Preprimary education enrollment 1

Participating in early childhood programs such as nursery school, prekindergarten, Head Start, and kindergarten

can better prepare a child to enter first grade. There was a positive relationship between parents’ educational

attainment and preprimary education enrollment rates of 3- and 4-year-olds: As parents’ educational attainment

increased, so did the preprimary enrollment rates of their children.

* Center-based programs include nursery, prekindergarten, and Head Start programs.

NOTE: This analysis includes children aged 3–5 who were not enrolled in first grade.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey (NHES), 1991 (Early

Childhood Education File), 1993 (School Readiness File), and 1995 (Early Childhood Program Participation File).

Percentage of 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds enrolled in center-based programs* 

and kindergarten, by parents' highest education level: 1995

3-year-olds 4-year-olds 5-year-olds

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

Less than high

school diploma

High school

diploma or GED

Some college/

vocational/technical

Bachelor's 

degree

Graduate/

professional school
2 Early literacy activities in the home

Participating in literacy activities with family members provides valuable developmental experiences for young

children. In addition, children who are read to or told stories and who visit the library may start school better

prepared to learn. In 1995, more than 80 percent of children aged 3–5 were read to or told a story in the past week

by a parent or family member, while 41 percent had visited a library in the past month. The percentage of children

who participated in these literacy activities increased between 1991 and 1995.

NOTE: This analysis includes children aged 3–5 who were not enrolled in first grade.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey (NHES), 1991 (Early

Childhood Education File) and 1995 (Early Childhood Program Participation File).

Percentage of children aged 3–5 who participated in various literacy

 activities with a parent or family member: 1991 and 1995

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

1991 1995

Read to three or more

 times in the past week

Told a story at least

once in the past week

Visited a library 

 in the past month
 Elementary and secondary school enrollment 3

School enrollment is one measure of the size of the educational system and of the demand for teachers, buildings,

and education resources. From 1984 to 1996, total public school enrollment rose 17 percent, after falling 15

percent between 1970 and 1984; public schools continue to enroll almost 9 out of 10 children. Total public school

enrollment is projected to rise from 46.4 million in 1997 to 48.3 million by 2007, an increase of 4 percent.

* Enrollment includes most kindergartners and a relatively small number of nursery school students.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1996 (based on Common Core of

Data) and Projections of Education Statistics to 2007, 1997.

Elementary and secondary enrollment, by control and level of school: Fall 1970–2007

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2007

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

Fall of year

Enrollment (in thousands)

Projected

Public grades K–8*

Private grades K–8*

Public grades 9–12

Private grades 9–12
4 Student computer use

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress, Almanac: Writing,

1984 to 1994, 1996.

Early exposure to computers in school can help young people gain the technological literacy that will be crucial for

success in tomorrow’s schools. In 1994, more than two-thirds of 4th-graders and at least 80 percent of 8th- and 11thgraders reported using a computer to write stories or papers, a substantial increase from 1984. The percentage of

students who reported using a computer to learn things also increased between 1984 and 1994 for all three

grades, while the percentage of students who reported using a computer to play games remained relatively constant for 8th- and 11th-graders.

Percentage of students who reported using a computer, 

by grade and reason for use: Selected years 1984–94

1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

To play games To learn things To write stories

Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 11
 School library media center resources 5

Differences in library resources between schools can indicate how technology-based equipment and services are

distributed as well as the level of student accessibility to these resources. In school year 1993–94, the availability

of resources and services provided by library media centers was directly related to the poverty level of the school

(as measured by the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch). For example, schools with

low poverty levels were more likely than schools with high poverty levels to have library media centers equipped

with computers with modems, an automated circulation system, database searching capability with CD-ROM, online database searching capability, and connection to the Internet.

NOTE: Percentages are based on schools that have library media centers. In school year 1990–91, 96 percent of public schools had library media

centers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (Library Media Center Questionnaire), 1993–94.

Percentage of public school library media centers that offered selected services and equipment,

 by percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch: School year 1993–94

 Computer with modem

 Database searching

with CD-Rom

 On-line database

searching

 Compact disc for

periodical indices, etc.

 Connection to Internet

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0–5

6–20

21–40

41 or more
6

Homework is an important tool that teachers use to help students review and practice what they have learned, to

teach children to work independently, and to encourage children to develop good habits and attitudes. In school

year 1994–95, 49 percent of public school elementary teachers reported that their students spent more than one

hour on homework during an average week, compared to 58 percent of private school elementary teachers. Only

6 percent of public and 2 percent of private school elementary teachers reported that their students spent no time

on homework during an average week.

 Homework assigned by elementary teachers

* Includes elementary teachers whose main assignment was teaching “general elementary” and who taught in both the 1993–94 and 1994–95 school

years; therefore, new teachers were not included in this analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Teacher Follow-up Survey, 1994–95.

Amount of time students in elementary* teachers' classes spent on homework

during an average week, by control of school: School year 1994–95

 None

 One hour or less

 Between one and two hours

 More than two hours

0 10 20 30 40 50

0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent

Public

Private
 7

Research has shown that reading ability is positively associated with the extent to which students read recreationally.

In 1994, almost six out of ten 9-year-olds and three out of ten 13- and 17-year-olds reported reading for fun almost

every day. Between 1984 and 1994, a greater percentage of 9-year-olds than 13- and 17-year-olds reported

reading for fun almost every day.

 Reading and writing habits of students

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress, Almanac: Reading, 1984 to 1994, and Writing, 1984 to 1994, 1996.

Percentage of students who read for fun almost every day, by age: 

 Selected years 1984–94

1984 1988 1990 1992 1994

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Year

Percent

Age 9

Age 13

Age 17
 Trends in mathematics proficiency of 9-, 13-, and 17-year-olds 8

Knowledge of mathematics is critical for success in science, computing, and a number of other related fields of

study. In an increasingly technological world, the mathematics skills of the Nation’s workers may be a crucial

component of economic competitiveness. Although whites continue to outscore blacks and Hispanics at all ages

in mathematics proficiency, white scores increased at a slower rate than black and Hispanic scores at ages 13 and

17, causing this gap to decrease for these age groups over the last 20 years.

NOTE: The mathematics proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 500.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress, Trends in Academic Progress: Achievement of U.S. Students in Science, 1969 to 1994; Mathematics, 1973 to 1994; Reading, 1971 to 1994; Writing, 1984 to 1994,

1996.

Average mathematics proficiency, by race/ethnicity and age:

 Selected years 1978–94

1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994

0

150

200

250

300

350

400

0

150

200

250

300

350

400

Proficiency

White Black Hispanic

>< ><

17

13

9

17

13

9

17

13

9
 International comparisons of mathematics and science performance 9

The recently completed Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessed the mathematics

and science performance of students from around the world. In 1995, eighth-grade students from the United

States scored lower, on average, in mathematics than students in Japan, France, and Canada, and scored about

the same as students in Germany and England. In science, U.S. students scored higher, on average, than students in France, about the same as students in Canada and Germany, and lower than students in Japan and

England.

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, TIMSS International Study Center, Mathematics Achievement in

the Middle School Years and Science Achievement in the Middle School Years, IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 1996.

Distribution of proficiency scores, by subject and country: 1995

75th to 95th 

percentile

Average

proficiency 

score +/- 2 

standard

errors

5th to 25th

percentile

Science

Japan

England

United

States

Canada

Germany

France

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Average score

Average

score

Above 

the U.S.

Below 

the U.S.

Same as 

the U.S.

Mathematics

Japan

France

Canada

Germany

England

United

States

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Same as 

the U.S.

Average

score

Above 

the U.S.

Below 

the U.S.

Average score
 Students taking Advanced Placement (AP) examinations 10

NOTE: Since, on average, AP candidates take more than one examination, there is not a 1:1 ratio between candidates and examinations. Analysis

includes a small number of college students who took the exams (2 percent of all candidates in 1995).

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Reports, various years (Copyright © 1996 by the College Entrance

Examination Board. All rights reserved.). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Participation in the Advanced Placement (AP) program is associated with a demanding academic curriculum and

illustrates the desire of schools, colleges, and universities to offer college-level courses in high school. Between

1984 and 1995, the number of students taking AP examinations increased dramatically, rising from 24 students per

1,000 11th- and 12th-grade students to 66 students per 1,000. The number of examinees increased for both sexes

and all racial/ethnic groups during this period.

Number of students who took AP examinations (per 1,000 11 - and 12 -graders):

 1984–95 

1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Year

Students per 1,000

Total

White

Black

Hispanic

th th
 Student alcohol and drug use 11

Alcohol and drug use can interfere with a student’s thinking and reduce a student’s academic achievement, and it

is associated with violent crime. Between 1991 and 1996, the percentage of 8th-graders, 10th-graders, and 12thgraders who reported using marijuana in the previous 30 days increased; for example, the percentage of 12thgraders who reported using marijuana in the previous 30 days increased from 14 percent in 1991 to 22 percent in

1996. The percentage of 12th-graders who reported using any illicit drug other than marijuana increased from 7

percent in 1991 to 10 percent in 1996.

* In 1993, the questions regarding alcohol consumption were changed; therefore, data for alcohol use in 1993–96 may not be comparable to data for

earlier years.

SOURCE: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future Study.

Percentage of students who reported using alcohol or drugs any time 

during the previous 30 days, by grade: 1991–96

199119921993199419951996 199119921993199419951996 199119921993199419951996

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

Percent

Alcohol* Marijuana Any illicit drug other

than marijuana 12

10

8 12

10

8

10

8

12
 Recent school dropouts 12

Students who drop out of school have fewer opportunities to succeed in the work force or to assume a fully

functional place in society at large than those students who complete high school. In 1995, Hispanic students were

more likely than white students to drop out (12 compared to 5 percent, respectively). Although the dropout rate for

black students fell between the rates for Hispanic and white students, there were no measurable differences in the

dropout rates of black and white students or in the rates of black and Hispanic students.

* The event dropout rate is the percentage of those in grades 10–12, aged 15–24, who were enrolled the previous October, but who were not enrolled

and had not graduated the following October.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Dropout Rates in the United States, 1995 (based on the October

Current Population Surveys).

Event dropout rates* for those in grades 10–12, aged 15–24,

by race/ethnicity: October 1972–95

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1995

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Year

Percent

White

Black

Hispanic
 13

Data on community service performed by high school seniors and their participation in community service after

leaving high school may help school administrators assess their current community service programs. In 1994, 43

percent of 1992 high school seniors reported performing community service in the previous year. Those who

performed community service during the last 2 years of high school were more likely to report performing community service two years later than those who did not (61 compared to 30 percent, respectively).

* In 1992, high school seniors were asked it they had performed community service during the previous 2 years.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, Second Follow-up

(1992) and Third Follow-up (1994).

 Community service activities following high school

Percentage of 1992 high school seniors who in 1994 reported performing community 

service the previous year, by performance of community service in high school*

Total

No community service

in high school

Community service in

high school

0 20 40 60 80

0 20 40 60 80

Percent
 Transition from high school to work 14

The employment rate among school leavers, both those who have not finished high school and those who have

finished but have not gone on to college, indicates the difficulty of making the transition from high school to work.

During the period of economic recession between 1989 and 1992, the employment rates in both groups fell about

10 percentage points. However, in 1993, the employment rate for recent school dropouts increased markedly,

rising more than 10 percentage points. In 1995, 63 percent of recent high school graduates not enrolled in college

were employed, compared to 48 percent of recent school dropouts.

NOTE: Recent high school graduates are individuals aged 16–24 who graduated during the survey year. Recent school dropouts are individuals aged

16–24 who did not graduate and who were in school 12 months earlier, but who were not enrolled during the survey month.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Employment rates for recent high school graduates not enrolled in college 

and for recent school dropouts: October 1972–95

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1995

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Year

Percent employed

Recent high school graduates

not enrolled in college

Recent school dropouts
 Immediate transition from high school to college 15

The percentage of college students enrolling in college immediately after completing high school not only reflects

the accessibility of higher education to high school graduates but also shows their assessment of the value of

attending college as compared to working, entering the military, traveling, or other possible pursuits. Between

1972 and 1995, high school graduates from high income families were more likely than high school graduates from

low income families to go directly to college.

* Low income is the bottom 20 percent of all family incomes; high income is the top 20 percent of all family incomes; and middle income is the 60

percent in-between. Data on family income for 1974 are not available, and 1994 data are revised from previously published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Percentage of high school graduates aged 16–24 who were enrolled in college

the October following graduation, by family income:* October 1972–95

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1995

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Year

Percent

Low income

Middle income

High income
16 Racial and ethnic differences in participation in higher education

NOTE: Included in the total but not shown separately are high school graduates from other racial/ethnic groups.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Racial and ethnic differences in college enrollment rates may reflect differences in access to and persistence in

higher education for groups with varying social and economic backgrounds. The percentage of high school graduates aged 18–24 enrolled in college was higher in 1995 than in 1972 for whites and blacks. During this period, the

college enrollment rates for whites grew substantially (11 percentage points), with most of the growth occurring

after 1981. College enrollment rates for blacks of the same age group grew moderately over the period (8 percentage points).

Percentage of high school graduates aged 18–24 enrolled in college, 

by race/ethnicity: October 1972–95 

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1995 

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

Year

Percent

White

Total

Hispanic Black
 College costs and family income 17

NOTE: Tuition data are for academic years beginning 1964–95, and family income data are for calendar years 1964–95. Both calendar and school

year Consumer Price Indices (CPIs) were used to calculate constant dollar figures. “Tuition, room, and board” are for 2-year and 4-year colleges and

universities. In-state tuition and fees are used for public institutions.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1996, (based on IPEDS “Fall

Enrollment” and “Institutional Characteristics” surveys). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P60, “Income, Poverty and Valuation of Non-Cash Benefits,” various years (based on the March Current Population Surveys).

The average cost for tuition, room, and board as a percentage of median family income is an indicator of the

affordability of a college education. After a period of decline in the 1960s and 1970s, average tuition, room, and

board at public institutions rose to 15 percent of median family income in 1993 and has remained stable since. At

private institutions, the pattern was similar, but average tuition, room, and board as a percentage of median family

income increased to 42 percent of median family income in 1995.

Average undergraduate tuition, room, and board as a percentage of median family income, 

by control of institution: 1964–95

1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

Percent

Private institutions 

Public institutions 
 Remedial education in higher education institutions 18

The percentage of freshmen who enroll in remedial courses provides a snapshot of the current availability and the

demand for these courses at higher education institutions. In 1995, freshmen were more likely to enroll in a

remedial mathematics course than in a remedial reading or writing course. In fact, from 1989 to 1995, the percentage of freshmen who enrolled in a remedial mathematics course increased, while the percentage who enrolled in

a remedial reading or writing course was similar.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Remedial Education at Higher Education Institutions in Fall 1995.

Percentage of freshmen enrolled in remedial courses, by subject,

and control and type of institution: Fall 1995

Reading, writing,

or mathematics

Reading Writing Mathematics

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

Public 2-year Public 4-year Private 2-year Private 4-year
 Part-time enrollment in higher education 19

NOTE: Data by race/ethnicity were not available in 1977. Students who were enrolled in college but had not completed high school (less than 1

percent of the total enrolled) were not included in this analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Enrolling in college part time is an option for high school graduates who want to continue their education but who

choose not to attend full time. There is evidence that students who attend college part time are less likely to

complete and attain a degree. In general, between 1976 and 1995, Hispanic undergraduates were more likely to

be enrolled in college part time than were their white and black counterparts. In 1995, the percentage of Hispanics

enrolled part time was 10 and 7 percentage points higher than that of whites and blacks, respectively.

Percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in college part time,

by race/ethnicity: October 1976–95

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

Percent

Black White

Hispanic
 Working while in college 20

Although working during the school year leaves less time for students to concentrate on their studies or to participate in extracurricular activities, students who work may gain valuable knowledge and skills that are not taught in

the classroom. The percentage of full-time college students aged 16–24 who were employed rose from 34 percent

in 1970 to 47 percent in 1988, and has remained fairly stable since then. Almost half (47 percent) of full-time

college students aged 16–24 were employed in October 1995, and more than one-fourth (27 percent) worked at

least 20 hours per week.

* Includes those who were employed but not at work during the survey week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Percentage of full-time college students aged 16–24 who were 

employed* in October: 1970–95

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

Percent

Total employed

 Employed 20 hours

 or more per week

Employed 35 or more

hours per week
 Subbaccalaureate persistence and attainment 21

Percentage of 1989–90 postsecondary students seeking an associate’s degree or

certificate, by highest degree completed as of spring 1994

* Limited to students seeking an associate’s degree at 2-year institutions and students seeking a certificate at 2-year and less-than-2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study,

Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94).

Subbaccalaureate programs can offer occupationally specific training for immediate transition into the labor market or serve as a stepping stone to bachelor’s degree programs. Within 5 years of initial enrollment, certificate

seekers were more likely than associate’s degree seekers to attain a postsecondary credential (55 compared to 43

percent, respectively). Within 5 years of initial enrollment, 24 percent of associate’s degree seekers earned an

associate’s degree and 50 percent of certificate degree seekers earned a certificate.

Associate's degree seekers*

Associate's

24%

Bachelor's

8%

No degree

57%

Certificate

11%

Certificate seekers*

Bachelor's

1%

Associate's

4%

No degree

46%

Certificate

49%
22

Natural sciences

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1994

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

Index (1981=100)

All fields

Life

sciences

Physical

sciences

Mathematics

Computer sciences and engineering

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1994

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

Index (1981=100)

All fields

Engineering

technologies

Computer and

information sciences

Engineering

 Bachelor’s degrees conferred, by field of study

Changing opportunities within the job market affect the fields in which students choose to major. After a sharp

decline between 1986 and 1991, the number of degrees conferred in computer science and engineering leveled off

between 1991 and 1994. Degrees in the natural sciences as a percentage of all degrees conferred dropped from

10 percent in 1971 to 7 percent in 1994; a major factor in the decrease was the sharp decline in the percentage of

degrees conferred in mathematics between 1971 and 1981.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1996 (based on IPEDS/HEGIS

“Completions” surveys).

Index of the numbers of bachelor’s degree conferred (1981=100): Academic years ending 1971–94
 Starting salaries of college graduates 23

Starting salaries offered by employers are related not only to the value of the skills learned by college graduates

but also to the supply of qualified individuals. Differences in starting salaries shed light on the changing demands

of the labor market and the response of students and the education system to those changes. Between 1977 and

1993, college graduates who majored in computer sciences and engineering had much higher starting salaries

than did graduates in all other fields of study; while the salary benefit of majoring in such fields was high, it declined

between 1980 and 1993.

NOTE: Data presented are for bachelor’s degree recipients who were working full time and who were not enrolled in postsecondary education 1 year

after graduation.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Recent College Graduates Survey (1977–90) and 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (B&B:93/94).

Percentage difference between median starting salaries for college graduates

in all fields and college graduates in major fields of study: 

Selected years of graduation 1977–93

Humanities

Social and

behavorial

sciences

Natural 

sciences

Computer

sciences and

engineering Education

Business and

management

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percent

1977 1980 1984 1986 1990 1993
 Public elementary and secondary expenditures per student 24

NOTE: Median household income categories are in 1992–93 dollars. The number of pupils includes those who were enrolled on October 1. The

Consumer Price Index (CPI) was used to adjust expenditures in constant 1996 dollars.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data, “School District Fiscal Data,” 1992–93.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “1990 Census School District Special Tabulations.”

The distribution of public school expenditures across functional areas is an indication of how different public school

systems allocate funds to meet their specific needs. In the 1992–93 school year, relatively high wealth school

districts (those with a median household income of $35,000 or more) spent more per pupil than school districts with

less wealth. The distribution of expenditures across functional areas was fairly similar regardless of the wealth of

the school district.

Public school expenditures per pupil (in constant 1996 dollars), by median household income: 

School year 1992–93

Total

Instructional

Support services

Capital outlay

$0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

$0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

Expenditures per pupil

 Less than $20,000

 20,000–24,999

 25,000–29,999

 30,000–34,999

 35,000 or more
 Salaries of teachers 25

Teachers’ salaries constitute a major proportion of the elementary and secondary budget, and good teachers are

central to a high quality education system. Between 1980 and 1996, the average salary (adjusted for inflation) of

all public school teachers increased 19 percent, rising from $32,332 to $38,434. In 1995, the average salary of all

bachelor’s degree recipients who earned an income was 19 percent higher than the average salary of public

school teachers ($45,773 compared to $38,456).

1

 Plotted points for average annual salary for teachers are: even years 1960–68 and all years 1970–96. Plotted points for average beginning salaries

for teachers are: even years 1972–90 and all years 1992–96. Plotted points for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher are for all years 1968–95. 2

 Includes salaries of all individuals aged 25 or older who earned income and had a bachelor’s degree or higher, including teachers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1996. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60. American Federation of Teachers, Survey and Analysis of Salary Trends

1996, December 1996.

Average annual salaries (in 1996 constant dollars): 

Selected school years ending 1960–961

1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996

0

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

$50,000

0

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

$50,000

School year ending

Average salary

Secondary teachers

Elementary teachers Beginning teachers

Bachelor's degree

or higher2

>< ><
 Education and certification of full-time, secondary mathematics and science teachers 26

* It is easier to have majored or minored in “science” than in a specific discipline, such as biology, because a teacher from any scientific field may

qualify in “science,” whereas qualifying in a specific discipline requires a match in class subject matter.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94 (Teacher Questionnaire).

Whether teachers have majored or minored in the fields they teach is an indication of their substantive and academic qualifications in those subjects. Students in mathematics classes in public secondary schools with a high

student poverty level (more than 40 percent of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch) were less likely to

be taught by teachers who had majored or minored in mathematics than were students in public schools with a low

poverty level (5 percent or fewer of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch).

Students taught by teachers who had majored or minored in their class subject,

by percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch: 

School year 1993–94 

Mathematics Total

sciences*

Biology Chemistry Physics

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percent

0–5 6–20 21–40 41–100
 Attrition among full-time public and private school teachers 27

Teacher attrition is an important factor in determining the demand for additional teachers in the Nation’s schools.

Six percent of full-time public school teachers and 10 percent of full-time private school teachers who taught during

the 1993–94 school year left teaching before the 1994–95 school year. Attrition rates between the 1993–94 and

1994–95 school years for both full-time public and private school teachers were similar to those between the 1987–

88 and 1988–89 school years.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1987–88, 1990–91, and 1993–94,

and the Teacher Follow-up Survey, 1988–89, 1991–92, and 1994–95.

Percentage of full-time teachers who left teaching, 

 by school year and control of school

Public Private Public Private Public Private

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Percent

Between

1987–88

and

1988–89

Between

1990–91

and

1991–92

Between

1993–94

and

1994–95
 Teacher satisfaction 28

Measures such as the degree of respect teachers receive from administrators, the support they receive from

parents, and the amount of resources available may influence their level of job satisfaction as well as their attitudes

toward the teaching profession in general. In the 1993–94 school year, public school teachers from high poverty

schools (more than 40 percent of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch) were more likely to report that

student misbehavior and routine duties interfered with their work and less likely to report that they received a great

deal of support from parents than those teachers from low poverty schools (5 percent or fewer students eligible for

free or reduced-price lunch).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94.

1 It is easier to have majored, minored, or to have become certified in “science” than in a specific discipline, such as biology, because a teacher from

any scientific field may qualify in “science,” whereas qualifying in a specific discipline requires a match in class subject matter.

2 Too few sample observations for a reliable estimate of the number

Percentage of public school teachers who strongly agree with the following perceptions and attitudes,

 by percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch: School year 1993–94

 The level of student behavior in

this school interferes with my teaching

 I receive a great deal of support from

parents for the work I do

 Necessary materials are available as 

needed by staff

 Routine duties and paperwork

interfere with my job of teaching

0 10 20 30 40

0 10 20 30 40

Percent

0–5

6–20

21–40

41 or more
 Teaching workload of full-time postsecondary faculty 29

Debates about tenure, instructional time, and the overall quality of a college education raise questions about the

actual time postsecondary faculty spend teaching relative to the time they spend doing other activities. In 1992,

faculty members spent 54 percent of their work hours teaching, 18 percent conducting research, and 13 percent

performing administrative tasks. Between 1987 and 1992, the percentage of time full-time postsecondary faculty

members spent teaching decreased (from 57 to 54 percent); however, the number of classroom and student

contact hours per week increased.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, 1988 and 1993.

Percentage of time full-time postsecondary faculty spent on various activities:

Fall 1987 and fall 1992

Teaching

Research/scholarship

Professional growth

Administration

Outside consulting/freelance work

Service and other

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Percent

1992

1987
 Skill improvement training among currently employed workers 30

In the face of changing technologies, work methodologies, and markets, firms and workers benefit from education

or training that upgrades or reorients workers’ skills. Differences in the proportions of workers who receive training

provide an indication of which professions view training as a valuable investment. The percentage of workers who

participate in skill improvement training is related to their educational attainment. For example, in both 1991 and

1995, college graduates were more likely than other workers to participate in training to improve their current job

skills.

NOTE: Survey questions were constructed differently in 1995. However, the response categories used in this analysis were similar to those used in

the 1991 survey.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey, 1991 and 1995 (Adult

Education Component).

Percentage of employed individuals who took one or more courses during the previous 12

 months to improve their current job skills, by educational attainment: 1991 and 1995

 High school graduate or less

 Some postsecondary education

 College graduate

0 10 20 30 40 50

0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent

1991 

1995