United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Method for Applying 

Forest Sewice Group Selection in 

Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station ~ential Appalachian Hardwoods 

Research Pam NE-696 

Gary W. Miller 

Thomas M. Schuler 

H. Clay Smith 
Abstract 

Public concern over the adverse visual impact of clearcutting has h&&tened 

interest in developing and testing alternative regeneration practices for central 

Appalachian hardwoois. When applied properly, group selection, whiidr entails 

making small openings within a timber stand at regular intervals, can meet aesthetic 

goab while pro~idin~suitable liit condaions to reproduce shade-imtolerant species. 

Vdume control and residual stand density are used to regulate periodic cuts, whii 

include volume removed to create openings plus volume removed between 

openings to improve the quality and distribution of the residual stand. In central 

Appalachian hardwoods, openings must have a minimum size of 0.4 aae; all stems 

1.0 inch d.b.h. and larger are cut to reproduce desirabk shade-intolerant species. 

Maximum opening size is based on aesthetic requirements or other management 

constraints. Where reproduction of shade-intolecant species is ameptable, openings 

can be as small as a space occupied by a few trees. Openings should be bcated 

using the wwst first approach to give the growing space occupied by mature trees 

or risky trees to faster growing, desirable regeneration. The residual stand between 

openings should be improved by cutting poorquality or hiih-risk trees. The 

recommended residual basal area in sawthber-size trees (1 1.0 inches d.b.h. and 

larger) is related to nolthern red oak site index (SI): 70 to 85 fflacre for SI 80.55 to 

70 fflacre for SI 70, and 40 to 55 fflacre for SI 80. These fleld-Wed methods can 

help forest managers initiate group selection in seccd-growth Appalachian 

hardwoods. Guidelines are presented for compuHng the cut, determining size, 

Iccatii, and number of openings, and marking the atand. 

The Authors 

GARY W. MILLER is a research forester with the forest management mearch 

project at the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station's lhber and Watershed 

Laboratory, Parsons, West Virginia. He received B.S. and M.S. degrees from West 

Virginia University and a Ph.D. degree from Virglnia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University. He has conducted researdr on silviculture and forest management since 

1981. 

THOMAS M. SCHULER, researdr forester, received a B.S. degree in forestry fmn 

Purdue University and an MS. degree in siMcultum from Cobrado State University. 

He pined the forest management research pmjed at the Northeastem Station's 

Timber and Watershed Laboratory at Parms in 1992. 

H. CLAY SMITH, retired, was Proiect Leader at the Northeastern Station's Timber 

and Watershed Laboratory at Parsons. He received degrees from HLgt Virginia 

Universitv and Purdue Universihr and ioined 

-- 

the USDA Fwest Service in 1962. 

Manuscript received for puMicatii 6 June 1994. 

Cow Photo: Small opening aasted by a group-dectlon ham In csntnl 

Appalachian hardwoods 

USDA FOREST SERVICE 

5 RADNOR CORP CTR STE 200 

W BOX 6775 

RADNOR PA 190874775 

March 1995 
lntroductlon 

Public concern over the adverse visual impact of clearcutting 

has heightened interest in developing and testing alternative 

forest management systems for central Awalachian 

hardwoods. Useful aiternatives must meet two major 

objectives: 1) reduce negative visual impacts of cutting all 

trees over a large area, and 2) provide biological conditions 

for regenerating and maintaining a variety of mmmerdal 

hardwood species. Critics of clearcutting have suggested 

using an uneven-age sihricultural practice such as group 

selectin to meet these objectives. 

Group selection, which entails making small openings every 

10 to 20 years, often meets aestheticobjectives while 

providing suitable light conditions to perpetuate many 

commercial hardwoods, including desirable shade-intolerant 

species (Leak and Filip 1977). However, group selection is 

not a widespread practice, primarily because forest managers 

lack field-tested application guidelines. In addition, research 

results are needed to evaluate the effectiveness and 

efficiency of group selection in achieving management 

objectives. This report describes a practical method for 

initiating group selection in secondgrowth central 

Appalachian hardwoods. Guidelines cover inventory 

requirements, regulation of the cut, placement and size of 

group openings, and silvicultural treatments of residual trees 

between openings. Preliminary results on reproduction in 

group openings and productivity of logging operations are 

provided. 

Although the suggested approach is not the only means of 

applying group selection, it does conform to accepted 

definitions of the practice. From the start, it is assumed that 

the forest manager has weighed other alternatives and 

decided that group selection is best suited for his or her 

management objectives. Given that group selection is the 

chosen alternative, the guidelines presented here focus 

primarily on how to do it. They have been developed for use 

in central Appalachian hardwoods, though the techniques can 

be modified for use in other forest types based on local 

growth estimates and stocking requirements. 

Background 

Group selection was described early in American forestry 

literature (Roth 1902). Yet today there is considerable debate 

among forest managers about how to define and appb this 

siivicultural practice. To fully appreciate group selection, it is 

helpful lo review related practices and the way in which they 

can help meet various management goals for a particular 

hardwood stand. 

Selection practices, including single-tree and group selection, 

are regeneration cutting methods used to develop or maintain 

trees of different ages within a stand. They are designed to 

maintain at least three age classes in an individual stand. 

Eventually, for a particular stand, tree size is proportional to 

tree age wlhin a species group. Group selection can be 

viewed as a variation of single-tree selection. Wth both 

methods, periodic cuts establish and develop reproduction, 

improve stand structure and quality, and control residual 

stocking for sustained yiekl. However, they Mer in how 

these periodic cuts are made and their effect on species 

composition, diversity of habiiat, and aesthetics. 

The distinctive feature of group selection is that openings are 

created in the stand by periodically removing trees in groups 

(Fig. 1). Opening size can range from a single large tree 

crown to whatever maximum size meets aesthetic and 

management objectives. However. opening size affects 

species composniin and development of regeneration 

folbwing hawest (Smith 1981). Periodic cultural treatments 

also improve growing stodc established previously and even 

control pest species such as grapevines. Guidelines for 

applying this practice are flexible because many cultural 

practices can be applied in different parts of the stand during 

each periodic cut. 

Single-tree selection and similar partial cutting practices in 

Appalachian hardwoods promote mainly shade-tolerant 

regeneration such as sugar maple, red maple, and American 

beech (Miller 1993). In fact, single-tree methods are 

sustainable only where commercial shade-tolerant species 

can be established with each periodic cut. Other desirable 

species such as black cherry, yellow-poplar, and oaks in the 

central Appalachians require light conditions found in 

openings at least 150 feet in diameter (Smith 1981), 

approximately twice the height of mature, dominant trees in 

the region. Thus, group selection has the potential to 

regenerate a much greater variety of species. Compared with 

single-tree selection, group selection also offers the following 

advantages (Smith 1986): 

There is less damage to residual growing stodc during 

oeriodic cuts. 

Trees growing in dense groups in openings have better 

form. 

Wildlife habitat is more diverse within a stand. 

Patches of low-quality trees are removed and replaced by 

new reproduction in only one periodic cut. 

Sale preparation and logging are more economical. 

Openings made at each cut can be monitored as 

recognizable age classes. 

There often is confusion about the difference between group 

selection and patch cutting. Patch cutting and group selection 

are distinct practices used to regulate regeneration, growth, 

and yield in a given stand. These practices promote an 

uneven-age structure within the stand using area control or 

volume/stand density, respectively. With patch cutting, area 

control is used to regulate the stand, clearing equal areas 

(total acres) each cutting cycle so that the entire stand is cut 

over in the equivalent of one even-age rotation. Also, the 

acreage of individual openings must be measured to control 

the cut. With group selection, the cut is regulated by volume 

control and residual stand density; the area of individual 

openings need not be measured. In both practices, opening 

size varies according to stand conditions, and maximum 

opening size is set by management objectives. 

In reality, both group selection and patch cutting lead to an 
:f 

6 

ngure 1.-Thls landscape Illustrates group selection on the left, slngle-tree 

selection In the center, and young clearcuts on the right. 

uneven-age stand structure if applied within the boundaries of 

a particular stand. A range of age classes is created as a 

resun of regeneration established following periodic cutting 

treatments. Consequently, the differences between group 

selection and patch wing are better defined by the methods 

used to determine the size, shape, and location of the 

openings, as well as the amount of volume removed and the 

frequency of periodic cuts. 

Wfihout question, group selection can be applied as an 

intensive stand management practice, and is effective in 

helping meet multiple objectives. The following suggestbns 

are offered to help forest managers develop practical and 

useful field methods for applying group selection to meet a 

range of specific objectives. 

An example is presented throughout the discussion to clarify 

suggested procedures. Data for the example were obtained 

from a 31-acre stand on site index (SI) 70 for northern red 

oak on the Fernow Experimental Forest near Parsons, West 

Virginia. Previously unmanaged, the stand contained 85- 

year-old, second-growth central Appalachian hardwoods. 

Skid roads were built independent of the cutiing practice to 

provide access from an existing haul mad adjacent to the 

stand (Fig. 2). 

Getting Started 

With group selection, merchantable volume is remwed 

periodically every 10 to 20 years depending on management 

goals and stand condiions. The periodic cut includes volume 

from groups of trees removed to create openings plus that 

from indivdual trees removed to improve resldual stand 

quality (improvement cut). To prepare for each periodic cut, 

an inventory is needed to develop a stand table by Z-inchdiameter class (Table 1). This information is used to regulate 

the volume and basal area removed and to develop 

guidelines for marking individual group openings. 

It is important to estimate the improvement cut during the 

initial inventory (Table 1). Volume in the improvement cut 

includes high-risk and undesirable trees that must be 
Table l.-lnltlal Inventory and estimated lmprowmont cut in 85-year-old central Appalachian 

hardwood rtand on 51 70 for northern red oak 

D.b.h. class (inches) Basal 

S~ecies 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26+ Total area Volume 

-- ---- Number of treedacre------------------ Ft2/acre Mbf/acre 

Hickory 1.4 1.4 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 

White oak 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.1 1.5 0.8 0.6 0.4 

Chestnutoak 4.9 4.8 4.6 3.2 1.9 1.0 0.5 0.3 

Red oak 2.5 2.8 2.4 2.6 2.2 1.2 1.7 2.2 

Yellow-poplar 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 

Blackcherry 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 

Sugarmaple 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 

Red . - - maole . . . - 1.0 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 rOthers 2.5 1.4 1.5 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Total 14.6 14.0 13.1 9.9 7.1 3.5 3.2 3.4 

Estimated 

improvement 

Cut 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 7.1 10.9 1.7 

Table 2.-Marking guklellnea for Improvement wtsawlimber-ske classas, 11.0 inches d.b.h. and larger 

For individual trees, mark: 

1. Culls and near culls. unless needed for other resource 

goals 

2. Trees with signiiiit rot (40 percent or more) in the butt 

los 

3. Low-grade trees that are not expected to attain sawiog 

qualitya 

4. Shorl-lived species or other species wlh low vigor 

expected to die before the next periodic cut 

5. Undesirable species that conflict with management 

objectives 

'Rast and others (1973). 

improvement cut, the marking crew can become familiar wlh 

the unique characteristics of an individual stand. Note in the 

example stand that much of the merchantable volume was in 

northern red oaks from 20 to 26 inches d.b.h. (Table 1). 

During marking, clumps of these large, mature trees within 

the stand are potential locations for group openings. In this 

case. the data intiite that some openings can be made 

where there are clumps of trees larger than 20 inches d.b.h. 

Data from different stands would suggest different guidelines. 

Determlnlng the Cut 

When group selection is to be used in second-growth 

, Appalachian hardwoods, the desired total cut volume is equal 

Flgure 2.-Location of group openings and skid mads in ti periodic stand growth. Periodic stand growth depends on 

a Bl-acre Appalachian hardwood stand. stand acreage, average annual stand volume growth, and the 

lenoth of the cutlina cvcle. Most forest manaaers have 

removed in the current cut to increase the quality of the reliable local estimitei of average stand volume growth. For 

residual stand (Table 2). The improvement cut indudes seoondgrowth central Appalachian hardwood sawtimber 

individual trees (not in groups) that are removed between stands, the following estimates of volume growth by northern 

group openings throughout the stand. red oak site-index class can be used (Trimble 1968): SI 80: 

400 bf/acre/yr; S1 70: 300 bflacrelyr; SI 60: 200 bflacrelyr. 

By reviewing the initial stand table and the estimated 
Length of cutting cycle depends on site productivity, volume 

needed for an operable cut in local markets, and desired 

characteristics for the residual stand. In most central 

Appalachian hardwood stands where access roads are in 

place, hawests averaging at least 2.0 to 2.5 Mbflacre with a 

minimum total volume of 20 Mbf (International 114-inch rule) 

are wnsidered operable. In managed stands, the minimum 

cutting cycle is 10 to 15 years depending on site productivity. 

Short cutting cycles result in a more variable stand, with age 

classes closer together and lower cut volumes. Longer 

cutting cycles entail greater cut volumes per me. This may 

be more anractive to buyers but the resulting stand is less 

variable with age classes farther apart. Thus, length of the 

cutting cycle is influenced by the combination of site 

productivity and management factors. 

Once the cutting cycle is defined, the maximum cut volume 

for the stand is determined by multiplying estimated gmwth 

times stand acreage and culling cycle length. Forthe 

example stand, a 31-acre stand on SI 70, the maximum cut 

would be about 186 Mbf every 20 years (Table 3): 

Maximum volume cut = annual bf growthlacre x stand area x 

cutting cycle: 

186 Mbf = 300 bflacrelyr x 31 acres x 20 years 

The total cut includes both volume removed in group 

openings plus volume removed between openings to improve 

the residual stand. Before actual marking begins, the 

estimated improvement cut is subtracted from the maximum 

cut to determine how much additional volume can be 

removed in openings without overcuning the stand. Based on 

the example stand inventoly, the improvement cut from 

individual trees will total about 53 Mbf wer the entire stand. 

and the remaining cut from group openings should not 

exceed 133 Mbf (Table 3). 

In addition to computing the desired cut volume, adequate 

residual stwking must be maintained to assure sustained 

yield of desirable merchantable products in the future. For 

applying group selection in Appalachian hardwoods, residual 

stand basal-area goals for sawtimber-size trees (1 1.0 inches 

d.b.h. and larger) by northern red odc site class are: SI 80: 

70 to 05 Wtacre; SI 70: 55 to 70 Wlacre; SI 60: 40 to 55 WI 

acre. 

These basal area guides assume that the residual stand will 

contain 15 to 20 ft2/acre in poletimber trees 5.0 to 10.9 inches 

d.b.h. and that logging damage may reduce residual basal 

area by as much as 10 percent (TrimMe and others 1974). 

The maximum cut basal area is simply the actual sawtimber 

basal area determined in the initial inventory minus the 

desired residual sawtimber basal area given previously. 

Maximum basal area cut = initial stocking - desired residual 

stocking: 

Similar to the guidelines described for volume, basal area in 

the estimated improvement cut is subtracted from the 

maximum basal area cut to determine how much additional 

basal area can be removed to create group selection 

openings without overcuning the stand. In the example, the 

estimated improvement cut will remwe about 11 RVacre; the 

remaining cut from groupopenings should not exceed 32 ft21 

acre (TaMe 3). 

Placement of Openings 

A good rule of thumb for locating group openings is cut the 

worst first, that is, cut parts of the stand where potential 

growth or returns are low compared to other parts of the 

stand. Large, mature trees (even those of good quality) 

continue to grow but have lower rates of return than smaller 

trees with the potential to become gwdqualii trees (Miller 

and Smith 1993). For instance, in secondgrowth 

Appalachian hardwood stands, clumps of trees more than 18 

to 20 inches d.b.h. are candidates for removal due to 

declining rates of return. Also, parts of the stand oavrpied by 

undesirable species or poorqualii trees have lower revenue 

potential. In both cases, group openings should be placed so 

that growing space is given over to new, more desirable 

reproduction. In future cuts, it is helpful to locate new 

openings against older openings to eliminate narrow bands of 

branchy, lowqualiy trees. 

Table 3.-Example computations for determining initial group wlection cut In 31- 

acre, 85year-dd, central Appalachian hardwoodetand on northern red oak Si 70 

Volume 

Marked cut Mbflacre Mbflstand Basal area 

Ft */acre 

Maximum total cut 6.0a 186d 43.p 

Estimated improvement cutd 1.7 52.7 10.9 

Estimated cut in groupse 4.3 133.3 32.1 

growthlacre = 300 bf/acre/yr x 20 years. 

b~eriodic stand growth = 300 bflacrelyr x 20 years x 31 acres. 

'Maximum cut basal = initial basal ark - minimum residual basal area. 

d~btained from stand inventow. ,- 'Estimated cut in groups = maximum total cut - estimated improvement cut. 
The initial inventory also will prwide information that can be 

used to locate openings. Some d.b.h. classes may have 

surplus trees, more than needed according to residual 

numberoftree goals for unevan-aged stands (Smith and 

Lamson 1982). Removing trees in surplus d.b.h. dasses, 

particularly those growing in clumps where it is convenient to 

make an opening, improves the residual stand structure for 

sustained yield. 

Although adhering to a residual numberof-trees goal is nol a 

primary concern when marking a group selection cut, it is 

useful to make certain that the stand will mntinue to produce 

regular timber yields. Removing all surplus trees can result in 

overcuning, particubrly when the improvement cut is heavy. 

The key is to cut surplus trees when possible, but first 

concentrate on improving the residual stand, harvesting 

mature trees, and regenerating undesirable portions of the 

stand. 

Size of Openlngs 

The size (area) of a group selection opening varies with 

management and silvicultural objectives and the biological 

requirements of desired reproduction. Openings can be as 

small as the crown of a single codominant tree or as large as 

aesthetic requirements allow. Keep in mind that not all 

openings need to be large enough to favor shade-intolerant 

reproduction. In fact, aesthetic objedives may require 

openings of different sizes and shapes. Forest managers 

must define clearly the stand goals for species composition 

and aesthetics, and then decide how many openings must 

exceed the minimum sue to achieve those goals. 

If the improvement cut between openings requires a relatively 

high-volume removal, it is betterto reduce the number of 

openings in the initial cut. Once residual stand quality is 

improved, future cuts can focus on regenerating the desired 

number of intolerants by creating group openings. For shadeintolerant species to regenerate and develop in Appalachian 

hardwoods, openings must be 0.4 acre (150 feet in diameter) 

or more. A more general rule of thumb is to make openings 

whose diameters are at least twice the total height of mature. 

codominant trees expected for the forest type. Maximum 

opening size is related more to objectives than requirements 

of desired reproduction. An aesthetic goal for a particular 

stand usually is the reason limits on opening size are 

imposed. In most cases, openings up to 1 acre in size are 

sufficient for applying group selection successfully. 

t~ is important to clean the openings, cutting all trees 1.0 inch 

d.b.h. and larger. However, for desirable advanced 

regeneration, guidelines muM be revised to leave these trees 

or develop them for the future. If desirable advancad 

regeneration is present, such as northern red oak on better 

growing sites, follow guidelines for maintaining and 

developing these stems for the future (Lof¶is 1990). Plan to 

develop advanced regeneration in par¶s of the stand where 

group openings can be made in future tuning cycles. 

Marking and Tallylng the Cut 

group selection openings. Based on the initial inventory and 

experience from working in the stand, the crew firs¶ kales a 

potential opening using stand characteristics and 

regeneration goals to determine the size and shape of the 

opening. Flagging can be used to define the boundary of 

individual openings. A crew of two people can adjust the size 

and shape at this time to meet specific goals. Once a 

satisfactory opening is defined, individual trees within the 

opening can be marked for hawest. The marking crew should 

keep a running tally of cut volume and basal area using a 

per-tree system (Fig. 3). Local volume tables can be used to 

estimate volume per tree. Once the trees are marked and 

tallied within a group opening, the crew then searches for 

another potential opening and repeals the process. 

The improvement cut has priority over creating openings. 

particularly for initial cuts in unmanaged stands. Part of the 

improvement cut can be marked during the initial inventory. 

The remainder can be marked as openings are bcated and 

marked. Once total volume or basal area marked for harvest 

(improvement cut plus openings) reaches the limits computed 

for the stand (Table 3). the mark is complete and no 

additional openings are needed. In the example stand. 15 

openings were marked to achieve the planned cut. Opening 

size and shape varied, with most openings between 0.5 and 

1 .O acre (Fig. 2). 

Note that for the example stand. the total cut was limited by 

volume and not basal area. The residual basal area in 

sawtmber-sue trees was 75 ft21acre (Table 4). The maximum 

cut volume was reached without overcuning basal area, and 

the residual stand structure was appropriate for an unevenaged central Appalachian hardwood stand (Fig. 4). 

Other Practices 

During periodic group selection cuts, a variety of cultural 

practices can be scheduled for other parts of the stand. 

Grapevines can pose a problem on better growing sites, so 

make sure that periodic cuts do not encourage the vines to 

spread and create destr~ti~e arbors that choke cut desirable 

trees. Where vines already pose a problem. cut existing vines 

and keep the canopy dosed; shading prevents sprout 

development and the vines will die in afew years (Smith 

1984). In established openings containing saplings with vines 

in their crowns, cut vines near groundline when the canopy 

has cbsed. Vines usually can be cut where saplings are 10 

years OM or when a crew can move easily among the trees. 

Precommercial croptree release is an option for saplings 

growing in openings created previously. Apply a full crown 

release so that selected crop trees are left free to grow. Crop 

trees should be codominant, well-formed stems with potential 

to become high-value sawtimber to satisfy stand objectives. 

Release a maximum of 50 to 75 crop trees per acre if they 

are available (Perkey and others 1994). 

Most cultural treatments that might be considered in young 

gmup selection openings also are applied in young evenaged stands. In gmup selection practices, each periodic Cut 

can include a varietv of cultural treatmefis in difterent oarts of 

Field crews should folbw several basic steps in marking ~~ ~~ 

, the stand because it may comprise several age classes. 

5 
GROUP SELECTION TALLY SEEET 

Date 

Grow Opening 

crew 

Regeneration 

As part of a long-term study of patch cutting (area control) on 

the Fernow Experimental Forest, small openings are cleared 

every 10 years to hawest merchantable trees and establish 

new regeneration over a specified area of each stand. 

Twenty such openings, five openings from each of four 

stands, were surveyed to determine the species composition, 

abundance, and quality of hardwood regeneration present 9 

and 19 years after cutting. Openings were circular and 150 

feet in diameter (0.4 acre); all trees 1.0 inch d.b.h. and larger 

were cut at the time of treatment. Site quality for northern red 

oak ranged from SI 70 to 85. 

Data were collected from five random survey points in five 

random openings in each age class and site index. At each 

point, all trees greater than 0.5 inch d.b.h. were tallied within 

a 11100-acre plot. In all. 100 reproduction survey plots were 

sampled in four stands. Survey plots were categorized by site 

index and age for analyses. These data provide insight into 

the abundance and quality of regeneration that is possible 

using group selection where average opening size is similar 

(Fig. 5). 

All openings SU~eyed had adequate reproduction for future 

development into sawtimber (Fig. 6). Younger openings 
- Resldual stand 

-- Goal stand 

" 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 

D.b.h. (inches) 

Figure 4.-Actual reddual stand structure compared to nsommndd realduel 

stand goal for unevenage management (Smith and Lamson 1982). 

Table 4.-Residual stand following group wlection regeneration hanmi in &yearold central Appalachian hardwood atand on SI 70 for northern red oak 

D.b.h. class (inches) Basal 

Species 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2& Total area Volume 

Number of treeslacre--- ---- Ft2/acre MbVacre 

Hickory 1.1 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 3.5 4.1 0.6 

White oak 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.4 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.2 6.3 11.6 1.9 

Chestnutoak 4.0 3.7 3.4 2.2 1.2 0.7 0.2 0.2 15.6 21.7 3.2 

Red oak 1.9 2.3 2.0 2.2 1.8 0.7 1.2 0.9 13.0 24.2 3.8 

Yellow-poplar 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 2.3 3.4 0.6 

Blackcherry 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.1 1.6 0.3 

Sugarmaple 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00.1 1.6 1.8 0.2 

Red maple 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 1.5 0.2 

Others 1.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 3.9 5.1 0.7 

Total 11.2 10.6 9.3 6.7 4.9 2.3 2.0 1.7 48.7 75.2 11.5 

surveyed 9 years after cutting had 800 to 1.200 codominant 

stems per acre, with 60 to 70 percent classified as potential 

crop trees of good quality. Characteristics of good trees 

indude straight stem, no forks below 17 feet, no evidence of 

disease or insect damage, no dead crown branches, and 

high vigor. The average height of dominant trees in the 9- 

year-old openings was 28 and 31 feet on SI 70 and 80. 

respectively. Okler openings surveyed 19 years after cutting 

had 300 to 450 codominant stems per acre, with 70 to 85 

percent classilied as potential crop trees of good quality. The 

average height of dominant trees in the 19-year-old 

openings was 52 and 58 feet on 51 70 and 80, respectively. 

Species composition was dominated by black birch (BIR), 

sugar maple (MAP), black cherry (BC), yelbw-poplar (Y-P). 

and American basswood (BAS); white ash (WA) and northem 

red oak (NRO) were present in lesser numbers. Other 

commercial hardwoods (OW) present Included hickory, 

American bech, cucumber, and bladc kcust. As trees 

develop within group selection openings, selected trees can 

be released to influence species cnmpositiin as trees mature. 

Between age 10 and 20 years, several species have 

numerous good, codominant trees distributed throughout the 

developing group opening. 
Flgure 5.--Reproduction In a group selection openlng 3 years after harvest. 

Logging Economics 

with each activity. However, with group selection, the maprii 

Group selection methods indude a combination of logging of cut volume is removed from openings, where logging 

activities within a given stand. Some parts of the stand are eff'ciency is relatively high. 

bgged similar to a clearcut operation where all merchantable 

trees are felled and skidded, and nonmerchantable trees are Logging productivity for clearcuning and small openings was 

simply felled and left on the site. Other parts of the stand are compared on the basis of 13 logging operations on the 

bgged similar to a thinning or partial cutting in which only Fernow Experimental Forest from 1984 to 1993. Stands were 

individual marked trees are felled and skidded. Overall semndgrowth, mixed hardwoods on SI 70 to 80 for northern 

logging productivity is based on the efficiencies associated red oak. Clearcuts were in previously unmanaged 85-yearold 
Slaw, AGE 9 

400 r 

SI AGE 19 

SI 70, AGE 9 

r 

SI 70, AGE 19 

400 r 

300 g 300 

+ I 200 1 + 200 

5 

E 

5 

$100 E $ loo 

BIR NRO Y-P BC MAP BAS WA OTH O BIR NRO Y-P BC MAP BAS WA OTH 

stands. Small openings also were made in 85yearold 

stands, though some openings had been made in previous 

operations at 10year intervals. 

In each operation, the logging crew consisted of three people 

using a rubber-tired skidder, a crawler tractor equipped with a 

rubber-tired arch, andlor a trudc-mounted crane. One crew 

member was responsible for felling, topping, and limbing in 

the wcods, while the other members were responsible tor 

skidding, bucking, and decking bgs. The same crew and 

equipment were used to complete all kgging jobs throughout 

the study period. Logs were skidded tree-length over 

distances of 200 to 2,000 feet to roadside landings. Average 

Observed productivity was 9.3 Wday for small openings 

and 8.0 Mbflday for dearcutling (Table 5). Volume per acre 

and volume per tree are factors that may =unt for higher 

observed pdudwty associated with haNeSting small 

openings. Openings were hated in part to halvest dumps of 

large, mature trees. This technique has the effect of 

increasing the average harvest volume per acre in parts of 

the stand where the crew actually works to clear small 

openings. In larger clearcuts, dume is dispersed through the 

stand and average volume per acre is much bwer compared 

to operations invoking small openings. In this study, harvest 

volume was 24.4 Mbflacre for small openings compared with 

17.9 Mbflacre for clearcultins (Table 5). Averaae volume was 

skidding distance was approximately equal in boih - 297 bfRree in the small ope&s combred to254 bfnree in 

treatments, averaging 589 feet. Harvest volume was based the dearcuts. Productivity wasenhanced by both larger 

on actual ba scale at the landina (International 114-inch rule\. averaae ~rcd~ct sizeand areater concentration of volume oer 

Labor and machine hours were Grded for each day. 

Data from more than 200 work days were used to compare 

logging productivity associated with clearcutling and 

harvesting small openings (Table 5). Small openings, 0.4- 

acre in size, were located and marked prior to logging 

throughout a given stand. The number of openings in each 

stand ranged from 8 to 25 depending on the size of the stand. 

Stands logged by clearcutting ranged from 4.5 to 8.9 acres. 

For both treatments mmbined, volume totaled 1.8 million 

board feet, and area totalled 84 acres. In both practices, trees 

1.0 inch d.b.h. and larger were felled. Trees 11.0 inches 

d.b.h. and larger were skidded to the landing. In addition, the 

gmup selection harvest included felling and skidding some 

single sawtimber trees between openings. 

unit orarea in the small o&nings. 

Logging pmduct~ity indicates that in the central 

Appalachians cutting pradices invoiving small openings 

would not reduce stumpage prices compared to clearcuning. 

There are added costs associated with preparing and 

administering periodic sales in any partial cutting practice. 

The cost of inventories, marking, and sale preparation is 

incurred with each periodic cut. Thus, there are financial 

tradeoffs that must be considered when group selection 

practices are used. However, our experience indicates that 

most of these tradeoffs are linked to marking and 

administration of the practice and not to the economics of 

logging. 
Table 5.-Summary of logging productlvlty tor ha~asting small opanings (0.4 acre) 

and clearcutling 

Stand Stand area Area harvested Harvest volume Production rate 

..--------hres--..------ Mbf Mbf/day 

SMALL OPENINGS 

17A 31.4 5.2 (13)a 138.0 10.2 

1 8A 28.6 4.4 (1 1) 138.4 11.9 

180 41.6 5.6 (14) 136.6 10.2 

78 59.7 10.0 (25) 258.0 9.0 

30 23.0 3.2 (8) 53.0 6.5 

7A 37.1 6.0 (1 5) 144.7 9.0 

90 31 .O 7.6 (19) 154.9 8.4 

Total or mean 42.0 1,023.6 9.3b 

CLEARCUlTING 

Longs 5.7 5.7 160.0 11.2 

McGowan 4.5 4.5 53.0 8.4 

Total or mean 42.1 752.5 8.0b 

aNumber of openings in parenthesis. 

'Weighted by area harvested. 

Summary 

Group selection should be viewed as a relatively intense 

stand management practice with several cultural practices 

applied at the same time in different parts of the stand. When 

desirable, the use of group selection or similar regeneration 

methods by which openings are established may satisfy a 

range of management objectives. 

The folbwing are recommendations for applying group 

selection harvests in central Appalachian hardwoods: 

. Use volume, basal area, or both to regulate the stand. 

Estimate initial volume and improvementcut volume. 

. Set the cutting cycle based on volume growth and local 

markets. 

. Harvest only periodic stand volume growth. 

. Keep a cumulative tally of cut volume and cut basal area 

while marking. 

Give priority to the improvement cut. 

. Marh openings until the total cut is achieved. 

. Vary the opening size from a single tree up to an aesthetic 

limit. 

. Make openings at least 0.4 acre where shade-intolerant 

species are desired. 

. Locate openings using stand conditions and the "worst first" 

approach. 

- Define matureAarge trees using cruise data in a given 

stand. 

- Locate openings to eliminate undesirable trees and 

regenerate a variety of species. 

Cut single trees based on maturity, potential quality, and 

risk. 

Reduce surplus d.b.h. classes a volume limits aibw. 

- Control vines and undesirable species with each harvest. 

Release desired crop trees within established openings. 

Avoid skidding logs through young growing stock in okler 

openings. 

- Folbw Best Management Practices or similar 

environmental safeguards as with any cuning practice. 

Group selection is relatively flexible depending on the goals 

for aesthetics, species composition, and frequency of 

harvest. Methods for locating groups of trees to remove can 

be adapted to suit marking crews as they gain experience. 

Computation methods that provide a sustainable residual 

stand and tallying methods to help control marking can 

evolve as well. We believe that the method desaibed here 

can help forest managers develop group selection guidelines 

for their own circumstances. 

Literature Cited 

Leak, W.B.; Filip, S.M. 1977. Thirty-eight yeara of group 

selection In New England northern hardwoods. Journal 

of Forestly. 75: 641 -643. 

Loftis, D.L. 1990. A shelterwood method for regenerating 

red oak In the southern A~~alachians. . . Forest Science. 

36(4): 91 7-929. 

Miller, G.W.; Smith, H.C. 1993. A practical alternative to 
dnglr-tne doction? Northem Journal d Applied 

Forestry. lO(1): 32-38. 

Miller. G.W. 1993. Financial aspect. of partld cutting 

pmctkea in Appalachian hardwood.. Res. Pap. NE-673. 

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 16 p. 

Perkey, AW.; Wtlkins, B.L.; Smith, H.C. 1994. Croptree 

managenmnt in #dem hardwood.. NA-TP-19-93. 

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agricuiture, Forest Service, 

Northaastem Area, State end Private For*. 58 p 

Rad, ED.; Sonderman. D.L; Gammon, G.L 1973. A guide 

to hardwood log gradlng Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-1. Upper 

Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Servim, 

Nodheastern Forest Experiment Station. 32 p. 

Rcth, F. 1902. nnt book of foremy. Boston, MA: Gmn 8 

Company Publishers, Aethenaeum Press. 

Smii, D.M. 1986. Th. practlca of allvlculture. 8th ed. New 

Y& John Wiley and Sons. 527 p. 

Smith, H.C. 1981. Dlamst.n of clearcut opening. 

hf~uenca mntra~ ~ppahchia hardwood atem 

kvd- lCkyear study. Rss. Pap. NE-476. 

Broomell, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Northeastem Forest Experiment Station. 8 p. 

Smith, H.C. 1984. Foreat management guldelines for 

Wttt~~lling wild grapevines. Res. Pap. NE-548. Broomall, 

PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service, 

Northeastem Forest Experiment Station. 33 p. 

Smith, H.C.; Lamson. Neil 1. 1982. Number of residual 

W a guide for doction cutting. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NE-80. Broanall, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Sewb, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 

33 P. 

Trhble, G.R.. Jr. 1968. Growth of Appalachian hardwoods 

as affected bv alte ad residual stand densitv. Res. Pao. 

NE-98. upperbarby. PA: US. Department of ~iricuilure, ' 

Forest Service, Northeastem Forest Experiment Station. 

13 p. 

Trimble, G.R., Jr.; Mendel, J.J.; Kennell, R.A 1974. A 

promdurn for wledion marklng in hardwoods 

comMning allvlcultunl considerations wHh economic 

guidellnea. Res. Pap. NE-292. Upper Darby, PA: US. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Northeastern 

Forest Exptiment Station. 13 p. 
Miller, Gary W.; Schuler, Thomas M.; Smith, H. Cley. 1995. Method for 

applying group td.ctlon in cmtrd Appakhian hardwood.. Res. Pap. 

NE-696. Radnor, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Statii. 11 p. 

Public concern over the adverse visual impact of c!earcuKng has heightened 

interest in dewlopig and testing alternative regeneration practices for central 

Appalachian hardwoods. Group selection can meet aesthetic goals while 

providing suitable light conditions to reproduce shade-iilerant species. 

Volume control and residual stand density are used to regulate periodic cuts. 

In central Appalachian hardwoods, openings must have a minimum size of 0.4 

acre; all stems 1.0 inch d.b.h. and larger are cut to reproduce desirabla 

shade-imtolerant species. Openings should be located wing the wurst first 

approach to give the growing space occupied by mature trees or risky trees to 

faster growing, desirable regeneration. 

Keywords Uneven-age management. 
Headquarters of the Northeastern Forest Experlment Statlon Is In Radnor. Pennsylvanla. Field laboratories are malntalned at 

Amherst, Massachusetts, In cooperatlon wlth the Unlverslty of Massachusetts 

Burllngton, Vermont, In cooperatlon wlth the Unlverslty of Vermont 

Delaware, Ohlo 

Durham, New Hampshlre, In cooperatlon wlth the Unlverslty of New Hampshlre 

Hamden, Connedlcut, In cooperatlon wlth Yale Unlverslty 

Morgantown, West Vlrglnla, In cooperatlon wlth West Vlrglnla Unlverslty 

Orono, Malne, in cooperatlon wlth the Unlverslty of Malne 

Parsons. West Vlrglnla 

Princeton, West Vlrglnla 

Syracuse, New York, In cooperatlon wlth the State Unlverslty of New York, Cot 

lege of Environmental Sclences and Forestry at Syracuse Unlverslty 

Unlverslty Park, Pennsylvanla, In cooperallon wlth The Pennsylvanla State Unlverslty 

Warren, Pennsyhranla 

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have been discriminated against should contact the Secretary, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250, or call 202-720-7327 (voice), or 202-720-1 127 

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