February 2006 Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 35

Amphibians and Reptiles

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

Introduction

Approximately 460 species of amphibians and reptiles 

are known to occur in the continental United States. 

Amphibians and reptiles are vertebrates, along with 

fish, birds, and mammals. Worldwide, there are approximately 4,600 known amphibian species (fig. 1) 

similar to the number of known mammal species (approximately 4,000). There are about 6,000 known reptile species worldwide. The term herps refers to amphibians and reptiles as a group. Most herps lay eggs, 

although, some give birth to live young. The body temperatures of nearly all amphibians and reptiles are primarily determined by external sources of heat, such 

as the sun, water, or ground. This limits their distribution and activity time, but allows them to live on 

about one-tenth of the energy that similar-sized mammals and birds require. Herps control their body temperatures by moving to cooler or warmer areas as 

necessary. 

Reptiles have dry skin and scales, shields, or plates to 

help keep their skin from losing moisture. Most reptiles with feet have claws on their toes. Reptiles lay 

shelled eggs or bear live young. Young reptiles have 

the same body forms as their parents, though they 

may differ in color or pattern. Reptiles living in North 

America include turtles and tortoises, crocodiles and 

alligators, lizards, and snakes. 

Many amphibians have moist skin that lacks scales, 

feathers, or hair. Most adult amphibians have lungs, 

but respiration also occurs through the skin—a process that can only occur if the skin is moist. Unlike 

reptiles, amphibians’ toes are usually clawless, and 

their eggs lack shells and are laid in water or a moist 

environment to protect them from drying out. In general, amphibian eggs hatch into aquatic larvae (or tadpoles) that eventually metamorphose into the adult 

form that is more terrestrial. Common amphibians of 

North America include salamanders, frogs, and toads.

This leaflet was created to provide landowners with 

information about amphibians and reptiles. By reading this leaflet, landowners will recognize the ecological value of herps, learn about threats to these animals, and gain insight on what they can do to help. 

The leaflet presents the habitat requirements of amphibians and reptiles and offers suggestions for increasing habitat quality and availability.

Ecological significance

Amphibians and reptiles play a major role in ecological food webs, as both predators and prey. As consumers of insects, rodents, and other pest species, 

herps also provide a significant benefit to agriculture 

and recreational activities. When abundant, amphibians can consume substantial quantities of favored 

prey organisms, perhaps serving to limit prey populations. For example, salamanders appear to play important roles in organizing many terrestrial and aquatic communities. The larvae of mole salamanders are 

top predators in vernal pond communities and influence the abundance and diversity of aquatic invertebrates and other amphibians therein. By serving as 

prey, herps provide food for small mammals, birds, 

and other herps. 

Amphibians and reptiles are particularly sensitive 

to habitat disturbance. Because of their close contact with air, water, and soil, amphibians are considFigure 1 Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum)

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Amphibians and Reptiles



ered to be good indicators of environmental health. 

Amphibians have highly permeable skin that rapidly absorbs toxic substances in the air, water, and soil. 

Amphibians have complex life cycles and need appropriate habitat for egg, larval, and adult stages. For 

many amphibian and reptile species, seasonal movements within the landscape are necessary, meaning that a variety of quality seasonal and transitional habitats must be available for any given species. 

Furthermore, many amphibians and reptiles have 

poor dispersal abilities and are often unable to move 

to alternate areas when their habitat is disturbed.

Habitat requirements

Amphibians and reptiles can be found in almost all 

habitat types, from forests to deserts to grasslands. 

Many species use different habitats during different times of the year. For example, many salamanders spend most of the year dispersed in the forest, 

but they need appropriate wetlands within which to 

breed. Some turtles live in water but must travel onto 

land to lay their eggs. Many herps hibernate or become less active during the winter. Hibernation occurs in hibernacula, which are usually dark, secure, 

secluded areas such as rocky outcroppings, crayfish 

burrows, mammal burrows, or mud at the bottom of 

ponds or wetlands.

Because of their unique life cycles, amphibians often require both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. 

Depending on the species and geographical area, they 

may require damp areas (creeks, streams, swamps, 

mud puddles, ponds, etc.), moist soil, and/or places to 

burrow in order to keep their skin moist. Amphibians 

generally breed and lay eggs in wetlands and other 

aquatic habitats, some of which exist for only short 

periods during the year (after rains or snowmelt), 

and then move to terrestrial areas to over winter. 

Amphibians use a wide range of terrestrial habitats 

adjacent to wetlands and streams, typically consisting 

of leaf litter, coarse woody material, boulders, small 

mammal burrows, crack in rocks, spring seeps, rocky 

pools, and even deserts and desert grasslands.

Some reptiles have very general habitat requirements, 

while others have specific ones. Reptiles can live in 

terrestrial, aquatic, or riparian habitats. Those that 

inhabit riparian habitats are not considered aquatic, but they are strongly associated with riparian-upland transitional zones. Some reptiles live and forage in aquatic habitats most of the year but move to 

upland habitats to nest or overwinter. Within grasslands, woodlands, and wetlands, reptiles require habitats that provide thermal gradients ranging from cool 

shelters to warm basking areas that receive exposure 

Figure 2 Red-legged frogs (Rana aurora)

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

to full sun. Reptiles also require suitable hibernation 

and aestivation habitats to which they can escape during times of environmental extremes. Thermal, hibernation, and aestivation habitats may be present in the 

form of large woody material, brush piles, rock piles 

or outcroppings, animal burrows, or huts. These same 

habitats provide nesting habitat for many snakes and 

lizards, while nesting habitat for turtles may be found 

within areas of loose or sandy soil exposed to full sun 

and protected from flooding. 

Amphibians and reptiles are a diverse group and their 

habitat requirements vary greatly from species to 

species. Specific habitat requirements for individual species are beyond the scope of this leaflet. Table 

1 contains general shelter, feeding, and nesting cover 

requirements for the major groups of amphibians and 

reptiles.

Threats to populations

Some amphibian and reptile populations are on 

the decline. For example, populations of western 

toads have declined or disappeared from the Rocky 

Mountains, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the 

Cascade Mountains. Populations of red-legged frogs 

(fig. 2) have disappeared from parts of California and 

Oregon. Populations of Blanchard’s cricket frogs have 

declined or disappeared from the Midwest. In addition to the declines, frogs with multiple, missing, or 

malformed legs have been sighted in high numbers in 

Canada and the United States. These declines and deformities are happening around the world. Some of 

the documented causes of amphibian and reptile population declines and deformities are habitat loss and 
Amphibians and Reptiles



Table 1 General habitat requirements of North American reptiles and amphibians

Group Foraging Habitat Food Breeding Habitat

Reptiles

Crocodiles 

and 

alligators

In and around water (lakes, 

ponds, swamps, rivers)

Insects, snails, crustaceans, reptiles, 

frogs, fish, birds, mammals

In ground or in 

heaped vegetation 

and soil

Lizards In cracks and crevices, in 

rock or brush piles, in tree 

trunks or foliage, under rocks 

and logs, among leaf litter or 

vegetation, underground

Leaves, fruit, flowers, insects, snails, 

scorpions, crabs, other invertebrates, 

eggs, small mice, lizards

In soil, under fallen 

leaves, in crevices, 

in rotting logs

Snakes On the ground, in crevices 

or burrows, in rock or brush 

piles, in trees, in water

Insects, spiders, snails, slugs, crayfish, 

crabs, fish, salamanders, frogs, lizards, 

turtles, birds, eggs, small mammals

Upland, riparian, 

or wetland areas, 

burrows, rotting 

logs

Turtles and 

tortoises

In salt or fresh water, on land 

(forests, deserts, grasslands)

Aquatic plants, grasses, berries, fruit, 

flowers, leaves, insects, worms, slugs, 

snails, crustaceans, other invertebrates, 

frogs, snakes, turtles, fish, jellyfish

Well-drained 

sandy or loose 

soil; sometimes 

associated with 

burrows

Amphibians

Frogs and 

toads

Under logs, in leaf litter, in 

damp rock crevices, in soft 

soil or mud, in shrubs and 

trees, in water, beneath the 

soil surface

Tadpoles – algae, plant detritus, leaves, 

other tadpoles

Fresh water or 

moist areas

Adults – Insects, worms, other 

invertebrates, frogs, snakes, lizards, 

small turtles, small birds, mammals

Cool, damp, shady places; 

in caves or burrows, in 

trees, under rocks and 

logs, on ground, in water; 

underground

Larvae – insects and other invertebrates, 

small crustaceans, tadpoles, 

zooplankton, other salamander larvae

Fresh water or 

moist areas

Adults – insects, worms, and other 

invertebrates, fish, other salamanders, 

small mice
Amphibians and Reptiles

fragmentation, the alteration of natural disturbance 

regimes, predation by and competition with non-native and invasive species, disease, environmental pollution, severe weather, and UV radiation. 

Habitat loss and fragmentation is a major factor in 

the decline of amphibian and reptile species (fig. 3). 

Many habitats are disappearing due to human population growth and development. Of those habitats that 

do remain, many are not large enough to support populations of a given species. If required habitat components are isolated from each other by agricultural 

fields, roadways, or urban development, the animals 

may not be able to reach them. Roads pose barriers 

that are of particular concern to amphibian and reptile movements. Often herps are not physically able to 

cross roadways, and those that are run the risk of being killed by vehicles. 

The alteration of natural disturbance regimes, such as 

fire and flood regimes, can be detrimental to amphibian and reptile populations. In many ecosystems, these 

disturbances help to maintain various stages of vegetative succession, providing amphibians and reptiles 

with their diverse habitat needs. Humans have altered 

natural disturbance regimes, by suppressing fire, controlling flood levels, and other means. In the absence 

of fire, flooding, or other natural disturbances, natural habitats become degraded and are less capable of 

supporting amphibian and reptile populations.

The introduction of non-native species is another major cause of amphibian and reptile decline. Native 

species have not evolved with these new predators or competitors and are often unable to survive 

in areas where non-native species are introduced. 

For example, bullfrogs were introduced west of the 

Rocky Mountains in the 1800s for human consumption. These bullfrogs are efficient predators of local 

amphibians and some reptiles. Populations of yellow-legged frogs and other frogs are declining in areas where bullfrogs are now abundant. Fire ants, introduced to the southern United States around 1918, 

prey on both the eggs and young of reptiles. Fire ants 

are considered to be the primary cause of the extirpation of the Texas horned lizard from parts of its 

historic range. In the Southwest, non-native crayfish 

have been implicated in the decline of some amphibian and aquatic reptile species.

Some amphibian deformities and population declines can be attributed to diseases caused by viruses, bacterium, fungi, or parasites. A parasitic fungus 

has been identified as the cause of mass mortality in 

frogs in the Americas, Australia, and other areas; this 

fungus is now thought to be one of the primary suspects responsible for amphibian declines around the 

world. An upper respiratory tract disease is the potential cause of population declines in desert tortoises in 

the southwestern United States and gopher tortoises 

in the southeastern United States. Often, non-native 

species will act as vectors for these diseases. For example, the water fungus Saprolegnia, common in fish 

hatcheries, has recently been associated with declines 

of amphibian populations. 

Amphibian and reptile populations are negatively affected by environmental pollutants, such as heavy 

metals, pesticides, and radioactive waste. These pollutants are suspected of causing deformities and abnormalities in frogs. Acid rain raises the acidity of water above the tolerance levels of many amphibian eggs 

and tadpoles. This reduces fertilization and can cause 

developmental abnormalities. Even though they have 

been banned in the United States since 1979, traces of 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic, persistence 

pollutants, can be found in air, soil, water, and animal 

tissues. Some PCB compounds are similar to estrogen and can alter the sexual development of amphibian and reptile embryos. For example, sex reversal and 

abnormal gonads have been found in turtles exposed 

to PCBs.

Changes in climate, including higher temperatures, 

lower soil moisture, longer dry seasons, and more 

variability in rainfall, can influence amphibian and 

reptile populations. These climate changes can mean 

fewer insects available as prey for some species, 

changes in activity patterns, depressed immune systems due to stress, and shorter breeding seasons because ponds hold less water for shorter periods. 

Warmer temperatures impact crocodiles, alligators, 

and some turtles (fig. 4) whose sex ratios are determined by nest temperatures during incubation. 

Figure 3 Collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris)

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Amphibians and Reptiles



High UV radiation resulting from a thinner ozone layer can cause a variety of problems in amphibians — 

DNA mutations, suppressed immune systems, and developmental problems or death in embryos.

Habitat management considerations

Managing habitat for amphibians and reptiles can 

take many forms, depending on the landowner’s geographical location, land use activities, habitat type, 

and the target species. Before beginning, landowners should compile a list of amphibians and reptiles 

that occur on their properties and their locations to 

determine the priority areas for habitat management. 

Landowners are encouraged to consult with local natural resource professionals and/or herpetologists to 

design the best possible habitat management plan for 

amphibians and reptiles in their region. Some actions 

that can be taken are:

• Provide logs, rocks, and brush piles around wetland areas and in upland areas;

• Keep a vegetated buffer (minimum 50 feet) 

around wetlands and streams; 

• Provide upland habitat adjacent to wetland 

areas (500 feet or wider if possible);

• Ensure that vegetation is not too dense for herp 

movement by promoting a variety of native sedges, forbs, and warm- and cool-season grasses;

• Avoid introducing non-native plants or animals, 

and control any that have already been introduced;

• Avoid introducing fish to breeding areas;

• Avoid altering natural water levels in wetlands, 

rivers, and streams, particularly from the time 

herps migrate to overwintering sites through to 

spring emergence;

• Maintain shallow water areas or pools for breeding amphibians;

• Plan any prescribed burning activity to 

avoid times when amphibians and reptiles 

are particularly active (breeding migrations, 

dispersal from hibernacula);

• Avoid using pesticides within 100 yards of 

streams or wetlands;

• Limit pesticide use to brands that rapidly decompose after application;

• Rotate livestock to prevent excessive grazing;

• Keep livestock out of wetlands and riparian 

areas;

• Avoid off-road vehicle use; 

• Avoid building roads in sensitive areas;

• Build road crossings to help amphibians and 

reptiles cross roads safely; and

• Avoid fragmenting habitats. 

For more information

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation 

(PARC) is an inclusive partnership dedicated to the 

conservation of amphibians and reptiles and their 

habitats. PARC’s Web site, www.parcplace.org, is an 

excellent resource for information on amphibians and 

reptiles, their habitat requirements, and habitat management considerations. In particular, PARC is developing Amphibian and Reptile Habitat Management 

Guidebooks for five geographical regions across the 

United States that can be useful to landowners. These 

guidebooks can be downloaded from PARC’s Web 

site. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Figure 4 Eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina)
Amphibians and Reptiles

References

Online Sources

AmphibiaWeb: Information on amphibian biology 

and conservation. 2005. Overview of amphibian 

diseases. http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/aw/declines/

diseases.html [Accessed 22 June 2005].

The Center for Reptile and Amphibian Conservation 

and Management. n.d. http://Herps.ipfw.edu/

[Accessed 17 January 2005].

Natural Resources Conservation Service, Iowa. 

2005. Restoring, managing habitat for reptiles, 

amphibians. http://www.ia.nrcs.usda.gov/news/

brochures/ReptilesAmphibians.html [Accessed 

11 August 2005].

PARC – Partners in Amphibian and Reptile 

Conservation. 2004. http://www.parcplace.org/

index.html [Accessed 20 January 2005].

United States Geological Survey. 2003. Farm ponds 

as critical habitats for native amphibians. http://

www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/

mknutson_5003869.html [Accessed 17 January 

2005].

Printed Sources

Capula, M. 1989. Guide to reptiles and amphibians of 

the world. Simon & Schuster Inc., New York, NY, 

USA.

Crump, M. 2002. Amphibians, reptiles, and their conservation. Linnet Books, North Haven, CT, USA.

Conant, R. and J.T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of Eastern and Central 

North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, 

New York, NY, USA.

Daszak, P., L. Berger, A.A. Cunningham, A.D. Hyatt, 

D.E. Green, and R. Speare. 1999. Emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population 

declines. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5: 735-

748.

Gibbons, J.W., D.E. Scott, T.J. Ryan, K.A. Buhlmann, 

T.D. Tuberville, B.S. Metts, J.L. Greene, T.M. 

Mills, Y. Leiden, S. Poppy, and C.T. Winne. 2000. 

Reptiles in decline: the global decline of reptiles, 

déjà vu amphibians. BioScience 50:653—666.

Harding, J.H. 1997. Amphibians and reptiles of the 

Great Lakes Region. University of Michigan 

Press, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. 

Jochimsen, D.M., C.R. Peterson, K.M. Andrews, and J. 

W. Gibbons. 2004. A literature review of the effects of roads on amphibians and reptiles and 

the measures used to minimize those effects. 

Idaho Fish and Game Department and USDA 

Forest Service.

Johnson, T.R. 1987. The amphibians and reptiles of 

Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, 

Jefferson City, MO, USA.

Kenney, L.P. and M.R. Burne. 2000. A field guide to the 

animals of vernal pools. Massachusetts Division 

of Fisheries and Wildlife, Westborough, MA, 

USA and Vernal Pool Association, Reading, MA, 

USA.

Kingsbury, B. and J. Gibson. 2002. Habitat management guidelines for amphibians and reptiles of 

the Midwest. Partners in Amphibian and Reptile 

Conservation, Midwest Working Group, Fort 

Wayne, IN, USA. 

Knutson, M.G., W.B. Richardson, D.M. Reineke, B.R. 

Gray, J.R. Parmelee, and S.E. Weick. 2004. 

Agricultural ponds support amphibian populations. Ecological Applications 14: 669-684. 

Lehtinen, R.M., S.M. Galatowitch, and J.R. Tester. 

1999. Consequences of habitat loss and fragmentation for wetland amphibian assemblages. 

Wetlands 19: 1-12. 

Maxell, B.A. 2000. Management of Montana’s amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk 

to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, 

natural history, and the status and conservation 

of individual species. Report to USFS Region 1, 

Order Number 43-0343-0-0224. Wildlife Biology 

Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. 

Petranka, J.W. 1998. Salamanders of the United States 

and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, 

Washington, DC, USA. 

Pough, F.H., R.M. Andrews, J.E. Cadle, M.L. Crump, 

A.H. Savitzky, K.D. Wells. 2004. Herpetology. 

Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 

USA. 
Amphibians and Reptiles

Schneider, R.L., M.E. Krasny, S.J. Morreale. 2001. 

Hands-on herpetology: exploring ecology 

and conservation. National Science Teachers 

Association Press, Arlington, VA, USA. 

Semlitsch, R.D., and J.R. Bodie. 2003. Biological criteria for buffer zones around wetlands and 

riparian habitats for amphibians and reptiles. 

Conservation Biology 17: 1219-1228.

Shea, G. 2002. Reptiles & amphibians. Fog City Press, 

San Francisco, CA, USA. 
Amphibians and Reptiles

Primary authors: Raissa Marks, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts reviewed by: Rob Pauline, Wildlife Habitat 

Council; Charlie Rewa, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Jennifer Anderson-Cruz, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service; Linda Weir, North American Amphibian Monitoring Program; Bob 

Herrington, Georgia Southwestern State University; Christopher Jenkins, Idaho State University; Charles 

Peterson, Idaho State University; and Randy Babb, Arizona Game and Fish Department.

www.nrcs.usda.gov

Wildlife Habitat Council

8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 588-8994

The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council 

is to increase the amount of quality wildlife 

habitat on corporate, private, and public land. 

WHC engages corporations, public agencies, 

and private, non-profit organizations on a 

voluntary basis as one team for the recovery, 

development, and preservation of wildlife 

habitat worldwide.

www.wildlifehc.org

© 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the 

basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or a part 

of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and 

TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence 

Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an 

equal opportunity provider and employer.

Natural Resources Conservation Service

Mailing address:

P.O. Box 2890

Washington, DC 20013

Street address:

14th and Independence Avenue SW

Washington, DC 20250

The Natural Resources Conservation Service 

provides leadership in a partnership effort to 

help people conserve, maintain, and improve 

our natural resources and environment.