economic benefits of urban runoff controls: Plenary Proceedings 

of Watershed ‘96 − Moving Ahead Together, Baltimore, Maryland, June 8-12, 

1997, p. 279-285.

Garcia-Benochea, J.I., Sproul, C.R., Vernon, R.O., and Woodward, H.J., 1973, 

Artificial recharge of treated waste waters and rainfall runoff into deep saline 

aquifers of peninsula Florida; in Jules Braunstein, ed., Second International 

Symposium on Underground Waste Management and Artificial Recharge, 

p. 505-525.

George, P.S., 1996, Miami, the first hundred years, South Florida History Magazine, 

v. 24, no. 2: http://www.historical-museum.org/history/sfhm242.htm (accessed 

August 5, 2003).

Gleason, P.J., Cohen, A.D., Brooks, H.K, Stone, P.A., Goodrick, R.L., and Spackman, William, 1984, The environmental significance of Holocene sediments from 

the Everglades and saline tidal plain; in P.J. Gleason, ed., Environments of South 

Florida, Present and Past II: Miami Geological Society, p. 297-351.

Gunter, Herman, 1927, Statistics of mineral production in Florida during 1925: 

Eighteenth Annual Report, Florida Geological Survey. 

Halley, R.B., 2002, Florida’s murky past, Florida Bay watch header: Florida Bay 

Watch Report, available at http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/reports/flbay_murky/

(updated October 11, 2002).

Halley, R.B., Cronin, T.M., Wingard, G.L., and Ishman, S.E., 1998, Increased 

salinity of Florida Bay and saltwater intrusion of the Biscayne aquifer during the 

early 20th century − Simultaneous consequences of falling water tables along the 

margins of the Everglades: 1998 Florida Bay Science Conference Abstracts, 

available at http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/flbay/halleyetal.html

Halley, R.B., and Roulier, L.M., 1999, Reconstructing the history of eastern and 

central Florida Bay using mollusk-shell isotope records: Estuaries, v. 22, 

p 358-368. 

Hantush, M.S., and Jacob, C.E., 1955, Nonsteady radial flow in an infinite leaky 

aquifer: American Geophysical Union Transactions, v. 36, no. 1, p. 95-100.

Hebert, P. J., Jarrell, J.D., and Mayfield, M., 1992, The deadliest, costliest, and most 

intense hurricane of this century (and other frequently requested facts): National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-31, 

40 p.

Hebert, P. J., Jarrell, J.D., and Mayfield, M., 1993, The deadliest, costliest, and most 

intense United States hurricanes of this century: National Oceanic Atmospheric 

Administration Technical Memorandum NWS-NHC-31, 41 p.

Hickey, J.J., and Vecchioli, John, 1986, Subsurface injection of liquid waste with 

emphasis on injection practices in Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply 

Paper 2281, 24 p.

Selected References  73
Hittle, C.D., 1999, Delineation of saltwater intrusion in the surficial aquifer system 

in eastern Palm Beach, Martin, and St. Lucie Counties, Florida, 1997-98: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4214, 1 sheet. 

Howie, B.B., 1987, Chemical characteristics of water in the surficial aquifer system, 

Broward County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report, 86-4330, 2 sheets.

Hughes, J.L., 1979, Saltwater-barrier line in Florida: Concepts, considerations, and 

site examples: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

79-75, 29 p.

Ingebritsen, S.E., McVoy, Christopher, Glaz, B., and Park, Winifred, 1999, Florida 

Everglades − Subsidence threatens agriculture and complicates ecosystem restoration; in D.L. Galloway, D.R. Jones, and S.E. Ingebritsen, eds., Land Subsidence in 

the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182, p. 95-106.

Ishman, S.E., Cronin, T.M., Brewster-Wingard, G.L., Willard, D.A., and Verado, 

D.J., 1998, A record of ecosystem change, Manatee Bay, Barnes Sound, Florida: 

Journal of Coastal Research no. 26.,

p. 125-138.

Jacobs, Jennifer, and Satti, S.R., 2001, Evaluation of reference evapotranspiration 

methodologies and AFSIR crop water use simulation model: St. Johns Water 

Management District, SJRWMD Contract No. SD325AA, 114 p. 

Jensen, M.E., Burman, R.D., and Allen, R.G., 1990, Evapotranspiration and irrigation water requirements: American Society of Civil Engineers Manual No. 70, 

332 p.

Jones, L.A., 1948, Soils, geology, and water control in the Everglades region: 

University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 442, 168 p. 

Klein, Howard, 1957, Salt-water encroachment in Dade County, Florida: Florida 

Geological Survey Information Circular 9, 17 p.

Klein, Howard, Armbruster, J.T., McPherson, B.F., and Freiberger, H.J., 1975, Water 

and the south Florida environment: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 24-75, 165 p.

Klein, Howard, and Hull, J.E., Biscayne aquifer, southeast Florida: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 78-107, 52 p.

Klein, Howard, and Ratzlaff, K.W., 1989, Changes in saltwater intrusion in the Biscayne aquifer, Hialeah-Miami Springs area, Dade County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87-4249, 1 sheet. 

Klein, Howard, and Waller, B.G., 1985, Synopsis of saltwater intrusion in Dade 

County, Florida, through 1984: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 85-4101, 1 sheet.

Knetsch, Joe, and Ethridge, Laura, 1992, A historical overview of Broward County 

agriculture, 1915-1940: Broward Legacy, v. 15, no. 1-2, p. 21-27.

Kohout, F.A., 1960, Cyclic flow of salt water in the Biscayne aquifer of southeastern 

Florida: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 65, no. 7, p. 2133-2141.

Kohout, F.A., 1964, The flow of fresh water and salt water in the Biscayne aquifer of 

the Miami area; in Sea Water in Coastal Aquifers: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 1613-C, p. C12-32.

Kohout, F.A., and Kolipinski, M.C., 1967, Biological zonation related to groundwater discharge along the shore of Biscayne Bay, Miami, Florida; in G.H. Lauff (ed.), 

Estuaries: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication No. 

83, p. 488-499.

Koszalka, E.J., 1995, Delineation of saltwater intrusion in the Biscayne aquifer, 

eastern Broward County, Florida, 1990: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 93-4164, 1 sheet.

Land, L.F., Rodis, H.G., and Schneider, J.J., 1973, Appraisal of the water resources 

of eastern Palm Beach County, Florida: Florida Geological Survey Report of 

Investigations 67, 64 p.

Langevin, C.D., 2001, Simulation of ground-water discharge to Biscayne Bay, southeastern Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

00-4251, 127 p.

Leach, S.D., and Grantham, R.G., 1966, Salt-water study of the Miami River and its 

tributaries, Dade County Florida: Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigation 45.

Leach, S.D., Klein, Howard, and Hampton, E.R., 1972, Hydrologic effects of water 

control and management of southeastern Florida: Florida Geological Survey 

Report of Investigations 60, 115 p.

74  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
Leighton, M.O., 1912, National Aspect of Swamp Drainage: Reclamation of Wet 

Lands in the United States, Resolutions of the National Drainage Congress, 62D 

Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document No. 877, p 5-13.

Light, S.S., and Dineen, J.W., 1994, Water control in the Everglades: A historical 

perspective; in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, ed., Everglades − The Ecosystem and 

Its Restoration: Delray Beach, Florida, St. Lucie Press, p. 47-84.

MacVicar, T.K., Van Lent, T., and Castro, A., 1984, South Florida Water Management Model documentation report: West Palm Beach, South Florida Water Management District Technical Publication 84-3.

Marella, R.L., 1988, Water withdrawals, use, and trends in Florida, 1985, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4103, 43 p.

Marella, R.L., 1992, Factors that affect public-supply water use in Florida, with a 

section on projected water use to the year 2020: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 91-4123, 35 p.

Marella, R.L., 1999, Water withdrawals, use, discharge, and trends in Florida, 1995: 

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4002, 88 p.

Marella, R.L., and Singleton, V.D., 1988, Metering methods and equipment used for 

monitoring irrigation in the St. Johns River Water Management District Report.

McIvor, C.C., Ley, J.A., and Bjork, R.D., 1994, Changes in freshwater inflow from 

the Everglades to Florida Bay including effects on biota and biotic processes: A 

review; in S.M. Davis, and J.C.Ogden, eds., Everglades − The Ecosystem and its 

Restoration: Delray Beach, Florida, St. Lucie Press, p. 117-146.

McKenzie, D.J., 1995, Water quality of the Boca Raton canal system and effects of 

the Hillsboro Canal inflow, southeastern Florida, 1990-91: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4128, 14 p.

McNally, David, 1999, The Everglades − An environmental history: Gainesville, 

University Press of Florida, 215 p.

McPherson, B.F., Hendrix, G.Y., Klein, Howard, and Tyus, H.M., 1976, The environment of south Florida, a summary report: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1011, 81 p. 

Mead, D.W., Hazen, Allen, and Metcalf, Leonard, 1912, Report on the drainage of 

the Everglades of Florida, with special reference to the lands of the Everglades 

Land Sales Company, Everglades Sugar and Land Company in the vicinity of 

Miami, Florida: New York, N.Y., 39 p. 

Merritt, M.L., 1989, A review of factors affecting recovery of freshwater stored in 

saline aquifers: Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Symposium, Irrigation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, p. 367-375.

Merritt, M.L., 1996a, Simulation of the water-table altitude in the Biscayne aquifer, 

southern Dade County, Florida, water years 1945-1989: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 2458, 148 p.

Merritt, M.L., 1996b, Assessment of saltwater intrusion in southern coastal Broward 

County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

96-4221, 131 p.

Meyer, W.B., 1994, When dismal swamps became priceless wetlands: American 

Heritage, p. 109-116.

Miller, J.A., 1997, Hydrogeology in Florida; in A.F. Randazzo and D.S. Jones, eds., 

The Geology of Florida: Gainesville, University Press of Florida, p. 69-88.

Miller, W.L., 1988, Description and evaluation of urban and agricultural development on the surficial aquifer system, Palm Beach County, Florida: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4056, 58 p.

National Research Council, 2001, Aquifer storage and recovery in the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, 

58 p.

National Research Council, 2002, Regional Issues in aquifer storage and recovery 

for Everglades restoration − A review of the ASR Regional Study Project Management Plan of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan: Washington, D.C., 

National Academy Press, 75 p.

Northwest Dade County Freshwater Lake Plan Implementation Committee (Lake 

Belt Committee), 1997, Northwest Dade County Freshwater Lake Belt Plan “Making a Whole, Not Just Holes”: West Palm Beach, South Florida Water Management District, February 1997, 29 p.

Parker, G.G., 1945, Saltwater encroachment in southern Florida: American Water 

Works Association Journal, v. 37, no. 6, p. 526-542. 

Parker, G.G., Ferguson, G.E., Love, S.K., and others, 1955, Water resources of 

southeastern Florida, with special reference to the geology and ground water of the 

Miami area: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1255, 965 p.

Selected References  75
Reese, R.S., 2002, Inventory and review of aquifer storage and recovery in southern 

Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 02-4036, 

56 p. 

Reese, R.S., and Cunningham, K.J., 2000, Hydrogeology of the gray limestone aquifer in southern Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 99-4213, 224 p.

Rodis, H.G., 1973, Encroaching salt water in northeast Palm Beach County, Florida: 

Florida Bureau of Geology Map Series 59. 

Rodis, H.G., and Land, L.F., 1976, The shallow aquifer − A prime freshwater 

resource in eastern Palm Beach County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 76-21, 12 p. 

Schroeder, M.C., Klein, Howard, and Hoy, N.D., 1958, Biscayne aquifer of Dade and 

Broward Counties, Florida: Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigations 17, 

56 p.

Schroeder, M.C., Milliken, D.L., and Love, S.K., 1954, Water resources of Palm 

Beach County: Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigations 13, 63 p.

Scott, W.B., 1977, Hydraulic conductivity and water quality of the shallow aquifer, 

Palm Beach County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 76-119, 22 p. 

Scott, W.B., Land, L.F., and Rodis, H.G., 1977, Saltwater intrusion in the shallow 

aquifer in Palm Beach and Martin Counties, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations Report 76-135, 1 sheet.

Shaler, N.S., 1890, General account of the fresh-water morasses of the United States: 

U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 10, p. 255-339.

Sherwood, C.B., and Klein, Howard, 1963, Surface- and ground-water relation in a 

highly permeable environment: International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 

v. 63, p. 454-468.

Sherwood, C.B., McCoy, H.J., and Galliher, C.F., 1973, Water resources of Broward 

County, Florida: Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigation 65, 141 p.

Shine, M.J., Padget, D.G.J., and Barfknecht, W.M., 1989, Ground water resource 

assessment of Palm Beach County, Florida: South Florida Water Management 

District Technical Publication 89-4, pt. I, 372 p.

Sonenshein, R.S., 1997, Delineation and extent of saltwater intrusion in the Biscayne 

aquifer, eastern Dade County, Florida, 1995: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 96-4285, 1 sheet.

Sonenshein, R.S., and Koszalka, E.J., 1996, Trends in water-table altitude (1984-93) 

and saltwater intrusion (1974-93) in the Biscayne aquifer, Dade County, Florida: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-705, 2 sheets.

Sonntag, W.H., 1987, Chemical characteristics of water in the surficial aquifer 

system, Dade County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87-4080, 42 p, 2 pls.

South Florida Water Management District, 2000, Lower East Coast Regional Water 

Supply Plan Planning Document, 358 p. 

South Florida Water Management District, 2003, Natural System Model Online 

Documentation, NSM v. 4.6, Topographic map: http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/pld/

hsm/models/nsm/nsm46_topo.pdf

Stephens, J.C., and Johnson, L., 1951, Subsidence of organic soils in the upper 

Everglades region of Florida, Soil Science Society of Florida Proceedings, v. XI, 

p. 191-237.

Stephens, J.C., 1984, Subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades − A 

review and update; in P.J. Gleason, ed., Environments of South Florida, Present 

and Past II: Miami Geological Society, p. 375-384

Swayze, L.J., and Miller, W.L., 1984, Hydrogeology of a zone of secondary permeability in the surficial aquifer of eastern Palm Beach County, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 83-4249, 38 p.

Turner II, B.L., and Meyer, W.B., 1994, Global land-use and land-cover perspective—An overview; in W.B. Meyer and B.L., Turner II, eds., Changes in Land Use 

and Land Cover − A Global Perspective: New York, N.Y., Cambridge University 

Press, p. 3-10.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District, 1999, 

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project Comprehensive Review Study: 

Final Integrated Feasibility Report and Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, Jacksonville, Florida, 

and South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida.

76  Impact of Anthropogenic Development on Coastal Ground-Water Hydrology in Southeastern Florida, 1900-2000
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District, 2002, 

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project Management Plan, Regional 

Aquifer Storage and Recovery Study: Draft PMP, v. 4, 104 p.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004, State of Florida, Decennial Report of the Census: 

Compiled from various files, 1900 to 2000.

U.S. Congress, 1911, Everglades of Florida Acts, Reports, and other Papers, State 

and National, Relating to the Everglades of the State of Florida and their 

Reclamation: Senate Document 89, 62nd Congress, 1st session. 193 p.

U.S. Congress, 1913, Florida Everglades, Report of the Florida Everglades 

Engineering Commission: Senate Document No. 379, 63rd Congress, 2nd 

Session, 148 p. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, 1969, Environmental impact of the Big Cypress 

Jetport, 155 p. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1979, Federal Register Notice, October 11, 

1979, v. 44, no. 198. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Water-quality standards and criteria 

website: http://www.epa.gov/seahome/wqs.html (accessed March 28, 2002).

U.S. Geological Survey, 2004, Historical water use in Florida: http://fl.water.usgs.

gov/WaterUse/Water_Use_web/hwu_fl.htm

Vorhis, R.C., 1948, Geology and ground water of the Fort Lauderdale area, Florida: 

Florida Geological Survey Report of Investigations 6, 43 p.

Wanless, H.R., Cotrell, D., Parkinson, R., and Burton, E., 1984, Sources and circulation of turbidity, Biscayne Bay, Florida: Report submitted to Dade County and 

Florida Sea Grant, 499 p.

Ward, W.C., Cunningham, K.J., Renken, R.A., Wacker, M.A., and Carlson, J.L., 

2003, Sequence-stratigraphic analysis of the Regional Observation Monitoring 

Program (ROMP) 29A test corehole and its relation to carbonate porosity and 

regional transmissivity in the Floridan aquifer system, Highlands County Florida, 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 03-201, 34 p.

Williams, A.P., 1883, North to south through the Everglades in 1883: The account of 

the second expedition into the Everglades by the New Orleans Times-Democrate; 

in M.K. Wintringham, Tequesta, v. 23, p. 59-93. 

Selected References  77