Temperature anomalies in the Lower Suwannee River 

and tidal creeks, Florida, 2005 

By Ellen A. Raabe and Elzbieta Bialkowska-Jelinska 

Open-File Report 2007 –1311 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Mark D. Myers, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2007 

Revised and reprinted: 2007 

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Suggested citation: 

Raabe, E.A., and Bialkowska-Jelinska, E., 2007, Temperature anomalies in the Lower Suwannee River and 

tidal creeks, Florida, 2005: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1311, 28 p. 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement 

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Geological Survey editorial standards. Not to be used for navigation. 

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copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report. 

ii
Contents 

Abstract................................................................................................................................................................................1 

Background .........................................................................................................................................................................1 

Methods ...............................................................................................................................................................................3 

Results ..................................................................................................................................................................................7 

Discussion..........................................................................................................................................................................18 

Products .............................................................................................................................................................................22 

References Cited ..............................................................................................................................................................23 

Figures 

1. Lower Suwannee River location map......................................................................................................................4 

2. Interactive Map Lower Suwannee Rivers and tidal creeks ................................................................................7 

3. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Manatee Springs..........................................................8 

4. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Dead Boy Creek............................................................9 

5. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Spring Creek................................................................11 

6. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Clark Creek ..................................................................12 

7. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Ericson Creek..............................................................13 

8. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Big Trout Creek...........................................................14 

9. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at McCormick Creek.......................................................17 

10. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Town of Suwannee ....................................................19 

11. Temperature anomalies derived from TIR imagery at Sanders Creek ............................................................20 

Tables

1. Calibration of image values with surface temperature values. ..........................................................................3 

Photos 

1. Herbaceous wetland vegetation was associated with the seep on Gopher River .........................................7 

2. Spring Creek runs through a small hammock before entering the tidal creek ..............................................10 

3. A small boil was identified on Ericson Creek .......................................................................................................15 

4. A small boil feeds a tadpole-shaped feature on Big Trout Creek.....................................................................15 

5. Sawgrass surrounds Stillwater Pond ....................................................................................................................16 

6. Exposed limestone lines this section of McCormick Creek...............................................................................18 

7. Oyster bars were associated with temperature anomalies on Johnson Creek.............................................21 

iii
Temperature anomalies in the Lower Suwannee River 

and tidal creeks, Florida, 2005 

By Ellen A. Raabe and Elzbieta Bialkowska-Jelinska 

Abstract 

Temperature anomalies in coastal waters were detected with Thermal Infrared 

imagery of the Lower Suwannee River (LSR) and nearshore tidal marshes on Florida’s Gulf 

Coast. Imagery included 1.5-m-resolution day and night Thermal Infrared (TIR) and 0.75-mresolution Color Infrared (CIR) imagery acquired on 2-3 March 2005. Coincident 

temperature readings were collected on the ground and used to calibrate the imagery. The 

Floridan aquifer is at or near the land surface in this area and bears a constant temperature 

signature of ~ 22 degrees Celsius. This consistent temperature contrasts sharply with 

ambient temperatures during winter and summer months. Temperature anomalies identified 

in the imagery during a late-winter cold spell may be correlated with aquifer seeps. Hot spots

were identified as those areas exceeding ambient water temperature by 4 degrees Celsius or 

more. Warm-water plumes were also mapped for both day and night imagery. The plume 

from Manatee Spring, a first-order magnitude spring, influenced water temperature in the 

lower river. Numerous temperature anomalies were identified in small tributaries and tidal 

creeks from Shired Island to Cedar Key and were confirmed with field reconnaissance. 

Abundant warm-water features were identified along tidal creeks south of the Suwannee 

River and near Waccasassa Bay. Features were mapped in the tidal creeks north of the river 

but appear to be less common or have lower associated discharge. The imagery shows 

considerable promise in mapping coastal-aquifer seeps and understanding the underlying 

geology of the region. Detection of seep locations may aid research in groundwater/surfacewater interactions and water quality, and in the management of coastal habitats.

Background 

Lower Suwannee River 

The Lower Suwannee River on Florida’s Gulf Coast is entrenched in a limestone channel. 

The area is characterized by karstic, water-bearing limestone, sand ridges, numerous springs, and 

extensive forested floodplain (Rupert, 1988; Rupert, 1991; Vernon, 1951). The Floridan aquifer is 

generally unconfined, and the potentiometric surface is at or near the land surface in this area 

(Crane, 1986). Groundwater flows in two directions in the lower Suwannee River Basin (SRB): 

toward the river and toward the Gulf of Mexico (Crane, 1986). Despite the lack of barrier islands or 

an embayment common to estuaries, the coastal water body functions much like a classic estuary: 

low wave energy, shallow water, extensive tidal marsh, and dilution of marine salinities with 

abundant freshwater influx (Orlando, 1993; Siegel et al., 1996; Wolfe, 1990). 

Economic interests in the basin, water supply, and many species and their habitats are 

linked to river discharge and flow from the Floridan aquifer. Detecting the location of seeps can aid 

in understanding geologic structure and influence (Shaban et al., 2005), groundwater/surface-water 

interactions (Tillis, 2000), habitat and species distribution, and water quality (Katz et al., 1999; 

Roseen et al., 2002; Scott, 2006). A population of Gulf of Mexico sturgeon relies on freshwater 

1
seeps within the Lower Suwannee riverbed for thermal regulation of water temperature and benthic 

food resources (Chapman and Carr, 1995; Carr et al., 1996; Brooks and Sulak, 2004). The Lower 

Suwannee has been identified as important Florida manatee habitat (Packard and Wetterquist, 

1986). Wetlands and forested floodplains may be negatively impacted by decreased groundwater 

discharge (Wolfe, 1990; Darst et al., 2002). Even brief periods of drought can alter species 

composition in Suwannee tidal wetlands (Clewell, 2000). 

Floridan aquifer 

The complex interactions between surface water and groundwater in the lower SRB and 

estuary play a significant role in the ecology of the region (Edwards and Raabe, 2004). The delayed 

recovery of Suwannee discharge following a statewide drought in the 1950s exemplifies the 

importance of Floridan aquifer contribution to the lower river (Pride and Crooks, 1962). However, 

estimates on the amount of freshwater discharge that currently characterizes the estuary are based 

solely on river-discharge measurements (Montague and Odum, 1997; Bales et al., 2006). Detection 

and mapping of coastal groundwater discharge has become important to human and ecosystem 

health issues (Vanek and Lee, 1991). Increasing urban and agricultural demand for water supply 

and contamination problems threaten water availability and water quality to the lower basin and 

estuary (Katz and Raabe, 2005; Katz et al., 1999). The coastal marine/terrestrial boundary is 

particularly susceptible to saltwater intrusion, and aquifer drawdown may also alter surface stream 

flow in tidal reaches (Spechler, 2001; Barlow, 2003). Models of the Lower Suwannee River and 

estuary would benefit from improved understanding of water movement through subsurface 

limestone conduits and interaction between surface and aquifer waters (Tillis, 2000; Katz and 

Raabe, 2005). 

Although a surficial aquifer is lacking in western Levy County and Dixie Counties, the 

upper boundary of the Floridan aquifer is at or nearly at land surface in the region, resulting in 

natural movement of groundwater to the surface (Rupert, 1988; Rupert, 1991). River discharge in 

the Lower Suwannee basin is enhanced by influx from aquifer base flow and from several named

springs along the river (Orlando et al., 1993; Crane, 1986; Wolfe and Wolfe, 1985). Anecdotal 

testimony indicates the presence of numerous unnamed artesian springs and seeps located in the 

coastal zone and estuary, although hard evidence is scarce (Clewell et al., 1999; Rupert, 1991; 

Tillis, 2000). Several researchers (Montague and Odum, 1997; Raabe and Stumpf, 1996; Vernon, 

1951) describe freshening of marine waters from seeps in hammocks, tidal marshes, and the 

nearshore area along the Big Bend coast. 

The Floridan aquifer water bears a consistent temperature signature of ~ 22 degrees Celsius 

(C= Celsius throughout this report) year round (SRWMD, 2007). Aquifer temperature may contrast 

sharply with low ambient temperatures during winter cold spells and high ambient temperatures 

during summer months (Siegel et al., 1996). Thermal imagery has been applied to detect wildfire 

hot spots (Rauste et al., 1997; Beck, 2004) and for mine-drainage assessment (Sams and Veloski, 

2003). Remotely sensed thermal imagery has been used to identify location and patterns of coastal 

karstic seeps, to map groundwater inflow and to complement point-monitoring methods (Bayari 

and Kurttas, 2002; Davis, 2007; Faux et al., 2001; Tcherepanov et al., 2005). Shaban et al. (2005) 

used Thermal Infrared (TIR) imagery to map coastal groundwater discharge and to relate discharge 

points to geologic structure such as fault alignment, karstic galleries, and tilted bedding planes. A 

previously unknown Floridian aquifer-discharge site was identified with TIR in the St. Johns River, 

Florida (Spechler, 1996). Benefits of airborne TIR include rapid stream-temperature surveys over a 

large area, detection of temperature anomalies, and mapping of thermal refugia for aquatic species,

regardless of on-ground access constraints (Torgensen et al., 1995; Torgensen, et al., 2001). 

2
The goal of this effort was to map temperature anomalies in the Lower Suwannee, to 

identify potential seep locations and geographic patterns, and to identify the area affected by each 

feature. TIR imagery acquired with remote systems can provide high-resolution data with complete 

geographic coverage and thereby eliminate impacts to sensitive habitats or access issues in coastal 

wetlands and forested floodplains. We examined imagery for thermal anomalies in the Lower 

Suwannee River, the estuary, and tidal creeks between Shired Island and Cedar Key along the Gulf 

of Mexico. 

Methods 

Image acquisition 

Thermal Infrared (TIR) imagery, covering 1012 km2 (250,000 acres) of the Lower 

Suwannee and coastal intertidal zone, was acquired by aircraft on 2-3 March 2005 (Verimap, 

2005). Figure 1 shows the region covered by nighttime (8 pm -1 am) TIR and daytime (10 am - 

5pm) TIR, both at 1.5-m resolution. Color Infrared imagery (CIR) was collected during daylight 

hours at 0.75-m resolution. Ground temperature data collected at the time of overflight were used 

to calibrate the imagery. Image data values and the corresponding temperature values in degrees 

Celsius are shown in Table 1. 

Table 1. Calibration of image values with surface temperature values. 

Temperature Image 

Values (C) Intensity Values 

29 252

28 244

27 236

26 228

25 220

24 212

23 204

22 196

20 188

19 180

18 172

17 164

16 156

15 148

14 140

13 132

12 124

11 116

10 108

9 100

8 92

7 84

6 76

5 68

4 60

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Figure 1. Lower Suwannee River location map.
The range of temperatures provided by Verimap represents ground and water temperatures 

across the landscape during day and night hours. These data are generalized to non-decimaldegrees to simplify the table, although decimal degree temperature measurement is feasible. Flight

and data acquisition: altitude 2134 m (7000 ft), field-of-view 25 mm lens, 1189 m (3900 ft) wide 

image, and 25% overlap. Imagery was geo-rectified by Verimap, the data service provider, with an 

approximate accuracy of 1.5 m and a total positional error of +/- 3.17 m. 

Weather and tides 

The tides on this coast are mixed with a range of approximately 1 m (Stumpf and Haines, 

1998). Records of actual water levels, air/water temperature, and winds at Cedar Key were 

obtained from NOAA historic data (NOAA, 2006). The tide cycle at Suwannee River entrance 

shows a lag from the Cedar Key tide gauge by 5-20 minutes. Nighttime data were acquired March

2-3 during an ebb tide with levels between -0.7 and 0.3 m MSL. Daytime data were acquired 

March 2 during a flood tide with water levels between -0.3 and 0.3 m MSL. Air/water temperatures 

at Cedar Key ranged from 8 to 12 degrees C during daylight hours and 7 to 10 degrees C during 

nighttime hours. Solar gain during the day can substantially increase ambient temperature of 

shallow water and land surfaces. Heat loss at night, moderated by large water bodies, can be 

expected to be greatest on land and in shallow water. Local winds were generally W and NW with 

maximum gusts to 6 m/sec. 

Feature detection 

Imagery was obtained from Verimap at full-resolution (1.5 x 1.5 m pixels) in several blocks 

because of the large file size. The imagery was processed with image processing software to 

identify and highlight temperature anomalies. Temperature of the Floridan aquifer is constant 

between 21 and 22 C (SRWMD, 2007) and equates to image values of 190 to 202. However, 

temperature of aquifer outflow is quickly moderated by mixing with surface waters. The goal of 

image processing was to identify the location and trace of aquifer seeps by mapping anomalies 

from TIR. A water-only mask was created from the CIR imagery to eliminate temperature 

anomalies on land. Initial evaluation showed that temperature anomalies could be identified at 3 m 

resolution. The individual blocks of imagery were mosaicked into single layers for night and day at 

3 m resolution to reduce processing time and to facilitate consistent analysis. 

A consistently high background temperature in the Suwannee River emanated from 

Manatee Springs (Fig. 1). Manatee Springs is a first-order spring with an average discharge of 142

cfs (SRWMD, 2007). Higher ambient river temperature had the potential to mask smaller 

temperature anomalies in the riverbed from Manatee Springs to the estuary. 

Since shallow waters are prone to temperature increase during daylight hours, analysis 

focused on evening-temperature anomalies for confidence and accurate identification of aquifer 

seepage. Temperature range in night TIR was 22 degrees C (4-26 degrees C). Natural breaks in the 

night imagery occurred at 8-9 degrees C and at 13-14 degrees C. The lower break represents water 

in the tidal creeks, and the upper break represents water in the river. A threshold was established 

for each water body, and only values exceeding the background temperature were mapped. The 

background temperature for the tidal creeks was set at 10 degrees C (98% of tidal water pixels). 

The background temperature for the river and its plume was set at 14 degrees C. Hot spots mapped

in tidal creeks and river exceeded ambient water temperature by four degrees C or more. Features 

mapped as a plume, or warm-water trace, exceeded ambient water temperature by one degree C or 

more. 

5
TIR acquired during the day was more complex with solar energy warming both land and 

water features. Again, only temperature anomalies in the water were evaluated. Background 

temperatures for daytime TIR were set to 14 degrees C in the tidal creeks and 18 degrees C in the 

river. Mapped hot spots exceeded ambient water temperature by four degrees C, and plumes 

exceeded ambient water temperature by one degree C or more. Seep features at the mouth of the 

river and elsewhere in the estuary could not be identified from night TIR, which was not acquired 

along the coast. Instead, the single daytime thermal was used to identify potential sites. Daytime 

warming of shallow water may interfere with accurate feature identification and warrants caution in 

use and applications of daytime TIR imagery alone. In an effort to increase confidence of warm 

water features, an additional plume was derived from warm-water pixels coincident to both day and 

night imagery. 

All identified features were within the tidal creeks or the tidal reach of the river, which

introduced another conundrum. Outgoing tide during the evening hours produced a plume heading 

downstream to the Gulf of Mexico. Higher water levels and an incoming tide during the daylight 

hours produced a plume in the opposite direction. A complete overlap of warm-water features 

cannot be expected given the direction of flow. The digital release includes identification of 

features identified in both night and day imagery and those that could be identified only in a single 

image. 

Image artifacts at flight-line boundaries displayed false-positive high temperature values 

along flight-line edges. Rule-based editing was used to remove flight-line artifacts from derived 

warm-water features. Features in flight-line overlap zones, showing a strong temperature anomaly 

and accompanied by a plume or by a geographically coincident feature during day and night 

acquisition, were retained. Features occurring at flight edge, or having no temperature anomaly 

‘double’, were eliminated. There may be some remaining artifacts along image edge and minor 

mis-registration issues. Potential or known features outside the image bounds must be considered 

‘unidentified’ rather than non-existent. 

Steps taken to extract features exhibiting warmer temperatures than the surrounding water 

body: 

1. Develop water-only layer for extraction of water features. 

2. Establish background temperatures for river and tidal creeks in night and daytime TIR imagery. 

3. Extract features exceeding the background: four degrees C or more for hot spots and one degree 

C or more for plumes. 

4. Create intersection of night and day warm-water areas to highlight and confirm location of 

plumes. 

5. Remove/eliminate flight-line artifacts. 

6. Confirm hot spots by raising temperature threshold, check against plumes, direction of tidal

flow, and compare features from day/night imagery. 

7. Conduct field reconnaissance to verify features. 

6
Results 

Figure 1 shows the area of data acquisition. Night and day acquisition areas were slightly 

different and are delineated by dashed outlines. Features derived from the imagery are shown as hot 

spots, plumes, and coincident night and day ‘warm’ zones in Figure 2, an interactive map. Select

temperature anomalies are displayed in detailed maps and photos in the following pages. 

Figure 2. Interactive map of temperature anomalies on Lower Suwannee River and tidal creeks. 

Lower Suwannee River 

Manatee Springs and its plume are shown in Figure 3. The plume was clearly visible in both 

night and daytime TIR and the trace of warm water continued downriver. Few features were 

mapped for about 25 km downstream of this first-order spring. 

During the ebb tide at night, colder Gulf waters exerted an influence beyond Gopher River, 

and temperature anomalies in this area could be differentiated (Fig. 4). Field investigations in the 

Gopher River area turned up vegetation anomalies (Photo 1) and the presence of manatees, but the 

temperature signal was difficult to pin down to a point source. Fractures or linear fissures in the 

limestone or deeper water may be responsible for a more diffuse temperature signal from aquifer 

seeps in this area. Differences in plume direction and extent were related to tidal cycle. A good 

example of the influence of tide direction may be seen in Figure 4 at Dead Boy Creek. A hot spot is 

located between two plumes: the plume to the east was primarily daytime tidal flood, and the 

plume to the west was captured during the ebb tide at night. 

Photo 1. Herbaceous wetland vegetation was associated with the seep on Gopher River. 

7


Spring Creek 

A known feature was included in the flight pattern and is shown in Figure 5. Spring Creek 

(Photo 2) exhibits a warm plume originating at a small spring in a wooded hammock and 

influencing water temperature the length of the stream to Waccasassa Bay, about 1.2 km to the 

south. This spring has several visible boils at all times and the water is fresh. Several other plumes 

and hot spots along the north of Waccasassa Bay and east of Cedar Key were also mapped. 

Photo 2. Spring Creek runs through a small hammock before entering the tidal creek. 

Tadpole-shaped features 

Several tadpole-shaped features were mapped in the intertidal zone. Examples are shown in 

Figures 6, 7, and 8. These features, confirmed with summer field reconnaissance, typically 

consisted of a pond with a small boil (Photo 3), connected to the tidal creek by a narrow outlet, 

creating a tadpole-shape outline (Photo 4). The boils were small, ranging from 30 to 60 cm across,

and shallow, ranging from 0.5 to 2 m deep. Discharge is unknown, but given the small size of the 

boils, an estimate of 1 cfs is expected. Plumes from each feature extended a considerable distance 

downstream, 0.1-1.5 km, and in some cases mingled with plumes from nearby seeps. Alligator

sightings were common at these locations. Temperature anomalies at the boils were confirmed by a 

temperature difference of 4-10 degrees C lower than the creek itself, during summer high 

temperature levels. 

10




Photo 3. A small boil was identified on Ericson Creek. 

Photo 4. A small boil feeds a tadpole-shaped feature on Big Trout Creek.

15
Other features were small, or flow was so diffuse that minor mis-registration between day 

and night images made them indiscernible in a combination of day and night imagery, but were 

identifiable with one or the other singly and often as a single pixel. These features may be small in 

size or flow but represent a viable feature on the ground. An example of such a feature is illustrated 

in Photo 5. This site was field-identified as a small boil in a tadpole-shape feature, surrounded by 

sawgrass, off a northeast Barnett Creek tributary, and nicknamed Stillwater Pond. The boil is 

inconsistent, becoming visible to the eye only when groundwater levels are rising. 

Photo 5. Sawgrass surrounds Stillwater Pond. 

Limestone fractures 

Other temperature anomalies occupy a length of the creek bed itself. Figure 9 shows the 

eastern branches of McCormick Creek, where the features are numerous and a warm-water trace 

extends the length of the tributary. Field reconnaissance in this area was halted by low water and 

widespread exposed limestone in the creek bed (Photo 6). Summer water temperatures were 

consistently lower than in nearby creeks, and both mature and juvenile manatees were sighted 

nearby. The exposed limestone and plume configuration indicates an underlying dissolution feature 

or fracture, connecting many diffuse seeps within a single tidal creek. 

16

Photo 6. Exposed limestone lines this section of McCormick Creek. 

Northern tidal creeks 

Fewer distinct temperature anomalies were identified north of the Suwannee River. Tidal 

creeks to the north of the river showed warm-water plumes, but hot spots were less frequent than 

south of the river. Figure 10 shows warm-water anomalies at the town of Suwannee in the canals 

leading between the marina and residences. It is possible these anomalies represent sewage 

effluent. On the other hand, where the aquifer-bearing limestone is near surface, construction of

canals may have cut into dissolution features within the underlying rock, releasing aquifer flow to

the canals. 

Figure 11 shows distinct temperature anomalies on Sanders Creek and Johnson Creek 

(Photo 7). The warm-water feature at Sanders Creek has a distinct signature in night TIR and 

includes a warm-water plume extending 1.5 km downstream. Virtually no temperature anomalies 

were mapped within the estuary. Since the night TIR imagery did not encompass the estuary, the 

absence of derived features at the river mouth may not be definitive. 

Discussion 

Detection of temperature anomalies was produced with image post-processing, using a 

combination of night and day TIR, CIR, the setting of background temperatures, and rule-based 

procedures. The derived features shed light on the location and geographic distribution of seeps in

the coastal zone from Manatee Springs on the Suwannee River to tidal creeks along the Gulf of 

Mexico from Shired Island to Cedar Key. Prominent features were discernable in both day and 

night TIR imagery. Other features were observed only in one image or the other. Seeps, boils, and 

spring runs were confirmed with field reconnaissance. 

18


Photo 7. Oyster bars were associated with temperature anomalies on Johnson Creek. 

Derived features represent a conservative estimate of potential seeps due to the “masking” 

of features along the river, the loss of features in flight-line artifacts, and the absence of night TIR 

in the estuary itself. Many small temperature anomalies were successfully detected along the tidal 

creeks. Anomalies along the lower river may have been obscured by discharge volume or by sheer 

number of seeps. The discharge at Manatee Springs represents 1-2 % of river discharge at the Gulf 

of Mexico as reported by Orlando et al. (1993). It is likely the presence of many seeps and diffuse 

or deep-water sources contributed to the temperature anomaly along this 20-25 km stretch of river. 

Seismic profiles or bathymetric maps of this stretch of the river could shed light on the underlying 

limestone and clarify seep locations. 

The Floridan aquifer plays an important role in water quality and supply to the estuary. The 

maps show multiple features and clearly delineated plumes throughout the intertidal zone from a 

single date along a limited section of coastline. This is the tangible evidence needed to confirm 

frequent anecdotes describing seepage from the Floridan aquifer along the coast. The area east of 

Spring Creek in Waccasassa Bay appears to be riddled with interconnected dissolution features. 

This appears to confirm White’s (1958) description of a weakened limestone with large numbers of 

sinkholes and mass wasting. Multiple aquifer seeps indicate that the process of dissolution is 

reasonably active today. The imagery effectively illustrates the somewhat tenuous boundary 

between the Floridan aquifer and surface waters in the Lower Suwannee River and Gulf tidal 

creeks. A prevalence of temperature anomalies emphasizes the vulnerability of this coastal region

to aquifer drawdown, contamination, and saltwater intrusion. 

21
Products 

DVD release of USGS Open-File Report 2007-1311 includes: (1) open-file report, (2) data 

layers provided as individual GeoTIFF raster files for each derived feature (night and day hot spots 

and plumes), (3) CIR imagery, (4) metadata, and (5) interactive Figure 2 provided in a tif format 

for viewing option. 

Acknowledgements 

Imagery was acquired in cooperation with Sarah Kruse (University of South Florida). 

Lower Suwannee NWR personnel and Jeff DiMaggio (Park Manager, Waccasassa Bay Preserve

State Park) provided field and ground support. David Stonehouse (VeriMap) provided the initial 

‘proof-of-concept’ flight and expert advice.

22
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