About the Cover: The base image is from Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), acquired by the U.S. 

Geological Survey, EROS Data Center http://edc.usgs.gov/ from multiple dates in 2000, georeferenced in an 

Albers equal area projection. The NOAA National Ocean Service, Coastal Services Center, Coastal Change 

Analysis Program at http://www.csc.noaa.gov/crs/lca/hi_index.html provided a cloud-reduced composite 

image of this data (using a band ratio technique to identify clouds and cloud shadow areas and mask them 

out of the imagery). Overlain on the satellite image are true color aerial photographs, also from 2000, provided 

by NOAA National Ocean Service, Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, Biogeography Program at 

http://biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/. Both imagery sources were used to verify mapped land use (black lines in cover 

image).
Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

By Frederick L. Klasner and Clinton D. Mikami

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4301

Honolulu, Hawaii

2003
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes 

only and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

For additional information write to: Copies of this report can be purchased 

from:

District Chief U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey Information Services

677 Ala Moana Blvd., Suite 415 Box 25286

Honolulu, HI 96813 Denver, CO 80225-0286

http://hi.water.usgs.gov/

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIO

R

MARCH 3, 1849
Contents iii

FOREWORD

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is committed to serve the Nation with accurate and timely scientific information that helps enhance and 

protect the overall quality of life, and facilitates effective management of water, biological, energy, and mineral resources. (http://

www.usgs.gov/). Information on the quality of the Nation’s water resources is of critical interest to the USGS because it is so integrally linked 

to the long-term availability of water that is clean and safe for drinking and recreation and that is suitable for industry, irrigation, and habitat for 

fish and wildlife. Escalating population growth and increasing demands for the multiple water uses make water availability, now measured in 

terms of quantity and quality, even more critical to the long-term sustainability of our communities and ecosystems.

The USGS implemented the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program to support national, regional, and local information

needs and decisions related to water-quality management and policy. (http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/). Shaped by and coordinated with ongoing 

efforts of other Federal, State, and local agencies, the NAWQA Program is designed to answer: What is the condition of our Nation’s streams 

and ground water? How are the conditions changing over time? How do natural features and human activities affect the quality of streams and 

ground water, and where are those effects most pronounced? By combining information on water chemistry, physical characteristics, stream 

habitat, and aquatic life, the NAWQA Program aims to provide science-based insights for current and emerging water issues and priorities. 

NAWQA results can contribute to informed decisions that result in practical and effective water-resource management and strategies that 

protect and restore water quality.

Since 1991, the NAWQA Program has implemented interdisciplinary assessments in more than 50 of the Nation’s most important river basins 

and aquifers, referred to as Study Units. (http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/nawqamap.html). Collectively, these Study Units account for more than 

60 percent of the overall water use and population served by public water supply, and are representative of the Nation’s major hydrologic 

landscapes, priority ecological resources, and agricultural, urban, and natural sources of contamination. 

Each assessment is guided by a nationally consistent study design and methods of sampling and analysis. The assessments thereby build local 

knowledge about water-quality issues and trends in a particular stream or aquifer while providing an understanding of how and why water 

quality varies regionally and nationally. The consistent, multi-scale approach helps to determine if certain types of water-quality issues are 

isolated or pervasive, and allows direct comparisons of how human activities and natural processes affect water quality and ecological health in 

the Nation’s diverse geographic and environmental settings. Comprehensive assessments on pesticides, nutrients, volatile organic compounds, 

trace metals, and aquatic ecology are developed at the national scale through comparative analysis of the Study-Unit findings. (http://

water.usgs.gov/nawqa/natsyn.html). 

The USGS places high value on the communication and dissemination of credible, timely, and relevant science so that the most recent and 

available knowledge about water resources can be applied in management and policy decisions. We hope this NAWQA publication will 

provide you the needed insights and information to meet your needs, and thereby foster increased awareness and involvement in the protection 

and restoration of our Nation’s waters. 

The NAWQA Program recognizes that a national assessment by a single program cannot address all water-resource issues of interest. External 

coordination at all levels is critical for a fully integrated understanding of watersheds and for cost-effective management, regulation, and 

conservation of our Nation’s water resources. The Program, therefore, depends extensively on the advice, cooperation, and information from 

other Federal, State, interstate, Tribal, and local agencies, non-government organizations, industry, academia, and other stakeholder groups. 

The assistance and suggestions of all are greatly appreciated.

Robert M. Hirsch

Associate Director for Water
iv Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

CONTENTS

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Previous Investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Description of the Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Methods of Data Compilation and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Source Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Identification and Delineation of Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Field Verification and Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Accuracy Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Map Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Agricultural Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Developed Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Barren Land Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Other Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Appendix A. Generic Land-Use and Land-Cover Classification System Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Figures

1–5. Maps showing:

1. Study area with generalized topography and geographic features, island of Oahu, Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Level 1 land use in 1998: agriculture, developed, and barren/mining, island of Oahu, Hawaii . . . . . . . . . 7

3. Level 2 agriculture land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4. Level 2 developed land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5. Level 2 barren/mining land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Tables

1. Land-use classification system and definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2. Land-use area by classification, Oahu, Hawaii, 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CONVERSION FACTORS AND DATUMS

Datums

Vertical coordinate information is referenced relative to mean sea level.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced relative to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83).

Multiply By To obtain

acre 4,047 square meter

acre 0.4047 hectare

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

yard (yd) 0.9144 meter

square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer
Introduction 1

Abstract

A hierarchical land-use classification system 

for Hawaii was developed and land use on the 

island of Oahu was mapped in support of the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The land-use classification system 

emphasizes agriculture, developed (urban), and 

barren/mining uses. Areas with other land uses 

(conservation, forest reserve, natural areas, wetlands, water, and barren [sand, rock, or soil] 

regions, and unmanaged vegetation [native or 

exotic]) were defined as “other.” Multiple sources 

of digital orthophotographs from 1998 and 1999 

were used as source data. The 1998 island of Oahu 

land-use data are provided in digital format at 

http://water.usgs.gov/lookup/getspatial?oahu_lu98

for use in a Geographic Information System (GIS),

at 1:24,000-scale with minimum mapping units of 

2 hectares (4.9 acres) area and 30-meters 

(98.4 feet) feature width.

In 1998, a total of 59,195 acres (15.4 percent) 

of the island of Oahu were classified as agricultural 

land use; 98,663 acres (25.7 percent) were classified as developed; 1,522 acres (0.4 percent) were 

classified as barren/mining; and 224,331 acres 

(58.5 percent) were classified as other. An accuracy assessment identified 98 percent accuracy for 

all land-use classes. In windward (moister) areas, 

dense vegetation and canopy cover along with 

rapid recolonization by vegetation potentially 

obscured land use from photo-interpretation. While 

in leeward (drier) areas, sparse vegetative cover 

and slower vegetation recolonization may have 

resulted in more frequent recognition of apparent 

land-use patterns.

INTRODUCTION

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National 

Water-Quality Assessment program (NAWQA) was 

designed to evaluate the status and trends in the quality 

of the island of Oahu’s ground- and surface-water 

resources. Land use is one of the most influential human 

activities affecting water quality and natural resources 

in Hawaii. Land use affects the quality of water through 

modification of drainage and infiltration patterns, modification of vegetative cover, and the addition of physical and chemical compounds. Knowledge of land-use 

spatial patterns and change is necessary information for 

natural and cultural resource management. For example, soil and agricultural resource management require 

inventory and monitoring of land resources as identified 

in land-use maps; water-quality conditions can be compared between watersheds with similar or different land 

uses; and planning for future agriculture and development activities requires data on existing land use, 

trends, and resource availability. In Hawaii, there are a 

range of use intensities and great variability in the scale 

(areal extent) of these uses. Patterns of land use reflect 

multiple influences, including land ownership, available water resources, soil type, and economic opportunity. A description of land use during 1998 provides a 

reference for describing the dynamic nature of land use 

and its influence on resources of the island of Oahu.

Hawaii’s landscape provides a background for juxtapositions and contrasts in land use. For example, traditional, subsistence agriculture can be found 

immediately adjacent to industrial areas and resort tourist destinations. And because of Hawaii’s tropical location centered in the Pacific Ocean, many land-use 

practices are specialized, such as hybrid seed-corn 

research with a 3 to 4 crop per year rotation and ginger 

root cultivation by land lease-holders with an approximately 5-year return interval to minimize nematode 

infestation. Recently, land use has changed rapidly and 

Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

By Frederick L. Klasner and Clinton D. Mikami
2 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

dramatically in Hawaii—evident in the expansion of 

urban and suburban development and the growth of 

diversified agriculture—with many of these changes 

occurring on former sugar and pineapple plantations. 

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to describe a hierarchical land-use classification system and land use during 1998 mapped on the island of Oahu. This report and 

accompanying data set provide a generalized map of 

land use on the island of Oahu, including developed 

(sometimes referred to as urban) and agricultural areas, 

as well as barren areas resulting from mining or similar 

resource extraction. The land uses identified and 

mapped from 1998 and 1999 digital orthophotographs 

(DOQs) document land-use patterns through photointerpretation. These results may differ from the actual 

land use.

Appropriate product use. There are a wide variety 

of appropriate uses for this product, including research, 

comparative land-use and land-cover analyses, and 

identification of generalized urban and suburban development or agricultural practices (including identification of land-use change and urban encroachment upon 

agricultural or coastal areas). Although the State tax 

map key and zoning designations are sometimes 

referred to as “land use” in Hawaii, the land use identified and delineated in this report reflects the classification system described. No effort was made to identify or 

delineate along legal or other boundaries. Accordingly, 

appropriate use of this product is best limited to applications where remotely sensed imagery is needed for 

identifying land use restricted to agriculture, developed, 

and barren/mining areas. The land-use map is intended 

for use at 1:24,000-scale or smaller.

This product can be used in conjunction with other 

natural and cultural resource investigations to form a 

more comprehensive picture of land use and land cover 

in Hawaii. The Hawaii Natural Heritage Program and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), among others, are identifying and delineating 

what is here defined as “other” land-use and land-cover 

types (conservation, forest reserve, natural areas, and 

naturally or non-maintained barren, wetlands, forested, 

shrubland, or herbaceous cover types, see appendix A). 

Developed, agricultural, barren, and other land uses also 

were mapped using similar techniques during the late 

1970s (U.S. Geological Survey, 1979). This and other 

previous investigations provide comparable reference 

materials for investigating land-use change.

Previous Investigations

The USGS described land use in Hawaii as early as 

the 1880s (Dutton, 1884). The USGS GIRAS (Geographic Information and Analysis System) protocol for 

collecting land-use and land-cover data (Mitchell and 

others, 1977) was applied on Oahu and throughout 

Hawaii (U.S. Geological Survey, 1979; U.S. Geological 

Survey, 1980), using the land-use and land-cover classification system established by Anderson and others 

(1976).

Hawaiian land divisions are described by Chinen 

(1958), with assignment of land ownership in the 1840s 

“Great Mahele” providing a common reference point 

for identifying early land ownership, land use, and landuse change in the Hawaiian Islands (see Moffat and 

Fitzpatrick, 1995). The Hawaiian Government Survey 

from the late 1800s provides one of the first detailed, 

comprehensive, and consistent land maps of the main 

Hawaiian islands. Territorial Planning Board reports for 

Hawaii provide a general perspective on land use for the 

first half of the 1900s (see for example, Territorial Planning Board, 1939). The U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

University of Hawaii, and State of Hawaii, Department 

of Agriculture produced a variety of reports and maps 

for documentation and planning purposes, such as 

“Agricultural Land-Use Planning in the Territory of 

Hawaii, 1940” (Coulter, 1940) and “Detailed Land 

Classification - Island of Oahu” (Sahara and others, 

1972). The “Inventory of Available Information on 

Land Use in Hawaii” (Harland Bartholomew and Associates, 1957) and the University of Hawaii, Land Study 

Bureau’s (1971) annotated bibliography provide summaries of available land-use products for the State of 

Hawaii.

Description of the Study Area

The study area encompasses the entire island of 

Oahu and populated islets, using the shoreline identified 

in the 1999, 1:24,000-scale National Hydrography 

Dataset. Oahu consists of the eroded remnants of two 

volcanic mountain ranges, the Waianae Range and the 

Koolau Range (fig. 1). Weathering, erosion, and slope 

failure have modified the original domed surfaces of the
Introduction 3Figure 1. Study area with generalized topography and geographic features, island of Oahu, Hawaii.

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Kaloi Gl Honouliuli Gl

Kaunala Gl

Kamananu i Str

eal a M

ahak

an

Str

ul aK

na ui t S r

P nu uul a Str

ahaK

na

S rt

a M

anu ili w t S r

Pa ol

ol

S rt

ona M a t S r

uN

uanu

Str

Ka hil i

Str

Moana

ul a

Str

N

Ha

al wa Str

Wa mi a ul Str

Wa

mi ano Str

K pi apa Str Na an uk li S rt

Mailiilii S t r

Makua Str

Makaleha Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str Nor ht Fork

Opae ula

Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a

Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

a W

ai

wa

Str

O

rt S oi

Helemano Str

Sou ht Fork

S

Ha al

wa

Str

Waimanalo

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor

MAMALA BAY

Maunalua Bay

SandIsland

FordIsland

Mokauea

Island

MokuoloeIsland

HONOLULU

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae

Maili

Nanakuli

EwaBeach

Ewa

Waialua

Haleiwa

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa

Waimanalo

HawaiiKai

AinaHaina

Aiea

Waipahu

Schofield

Barracks Wahiawa

158 ̊10'

157 ̊50'

157 ̊40'

21 ̊40'

21 ̊30'

21 ̊20'

158 ̊

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS

WAIANAE

RANGE

KOOLAU

RANGE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1983 & 1999, Albers equal area projection, standard parallels 21 ̊19'40" and 21 ̊38'20", central meridian 157 ̊58'. Relief from U.S. Geological Survey digital elevation models, 1:24,000

Kahuku Point

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena 

Point

22 ̊20 ̊

158 ̊ 156 ̊ 160 ̊

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Kauai

Niihau

Oahu

Maui

Molokai

Lanai

Kahoolawe

Hawaii

HAWAII

TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE--  Windward Oahu to the east, leeward to the west

EXPLANATION
4 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

volcanoes, dissecting the east and west parts of the 

island into a landscape of deep valleys and steep ridges. 

A gently sloping saddle lies between the two mountain 

ranges, although 45 percent of the land area has a slope 

20 percent or greater (State of Hawaii, 1999). A coastal 

plain surrounds much of the island. The subtropical climate of Oahu is characterized by mild temperatures, 

moderate humidity, prevailing northeasterly tradewinds, and extreme variation in rainfall over short distances, with rainfall regimes divided into windward 

(moist catchments) and leeward (dry rain shadows) 

areas.

Honolulu, one of the 25 largest cities in the Nation, 

is located in southeastern Oahu. The resident population 

of Oahu, which has more than doubled since 1950, was 

about 876,000 in 2000. The actual population, which 

includes an average number of visitors to the island at 

any time, was about 923,400 in 1998. The State of 

Hawaii zoning classification for land use on Oahu in 

1999 was about 40 percent conservation, 34 percent 

agriculture, and 26 percent urban (State of Hawaii, 

1999). The principal industry is tourism, followed by 

military activities and agriculture. Major land use 

changes are occurring in central Oahu. During the past 

several decades, plantation agriculture, primarily sugarcane and pineapple, which dominated for approximately 100 years, has declined and in its place has been 

an incursion of suburban development and a shift to 

diversified agriculture, including flowers, vegetables, 

fruits, and aquaculture.

Acknowledgements

Staff at numerous State and Federal agencies provided invaluable assistance and guidance. The Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provided agriculture land-use data, assistance establishing the classification system, and reviewed the land uses mapped. 

The NOAA, Coastal Change Analysis Program (CCAP) shared data resources. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (USFWS) provided assistance establishing the 

classification system. The State of Hawaii Department 

of Agriculture and City and County of Honolulu 

reviewed mapped land uses. Numerous private land 

owners also provided cooperation and assistance.

METHODS OF DATA COMPILATION AND 

CLASSIFICATION

The land-use classification system and map draw 

on existing USGS, NRCS, and NOAA C-CAP land-use 

mapping guidelines and recommendations. These existing methodologies and classifications systems were 

adapted to better reflect land use in Hawaii. These adaptations, essentially selections among existing methodologies, emphasized consistent use of data sources, 

establishment of a hierarchical classification system, 

repeatable land-use identification and delineation techniques, field verification, accuracy assessment, and 

documentation.

Classification System

“National Land Cover Data - Land Cover Class 

Definitions” (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001) were customized to better represent tropical Pacific island land 

uses. Five primary criteria governed the modification of 

existing land-use classification systems (see Gilliom 

and Thelin, 1997): (1) relevance to existing land-use 

management practices, (2) scale of the classification 

system appropriate for the scale of analysis and collapsible to more general classification systems, (3) transferable to smaller scales and to remote sensing source data 

of differing scales, (4) criteria for defining categories 

are stable over time, (5) classification system is practicable and applicable to other areas—particularly other 

Hawaiian and Pacific islands. This classification system 

emphasizes human use of land, in general categories of 

agriculture, developed, and barren/mining. This classification system was not structured for other land uses 

(defined by land-cover type as water, barren, wetland, 

forest, shrubland, or herbaceous, see appendix A).

In addition to the National Land Cover Data class 

definitions, other land-use mapping reports were used to 

refine the classification system (table 1, at end of 

report), including: the Middle Rio Grande Basin study 

(Mladinich, 1999), NOAA C-CAP protocols (Dobson 

and others, 1995), and Anderson and others (1976). 

Koterba’s (1998) and Gilliom and Thelin’s (1997) classification systems were adapted to address agriculture 

and water-quality concerns. Agriculture categories 

were refined with local NRCS staff, integrating plant 

morphology, spatial arrangement of fields, and crop 

types as defined by the State of Hawaii (Hawaii Agriculture Statistics Service, 1999). Developed categories 
Methods of Data Compilation and Classification 5

were refined by Oahu NAWQA Study Unit staff, 

emphasizing typical development patterns in Hawaii. 

The classification structure indicates the primary land 

use interpreted from the source data. For example, combined commercial-residential properties are classified 

according to the majority use.

Agriculture, military, and tourism activity in 

Hawaii required special attention when classifying land 

use. For example, diversified agriculture development 

and promotion programs have resulted in areas with 

diverse agriculture practices intermixed with residential 

land uses. Military land uses such as offices, residences, 

ammunition storage bunkers, communications infrastructure, and other military equipment occupy a significant portion of land on Oahu. These uses are identified 

as developed, and are segregated by the type and density 

of development, as opposed to land ownership. Military 

target and bombing ranges in a natural or semi-natural 

state are not treated as agriculture or developed land 

uses.

The hierarchical classification system provides 

generalized, less precise identification of land use at 

level 1 or level 2. More precise identification of land use 

is described in level 3 or level 4. Uncertainty or generalization in land-use identification is indicated by the 

use of only generalized categories; for example, where 

the type of orchard crop could not be identified, the land 

use is Agriculture (level 1), Planted/cultivated (level 2), 

Orchard (level 3), and no crop specific identifier (level 

4) is provided. Definitions of land-use levels 1 through 

4 for agricultural and developed categories and levels 1 

and 2 for barren/mining categories are in table 1.

Source Data

Multiple sources of data were used to identify land 

use, primarily 1-m (3.3 ft) ground resolution black-andwhite DOQs, from 1998 and 1999 (U.S. Geological 

Survey, 1996). Five meter (16.4 ft) ground resolution 

color infrared digital orthophotos and non-georectified, 

true color photographs (1:24,000 nominal scale) also 

were used. Ancillary sources, including USGS 7.5 

minute topographic quadrangle maps, the City and 

County of Honolulu’s parcel and zoning information 

database, local road guides, and field observations in 

March and April 2001 augmented the base data.

Identification and Delineation of Land Use

Land use was identified and delineated through 

photo-interpretation of DOQs. Recognition elements 

(observable characteristics) interpreted from the image 

data included shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone, texture, 

association, and site (Avery and Berlin, 1985). Photointerpretation was completed on computer workstations 

using ESRI’s (Environmental Systems Research Institute) ArcView GIS (version 3.2) software. The DOQ 

data was displayed in its original datum and projection 

(Universal Transverse Mercator [UTM] zone 4 projection, North American Datum 1983 [NAD83]). The 

shoreline identified, the seaward limit of SEA/OCEAN 

(the approximate line of mean high water) from 1999, 

1:24,000-scale National Hydrography Dataset for 

Oahu, determined the spatial extent of land use.

Minimum mapping units of 2.0 ha (4.9 acres) and 

a minimum polygon width of 30 m (98.4 ft) were used. 

Areas (slivers) that did not meet these minimum criteria 

were evaluated individually and absorbed into the adjacent polygon as appropriate. Some map-worthy ground 

features were slightly exaggerated or generalized in 

area or width to meet the minimum size requirements 

(see Mladinich, 1999). Some features too small to be 

collected were collapsed into a single feature. The data 

was interpreted and compiled in blocks of USGS 7.5-

minute topographic quadrangles. Quadrangle land-use 

data was edge-matched and paneled together in a seamless unit. All polygons contain one label point, are 

closed, and adjacent polygons do not have identical 

attributes.

Agriculture, developed, and barren/mining land 

uses were identified according to the classification system. Other areas (water, wetland, forest, shrubland, and 

herbaceous land uses, appendix A) were identified as 

“other.” The areal extent of each land use was delineated to the most detailed possible category in the classification system—a more general category was used 

when land use could not be identified to the more 

detailed category. Ancillary data sources were used to 

help in interpretation.

Field Verification and Adjustments

Land-use data interpretations were verified 

through field checking. All areas where photointerpreters noted uncertainty in the classification were 

visited. Land-use identification, boundary delineation, 
6 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

and adjacent polygon(s) identifications were verified at 

regularly spaced point locations (2-km [1.2 mi] intervals, at a total of 385 locations). Also, a minimum of 

one field validation plot was located in each land-use 

category found in each USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle. 

Expert assessments were also made, with NRCS field 

staff identifying local agricultural land uses. Collaborators, including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and 

the State of Hawaii Department of Agriculture, helped 

ensure that remote developed areas were not overlooked. NOAA C-CAP land-cover data were used for 

verification. On the basis of these procedures, adjustments were made to polygon boundaries and land-use 

categories.

Accuracy Assessment

Accuracy of mapped land use was evaluated using 

randomly generated locations, stratified by level 1 land 

use. Within a total of 250 2-ha (4.9 acres) circular polygons, the accuracy of the mapped land use was assessed 

and the boundaries of adjacent land-use polygons verified. Of these 250 accuracy assessment locations, onefifth (50) were within areas where land use was classified as “other” (level 1), two-fifths (100) of the samples 

were within areas classified as agriculture (level 1), and 

the remaining two-fifths (100) were within areas classified as developed or barren/mining (level 1). Accuracy 

was assessed through review of image data sources for 

each location. Land use was considered accurate if the 

same land-use attributes and boundaries were photointerpreted during the accuracy assessment. Ancillary 

data sources were used when original image data 

sources did not provide adequate detail. If uncertainty 

remained regarding land use after the accuracy assessment, site visits were made to the location.

LAND USE

The hierarchical land-use classification system 

emphasized human use and land surface modification 

interpreted from digital aerial photographs. The categories presented reflect land use on Oahu. Other Pacific 

islands may include additional land uses; for example, 

orchard crops such as lychee (Litchi spp.) are present on 

the island of Hawaii, but were not found on Oahu in 

areas large enough to meet the minimum mapping unit 

criteria. Also, agriculture practices may evolve such 

that a plant currently cultivated only as horticulture may 

some day also be grown as a row crop. Additional landuse studies would likely need to add categories to the 

hierarchical classification to address such changes.

Land use was identified, in the most general categories, as agriculture, developed, barren/mining, and 

other. While not intended to be exclusive, these generalized categories required interpretive decisions, such 

as where small-scale farms were mixed with residential 

areas. Similar decisions were made at more detailed levels of the classification system.

The total land area studied for this report was 

383,711 acres: 382,711 acres on the island of Oahu, 455 

acres on Ford Island, 514 acres on Sand Island, 8 acres 

on Mokauea Island (near Sand Island), and 23 acres on 

Mokuoloe Island (also known as Coconut Island) 

(fig. 2).

Map Accuracy

The land uses mapped are a generalization of conditions observed in photographs. These data may not 

reflect ground conditions actually present at the site. 

Land use was interpreted from DOQ data and boundaries may cross natural or artificial features (such as 

streams or roads) to encompass an entire area where a 

pattern was interpreted as existing. Additionally, 

boundaries between distinct land uses must incorporate 

a natural or artificial feature where the width or area of 

the intervening feature does not meet the minimum 

mapping unit requirements. Thus, line work may not 

always match other digital data, such as land ownership, 

roads, or streams (see Mladinich, 1999).

An accuracy assessment, repeating the photo-interpretation of land use at 250 randomly selected locations, 

identified 98 percent accuracy for all land uses. Developed and barren/mining areas combined had a 98 percent accuracy rate, while agricultural areas also had a 98 

percent accuracy rate. No “other” areas identified in the 

accuracy assessment should have been classified as 

agricultural, developed, or barren/mining.

Accuracy for windward areas of the island was 100 

percent, where under-representation errors were more 

likely to fail to identify developed, agricultural, or 

barren/mining land use in areas of dense canopy or 

vegetative cover. Accuracy in dry, leeward areas of the 

island was 98 percent, where over-representation errors 

more likely identified unused land as developed, agricultural, or barren/mining when it should not have
Land Use 9

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Kaloi Gl

Honouliuli G l

Kaunala Gl

Kamananui Str

al a M hake na a

Str

ul aK anui t S r

P nu uul a Str

ahaK na S rt

a M nu wa ili t S r

Pa ol ol

S rt

ona M a t S r

uN uanu Str Ka hil i

Str

Moana ul a Str

N

Ha al wa Str

Wa mi alu S rt

Wa mi ano Str

K pi apa Str Na an uk li Str

Mailiilii S t r

Makua Str

Makaleha Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str North Fork

Opae ula Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

a W ai wa Str

O

rt S oi

Helemano Str

Sou ht Fork

S

Ha al wa Str

Waimanalo

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor

MAMALA BAY

Maunalua Bay

SandIsland

FordIsland

Mokauea

Island

MokuoloeIsland b

b

b

b

b

b

b

b

b b

b

b

b

b b

b b

b

b

b

b

b

HONOLULU

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae

Maili

Nanakuli

EwaBeach

Ewa

Waialua

Haleiwa

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa

Waimanalo

HawaiiKai

AinaHaina

Aiea

Waipahu

Schofield

Barracks Wahiawa

158 ̊10'

157 ̊50'

157 ̊40'

21 ̊40'

21 ̊30'

21 ̊20'

158 ̊

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS

WAIANAE

RANGE

KOOLAU

RANGE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1983 & 1999, Albers equal area projection, standard parallels 21 ̊19'40" and 21 ̊38'20", central meridian 157 ̊58'. Relief from U.S. Geological Survey digital elevation models, 1:24,000

Kahuku Point

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena 

Point

LAND USE AREA (acres) Agriculture 59,195 Developed 98,663 Barren (mining) 1,522 Other 224,331TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE

EXPLANATION

Figure 2. Level 1 land use in 1998: agriculture, developed, and barren/mining, island of Oahu, Hawaii.
8 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

been because of sparser vegetation and slower vegetation recolonization rates. 

Agricultural Land Use

Hawaii’s isolated, tropical location combined with 

traditional, diversified, and plantation agriculture has 

resulted in several unusual land-use patterns compared 

with the rest of the Nation. The “small-scale rural” 

(level 2) category is a by-product of diversified agriculture programs resulting in areas with intense and diverse 

agriculture practices intermixed with residential land 

uses. The State of Hawaii “Agricultural Parks Program” 

provides an example of how this process occurs, with 

long-term leases for crop production (and sometimes 

residences) provided to small farmers 

(http://www.hawaiiag.org/hdoa/arm_agparks_info.htm 

accessed 7/11/02). Another unusual category is 

“grasses, biomass” (level 3, level 4), an experimental 

bio-energy crop in the early 1990s no longer in cultivation as of 2002. A third unusual agricultural land-use 

category is “abandoned,” typically dominated by exotic 

grasses, with clear evidence of previous agricultural 

practices still apparent. Plantation agriculture in Hawaii 

has been declining for several decades, with much 

sugarcane and pineapple land abandoned during this 

time. Cycles in horticulture and aquaculture industries 

have also resulted in abandoned agricultural land.

Agricultural land use occupied 59,195 acres (15.4 

percent) of the study area in 1998 (fig. 3). Acreages for 

levels 1 through 4 land-use categories are found in table 

2 (at end of report).

Developed Land Use

Several facets of developed land-use patterns are 

unusual to Hawaii, particularly in regards to the intensity and variability of uses, all with political, economic, 

and cultural influences. Tourist destinations commonly 

intermix a variety of use types within a single area (such 

as multi-story resorts, adjacent to golf courses, adjacent 

to landfills). Local concepts such as “ohana” (extended 

family) housing in a single family residence are incorporated through residential density classifications rather 

than a distinction between single versus multi-family 

housing. Land areas with combined or interspersed 

businesses and residences are classified according to the 

primary use evident in the imagery, as commercial or 

residential. Military land uses occupy a significant 

percentage of land in Hawaii and these uses also are 

segregated by the density of development. Military 

ammunition storage bunkers, communications, or other 

equipment may be disguised to prevent accurate identification from aerial photography sources, which may be 

reflected in this land-use map.

Developed land use occupied 98,663 acres (25.7 

percent) of the study area in 1998 (fig. 4). Acreages 

for levels 1 through 4 land-use categories are found in 

table 2.

Barren Land Use

In the barren land-use category, only land use in 

the level 2 mining category was identified. Hawaii has 

very little mining or extractive activity, other than 

extraction, collection, and storage of aggregate and fill 

materials such as soil, sand, gravel, rock, and dredge 

spoils. Other barren sub-categories are included as 

“other” land uses.

Barren/mining land use occupied 1,522 acres (0.4 

percent) of the study area in 1998 (fig. 5). Acreages 

for levels 1 through 4 land-use categories are found in 

table 2.

Other Land Use

Land uses other than agriculture, developed, and 

barren/mining were identified as “other” in the photointerpretation process. These other land uses, described 

in appendix A on the basis of land cover, include water, 

barren (other than mining), wetland, forest, shrubland, 

and herbaceous. The methods used, including the accuracy assessment, verified the appropriate land-use designations assigned for the entire island, including these 

areas, and no unique concerns for these land uses were 

identified beyond what was previously discussed.

Other land use occupied 224,331 acres (58.5 percent) of the study area in 1998 (fig. 2).
Land Use 9 Figure 3. Level 2 agriculture land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii.

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Kaloi Gl

Honouliuli G l

Kaunala Gl

Kamananui Str

al a M hake na a

Str

ul aK anui t S r

P nu uul a Str

ahaK na S rt

a M nu wa ili t S r

Pa ol ol

S rt

ona M a t S r

uN uanu Str Ka hil i

Str

Moana ul a Str

N

Ha al wa Str

Wa mi alu S rt

Wa mi ano Str

K pi apa Str Na an uk li Str

Mailiilii S t r

Makua Str

Makaleha Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str North Fork

Opae ula Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

a W ai wa Str

O

rt S oi

Helemano Str

Sou ht Fork

S

Ha al wa Str

Waimanalo

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor

MAMALA BAY

Maunalua Bay

SandIsland

FordIsland

Mokauea

Island

MokuoloeIsland

HONOLULU

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae

Maili

Nanakuli

EwaBeach

Ewa

Waialua

Haleiwa

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa

Waimanalo

HawaiiKai

AinaHaina

Aiea

Waipahu

Schofield

Barracks Wahiawa

158 ̊10'

157 ̊50'

157 ̊40'

21 ̊40'

21 ̊30'

21 ̊20'

158 ̊

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS

WAIANAE

RANGE

KOOLAU

RANGE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1983 & 1999, Albers equal area projection, standard parallels 21 ̊19'40" and 21 ̊38'20", central meridian 157 ̊58'. 

Kahuku Point

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena 

Point

LAND USE Area (acres) AGRICULTURE 59,195 Abandoned 20,884 Aquaculture 192 Livestock 730 Planted/cultivated 33,441 Small-scale rural 3,948 TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE

EXPLANATION
10 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

Figure 4. Level 2 developed land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii.

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Kaloi Gl

Honouliuli G l

Kaunala Gl

Kamananui Str

al a M hake na a

Str

ul aK anui t S r

P nu uul a Str

ahaK na S rt

a M nu wa ili t S r

Pa ol ol

S rt

ona M a t S r

uN uanu Str Ka hil i

Str

Moana ul a Str

N

Ha al wa Str

Wa mi alu S rt

Wa mi ano Str

K pi apa Str Na an uk li Str

Mailiilii S t r

Makua Str

Makaleha Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str North Fork

Opae ula Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

a W ai wa Str

O

rt S oi

Helemano Str

Sou ht Fork

S

Ha al wa Str

Waimanalo

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor

MAMALA BAY

Maunalua Bay

SandIsland

FordIsland

Mokauea

Island

MokuoloeIsland

HONOLULU

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae

Maili

Nanakuli

EwaBeach

Ewa

Waialua

Haleiwa

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa

Waimanalo

HawaiiKai

AinaHaina

Aiea

Waipahu

Schofield

Barracks Wahiawa

158 ̊10'

157 ̊50'

157 ̊40'

21 ̊40'

21 ̊30'

21 ̊20'

158 ̊

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS

WAIANAE

RANGE

KOOLAU

RANGE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1983 & 1999, Albers equal area projection, standard 

parallels 21 ̊19'40" and 21 ̊38'20", central meridian 157 ̊58'. 

Kahuku Point

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena 

Point

LAND USE Area (acres) DEVELOPED 98,663 Commercial 14,514 Manufacturing/industrial 3,808 Open space 17,328 Public infrastructure 12,962 Residential 44,905 Social services 5,145TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE

EXPLANATION
11

Figure 5. Level 2 barren/mining land use in 1998, island of Oahu, Hawaii.

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Kaloi Gl

Honouliuli G l

Kaunala Gl

Kamananui Str

al a M hake na a

Str

ul aK anui t S r

P nu uul a Str

ahaK na S rt

a M nu wa ili t S r

Pa ol ol

S rt

ona M a t S r

uN uanu Str Ka hil i

Str

Moana ul a Str

N

Ha al wa Str

Wa mi alu S rt

Wa mi ano Str

K pi apa Str Na an uk li Str

Mailiilii S t r

Makua Str

Makaleha Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str North Fork

Opae ula Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

a W ai wa Str

O

rt S oi

Helemano Str

Sou ht Fork

S

Ha al wa Str

Waimanalo

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor

MAMALA BAY

Maunalua Bay

SandIsland

FordIsland

Mokauea

Island

MokuoloeIsland

HONOLULU

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae

Maili

Nanakuli

EwaBeach

Ewa

Waialua

Haleiwa

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa

Waimanalo

HawaiiKai

AinaHaina

Aiea

Waipahu

Schofield

Barracks Wahiawa

158 ̊10'

157 ̊50'

157 ̊40'

21 ̊40'

21 ̊30'

21 ̊20'

158 ̊

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS

WAIANAE

RANGE

KOOLAU

RANGE

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:24,000, 1983 & 1999, Albers equal area projection, standard parallels 21 ̊19'40" and 21 ̊38'20", central meridian 157 ̊58'. 

Kahuku Point

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena 

Point

LAND USE Area (acres) Barren/mining 1,522TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE

EXPLANATION
12 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A hierarchical classification for identifying and 

mapping land use (for use throughout the State of 

Hawaii) was developed emphasizing human modification of land surfaces.

Agricultural, developed, and barren/mining land 

use on the island of Oahu and adjacent islets was 

mapped using DOQs from 1998 and 1999. In 1998, 

agriculture land use occupied 59,195 acres (15.4 percent of total study area), developed land use occupied 

98,663 acres (25.7 percent of total study area), 

barren/mining land use occupied 1,522 acres (0.4 

percent of total island area). Other land uses occupied 

224,331 acres of total study area of 383,711 acres (58.5 

percent). An accuracy assessment of the spatial data (98 

percent accuracy for all land uses) permits users to 

quantify variability when making land use comparisons.

Oahu land-use data and FGDC metadata for 1998 

for this report are available at http://water.usgs.gov/

pubs/wri/wri024301, for use in a Geographic Information System (GIS) accepting Federal Geographic Data 

Committee (FGDC) Spatial Data Transfer Standard 

(SDTS) or ArcInfo Export file (version 8.0.2) formats.

REFERENCES CITED

Anderson, J.R, Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and Witmer, R.E., 

1976, A land use and land cover classification system for 

use with remote sensor data: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 964, 28 p.

Avery, T.E., and Berlin, G.L., 1985, Fundamentals of remote 

sensing and airphoto interpretation, 5th edition: Upper 

Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 472 p.

Chinen, J.J., 1958, The Great Mahele: Hawaii's land division 

of 1848: Honolulu, Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press, 

34 p.

Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 

1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats 

of the United States: Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 49 p.

Coulter, J.W., 1940, Agricultural land-use planning in the territory of Hawaii, 1940, Extension Bulletin No. 36: Honolulu, Hawaii, Agricultural Extension Service, University 

of Hawaii, 124 p.

Dobson, J.E., Bright, E.A., Ferguson, R.L., Field, D.W., 

Wood, L.L., Haddad, K.D., Iredale III, H., Jensen, J.R., 

Klemas, V.V., Orth, R.J., and Thomas, J.P., 1995, 

NOAA coastal change analysis program (C-CAP): guidance for regional implementation: Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report NMFS 123, 75 p.

Dutton, C.E., 1884, Hawaiian volcanoes: in Powell, J.W., 

1884, Fourth annual report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of Interior 1882–’83: Washington, Government Printing Office, p. 75–219.

Gilliom, R.J., and Thelin, G.P., 1997, Classification and mapping of agricultural land for national water quality 

assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1131, 70 p.

Harland Bartholomew and Associates, 1957, An inventory of 

available information on land use in Hawaii: volume 2: 

Annotated bibliography and summary of interviews: 

Honolulu, Hawaii, Harland Bartholomew and Associates, 134 p.

Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, 1999, Statistics of 

Hawaii agriculture, 1999: Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii 

Agricultural Statistics Service.

Koterba, M.T., 1998, Ground-water data-collection protocols 

and procedures for the national water-quality assessment 

program: Collection, documentation, and compilation of 

required site, well, subsurface, and landscape data for 

wells: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 98-4107, 91 p.

Land Study Bureau, 1971, Annotated bibliography of reports 

and other land fact data: Honolulu, Hawaii, University of 

Hawaii, 11 p.

Mitchell, W.B., Guptill, S.C., Anderson, K.E., Fegeas, R.G, 

and Hallam, C.A., 1977, GIRAS—A Geographic Information and Analysis System for handling land use and 

land cover data: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1059, 16 p.

Mladinich, C.S., 1999, COVERAGE LU90—High resolution 

land use/land cover 1996/1997 Front Range infrastructure resources project demonstration area: U.S. Geological Survey Rocky Mountain Mapping Center, 

http://rockyweb.cr.usgs.gov/html/front-range/

NMD/data/lu90.html (accessed July 11, 2002).

Moffat, R.M., and Fitzpatrick, G.L., 1995, Surveying the 

mahele: mapping the Hawaiian land revolution: Honolulu, Hawaii, Editions Limited, 120 p.

Sahara, T., Murabayashi, E.T., Ching, A.Y., DeVight, G.D., 

Fujimura, F.N., Awai, E.L., Nishimoto, L.S., Baker, 

H.L., 1972, Detailed land classification - island of Oahu, 

Land Study Bureau Bulletin No. 11: Honolulu, Hawaii, 

Land Study Bureau, University of Hawaii, 314 p.

State of Hawaii, 1999, The State of Hawaii data book 1999, a 

statistical abstract: v32, State of Hawaii Department of 

Business, Economic Development and Tourism, 

http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/db99/index.html 

(accessed July 11, 2002).

Territorial Planning Board, 1939, First progress report–an 

historic inventory of the physical, social and economic 

and industrial resources of the Territory of Hawaii: 
References Cited 13

Honolulu, Hawaii, Advertiser Publishing Co., 322 p. + 

supplement.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1979, Land use and land cover and 

associated maps for Honolulu County, Hawaii: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 79-572, 5 map 

sheets 1:100,000-scale.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1980, Land use and land cover, 

1976–78, Honolulu county, Hawaii: U.S. Geological 

Survey Report L-0122, 1 map sheet 1:100,000-scale.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1996, Standards for digital orthophotos: U.S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Program, Technical Instructions, 46 p.

U.S. Geological Survey, 2001, National land characterization 

data, land cover class definitions: U.S. Geological Survey, http://landcover.usgs.gov/classes.html.
14 Appendix Appendix A. Generic land-use and land-cover classification system framework [Modified from Anderson and others, 1976, Cowardin and others, 1979, and U.S. Geological Survey, 2001]

Level 1 Description

Agriculture Areas characterized by human modification used in connection with planting, growing, and harvesting crops; and raising, pasturing, and feeding of 

livestock and poultry. Includes herbaceous vegetation planted or cultivated for production of food, feed, seed, or fiber; fish farms; feedlots; holding 

pens; breeding and training facilities; and greenhouses. This land-use category takes precedence over other land-use categories except for developed.

Developed Areas characterized by a high percentage of modification by and for human use, such as where the land-surface is covered by structures, prepared 

materials, or otherwise urban. Does not include areas used for agriculture or barren (such as from surface mining). This land-use category takes 

precedence over other land-use categories, except for agriculture.

Barren Areas characterized by rock, gravel, sand, silt, clay, or other earthen material, not covered by water, with less than 25 percent vegetative cover or less than 

5 percent vegetative cover in arid areas. (Not differentiated except to identify mining surfaces).

aWater 

aIdentified as “other”

All areas of open water or permanent ice or snow cover.

aWetland Areas where the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water (as defined by Cowardin and others, 1979).aForest Areas characterized by tree cover (natural or semi-natural woody vegetation, generally greater than 6 meters tall), tree canopy accounts for 25–100 percent 

of land cover.

aShrubland Areas characterized by natural or semi-natural woody vegetation with aerial stems, generally less than 6 meters tall, covers 25–100 percent of land. 

Vegetation that is small or stunted because of environmental conditions is included.

aHerbaceous Natural or semi-natural herbaceous vegetation is 75–100 percent of land cover.
Table 1 15

Table 1. Land-use classification system and definitions 

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Land-use codes Definition

Agriculture a Areas characterized by human modification used in connection with planting, growing, and harvesting 

crops; and raising, pasturing, and feeding of livestock and poultry. Includes herbaceous vegetation planted or cultivated for production of food, feed, seed, or fiber; fish farms; feedlots; holding pens; breeding and training facilities; and greenhouses. This land-use category takes precedence over other land-use categories except for developed.

Planted/cultivated

ap Areas characterized by vegetation planted or cultivated by humans for production of food, feed, fiber, pasture, seed, or ornamental plant products.

Orchard ap-o Areas with woody or semi-perennial herbaceous vegetation planted or maintained for production of fruits, 

nuts, or other plant products.

Banana ap-ob Orchards and other areas used for the production of banana and other species in the genus Musa.

Coffee ap-oc Orchards and other areas used for the production of coffee and other species in the genus Coffea.

Guava ap-og Orchards and other areas used for the production of guava and other species in the genus Psidium.

Macadamia 

nuts

ap-om Orchards and other areas used for the production of macadamia and other species in the genus Macadamia.

Papaya ap-op Orchards and other areas used for the production of papaya and other species in the genus Carica.

Coconut ap-ou Orchards and other areas used for the production of coconut and other species in the genus Cocos. Includes 

orchard production of trees for ornamental plantings.

Row crops ap-r Areas used for the production of herbaceous crops or plants where fields exhibit row or strip characteristics 

similar to rows, includes pineapple, sugarcane, corn, and fruits and vegetables (only those exhibiting row 

characteristics).

Corn ap-rc Fields exhibiting row characteristics where corn (both sweet and seed varieties) and other species in the 

genus Zea are cultivated.

Pineapple ap-rp Fields exhibiting row characteristics where pineapple and other species in the genus Ananas are cultivated, 

includes both planted and fallow fields.

Mixed fruit 

or vegetable

ap-rm Areas used for row crop production of fruits or vegetables, including eggplant, lettuce, melons, ginger root, 

cabbage, tomatoes, basil, and other species. May include small areas of horticulture crops.

Wetland ap-rw Areas used for production of wetland row crops, including taro (Colocasia spp. and others), watercress 

(Rorippa spp.), and similar species.

Horticulture ap-h Areas used for the production of horticultural crops and plants. Common crops include flower production, 

potted plants, ornamental plants, turf grass, ti, community gardens, upland taro (Colocasia spp. and others), 

cassava (Manihot spp.), and kawa. Also includes areas with a diverse variety of crop types, often interlaced 

with orchard-bananas or row crops-mixed fruit or vegetable.

Grasses ap-g Areas of grasses or legumes, used for production of vegetation biomass, livestock feed and fodder, seed or 

hay crops, or as pasture or grazing maintained through fencing, grazing, harvesting, or other land-surface 

modification. Includes areas with less than 25 percent forest or shrubland.

Pasture and grazing

ap-gy Areas used for production of herbaceous feed and fodder for livestock. Includes areas used for livestock 

grazing (such as range land) when fenced or with land-surface modification and less than 25 percent forest or shrubland.

Biomass ap-gb Areas of planted vegetation used for biomass generation, such as the energy production crops kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea).
16 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998 Shade houses ap-s Areas covered by shade cloth or similar structures intended to regulate the amount of light available for plant development, growth, and production. Also includes covered areas for use in hydroponics. Livestock al Areas and associated paddocks where livestock, including cows, horses, sheep, goats, hogs, and poultry, are confined, manipulated, and treated. Food and water are provided from external sources, does not include aquatic species. Aquaculture aq Submerged, raised, and other open or covered areas used for cultivation of marine or freshwater products such as fish, shellfish, seaweed, algae, and associated equipment and staging areas. Small-scale rural as Areas where agriculture land use of any type is dominant, and residential land uses are also a significant component. Commonly a matrix of composite land owners/lessee's with multiple residences and agricul- tural practices such as State of Hawaii Agricultural Parks, subsistence agricultural areas, or small ranches. Extensive backyard gardens are not included. Abandoned aa Areas where evidence of past agriculture or aquaculture use is evident although not actively practiced, as 

seen in extensive presence of non-target species (typically semi-naturalized exotic species) that prohibit crop harvest, usually dominated by grasses (commonly former sugarcane or pineapple fields). Field boundaries are well defined although crop type may not be evident. Does not include areas currently fallow, between crop rotations.

Developed d Areas characterized by a high percentage of modification by and for human use, such as where the landsurface is covered by structures, prepared materials, or otherwise urban. Does not include areas used for 

agriculture or barren (such as from surface mining). This land-use category takes precedence over other land-use categories, except for agriculture.

Manufacturing/industrial dm Structures and associated grounds used for fabrication, storage, distribution, and finishing of commercial and industrial goods and services. Includes petro-chemical refineries and storage, power generation, mills, shipping and distribution centers, military bases with corresponding land-use patterns, and all highly developed areas not classified as commercial, residential, social services, or public infrastructure.

Commercial dc Areas characterized by structures and associated grounds used for the sale of products and services, light 

industry, business, military bases with corresponding land use patterns, ammunition bunkers, and structures where military services are provided.

High density dc-h Greater than 75 percent of land area developed for commercial use.

Low story dc-hs Structures of less than 5 stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Multi-story dc-h+ Structures of 5 or more stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Moderate 

density

dc-m 25 to 75 percent of land area developed for commercial use.

Low story dc-ms Structures of less than 5 stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Multi-story dc-m+ Structures of 5 or more stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Low density dc-l Less than 25 percent of land area developed for commercial use, includes low or multi-story, military 

ammunition bunkers, and similarly spaced structures

Residential dr Areas used for human habitation.

High density dr-h Greater than 75 percent of land area developed for human habitation.

Low story dr-hs Structures of less than 5 stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.Multi-story dr-h+ Structures of 5 or more stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Table 1. Land-use classification system and definitions--Continued

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Land-use codes Definition
Table 1 17

Moderate 

density

dr-m 25 to 75 percent of land area developed for human habitation.

Low story dr-ms Structures of less than 5 stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Multi-story dr-m+ Structures of 5 or more stories, or where evidence of similar height buildings is seen in imagery.

Low density dr-l Less than 25 percent of land area developed for human habitation, includes low or multi-story, ranchettes, 

homesteads, extensive yard landscaping, etc.

Social 

services

ds Government and private areas serving as schools, universities, government administrative offices, and 

health and welfare facilities (hospitals, public service venues, and recreation structures [enclosed stadiums, gymnasiums, swimming pool complexes]).

Government ds-g Public and private facilities and associated grounds used for government and public welfare such as religious complexes, memorials, hospitals, government facilities, community centers, and enclosed stadiums. 

Does not include vegetated recreation areas (such as ball fields or large open spaces) or cemeteries.

Education ds-e Public and private educational facilities and associated grounds such as schools, seminaries, university 

campuses, museums, and research centers. Includes enclosed recreation areas as part of an educational facility; does not include vegetated outdoor recreation areas (ball fields and large open spaces).

Public infrastructure du Areas used for transportation, communication, and utilities, including facilities, associated lands, right-of- ways, and median strips for roads, parking facilities, railroads, airports, ports, utility transmission, power 

substation, water supply, and waste treatment and storage.

Utilities du-u Structures, facilities, and associated grounds used for power transmission, communications, treatment and 

storage of drinking water, and pumping stations.

Waste management du-w Structures and associated land area used for solid and liquid waste treatment or disposal, such as sewage treatment, solid waste transfer, disposal, and recycling.

Landfill du-wl Structures, facilities, and associated grounds actively used for waste management and storage, including 

combinations of waste management activities. Land previously used for landfills, where the surface has 

been reclaimed for other uses (such as developed or vegetated), are not included.

Sewage 

Treatment

du-ws Structures, facilities, transmission lines, and settling ponds (not natural wetlands) used in treatment of liquefied human and animal waste.

Airport du-a Maintained active and overrun areas of runways, landing strips, taxiways, and intervening land; along with 

terminals, hangers, service buildings, offices, and navigation aids.

Automotive du-c Streets, roads, highways, and associated facilities, including maintained medians and shoulders considered 

part of the road prism.

Port du-p Docks, boat ramps, vessel storage areas, and associated structures of a port facility adjacent to water.

Open space do Urban parks, recreation areas and associated facilities, golf courses, playing fields, cemeteries, and other 

maintained, semi-maintained, or vacant lots where structures occupy less than 25 percent of available space.

Recreation do-r outdoor recreation areas with demarcated, maintained vegetation occupying more than 25 percent of land 

area, such as baseball fields, and football fields. Includes associated structures and rest rooms occupying less than 25 percent of total developed area. Does not include multi-purpose parks with grass surfaces.

Maintained 

vegetation

do-m vegetated surfaces where cover type is actively managed through physical or chemical means, including 

golf courses and multi-purpose parks. Includes areas with less than 75 percent tree or shrub cover, when 

herbaceous ground cover vegetation is actively maintained.

Table 1. Land-use classification system and definitions--Continued

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Land-use codes Definition
18 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998 Golf courses do-mg golf courses and associated service facilities. Clubhouses, parking facilities, and multipurpose facilities are considered as separate categories when exceeding the minimum mapping units. Multi- purpose do-mm maintained herbaceous vegetation including parks, multipurpose open space, cemeteries, facility grounds, and other maintained areas with less than 75 percent tree canopy and structures are less than 25 percent of area. Vacant do-v land surfaces where the vegetation is occasionally or erratically maintained to sustain a vacant or open land area suitable for development, and built structures occupy less than 25 percent of area. Includes barren areas under construction. aBarren b Areas characterized by rock, gravel, sand, silt, clay, or other earthen material, not covered by water, with less than 25 percent vegetative cover or less than 5 percent vegetative cover in arid areas. (Not differenti- ated except to identify mining surfaces). Mining bm Areas of extractive mining activities and greater than 25 percent surface disturbance. Inactive or unreclaimed areas are included until another category is applicable, includes mines, gravel pits, stockpiles, 

dredge spoils, and other earthen aggregate.

Other other All areas not encompassed in the above class definitions; including water, wetland, forest, shrubland, herbaceous, and barren (other than mining).

a Mining, such as quarries, strip mines, and gravel pits, is the only Barren category considered, all other Barren categories are included in “other”Table 1. Land-use classification system and definitions--Continued

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Land-use codes Definition
Table 2 19

 Table 2. Land-use area by classification, Oahu, Hawaii, 1998 

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 1 acresa Level 2 acres Level 3 acres Level 4 acres

Agriculture 59,195 - - -

Planted/cultivated - 33,441 - -

Orchard - - 3,576 (597)b

Banana - - - 1,188Coffee - - - 352Guava - - - 13Macadamia nuts - - - 33Papaya - - - 1,272Coconut - - - 120

Row crops - - 19,330 (264)

Corn - - - 835Pineapple - - - 11,585Mixed fruit or 

vegetable

- - - 6,341

Wetland - - - 304

Horticulture - - 1,581 -Grasses - - 8,718 (582)

Pasture and grazing - - - 7,018Biomass - - - 1,119

Shade houses - - 236 -

Livestock - 730 - -Aquaculture - 192 - -Small-scale rural - 3,948 - -Abandoned - 20,884 - -

Developed 98,663 - - -

Manufacturing/industrial - 3,808 - -Commercial - 14,514 - -

High density - - 4,960 -

Low story - - - 3,547Multi-story - - - 1,413

Moderate density - - 2,445 -

Low story - - - 2,226Multi-story - - - 219

Low density - - 7,109 -

Residential - 44,905 - -

High density - - 33,803 -

Low story - - - 32,638Multi-story - - - 1,164
20 Land Use on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii, 1998 Moderate density - - 8,285 - Low story - - - 8,168 Multi-story - - - 117 Low density - - 2,818 - Social services - 5,145 - - Government - - 1,609 - Education - - 3,537 - Public infrastructure - 12,962 - - Utilities - - 566 - Waste management - - 784 - Landfill - - - 530 Sewage treatment - - - 254

Airport - - 7,306 -Automotive - - 3,201 -Port - - 1,105 -

Open space - 17,328 - -

Recreation - - 1,353 -Maintained vegetation - - 11,277 -

Golf courses - - - 6,386Multi-purpose - - - 4,891

Vacant - - 4,698 - cBarren 1,522 - - -

Mining - 1,522 - -

Other 224,331 - - -

a Whole acreages may not add precisely due to roundingb For categories where more specific land uses were not always assigned the generic acreage portion is included in parentheses (), for example, a generic Agriculture, Planted/cultivated, grasses category was used in addition to the specific biomass and pasture and grazing categoriesc Mining, such as quarries, strip mines, and gravel pits, is the only Barren category included, all other Barren categories are included in “other”  Table 2. Land-use area by classification, Oahu, Hawaii, 1998--Continued

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 1 acresa Level 2 acres Level 3 acres Level 4 acres