Research and Development National 

Invasive Species Strategy

Research and Development National
Cover photos

Front cover top left: Beech bark disease (Nectria coccinea (Pers.) Fr.).

Credit: Mike Ostry, Forest Service

Front cover top right: Salt cedar/tamarisk (Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.) flower. 

Credit: Forest Service

Front cover bottom left: Salt cedar/tamarisk along snake river.

Credit: Forest Service

Front cover bottom right: Lady beetles feeding on Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand). 

Credit: Forest Service

Back cover top: Spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek).

Credit: Michael Shephard, Forest Service, http://www.bugwood.org

Back cover bottom: American chestnut killed by chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) M.E. Barr).

Picture taken in 1943. 

Credit: Forest Service—Northeastern Area Archive, Forest Service, http://www.bugwood.org

Inside front and back cover: Mediterranean pine engraver beetle (Orthotomicus erosus (Wollaston)).

Credit: William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, http://www.bugwood.org
 National Invasive Species Strategy 3

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Current and Emerging Science and Social Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Invasive Species Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Research Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

 Activity 1: Predict and Prevent Invasive Species Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

 Activity 2: Detect, Respond, and Eradicate Invasive Species Recently Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

 Activity 3: Manage and Mitigate Established Invasive Species Infestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

 Activity 4: Restore, Rehabilitate, and Maintain Ecosystems Degraded by Invasive Species . . . . 11

Overarching Research Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Outcome Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Output Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Performance-Based Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Partners, Collaborators, Users, and Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Alignment with Interagency and Other Agency Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Strategic Program Area Intersects / Overlaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Crosscutting Issues for Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Challenges and Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Contents

Quagga mussels (New Zealand Mud Snail) (Dreissena bugensis Andrusov, 1897) at Lake Mead. Credit: Bryan Moore, National Park Service
4 Forest Service Research and Development

Current and emerging issues for invasive speCies

• Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in our Nation’s 

forests and grasslands are threatened by invasive 

insects, pathogens, plants, wildlife, and fish. 

• Accelerated global trade and transportation have 

increased invasive species movement across boundaries, causing harm to economies, environments, and 

human health. 

• Increased human use of forests and rangelands leads 

to increased spread of invasive species through 

waterways, roadways, etc. 

• Conflicts over invasive species prevention and treatment measures can lead to litigation on public lands 

and result in delayed or failed control efforts and 

increased associated costs. 

• The Natural Resource Information System documents approximately 6 million National Forest 

System acres infested with invasive plants.

• About half the species currently on the endangered 

species list are at risk because of invasives.

• The ability to prevent and control infestations and to 

restore forest and rangeland health is compromised 

by knowledge and technology gaps and complicated 

by unplanned reallocation of limited resources to 

address newly discovered aggressive invasives. 

• Climate change, urbanization, and bioenergy production systems pose special challenges for invasive species management. Inventory and monitoring, conservation education, and international coordination are 

key tools that can help address these issues.

invasive speCies researCh emphasis areas

• Predict and prevent invasive species introductions 

by understanding, identifying, and characterizing 

invasive species and pathways and by developing 

and providing tools for risk analysis, detection, 

monitoring, and interception for Federal and State 

agencies. 

• Detect, respond, and eradicate invasive species 

recently introduced by developing and providing 

tools for detection, monitoring, enforcement, and 

eradication to Federal and State agencies so they can 

eliminate invasive species populations and prevent 

economic loss and ecological damage to the Nation’s 

forests and rangelands. This includes developing 

Executive Summary

Hemlock at Dingman 

Falls, PA, were killed 

by hemlock woolly 

adelgid (Adelges tsugae

Annand). Scientists have 

identified, evaluated, 

and released lady 

beetles to control 

the adelgid. 

Credit: Forest Service

Woolly adelgid. 

Credit: Forest Service

Lady beetle feeding on

hemlock woolly adelgid.

Credit: Forest Service

Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky)). Credit: Larry R. Barber, Forest Service, http://www.bugwood.org

Mission: The Research and Development (R&D) Invasive 

Species Strategic Program Area (SPA) provides the scientific 

information, methods, and technology application services needed 

by regulators, managers, and the public to reduce, minimize, or 

eliminate the introduction, establishment, spread, and impact of 

invasive species .

Vision: Science-based tools, techniques, and information are 

developed and transferred to stakeholders in a timely manner 

through enhanced and efficient public-private partnerships . Their 

adoption and use reduces the threat from invasive species and 

mitigates their impacts . 
 National Invasive Species Strategy 5

risk and cost/benefit analysis tools to determine 

when eradication efforts should be implemented 

or suspended.

• Manage and mitigate established invasive species 

infestations by developing, evaluating, and distributing management guidelines, tools, and alternatives, 

such as genetic protocols or resistant stocks. Assess 

long-term efficacy via direct and indirect effects on 

the ecosystem to minimize economic loss and ecological damage to the Nation’s forests and rangelands. 

Develop risk and cost/benefit analysis tools to determine when control efforts should be implemented or 

suspended.

• Restore and maintain ecosystems degraded by invasive species by developing, evaluating, and distributing guidelines, tools, and solutions for rehabilitating 

and sustaining forest and rangeland ecosystems, preventing reinvasion, and regaining long-term multiple 

uses, including goods, services, and values.

overarChing researCh priorities

External peers reviewed the R&D Invasive Species SPA 

in October 2006. In response to this external peer review, 

the following overarching research priorities are being 

emphasized:

• Elucidating invasive species’ biology, ecology, 

interactions, and impacts by studying genetic,

ecological, and evolutionary relationships among 

priority invasive species and ecosystems where they 

occur and quantifying their ecological, social, and 

economic impacts.

• Predicting and prioritizing invasive species by developing methodology for predicting which species are 

likely to become invasive and developing sciencebased protocols to prioritize invasive species and 

help managers assess action thresholds.

• Identifying and detecting invasive species by improving invasive species detection and diagnostics technology and quantifying invasive patterns and processes across geographical and elevational gradients. 

• Managing invasive species and altered systems by 

developing more effective treatments and control or 

management methods for high-priority species and 

predicting interactions between multiple invasives 

and multiple disturbances under varying climatic 

scenarios.

some planned major aCComplishments

for 2008 to 2012 

• Use native species seed mixes to rehabilitate grasslands after cheatgrass-fueled wildfires. Field-scale 

trials found that native species mixes seeded as 

effectively as traditional introduced species. 

• Develop DNA-based techniques to detect and identify 

over 2,000 isolates related to invasive forest fungi, 

including root-disease pathogens (Armillaria spp. 

and Fusarium spp.), associates of wood decomposers, 

woody root endophytes, potential biological control 

agents, and historical herbarium specimens of forest 

pathogens. 

• Evaluate and develop new attractants and trapping 

techniques for emerald ash borer. 

• Field test new strains of Gypchek exhibiting five-fold 

greater potency than the current Gypchek product.

• Develop nanocarrier delivery systems for organic 

biocides to protect wood and wood products from 

Formosan subterranean termites and nanobiocides to 

prevent their spread. 

• Convert juniper bark to biodegradable polyurethane 

foams for use in controlled-release antifouling 

coatings against zebra mussels and related marine 

invasive species.

• Establish regional seed orchards of American beech 

trees with resistance to beech bark disease.

• Generate novel ash hybrids with resistance to 

emerald ash borer.

when eradication efforts should be implemented

Manage and mitigate established invasive species 

 by developing, evaluating, and distributing management guidelines, tools, and alternatives, 

such as genetic protocols or resistant stocks. Assess 

Salt cedar/tamarisk (Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.)

along the Snake River. Credit: Forest Service

Saltcedar/Tamarix are considered 

highly invasive and among the 

most potentially detrimental 

exotic plants in the United States. 

Although largely associated with 

the arid southwest, tamarisk is 

becoming the dominant shrub 

along rivers and streams in the 

interior Pacific Northwest. 

Credit: Forest Service
6 Forest Service Research and Development

The Research and Development (R&D) Deputy Area 

of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) has developed this document to address threats 

to the Nation’s forests and grasslands from invasive insects, pathogens, plants, wildlife, and fish. 

This R&D National Invasive Species Strategy outlines 

how R&D will provide—over the next 10 to 15 years—

the tools needed to prevent, detect, and control invasive 

species and to restore, rehabilitate, and manage ecosystems to continue to provide needed goods, services, and 

values. This national strategy has a direct link through 

the USDA strategy to the 2008 National Invasive Species Management Plan released by the interdepartmental 

National Invasive Species Council. The Forest Service 

R&D strategy identifies national invasive species research 

priorities and performance expectations. The strategy describes how R&D coordinates activities within research, 

with other deputy areas, and with other agencies.

Current and emerging sCienCe and soCial issues

Invasive species have become one of the most significant 

environmental and economic threats facing the Nation’s 

natural resources. Accelerated global trade and transportation have increased the movement of invasive species 

across continental boundaries, causing economic and 

environmental damage and harm to human health. Increased human populations living in, accessing, and using 

forests and rangelands has led to an increased risk of the 

spread of invasive species through waterways, roadways, 

etc., and increased conflicts over invasive species management strategies, owing to different social and economic 

values. These conflicts over prevention and treatment 

measures can lead to litigation on public lands and result 

in delayed or failed control efforts and increased associated costs. An example of a conflict is when members of 

the public disagree about whether an invasive is a problem that should be removed or an aesthetic or recreational enhancement of the native habitat.

Invasive species concerns have reached global proportions. Within the United States, there have been significant Federal and State responses to address the issue. 

The Forest Service has recognized the dangers posed by 

invasive species to ecosystem health and the economy. 

The Forest Service has also identified invasive species as 

one of the most significant issues affecting National Forest System lands (forest, rangelands, and waterways), as 

well as neighboring private, State, and tribal lands across 

all ecosystems. Invasive species cost the public more than 

$138 billion per year in damage, loss, and control costs. 

The Natural Resource Information System estimates that 

approximately 6 million National Forest System acres are 

infested with invasive plants. Expanding numbers and 

ranges of invasive species have an increasingly negative 

impact on products and the recreational and aesthetic 

value of forest and range ecosystems. About half the 

species currently on the endangered species list are at risk 

because of competition and loss of habitat traceable to 

invasive species. Some endangered species, however, have 

adapted to the presence of invasive species, and removal 

of the invasive may create a conflict with management of 

the threatened and endangered species.

Severe gaps in our current science and technological 

capacity threaten the Nation’s ability to prevent and 

Introduction

Rebay mortality caused by laurel wilt, a disease 

transmitted by the invasive redbay ambrosia 

beetle (Xyleborus glabratus) and caused by its 

associated fungus (Raffaelea lauricola Harrington 

and Fraedrich). The percentage of dead redbays in this 

section of forest increased from 10 to 81 percent in the 

course of 1 year. The disease also threatens avocado and 

other native trees. 

Credit: Albert (Bud) Mayfield, Florida Department of Agriculture 

and Consumer Services, http://www.bugwood.org

Redbay ambrosia beetle damage. Credit: Michael Thomas, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, http://bugwood.org
 National Invasive Species Strategy 7

control infestations and to restore forest and rangeland 

health. Unplanned reallocation of limited resources to 

address newly discovered invasives without risk/benefit 

analyses compromises the ability to appropriately identify and address invasive species research priorities. 

For this strategy, invasive species are defined (per Executive 

Order 13112) as species nonnative to the ecosystem under 

consideration, and whose introduction causes or is likely to 

cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health . 

This includes species native to North America that are spreading 

outside their normal range owing to changes in climate or 

to human introductions .

BaCkground

In 2004, the Forest Service developed a National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management to address the invasive species problem. This 

strategy and implementation plan identifies the following 

invasive species goal for the agency:

Reduce, minimize, or eliminate the potential for introduction, 

establishment, spread, and impact of invasive species across 

all landscapes and ownerships .

The strategy and implementation plan is divided into 

four program elements/activities: Prevention, Detection 

and Rapid Response, Control and Management, and 

Rehabilitation and Restoration. The plan identifies 

proactive prevention, rapid response, and partnerships 

as keys to agency success in addressing invasive species 

issues.

The strategy and implementation plan also clarifies the 

role of the R&D Deputy Area in addressing invasive 

species issues. Invasive species research will provide the 

information, knowledge, and tools needed to reduce, 

minimize, or eliminate the introduction, establishment, 

spread, and impact of selected priority invasive species 

and to develop integrated pest-management systems. 

To accomplish this, the strategy recognizes that invasive 

species research must have the resources and flexibility 

to address today’s issues effectively and the foresight to 

predict tomorrow’s needs. The R&D staffs also must 

be effective communicators—transforming scientific 

discovery into usable knowledge. 

Coast live oaks and tanoaks killed by sudden oak 

death (Phytophora ramorum).

Credit: Joseph O’Brien, Forest Service, 

http://www.bugwood.org

Sudden Oak Death zone 

lines on coast live oak. 

Credit: Joseph O’Brien, 

Forest Service, 

http://www.bugwood.org
8 Forest Service Research and Development

Where technology or knowledge gaps occur, R&D 

serves a vital role in developing new techniques and 

providing up-to-date information needed to develop 

integrated pest-management systems, to inform policy 

decisions, and to implement regulatory and management 

goals. Enhanced collaborative partnerships with universities, States, other agencies, and the private sector reduce 

costs, enhance effectiveness, and form the foundation of 

the invasive species science and technology development 

programs.

goal

Develop and deliver to customers, in a timely manner, 

the knowledge and tools needed to reduce, minimize, or 

eliminate the potential for introduction, establishment, 

spread, and impact of priority invasive species across all 

landscapes and ownerships. 

researCh aCtivities

Invasive species research provides the knowledge and 

tools for use across all landscapes and ownerships to 

reduce, minimize, or eliminate invasive species. This 

research focuses on four activities directly related to the 

goals, objectives, and priorities identified in the Forest 

Service’s 2004 National Strategy and Implementation 

Plan for Invasive Species Management. These activities 

are:

• Predict and prevent

• Detect, respond, and eradicate

• Manage and mitigate 

• Provide long-term rehabilitation/restoration and 

maintenance of ecosystems degraded by invasive 

species 

Activity 1: Predict and Prevent Invasive Species 

Introductions (Risk Assessments and 

Risk Management)

Objective: Develop and provide the scientific information, tools, and application services needed by Federal 

and State agencies for risk analysis, prevention, detection, monitoring, and interception so they can eliminate 

the potential for the introduction of invasive species.

Invasive Species Research Program Mission

Mission: The R&D Invasive Species SPA provides the scientific 

information, methods, and technology application services needed 

by regulators, managers, and the public to reduce, minimize, or 

eliminate the introduction, establishment, spread, and impact of 

invasive species . 

Vision: Science-based tools, techniques, and information are 

developed and transferred to stakeholders in a timely manner 

through enhanced and efficient public-private partnerships . Their 

adoption and use reduces the threat from invasive species and 

mitigates their impacts .

Risk Management)

Objective: Develop and provide the scientific informa

tion, tools, and application services needed by Federal 

and State agencies for risk analysis, prevention, detec

tion, monitoring, and interception so they can eliminate 

the potential for the introduction of invasive species.

Kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Maesen &

S. Almeida) kills trees by shading them and spreads 

inexorably, mostly through soil movement and 

vegetative growth. 

Credit: Kerry Britton, Forest Service, 

http://www.bugwood.org

Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour). Credit: Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, http://www.bugwood.org
 National Invasive Species Strategy 9

This is the most cost-effective approach to dealing with 

invasive species. Elements of predicting and preventing 

include:

• Identify and characterize species of concern.

• Identify and characterize pathways and potential 

mitigation tools. 

• Develop or evaluate risk analysis tools and methodologies. 

• Develop or evaluate tools for detection, monitoring, 

and interception of invasives.

• Understand how a particular species becomes invasive and how we can use this information to prevent 

this threat.

Activity 2: Detect, Respond, and Eradicate

Invasive Species Recently Introduced

Objective: To develop and provide the scientific information, tools, and technology application services for 

detection, monitoring, enforcement, and eradication of 

invasive species to Federal and State agencies so they can 

eliminate invasive species populations and prevent economic loss and ecological damage to the Nation’s forests 

and rangelands.

Quick eradication of recent infestations is much more 

effective and less expensive than dealing with a widely 

established invasive species. Elements of detection, response, and eradication include:

• Develop or evaluate tools for detection, monitoring, 

and interception of invasives.

• Develop or evaluate eradication treatment guidelines, 

tools, or solutions.

• Develop risk and cost/benefit analysis tools to determine when eradication efforts should be implemented 

or suspended.

Activity 3: Manage and Mitigate Established Invasive Species Infestations

Objective: Provide scientific information, methods, and 

technology application services to Federal and State 

agencies and private landowners so they can reduce the 

extent and/or spread of established invasive species, 

minimizing economic loss and ecological damage to the 

Nation’s forests and rangelands.

overarChing researCh priorities

A recent peer review recommended increased funding for two 

areas: prevention and prediction and early detection and rapid 

response . Quantitative risk analysis and pathway assessments 

will be key components of the research program . The R&D future 

strategy also recognizes the importance of maintaining research 

in two other areas: control and management and restoration and 

rehabilitation . A holistic national strategy will improve sharing 

of expertise across research stations and encourage actions 

that prevent regional threats from expanding into national ones . 

Increased coordination with other agencies will help identify 

regulatory and research gaps and improve the complementary 

use of resources . 

In response to the external peer review, the R&D National Invasive 

Species Strategy will emphasize the following overarching 

research priorities:

Quantify Invasive Species’ Biology, Ecology, Interactions, 

and Impacts

• Quantify genetic, ecological, and evolutional relationships 

among priority invasive species and ecosystems where they 

occur .

• Quantify ecological, social, and economic impacts of 

invasive species .

Predicting and Prioritizing Invasive Species 

• Develop methodology for predicting which species are likely 

to become invasive .

• Develop science-based protocols to prioritize invasive 

species to help managers assess action thresholds .

Identifying and Detecting Invasive Species

• Improve invasive species detection and diagnostics 

technology .

• Quantify invasive patterns and processes across 

geographical and elevational gradients . 

Managing Invasive Species and Altered Systems

• Develop more effective treatments and control or 

management methods for high-priority species .

• Predict interactions between multiple invasives and 

multiple disturbances under varying climatic scenarios .

The anticipated products, outcomes, and skills needed to 

address these priorities are discussed in the paper “USDA Forest 

Service Research and Development Invasive Species Overarching 

Research Priorities .”
10 Forest Service Research and Development

Several established invasive species are causing great ecological and economic damage to the Nation’s forest and 

grasslands. Providing controls for these species results 

in a good return on investment in spite of the expense of 

developing them. Elements of management and mitigation activities include:

• Develop or evaluate management and mitigation 

treatment guidelines, tools, or solutions (includes 

genetics protocols or resistant stocks).

• Assess management and mitigation tools for longterm efficacy and secondary effects.

More than 100 scientists at Research and Development’s five 

research stations, the International Institute of Tropical Forestry, and 

the Forestry Products Laboratory are conducting research on invasive 

plants, insects, pathogens, terrestrial animals, and aquatic species . 

The research stations are Northern Research Station, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, and Southern Research Station . 

Chartered by the Ecosystem Sustainability Corporate Team in 1998, 

the Invasive Species Issues Team (ISIT) is a cross-deputy team with 

representatives from Research and Development, State and Private 

Forestry, National Forest System, and International Forestry . The team 

provides a forum for developing corporate agency policies and strategies, sharing information, and coordinating priority setting, briefing 

papers, and presentations for the Department and agency . 

Regional Invasive Species Issue Teams are multidisciplinary invasive 

species management coordination teams established in each region/

station with representatives of management and research to implement the Forest Service National Strategy and Implementation Plan .

The National Invasive Species Council (NISC) is an interdepartmental 

council that helps to coordinate and ensure complementary, costefficient, and effective Federal activities regarding invasive species . Established February 3, 1999, by Executive Order 13112, NISC 

members include three co-chairs—the Secretaries of Agriculture, 

Commerce, and the Interior—and the Secretaries of State, Defense, 

Homeland Security, Treasury, Transportation, and Health and Human 

Services, as well as the Administrators of the U .S . Environmental 

Protection Agency, the U .S . Agency for International Development, the 

Office of the U .S . Trade Representative, and the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration .

The Federal Invasive Species Advisory Committee (ISAC) was created 

by Executive Order 13112 to provide information and advice for 

consideration by NISC . The ISAC is composed of approximately 30 

stakeholders from State organizations, industry, conservation groups, 

scientists, academia, and other interests .

• Assess direct and indirect effects of invasive species 

on the ecosystem.

• Assess direct and indirect effects of control of invasive species on the ecosystem.

• Develop risk and cost/benefit analysis systems to 

help determine when managing a changed system is a 

reasonable option.

• Develop risk and cost/benefit analysis tools to determine when control efforts should be implemented or 

suspended.

• Develop tools for prioritizing control activities.

Forest Service scientists are developing techniques for detecting and monitoring invasive 

bark beetles using traps baited with attractants. 

These traps are used around ports to detect newly 

arrived beetles. 

Credit: Forest Service
 National Invasive Species Strategy 11

Activity 4: Restore, Rehabilitate, and Maintain 

Ecosystems Degraded by Invasive Species

Objective: Develop, evaluate, and distribute scientific 

information, guidelines, tools, technology application 

services, and solutions to Federal and State agencies and 

private landowners for restoring, rehabilitating, and 

sustaining forest and rangeland ecosystems by preventing reinvasion and regaining long-term multiple uses and 

values.

When controlling an established invasive species, if rehabilitation is not planned, the controlled invasive species 

will reinvade, or another invasive species will occupy 

the opening. Rehabilitation with native species is a vital 

step in an invasive species control program. Elements of 

long-term restoration, rehabilitation, and maintenance of 

ecosystem research include:

• Develop or evaluate ecosystem analysis tools for 

describing successful restoration.

• Develop guidelines, tools, or solutions for restoring 

and sustaining the ecosystem (includes genetic protocols or resistant stocks, etc.).

• Assess the direct and indirect effects of invasives on 

the ecosystem.

• Assess the direct and indirect effects of rehabilitation 

and maintenance activities on the invasive species 

and ecosystem.

Prioritization: The Invasive Species SPA team will meet 

annually with the Forest Service’s National Invasive 

Species Issue Team (ISIT) to select priority species and 

ecosystems needing research, to identify key knowledge 

and tools needed by landowners and managers, and to 

identify national priorities. Input solicited from customers and partners in the National Invasive Species Council 

and the Federal Invasive Species Advisory Council will 

inform this process. A similar process will be used to 

identify regional priority species and research foci. 

The Forest Service research stations, the International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry, and the Forest Products 

Laboratory will work with the Forest Service’s regional 

ISITs to identify regional priorities in invasive species 

strategic plans/charters and business plans. Input from 

non-Forest Service regional customers and partners is 

always welcomed.

Forest Service scientists are evaluating the effect 

of fire on the introduction of invasive plants. 

The scientists are examining the type and 

extent of invasive weed growth on burned 

areas in Montana. 

Credit: Forest Service

Cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum L.).

Credit: Chris Evans, 

River to River CWMA, 

http://www.bugwood.org

Sulfur cinquefoil. 

Credit: Ken Chamberlain, 

The Ohio State University, 

http://www.bugwood.org
12 Forest Service Research and Development

The following performance measures are used for the 

invasive species SPA:

Outcome Measure: Score of R&D customers reporting 

satisfaction with accessibility, relevance, outcome, and 

cost-effectiveness of tools developed, delivered, and used.

Explanation: R&D seeks to provide quality products and 

services as assessed through evaluations from their customers. Customer satisfaction is assessed every 3 years.

Year Target Actual

2006 72 Baseline 72

2009 74 75

2012 76 NA

Performance Measures

Performance-Based Budgeting

The Office of Management and Budget and USDA are 

requiring that all parts of the Forest Service, including 

R&D, explicitly consider performance in their budget 

formulation and allocation decisions.

Output Measure: R&D tools developed, delivered, and 

used.

Explanation: One critical role of research is to translate 

scientific developments into useful tools to resolve management problems. A tool—in this context—is defined as 

any method, technique, technology application service, 

model system, science synthesis, database, evaluation 

or monitoring protocol, prototype, operational application, and decision-support system that is developed, 

maintained, or revised to address current and emerging 

invasive species issues. This measure is a 5-year running 

average, beginning with numbers reported for 2007.

Year Target Actual

2003 106 Baseline 106

2004 106 135

2005 106 157

2006 133 170

2007 142 170

2008 152 180

2009 155 177

2010 163 NA

2011 179 NA

2012 NA NA

Researchers are evaluating herbicides for 

control of sulfur cinquefoil, an invasive 

weed in the Pacific Northwest. 

Credit: Forest Service

A budget decisionmaking process will be developed 

based on the R&D investment criteria: relevance, quality, 

and performance. This process will use the peer review 

process scores and other performance indicators to make 

invasive species budget and other program management 

decisions.

Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.). Credit: Dave Dewey, Utah State University, http://bugwood.org

Western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853). Credit: Duane Raver, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, http://bugwood.org
 National Invasive Species Strategy 13

Partners, Collaborators, Users, and Customers

internal partners

Forest Service internal partners include State and Private 

Forestry, especially Forest Health Protection; National 

Forest System, including Technology Development 

Centers; International Programs; Threat Assessment 

Centers; other R&D units; and Forest Service quarantine 

and international facilities. 

external partners

External partners include other Federal agencies, such as 

USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Agricultural Research Service, Economic Research Service, 

and National Institute of Food and Agriculture; U.S. Department of the Interior, including U.S. Geological Survey; and U.S. Department of Defense. External partners 

also include public and private landowners, State Departments of Agriculture and Natural Resources, universities, 

private R&D organizations, nongovernmental organizations, local and tribal governments, private industry, and 

international governments and organizations. 

Alignment With Other Interagency and Other Agency Intiatives

2008 National Invasive Species Management 

Plan Goals

• Goal 1: Prevention 

• Goal 2: Early detection and rapid response

• Goal 3: Control and management

• Goal 4: Restoration

• Goal 5: Organizational collaboration

2004 Forest Service Invasive Species Strategy and 

Implementation Plan Elements

• Element 1: Prevention

• Element 2: Early detection and rapid response

• Element 3: Control and management

• Element 4: Rehabilitation and restoration

USDA Forest Service Strategic Plan, 

FY 2007–2012 Goals and 2008–2012 

R&D Strategic Plan Goals

• Goal 1: Restore, sustain, and enhance the Nation’s 

forests and grasslands 

• Goal 2: Provide and sustain benefits to the American 

people 

• Goal 3: Conserve open space

• Goal 4: Sustain and enhance outdoor recreation opportunities 

• Goal 5: Maintain basic management capabilities of 

the Forest Service

• Goal 6: Engage urban America with Forest Service 

programs

• Goal 7: Provide science-based applications and tools 

for sustainable natural resources management

USDA Forest Service R&D Growth Platforms: Climate 

change, biomass and bioenergy, urban natural resources 

stewardship, water and air management, and restoration.

USDA Forest Service R&D Foundation Elements: Forest 

Inventory and Analysis, Experimental Forests and Rangelands, and Urban Long-Term Research Areas.

Mediterranean pine engraver beetle (Orthotomicus erosus (Wollaston)) brood gallery.

Credit: Francis Maugard, Département de la Santé des Forêts, http://bugwood.org

Sulfur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta L.). Credit: Richard Old, XID Services, Inc., http://bugwood.org
14 Forest Service Research and Development

Strategic Program Area Intersects/Overlaps

The following SPAs intersect/overlap with the Invasive 

Species SPA:

• Fire prevention: Management and restoration activities for wildland fire and fuel treatments and for 

invasive species affect each other.

• Recreation: Human health issues and recreation management activities and invasive species management 

and restoration activities affect each other. Conservation education and interpretive services programs are 

mechanisms for transferring invasive species knowledge to recreationists.

• Wildlife and fish: Management and restoration 

activities for wildlife and fish and for invasive species 

impact each other. Some wildlife and fish are 

invasive. 

• Resource management and use: Human mobility and 

activity affect invasive species introduction, distribution, abundance, and management. The presence 

of invasive species can alter community economic 

and social health, ecosystem function, and product/

output options. Their presence may also require new 

management strategies and systems. This includes 

the ability of land to provide goods and services and 

potential management systems shifts and options. 

• Water and air: Invasive species can adversely affect 

ecosystem health.

• Resource data and analysis: The Forest Inventory and 

Analysis and Forest Health Monitoring programs 

survey and monitor for the presence and abundance 

of select invasive species.

White pine blister rust aecia.

Credit: Forest Service

White pine blister rust damage (Cronartium ribicola J. C. Fisch.). Credit: Ogden Archive, Forest Service, http://www.bugwood.org

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola J.C. Fisch.) 

Uredia stage on alternate host Ribes. 

Credit: Robert L. Anderson, Forest Service, 

http://www.bugwood.org
 National Invasive Species Strategy 15

Adult emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire).

Credit: David Cappaert, Michigan State University, http://www.bugwood.org

Crosscutting Issues for Invasive Species

• Climate change and variability: Invasive species 

interact with climate change and variability to affect 

ecosystem health, fire conditions, wildlife habitat, 

water quality and yield, and other ecosystem functions. Climate change also influences the range and 

distribution of native species with some potential 

for species becoming invasive and moving into other 

ecosystems. Research on this topic will improve our 

ability to predict and manage insect and disease 

outbreaks, manage fire risk through earlier prediction of severe wildfire conditions, and improve our 

understanding of the complex interactions among 

landscape change, climate change, and water and air 

quality. A better understanding of invasive and native species responses to climate change and extreme 

events is critical to being able to continue to manage 

a changing landscape to deliver needed goods and 

services.

• Ecosystem health: Invasive species interact with 

disturbances to alter forest and range health, wildlife 

habitat, water quality and quantity, and other ecosystem characteristics. Management and rehabilitation 

activities across these sectors can conflict with each 

other and, in some cases, can increase the problem 

(e.g., restocking with invasive wildlife or fish and 

road construction as a conduit for invasive plants).

• Conservation education: Education and interpretive 

programs can provide information for use by managers, recreationists, and other public parties about 

invasive species and their management.

• Urbanization: Resource use affects invasive species 

distribution, abundance, and management and can 

affect community economic and social health. Invasive species can move from developed areas to forest 

and rangeland ecosystems or from forest and rangeland ecosystems to developed areas.

• International dimensions: Invasive species research 

requires global cooperation and coordination on 

measures to prevent, reduce, and/or mitigate to 

prevent entry or export.

• Sustainable forest bioenergy production systems:

Development of bioenergy systems can introduce 

invasive biofuel species into forest ecosystems, and 

biofuel forest species can serve as hosts for nonnative 

invasive species. New varieties of perennial woody 

bioenergy crops are resistant to invasive insects 

and diseases, fast growing, and nutrient and water 

efficient.

Challenges and Influences

• Describing and communicating a national invasive 

species program that is developed and managed 

regionally.

• Marketing the invasive species program so that 

research’s contribution to management of invasive 

species is maximized.

• Emphasizing impacts of urbanization and other 

human activities on invasive species prevention, 

detection, and spread.

• Maintaining program vitality under shrinking 

budgets and conflicting priorities.

Asian long-horned beetle larvae (Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky)). Credit: Michael Boone, http://www.bugwood.org

Emerald ash borer larvae. 

Credit: David Cappaert, Michigan State University, http://www.bugwood.org
16 Forest Service Research and Development

referenCes

Forest Service. 2007. USDA Forest Service Strategic Plan, 

FY 2007-2012. FS-880. Washington, DC: Forest Service. 40 p. http://www.fs.fed.us/publications/strategic/

fs-sp-fy07-12.pdf. (11 May 2009).

Forest Service. 2006. Forest Service Research & Development Strategic Program Area Review Team Handbook: A Guide for Review for Team Members and FS 

R&D Staff. Washington, DC: Forest Service Research 

& Development. 32 p.

Forest Service. 2005. Invasive Species Integrated Goals 

Strategy Assessment. Washington, DC: Forest Service 

Research & Development. 1 p.

Forest Service. 2004. National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management. FS-805. 

Washington, DC: Forest Service. http://www.fs.fed.

us//invasivespecies/index.shtml. (11 May 2009).

Forest Service. 2004. Invasive Species Program and 

Activity Credibility Through Accountability Business 

Plan. Washington, DC: Forest Service Research & 

Development. 12 p.

Forest Service. 2003. Invasive Species Research and 

Development Logic Model. Washington, DC: Forest 

Service Research & Development. 4p.

National Invasive Species Council. 2008. 2008-2012 National Invasive Species Management Plan. 35 pp. National Invasive Species Council. U.S. Department of 

the Interior, Office of the Secretary (OS/SIO/NISC), 

Washington D.C. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/

council/mp2008.pdf (11 May 2009).

National Invasive Species Council. 2001. Meeting the 

Invasive Species Challenge: National

Invasive Species Management Plan. 80 p. National Invasive Species Council. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Office of the Secretary (OS/SIO/NISC), Washington 

D.C. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/docs/council/mp.pdf. (11 May 2009).

authorities

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Research Act of 1978

This act is the USDA’s primary authority to conduct 

research activities, including research about invasive species that relate to vegetation management and protection; 

wildlife, fish, water, and air sciences; resource valuation 

and use; and inventory and monitoring. The act contains 

expansive authority to conduct research and technology 

development on, and with applications for, all U.S. lands 

related to the protection, conservation, and sustainable 

use of natural resources. The act also authorizes competitive grants to conduct research and authorizes cooperative agreements with university, industry, and other partners, as needed, to complement national program needs. 

International Forestry Cooperation Act of 1990

Under section 602(b) of the International Forestry Cooperation Act of 1990 (16 U.S.C. 4501(b)), the Secretary 

[of Agriculture] may, in support of forestry and related 

natural resource activities outside the United States and 

its territories and possessions, provide assistance for the 

prevention and control of insects, diseases, and other 

damaging agents.

Invasive Species Executive Order 13112 

of February 3, 1999

Directs Federal agencies to use relevant programs and 

authorities to: 

a. Prevent the introduction of invasive species.

b. Detect and respond rapidly to and control populations of such species in a cost-effective and environmentally sound manner.

c. Monitor invasive species populations accurately and 

reliably. 

d. Provide for restoration of native species and habitat 

conditions in ecosystems that have been invaded. 

e. Conduct research on invasive species and develop 

technologies to prevent introduction and provide for 

Appendices

Invasive bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw, 1802) from the east coast. Credit: Marcia Erlich
 National Invasive Species Strategy 17

environmentally sound control of invasive species. 

f. Promote public education on invasive species and the 

means to address them.

g. Not authorize, fund, or carry out actions that it 

believes are likely to cause or promote the introduction or spread of invasive species in the United States 

or elsewhere unless, pursuant to guidelines that it 

has prescribed, the agency has determined and made 

public its determination that the benefits of such 

actions clearly outweigh the potential harm caused 

by invasive species, and that all feasible and prudent 

measures to minimize risk of harm will be taken in 

conjunction with the actions.

The Executive Order 13112 further requires Federal 

agencies to work in consultation with the National 

Invasive Species Council, consistent with the National 

Invasive Species Management Plan, and in cooperation 

with stakeholders, as appropriate, and, as approved by 

the U.S. Department of State, with international organizations and foreign nations.

glossary

Characterized: Species for which knowledge on host and 

geographical range, biology, spread, damage potential, 

etc., is documented.

Infestation: An area where a population of invasive species exists.

Interception: An invasive species detected at the point of 

arrival.

Integrated pest management (IPM): A process that determines the economic or environmental threshold for pest 

populations and prescribes the management techniques 

to reach desired conditions. IPM includes four broad 

categories: biological, cultural, mechanical, and chemical 

techniques.

Introduction: The occurrence of an invasive species in an 

area where it was not previously established.

Invasive species: A nonnative species that is likely to 

cause or has the potential to cause economic or environmental harm to the ecosystem under consideration or 

harm to human health.

Nonnative species: Any species that is not native to the 

ecosystem in question.

Pathways: The means by which an invasive species enters 

a new ecosystem.

Priority species: The invasive species that pose the highest 

consequences of impact as a result of a risk assessment.

Reclamation: Restabilization of land denuded by land 

management activities.

Rehabilitation and restoration: Active or passive management of an ecosystem or habitat following disturbance, 

or management action to minimize subsequent effects.

Risk analysis: The process of collecting data and estimating the potential for and consequences of introduction, 

establishment, and spread of invasive species.

Risk assessment: A published document detailing the 

likelihood of an invasive species introduction and the 

potential consequences of its establishment and spread.

Targeted species: An invasive species identified for some 

specified research and development action.

Tools: Any method, technique, technology application 

service, model system, science synthesis, database, evaluation or monitoring protocol, prototype, operational application, and decision-support system that is developed, 

maintained, or revised to address current and emerging 

invasive species issues.
18 Forest Service Research and Development

original strategy Written By:

Mary Ellen Dix, Washington Office

Paul Dunn, Pacific Northwest Research Station

Janine Powell, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Robert Bridges, Northern Research Station

Garland Mason, Pacific Southwest Research Station

Bruce Jewell, Southern Research Station

Glen Contreras, Washington Office

Terry Shaw, Washington Office

Barbara L. Illman, Forest Products Laboratory 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national 

origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic 

information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all 

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information 

(Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of 

discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 

795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

2008 update:

Mary Ellen Dix, Washington Office

Kerry Britton, Washington Office

Paul Dunn, Pacific Northwest Research Station

Susan Frankel, Pacific Southwest Research Station

Julie Denslow, Pacific Southwest Research Station 

Garland Mason, Pacific Southwest Research Station

Katrina M. Krause, Washington Office

Kier Klepzig, Southern Research Station

John Stanturf, Southern Research Station

Therese Poland, Northern Research Station

Melody Keena, Northern Research Station

Mee Sook Kim, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Ned Klopfenstein, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Barbara L. Illman, Forest Products Laboratory 

Edward J. DePuit, Pacific Northwest Research Station

Ralph Crawford, Washington Office

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

FS-934

January 2010