MONTREAL PROTOCOL

ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE

THE OZONE LAYER

UNEP

REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL

MAY 2014

VOLUME 4

DECISION XXV/5 TASK FORCE REPORT

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION TO ALTERNATIVES ON ODS

(DRAFT REPORT)

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report iii

UNEP

MAY 2014 REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC

ASSESSMENT PANEL

VOLUME 4

DECISION XXV/5 TASK FORCE REPORT 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS

(DRAFT REPORT)
iv May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Montreal Protocol

On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Report of the

UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

Volume 4

May 2014

DECISION XXV/5 TASK FORCE REPORT:

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS (DRAFT REPORT)

The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman.

Co-ordination: TEAP and its XXV/5 Task Force

Composition and layout: Lambert Kuijpers and Paul Ashford

Final formatting: Ozone Secretariat 

Reproduction: UNON Nairobi

Date: May 2014

Under certain conditions, printed copies of this report are available from:

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

Ozone Secretariat, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya

This document is also available in portable document format from

http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/assessment_panels_main.php

No copyright involved. This publication may be freely copied, abstracted and cited, with 

acknowledgement of the source of the material.

Printed in Nairobi, Kenya, 2014.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report v

UNEP

MAY 2014 REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC

ASSESSMENT PANEL

VOLUME 4

DECISION XXV/5 TASK FORCE REPORT 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS
vi May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

DISCLAIMER

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 

(TEAP) co-chairs and members, the Technical and Economic Options Committee, chairs, co-chairs and 

members, the TEAP Task Forces co-chairs and members, and the companies and organisations that employ 

them do not endorse the performance, worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical 

options discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal of 

contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including additional toxicity evaluation -

more information on health, environmental and safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become 

available for use in selecting among the options discussed in this document.

UNEP, the TEAP co-chairs and members, the Technical and Economic Options Committee, chairs, co-chairs 

and members, and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Task Forces co-chairs and members, in 

furnishing or distributing the information that follows, do not make any warranty or representation, either 

express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor do they assume any liability of 

any kind whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon any information, material, or procedure 

contained herein.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and the XXV/5 Task Force co-chairs and members 

wish to express thanks to all who contributed from governments, both Article 5 and non-Article 5, 

furthermore in particular to the Ozone and the Multilateral Fund Secretariat, as well as to a large number of 

individuals involved in Protocol issues, without whose involvement this assessment would not have been 

possible.

The opinions expressed are those of the Panel and its Task Force and do not necessarily reflect the reviews of 

any sponsoring or supporting organisation.

The TEAP and its XXV/5 Task Force thank the Multilateral Fund Secretariat in Montreal, Canada, for 

hosting the meeting, 5-9 May 2014 where final inputs from Parties were reviewed, the outline for this report 

was discussed and proposals were made for the last drafting in May 2014, after which last reviews took place 

by email circulation during the end of May 2014.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report vii

Foreword

The May 2014 TEAP Report

The May 2014 TEAP Report consists of six volumes:

Volume 1: May 2014 TEAP Progress Report

Volume 2: May 2014 TEAP Essential Use Nominations Report

Volume 3: May 2014 TEAP Critical Use Nominations Report

Volume 4: TEAP Decision XXV/5 Task Force Report on information on alternatives to ODS 

Volume 5: TEAP Decision XXV/6 Report on TOC appointment processes, future configurations and 

the streamlining of annual (progress) reports

Volume 6: TEAP Decision XXV/8 Task Force on the funding requirement for the 2015-2017 

replenishment of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol.

 Volume 1 contains the TOC progress reports, and a chapter “Other TEAP Matters”, discussing 

the status of (re-) nominations and challenges to the participation of experts, as well as an annex 

with the list of TEAP and TOC members, status May 2014 

 Volume 2 contains the assessment of the 2014 essential use nominations by the CTOC and the 

MTOC

 Volume 3 contains the assessment of the 2014 critical use nominations by the MBTOC 

 Volume 4 is the report of the TEAP Task Force responding to Decision XXV/5 on information 

on alternatives to ODS in the refrigeration and air conditioning, foams, medical uses, fire 

protection and solvent sectors

 Volume 5 contains a description by the TEAP on the TOC appointment processes and their 

future configurations and the streamlining of the annual (progress) reports in response to 

Decision XXV/6

 Volume 6 is the report of the TEAP Task Force responding to Decision XXV/8 on the funding 

requirement for the 2015-2017 replenishment of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of 

the Montreal Protocol.

This is Volume 4, the report of the Decision XXV/5 Task Force on information on alternatives to 

ODS.

The UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP):

Lambert Kuijpers, co-chair NL Jose Pons-Pons VEN

Bella Maranion, co-chair USA Ian Porter AUS

Marta Pizano, co-chair COL Miguel Quintero COL

Paul Ashford UK Helen Tope AUS

Mohamed Besri MOR Dan Verdonik USA

David Catchpole UK Ashley Woodcock UK

Marco Gonzalez CR Masaaki Yamabe J

Sergey Kopylov RF Shiqiu Zhang PRC

Kei-ichi Ohnishi J Jianjung Zhang PRC

Roberto Peixoto BRA

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report ix

UNEP

MAY 2014 REPORT OF THE

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL

VOLUME 4

DECISION XXV/5 TASK FORCE REPORT

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS

Table of Contents Page

FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................................................VII

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................1

Overview .......................................................................................................................................................1

Business-as-Usual Scenario..........................................................................................................................2

Mitigation Scenarios.....................................................................................................................................3

Cost assessment.............................................................................................................................................6

Qualitative Summaries..................................................................................................................................6

2 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................7

2.1 TERMS OF REFERENCE 7

2.2 SCOPE AND COVERAGE 7

2.3 COMPOSITION OF THE TASK FORCE 7

2.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE XXV/5 REPORT 8

3 EMERGING TRENDS IN ALTERNATIVE SELECTION AS THEY IMPACT BAU 

DETERMINATION...................................................................................................................................11

3.1 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 11

3.1.1 Domestic Refrigeration .................................................................................................................11

3.1.2 Commercial refrigeration..............................................................................................................11

3.1.3 Transport refrigeration .................................................................................................................13

3.1.4 Large size (industrial) refrigeration).............................................................................................14

3.1.5 Water heating heat pumps.............................................................................................................15

3.1.6 Air conditioning.............................................................................................................................15

3.1.7 Chillers..........................................................................................................................................17

3.1.8 Mobile Air Conditioning ...............................................................................................................18

3.2 FOAMS 19

3.2.1 Polyurethane Appliance ................................................................................................................21

3.2.2 Polyurethane Boardstock ..............................................................................................................22

3.2.3 Polyurethane Panels .....................................................................................................................23

3.2.4 Polyurethane Spray .......................................................................................................................23

3.2.5 Polyurethane In-situ/Block............................................................................................................23

3.2.6 Polyurethane Integral Skin............................................................................................................24

3.2.7 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS)..........................................................................................................24

3.2.8 Phenolic Foam ..............................................................................................................................25

4 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SPECIFIC BAU SCENARIOS FOR ARTICLE 5 AND NONARTICLE 5 REGIONS .............................................................................................................................27

4.1 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING – METHODS FOR DEVELOPING DEMAND ESTIMATES 27

4.2 ARTICLE 5 PARTIES – REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 27

4.2.1 Decision XIX/6 ..............................................................................................................................27

4.2.2 Economic Growth Rates................................................................................................................28

4.2.3 BAU – Refrigeration and Air Conditioning...................................................................................28

4.3 ARTICLE 5 PARTIES - FOAMS 30

4.3.1 Polyurethane Foams .....................................................................................................................30

4.3.2 Extruded Polystyrene Foams.........................................................................................................31

4.3.3 Other Foams..................................................................................................................................31
x May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

4.3.4 Factors influencing growth rates ..................................................................................................31

4.3.5 BAU - Foams.................................................................................................................................31

4.4 NON-ARTICLE 5 PARTIES - FOAMS 33

4.4.1 HFC Legislation............................................................................................................................34

4.5 AVAILABILITY OF ALTERNATIVES 36

4.5.1 BAU - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning ...................................................................................36

4.5.2 BAU – Foams................................................................................................................................39

4.5.3 BAU – global summary for both foams and RAC..........................................................................40

5 IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT MITIGATION SCENARIOS COMPARED TO BUSINESSAS-USUAL..................................................................................................................................................43

5.1 TECHNICAL SUITABILITY 43

5.2 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY 43

5.2.1 Non-Article 5 Parties.....................................................................................................................43

5.2.2 Article 5 Parties.............................................................................................................................44

5.3 DEFINING THE COST 44

5.3.1 Non-Article 5 Parties.....................................................................................................................44

5.3.2 Article 5 Parties.............................................................................................................................44

5.4 FUNDING SOURCES 45

5.4.1 Non-Article 5 Parties.....................................................................................................................45

5.4.2 Article 5 Parties.............................................................................................................................45

5.5 OTHER ISSUES 46

5.5.1 Non-Article 5 Parties.....................................................................................................................46

5.5.2 Article 5 Parties.............................................................................................................................46

6 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH SELECTED MITIGATION SCENARIOS

......................................................................................................................................................................47

6.1 ARTICLE 5 – REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 47

6.1.1 Mitigation Scenarios .....................................................................................................................47

6.1.2 Impact assessment of Mitigation Scenarios...................................................................................50

6.1.3 Economic Factors .........................................................................................................................51

6.2 ARTICLE 5 - FOAMS 53

6.2.1 Mitigation Scenarios .....................................................................................................................53

6.2.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios..................................................................................54

6.2.3 Economic Factors .........................................................................................................................55

6.3 NON-ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES – REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 55

6.3.1 Mitigation Scenarios .....................................................................................................................55

6.3.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios..................................................................................59

6.3.3 Economic Factors .........................................................................................................................60

6.4 NON-ARTICLE 5 PARTIES – FOAMS 61

6.4.1 Mitigation Scenarios .....................................................................................................................61

6.4.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios..................................................................................63

6.4.3 Economic Factors .........................................................................................................................64

7 INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS IN THE FIRE PROTECTION SECTOR ...........65

7.1 INTRODUCTION 65

7.2 RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1(A) 65

7.2.1 Commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for total flooding fire protection 

using fixed systems ........................................................................................................................65

7.2.2 Commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for local application fire 

protection using portable systems.................................................................................................66

7.3 RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1(B) 67

7.4 RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1(C) 67

8 INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS IN SOLVENT USES.............................................69

8.1 INTRODUCTION 69

8.3 RESPONSE TO QUESTION 1(A) 69

8.3.1 Status in non-A5 Parties................................................................................................................69

8.3.2 Status in Article 5 Parties..............................................................................................................70

8.4 SOLVENTS UPDATE 71

8.4.1 N-Propyl Bromide .........................................................................................................................71
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report xi

8.4.2 Alternatives under Development ...................................................................................................71

9 INFORMATION ON ALTERNATIVES TO ODS IN MEDICAL USES.............................................72

9.1 METERED DOSE INHALERS 72

9.1.1 Technical and economic assessment of alternatives to CFC MDIs...............................................72

9.1.2 Current and future demand for ODS alternatives.........................................................................76

9.1.3 Economic costs, implications, and environmental benefits of avoiding high GWP alternatives...78

9.2 STERILANTS 80

9.2.1 Alternatives to ODS sterilants and their assessment using criteria...............................................81

9.2.2 Current and future demand for ODS alternatives.........................................................................83

9.2.3 Economic costs, implications, and environmental benefits of avoiding high GWP alternatives...84

10 ANNEXES...................................................................................................................................................85

10.1 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 85

10.1.1 Domestic Refrigeration .................................................................................................................98

10.1.2 Commercial Refrigeration.............................................................................................................99

10.1.3 Transport Refrigeration ..............................................................................................................101

10.1.4 Large size (industrial) refrigeration............................................................................................101

10.1.5 Water Heating Heat Pumps.........................................................................................................102

10.1.6 Air Conditioning..........................................................................................................................103

10.1.7 Chillers........................................................................................................................................105

10.1.8 Mobile Air Conditioning .............................................................................................................108

10.2 FOAMS 111

10.2.1 Polyurethane appliances............................................................................................................111

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................111

(b) Emerging Alternatives.................................................................................................................113

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................114

10.2.2 Polyurethane Boardstock ............................................................................................................114

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances........................................115

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................115

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................116

10.2.3 Polyurethane Panels ...................................................................................................................116

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances........................................116

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................118

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................118

10.2.4 Polyurethane Spray .....................................................................................................................119

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................119

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................120

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................120

10.2.5 Polyurethane In-situ/Block..........................................................................................................121

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................121

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................122

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................122

10.2.6 Polyurethane Integral Skin..........................................................................................................123

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................123

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................123

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................124

10.2.7 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS)........................................................................................................125

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................125

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................126

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................126

10.2.8 Phenolic Foam ............................................................................................................................126

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances ........................................127

(b) Emerging alternatives .................................................................................................................128

(c) Barriers and restrictions .............................................................................................................128

11 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................129

12 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................................131

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 1

1 Executive Summary

Overview

Decision XXV/5 is the first in a series of Decisions on alternatives to ozone depleting substances to 

request TEAP to develop and assess the impact of specific mitigation scenarios as part of its reporting 

back to the Parties. In responding to this mandate, TEAP has sought to draw from its earlier 

evaluations of alternatives (Decisions XXIII/9 and XXIV/7) in order to provide a grounded basis for 

such mitigation scenarios. The information has been updated where appropriate, although the changes 

have generally been minor because of the short time period between the finalisation of the TEAP 

Report on XXIV/7 (September 2013) and the drafting of this Report (April-May 2014). 

It should be noted that quantitative information is still only available for the refrigeration, air 

conditioning and foam sectors. Therefore, discussion on fire protection, solvents and medical uses 

has remained qualitative, with the latter being added to the scope of such reports for the first time 

(Chapter 9). Nevertheless, for each of these sectors, efforts have still been made to address the three 

major inputs requested of TEAP in Decision XXV/5 – namely: 

 An update on alternatives available, highlighting significant differences between non-Article 

5 and Article 5 regions (Element 1(a))

 A (qualitative/quantitative) discussion of future demand for alternatives to ozone depleting 

substances (Element 1(b)) 

 A (qualitative/quantitative) discussion on the costs and environmental benefits of various 

mitigation scenarios (Element 1(c))

Where quantitative information has been available, it has become self-evident that the Refrigeration 

and Air Conditioning (RAC) sector is the dominant factor in the climate impact assessment even 

when existing regulatory measures are considered as part of the BAU scenario (see Figure ES-1) 

Figure ES-1 Projection of Business-as-Usual Climate Impact to 2030 for RAC and foams 
2 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Business-as-Usual Scenario

The make-up of the Business-as-Usual scenario for RAC is shown in Figures ES-2 and ES-3 below:

 

 

Figure ES-2 Actual and projected BAU demand of refrigerants in non-Article 5 Regions 

Figure ES-3 Actual and projected BAU demand of refrigerants in Article 5 Regions 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 3

Mitigation Scenarios

Understandably, the grounding of the mitigation scenarios for such large consuming sectors becomes 

critical to the outcome of the response to Element 1(c) of Decision XXV/5 and a large part of this 

report addresses the technical capability and economic capacity of the RAC sector to respond. Two 

mitigation scenarios have been identified. One (MIT-1) is believed to be a relatively achievable 

scenario based on current technology options and potential trends. The other (MIT-2) is a more 

progressive “what if” assessment and is believed to be at the limit of what could be achievable in the 

period to 2030. The following two graphs illustrate the impact for non-Article 5 regions: 

Figure ES-4 The climate impact of Mitigation Scenario 1 for RAC in non-Article 5 regions 

Figure ES-5 The climate impact of Mitigation Scenario 2 for RAC in non-Article 5 regions 
4 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

It is clear from both graphs that the impact of measures on low-GWP alternatives is unlikely to be felt 

in non-Article 5 regions until after 2020. This acknowledges the fact that additional regulatory 

measures, such as the revised F-Gas Regulation will be necessary to trigger transitions. 

For the Article 5 case, the incursion of low-GWP alternatives is evident from the year 2000 onwards. 

However, the importance of guiding investment into low-GWP solutions wherever possible is clear in 

view of the anticipated rate of growth of the RAC sector in the period through to 2030. Figure ES-7 is 

particularly revealing in that the opportunity to major inroads exists beyond 2020. 

 

Figure ES-6 The climate impact of Mitigation Scenario 1 for RAC in Article 5 regions 

Figure ES-7 The climate impact of Mitigation Scenario 2 for RAC in Article 5 regions 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 5

The Task Force has also made efforts to quantify the potential cumulative climate impact arising 

from mitigation activities in both the foam and RAC sectors. Although the foam contribution is 

modest, it is still believed to be desirable, especially since any measures to reduce reliance on highGWP blowing agents will have an enduring effect beyond 2030. The most notable benefits are likely 

to come from the XPS sector in the period beyond 2025. 

Figure ES-8 Cumulative Climate Savings compared with BAU from Mitigation Scenario 1

 

Figure ES-9 Cumulative Climate Savings compared with BAU from Mitigation Scenario 2
6 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

It can be seen that the cumulative savings by 2030 from Mitigation Scenario 1 are approximately 3 

billion tonnes CO2-eq, while the delivery from Mitigation Scenario 2 is in the region of 11.5 billion 

tonnes CO2-eq. 

Cost assessment

With respect to cost, the ranges are inevitably wide because the circumstances surrounding any future 

transitions have a major bearing. It is clear that technology transitions that can coincide with other 

process upgrades will be more cost-effective than those that are forced to be implemented 

independently because of specific regulatory measures. Most importantly, the costs will be least 

where new RAC and foam manufacturing capacity investment is directed away from high-GWP 

options at the outset. Hence, efforts should be focused on ensuring that low-GWP options are well 

proven at the earliest opportunity in order to inspire investment confidence. 

Within the RAC sector, the costs for Mitigation Scenarios 1 and 2 in Article 5 regions have been 

estimated and the ranges are shown in the following two tables. 

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 405-810

Refr.sectors R-407A/C/F 90,000 54,000 54-162

Stationary AC 135,000 0

Total 459-972

Table ES-1 Costs for the MIT-1 scenario in Article 5 countries

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 270-810

Refr.sectors Low GWP 90,000 54,000 324-972

Stationary AC Low GWP 135,000 81,000 486-1458

Total 1080-3240

 

Table ES-2 Costs for the MIT-2 scenario in Article 5 countries

Qualitative Summaries 

Whilst the quantification of costs and savings has not been as possible, or as detailed, for other 

sectors, it is important to note the following conclusions for fire protection, solvents and medical 

uses: 

 The process for assessing and qualifying new fire protection agents for use is long and is also 

application specific. Whilst the phase-out of ODS in this sector is well underway, there will 

be some reliance of high-GWP solutions for the foreseeable future. Control of avoidable 

emissions continues to improve, thereby minimising impacts. 

 In the solvents sector, there is still limited use of HCFC-141b and HCFC-225ca/cb. However, 

there is increased interest in a number of the emerging unsaturated halogenated substances, 

since the range of halogens (chlorine, fluorine and/or bromine) provide a range of solvating 

capabilities which should address any short-comings of currently available alternatives. 

 Metered dose inhalers use HFC-134a and HFC-227ea, with cumulative emissions between 

2014-2025 estimated to have a climate impact of 173,000 ktonnes CO2 equivalent under a 

business-as-usual scenario. Completely avoiding high-GWP (HFC) alternatives in this sector 

is not yet technically or economically feasible. In the sterilants sector, where there is almost 

non-existent use of HFCs and a wide variety of alternatives available, the impact of avoiding 

HFCs would be minimal. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 7

2 Introduction

2.1 Terms of Reference

Decision XXV/5 of the Twenty-fifth Meeting of the Parties requested the Technology and Economic 

Assessment Panel (TEAP) to prepare this report for consideration by the Open-ended Working Group 

at its 34th meeting and an updated report for the Twenty-sixth Meeting in 2014.

2.2 Scope and coverage

The text of Decision XXV/5, as it relates to this report is as follows:

1. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, if necessary, in consultation 

with external experts, to prepare a report for consideration by the Open-ended Working 

Group at its thirty-fourth meeting and an updated report to be submitted to the TwentySixth Meeting of the Parties that would:

(a) Update information on alternatives to ozone-depleting substances in various 

sectors and subsectors and differentiating between Article 5 and non-Article 5 

parties, considering regional differences, and assessing whether they are;

 commercially available,

 technically proven,

 environmentally sound,

 energy efficiency,

 economically viable and cost effective,

 suitable for regions with high ambient temperature, in particular considering the 

refrigeration and air-conditioning sector and their use in high urban density 

cities,

 suitable for safe uses, in particular considering their potential flammability or 

toxicity, and their suitability for use in densely populated urban areas, and 

describing potential limitations of their use,

 easily used

(b) Estimate current and future demand for ODS alternatives, taking into account 

increased demand, particularly in the refrigeration and air conditioning sectors, 

and in Parties operating under paragraph 1 of Article 5;

(c) Assess, differentiating between Article 5 and non- Article 5 parties , the 

economic costs and implications, and environmental benefits, of various 

scenarios of avoiding high GWP alternatives to ozone depleting substances 

where such avoidance is possible considering the list in paragraph (a);

(d) Request the SAP, in liaison with the IPCC, to provide information from the 

contribution of WG1 to the 5th assessment report on the main climate metrics, 

considering the updated information under paragraph 1(a);

2.3 Composition of the Task Force

The TEAP established a XXV/5 Task Force (RTF) to prepare this report to respond to Decision 

XXV/5. The composition of the Task Force is as follows:

Co-chairs

 Paul Ashford (UK, co-chair FTOC)

 Lambert Kuijpers (The Netherlands, co-chair TEAP, co-chair RTOC);

 Roberto Peixoto (Brazil, co-chair RTOC)
8 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Members:

 Rajaram Joshi (India, prospective FTOC member)

 Dave Catchpole (UK, co-chair HTOC)

 Denis Clodic (France, member RTOC) 

 Daniel Colbourne (UK, member RTOC)

 Rick Duncan (USA, member FTOC)

 Michael Kauffeld(Germany, member RTOC)

 Tingxun Li (China, RTOC member)

 Bella Maranion (TEAP, co-chair)

 Keiichi Ohnishi (Japan, co-chair CTOC)

 Rajan Rajendran (USA, RTOC member)

 Enshan Sheng (China, member FTOC);

 Helen Tope (Australia, co-chair MTOC)

 Helen Walter Terrinoni (USA, member FTOC)

 Samuel Yana-Motta (Peru, outside expert)

 Zhang Jianjun (China, co-chair CTOC)

Allen Zhang from the FTOC was also co-opted to consult on certain aspects of the report relating to 

XPS in China. 

Chapter drafts were circulated to relevant sub-groups of the Task Force for development before the 

structure of the Report was considered in detail by TEAP at its meeting in Montreal from 5-9 May 

2014. After resulting re-structuring, the subsequent full draft was circulated by email to the XXV/5 

Task Force as a whole in mid-May and finally to the TEAP for endorsement at the end of May. 

2.4 The Structure of the XXV/5 report

The structure of the TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report was considered in depth by the Task Force and 

by TEAP prior to the final formulation of the Report. Amongst the factors that were considered were:

 The relatively short period between the delivery of the final XXIV/7 Report (September 

2013) and the preparation of the XXV/5 Report (May 2014).

 The similarity of the criteria set out within Decision XXIV/7 and Decision XXV/5 as detailed 

in the following table:

 

 The importance of avoiding too much repetition and bringing focus on what is either new or 

of growing importance. 

 Recognition that some sectors (specifically refrigeration, air conditioning and foam) have 

data which allow for the characterisation of a Business-As-Usual (BAU) case and related 

mitigation scenarios. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 9

 Recognition that other sectors (specifically solvents, fire protection and medical uses) do not 

have reliable data from which relevant mitigation scenarios can be derived or for which 

mitigation scenarios were not derived. 

 Recognition that Decision XXV/5 seeks to generate an analysis of the Article 5 and nonArticle 5 implications of avoiding high GWP alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

As a result, the following chapter layout has been followed: 

Chapter 1 ‘Executive Summary’

Chapter 2 ‘Introduction’ 

...which provides background information to the Decision, the composition of the Task 

Force and the Structure of the Report. 

Chapter 3 ‘Emerging Trends in alternative selection as they impact BAU determination’ 

...which provides information on the trends in alternative selection within the 

refrigeration, air conditioning and foam sectors by sub-sector and the basis for those 

trends with reference to information previously contained in the Decision XXIV/7 

Report and also as updated in the relevant Annexes to this Report. 

Chapter 4 ‘Factors influencing the specific BAU scenarios for Article 5 and non-Article 5 

regions ’ 

...which details the current assessment of consumption by each sector and sub-sector 

covered in Chapter 3 and the regulatory and other influences expected to impact the 

BAU development in the period to 2030, including the availability of funding.

Chapter 5 ‘Identification of relevant mitigation scenarios compared to Business-As-Usual’

...which considers the drivers for accelerated reductions in both Article 5 and nonArticle 5 parties including technology availability, factors influencing cost, market 

drivers, funding sources and related issues.

 Chapter 6 ‘Environmental benefits associated with selected mitigation scenarios’ 

...which assesses the impact in ozone and climate terms of changes in cumulative 

consumption (potential emissions) in the period to 2030 in both Article 5 and nonArticle 5 Parties including comparison on a sector-by-sector basis. 

Chapter 7 ‘Information on alternatives to ODS in the Fire Protection sector’

...which provides information on the trends in alternative selection within the fire 

protection sector with reference to information previously contained in the Decision 

XXIV/7 Report and also as updated in the relevant Annexes of this Report. 

Chapter 8 ‘Information on alternatives to ODS in Solvent Uses”

...which provides information on the trends in alternative selection within the solvents 

sector with reference to information previously contained in the Decision XXIV/7 

Report and also as updated in the relevant Annexes of this Report. 
10 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Chapter 9 ‘Information on alternatives to ODS in Medical Uses’ 

...which provides information on the alternatives available for medical uses and the 

implications of technology choices. 

Annexes ‘Updated information on Alternatives previously reported under Decision XXIV/7’ 

...which provides an updated presentation of the information previously contained in the 

Decision XXIV/7 Report.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 11

3 Emerging Trends in alternative selection as they impact BAU 

determination

3.1 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Since much of the material presented in the Decision XXIV/7 Report remains largely unchanged, it 

has not been presented again in the body of this Report. It can, however, be found in updated form in 

the relevant Annexes to this Report (see Chapter 10); this chapter also contains an updated table of 

refrigerant alternatives (with latest R-number designations). Despite the decision to relegate this 

detailed information, it was still believed to be appropriate to provide a summarised list of 

alternatives at the outset of this chapter with cross-reference to the potential sectors of use. This 

table, which first appeared in XXIV/7 and has been fully updated, is shown on the following page.

The following sections now briefly describe the trends in refrigerant selection by specific sector. 

 

3.1.1 Domestic Refrigeration 

Regarding the refrigerants used in new appliances the share of HC-600a is further increasing. The 

USA market now includes several products applying HC-600a using a reduced charge of 57 g as 

required by UL. It is worth mentioning that many Article 5 countries are increasingly using HC-600a 

now, a trend that already started in the late 1990s. However, globally there is still a substantial 

amount of HFC-134a used in the domestic refrigeration sub-sector. Other than HFC-134a and HC600a any other refrigerant or combination of refrigerants (blends) has a marginal fraction in the total 

use.

In domestic refrigerators and freezers and similar applications, HFC-1234yf could become a third 

candidate. This since its thermodynamic properties such as pressure and capacity are slightly lower 

than for HFC-134a and HFC-1234yf has lower flammability characteristics than HC-600a. The lower 

flammability makes a possible application easier in countries that have strong reservations related to 

the application of the flammable HC-600a. It is so far known that no OEM has started significant 

production on HFC-1234yf yet, and this remains an issue to be followed during the coming years.

Concerning not-in-kind technologies, magnetic refrigeration has been cited in literature various times, 

but it can be concluded that it was found that it is not close to commercialization. 

3.1.2 Commercial refrigeration

Stand-alone equipment

HFC-134a and R-404A are still the dominant refrigerants for stand-alone equipment; in Europe, 

based on the update of the regulation on fluorinated substances, R-404A will be banned for use in 

new equipment as of 1 January 2020.

R-407F (GWP 1800) and R-407A (GWP 2100) are intermediate refrigerant blends currently in 

Europe and in the US to replace R-404A or HCFC-22.

HC-600a and HC-290 are the two hydrocarbons used for small commercial equipment. HC-600a is 

chosen for smaller refrigeration capacities such as water fountains. Ice machines and small display 

cases use HC-290. The uptake of HCs is significant for small commercial equipment with refrigerant 

charges varying from 15 g to 1.5 kg.

R-744 is mainly used in vending machines and bottle coolers; the technology is operating well, but is 

technically challenging and few companies have been able to develop efficient and compact systems.
12 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

GWP 0 1 3 – 5 4 4 6 6 290 330 490 490 600 630 716 1330 1410 1370 1700 1820 2100 2100 3700

R717 R-744 HC-290, 

HC-1270 HC-600a HFC1234yf

HFC1234ze(E)HCFC1233zd(E) “L-40” R-444B “L-41” “DR-5” R-450A “XP-10” HFC-32 R-448A R-449A HFC-134a R-407C R-407F R-407A R-410A R-404A

Domestic refrigeration C F F F C

Commercial refrigeration

— Stand alone equipment C C C L F F F F F F F F L F C F F F F C

— Condensing units L L F F F F F F F F F L F C F F F F C

— Centralised systems L C L F F F F F F L F L F C F C C F C

Transport refrigeration C C F F F F F F F F F F C F F F C C

Large size refrigeration C C L F F F F F F F F F F F C C C C C

Air conds and heat pumps

— Small self contained L C F F F F F F L F F C C F F C F

— Mini-split (non-ducted) L C F L F F F C F F F C F F C F

— Multi-split L F L F F F L F F F C F F C F

— Split (ducted) F F F F F F F L F F F C F F C F

— Ducted split comm. & 

non-split F L F F F F F L F F C C F F C F

— Hot water heating HPs C C C C F F F F F F F F L F F C C F F C F

— Space heating HPs C L C L F F F F F F F F L F F C C F F C C

Chillers

— Positive displacement C C C L L F F L F L L L F F C C F F C C

— Centrifugal L L L L C

Mobile air conditioning

— Cars F F C F F C

— Public transport F L F F C C C

Whilst the following sections describe the application of the various refrigerants listed above, this table summarises the application of each alternative within the respective 

subsectors. 

“C” indicates current use on a commercial-scale 

“L” indicates limited use such as for demonstration, trials, niche applications, etc

“F” indicates use is potentially feasible on a commercial scale, based on fluid characteristics 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 13

Condensing units

HFC-134a, R-404A and, to a small degree, R-410A are HFCs of choice for condensing units. HFC134a is chosen for small capacities and evaporation temperatures >-15°C. R-404A (or sometimes R410A) is chosen for larger capacities for all temperature levels. As to stand-alone equipment, R-407A 

or R-407F is chosen to replace R-404A in Europe, but the difference of prices could still lead to 

charging R-404A in new condensing units. 

Several low GWP blends have been developed by refrigerant manufacturers in order to replace R404A. The energy efficiency of those new blends are in general 5% to 8% better than R-404A 

without system optimisation.

Centralised systems

R-744 cascade systems have taken a significant uptake in Europe with about 1,600 stores equipped.

The preferred option for large European commercial refrigeration operations is HFC-134a at the 

medium-temperature level cascading with R-744 direct systems for the low temperature level, since 

this can be applicable in all climates, making it a global option. 

For cold climates, R744 is used at both temperature levels. R-744 clearly is an important option for 

centralised systems in future commercial refrigeration, especially in cascade systems with another 

refrigerant at the medium temperature level or in trans-critical systems.

Hydrocarbons are used in about 100 centralised systems in Europe, either with HC-290 or HC-1270, 

without that any significant commercial expansion took place during the last couple of years. HCs in 

large centralised systems will have a limited market share mainly due to safety issues. 

HC-290 or HC-1270 are efficient in both medium and low-temperature stages of commercial 

refrigeration equipment. The additional costs are related to containment and safety. The refrigerant 

charge limit, directly associated with regulations and/or standards (depending upon the country), 

forms a barrier. The competition with R-744 as a low GWP option has limited the expansion of HCs 

in centralised systems. 

R-717 is used in indirect systems for large capacity industrial systems but in very few commercial 

centralized systems. There is no significant driver to the spreading of R-717 in commercial 

refrigeration.

For low GWP HFCs, the situation is similar to what has been previously mentioned for condensing 

unit. Several lower flammability blends (class 2L) have GWPs varying from 200 to 300 and can be 

used at the medium-temperature and low temperature levels. Furthermore, HFC-1234yf or HFC1234ze can be applied as the primary refrigerant in cascading systems with R-744 at the low 

temperature. Non-flammable blends that provide reduced GWP (e.g. R-450A and XP-10 with 

GWP<600) and high efficiency are also being considered as options. Their main attractiveness is that 

they do not require any safety measures as they are falling under safety class A1. 

3.1.3 Transport refrigeration

Trucks, trailers and intermodal containers.

The refrigerant of choice for transport refrigeration systems within non-Article 5 countries are HFCs, 

mainly R-404A, R-407C and more recently HFC-134a (especially in new vessels and intermodal 

containers) and R-410A (especially on trucks and cruise ships).
14 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

R-404A has become a preferred choice for practically all trailers and large trucks. HFC-134a is used 

in small trucks and vans, because they can utilise automotive components. Testing of low-GWP 

alternatives is in progress elsewhere, but no option seems viable in the short term. The main issue is 

that the performance of R-404A is difficult to meet (especially its low discharge temperature). 

Although R-410A outperforms R-404A, it has higher pressures (requires technology change for most 

manufacturers).

Current and previous tests with trucks using R-744 suggest that introduction of R-744 will be 

possible when more efficient compressors with more than one compression stage, which are under 

development, will be commercially available. 

In contrast to trucks and trailers, intermodal containers use HFC-134a in most cases and R-404A in 

some. The reasons for choosing HFC-134a could have been the global availability of HFC-134a, and 

lower cost per kg, otherwise R-404A (or today R-410A) would be more suitable. 

Initial field tests with small fleets of containers using R-744 have started. R-717 is deemed 

unacceptable in all truck, trailer and intermodal container applications because of toxicity and 

material compatibility.

Vessels

The majority of the existing fleet (80%) use HCFC-22, which can be replaced by R-417A or R-422D. 

Other HFC alternatives, namely R-410A, R-407C and R-427A, require modifications. Modern cruise 

ships use R-410A and HFC-134a for air conditioning. Where refrigeration is needed for provision 

rooms or process cooling, R-404A is mainly used. HFC-23 is used for freezing at -60 °C and below 

(mainly for fish preservation).

R-717 and R-744 have been applied to some extent aboard marine vessels (RTOC, 2010). For 

European fishing vessels highly efficient R-717 / R-744-cascade systems are the systems of choice, 

using approximately 6% less energy (Schwarz et al., 2011).

3.1.4 Large size (industrial) refrigeration)

Over 90% of the large industrial refrigeration installations use R-717. R-717 is not widely used in 

smaller systems, where there is HCFC and HFC consumption, because suitable compressors are not 

available. Toxicity is an additional concern for R-717 in light industrial applications. Low GWPalternatives to HCFCs include R-717, which is already widely used, hydrocarbons, R-744 for low 

temperature (freezing) and other speciality applications as well as air for very low temperatures 

(currently lower than -60 °C) and (possibly in future) unsaturated HFCs; although the anticipated 

higher cost of unsaturated HFCs will probably prevent their application in systems with large 

refrigerant charges.

Hydrocarbons are not widely used, other than in situations where safety measures are already 

required, e.g. in a petrochemical plant or for compact chillers. 

R-744 is used with excellent efficiency in systems as the low temperature stage to a cascaded upper 

R-717 system especially in the food industry where the refrigerant has to evaporate in freezing 

equipment in the factory. In colder climates R-744 is energy efficient as the sole refrigerant.

In some Article 5 countries, HCFC-22 is being used, but most heat pumps commercialised today 

make use of R-410A, HFC-134a, R-407C, HC-290, HC-600a, R-717, R-744. The majority of new 

equipment uses R-410A. For replacing HCFC-22 by a non-ODS there are no technical barriers. The 

main parameters in the selection of alternatives when switching over from HCFC-22 are cost 

effectiveness, economic impact, safe use and easiness of use. Replacements such as HFC-32 and 

other low-GWP HFC blends such as R444B are under way to become commercial available. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 15

HFC-32 is expected that products for water heating heat pumps will follow soon on a large scale. 

Low GWP HFC blends are under way to become commercially available. The success of these blends 

will depend on the price competitiveness of the equipment compared to other alternatives, based on 

the same capacity and efficiency.

3.1.5 Water heating heat pumps

In some Article 5 countries, HCFC-22 is being used, but most heat pumps commercialised today 

make use of R-410A, HFC-134a, R-407C, HC-290, HC-600a, R-717, R-744. The majority of new 

equipment uses R-410A. For replacing HCFC-22 with a non-ODS alternative there are no technical 

barriers. The main parameters in the selection of alternatives when switching over from HCFC-22 are 

cost effectiveness, economic impact, safe use and easiness of use. Replacements such as HFC-32 and 

other low-GWP HFC blends such as R-444B are under way to become commercially available. 

R-744 water heating heat pumps have been developed and commercialised mainly in Japan and are 

used for water heating. R-717 has also been used in a small number of reversible heat pumps and 

absorption heat pumps. The higher toxicity requires specific trained personnel, has specific use 

limitations and safety requirements. These cost impacts and use limitations limit the practical use.

HFC-32 is expected in products for water heating heat pumps that will follow soon on a large scale. 

Low GWP HFC blends are under way to become commercially available. The success of these blends 

will depend on the price competitiveness of the equipment compared to other alternatives, based on 

the same capacity and efficiency.

3.1.6 Air conditioning 

Small self-contained (window, portable, through-the-wall, packaged terminal)

As detailed in TEAP (2013), R-407C and R-410A have been used in a large proportion of SSC ACs 

following the transition from HCFC-22. They are therefore deemed to be the baseline option. 

The application of HC-290 and HC-1270 in these systems is discussed in detail in TEAP (2013). 

Portable type units are widely available using HC-290 and window units are now in production in 

Asia. The additional cost is negligible and typically needs less material (copper and aluminium) than 

HCFC-22 or R-410A systems they are therefore can be considered as an economically viable option. 

Due to their higher flammability additional requirements are normally needed but limitations are not 

applicable for the majority of products, which have small capacity and corresponding low refrigerant 

charge. 

TEAP (2013) reported that it is feasible to use HFC-32 in SSC ACs and production is likely to begin 

soon. Since the design is almost the same as or even needs less material (copper and aluminium) than 

R-410A then it is reasonable to state that the option is economically viable and there are no 

limitations to ease of use. 

The mixtures R-446A, R-447A, R-444B and “DR5” are feasible to use in SSC ACs, although there is 

no production currently planned with any of them. The other implications associated with them, such 

as economic viability as R-410A and ease of application are likely to be comparable to HFC-32. 

Information regarding the use of R-744 in this type of equipment was provided in TEAP (2013), 

where only niche type products are available (i.e., ECUs). Estimated costs are likely to be around 

double that of the baseline products and therefore not considered economically viable in most cases. 

This is particularly the case for high ambient climates. 
16 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Mini-split (non-ducted)

R-407C is used in a portion of split ACs (in the transition from HCFC-22 in non-Article 5 countries) 

whereas R-410A is used in most where HCFC-22 is not used. As such this is considered the baseline 

option. 

HC-290 has been used in split ACs for many years on a limited scale but now with some companies 

developing and producing them on a larger scale, whilst HC-1270 is also gaining attention. Positive 

efficiency characteristics were discussed in detail in TEAP (2013). The use of HCs is technically 

proven and numerous HC-290 production lines are currently being completed, mainly in China. 

Based on experience, HC-290 has negligible additional cost and typically needs less material (copper 

and aluminium) than HCFC-22 or R-410A systems and is considered to be economically viable. In 

general, HC-290 and HC-1270 in split ACs is suitable for use in densely populated urban areas. In 

general, they are easily used for smaller and medium capacity systems, whilst larger capacity models 

require additional safety features that necessitate an additional safety feature. The main implication is 

that the service sector needs to be suitably trained in order to handle flammability. 

It is feasible to use HFC-32 in split ACs, for example, where R-410A is already used. Most Japanese 

companies have stopped manufacturing R-410A products and have commercialised R32 mini-split 

products demonstrating they are technically and economical proven. It is considered suitable for use 

in high density urban areas and the only implication in terms of ease of use is related to the need to 

suitably train the service sector to handle lower flammable refrigerants..

R-446A, R-447A and DR-5 are feasible for use in split ACs, for example, where R-410A is already 

used. Energy efficiency is favourable and testing and trialling is underway in many countries (TEAP, 

2013). The cost implications are considered minor, except the price of refrigerant may increase the 

cost. Nevertheless, split systems with R-446A and R-447A are likely to be economically viable as 

well as suitable for use in densely populated urban areas. In general they are deemed easy to use 

although due to lower flammability, the service sector would require necessary training.

R-444B is feasible to use in split ACs, for example, to replace HCFC-22 or R-407C, trials are 

ongoing and efficiency is comparable (TEAP, 2013). The cost should be comparable to that of 

HCFC-22 and R-407C but could be greater due to the refrigerant cost but nevertheless economically 

viable. It is not unsuitable for use in high density urban areas and it is otherwise easy to use except 

the need to training of the service sector in the handling of lower flammable refrigerants.

Multi-split, Split (ducted) and Ducted split commercial and non-split air conditioners

R-407C and R-410A may be considered as the baseline options for all of these sub-categories of ACs. 

To a lesser extent, HFC-134a is used but mainly in regions with high ambient conditions. 

The use of R-744 in all of these sub-categories is limited to northern climates where temperatures 

below 30 oC dominate. It is not suitable for high temperature climates due to the inability or excessive 

cost necessary to achieve desired efficiencies. Due to these higher cost implications, the use of R-744 

can seldom be considered economically viable. 

Although feasible in a small proportion of situations, HCs are not used in multi-split and some types 

of ducted systems due to charge size limitations in occupied spaces (TEAP, 2013). Due to charge 

amount limitations, they are not easily applicable and require expert consideration as to suitability of 

cases.

It is feasible to use HFC-32 in most types of multi-split and ducted ACs (TEAP, 2013). The cost 

should be equivalent or lower to R-410A. Nevertheless, at least for small and medium systems it is 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 17

likely to be economically viable and probably suitable for regions with high ambient temperatures 

(although there are conflicting views on the implications for satisfying this). There are no reasons to 

make it unsuitable for use in densely populated regions. It would be easily applied, although 

necessary consideration is needed to provide suitable training for the service sector to handle the 

lower flammability aspects. 

In principle, it is feasible to use the mixtures R-446A, R-447A, R-444B, DR-5, ARM-71 and ARM32c in multi-split and ducted AC systems, for example, where R-410A or R-407C is already used and 

where HFC-32 could be used (TEAP, 2013). These refrigerants are suitable for regions with high 

ambient temperatures and there are no reasons to suggest they would be unsuitable for use in densely 

populated regions. Necessary consideration is needed to provide suitable training for the service 

sector to handle the flammability aspects. Further, it should be noted that these zeotropic blends, 

especially those with a notable temperature glide, can show performance degradation in reversed 

cycle mode due to the difficulties in optimising the heat exchanger for both heating and cooling mode. 

3.1.7 Chillers 

Positive displacement chillers

Positive displacement chillers include those with reciprocating piston, screw, and scroll compressors. 

R-407C, R-410A and HFC-134a are widely used in positive displacement chillers and can be 

considered as the baseline options. 

R-717 is used fairly widely in reciprocating and screw chillers for refrigeration and air conditioning, 

is well proven for a variety of applications and provides excellent efficiency (TEAP, 2013). In terms 

of regions with high ambient temperatures, R-717 chillers can and are used, although the very high 

discharge temperatures need to be accommodated for through inter-stage and oil cooling. Whether 

these chillers can be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas depends upon national 

regulations. 

R-744 is now used in reciprocating chillers by different manufacturers, with good efficiency whilst 

operating at ambient temperatures not exceeding the critical temperature (around 30 °C), There is no 

reason for them to be unsuitable in densely populated urban environments. 

Both HC-290 and HC-1270 chillers are produced by a number of manufacturers in Europe and other 

regions. There are no reasons why HC-290 and HC-1270 would not be suitable for use in densely 

populated areas. In principle they are easy to use, provided engineers have the capability of 

considering flammability aspects and that the service sector is appropriately trained to handle 

flammable refrigerants.

HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze(E) are suitable for chillers and have been trialled in systems in Europe, 

with good efficiency (TEAP, 2013). Due to high critical temperatures, they will perform well in 

warm climates. There is no reason why it would not be suitable for use in densely populated urban 

areas and it would be easily used provided the service sector is appropriately trained to handle lower 

flammable refrigerants. 

It is feasible to use HFC-32 in positive displacement chillers with equivalent energy efficiency to the 

baseline options (TEAP, 2013). Some manufacturers are developing models. There is no reason why 

it would not be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided 

the service sector is appropriately trained to handle lower flammable refrigerants.

The blends R-444B, R-446A, R-447A and DR-5 could be used as replacements for HCFC-22, R407C or R-410A in positive displacement chillers that employ reciprocating or scroll compressor 
18 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

technologies. Chiller applications can be more suitable for the use of zeotropic blends as the glide can 

yield benefits when the heat exchangers are designed accordingly. It is not known whether any 

manufacturers are developing equipment with these alternative refrigerants. 

R-450A and XP-10 are also feasible for use in positive displacement chillers and can be used in 

existing HFC-134a technologies with minor modifications (TEAP, 2013), whilst maintaining 

adequate efficiency. There is no reason why it would not be suitable for use in densely populated 

urban areas and it would be easily used provided the service sector is appropriately trained to handle 

lower flammable refrigerants.

Centrifugal chillers 

HFC-134a is used widely in various capacities of centrifugal chillers and is considered to be the 

baseline refrigerant. 

It is not practical to use R-410A and HFC-32 in centrifugal chillers. The compressor efficiency is not 

as high as one with HFC-134a or other low pressure refrigerants such as HFC-1234ze(E). R-717 is 

seldom used in centrifugal chillers and R-744 is not used in such machines (TEAP, 2013). HCs are 

used to a limited extent in centrifugal chillers typically within certain petro-chemical industries 

(TEAP, 2013), but are not considered further here. R-718 (water) chillers are in use in several 

installations in Europe and are now commercially available in Japan. The cost at large-scale 

production and thus the economic viability is not clear to date. 

HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze(E) are considered suitable for centrifugal chillers and are likely to give 

comparable efficiency to HFC-134a. HCFC-1233zd(E) is considered as a key alternative in low 

pressure centrifugal chillers, and should produce efficiency levels, slightly better than HCFC-123, 

both at moderate and high ambient temperatures. It is being trialled in chillers by some 

manufacturers. 

3.1.8 Mobile Air Conditioning

Car 

Dependent on the country, the preferred option is to keep going with HFC-134a or to shift to HFC1234yf. The uptake of HFC-134a replacement refrigerants did not occur as expected, neither for 

HFC-1234yf nor for R-744, considered a second option, part of the reason was delay in the 

introduction of ”new models” in the context of the regulation.

The interest in and development of R-744 in this sub-sector declined significantly around 2009-2010, 

as car manufacturers and suppliers concentrated their efforts on HFC-1234yf. In 2013 there has been 

a renewed interest in R-744 MACs, with several German OEMs announcing their intention to 

develop such systems. However, to date no global OEM has installed R-744 for automotive airconditioning. The main barriers for R-744 systems have been issues such as costs, reliability and 

servicing aspects. 

Hydrocarbons are efficient refrigerants and, like other refrigerants, have to be chosen according to 

their condensing and evaporating pressures. Safety concerns are a clear and strong barrier against the 

use of HCs in cars. The sales of HC blends for car AC systems for the aftermarket will continue in 

some countries, but this does not constitute a global trend and will not receive the support of any 

carmaker. In conclusion, HCs are not at present a global option for car AC systems.

Low-GWP non-flammable blends have been proposed, in particular AC-5 and AC-6, which are 

currently being evaluated by an SAE International Cooperative Research Program. 

HFC-1234yf , even if slightly flammable, is seen as the global solution for the car industry, and it is 

now being implemented in several models, especially in Europe, 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 19

German car manufacturers in 2012 raised again the issue of HFC-1234yf flammability and postponed 

its introduction in their assembly lines, until a separate safety assessment would have been 

conducted. Since then, two separate studies have been completed. Another Cooperative Research 

Program by the SAE confirmed previous conclusions that HFC-1234yf could be used safely for 

automotive air conditioning. Germany's motor vehicle department KBA concluded that while HFC1234yf was inherently more dangerous than HFC-134a in severe conditions, it could be applied 

safely. 

Public transport

Currently, the two dominant refrigerants are HFC-134a and R-407C in developed countries and HFC134a and HCFC-22 in developing countries.

R-744 has been developed in Germany since 1996 by one company and the total fleet is about 50 city 

buses. New developments with R-744 will be a consequence of developments in larger market 

application and regulatory constraints.

The HFC-1234yf development for car AC systems will have direct consequences for bus and train 

AC systems currently operated on HFC-134a. The shift can be done, based on first lessons learned in 

the car industry. For train AC systems, the use of R-407C or the use of new blends containing the 

chemicals HFC-1234yf or HFC-1234ze could be proposed in the near future.

In Germany, some buses are operated on the alternative air cycle (Brayton-Joule) technology that has 

also been installed on more than 100 ICE trains.

While the current HFCs could be used for a long period in train and bus niche applications, the shift 

from these high-GWP refrigerants to alternatives will be related to the overall developments in 

stationary AC systems.

3.2 Foams

The foam sector has made significant strides in addressing the phase-out of ozone depleting 

substances since the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987. The availability of hydrocarbons at an 

early stage of the transition period has made it that a genuine low-GWP and cost-effective alternative 

has been available for large parts of the foam sector throughout that period, even at the time of the 

phase-out of CFCs in non-Article 5 Parties. Therefore, the account of the transition history since 

1987 in the polyurethane and phenolic product sectors is dominated by whether a specific foam subsector could adopt hydrocarbon technologies or not. There have been a number of reasons cited over 

the period to explain why hydrocarbon solutions were not appropriate. These have included:

 The flammability risks associated with the production/deposition process

 The flammability risks associated with product installation and use

 The higher gaseous thermal conductivity leading to poorer thermal efficiency of the foam

 The cost of flame-proofing measures for production processes in relation to the size of the 

manufacturing plant (lack of economies of scale) 

 Local health & safety regulations

 Local regulations on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 

 Waste management issues

Some of these have largely been discounted in more recent times, but others continue to be of 

importance and some are even growing in significance (e.g. waste management issues) as 

hydrocarbon blown foams reach end-of-life. Nevertheless, the market penetration of hydrocarbon 

technologies has had a substantial impact as shown by the graph below: 
20 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The dominance of the hydrocarbon technologies is even greater than it appears from the graph, since 

the blowing efficiency of hydrocarbon blowing agents is considerably better than the CFCs and 

HCFCs that were replaced. This means that the amount of foam blown by the 170,000 tonnes of 

hydrocarbons predicted to be used in the foam industry in 2014 will be 30-40% greater than would be 

achieved by the same quantity of CFCs. The optimisation of hydrocarbon technologies over the years 

has also resulted in improvements in thermal performance through improved cell structure, thereby 

negating some of the earlier concerns about poorer thermal efficiency. It can be seen that the other 

major groups of blowing agents being used for the polyurethane and phenolic foam sectors at this 

point are HCFCs (in Article 5 Parties) and HFCs (in non-Article 5 Parties). 

In the Extruded Polystyrene sector, the main low-GWP and cost-effective alternative has been CO2

itself. Again, the main challenge throughout has been to understand why this solution could not be 

universal in its application. Reasons have included: 

 Processing difficulties with CO2 and even CO2/HCO or CO2/HC blends

 The higher gaseous thermal conductivity leading to poorer thermal efficiency of the foam 

 Costs of conversion - including licensing constraints resulting from patents

 Loss of processing flexibility ruling out some board geometries completely

For these reasons considerable proportions of the extruded polystyrene (XPS) industry have remained 

using HCFCs and HFCs rather than CO2. This will be explained further in section 5.8.

In the intervening years, the search for low-GWP, high performance blowing agents without the 

limitations of hydrocarbons and CO2 has been continuing. For the first time, the emergence of 

unsaturated HCFCs and HFCs (often commercially referred to as HFOs) seems to be offering a level 

of performance which not only allows the replacement of blowing agents with high-GWPs such as 

HCFCs and saturated HFCs, but also threatens to replace some elements of the hydrocarbon and CO2-

blown sectors, based primarily on improved thermal properties. However, although the situation is 

becoming clearer with these technologies, there are still some uncertainties over the overall system 

cost and the global availability. Limited commercial availability has already been established for 

HFO-1234ze(E) (gaseous blowing agent) and HFO-1233zd(E) (liquid blowing agent). Pilot scale 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 21

production of HFO-1336mzzm(Z) is expected in late 2014, with full commercialisation in 2016. 

However, in the first instance, this availability is likely to be targeted mostly in markets within nonArticle 5 Parties where the requirement for improved thermal efficiency is best identified. Even in 

these markets, it is expected that blowing agent blends will become predominant, especially where 

unsaturated HCFCs and HFCs can be blended with hydrocarbons to obtain better thermal 

performance with minimum system cost increase.

Other blowing agents are also emerging as potential replacements for HCFCs and HFCs. These

include a group of oxygenated hydrocarbons (HCOs) which include methyl formate and methylal. 

Recent analyses of approved projects within the Multilateral Fund Secretariat shows that up to 5,000 

tes of methyl formate and 300 tonnes of methylal can be expected by the time of project completion 

in 2015. These are generally seen as less flammable than the hydrocarbons themselves, although the 

significance of those differences can often depend on local product codes and the regulatory 

frameworks governing foam manufacture. Again, there is a growing tendency to see these used as 

components of tailored blends where they can contribute to overall performance criteria. 

For the XPS sector, the emergence of gaseous unsaturated HFCs such as HFO-1234ze also presents a 

significant opportunity to replace any remaining HCFCs, saturated HFCs and even CO2 in some 

instances. However, cost remains a key issue and blending with oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g. 

dimethyl ether) may well be required to deliver a commercially viable alternative technology. 

In summary, the following table provides an overview of the blowing agent classes which have either 

previously offered, or are currently offering, alternatives to ozone depleting substances in the sectors 

being specifically considered in this chapter. The table has been simplified over that of previous years 

by the fact that the Arkema product previously described as AFA-1 has now been confirmed as HFO1233zd(E), which aligns it with the existing Honeywell product. 

Sector CFCs HCFCs HFCs HCs HCOs HFOs CO2-based

ODS being replaced

PU Appliances CFC-11 HCFC-141b

HCFC-22

HFC-245fa

HFC-365mfc/227ea

cyclo-pentane

cyclo/iso-pentane

MethylΔ

Formate

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z) CO2 (water)*Δ

PU Board CFC-11 HCFC-141b HFC-365mfc/227ea n-pentane

cyclo/iso pentane

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z)

PU Panel CFC-11 HCFC-141b HFC-245fa

HFC-365mfc/227ea

n-pentane

cyclo/iso pentane

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z) CO2 (water)*

PU Spray CFC-11 HCFC-141b HFC-245fa

HFC-365mfc/227ea

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z)

CO2 (water)*

Super-critical 

CO2

PU In-situ/Block CFC-11 HCFC-141b HFC-245fa

HFC-365mfc/227ea

n-pentane

cyclo/iso pentane

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z) CO2 (water)*

PU Integral Skin CFC-11 HCFC-141b

HCFC-22

HFC-245fa

HFC-134a

Methyl 

Formate

Methylal

CO2 (water)*

XPS Board CFC-12 HCFC-142b

HCFC-22

HFC-134a

HFC-152a DME HFO-1234ze(E) CO2CO2/ethanol

Phenolic CFC-11 HCFC-141b HFC-245fa

HFC-365mfc/227ea

n-pentane

cyclo/iso pentane

HFO-1233zd(E)

HFO-1336mzzm(Z)

*CO2(water) blown foams rely on the generation of CO2 from reaction of isocyanate with water in the PU system itself

Δ Primarily in the commercial refrigeration sector (e.g. vending machines) 

The next sections of this chapter briefly summarise trends in blowing agent choice by specific sector. 

More detailed reviews of options are found in the relevant Annexes to this report (see Chapter 10). 

These annexed items are updates of the original materials presented in Decision XXIV/7.

3.2.1 Polyurethane Appliance

3.2.1.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

In Europe and Japan, the dominant blowing agent choices have been hydrocarbon blends, even at the 

point of phase-out from CFC use in the early/mid 1990s. Cyclo-pentane was a favoured component of 
22 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

blends because of its contributions to improved thermal performance, but its lack of blowing 

efficiency in pure form and the impact of this on processing and cost often led to the blending with 

components such as iso-pentane or n-pentane. Therefore, cyclo-iso blends have been a common 

feature of the domestic appliance industry and still remain so. 

In North America, the technology choice was driven in a different direction – partly by the overall 

size and design of refrigerators and partly because of safety and insurance concerns from a 

manufacturing perspective. Transitions from CFCs moved to HCFCs and then, primarily, to HFC245fa. There has also been some use of HFC-134a in the sector and, more recently, the removal of 

patent restrictions has allowed for the introduction of HFC-365mfc/227ea blends. Therefore, the 

domestic appliance industry in this region remains largely dependent on high GWP HFCs. 

For commercial appliances and more complex insulated containers, the blowing agent choices have 

been more varied, with greater reliance on lower flammability options. In some instances (e.g. in 

vending machines), this has encouraged the use of oxygenated hydrocarbons such as methyl formate 

and, to a lesser degree methylal. In addition, there has been widespread reliance on HCFCs and, more 

latterly high GWP HFCs. 

Although there are no obvious pressures to change technologies in any of the regions referenced 

above, the emergence of unsaturated HFCs and HCFCs has generated particular interest in all regions. 

The main reason is that these molecules offer improved thermal insulating properties in an 

application where maximising thermal performance and minimising insulation thickness are desirable 

outcomes. Whether additional market pressures in North America relating to the continued use of 

high-GWP HFCs will add to the pressure to adopt blends containing the unsaturated molecules is not 

yet clear. 

3.2.1.2 Article 5 Parties

Similar trends exist for in the highly populated Article 5 Parties where multi-national companies are 

often seeking to adopt global technology strategies. In some cases, the transition from HCFCs to 

alternatives has not yet occurred and there are opportunities to avoid high-GWP HFCs. However, the 

Multilateral Funs process does not direct influence over these technology choices, since funding is 

usually not provided. Instead it falls on individual Parties to negotiate a phase-out strategy with their 

industries. This matter is covered further in Chapter 4. Interest in unsaturated HFCs and HCFCs is 

expected to mirror the decisions made in non-Article 5 regions. 

For those transitions covered under the Multilateral Fund, it has been possible to direct virtually all 

HCFC phase-out activities towards low-GWP alternatives including pre-blended hydrocarbon, methyl 

formate and methylal. Transitions will not be complete before 2015, at which point the full degree of 

coverage of these technologies will be more self-evident.

 

3.2.2 Polyurethane Boardstock

3.2.2.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

In virtually all non-Article 5 regions, hydrocarbons (typically a mixture of cyclo-pentane and isopentane) have been the dominant choice of blowing agent in the replacement of ozone depleting 

substances. Accordingly, this is reflected in the Business-As-Usual scenario used for this report. 

There may be some future interest in the evaluation of unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs, but the cost is 

likely to be prohibitive in this cost sensitive application unless space saving is at a premium. 

3.2.2.2 Article 5 Parties

There is no significant manufacture of boardstock in Article 5 regions with the possible exception of 

China. However, where new capacity is installed, it is highly likely that the blowing agent of choice 

will once again be hydrocarbons. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 23

3.2.3 Polyurethane Panels

3.2.3.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

For the continuous panel sector, hydrocarbons have also been the blowing agent of choice except 

where fire performance requirements have dictated otherwise. In these limited instances, high-GWP 

HFCs have been adopted. Increasingly the industry has found ways of optimising formulations to 

improve fire performance while still using hydrocarbons and the use of saturated HFCs has steadily 

decreased over the last five years. This is reflected in the Business-as-Usual scenario used for this 

report. 

For discontinuous panel manufacture, there has been greater reliance on high-GWP HFCs as 

replacements for HCFCs in order to overcome flammability concerns during processing. Nevertheless, 

similar trends to those with continuous panels are now being observed as manufacturers become more 

skilled and experienced in managing hydrocarbons in production situations. 

 

3.2.3.2 Article 5 Parties

There is a greater preponderance of discontinuous production in Article 5 regions because of the lack 

of concentrated demand to support continuous production facilities. This has ensured continued use 

of HCFCs in many small discontinuous panel manufacturing uses. Although oxygenated 

hydrocarbons (HCOs) such as methyl formate and methylal are also being considered for this sector, 

the uptake at present is still relatively low. 

3.2.4 Polyurethane Spray 

3.2.4.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

This remains one of the most challenging areas from a technical viewpoint, because of the processing 

risks associated with using hydrocarbons in field applications. As a result, HCFCs were replaced en 

masse by high-GWP blowing agents such as HFC-245fa (particularly in North America) and HFC365mfc/227ea (particularly in Europe). Although unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs are seen as a future 

replacement, emerging concerns about the stability of the gaseous blowing agent (HFO 1234ze(E)) in 

certain low-pressure pre-blended formulations are placing some doubt on the ability of these 

technologies to reach their full potential. Accordingly, the Business-As-Usual scenario remains 

focused on high-GWP solutions for the moment. 

3.2.4.2 Article 5 Parties

For similar reasons to those expressed for non-Article 5 regions, PU Spray foam in Article 5 regions 

remains highly reliant on HCFCs. If the concerns about unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs continue for any 

significant period of time, contractors and systems houses may need to investigate the possibility of 

moving to a high-GWP interim solution in order to exit from HCFC-141b use in a timely manner. 

3.2.5 Polyurethane In-situ/Block

3.2.5.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

These products can be made by a variety of processes, including continuous, semi-continuous and 

discontinuous options. Although there is some sensitivity to the use of hydrocarbons in some 

discontinuous facilities (see comments on discontinuous panels), the majority of products in this 

sector have been able to adopt hydrocarbon technologies successfully. There are possibilities that 

methyl formate or methylal might be able to replace saturated HFCs in some of the remaining 

discontinuous processes, but this will ultimately depend on local regulations and practices. 

Accordingly, little change is predicted in this sector within the next 5-10 years within the BusinessAs-Usual scenario. 
24 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

3.2.5.2 Article 5 Parties

Similar concerns exist for discontinuous processes in Article 5 regions. As is the case in the panel 

sector, these are more prevalent in Article 5 regions because of lack of economies of scale. There are 

also differences in product demand with thermo-ware being a particular requirement in Southern Asia 

and elsewhere. For these reasons HCFCs continue to remain the blowing agent of choice, although 

uptake of methyl formate and/or methylal is predicted within a number of HPMPs. The magnitude of 

this uptake is varied in the Mitigation Scenarios selected for foams, but the Business-as-Usual 

scenario reflects a fairly conservative estimate of market penetration, with the remainder going to 

high-GWP HFCs. 

3.2.6 Polyurethane Integral Skin

3.2.6.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

In this non-insulating sector, CO2(water) technologies play a significant role, particularly where 

skinning properties are not critical. However, in non-Article 5 regions, hydrocarbons have become 

increasingly accepted as reliable replacements for HCFCs that were used previously. There has been 

some small use of HFCs (typically HFC-134a or HFC-245fa), but this has been limited to specialist 

applications. 

3.2.6.2 Article 5 Parties

Since the focus on technology optimisation has not been so prevalent in Article 5 regions except 

where multi-national clients (e.g. the automotive sector) have been involved, there has been a 

tendency to remain with HCFC technology while awaiting further developments. Transitions to highGWP HFC alternatives remain the easiest technology option, although methyl formate and methylal 

are also appropriate options, which mitigate at least some of the flammability risks associated with 

other hydrocarbons. The Business-As-Usual scenario follows the path and timing of most current 

HPMPs in predicting the transition paths and timing. 

3.2.7 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS)

3.2.7.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

Alongside PU Spray Foam, the extruded polystyrene sector represents one of the most challenging 

technological sectors of the market. Although CO2 technology has been successfully adopted by some 

of the multi-national producers, it is not very versatile and remains unsuitable for certain product 

types, even when modified with HCOs such as di-methyl ether. While hydrocarbons have proved 

uniquely acceptable in Japan, the majority of other non-Article 5 production is now based on the use 

of high-GWP HFCs such as blends of HFC-134a and HFC-152a. Attempts to move away from these 

blowing agents in the short-term are made less likely because of parallel concerns with the 

brominated flame retardants widely used in XPS and other polystyrene products. Accordingly, the 

Business-As-Usual scenario is relatively conservative in its outlook for further transition. 

 

3.2.7.2 Article 5 Parties

Extruded polystyrene manufacture has grown substantially in a number of Article 5 regions over the 

last 10 years. Much of the manufacture has been based on HCFC technologies, since these are the 

most versatile options for a wide range of processing scales. For China, in particular, there are a large 

number of small plants and although there is some hope that a specifically tailored CO2 technology 

can achieve widespread conversion, the outcome of an important pilot study is still awaited. As with 

the non-Article 5 assessment, the Business-As-Usual scenario is relatively conservative and does not 

anticipate early transitions. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 25

3.2.8 Phenolic Foam

3.2.8.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

The technologies in use in non-Article 5 regions are almost universally based on hydrocarbon or 2-

chloropropane blowing agents, since it has been found that the intrinsic fire properties of phenolic 

foams are more than sufficient to compensate for any blowing agent contribution to flammability. 

The only potential future transition might be to take advantage of the improved thermal properties of 

unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs, although this has not been postulated in the Business-as-Usual scenario 

for phenolic foam. 

3.2.8.2 Article 5 Parties

There is very little production of phenolic foam in Article 5 regions with the exception of China. In 

keeping with the bulk of phenolic foam manufacture in non-Article 5 countries, all know production 

in China is already based on hydrocarbon technologies.

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 27

4 Factors influencing the specific BAU scenarios for Article 5 and 

non-Article 5 regions

4.1 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning – methods for developing demand estimates

In the case of refrigeration and air conditioning, one has to deal with a number of sub-sectors and 

sub-subsectors, each having several ODS alternatives. Considering that there is a preference to apply 

certain alternatives preference in specific equipment (and often under certain conditions), combined 

with the fact that the amounts in banks (present in the equipment) need recharging (i.e., servicing) 

over their entire lifetime (which is assumed to be 10-15 years), substantially complicates all matters 

for calculations. 

The method used is a bottom-up method, where one has to define a starting point (i.e., the year 1990) 

where there is still a large amount of equipment (the installed base) in operation from the period 

1975-1990. This amount will gradually disappear over the years, so that estimates for the demand 

after the year 2005 are dealing with estimates of numbers of equipment that have been manufactured 

after 1990. Choices for certain refrigerants made will therefore gradually increase in the total 

demand, consisting of both new manufacturing (charging) and servicing demand.

4.2 Article 5 Parties – Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4.2.1 Decision XIX/6

The phase-down schedule under Decision XIX/6 is shown as follows: 

Figure 4-1 Schematic of the phase-down steps of Decision XIX/6 compared with earlier provisions

A major challenge created by the terms of Decision XIX/6 is that the freeze in 2013 is based on the 

average of the 2009 and 2010 consumption. This means that growth in the period from 2010 to 2012 

needs to be offset in 2013. Figure 4-1 shows how the BAU would look for an annual growth rate of 

5% during that period. This remains a challenge for both the RAC and foam sectors. 
28 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Decision XIX/6 on Adjustments for Annex C, Group I substances (HCFCs), mentions in its 

paragraphs: 

(i) To encourage Parties to promote the selection of alternatives to HCFCs that minimize 

environmental impacts, in particular impacts on climate, as well as meeting other health, 

safety and economic considerations, 

and

(ii) To agree that the Executive Committee, when developing and applying funding criteria for 

projects and programmes, and taking into account paragraph 6, give priority to cost-effective 

projects and programmes which focus on, inter alia on 

(a) phasing-out first those HCFCs with higher ozone-depleting potential, taking into account 

national circumstances,

(b) substitutes and alternatives that minimize other impacts on the environment, including 

on the climate, taking into account global-warming potential, energy use and other 

relevant factors.

It implies that Parties should promote alternatives to HCFCs that minimise impacts on the climate, 

furthermore that the Executive Committee should give priority to cost effective projects and 

programmes, focusing on substitutes and alternatives that minimise impacts on the climate, taking 

into account the global warming potential and energy use of the alternatives.

In practice, the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund can have an influence on the choice of 

substitutes and alternatives in HCFC conversion projects, in particular for mass production of 

stationary air conditioning. This has been shown in projects approved in 2010-2012, where there has 

been an increasing preference to go to low-GWP alternatives, or in case where these alternatives 

could not be applied, to postpone conversion projects.

However, the conversion of existing stationary AC manufacturing is just one aspect. Many stationary 

air conditioning production facilities are new facilities and do not result from conversions as 

mentioned in Decision XIX/6. In other refrigeration and air conditioning sectors (mobile air 

conditioning, on-site erected commercial refrigeration units, large industrial refrigeration new plants) 

the choice of refrigerants normally is a choice for high-GWP HFCs (HFC-134a and HFC based 

blends).

A very large percentage of equipment in Article 5 countries is therefore equipped with HFCs, and the 

amount will grow following certain economic growth parameters. The amount of equipment that is

being converted away from HCFC-22 to low-GWP alternatives represents a low share of the total 

number of refrigeration and air conditioning units produced.

4.2.2 Economic Growth Rates 

The economic growth parameter is the important parameter to estimate BAU demand in developing 

countries. In the model, different economic growth percentages have been applied for certain Article 

5 countries, with 7% growth per year in countries such as China. With its large consumption for 

HCFC-22, China is determining the total Article 5 demand to a significant degree.

4.2.3 BAU – Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The BAU scenario for Article 5 countries for refrigeration and air conditioning does not take into 

account any policies or measures in the conversion to low-GWP alternatives. This BAU case can 

therefore be defined as unconstrained growth using economic growth parameters for the various 

Article 5 regions. The BAU scenario builds upon the trend from 2010-2015 in the establishment of 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 29

the bank of refrigerants (via demand and leakage) in the different refrigeration and AC sub-sectors 

and is depicted in Table 4-1 below.

MAC

Domestic

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

SAC

A5

All countries

Usual practice of R-410A, R-407, some 134a

All countries

All countries

(HCFC-22 replaced by and) new equipment

lines on HFC-134a, R-404A, R-407A/C/F

Use of R134a

Servicing as usual

Table 4-1 Assumptions for the Article 5 region BAU scenario

On the basis of the development of the demand for the various ODS replacements for the various subsectors (high GWP and of low GWP alternatives), the total demand in tonnes (and in GWP based 

CO2 equivalent tonnes) can be calculated. Since the emphasis in the request in Decision XXV/5 is on 

ODS alternatives as a total (not split into the various sub-sectors of e.g. R/AC), the demand 

calculated can be split into the various high-GWP refrigerants and blends as well as low GWP 

refrigerants for the entire RAC sector, this for each of the years up to 2030.

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 54.4 110.4 183.5 287.2 209.9

R-404A/R-507 13.1 35.2 55.5 112.6 179.8

R-407C 16.5 58.6 105.6 167.5 246.5

R-410A 41 95.8 162.5 247.5 360.3

Low-GWP 22.4 33.7 48.8 68.9 98.5

T O T A L 147.4 333.7 555.9 883.7 1295.0

Table 4-2 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives 

(BAU scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (ktonnes)

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 70.7 143.5 238.5 373.3 532.9

R-404A/R-507 51.6 138.8 219.0 443.9 708.6

R-407C 26.8 95 171.1 271.3 399.3

R-410A 78.7 183.9 312.0 475.2 691.8

Low-GWP 0.06 0.14 0.25 0.42 0.68

T O T A L 227.9 561.3 940.9 1564.1 2333.3

Table 4-3 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives 

(BAU scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)
30 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The following can be observed for Article 5 countries (based on no restrictions for the 2010-2030 

demand, and assumed economic growth percentages): 

 The demand for HFC-134a in Article 5 countries almost quadruples in 15 years, between 

2015 and 2030, the most important subsector that uses HFC-134a being mobile air 

conditioning;

 The BAU scenario for R-404A and R-407C shows a growth in demand by a factor of 4-5 for 

the refrigerants R-404A, R-407C and R-410A mainly due to the external (growth) factors;

 Actually, the demand for low-GWP refrigerants grows by a factor of 3, mainly due to the fact 

that the application of low-GWP refrigerants is only assumed to occur in certain sub-sectors 

(e.g. the MAC and SAC sub-sectors);

 In Article 5 countries, the demand in tonnes for HFC-134a is estimated to remain higher than 

the demand for R-410A during the entire period 2015-2030;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases by almost 400% between 2015 and 2030;

 The same tendencies in growth, both for the demand of the separate refrigerants (in subsectors) and for the total demand, can be observed, if numbers are expressed in Mt CO2 eq. In 

this case the total demand increases again by about 400% between 2015 and 2030.

4.3 Article 5 Parties - Foams

The term ‘business as usual’ (BAU) is assumed to consider existing legislative steps in the regions in 

question. For Article 5 Parties, the most significant regulatory framework from a foams perspective is 

Decision XIX/6 under the Montreal Protocol and the national legislation and programmes that have 

stemmed from it. The basic framework has already been addressed in Section 4.2.1. However, the 

following sub-sections set out the implications for the foam sector. 

4.3.1 Polyurethane Foams

The dominant blowing agent for the polyurethane sub-sector in Article 5 Parties since the CFC phaseout has been HCFC-141b. Although some switches were made directly from CFCs to hydrocarbons in 

the appliance industry, lack of economies of scale prevented this approach in many regions. A survey 

conducted by the UN Multilateral Fund Secretariat in 20081indicated that, of the 43 Article 5 Parties 

reporting the use of HCFC-141b, 20 were reporting annual consumption below 10 ODP tonnes (91 

metric tonnes). The small scale and the wide spread of uses created an organisational challenge, 

which would require the full co-operation of polyurethane systems to address. Moreover, there would 

be a need to ensure that the widest possible range of technological options would be available. 

An additional factor influencing the BAU in the polyurethane foam sector is the “worst first” focus of 

Decision XIX/6, which prioritises the higher ODP HCFCs for early replacement. This ensured that 

many of the HCFC-141b projects appeared on the Stage 1 HCFC Phase-out Management Plans 

(HPMPs). However, in view of the diffuse use patterns mentioned above and the organisational 

challenges arising, some projects were slow to be submitted for approval. This trend was often 

compounded by delays in finalising funding rules under the MLF. The outcome remains that, whilst 

most Stage 1 HPMPs have been submitted and approved, the implementation has been behind the 

schedule required to meet the 2013 freeze.

Although the general characterisation of the situation is one of diffuse HCFC-141b use patterns, there 

are a number of Article 5 Parties where major multi-national companies are significant HCFC-141b 

 

1

Paper 54/54 submitted to the 54th Executive Committee Meeting in April 2008 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 31

users. These are generally not eligible for funding under the Multilateral Fund, making the timing of 

phase-out plans the subject of negotiation between the companies and the relevant National 

Government. This will inevitably be factored into the Stage 1 (or Stage 2) HPMP, but it clearly leaves 

that Plan highly vulnerable to any changes in phase-out strategy in those operations.

4.3.2 Extruded Polystyrene Foams 

The impact of multi-national company decision-making is even greater in the extruded polystyrene 

(XPS) sector where the ownership of manufacturing technology is relatively concentrated. In the 

absence of the ‘worst-first’ pressure associated with HCFC-141b and also the lack of obvious 

alternatives, the scheduling of transitions in this sub-sector has often been deferred until Stage 2. 

This decision-making process belies the fact that the XPS sector is the most prevalent user of HCFCs 

within the foam sector. In many instances, deferring the transition to Stage 2 could jeopardise the 

ability of Article 5 Parties to meet their phase-down targets – especially the short-term targets such as 

the 2013 freeze and the 10% reduction by 2015. 

In some Article 5 Parties, there has been a rapid growth in the production and use of XPS through 

small independent manufacturers. These are not generally beholding to the major multi-national 

technology holders but are reliant instead on the deployment of technologies by Implementing 

Agencies. One of the major options in this sector is small-scale CO2 technology, but the 

demonstration project commissioned on this option will not report until November 2014. This leaves 

a level of uncertainty about the effectiveness of those transitions and their future timing. 

 

4.3.3 Other Foams

There are few other foams in common use in Article 5 Parties. There has been minor use of phenolic 

foam in the past but, where this has occurred, transitions have already made to non ozone-depleting 

blowing agents. A similar trend has been seen in other thermoplastic foams such as polyethylene 

foam, where hydrocarbon has been the dominant replacement. 

4.3.4 Factors influencing growth rates

Overall, the global financial slowdown precipitated in 2008 has dampened the demand for thermal 

insulation but not totally quenched it. It is typical for the investment cycles in construction projects to 

create a lag of around two years in market response. Accordingly, 2010 and 2011 were relatively 

depressed years for the construction sector. However, the drive for improved energy efficiency levels 

and the overall economic growth drivers in many Article 5 Parties meant that the growth rate of 5% 

assumed in Figure 4.1 for the period from 2010-2012 might not have been far from the truth as an 

average across the whole Article 5 grouping. 

4.3.5 BAU - Foams 

The series of factors highlighted in the previous few sections of this Report have led the authors to 

believe that the foam sector may have struggled to make its full contribution to the 2013 freeze and 

may still struggle to make its contribution to the 10% phase-down in 2015. Figure 4-2 illustrates how 

this might manifest itself based on the assumption that linear phase-down can be achieved in the 

polyurethane sector over the ten years to 2023. 
32 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Figure 4-2 Business-as-Usual scenario for foams in Article 5 Parties (ODP tonnes) 

The assumptions on which these conclusions are reached are set out in Table 4-4.

A5

PU Appliance All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022* Yes

% high GWP options by weight 10%

PU Boardstock All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022 Yes

% high GWP options by weight 20%

PU Panel All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022 Yes

% high GWP options by weight 20%

PU Spray All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022 Yes

% high GWP options by weight 100%/50%**

PU Insitu/Block All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022 Yes

% high GWP options by weight 20%

XPS Board All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2028^ Yes

% high GWP options by weight 100%/50%**

Phenolic All countries

ODS transitions complete by 2022 Yes

% high GWP options by weight 20%

* Assumes a 10 year linear phase down from peak in 2012

^ Assumes a 10 year linear phase down from peak in 2018

** Assumes 100% high GWP prior to 2017 and 50% high GWP from 2017 onwards 

Table 4-4 Assumptions used for Business-as-Usual foam assessment in Article 5 Parties
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 33

Of course, the foam sector is not accountable in isolation for compliance with the Decision XIX/6 

phase-down schedule and with the refrigeration and air conditioning sector accounting for two thirds 

of the HCFC consumption, as reported by the Mutilateral Fund Secretariat in 20081, it is likely that 

progress in the RAC field will be of more relevance to compliance than progress in the foam sector. 

That said, there is less pressure in RAC from the ‘worst first’ focus and the potential impacts on 

consumption are less immediate because of the on-going contribution of servicing demand. 

Before moving on to consider the non-Article 5 BAU scenario, it is worth reflecting on the climate 

contributions (potential emissions) of the Article 5 foams BAU case. This is shown in Figure 4-3 

below: 

 

Figure 4-3 - Business-as-Usual Scenario for foams in Article 5 Parties (ktonnes CO2-eq)

This graph serves to further highlight the significance of the XPS contribution in the period to 2030 

on the basis that transition out of HCFCs occurs linearly between 2019 and 2028 with 50% of the 

substitutions going to high GWP solutions. 

4.4 Non-Article 5 Parties - Foams

In non-Article 5 Parties, the phase-out of HCFCs in the foam sector was achieved for the most part by 

2010, with the XPS industry in North America being amongst the last to phase-out their use. The 

focus for non-Article 5 parties is therefore much more on the capability to make further transitions 

from the use of high-GWP HFCs, such as HFC-134a, HFC-245fa and HFC-365mfc. 

In non-Article 5 Parties, the conversion from CFC-12 to HFC-134a in mobile air conditioning was 

virtually complete by the late 1990s. By that time almost 50% of the domestic refrigerators were 

using HC-600a (isobutane), the rest was manufactured on HFC-134a. The conversion from HCFC-22 

in commercial refrigeration and stationary air conditioning to HFCs started in the 1990s, and had 

resulted in the installation of new manufacturing equipment to HFCs (with very small percentages of 

low GWP refrigerants in some sub-sectors). Following the F-gas regulation, new HCFC-22 material 
34 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

could not be used after 2010 in Europe, however, it can still be used in other non-Article 5 countries 

until 2020. 

As with the BAU case for Article 5 Parties, the authors of this report have adopted a strategy of 

treating known and existing HFC legislation as part of the BAU case for non-Article 5 Parties. 

However, in some cases (e.g. the President’s Climate Action Plan in the USA), it is not currently 

possible to quantify the impacts. Accordingly, these are only discussed qualitatively and are not 

factored into the BAU scenario. 

4.4.1 HFC Legislation

4.4.1.1 European Union

On 20th May 2014, the re-cast F-Gas Regulation 517/2014 was published in the Official Journal of 

the European Union confirming the agreement reached on 16th April. This has significant 

implications for the BAU in both RAC and foam areas. Figure 4-4 below shows the overall phasedown schedule:

Figure 4-4 Final Phase-down Schedule for fluorinated gases in the EU

4.4.1.1.1 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Already in 2006, the MAC directive entered into force in the European Union, prohibiting the use of 

refrigerants with a GWP higher than 150 as of 2011 in new model cars, and as of 2017 in all new 

cars. The replacement of HFC-134a in new model cars has virtually not occurred, due to a large 

number of reasons. Some new cars currently (status April 2014) apply HFC-12434yf, but a large 

scale application of low GWP alternatives (GWP smaller than 150) is not expected before 2017. 

This is due to the fact that commercial availability of HFC-1234yf has been delayed, furthermore car 

manufacturers see some problems in the future with possible back-conversion to HFC-134a. The 

general expectation is that by 2017, all car manufacturers will apply a refrigerant solution with a 

GWP smaller than 150.

The 2014 re-cast F-gas Regulation 517/2014 sets a number of prohibitions for the placing of the 

market of products. These apply to HFCs or mixtures or blends that contain HFCs. It concerns the 

following:
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 35

Domestic refrigerators and freezers that contain HFCs with GWP of 150 or more 1/1/2015

Refrigerators and freezers for commercial use (hermetically sealed equipment) that 

contain HFCs with GWP of 2500 or more

1/1/2020

Refrigerators and freezers for commercial use (hermetically sealed equipment) that 

contain HFCs with GWP of 150 or more

1/1/2022

Stationary refrigeration equipment, that contains, or whose functioning relies upon, 

HFCs with GWP of 2500 or more (except equipment designed to cool products to 

temperatures below – 50 °C)

1/1/2020

Multipack centralised refrigeration systems for commercial use with a rated capacity 

of 40 kW or more that contain, or whose functioning relies upon, fluorinated 

greenhouse gases with GWP of 150 or more (except in the primary refrigerant circuit 

of cascade systems where fluorinated greenhouse gases with a GWP of less than 

1500 may be used)

1/1/2022

Movable room air-conditioning equipment (hermetically sealed equipment which is 

movable between rooms by the end user) that contain HFCs with GWP of 150 or 

more

1/1/2020

Single split air-conditioning systems (containing less than 3 kg of fluorinated 

greenhouse gases), that contain, or whose functioning relies upon, fluorinated 

greenhouse gases with GWP of 750 or more

1/1/2025

This implies that for stationary refrigeration equipment fluorinated gases can be applied after 2020 

that have a GWP smaller than 2500. Furthermore single split air conditioning systems can apply 

fluorinated gases with a GWP smaller than 750 (which would include the refrigerant HFC-32).

4.4.1.1.2 Foams

For foams, Figure 4-5 below illustrates the final position reached for various sectors and how these fit 

with the wider targets: 

 

Figure 4-5 – The role of use-bans in foams in achieving phase-down targets
36 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The decision to introduce a use-ban on high-GWP blowing agents in the XPS sector is viewed as 

particularly progressive. In some EU Member States, the bans are also augmented by taxation on 

HFCs at varying levels. For the foams BAU case, the phase-out dates are assumed to be preceded by 

a five year linear phase-down in consumption. 

4.4.1.2 North America

As already noted, the President’s Climate Action Plan has the potential to make impacts on the future 

consumption of HFCs in the USA. It relies on the further implementation of existing regulation and 

also on the potential for voluntary action. In particular, the approach has empowered the US 

Environmental Protection Agency to use the Significant New Alternatives Program (SNAP) to 

encourage low GWP solutions while discouraging, or even disallowing, high GWP alternatives where 

alternatives with lower climate impacts can be adopted. These determinations are expected to be 

made at use level and will not involve blanket bans or generic GWP cut-offs. A proposed rulemaking 

is expected in the summer of 2014. 

4.4.1.3 Japan

An amendment to the law was passed on 12th June 2013, which broadened and strengthened the 

approach to F-Gas management in Japan. Entitled the ‘Act for Rationalised Use and Proper 

Management of Fluorocarbons’. It will become effective on 1st April 2015. It will require reporting of 

consumption of high-GWP F-gases in all areas of use. As a parallel activity, industries are expected 

to submit phase-down plans, which will be reviewed by the authorities before final schedules are 

agreed. Refrigerant handlers and users will also have requirements to report charging and recovery 

activities. 

4.4.1.4 Other

Several non-Article 5 Parties are signalling an intent to lead on international negotiations in the area 

of F-Gases. It is not yet clear how this could influence further action in other non-Article 5 Parties, 

but some further pre-emptive activity can be expected. 

4.4.1.5 Market Drivers

Although many of the regulatory initiatives in non-Article 5 Parties are still focused on data 

gathering, reporting and voluntary commitments, the market signalling is clear. Increasingly, sectors 

and sub-sectors are recognising that delaying action will lead to further market pressure – particularly 

if competitive products have either been able to avoid from the outset, or move swiftly away from, 

high-GWP HFCs as a technology component. This may involve additional changes in product 

concepts, since it will concern an adaptation of manufacturing processes, leading to an automatic 

upgrade in technology and to the possible insertion of attractive consumer features. 

4.5 Availability of Alternatives 

As can be concluded from Chapter 3 of this Report, there is no question that the emerging availability 

of high performance low-GWP solutions is providing new opportunities to consider alternatives with 

low climate impact, but is also slowing up the decision-making process while further clarity emerges 

on technical properties and cost. In the foam sector, those sub-sectors that could avoid high-GWP 

HFCs have already done so at the outset, with those remaining (e.g. XPS) being heavily dependent on 

such technologies until the scope of alternatives becomes clear. This is not expected much before 

2018 in most regions. 

4.5.1 BAU - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A BAU case (or scenario) for the calculation of the current and future demand for the period 2015-

2030 has been defined, which assumes certain specific growth percentages for non-Article5 Parties as 

well as:
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 37

- the EU regulation in EU countries (new car MACs should be using substances with GWP < 

150 as of 2017, the replacement of R-404A in new manufacture by blends such as R407A/C/F, as of the year 2020);

- no control measures in other non-Article 5 Parties.

The BAU scenario for Non-Article 5 Parties for refrigeration and air co

nditioning does not take into account any policies or measures in the conversion to low-GWP 

alternatives in other countries than the EU. This BAU case can therefore be defined as unconstrained 

growth using economic growth parameters in other than EU non-Article 5 regions. The BAU scenario 

builds upon the trend from 2010-2015 in the establishment of the bank of refrigerants (via demand 

and leakage) in the different refrigeration and AC sub-sectors. The assumptions are summarised in 

Table 4-5 below:

MAC EU Other Countries

2017

R134a = 0% for 

new eq., replaced 

by GWP1

after 2017 No change in 

servicing

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

EU Other Countries

2020

R404A = 0% for 

new eq. replaced 

by R407

after 2020 No change in 

servicing

BAU scenario

nA5

Table 4-5 Assumptions behind the RAC non-Article 5 Business-As-Usual Scenario
38 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 96.7 96.7 85.9 87.0 96.6

R-404A/R-507 38.7 42.2 32.6 28.6 28.2

R-407C 21.9 49.4 69.9 87.9 94.1

R-410A 51.4 119.4 147.3 189.4 229.3

Low-GWP 11.1 13.8 23.8 33.4 42.2

T O T A L 219.8 321.5 359.5 426.8 490.4

Table 4-6 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (BAU 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (ktonnes)

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 125.7 125.6 111.7 113.9 125.6

R-404A/R-507 150.1 166.5 129.9 112.8 111.2

R-407C 35.4 80.1 113.2 142.4 152.4

R-410A 98.7 229.2 282.8 363.6 440.3

Low-GWP 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07

T O T A L 409.8 601.4 637.6 732.8 829.6

Table 4-7 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (BAU 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)

On the basis of the development of the demand for the various ODS replacements for the various subsectors (high GWP and of low GWP alternatives), the total demand in tonnes (and in GWP based 

CO2 equivalent tonnes) can be calculated. Since the emphasis in the request in Decision XXV/5 is on 

ODS alternatives as a total (not split into the various sub-sectors of e.g. RAC), the demand calculated 

can be split into the various high-GWP refrigerants and blends as well as low GWP refrigerants for 

the entire RAC sector, this for each of the years up to 2030.

The following can be observed in the case of Non-Article 5 Parties:

 The demand for HFC-134a in Non-Article 5 countries is relatively constant, with the phaseout for HFC-134a in MAC new equipment in Europe in 2017;

 The BAU scenario (which includes a phase-out in new manufacturing of stationary 

refrigeration equipment using HFCs with a GWP larger than 2500 in Europe by 2020) shows 

a 30% decrease in the demand for R-404A from 2010 to 2030;

 The BAU scenario (which implies increased use of R-407A/C/F instead of R-404A in 

Europe) shows a doubling of the demand between 2015 and 2030;

 As of 2013-2015, R-410A is the refrigerant that shows largest demand numbers, which 

demand, expressed in tonnes, forms almost 40% of the total HFC refrigerant demand;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases by about 50% between 2015 and 2030; 

 The same tendencies are visible for each of the refrigerants in Mt CO2 eq.

 In Mt CO2 eq., however, the total refrigerant demand increases by (only) 38% between 2015 

and 2030. This smaller increase in Mt CO2 eq. than in tonnes is due to the decrease in the 

contribution of R-404A with its very high GWP (in favour of R-407A/C/F) in the total 

amounts. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 39

4.5.2 BAU – Foams

It is clear that the level of transitional pressure varies substantially by region within non-Article 5 

Parties. The only jurisdiction where there is now a quantifiable mandatory approach to phase-down is 

in the European Union. 

Accordingly, the BAU Scenario developed for foams in the non-Article 5 region reflects the phasedown generated by the revised F-Gas Regulation. Meanwhile, in other regions moderate growth is 

predicted, with no transition assumed in the other regions. Table 4-7 summarises these assumptions.

PU Appliance EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

PU Boardstock EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

PU Panel EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

PU Spray EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

PU Insitu/Block EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

XPS Board EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 N/A

Phenolic EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2018 N/A

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2023 N/A

BAU scenario

nA5

Table 4-7 Summary of Business-as-Usual assumptions for non-Article 5 Parties 
40 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Figure 4-6 provides a graphical assessment of the output from these assumptions for the period 

through to 2030.

 

 

Figure 4-6 Business-as-Usual Scenario for foams in non-Article 5 Parties

The rather erratic profile for North America denotes the impact of the phase-out of HCFC use in the 

US extruded polystyrene industry in 2010. Nevertheless, North America remains by far the largest 

user of high-GWP HFCs amongst the non-Article 5 Parties as a result of decisions made in earlier 

transitions.

4.5.3 BAU – global summary for both foams and RAC

For the two major sectors reliant on HCFCs and HFCs, at least in part, it is important to bring some 

perspective to the BAU scenarios, which have been mapped out in this Chapter. Although 

comparisons can be made in both actual tonnages and ODP tonnes, the most meaningful from the 

perspective of this report is to assess the consumption (potential emissions) in climate terms (tonnes 

CO2-eq). Figure 4-7 does this and provides an assessment of the actual situation through to 2012 and 

then projections through to 2030 using the assumptions spelled out in earlier parts of this chapter. 

It can be seen that consumption of refrigerants in RAC applications dwarfs the consumption taking

place in the various foam sub-sectors. It is also evident that the growth in Article 5 parties, if left 

unchecked, will have significant climate impact by 2030, especially if emission rates from installed 

equipment cannot be significantly limited to reduce on-going servicing demand. The graph indicates 

the value of considering possible action in Article 5 Parties to avoid increasing uptake in high-GWP 

alternatives to HCFCs.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 41

 

Figure 4-7 – Comparative BAU Scenarios for foams & RAC in Article 5 and non-Article 5 regions 

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 43

5 Identification of relevant Mitigation Scenarios compared to

Business-As-Usual

With significant levels of uncertainty about several factors influencing the choice of alternatives to 

ozone depleting substances and their replacements, it is undoubtedly challenging to develop 

meaningful scenarios for future trends in HCFC replacement and high-GWP HFC avoidance –

especially when the period under evaluation extends to 2030. This chapter provides a narrative to 

some of the considerations that have been taken into account by the authors, prior to setting out the 

mitigation scenarios in Chapter 6. 

5.1 Technical Suitability 

Although it is assumed that initial screening of alternatives will determine their suitability for the 

applications previously served by ODS, it is not always the case. The recent experience with the 

stability of unsaturated gaseous HFCs/HCFCs in certain low-pressure PU formulations in the United 

States of America, serves as a timely reminder that alternatives are unlikely to be absolute ‘drop-in’ 

replacements and, even with reformulation, are not guaranteed to meet the requirements of the 

application. 

In addition to the specific capabilities of an alternative, it is increasingly the case that the range of 

applications served by a single alternative is reducing. This is partly because of the undeniable 

versatility of earlier technology options (e.g. CFCs), but the trend also reflects the fact that 

technological developments over the past 20 years have made the users of alternatives more 

discerning. There are now many more solutions available to choose from, but a need to apply greater 

scrutiny in decision-making to ensure continuing competitiveness in an increasingly globalised 

market. 

5.2 Technology Availability

5.2.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

Although many alternatives stem from chemistries that are already available within other sectors of 

use (e.g. hydrocarbons and oxygenated hydrocarbons (HCOs)), there is a need to ensure that the 

grade of product carries sufficient purity for the application in question. This is specifically the case 

for refrigerant and blowing agent applications where the presence of undesirable impurities can 

influence the thermodynamics and, in the case of foams, the surface chemistry of the system. 

In other instances (e.g. the emergence of unsaturated HFCs and HCFCs), the molecules are 

themselves new. This creates a series of needs in order to validate the technology before commercial 

supply and use can be considered. These include: 

 The characterisation of environmental criteria – such as GWP 

 The assessment of human health toxicity and eco-toxicity 

 The assessment of lifecycle impacts – including breakdown products 

 The analysis of likely product take-up bearing in mind competitive solutions in the market 

place.

 The decision to invest in commercial scale plant and the lead-time required to build the 

necessary manufacturing facilities
44 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The implication is that bringing new alternatives to market can take anything between two and five 

years depending on the starting position. Unless, an alternative is already well advanced in this 

process, it is unrealistic to seek to gain acceleration in the product’s commercial introduction in any 

mitigation scenario. Accordingly, mitigation scenarios are often more about the level of market 

penetration than they are about the speed of technology introduction. 

5.2.2 Article 5 Parties

For Article 5 Parties, there are still further considerations to be made. Most notably, a key question is 

whether there will be sufficient demand in the region to justify investment in manufacturing 

equipment or distribution infrastructure. Whilst the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund to 

a considerable amount, with assistance from the Implementing Agencies, endeavours to quantify 

demand and provide incentives for investment, the justification and prioritisation of such investment 

will be an important factor in determining whether there is a realistic prospect of availability of what 

might otherwise be preferred alternatives. 

5.3 Defining the Cost

It is self-evident that those applications with easy routes to substitution will have already instigated 

the necessary measures. The main reason for the continued use of HCFCs and/or the adoption of

saturated HFCs is that either the technical requirements cannot be met by other alternatives or that 

the capital investment costs are prohibitive. In the remaining sectors of RAC and foam, the level of 

disaggregation in the market is high, making it rare to find economies of scale that can be leveraged 

to allow investment in the expensive capital equipment often needed to manage issues such as 

increased flammability. Ultimately it is ‘cost per unit of production’ that is the barrier to transition 

rather than the absolute investment cost itself. 

5.3.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

In non-Article 5 Parties, the bulk of HCFC use is already avoided and, where economies of scale do 

not exist, high-GWP solutions have often been the alternatives of choice. In several non-Article 5 

jurisdictions there is no absolute pressure to make any further transitions and certainly no binding 

time-scale. Therefore, it is unlikely that costly transitions will be made unless and until equipment is 

due for replacement for other reasons. 

Since a forced transition will always be substantially more expensive, it is impossible to place a 

meaningful range of cost, since each project situation will be unique. Such forced transitions are 

beginning to emerge in Europe, where the revised F-Gas Regulation has created more stringent 

phase-down targets across the industry sectors in question. Japan is in the mid-ground, where there is 

no absolute transition schedule, but the moral and market pressure for transition is high.

5.3.2 Article 5 Parties

In Article 5 regions, the schedule for transition is dictated to a large extent by Decision XIX/6. 

However, the choice of alternative is not prescribed in this process, especially for those projects not 

eligible for Multilateral Fund support. It is therefore perfectly legitimate, even if not environmentally 

desirable, to transition from an HCFC to a high-GWP alternative in order to minimise the capital cost 

of the project. Where the performance of a high-GWP alternative is demonstrably better than lowGWP options, or the low-GWP solution is not yet available, the drive to high-GWP alternatives, even 

if only for the short-term, is often irresistible. 

The hard truth is that an over-ambitious mitigation strategy can actually jeopardise the delivery of 

climate benefits. This has played out in practice in some instances, where the “worst first” strategy 

for HCFC-141b has forced inclusion in Stage 1 HPMP transitions where alternatives are not yet in 

place. A good example of this is in the PU Spray Foam sector where high-GWP solutions have been 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 45

adopted in lieu of the arrival low-GWP solutions. The only safeguard has been a signed commitment 

by the enterprise for those projects supported under the Multilateral Fund to make a further transition 

to low-GWP solutions as soon as they are available. These dynamics are notoriously difficult to 

model in any mitigation scenario. 

Of course, there are also investments in both sectors that are not transitional at all and, in the absence 

of proven low-GWP alternatives, will trends towards high GWP solutions. This is true both in the 

RAC and foam sectors, particularly where technology selections in non-Article 5 regions are 

following a similar path. 

 

5.4 Funding Sources

Section 5.3 has highlighted the fact that it is virtually impossible to pin down a realistic range of 

transition costs for any technology sector, since the real cost is so dependent on circumstances 

unrelated to the technology itself. The only general conclusion that can be drawn is that a less hurried 

approach is liable to lead to lower costs. 

Whilst the cost question may be very difficult to fathom, the funding element is much simpler to 

address, since the funding mechanisms are clearer. 

5.4.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

Although there are no funds available for non-Article 5 transitions under the Montreal Protocol, 

investments can be justified on the basis of the saving in carbon emissions. This analysis delivers the 

‘so-called’ abatement cost, but needs to be assessed carefully since it should be based on emissions 

avoided rather than consumption avoided. That said, over a long enough period, it is certainly valid to 

consider consumption as potential emissions. Indeed, for refrigeration and air conditioning 

equipment, the cumulative servicing charge over the life-time of a piece of equipment reflects the 

emission and is likely to be considerably greater than the initial equipment charge. 

The high-GWP of many refrigerants and foam blowing agents makes this assessment quite powerful 

in justifying transitions. Most climate strategies will consider that abatement investment costs up to 

US$ 50/tonne CO2-eq would be reasonable. For a refrigerant on foam blowing agent of, say, 1000 

GWP, this would support an investment of US$ 50/kg. Since most refrigerant transitions are in the 

US$ 6-10/kg range with some transitions being as low as US$ 1-2/kg, there seems little barrier to 

making wholesale conversions. However, there are very few jurisdictions where such projects can be 

monetised in this way, with California being one of few exceptions. Even then, the case for seeking to 

avoid refrigerant emissions seems compelling based on wider climate criteria.

5.4.2 Article 5 Parties

The funded transitions under the Multilateral Fund are much more explicit about investment 

thresholds and it seems that transitions to low-GWP refrigerants would fall within these thresholds 

provided that reliable low-GWP alternatives can be identified. It should be noted that this is not only 

a matter of capital cost, but also of incremental operating costs. Therefore issues such as energy 

efficiency can play a key role in determining the efficacy of proposed alternatives. 

In the foam sector, the economy of scale issue is particularly acute. In 2008, the Multilateral Fund 

Secretariat paper presented to the 54th Executive Committee meeting (paper 54/54) highlighted the 

fact that HCFC-141b and HCFC-142b use was typically associated with countries which had overall 

uses of less than 10ODP tonnes per year. In responding to this, the MLF has provided a funding 

threshold of just under US$ 8/kg for blowing agent conversion, but has also allowed a 25% premium 

(just under US$ 10/kg) to support the preferential introduction of low-GWP alternatives. However, it 

should be noted that these are funding thresholds and not assessed costs. It is well known that many 
46 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

enterprises are co-funding transitions from various sources to ensure that they make the most logical 

transition in order to remain competitive in the global market.

 

5.5 Other issues

The previous sections of this Chapter have highlighted a number of factors, which can influence the 

speed and extent of technology transition. It is clear from this assessment that not all of the drivers 

for more rapid transition are yet aligned. 

5.5.1 Non-Article 5 Parties

In the non-Article 5 regions, it is clear that the regulatory framework developed in Europe around the 

revised F-Gas Regulation will stimulate further focus on transitions out of high-GWP solutions such 

as saturated HFCs. However, the consequences of those transitions are, as yet, uncertain –

particularly where the low-GWP technologies are not yet fully proven. Even so, the framework is 

rigid enough to justify including the revised F-Gas regulation within the BAU baseline. 

In other regions, there seems more reluctance to put such prescriptive regulatory frameworks in place 

and it is not yet clear whether transitions will be driven without them. The President’s Climate Action 

Plan and the Japanese amended law on the proper use of fluorinated gases may have some impact, but 

they are undoubtedly softer than the European approach. 

5.5.2 Article 5 Parties

The implementation of Decision XIX/6 was always understood to be a vehicle for promoting 

appropriate consideration of climate aspects when transitioning out of HCFCs. In some sectors, this 

seems to have been effective, but ultimately the decisions are driven by confidence in the low-GWP 

alternatives. There are still a number of pilot projects outstanding on these technologies (notably CO2

in XPS and pre-blended hydrocarbons for PU foams), which still need to deliver positive outcomes 

before mitigation strategies can be enforced. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 47

6 Environmental Benefits Associated with selected Mitigation 

Scenarios

Taking into account the content of Chapter 5, the Task Force has developed two mitigation scenarios 

covering RAC and foams in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 regions. The following sections deal 

with the assumptions made and the predicted environmental outcomes arising. 

6.1 Article 5 – Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6.1.1 Mitigation Scenarios

Two mitigation scenarios have been selected in refrigeration and air conditioning for introducing low 

GWP replacements, i.e. mitigating high GWP replacements compared to the BAU scenario as given 

in Chapter 4, separately for Article 5 and Non-Article 5 countries. It concerns a variation in dates for 

the prohibition of the use in new manufacturing of certain high GWP ODS alternatives. The sectors 

considered are refrigeration (including commercial, industrial and transport refrigeration), mobile air 

conditioning and stationary air conditioning. This type of approach is to some degree comparable 

with the approach in the European revised F-gas regulation. Table 6-1 summarises the assumptions 

used for Mitigation Scenario 1. 

MAC

2022

Domestic

2025

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

2025

All countries

All countries

All countries

R404A =0 for new eq.

Replaced by R407

R134a = 0 for neq eq.

No change in servicing

R134a = 0 for new eq.

A5

Table 6-1 Assumptions behind the RAC Article 5 Mitigation Scenario 1

When adding up the demands for the various sub-sectors the amounts for MIT-1 can be determined as 

given in Tables 6-2 and 6-3 for Article 5 countries.

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 54.4 110.4 183.5 230.5 275.1

R-404A/R-507 13.1 35.2 55.5 91.3 130.3

R-407C 16.5 58.6 105.6 188.7 296.0

R-410A 41 95.8 162.5 247.5 360.3

Low-GWP 22.4 33.7 48.8 125.6 233.3

T O T A L 147.4 333.7 555.9 883.7 1295.0

Table 6-2 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (MIT-1 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (ktonnes)
48 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 70.7 143.5 238.5 300.0 376.6

R-404A/R-507 51.6 138.8 219.0 360.1 513.6

R-407C 26.8 95 171.1 305.7 479.5

R-410A 78.7 183.9 312.0 475.2 691.8

Low-GWP 0.06 0.14 0.25 0.67 1.04

T O T A L 227.9 561.3 940.9 1441.7 2043.5

Table 6-3 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (MIT-1 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)

The following can be observed for Article 5 countries (where there are now more restrictions for the 

2010-2030 demand, namely, a ban on HFC-134a in MACs as of 2022, and a ban on the use of R404A by 2025):

 The demand for HFC-134a in Article 5 countries increases by a factor of 2.5 in 15 years, 

between 2015 and 2030, where the lower growth is due to changes in mobile air conditioning;

 The MIT-1 scenario for R-404A and R-407A/C/F still shows large growth for the refrigerants 

R-404A (smaller than in the BAU scenario), R-407A/C/F and R-410A, mainly due to the 

external (growth) factors;

 Actually, the demand for low-GWP refrigerants now grows by a factor of 7, mainly due to the 

fact that the application of low-GWP refrigerants is assumed in several sub-sectors, including 

the MAC sector that presents a high growth;

 In the Article 5 countries, the demand in tonnes for R-410A (the same as in the BAU 

scenario) is now larger than the demand for HFC-134a;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases again by almost 400% between 2015 and 

2030 (the same amounts for BAU and MIT-1);

 The same tendencies in growth, both for the separate refrigerant demand numbers (subsectors) and for the total demand, expressed in Mt CO2 eq. can be observed.

 

 Due to a somewhat higher demand for low-GWP refrigerants, the total demand expressed in 

Mt CO2 increases not that much as in the BAU scenario (365 instead of 415 % over the 

period 2015-2030).

For the second mitigation scenario, the Article 5 approach has followed the same approach as might 

be expected in the non-Article 5 regions. This is a relatively aggressive approach, especially in view 

of the rapid growth that is anticipated in the Article 5 region. In this respect, it is probably at the limit 

of what is currently achievable given some of the issues discussed in Chapter 5. Table 6-4 sets out the 

main assumptions applied: 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 49

MAC

2017

after 2017

Domestic

2020

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

2020

R404A = 0% for new eq. 

replaced by GWP ≤ 300

No change in servicing

2030

80% CO2 Eq. of sale

R404A retrofit by 

GWP ≤ 300 (Retrofit - 

80%)

SAC

2020

MIT 2 scenario

A5

R134a = 0% for new eq.

replaced by GWP1

No change in servicing

R134a = 0% for neq eq.

replaced by GWP1

No change in servicing

R404A = 0% replaced by GWP ≤ 700

All countries

All countries

All countries

All countries

Table 6-4 Assumptions behind the RAC Article 5 Mitigation Scenario 2

When adding up the demands for the various sub-sectors the amounts for MIT-2 can be determined as 

given in Tables 6-5 and 6-6 for the Article 5 countries.

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 54.4 110.4 150.0 196.2 218.3

R-404A/R-507 13.1 35.2 52.7 71.9 44.8

R-407 16.5 58.6 94.6 118.1 79.8

R-410A 41.0 95.8 139.0 164.7 95.9

Low-GWP 22.4 33.7 119.6 332.8 856.2

T O T A L 147.4 333.7 555.9 883.7 1295.0

Table 6-5 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (MIT-2 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (ktonnes)
50 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 70.7 143.5 195.0 255.1 283.8

R-404A/R-507 51.6 138.8 207.9 283.3 176.9

R-407 26.8 95.0 153.2 191.3 129.2

R-410A 78.7 183.9 267.0 316.2 184.2

Low-GWP 0.06 0.14 11.6 52.6 171.0

T O T A L 227.9 561.3 834.7 1098.5 945.1

Table 6-6 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives (MIT-2 

scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)

The following can be observed for Article 5 countries (where there are now similar restrictions for 

the 2010-2030 demand as in Non-Article 5 countries, namely, a ban on HFC-134a in MACs as of 

2017, and a ban on the use of R-404A and R-410A by 2020): 

 The demand for HFC-134a in Article 5 countries still increase between, between 2015 and 2030 

(by a factor of 2), due to the high growth and the remaining in the period 2020-2030.

 The MIT-2 scenario shows increases in the demand for R-404A and R-407C until 2025, after that 

a decrease in demand occurs (this is due to the external (growth) factors, while the change in the 

bank of low-GWP refrigerant changes gradually);

 Actually, the demand for low-GWP refrigerants now grows enormously, in particular after 2017, 

and is about two thirds of the total by the year 2030;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases again by almost 400% between 2015 and 2030 

(the same amounts for BAU, MIT-1 and MIT-2);

 The same tendencies in growth, both for the separate refrigerant demand numbers (sub-sectors) 

and for the total demand, expressed in Mt CO2 eq. can be observed.

 

Owing to a much higher demand for low-GWP refrigerants, the total refrigerant demand, expressed in 

Mt CO2 eq., increases much less than in the MIT-1 scenario. There is a growth of about a factor of 2 

between the years 2015 and 2025, after which a decrease occurs in the amount expressed in Mt CO2 

eq. of about 15% (compared to the year 2025), while the demand in tonnes increases by 45%.

6.1.2 Impact assessment of Mitigation Scenarios

The MIT-1 scenario will result in savings in the demand of HFC-134a and R-404A, while increasing 

the demand of R-407 (A/C/F). This will not result in major savings in the years 2020-2030. Table 6-

9 shows the impact. It will result in less than 10% influence on the total amount of CO2 eq estimated 

for 2025 and slightly more for the amounts estimated for 2030.

The MIT-2 scenario has a much bigger influence on the amounts of refrigerants used in terms of 

tonnes of CO2 eq., 25% of the total estimated for 2025 can be avoided, and this will increase to more 

than 50% in the year 2030.

Even under the MIT-2 scenario Article 5 countries are expected to see a growth in demand of about 

80% between 2015 and 2030.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 51

Year 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

BAU 227.9 561.3 940.9 1564.1 2333.3

Reductions 

MIT-1 0 0 0 122.5 289.7

MIT-2 0 0 106.2 465.6 1388.2

 

Table 6-7 Current and future total demand of refrigerants for the period 2010-2030 in Article 5 

countries for the BAU (Mt CO2 equivalent) and savings for the MIT-1 and MIT-2 

scenarios (Mt CO2 equivalent)

It needs to be mentioned that the impact of phasing in low-GWP alternatives cannot be totally 

estimated in the period 2020-2030, since many measures in manufacturing are taking place as of 

2020, and will not have full impact after the servicing part on HFCs has been phased out. However, 

Figure 6-1 illustrates graphically the overall impact of the Mitigation Scenarios against the BAU 

scenario outlined in Chapter 4.

Figure 6-1 – Impact of Mitigation Scenarios for RAC in the Article 5 Regions 

6.1.3 Economic Factors

Decision XXV/5 asks to focus on the economic costs of various scenarios to phase down high GWP

alternatives to ODS. Economic costs will consist of changes in manufacturing processes and the 

possible impact on employment, on higher operating costs in the case of lower energy efficiency, on 

re-engineering system designs, on capital costs involved in the conversion to low GWP substances as 

well as on possible higher costs involved in the servicing sector.

The Task Force, at this stage, assumes that there will be no additional operating costs involved, that 

servicing practices are likely to be more complicated (but cannot attach numbers to this aspect), so 

that the actual economic costs for which a range can be derived would solely be the conversion of the 

manufacturing operations.
52 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

In order to determine indicative amounts for the change to low GWP refrigerants in Article 5 

countries, it is necessary to look at the amounts used in manufacture (i.e., the change in manufacture) 

going from the BAU scenario to the MIT-1 and MIT-2 scenario. 

In the tables above, the amounts are given for the BAU, the MIT-1 and the MIT-2 scenario of high 

GWP and low GWP refrigerants for MACs, commercial, industrial, transport, and domestic 

refrigeration and stationary air conditioning. These are the sectors that use R-404A (507), R407A/C/F, R-410A and HFC-134a.

The refrigerant demand as presented in the tables concerns both servicing and manufacturing. The 

demand for R-404A and R-410A can come from manufacturing lines that have been newly 

established or that have been converted from the use of HCFC-22 (between 2015 and 2020, as 

assumed in the spreadsheet calculations).

Costs can be determined for a period of e.g. 2017-2022 for the MIT-1 or MIT-2 scenario, using the 

manufacturing amounts (the capacity in tonnes per year, which can be translated to average units per 

year) of the various refrigerants mentioned above. In this case the 2015 consumption has been taken 

as the reference point, assuming that this would form a sort of cut-off date, and that new capacity for 

high GWP alternative applications, to be established after this date, should not be considered. 

If one assumes a total consumption of high GWP alternatives (HFCs) in the year 2015 of about 

300,000 tonnes, used in Article 5 countries in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the 

following indicative numbers for conversion costs could be determined. In this case one could apply a 

60% share of manufacturing and a 40% share of servicing, since it concerns growing sub-sectors in 

all cases (in a stable situation the servicing percentage would be higher).

For all conversions to low GWP alternatives it is difficult to assume narrow costs ranges. Several 

studies, including the XXIV/7 Task Force report, assume costs that may be low for some conversions, 

but are often higher than US$ 15-65/ kg. On the basis of experience in converting certain 

manufacturing to low GWP ODS alternatives under the Multilateral Fund, costs could be assumed in 

the range of US$ 6-18 per kg, but could easily be a factor of 3 higher in certain sub-sectors. It will be 

clear that, for a conversion from R-404A (507) to R-407A/C/F costs will be relatively low and can be 

assumed in the range of US$ 1-3.

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 405-810

Refr.sectors R-407A/C/F 90,000 54,000 54-162

Stationary AC 135,000 0

Total 459-972

Table 6-8 Costs for the MIT-1 scenario in Article 5 countries

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 270-810

Refr.sectors Low GWP 90,000 54,000 324-972

Stationary AC Low GWP 135,000 81,000 486-1458

Total 1080-3240

 

Table 6-9 Costs for the MIT-2 scenario in Article 5 countries
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 53

In this case, it is not important whether or not the conversion would take place in multinationals or 

domestically owned companies. 

If funding in the case of multinationals would not be considered, this would completely change the 

picture. However, at this stage the Task Force does not have any reliable data to make any more 

detailed calculations that would take this into account.

Roughly spoken, if the conversion would take place during a period of 5-6 years, it would concern an 

amount of US$ 100-160 million per year in the case of the MIT-1 scenario and an amount of US$ 

180-650 million per year in the case of the MIT-2 scenario.

The amount in the range of US$ 180-650 million per year, during a period of 5-6 years would save 

100-470 Mt CO2 equivalent in demand per year (compared to BAU) in the period 2020-2025 (this is 

not equal to a saving in emissions in that same period). 

It needs to be clearly stated that this amount is based upon the 2015 manufacturing amounts to be 

converted, with a cut-off date for e.g. the year 2015. This may turn to be not realistic in practice, if 

one would have to depart from the amounts predicted for the year 2020, total costs will again 

substantially decrease and could easily be 60-70% higher (compare the numbers in the BAU scenario 

for Article 5 countries).

6.2 Article 5 - Foams

6.2.1 Mitigation Scenarios

As with RAC, two mitigation scenarios have been selected for foams. Both are based on a potential 

acceleration of the achievable HCFC phase-out date and a reduction in the high-GWP uptake cited in 

the BAU scenario (Table 4-4). The following two tables provide the assumptions in full: 

PU Appliance

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

PU Boardstock

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

PU Panel

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

PU Spray

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

PU Insitu/Block

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

XPS Board

ODS transitions complete by 2026

% high GWP options by weight

Phenolic

ODS transitions complete by 2020

% high GWP options by weight

Yes

10%

All countries

10%

25%

Yes

5%

Yes

Yes

All countries

All countries

Yes

10%

10%

All countries

MIT 1 scenario

A5

All countries

Yes

All countries

All countries

Yes

25%

 

Table 6-10 – Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 1 in the Article 5 foams sector

It can be seen that Mitigation Scenario 1 foresees an accelerated phase-out of HCFCs in the 

polyurethane foam sector by 2020 and in the XPS sector by 2026. 
54 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

PU Appliance

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

PU Boardstock

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

PU Panel

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

PU Spray

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

PU Insitu/Block

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

XPS Board

ODS transitions complete by 2024

% high GWP options by weight

Phenolic

ODS transitions complete by 2018

% high GWP options by weight

Yes

0%

All countries

All countries

All countries

Yes

0%

0%

Yes

Yes

Yes

0%

0%

All countries

All countries

0%

All countries

MIT 2 scenario

Yes

A5

All countries

Yes

0%

Table 6-11 – Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 2 in the Article 5 foams sector

Mitigation Scenario 2 is viewed as having an aggressive substitution deadline for all polyurethane 

foams of 2018 with the additional challenge of ensuring that all alternatives are low-GWP. For 

extruded polystyrene the target date for HCFC phase-out is 2024 – four years ahead of the BAU 

scenario and only four years later than the requirements of the revised F-Gas regulation in Europe. 

Accordingly, Mitigation Scenario 2 is viewed as amongst the most progressive options available to 

the foam sector. Even then, its impact, when compared with the potential contribution from the RAC 

sector is relatively minimal, as is revealed in the following section. 

 

6.2.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios

Figure 6-2 shows the incremental climate savings achieved for Mitigation Scenarios 1 and 2 against 

the BAU baseline.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 55

 

Figure 6-2 Impact of Mitigation Scenarios for foams in the Article 5 regions

6.2.3 Economic Factors 

As has already been pointed out in Chapter 5 and in other parts of this report, the acceleration of 

phase-out dates is likely to increase the cost of transitions, since it makes it less likely that costs can 

be allocated against other drivers such as equipment renewal. In the case of foams, the range of 

processes involved and the variation in size of the manufacturing facilities makes it very difficult to 

quantify transitional costs in absolute terms. A detailed review of foam projects under the Multilateral Fund shows cost effectiveness valuations ranging from < US$ 2/kg up to US$ 150/kg. 

6.3 Non-Article 5 countries – Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6.3.1 Mitigation Scenarios

For reasons already covered in earlier sections of this report, the drivers for conversion in non-Article 

5 regions are often very different from those in Article 5 regions and may result as much from market 

pressures as from regulatory stimuli. 

Mitigation Scenario 1 for non-Article 5 regions is as follows: 
56 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

MAC EU Other Countries

2017

after 2017

Domestic EU Other Countries

2020

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

EU Other Countries

2020

R404A = 0% for new eq.

repalced by R407C

No change in servicing

2030

80% CO2 Eq. of sale

R404A retrofit by GWP 

≤ 300 (Retrofit - 80%)

R134a = 0% for new eq.

replaced by GWP1

R134a = 0% for new eq., replaced by GWP1

No change in servicing

No change in servicing

MIT 1 scenario

nA5

usual practice

 Table 6-12 Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 1 in the non-Article 5 RAC sector

When summarising the demands for the various sub-sectors the amounts for MIT-1 can be assessed 

as given in Tables 6-13 and 6-14 below for Non-Article 5 countries.

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 96.7 96.7 64.8 47.5 32.1

R-404A/R-507 38.7 42.2 25.0 10.3 5.0

R-407C 21.9 49.4 69.3 91.4 102.7

R-410A 51.4 119.4 147.3 189.4 229.3

Low-GWP 11.1 13.8 61.5 99.8 145

T O T A L 219.8 321.5 367.9 438.4 514.1

Table 6-13 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives 

(MIT-1 scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (ktonnes)

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 125.7 125.6 84.2 61.8 45.9

R-404A/R-507 150.0 166.5 98.5 47.7 19.5

R-407C 35.4 80.1 112.3 148.0 166.3

R-410A 98.7 229.2 282.8 363.6 440.3

Low-GWP 0.03 0.04 5 8 11

T O T A L 409.8 601.4 582.8 629.1 683.0

Table 6-14 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives

(MIT-1 scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 57

The following can be observed for Non-Article 5 countries (where the main change is in MACs and 

in the ban of the use of R-404A as of 2020 in non-EU countries):

 The demand for HFC-134a in Non-Article 5 countries decreases by a factor of 3, between 

2015 and 2030, due to the MAC new equipment phase-out of HFC-134a in 2017;

 The demand for R-404A (apart from some servicing) virtually disappears by the year 2030;

 This MIT-1 scenario (which includes increased use of R-407A/C/F instead of R-404A) 

shows an increase of a factor two in the demand for R-407C between 2015 and 2030;

 As of 2013-2015, R-410A remains the refrigerant that shows the largest demand, which, in 

tonnes, is almost 40% of the total demand for all HFC refrigerants;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases by about 50% between 2015 and 2030, but 

this now includes a much larger portion of low-GWP refrigerants (low GWP fluorocarbons, 

non-fluorocarbons), in the year 2030 almost 30% of the total in this scenario consists of low 

GWP refrigerants;

 The same tendencies are visible for each of the refrigerants in Mt CO2 eq.

 In Mt CO2 eq., however, the total refrigerant demand increases by (only) 14% between 2015 

and 2030. This smaller increase in Mt CO2 eq. than in tonnes is due to the decrease in the 

contributions of R-404A with its very high GWP (in favour of R-407C and other low-GWP 

refrigerants), and due to the phase out of high-GWP refrigerant in MAC applications. 

For Mitigation Scenario 2 (MIT-2), the assumptions made are as follows: 

MAC EU Other Countries

2017

after 2017

Domestic EU Other Countries

2020

CommRef

Transport

Industrial

EU Other Countries

2020

R404A = 0% for new eq. 

replaced by GWP ≤ 300

No change in servicing

2030

80% CO2 Eq. of sale

R404A retrofit by GWP 

≤ 300 (Retrofit - 80%)

SAC EU Other Countries

2020

R134a = 0% for new eq.

replaced by GWP1

R134a = 0% for neq eq.

replaced by GWP1

No change in servicing

R404A = 0% replaced by GWP ≤ 700

No change in servicing

MIT 2 scenario

nA5

 Table 6-15 – Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 2 in the non-Article 5 RAC sector
58 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The application of these MIT-2 assumptions leads to the determination of consumption shown in 

Tables 6-16 and 6-17 below. 

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 96.7 96.7 63.9 46.0 29.2

R-404A/R-507 38.7 42.2 25.0 10.3 5.0

R-407 21.9 49.4 52.5 34.3 13.2

R-410A 51.4 116.7 116.3 62.6 24.3

Low-GWP 11.1 13.8 115.7 287.5 480.8

T O T A L 219.8 318.8 373.4 440.7 552.5

Table 6-16 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives 

(MIT-2 scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (ktonnes)

Year/

Refrigerant type

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HFC-134a 125.7 125.6 83.0 59.8 37.9

R-404A/R-507 150.1 166.5 98.5 47.7 19.5

R-407 35.4 80.1 85.0 55.5 21.4

R-410A 98.7 229.2 223.4 120.2 46.6

Low-GWP 0.03 0.04 33.6 119.2 200.6

T O T A L 409.8 596.3 523.5 402.4 326.0

 Table 6-17 Current and future refrigerant demand for (refrigerant) ODS alternatives 

 (MIT-2 scenario) for the period 2010-2030 in Non-Article 5 countries (Mt CO2 equivalent)

The following can be observed for Non Article 5 countries (where the main change can now be 

observed in stationary air conditioning, next to MACs, and also in the ban of the use of R-404A in 

favour of only low-GWP refrigerants):

 The demand for HFC-134a in Non-Article 5 countries decreases by a factor of 4, between 

2015 and 2030;

 The demand for R-404A (apart from some servicing) virtually disappears by the year 2030, 

moreover, also the demand for R-407C now decreases substantially over the period 2015-

2030;

 As of 2013-2015, the demand for R-410A sharply decreases, to about 25% of the 2015 value 

in the year 2030;

 In tonnes, the total refrigerant demand increases by about 50% between 2015 and 2030, but 

this now includes a very high portion of low-GWP refrigerants (low GWP fluorocarbons, 

non-fluorocarbons), in the year 2030 the share of low-GWP is assumed to be more than 85% 

of the total.

 In Mt CO2 eq., the total refrigerant demand now decreases by almost 50% between 2015 sand 

2030. This (sharp) decrease in Mt CO2 eq. than in tonnes is due to the decrease in the 

contributions of R-404A, R-410A as well as HFC-134a in the various types of applications. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 59

6.3.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios 

The MIT-1 scenario will result in savings in the demand of HFC-134a and R-404A, while increasing 

the demand of R-407A/C/F. This will not result in major savings in the years 2020-2030. Table 6-18 

shows the impact. It will result in less than 15% influence on the total amount of Mt CO2 eq. 

estimated for 2025 and about the same for the amounts estimated for 2030.

The MIT-2 scenario has a bigger influence on the amounts of refrigerants used in terms of tonnes of 

CO2 eq. Almost 20% of the total estimated for 2020 in the BAU can be avoided, and this will 

increase to about 55% in the year 2025 and 65% in the year 2030. The decrease in the saving 

percentage after 2025 is mainly due to the impact of stationary air conditioning manufacturing and 

servicing demand.

Under the MIT-2 scenario, non-Article 5 countries are expected to see a decrease in demand of about 

45% between 2015 and 2030.

Year 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

BAU 409.3 601.4 637.6 732.8 829.6

Reductions 

MIT-1 0 0 54.8 103.7 146.6

MIT-2 0 5.1 114.1 330.4 503.6

 

Table 6-18 Current and future total demand of refrigerants for the period 2010-2030 

in Non-Article 5 countries for the BAU (Mt CO2 equivalent) and savings for the 

MIT-1 and MIT-2 scenarios

It needs to be mentioned that the impact of phasing in the various low-GWP alternatives cannot be 

totally estimated during the period 2020-2030, since many measures in manufacturing are taking 

place as of 2020, and will not have full impact after the servicing part on HFCs has been phased out.

The situation is summarised graphically in Figure 6-3 below: 

 

Figure 6-3 Impact of Mitigation Scenarios for RAC in the non-Article 5 regions 
60 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

6.3.3 Economic Factors 

In order to determine indicative amounts for the change to low GWP refrigerants in Non-Article 5 

countries, it is again necessary to look at the amounts used in manufacture (i.e., the change in 

manufacture) going from the BAU scenario to the MIT-1 and MIT-2 scenario. 

In the tables above, the amounts are given for the BAU, the MIT-1 and the MIT-2 scenario of high 

GWP and low GWP refrigerants for MACs, commercial, industrial, transport, and domestic 

refrigeration and stationary air conditioning. These are the sectors that use R-404A (507), R407A/C/F, R-410A and HFC-134a. 

The refrigerant demand as presented in the tables concerns both servicing and manufacturing. The 

demand for R-404A and R-410A will come from manufacturing lines that have been newly 

established; there may be some that were converted from the use of HCFC-22 in the 1990-2000’s.

Costs can be determined for a period of e.g. 2017-2022 for the MIT-1 or MIT-2 scenario, using the 

manufacturing amounts as done in section 7-2 for Article 5 countries. 

Also in the case of non-Article 5 countries, the 2015 consumption has been taken as the reference 

point, assuming that this would form a sort of cut-off date, and that new capacity for high GWP 

alternative applications, to be established after this date, should not be considered. 

If one assumes a total consumption of high GWP alternatives (HFCs) in the year 2015 of about 

300,000 tonnes, used in non-Article 5 countries in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the 

following indicative numbers for conversion costs could be determined. It happens to be so that the 

demand for high GWP alternatives to ODS is more or less equal in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 

countries. 

Also in the case of Non-Article 5 countries one could apply a 60% share of manufacturing and a 40% 

share of servicing, since it concerns growing sub-sectors in all cases (in a stable situation the 

servicing percentage would be higher).

The refrigerant demand as presented in the tables concerns both servicing and manufacturing. The 

demand for R-404A and R-410A will come from manufacturing lines that have been newly 

established; there may be some that were converted from the use of HCFC-22 in the 1990-2000’s.

Costs can be determined for a period of e.g. 2017-2022 for the MIT-1 or MIT-2 scenario, using the 

manufacturing amounts as done above for Article 5 countries. Also in the case of non-Article 5 

countries, the 2015 consumption has been taken as the reference point, assuming that this would form 

a sort of cut-off date, and that new capacity for high GWP alternative applications, to be established 

after this date, should not be considered. 

If one assumes a total consumption of high GWP alternatives (HFCs) in the year 2015 of about 

300,000 tonnes, used in non-Article 5 countries in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the 

following indicative numbers for conversion costs could be determined. It happens to be so that the 

demand for high GWP alternatives to ODS is more or less equal in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 

countries. Also in the case of non-Article 5 countries one could apply a 60% share of manufacturing 

and a 40% share of servicing, since it concerns growing sub-sectors in all cases (in a stable situation 

the servicing percentage would be higher).

For all conversions to low GWP alternatives costs are assumed to be in the range of US$ 6-18 per kg, 

for a conversion from R-404A (507) to R-407A/C/F costs are assumed to be in the range of US$ 1-3.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 61

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 270-810

Refr.sectors R-407A/C/F

and low-GWP 

(EU countries) 

55,000 33,000

(18,000 in non-EU)

108-324

Stationary AC 135,000 0

Total 378-1134

Table 6-19 Costs for the MIT-1 scenario in Non-Article 5 countries

Sector Conversion to Amount

(tonnes)

Manufacturing 

conversion (tonnes)

Costs

(US$ million)

MAC Low GWP 75,000 45,000 270-810

Refr.sectors Low GWP 55,000 33,000 198-594

Stationary AC Low GWP 175,000 105,000 630-1890

Total 1098-3294

 

Table 6-20 Costs for the MIT-2 scenario in Non-Article 5 countries

When comparing the numbers, even with different consumption in the commercial and stationary air 

conditioning sectors, it is not surprising that the range derived for the costs is not much different 

since the assumption for low GWP conversion costs is the same.

At this stage the Task Force does not have any reliable data to make more detailed calculations that 

would take the effect of multinational or domestic operation into account.

Roughly speaking, if the conversion would take place during a period of 5-6 years, it would concern 

an amount of US$ 60-230 million per year in the case of the MIT-1 scenario and an amount of US$ 

200-650 million per year in the case of the MIT-2 scenario.

The amount in the range of US$ 200-650 million per year, during a period of 5-6 years would save 

110-330 Mt CO2 equivalent in demand per year (compared to BAU) in the period 2020-2025 (this is 

not equal to a saving in emissions in that same period). 

6.4 Non-Article 5 Parties – Foams

6.4.1 Mitigation Scenarios

The final scenarios to be assessed in this Chapter are those relating to the manufacture of foams in 

non-Article 5 regions. As seen in Chapter 4, the Business-as-Usual scenario is relatively 

unconstrained with only the European region having any formal regulatory framework requiring 

positive action. For Mitigation Scenario 1 (MIT-1), the following assumptions are made:
62 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

PU Appliance EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

PU Boardstock EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

PU Panel EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

PU Spray EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

PU Insitu/Block EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

XPS Board EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

Phenolic EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2025

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2030

MIT 1 scenario

nA5

Table 6-21 – Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 1 in the non-Article 5 foam sector

It can be seen that linear phase-downs are envisaged in all foam sub-sectors and all regions no later 

than 2030. The European targets for polyurethane foams are also brought forward from 2023 to 2020.

For the Mitigation Scenario 2 (MIT-2), the dates are brought forward still further as shown in Table 

6-22 below. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 63

PU Appliance EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

PU Boardstock EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

PU Panel EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

PU Spray EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

PU Insitu/Block EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

XPS Board EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

Phenolic EU Other Countries

Commencement of Linear Phase-down 2015 2020

Completion of Linear Phase-down 2020 2025

MIT 2 scenario

nA5

Table 6-22 – Assumptions adopted for Mitigation Scenario 2 in the non-Article 5 foam sector

In this instance, no further acceleration is thought possible in Europe, but additionally a five year 

acceleration is postulated for other non-Article 5 regions to bring the phase-out date forward to 2025. 

The environmental impact of these two Mitigation Scenarios is considered in the next section. 

6.4.2 Impact Assessment of Mitigation Scenarios

The ability to accelerate phase-outs in all non-Article 5 regions of the world is measured against the 

benchmarks set by the revised F-Gas Regulation. However, most commentators see the 2020 deadline 

for the XPS sector as particularly challenging – especially as a minimum target. Figure 6-4 illustrates 

the gains arising from these additional measures. 
64 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Figure 6-4 Impact of Mitigation Scenarios for foams in the non-Article 5 regions 

6.4.3 Economic Factors 

The transitional cost data for phase-outs in the foams sector is very sparse in practice, since few 

transitions have been made in the post-ODS era. In preparing its revision of the F-Gas Regulation, the 

European Commission conducted a number of studies in order to determine the costs associated with 

transition. Amongst these was the Öko Recherche study, which looked in depth at some of the foam 

sectors, including XPS. The outcome of that work proved controversial and stimulated substantial 

discussion, most of which was around the assumptions adopted. Again, the key question is whether 

the costs of the transition have to be taken in full against the blowing agent transition or whether the 

costs can be defrayed more widely in instances where equipment upgrading was anticipated in any 

event. Rather than become embroiled in that discussion once more, the Task Force would prefer to 

draw attention to the fact that the range of possible scenarios makes a single figure, or even a tight 

range, impossible to establish. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 65

7 Information on Alternatives to ODS in the Fire Protection sector

7.1 Introduction

This section addresses the requirements of “Decision XXV/5: Response to the report by the 

Technology and Economics Assessment Panel on information on alternatives to ozone-depleting 

substances (Decision XXIV/7, paragraph 1). The Halons Technical Options Committee (HTOC) has 

provided these responses at the request of the Task Force addressing the Decision.

The production and consumption of halons used in fire protection ceased in non-Article 5 Parties on 

January 1, 1994 and ceased elsewhere on January 1, 2010. The production and consumption of 

HCFCs for use in fire protection continues. Ozone depleting substances (ODS) used as fire 

extinguishants possess unique efficacy and safety properties that serve as a basis of fire protection 

systems where the application of water (by hose stream or sprinkler heads), dry chemical agents, or 

aqueous salt solutions is problematic, especially in high-value commercial electronics environments 

and in military systems, to name only two of many applications where such systems had many serious 

technical disadvantages. 

Development of alternatives to ODS fire extinguishing agents, beginning in the late 1980s, has 

progressed steadily and is now relatively mature. Interest remains, however, in development of new 

alternatives that offer further advancements in efficacy, safety, and environmental characteristics.

The HTOC Technical Note 1 provides the most up-to-date assessment of ODS use in fire protection, 

and the status of commercially available, technically proven alternatives. 

7.2 Response to Question 1(a)

7.2.1 Commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for total flooding fire 

protection using fixed systems

The Commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for total flooding fire protection 

using fixed systems remain unchanged from those fully described in the TEAP response to Decision 

XXIV/7 subsection 6.2.1 (TEAP, 2013). They are:

a) Halocarbon agents:

FK-5-1-12

HFC-23

HFC-125

HFC-227ea

b) Inert Gas agents

IG-01

IG-100

IG-55

IG-541

c) Carbon dioxide (for use in unoccupied areas only)

d) Water Mist technologies

e) Inert Gas generators

f) Fine solid particles

Although the above alternatives are available in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties, their use 

pattern depends on the hazard threat to be protected against as well as local regulations and relative 

costs.

High ambient temperatures do not affect the use patterns of these agents. However, extremely low 

ambient temperatures such as those found in arctic regions or the outside of aircraft at high altitude 
66 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

do. Extremely low temperatures pose significant challenges for currently commercialised alternatives 

seeking to replace halon in these environments. They are also challenged by other constraints in civil 

aviation, such as space and weight limitations because all the alternatives require more agent to 

suppress a fire than the halon being replaced.

Other halocarbon agents are in the early stages of testing and development. However, due to the 

lengthy process of testing, approval and market acceptance of new fire protection equipment types 

and agents, it is not anticipated that these agents can have any appreciable impact in the near-term. 

Phosphorous tribromide (PBr3) has been commercialised for use as a fire extinguishant in one small 

aircraft engine application but it is not being considered for any other application at this time owing 

to its toxicity and corrosiveness.

7.2.2 Commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for local application 

fire protection using portable systems

The commercially available, technically proven alternatives to ODS for local application fire 

protection using portable systems remain unchanged from those fully described in the TEAP response

to Decision XXIV/7 subsection 6.2.2. They are:

a) Halocarbon agents

HFC-236fa

HFC-227ea

FK-5-1-12

b) Carbon dioxide

c) Dry chemical

d) Straight stream water

e) Fine water spray

f) Aqueous salt solutions

g) Aqueous film-forming foam

Two chemicals are at an advanced stage of testing and development and may be commercialised as 

fire extinguishing agents in the future. These are:

h) FK-6-1-14

i) 2-Bromo-3,3,3-trifluoropropene

Note, civil aviation is trying to meet the International Civil Aviation Organisation’s (ICAO) 

31st December 2016 deadline for the replacement of halon handheld portable extinguishers 

using this agent. The required regulatory process in the United States for the 

commercialisation / manufacturing of it has just begun. If successful, this agent will likely be 

the most effective replacement for halon 1211 applications.

Although the above alternatives are available in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties, their use 

pattern depends on the hazard threat to be protected against as well as local regulations and relative 

costs. Of concern are reports of the introduction of some clean agent portable extinguishers in some 

Article 5 Parties that are not rated by internationally recognised testing laboratories.

High ambient temperatures do not affect the use patterns of these agents.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 67

7.3 Response to Question 1(b)

The principle chemical alternatives to ODS are HFCs and a fluoroketone. According to the 

manufacturers, usage and growth of their agents is as follows:

A) HFCs

The split of HFC sales for fire protection between Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties is 

approximately 70:30.

Sector Growth: HFC Sales for fire protection according to one manufacturer are:

US: flat

Middle East: growing

Asia Pacific: growing

Latin America: flat

Europe: flat

B) Fluoroketone

The split of fluoroketone sales for fire protection between Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties is 

approximately 50:50.

Sector Growth: Fluoroketone sales for fire protection according to the manufacturer are:

Sales continue to grow substantially in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, North America and South 

East Asia. In addition, sales are increasing in Latin America.

7.4 Response to Question 1(c)

The HTOC is of the opinion that it is not possible to report or even estimate values in response to the 

question posed.

The production of clean agent alternatives for use in fire extinguishing systems and portable fire 

extinguishers is performed by very few manufacturers, all of whom treat the information on their 

historical, present and projected production and costs as proprietary. The required factual data is thus 

not available. So, without a clear understanding of these production levels and costs there is no basis 

on which to assess the economic costs and implications and environmental benefits of avoiding high 

GWP alternatives to ozone depleting substances, and doing so may result in data that is misleading.

It should be noted that all of the alternative systems have their own sets of characteristics such as 

effectiveness, cost, weight, space and environmental properties to name a few. System cost is one of 

the most important considerations in system selection. In cases where space and weight are not 

limiting factors, there is recent, but limited, information that in some parts of the world inert gas 

systems can be cost competitive with halocarbon systems, a heretofore unanticipated situation. The 

HTOC is continuing its investigation into this development, which may provide additional clarity on 

market penetration options for low environmental impact agents in the future.

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 69

8 Information on Alternatives to ODS in Solvent Uses

8.1 Introduction 

This solvent chapter only describes updates compared to the Decision XXIV/7 Report (TEAP, 2013).

HCFC solvents currently used are HCFC-141b and HCFC-225ca/cb with an ODP of 0.11 and 

0.025/0.033 and a 100 year GWP of 713 and 120/586, respectively. 

Solvents are widely used as process agents in a variety of industrial manufacturing processes 

although they are not contained in the final products to consumers. The main applications of solvents 

are metal cleaning where metal working oil, grease, pitch wax, etc are cleaned, electronics cleaning 

where flus is mainly cleaned, and precision cleaning where dust is mainly cleaned. Among ODSs 

controlled by Montreal Protocol, CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) use as solvents were 

banned in both of Article-5 and non-Article 5 Parties. 

Several reports that describe the use of HCFCs in solvent applications have been published in the 

past. These include the IPCC TEAP Special Report, the TEAP Decision XXI/9 Task Force Report, 

XXIII/9 Task Force Report, XXIV/7 Task Force Report, and the Assessment Reports of CTOC and 

STOC.

Many alternative solvents and technologies developed for CFC alternatives since 1980s are the 

candidates for HCFC alternatives, which include, not- in kind technologies such as aqueous cleaning, 

semi-aqueous cleanings, hydrocarbon and alcoholic solvents, and in-kind solvents such as chlorinated 

solvents, and fluorinated solvents which include HFCs and HFEs with various levels of acceptance. 

HCFC-141b was already banned in non Article 5 Parties by 2010. HCFC-225 is going to be phased 

out in 2015. Thus, HCFC uses in non-Article 5 Parties are going to be phased out in near future, and a 

phase down of the HCFC uses in Article 5 Parties has just begun towards the phase out of HCFCs in 

2025.

8.3 Response to Question 1(a)

8.3.1 Status in non-A5 Parties 

So far, most of HCFCs uses have been replaced successfully by many other alternatives in nonArticle 5 Parties, and the HCFCs demand is steadily shrinking. As an example, Figure 8-1 shows the 

supplied volume (estimated) of all kinds of solvent in each solvent application in 2007 market in 

Japan.

Although the data presented in the figure are old and estimated values, thus are not representing the 

total demand of Japanese market, they show the relative positioning of each solvent in each 

application very well.

From the figure, it is clear that the market share of fluorinated solvents, which includes HCFCs, 

HFCs and HFEs, had been already very small in 2007. Also, there are some other alternatives being 

used in each application where fluorinated solvents are used, although the required cleaning 

specification may be different.
70 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

 

Figure 8-1 Supplied Volume of cleaners in each cleaning application in Japan*)

*):http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/chemical_management/law/information/pdf/h20fy/h20fy_senjyozai.pdf

Furthermore, unsaturated fluorochemical HFOs (hydrofluoroolefins) with zero ODP, and HCFOs 

(hydrochlorofluoroolefins) , CFOs (chlorofluoroolefins) and HBFOs (hydrobromofluoroolefins) with 

nearly zero ODP are said to be under development. They have ultra low GWP (<10) and are expected 

to replace HCFCS as well as high GWP-HFC and moderate GWP HFE solvents. Among them, 

HCFOs, CFOs and HBFOs are unique in their balanced solvency due to the presence of chlorine (or 

bromine) and fluorine atom in the molecule. If those with appropriate boiling points, low toxicity and 

enough stability to the practical use be on market, they may replace HCFCs totally in the future.

8.3.2 Status in Article 5 Parties

As shown in UNEP database, consumption and production amount of ODSs in Annex A and Annex 

B have been completely phased out in Article 5 Parties. Now, Article 5 Parties are moving forward to 

phase out HCFCs in an orderly fashion.

Although it is very difficult to obtain accurate figures of the total manufacture, imports and use of 

ODS solvents in Article 5 Parties, preferable alternatives have been identified throughout the world 

and are generally readily available except the unsaturated chemicals which are under development for 

commercialisation. So, to keep providing information and knowledge about what are the acceptable 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 71

alternatives is quite important. A second major hurdle to be overcome is the economic considerations. 

However, the biggest problem is being able to identify the small- and medium-sized enterprises 

(SMEs) that, collectively, make up a major portion of the solvent market. 

The selection of the alternative technologies to ODS solvents for Article 5 Parties should be:

 Aqueous/hydrocarbon-surfactant cleaning

 Organic solvent cleaning (with solvents less toxic than non-ozone-depleting halogenated 

solvents)

 Non-ozone-depleting halogenated solvents (TCE, PCE, HFO, HCFO, CFO)

 Organic solvent cleaning (with solvents more toxic than non-ozone-depleting halogenated 

solvents)

 Some fluorinated solvents with medium to high GWP (HFC, HFE)

However, SME who don’t have enough investment tend to use chlorinated solvents as they are 

cheaply available and the existing facilities can be used with minimum modifications.

8.4 Solvents Update

8.4.1 N-Propyl Bromide

A brominated solvent, n-propyl bromide was widely accepted as alternative for TCA, CFC-113, 

perchloroethylene and HCFCs because of the similar cleaning properties. However, there has been 

significant concern about the toxicity of n-propyl bromide. The American Conference of 

Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) proposed the reduction of the TLV for n-propyl 

bromide from 10 ppm to 0.1 ppm in 2012, and finally released 2014 editions of TLVs

®

and BELs 

book that shows 0.1ppm of TWA for nPB. That indicates that nPB is not considered as the candidate

for cleaning solvent any more due to the safety concerns. 

8.4.2 Alternatives under Development 

Recently unsaturated fluorochemicals such as HFOs, HCFOs, CFOs and HBFOs have been proposed. 

They are a new class of solvents specifically designed with a low atmospheric lifetime. The 

unsaturated molecules are known to be unstable in the atmosphere and therefore they show these low 

atmospheric lifetimes. 

HFOs with zero ODP and ultra-low GWP (<10) are being developed for the replacement of high 

GWP HFC and low or moderate GWP HFE solvents. They also could be candidates to replace 

HCFCs in certain solvent applications.

On the other hand, HCFOs (hydrochlorofluoroolefins) , CFOs (chlorofluoroolefins) and HBFOs 

(hydrobromofluoroolefins) have nearly zero ODP and ultra-low GWP (<10). They are unique in their 

balanced solvency due to the presence of chlorine (or bromine) and fluorine atom in the molecule. If 

those with appropriate boiling points, low toxicity and enough stability to the practical use have been 

developed, they are expected to totally replace HCFCs in the future.
72 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

9 Information on Alternatives to ODS in Medical Uses 

9.1 Metered Dose Inhalers

Inhaled therapy is essential for the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 

(COPD). There are two main types of inhalers for the delivery of respiratory drugs: the metered dose 

inhaler (MDI) and the dry powder inhaler (DPI). The choice of the most suitable inhaler is a complex 

decision taken between doctor and patient.

CFC-propelled MDIs were historically the inhaled delivery device of choice as they were 

inexpensive, reliable and extremely effective. Under the Montreal Protocol, CFC phase-out in MDI 

manufacture is almost completed in non-Article 5 Parties and likely to be completed in Article 5 

Parties in 2015. 

Since 1994, the CFC propellant in MDIs has been gradually replaced with HFCs (HFC-134a and to a 

lesser extent HFC-227ea), and there are now HFC MDI alternatives available to cover all key classes 

of drugs used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. Approximately 630 million HFC MDIs (with an 

average 15g HFC/MDI) are currently manufactured annually worldwide, using about 9,400 tonnes of 

HFCs and accounting for a relatively small proportion of global HFC usage.

Dry powder inhalers, which do not require a propellant, provide a not-in-kind alternative to MDIs. 

DPIs fall into two categories: single-dose DPIs, which have been in use for more than 60 years, and 

multi-dose DPIs, which have been in use for more than 20 years. For single-dose DPIs, the drug is 

supplied in individual single-dose capsules that must be inserted into the reusable inhaler device, one 

at a time, by the patient before each use. Multi-dose DPIs, by definition, contain more than one dose 

of drug, typically supplied with enough for at least one month’s treatment. There are two main types 

of multi-dose DPI, reservoir and multi-unit dose devices. Reservoir devices, which are not refillable, 

contain a bulk supply of drug (120-200 doses) from which individual doses are released with each 

actuation and inhaled by the patient. Multi-unit dose devices utilise individually prepared and sealed 

doses of drug: one type of refillable device uses 4-8 unit dose capsules loaded as a magazine of sealed 

blisters, with each blister delivering one dose of drug; the other type of non-refillable device contains 

a preloaded strip of 30-60 blister packed individual doses.

Other alternatives include nebulisers, which are used to inhale drug solutions and account for about 

10 percent or less of the market on a dose basis. Another alternative recently launched is a propellantfree aqueous MDI. There are also some emerging alternatives in the earlier stages of development, 

commercialisation or marketing, such as an iso-butane propelled MDI.

9.1.1 Technical and economic assessment of alternatives to CFC MDIs

An analysis follows of the technical and economic feasibility of the two main alternatives to CFCpropelled MDIs, HFC MDIs and DPIs (Table 1). The criteria established in Decision XXV/5 are not 

universally relevant to alternatives to CFC MDIs. In particular, in addressing whether alternatives are 

environmentally sound, and in place of the less relevant energy efficiency, this assessment has 

considered the alternatives in relation to their greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint. This 

assessment has also considered whether the alternatives are suitable for regions with high humidity 

rather than regions with high ambient temperature. In addition, cost effectiveness has been interpreted 

to mean affordability rather than a comparison of the effectiveness of the alternatives in relation to 

their costs. 

Using the criteria, a crude assessment of the technical and economic feasibility of alternatives to CFC 

MDIs is presented, taking into consideration differences between Article 5 and non-Article 5 Parties. 

For some criteria (in particular, environmentally sound, affordability), an assessment is made for each 

alternative relative to CFC MDIs and to each other. For example, DPIs can sometimes be less 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 73

affordable than CFC MDIs or HFC MDIs. For other criteria (such as commercially available, 

technically proven), an assessment can be made independently because these criteria are more 

objective measures. A more detailed, descriptive assessment of alternatives to CFC MDIs is 

elaborated below, and should be read in conjunction with Table 9-1.

Table 9-1 Technical and economic assessment of alternatives to CFC MDIs

Assessment Criteria

HFC metered dose inhalers Dry powder inhalers

Article 5 

Parties

Non-Article 5 

Parties

Article 5 

Parties

Non-Article 5 

Parties

Commercially available 1  1 

Technically proven    

Environmentally sound 2 2  

Economically viable and affordable   3 3

Suitable for regions with high humidity 4 4 4 4

Suitable for safe use    

Easily used 5 5 5 5

Legend:  Yes or More acceptable;  Not always or Less acceptable;  No or Unacceptable.

1. Not yet commercially available for all drug categories in China alone.

2. More environmentally sound than CFC MDIs but less than DPIs due to HFC emissions. Lower carbon footprint 

than CFC MDIs but more than DPIs due to HFC emissions.

3. Multi-dose DPIs can be less affordable than MDIs; single-dose DPIs can be more affordable than MDIs.

4. Older reservoir DPIs and some HFC MDIs can be affected by high humidity. Newer multi-dose DPIs function 

equally well in areas of high humidity.

5. DPIs can be easier for the patient to use because they do not require as much patient coordination as MDIs. 

However, DPIs have a minimum inspiratory effort, generally available to older children and adults, needed for 

proper use and drug efficacy. Either MDIs used with a spacer or nebulisers may be the only devices currently 

suited for treating the very young or patients with low inspiratory flow, and for treating acute attacks.

Commercially available— A range of HFC MDIs and DPIs are commercially available to cover all 

key classes of drugs used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. However, they are not yet widely 

available in China for all drug classes, where manufacturing transition to HFC MDIs is anticipated by 

the end of 2015 and widespread commercial availability probable by 2016-2017. In some regions, 

there can be more of one alternative (HFC MDI or DPI) used in preference to another. For example, 

the proportion of MDIs prescribed compared with DPIs varies considerably across Europe, with 70 

percent of MDIs prescribed in the UK and only 10 percent in Sweden2. This is more to do with 

market factors and physician/patient practices and preferences than it is to do with commercial 

availability.

Technically proven— There are now HFC MDI alternatives available to cover all key classes of 

drugs used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. Single-dose DPIs have been technically proven for 

more than 60 years, and multi-dose DPIs for more than 20 years. New drugs continue to be developed 

in the DPI format, sometimes exclusively. One multinational company, GSK, has been launching new 

respiratory drugs only as DPIs, although it continues to market 75 percent of its products in 

developing countries in HFC MDI format.

 

2 T. Hillman, F. Mortimer, N. S. Hopkinson, Inhaled drugs and global warming: time to shift to dry powder 

inhalers: Propellants in metered dose inhalers are powerful greenhouse gases, British Medical Journal. 2013; 

346: f3359.
74 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Environmentally sound— Based on carbon footprint estimates, HFC MDIs have about 10 times less 

climate impact than CFC MDIs. DPIs have an even lower climate impact, about 100 times less than 

CFC MDIs and 10 times less than HFC MDIs3. The estimated carbon dioxide equivalent of a 2-puff 

dose of an HFC MDI (200g CO2eq.) is comparable to the climate impact of everyday items, such as a 

330ml can of Cola (170g CO2eq.)4. HFC MDIs can account for a significant portion of the total 

carbon footprint of a country’s health sector (e.g. 8 percent of the total carbon footprint of the UK’s 

NHS)5.

Economically viable and affordable— Development costs for pharmaceutical companies for the 

transition of MDIs from CFCs to HFCs have been estimated to exceed US$1 billion, with investment 

still continuing. MLF funding approved by the Executive Committee of the Montreal Protocol has 

been US$52.2 million for projects mainly focussed on technology transfer to convert CFC MDI 

manufacture to HFC MDIs and institutional strengthening. 

MDIs are inexpensive and reliable devices that are extremely effective for patients. Multi-dose DPIs 

made by multinationals in non-Article 5 Parties generally have a similar price to the equivalent dose 

of drug in an MDI made by multinationals in non-Article 5 Parties. The exception is salbutamol that 

is more expensive per dose in multi-dose DPIs. Multi-dose DPIs are generally more expensive than 

MDIs manufactured in Article 5 Parties. 

Short-acting bronchodilators (e.g. salbutamol) are generally cheaper when in MDIs than in multi-dose 

DPIs. Nevertheless, Hillman et al. argued that because DPIs are more likely to be used correctly, a 

direct cost per dose analysis might overestimate the cost effectiveness of MDIs. Nevertheless, they 

still conclude that DPIs will need to be cheaper if they are to be used more widely, particularly in 

emerging economies and health systems where patients pay for their own drugs.6

Single-dose DPIs are affordable, and available for the short-acting bronchodilator salbutamol. 

Patients buy the re-usable device once and generally use that device for about 12 to 24 months. 

Patients buy only the medicines (capsules) as needed. In Article 5 Parties, single-dose DPIs have the 

advantage that they permit low-income patients to avoid the expense of buying one month’s therapy 

at a time (as necessary with MDIs and multi-dose DPIs). In India and Bangladesh, doctors prefer 

single-dose DPIs for the majority of their economically challenged patients. In India, for example, 

single-dose DPIs account for more than 50 percent of inhaled therapy. 

Suitable for regions with high humidity— Older reservoir multi-dose DPIs can suffer from water 

ingress in high humidity environments that leads to clumping of the powder formulation. Some HFC 

MDIs are also affected by high humidity. In both cases the issue can be partially addressed by 

supplying the device in a foil pouch opened on first use. Newer multi-dose DPIs function equally well 

in areas of high humidity, such as experienced in many Article 5 Parties. Single-dose DPIs can be 

more susceptible to humidity than some of the more recent multi-dose DPIs. However, an effective 

 

3

2010 Report of the UNEP Medical Technical Options Committee, 2010 Assessment Report, pp.15-17. Rough 

estimates of carbon footprints of the manufacture and use of respiratory devices were provided by IPAC. Based 

on a 200-dose equivalence, the estimated carbon footprint of an CFC MDI is 150-200 kgCO2eq., HFC-227ea 

MDI 60-80 kgCO2eq., HFC-134a MDI 20-30 kgCO2eq., and of a DPI is 1.5-6.0 kgCO2eq.

4

http://www.cokecorporateresponsibility.co.uk/big-themes/energy-and-climate- change/product-carbonfootprint.aspx

5 T. Hillman, F. Mortimer, N. S. Hopkinson, Inhaled drugs and global warming: time to shift to dry powder 

inhalers: Propellants in metered dose inhalers are powerful greenhouse gases, British Medical Journal. 2013; 

346: f3359.

6 T. Hillman, F. Mortimer, N. S. Hopkinson, Inhaled drugs and global warming: time to shift to dry powder 

inhalers: Propellants in metered dose inhalers are powerful greenhouse gases, British Medical Journal. 2013; 

346: f3359.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 75

drug dose is likely to be delivered even with the effects of humidity, and pharmaceutical companies 

are working to improve blister pack technology and to ameliorate humidity problems.

Suitable for safe use— The new MDIs and DPIs have been subjected to extensive regulatory 

assessments for safety, efficacy and quality. Clinical trials have shown HFC MDIs to have a safety 

and efficacy profile comparable to that of CFC MDIs. Furthermore, new HFC-containing MDIs may 

even provide improved performance resulting from more consistent dosing.7 Evidence also indicates 

that DPIs are equally effective as MDIs for the treatment of asthma and COPD.8

Easily used— DPIs can be easier for the patient to use because the drug delivery is effected by the 

patient’s own inhalation, and they do not require as much patient coordination as MDIs. Studies9

have shown that for many patients single- and multi-dose DPIs are easier to use correctly than MDIs. 

In some studies as many as 50 percent of patients cannot use an MDI efficiently, although issues of 

coordination can be overcome through use of a spacer device or breath-actuated inhaler. On the other 

hand, DPIs have a minimum inspiratory effort that is needed for proper use and drug efficacy. 

Therefore DPIs are generally used in older children and adults, but not in small children or patients 

with poor inspiratory flow. Indeed, either MDIs used with a spacer or nebulisers may be the only 

devices currently suited for treating the very young or the elderly and for treating acute attacks. It has 

been estimated that up to 30 percent of elderly COPD patients could not achieve satisfactory 

inspiratory flows through common DPIs10. There may be other individual patients for whom DPIs are 

also not suitable. 

Other and emerging technologies— Other alternatives include nebulisers, which account for about 

10 percent or less of the market on a dose basis. Nebulisers are useful for treating acute attacks and 

patients with poor coordination. They are relatively expensive, most are not portable, and their use is 

often restricted to medical facilities or the patient’s home. Nebulisers may play a more significant 

role in any shift away from MDIs, although currently there is a more limited range of modern drugs 

in solution formulation. Recently, a novel but expensive propellant-free aqueous MDI has been 

launched and marketed for a limited range of drugs. One company in Argentina is undertaking 

research and development to use isobutane as the propellant, planning to launch a salbutamol MDI in 

2016. In the 1990s and early 2000s, a German company had also been developing isobutanepropelled salbutamol MDIs, although that work appears to have ceased. The development and 

regulatory timescales for new inhaled delivery systems are lengthy. 

Conclusions— HFC MDIs, DPIs, nebulisers and other technologies are suitable technically and 

economically feasible alternatives to CFC MDIs for the treatment of asthma and COPD. HFC MDIs 

have a lower climate impact than CFC MDIs, but a higher climate impact than DPIs. HFC MDIs can 

be less affordable than DPIs (for single-dose DPIs in Article 5 Parties) and less easily used (more 

difficult to coordinate) than DPIs. DPIs can be less affordable than HFC MDIs (for salbutamol in 

multi-dose DPIs, and generally for multi-dose DPIs in Article 5 Parties) and less easily used (for 

patients with insufficient inspiratory flow and for treating acute attacks). As a result, HFC MDIs will 

 

7 Asthma patients to benefit from advancement in inhalers, Business Recorder, November 3, 2013, Pakistan.

8 T. Hillman, F. Mortimer, N. S. Hopkinson, Inhaled drugs and global warming: time to shift to dry powder 

inhalers: Propellants in metered dose inhalers are powerful greenhouse gases, British Medical Journal. 2013; 

346: f3359.

9 Atkins, P.J., Dry powder inhalers: an overview, Respir. Care. 2005; 50; 1304-12; Timsina MP, Martin SP et 

al., Drug delivery to the respiratory tract using dry powder inhalers, Int. J. of Pharmaceutics. 1994, Vol 101, pp 

1-13; Singh M and Kumar L., Randomized Comparison of a Dry Powder Inhaler and Metered Dose Inhaler with 

Spacer in Management of Children with Asthma, Indian Paediatrics. 2001; 38: 24-28; Zeng X Macritchie H B 

Marriott C Martin G P., Humidity-induced changes of the aerodynamic properties of dry powder aerosol 

formulations containing different carriers, International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2007; 333: 45-55.

10 W. Janssens, P. VandenBrande, E. Hardeman, E. De Langhe, T. Philps, T. Troosters and M. Decramer, 

Inspiratory flow rates at different levels of resistance in elderly COPD patients, Eur. Respir. J. 2008; 31: 78–83.
76 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

remain an essential therapy for the foreseeable future, and completely avoiding high-GWP 

alternatives in this sector is not yet technically or economically feasible. By about 2025, avoiding 

high-GWP alternatives such as HFC MDIs might become more technically and economically 

feasible.

9.1.2 Current and future demand for ODS alternatives

Asthma and COPD are increasing in prevalence world-wide; the acceptance and use of inhalers are 

also increasing. These two factors combined mean that the overall numbers of inhalers used worldwide are also increasing, especially in Article 5 Parties. 

The International Pharmaceutical Aerosol Consortium (IPAC)11 provided IMS Health12 market data 

of global inhaler usage from 2007-2012. Figure 9-1 summarizes the global sales in standard units13 of 

all MDIs, CFC MDIs, HFC MDIs, DPIs and nebulized solution inhalants. 

Figure 9-1 Global Standard Units (in 1000s) of total MDIs, CFC and HFC MDIs, DPIs and 

Solution Inhalants

Worldwide usage of CFC MDIs is declining, and is less than either DPI or HFC MDI usage, based on 

dose equivalence. Meanwhile there has been an increased overall use of inhalers due to the increased 

use of both MDIs and DPIs. The data show an increase in the total consumption of all MDIs during 

this period (2.6 percent per annum), and an increase in the consumption of DPIs (2.9 percent per 

annum). DPIs accounted for around 32 percent of all inhaled medication, based on dose equivalence, 

 

11 The International Pharmaceutical Aerosol Consortium is a group of companies (Astrazeneca, Boehringer 

Ingelheim, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Glaxosmithkline, Teva) that manufacture medicines for the treatment of 

respiratory illnesses, such as asthma and COPD.

12 IMS Health is a respected company that has been gathering and analyzing pharmaceutical market data for 

decades. IMS Health; IMS MIDAS granted IPAC permission to submit this data to MTOC/TEAP.

13 A standard unit is defined by IMS as the number of dose units, such as the number of inhalations/puffs, tablets, 

the number of 5ml doses, or the number of vials, sold for a particular product. For standard unit comparisons of 

DPIs versus MDIs it is important to note that for DPIs: 1 puff (1 SU) = 1 dose, whereas in general for MDIs: 2 

puffs (2 SUs) = 1 dose. Translating standard units into the absolute number of actual MDIs or DPIs can be 

complex because different devices provide a range of doses. A rough estimate is made for MDIs by dividing the 

SUs by 200 and for DPIs by 60.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 77

and CFC MDIs for around 16 percent. In China, India, Latin America and Russia, total doses of 

inhaled medication are increasing more rapidly than in Europe and North America where they are 

increasing slowly or not at all. In North and Latin America and in Russia, DPI use is lower as a 

proportion of total doses of inhaled medication than the global average. Whereas, as previously 

reported14, in some parts of Europe multi-dose DPIs account for more than 90 percent of inhaled 

therapy, and in India, single-dose DPIs account for more than 50 percent of inhaled therapy. Based on 

IMS market data, approximately 300 million DPIs are manufactured annually worldwide.

Based on HFC manufacturing industry estimates15, approximately 630 million HFC based MDIs 

(with an average 15g/MDI) are currently manufactured annually worldwide, using approximately 

9,400 tonnes of HFCs. HFC-134a makes up the major proportion of MDI manufacture (~8900 tonnes 

in 2014), with HFC-227ea accounting for about 5 percent (~480 tonnes in 2014). Under a business as 

usual model, global HFC demand in MDI manufacture (HFCs -134a and -227ea) has been estimated 

by industry for the period to 2025 (Figure 9-2).It is worthwhile noting that accuracy is likely to 

decline from 2018 onwards. This modelling does not allow, other than in the flattening of demand for 

HFC-227ea due to EU F-gas regulations, for any other regulatory impact. Neither does it allow for 

the on-going trend to smaller metered doses16, which is likely to continue and may have a net effect of 

a 25-30 percent reduction in future HFC demand. Nevertheless, based on these predictions, global 

HFC demand for MDI manufacture is estimated to increase annually by 2 percent over the period.

 Figure 9-2 Global HFC demand for MDI manufacture, 2014-202517

HFC-134a accounts for 95 percent or more of total global demand for MDI manufacture over the 

period, with annual growth of 2 percent. Global HFC-227ea demand is likely to remain flat, with its 

proportion of total HFC demand declining slightly over time to less than 5 percent. As such, HFC-

 

14 TEAP Progress Report, May 2009, pp. 38-39, and TEAP Progress Report, May 2010.

15 T.J. Noakes, Mexichem Fluor, United Kingdom, personal communications. HFC consumption data derived 

from this HFC industry source differs from that derived from IMS Health market data. For the purposes of this 

report, the “top-down” industry data has been used to derive HFC consumption.

16 Some companies have reduced the size of the metering values on the canisters (to ~25 or 30μl) from an 

historically larger size (50-65μl) to deliver the same dose, allowing a reduction in the amount of propellant used 

per can and per dose. Many companies have also reduced the number of doses in each inhaler (from 200 to 120), 

which reduces the amount of propellant used per can. Both of these changes will increase the number of inhalers 

made per tonne of HFCs. 

17 Based on data provided by T.J. Noakes, Mexichem Fluor, United Kingdom, personal communications.
78 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

227ea MDIs are likely to remain niche products. They are unlikely to expand significantly beyond 

current products due to expected increasing HFC-227ea prices and uncertainty in the long-term 

viability of the industrial HFC-227ea business as a result of HFC regulations.

Regional demand for HFC-134a in MDI manufacture is variable, with demand in the European Union 

and the Americas flat or declining, and demand increasing in the Indian sub-continent (India, 

Bangladesh and Pakistan), Asia Pacific (including China), and the rest of the world (including 

Russian Federation, Middle East and Cuba). Figure 9-3 shows the various trends. Major growth in 

HFC-134a MDI manufacture is expected to occur in China, with HFC-134a demand in the Asia 

Pacific region estimated to increase about 300 percent by 2025. The majority of MDI exports occur 

from the European Union, China, and India.

 Figure 9-3 Regional HFC-134a demand for MDI manufacture, 2014-202518

9.1.3 Economic costs, implications, and environmental benefits of avoiding high GWP

alternatives

HFC emissions from MDIs were estimated previously as 0.02-0.05 percent of annual global 

greenhouse gas emissions by 2010 in a study by Price et al19. Under a business as usual model, global 

HFC demand in MDI manufacture (HFCs -134a and -227ea) has been estimated by industry. For the 

period 2014 to 2025, the total cumulative HFC consumption in MDI manufacture is estimated as 

124,500 tonnes (119,000 tonnes HFC-134a; 5,500 tonnes HFC-227ea), corresponding to direct 

emissions with a climate impact of approximately 173,000 ktonnes of CO2 equivalent, which is 

significantly less than the climate impact of CFC MDIs had they not been replaced. These emissions, 

and associated environmental impacts, could be avoided under a hypothetical mitigation scenario

where the MDI sector was required to phase down its HFC emissions. However, in the short to 

medium term, this would have adverse health and economic implications for patients, pharmaceutical 

companies, and countries.

 

18 Based on data provided by T.J. Noakes, Mexichem Fluor, United Kingdom, personal communications.

19 D. Price, E. Valovirta, and J. Fischer, The Importance of preserving choice in inhalation therapy: the CFC 

transition and beyond, Journal of Drug Assessment 2004; 7: 45-61.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 79

Early in the CFC MDI transition to ODS-free alternatives, healthcare professionals, Price, Valovirta 

and Fischer20, observed that measures potentially affecting patient use of HFC MDIs should be 

carefully considered, especially if measures were imposed while the transition of patients from CFC

MDIs was still in progress. They also noted the importance of maintaining a choice of inhaler devices 

in providing effective treatment. Regulatory authorities appear to be proceeding cautiously with 

controls for HFCs with regard to MDIs. Recent amendments to the European Union’s F-Gas 

Regulations exclude MDIs from mandated HFC reductions from 1st January 2018 onwards.

DPIs are technically and economically feasible alternatives that are already avoiding the use of some 

high-GWP HFC MDIs by meeting demand for a significant proportion of inhaled therapy. Nebulisers 

and other emerging technologies may also be technically and economically feasible alternatives for 

avoiding the use of some HFC MDIs, both now and in the future. However, HFC MDIs will remain 

an essential therapy for the foreseeable future. Completely avoiding high-GWP alternatives in this 

sector is not yet technically or economically feasible because, currently:

 There are economic impediments in switching from HFC MDIs to multi-dose DPIs, 

especially for salbutamol;

 10-20 percent of patients cannot avoid using HFC MDIs with available alternatives.

Therefore, the main challenges are the current availability of affordable alternatives to salbutamol 

HFC MDIs, and treating patients with low inspiratory flow and acute attacks for which, currently, 

MDIs with a spacer and nebulisers may be the only suitable devices. There are fewer impediments 

associated with the replacement of HFC MDIs containing preventer medicines such as 

corticosteroids.

The availability of affordable alternatives to salbutamol HFC MDIs varies from country to country. 

Companies, especially in Article 5 Parties, are developing single-dose salbutamol DPIs, which are an 

affordable alternative to HFC MDIs and multi-dose DPIs. For single-dose DPIs, there is a single 

purchase of an inhaler device with doses purchased on a ‘pay as you go’ basis, e.g. 2 doses per day, 

or a blister pack of multiple doses that are affordable to patients, despite being more expensive on a 

cost per dose basis when compared with MDIs. Salbutamol HFC MDIs and multi-dose DPIs, on the 

other hand, can present a less affordable option to low income patients because they require a more 

expensive outlay each month or with each purchase. In non-Article 5 Parties, multi-dose salbutamol 

DPIs are more commonly used than single-dose salbutamol DPIs, with the former generally more 

expensive than salbutamol HFC MDIs. Despite this, in some markets, multi-dose salbutamol DPIs are 

used in preference to MDIs e.g. Sweden, where a proactive campaign successfully promoted this 

technology. Additionally, the profitability of DPIs is lower than MDIs for pharmaceutical companies 

(which has also been a barrier in the transition from CFC MDIs to HFC MDIs, where profitability of 

the latter is lower for pharmaceutical companies). Patents also protect DPI technologies, so any 

company wanting to manufacture DPIs must undertake its own research and development. 

Consequently, the current economics for patients and pharmaceutical companies are an impediment 

in switching from HFC MDIs to multi-dose DPIs, especially for salbutamol. 

In 2000, the cost effectiveness of a gradual switch from MDIs to DPIs in the European Union was 

estimated at the time to cost more than €500/tonne of CO2 equivalent saved, greater than a range of 

low cost opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in other sectors, such as energy efficiency 

measures 21. An accelerated transition22 was estimated to be even less cost effective at more than 

 

20 D. Price, E. Valovirta, and J. Fischer, The Importance of preserving choice in inhalation therapy: the CFC 

transition and beyond, Journal of Drug Assessment 2004; 7: 45-61.

21 Study on the Use of HFCs for Metered Dose Inhalers in the European Union, September 2000, undertaken by 

Enviros March for the International Pharmaceutical Aerosol Consortium (IPAC).

22 A gradual transition was assumed to be 8-12 years, and an accelerated transition, 5-8 years. Transition was 

taken to 80 percent DPI market share, assumed to be the maximum technically feasible at that stage. 
80 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

€710/tonne of CO2 equivalent saved. In about ten years, by about 2025, when patents expire, or even 

despite patent protection, there is likely to be more competition and more widespread DPI 

manufacture, such as in Article 5 Parties like China, and more affordable DPIs. These factors are 

likely to improve the cost effectiveness of DPIs compared with HFC MDIs.

In transitioning patients from MDIs to DPIs, or to other non-MDI devices, there are costs and 

implications associated with patient re-training, such as physician visits, marketing by pharmaceutical 

companies, and guidance provided by healthcare agencies and patient advocacy groups. Costs are 

borne by patients, pharmaceutical companies, government and/or private health insurance. These may 

not be significant additional costs where there is on-going patient education, rather than with one-off 

or intermittent advice, regarding the use of inhalers. Patient and physician resistance to switching 

medication, when current medication is already effective, may be a potential barrier to change.

Some countries completed their manufacturing transitions from CFC MDIs to CFC-free alternatives 

before 2010 (including Australia, Canada, Croatia, Cuba, Hungary, Japan, Poland, Ukraine), while 

since 2010 other countries have completed their manufacturing transitions or will likely soon 

complete their manufacturing transitions before 2015 (including Argentina, Bangladesh, Egypt, 

European Union, India, Iran, Mexico, United States, Venezuela). China, Pakistan, and Russia are 

likely to be the last countries to complete their manufacturing transitions in or after 2015.

Development costs for pharmaceutical companies for the transition of MDIs from CFCs to HFCs 

have been in excess of US$1 billion, with investment still continuing. The return on investments 

depends on the size of the investment, and the potential within the market to make profit with inhaler 

sales. The length of time to recover investments will vary for each company and for each product. In 

general, a favourable return on investment is already likely to have been achieved by large 

multinational pharmaceutical companies, especially in non-Article 5 Parties. However, smaller 

companies, especially in Article 5 Parties and in other countries that only recently transitioned, may 

take longer to achieve a good return on investment. Recovery of investment may also take longer in 

markets with price controls or other market regulations. A phase-down of HFCs in the MDI sector 

would have adverse economic impacts for companies where a favourable return on investment had 

not yet been achieved.

9.2 Sterilants 

For the provision of good quality health services, effective sterilization of health care products is 

required to prevent transmission of infection. Sterilization of medical devices can be performed in 

industrial settings with large outputs of similar items (such as manufacturers of sterile, single-use 

syringes) and in hospitals with much smaller outputs, but with a great diversity of items. 

There is a range of commercially available sterilization methods including: heat (dry heat or steam), 

radiations (ionising, ultraviolet, or intense pulsed light radiation), alkylating processes (such as 

ethylene oxide (EO), formaldehyde) and oxidative processes (including hydrogen peroxide gas, 

hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, liquid peracetic acid, and ozone). 

Sterilization with EO (under controlled gas concentration, temperature and humidity conditions) is 

used to treat heat and moisture sensitive medical devices, which are packaged in materials that 

maintain sterility once the product is removed from the sterilization chamber. EO is toxic, mutagenic, 

carcinogenic, flammable and explosive. EO can be used as a sterilant either alone or diluted with 

other gases to make non-flammable mixtures. A mixture of 12 per cent by weight EO and 88 per cent 

chlorofluorocarbon-12 (CFC-12) (12/88) has previously been used widely for this purpose, where 

CFC-12 acts to make the mixture non-flammable. 

On an industrial scale, non-flammable EO mixtures can also be created in situ within the sterilizer 

chamber using nitrogen. Non-flammable EO mixtures can be supplied for industrial or hospital use 

with carbon dioxide (CO2) as a diluent. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 81

EO/HCFC blends (10 per cent by weight EO in a mix of HCFC-124 and HCFC-22, or 8.6 per cent by 

weight EO and 91.4 per cent HCFC-124) were introduced as virtual drop-in replacements for 

EO/CFC-12 mixtures, as transitional products for sterilization in those countries that employed 12/88 

extensively. EO/HCFC blends have been, or are being, phased out in Europe and the United States. 

EO/HCFC blends may continue to be used in Article 5 Parties, although some may have prohibited 

their use (e.g. China). Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (10.4 per cent by weight EO in a mix of HFC-125 

and HFC-227) were also investigated as further replacement diluents but not widely adopted due to 

technical reasons and the high GWP of HFCs. EO/HFC-134a (5.6 per cent by weight EO and 94.4 per 

cent HFC-134a) is supplied by one company for use in hospital sterilisers in Poland.

The EO/CFC sterilization mixture has been successfully phased out in non-Article 5 Parties, and is 

also likely to have been phased out in Article 5 Parties. Total global use of CFCs for sterilisation is 

believed to be zero. Estimated global use of HCFCs in sterilization is less than 500-700 metric 

tonnes, which amounts to less than 25 ODP tonnes worldwide. EO/HCFC use in Article 5 Parties is 

estimated to be less than 200-400 tonnes.

9.2.1 Alternatives to ODS sterilants and their assessment using criteria

An analysis follows of the technical and economic feasibility of the various alternatives to ODSconsuming sterilants (Table 9-2). The criteria established in Decision XXV/5 are not necessarily 

relevant to this assessment. In particular, energy efficiency and suitability for regions with high 

ambient temperature are not priorities in an assessment of the suitability of sterilants, and are not 

considered further here. A comparison of the carbon footprint of the different sterilisation methods is 

also not considered further here.

Methods for sterilization of medical devices developed differently in each country due to the 

respective regulations for fire protection and occupational safety; requirements on process validation; 

liability considerations; availability of sterilization equipment and materials; and medical practices. 

No sterilant or sterilization process is compatible with all potential health care products and may vary 

in the hospital or industrial setting. In general, a number of different sterilisation methods are used by 

facilities to meet their infection control needs. Hence, the alternatives assessed below are not 

necessarily interchangeable, and, in the space available, are crudely assessed against each criterion on 

their own merit, rather than by detailed comparison to EO/CFC or EO/HCFC sterilants, unless 

otherwise specified. For example, dry heat is included as an alternative despite being only suitable for 

sterilisation of medical devices able to withstand a temperature greater than 160oC, whereas EO/CFC 

and EO/HCFC sterilants are useful for treating heat and moisture sensitive medical devices. 

Nevertheless, dry heat is now used for the sterilisation of some medical devices that were previously 

sterilised using EO/CFC mixture, 12/88, due to greater discrimination in sterilisation practices.

The alternatives described below have specific safety features built into the technology to address 

toxicity, flammability, or other characteristics. Where alternative sterilization technologies are 

commercialized and meet all of the relevant local/international standards, they may also be 

considered suitable for safe sterilization applications. More information on alternative sterilants has 

been reported elsewhere23.

 

23 (1) 2010 Report of the UNEP Medical Technical Options Committee, 2010 Assessment Report, pp.15-17; (2) 

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, 

Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008, US CDC 

http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/Disinfection_Sterilization/13_0Sterilization.html; (3) G. McDonnell, Antisepsis, 

Disinfection and sterilization: Types, Action and Resistance, 2007, ASM press, Washington DC.
82 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Assessment Criteria

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1

C

ommercially available

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.2

T

echnically provenEnvironmentally sound

1

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.3

E

conomically viable and cost effective

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.4 S

uitable for safe use

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.5

E

asily used

Dry Heat2      

Steam3      

Ionising Radiation4      

UV Radiation5      

Intense Pulsed Light6      

Formaldehyde7      

100% Ethylene Oxide8      

EO/CO2

9      

EO/HCFC-124/HCFC-2210      

EO/HFC-125/HFC-227ea11      

EO/HFC-134a12      

Chlorine Dioxide13      

Hydrogen Peroxide Gas 

Plasma14

     

Hydrogen Peroxide Gas15      

Liquid Peracetic Acid16      

Low Temperature Plasmas17      

Ozone18      

Peracetic Acid Gas Plasma19      

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide20      

Nitric oxide/Nitrogen dioxide21      

Table 9-2 Technical and economic assessment of alternatives to CFC-containing sterilants

Legend:  Yes or More acceptable;  Not always or Less acceptable;  No or Unacceptable.

1. Environmentally sound: Under this criterion, technologies are compared with characteristics of EO/CFC-12 

sterilant but also on their own merits (e.g. considering waste disposal issues, high GWP).

2. Dry Heat: Used only for materials able to withstand temperatures greater than 160oC. 

3. Steam: Used only for materials able to withstand temperatures of greater than 115oC, very high moisture levels 

and changes in pressure. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 83

4. Ionising Radiation: Gamma, accelerated electron, X-ray radiations are widely used in large industrial settings, 

where more appropriate and economical. Not compatible with all materials. Disposal of spent isotopes required 

with gamma radiation. Electron beam and X-ray radiation have no radioactive sources requiring disposal.

5. UV Radiation: Widely used for sanitizing (disinfecting) water systems and air. Limited to surface treatment of 

medical devices. Shadowing needs to be prevented. Specialised industrial applications for sterilization of 

particular medical devices and small- scale units for non-industrial applications have been commercialised.

6. Intense Pulsed Light: Limited to situations allowing light access to relevant surfaces and volumes, and specific 

sterilisation applications. Economical for online high throughput processing.

7. Formaldehyde: Used mainly in Europe and parts of South America for materials that are able to withstand 

temperatures of 80-85oC and high levels of moisture. 

8. 100% EO: One of the most commonly used sterilisation methods. Used in large industrial and small hospital 

settings. 

9. EO/CO2: EO/CO2 is easily used with the correct equipment. Operating costs are less expensive than EO/HCFC 

but EO/CO2 requires high pressure-rated sterilisation equipment. Not a drop-in replacement. Stratification, 

compatibility and corrosion problems.

10. EO/HCFC-124/HCFC-22 blends: Non-flammable, virtual drop-in replacements for EO/CFC, allowing continued 

use of expensive EO/CFC steriliser equipment with minor adjustments. Being phased out in non-Article 5 

Parties due to HCFC regulations. Honeywell ceased production of EO/HCFC sterilants by the end of 201324.

11. EO/HFC-125/HFC-227ea: Developed and tested as a virtual drop-in replacement for EO/CFC. Tests identified 

technical problems requiring re-engineering or new equipment, and re-validation. Not fully commercialised or 

widely used. Suppliers in parts of the world (e.g. Asia) continue to explore potential application.

12. EO/HFC-134a: Very limited use worldwide. Only known occurrence is a commercially available single use 

cartridge available for hospital sterilisers in Poland25. 

13. Chlorine Dioxide: Not widely deployed.

14. Hydrogen Peroxide Gas Plasma: Extensively used worldwide, mostly in the hospital setting.

15. Hydrogen Peroxide Vapour: Used worldwide in the hospital setting, and to a limited extent in industrial 

settings.

16. Liquid Peracetic Acid: Used for both high-level disinfection and sterilisation. For sterilisation applications, 

under defined formulation and process conditions, devices are to be used immediately following sterilisation. 

Easily used with automated equipment.

17. Low Temperature Plasma: Under development for in-line treatment for aseptic processing of pharmaceutical 

and other applications.

18. Ozone: Uses a humidified process that must be carefully controlled to ensure efficacy. Can adversely affect 

surface materials.

19. Peracetic Acid Gas Plasma: One process was commercialised but later associated with patient injuries. This 

process did not receive US FDA approval and a global recall was mandated.

20. Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: Reported activity against vegetative microorganisms but little against bacterial 

spores. Limited applicability as a sterilising agent. 

21. The use of nitric oxide/nitrogen dioxide (under humidified conditions) has been recently described as an 

alternative sterilisation method for heat sensitive devices.

9.2.2 Current and future demand for ODS alternatives

The future demands for sterilization technology are likely to increase with increasing demands for 

healthcare, economic development, aging populations and increases in chronic conditions. 

Considering the range of sterilization methods in routine application in healthcare and industrial 

facilities, the use of EO/CFC and EO/HCFC sterilants are no longer required and can be phased out 

over time. Existing capital equipment using EO/HCFC and/or EO/HFC sterilants could remain in use 

if a source of gas could be secured for perhaps the next ten years. However, there is no technical or 

economic reason for EO/HCFC or EO/HFC sterilants to be in used in non-Article 5 Parties beyond 

2020.

 

24 http://www.honeywell-sterilants.com/phaseout-info/

25 http://www.sterylgaz.com.pl/en/main.php?k0=PRODUCTS&k1=GS-1z
84 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Methods for sterilization of medical devices have developed differently in each country, meaning that 

the availability of alternatives varies in different countries. While some of the gaseous technologies, 

such as EO/HCFC and EO/CO2, may appear simpler in application, they require automated 

equipment to reliably and safely produce the required conditions. Consequently they have tended to 

be used in niche applications, which is likely to continue. Where alternative sterilization technologies 

are commercialized and meet all of the relevant local/international standards, they may also be 

considered suitable for safe sterilization applications. Without regulatory approval, alternatives will 

not see much increased use in a country.

9.2.3 Economic costs, implications, and environmental benefits of avoiding high GWP 

alternatives

Due to the wide variety of technically and economically feasible alternatives available in sterilisation, 

and the almost non-existent use of high-GWP alternatives, there will be very few implications for this 

sector in avoiding high-GWP alternatives to ODS. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 85

10 Annexes 

10.1 Additional Information on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Following is presented additional and detailed data for the refrigerants being considered as 

alternatives for HCFCs and high GWP HFCs, and also supplementary information for the several 

refrigeration and air conditioning applications.

The list of refrigerants is included here, as it was in the 2013 TEAP XXIV/7 Task Force report 

(TEAP, 2013). For most of the refrigerants, the information has not really changed compared to that 

previous report. 

However, there are some changes for a number of the previously undesignated blends, which have 

now been assigned R-numbers. Furthermore, about ten additional refrigerant blends have been added 

in light of their inclusion in testing and trials in different refrigeration, air conditioning and heat 

pump systems. These listed blends do not represent an exhaustive list of all of those proposed by all 

refrigerant producers. Also, it is reiterated that of these proposed blends that do not yet have a Rnumber designation, it is possible that the listed composition may change as the development 

proceeds. 

R-717

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-717 (ammonia, NH3) is a single component substance. It has a 

safety classification of B2 (higher toxicity, lower flammability). It has 

a zero ODP and zero GWP. 

Extent of commercialisation R-717 has been used for more than 100 years in a variety of different 

types of refrigerating machines and is widely used today. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy In principle, R-717 has thermo-physical properties which lead to 

excellent efficiency. The vapour pressure and refrigerating capacity is 

similar to HCFC-22. However, it has a very high discharge 

temperature so for lower temperature applications two stage 

compression is normally needed. The application of ammonia in small 

to large absorption systems is wide spread, but has to deal with totally 

different cycle conditions. Efficiency increases are possible using 

multi stage operations. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the substance is very low, typically less that $1/kg. 

Generally systems require the use of steel piping and components and 

as a result smaller capacity systems can cost much more than HCFC22 or HFC systems, although as the capacity approaches and exceeds 

around 400-600 kW, they can become cost-competitive (UNEP 2011, 

UNEP 2012).

Barriers and restrictions There are several general barriers. From a practical level these include 

the lack of suitable components for small capacity systems (although 

some companies are working on these aspects), due to incompatibility 

with copper and its alloys. Discharge temperatures are very high and 

therefore technology options such as additional compression stages 

and inter-cooling must be adopted in system design. In addition, the 

use of R-717 requires well-trained and competent and often certified 

technicians (in handling R-717), which can sometimes be difficult in 

all regions. Another is the restriction of use (in direct systems) in 

occupied spaces due to its higher toxicity. Similarly, certain countries 

have specific national regulations controlling its use. A comprehensive 

assessment of the barriers to the use of R-717 and other low-GWP 

refrigerants is provided in a study for UNEP (Colbourne, 2010).
86 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

R-744

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-744 (carbon dioxide, CO2) is a single component substance. It has a 

safety classification of A1 (lower toxicity, non-flammable). It has zero 

ODP and a GWP of 1. 

Extent of commercialisation R-744 was used from 1900 to 1930 in refrigerating machines and then 

supplanted by CFCs. Since 1990 its use was revisited and it is 

currently used in a variety of different types of systems. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy R-744 has thermo-physical properties which lead to reasonably good 

efficiency for certain levels of temperatures (such as for refrigeration 

range). The vapour pressure is several times greater than usual 

refrigerants and the volumetric refrigerating capacity is 

correspondingly higher below around 25°C. However, with a low 

critical temperature, the cycle efficiency declines as the temperature 

before the expansion device increases and other features are needed to 

achieve similar (to HCFC-22) efficiency values at high ambient 

conditions. For an ambient temperature of 35°C the efficiency of a 

basic cycle is about 50-60% of HCFC-12. Compared to a basic cycle, 

10 – 20% energy efficiency improvement can be achieved by applying 

an ejector instead of an ordinary expansion device (Hafner et al., 2012) 

although using an expander alone can bring the efficiency to within 

10% of HCFC-22 (Subiantoro and Ooi, 2013). Other features to help 

improve efficiency in high ambient conditions include economiser 

(parallel compression), liquid-suction heat exchange and mechanical 

subcooling. Also, discharge temperatures are very high and therefore, 

where the high temperature cannot be utilised, technology options such 

as additional compression stages and inter-cooling must be adopted in 

system design.

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the working fluid is very low, typically around $1/kg. 

However, because of the high pressure, certain types of systems

require more robust designs for pressure safety which adds cost, while 

specific tube dimensions are much smaller compared to current 

technology which gives the advantage of compact tubing and 

insulation material. Since CO2 can result in a relatively greater drop in 

capacity at higher ambient conditions compressors may have to be 

designed with higher volumetric displacement to compensate for the 

reduced capacity at off-design conditions. However, as the capacity 

approaches a certain value (depending upon the type of application, 

between 50 – 500 kW), they can become cost-competitive. Similarly 

the features that are needed to improve efficiency under higher 

ambient temperature also result in increased cost. 

Barriers and restrictions There are two main technical barriers, being components and system 

design for high operating pressure and performance degradation at 

high ambient temperatures, leading to a resultant incremental cost 

increase. (Although at the present time a portion of the additional costs 

are influenced by economies of scale.) Also, due to its relatively 

unusual characteristics, technicians require dedicated training and 

specific servicing tools. A comprehensive assessment of the barriers to 

the use of R-744 and other low-GWP refrigerants is provided in a 

study for UNEP (Colbourne, 2010).
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 87

Hydrocarbons (HCs)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

Hydrocarbons (HCs) include three main pure refrigerants, HC-290 

(propane), HC-1270 (propene) and HC-600a (iso-butane) and a 

number of mixtures; R-433A, R-433B, R-433C, R-436A, R-436B, R441A and R-443A, some of which also comprise HC-170 (ethane) or 

HC-600 (butane). All pure substances and the mixtures have safety 

classification A3 (lower toxicity, higher flammability). They have zero 

ODP and GWP (direct GWP plus indirect GWP) ranges from 1.8 to 

5.5 (WMO, 2010). HCs have excellent thermo physical and transport 

properties. 

Extent of commercialisation The pure substances have been used commercially for decades, whilst 

mixtures such as R-436A and R-436B have been used since the phaseout of CFC-12. Most of the other mixtures are not known to be used 

commercially. Despite their excellent thermo physical and transport 

properties, large scale production is so far limited in those types of 

systems which have large charge sizes located within occupied spaces.

Energy efficiency, efficacy Generally, the efficiency is shown to be good under most conditions. 

In principle, they have thermo-physical properties which lead to very 

good efficiency and low discharge temperatures. Performance 

comparisons for high ambient conditions are sparse, although two 

recent studies showed performance to be comparable to HCFC-22 

(Chen, 2012; Rajadhyaksha et al, 2013).

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the substances is low, typically less that $1 - $10/kg. Due 

to the safety classification, there are often additional costs necessary 

for handling flammability characteristics in the design of the 

equipment, although good thermo-physical properties mean that other 

costs associated with system construction can be reduced. However, 

the overall cost implication can vary widely depending upon the type 

of equipment and any standards to which the design needs to comply. 

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers associated with the use of HCs arise from its 

flammability. In practical terms this means that systems located 

indoors with moderate to large charge sizes are often restricted. 

Similarly, safety concerns of component manufactures mean that there 

are currently gaps in availability of certain types of components 

including compressors. In addition, technicians must be well-trained 

and competent in handling HCs if the flammability is to be dealt with 

safely. Some building safety codes prohibit flammable refrigerants in 

certain types of buildings. A comprehensive assessment of the barriers 

to the use of HCs and other low-GWP refrigerants is provided in a 

report for UNEP (Colbourne, 2010). 

HFCs (GWP ≤ 300)

HFC-1234yf

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

HFC-1234yf is a single component refrigerant with a GWP < 1 (IPCC 

AR5). It can replace HFC-134a in same systems since the pressuretemperature characteristics are almost identical. It is classed under ISO 

817 as an A2L refrigerant (low toxicity, lower flammability). 

Extent of commercialisation This chemical is currently produced at one medium scale production 

plant. Further commercial scale production is anticipated when there is 

a sufficient market demand.

Energy efficiency, efficacy In general this refrigerant produces efficiency levels comparable to 

HFC-134a although the theoretical COP is a few percent below that of 

HFC-134a.

Costs, cost effectiveness As a new molecule that requires a complex production process, this 

refrigerant has significantly higher cost than HFC-134a. 
88 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). Due to uncertainties over future 

adoption, there are currently gaps in availability of certain types of 

components including compressors. There are also concerns regarding 

the decomposition products in the event of a release into the 

environment. 

HFC-1234ze(E)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

HFC-1234ze(E) is a single component refrigerant with a GWP of 1 

(IPCC AR5). It can replace HFC-134a in new equipment where its 

lower volumetric capacity can be addressed in the design of the 

equipment. This refrigerant is classified under ISO 817 as A2L (low 

toxicity, lower flammability). 

Extent of commercialisation This chemical is already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available as and when there is a 

market demand.

Energy efficiency, efficacy When used in reciprocating or scroll type of compressors, this 

refrigerant produces efficiency levels comparable to HFC-134a. When 

used in scroll and reciprocating compressors, the same POE lubricant 

oil can be used.

Costs, cost effectiveness As a new molecule, this refrigerant has higher cost than HFC-134a. 

This is mainly due to its different manufacturing process, which is not 

quite as complex as for R1234yf, and economies of scale. It is 

expected that as production increases, the price premium would be 

reduced although it is likely to remain above current costs of HFC134a.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). Due to uncertainties over future 

adoption, there currently are gaps in availability of certain types of 

components including compressors. There are also concerns regarding 

the decomposition products in the event of a release into the 

environment.

HCFC-1233zd(E)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

HCFC-1233zd(E) is a single component refrigerant with a GWP of 1 

(IPCC AR5). This refrigerant has been submitted for designation and 

classification and is likely to be A1 (low toxicity, non-flammable) 

under ISO 817. 

Extent of commercialisation This chemical is already produced at a commercial scale for solvents 

and blowing agent applications. It is anticipated that this refrigerant 

will be available as and when there is a market demand.

Energy efficiency, efficacy When used with centrifugal compressors, this refrigerant produces 

efficiency levels slightly better than HCFC-123, allowing the design of 

systems with very high energy efficiency.

Costs, cost effectiveness As a new molecule, this refrigerant has higher cost that HCFC-123. 

Still this cost would be moderate and will have a reasonable payback 

period due to its high energy efficiency which lowers the expenses for 

end users.

Barriers and restrictions There are concerns regarding the decomposition products in the event 

of a release into the environment.

R-444A (previously “AC-5”) 

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-444A is a ternary mixture of HFC-32 (12%), HFC-152a (5%) and 

HFC-1234ze(E) (83%). It has a GWP of 92 and is classified under ISO 

817 A2L (low toxicity, lower flammability).

Extent of commercialisation All the components of R-444A are in commercial production.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 89

Energy efficiency, efficacy It has been tested in the AHRI “AREP” programme in a range of 

equipment and has also been independently tested by the developer in 

small cold-chain equipment, in calorimetry of refrigeration 

compressors and in a transport refrigeration system. For systems with 

direct-expansion evaporators, the drop-in tests give energy efficiency, 

capacity and operating pressures are close to HFC-134a

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend of new molecule HFC-1234ze(E) and existing ones its 

cost is moderate although the cost of the unsaturated HFC component 

is currently higher than HFC-134a

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

“ARM-42a” [HFC1234yf/HFC-134a/HFC-152a; 

82/7/11%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“ARM-42a” is an azeotropic mixture of HFCs (HFC-134a and HFC152a) with the new unsaturated HFC-1234yf. It has a GWP of 117 

(IPCC 4th) and is intended to replace HFC-134a. The components of 

the mixture are under ISO 817 as A2 or A2L (low toxicity, lower 

flammability).

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale.

Energy efficiency, efficacy “ARM-42a” has similar cooling capacity and similar efficiency to 

HFC-134a. System tests showed slightly lower COP but compressor 

calorimeter tests higher. With zero glide this refrigerant is particularly 

suited for chillers or reversible heat pumps. The same POE lubricant 

oil can be used as with HFC-134a.

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant is likely to be higher than HFC-134a. 

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

R-445A (previously “AC-6”)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-445A is a ternary, mixture of R-744 (6%), HFC-134a (9%) and 

HFC-1234ze(E) (85%). It has a GWP of 130 and is non-flammable at 

room temperature. It has been found to be flammable above 50°C and 

is classified under ISO 817 as A2L (low toxicity, lower flammability).

Extent of commercialisation All the components of R-445A are in commercial production.

Energy efficiency, efficacy R-445A has predominantly been tested in mobile air conditioning 

systems where its energy efficiency and capacity have been found 

close to HFC-134a and HFC-1234yf. Its temperature glide is about 

twice that of R-407C.

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend of new molecule HFC-1234ze(E) and existing ones its 

cost is moderate although the cost of the HFO component is currently 

higher than HFC-134a
90 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps and it is not recommended for flooded evaporator 

technologies.

“ARM-30a” [HFC1234yf/HFC-32; 71/29%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“ARM-30a” is an azeotropic mixture of HFC-32 and unsaturated 

HFC-1234yf. It has a GWP of 210 and is intended to replace HFC134a. The components of the mixture are under ISO 817 as A2L (low 

toxicity, lower flammability).

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale.

Energy efficiency, efficacy “ARM-30a” has similar cooling capacity and similar efficiency to 

HFC-134a. System tests showed lower COP. The same POE lubricant 

oil can be used as with HFC-134a.

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant is likely to be higher than HFC-134a. 

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

“DR-7” [HFC-32/HFC152a/HFC-1234yf/HFC1234ze(E); 40/10/20/30%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“DR-7” is a mixture of HFC-32 and the new unsaturated HFC-1234yf 

and has a GWP of about 210. It is intended to replace R-404A in 

medium and low temperature refrigeration equipment without any 

major modifications as its pressures are similar. The composition of 

the mixture would be classed as A2L (low toxicity, lower 

flammability) under ISO 817. 

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale, although 

currently the production of HFC-1234yf vis-a-vis the market demands 

for it in automotive air conditioning may be an initial barrier to be 

overcome. It is not known when this refrigerant will be available 

commercially.

Energy efficiency, efficacy Compared to R-404A, DR-7 provides almost the same capacity and 

COP.

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant will be higher than R-404A. It is 

miscible with existing POE lubricants. 

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 91

“L-40” [HFC-32/HFC152a/HFC-1234yf/HFC1234ze(E); 40/10/20/30%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

L-40 is a mixture of HFCs (HFC-32 and HFC-152a) with the new 

unsaturated HFCs (HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze(E)) with a GWP of 

290. It is intended to replace R-404A in medium and low temperature 

refrigeration equipment without any major modifications as its 

pressures are similar. The composition of the mixture would be classed 

as A2L (low toxicity, lower flammability) under ISO 817.

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale, although 

currently the production of HFC-1234yf vis-a-vis the market demands 

for it in automotive air conditioning may be an initial barrier to be 

overcome. It is anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during 

the next 1-2 years.

Energy efficiency, efficacy When used in the current R-404A system, L-40 is apparently exceeds 

the capacity of R-404A with an efficiency improvement of around 

10%. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant will be higher than R-404A. It 

probably works with existing POE lubricants. 

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

R-444B

(previously referred to as “L20” )

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-444B is a mixture of HFCs (HFC-32 and HFC-152a) with the new

unsaturated HFC-1234ze. With a GWP of 295. It replaces HCFC-22 in 

AC equipment without any major modifications as its pressures are 

similar. As formulated this mixture will be classified under ISO 817 as 

A2L (low toxicity, lower flammability). 

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-2 

years in Asia (China, Japan, Korea), followed by other regions 

(Middle East, Europe). 

Energy efficiency, efficacy When use in the current HCFC-22 technologies, R-444B matches the 

capacity of HCFC-22 with an efficiency ranging from 95% to 97%. 

Further improvements can produce better efficiencies, especially for 

cooling only operation in warm climates. The above mentioned good 

performance in warm climates is mainly due to its relative high critical 

point (~93°C) compared with other options such as R-410A and HFC32.

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant may be similar to current HFCs such 

as R-407C. It works well with existing POE lubricants. Due to its good 

efficiency at high ambient temperatures, power consumption would be 

lower relative to other options.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.
92 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

HFCs (300<GWP ≤1000)

“HPR1D” [R-744/HFC32/HFC-1234ze(E) 6/60/34%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“HPR1D” is a ternary mixture of R-744, HFC-32 and HFC-1234ze(E) 

having a GWP of 407 and a temperature glide of about 10 K, intended 

as an alternative to R-410A. It has low flammability and is expected 

that it would be classified by ISO as A2L (low toxicity, low 

flammability)

Extent of commercialisation All the components are commercially available.

Energy efficiency, efficacy It has been tested in the AREP program and independently in tests of a 

heat pump/air conditioner and in compressor calorimetry. Drop-in 

system tests show capacity and COP to be within about 10% of R410A. Performance relative to R-410A is improved at higher ambient 

temperatures.

Costs, cost effectiveness A proportion of this refrigerant is a new unsaturated HFC molecule 

whose production cost is currently higher than that of R-410A. This is 

mainly due to its different manufacturing process and economies of 

scale. It is expected that as production increases, the price premium 

would be reduced such that the cost of the blend should be moderate.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

“ARM-70a” [HFC-32/HFC134a/HFC-1234yf; 

50%/10%/40%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“ARM-70a” is a replacement of R-410A in air conditioning 

equipments. It has a GWP of about 480 (IPCC 4th). This refrigerant 

would be classified A2L by ISO 817 

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale.

Energy efficiency, efficacy “ARM-70a” has similar capacity and efficiency than R-404A. 

Discharge temperatures are slightly higher than R-410A but within the 

acceptable range of existing compressor technologies

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant is likely to be slightly higher than R410A

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

“DR-5” [HFC-32/HFC1234yf; 72.5/27.5%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

DR-5 is a mixture of HFCs (HFC-32) with the new unsaturated HFC1234yf and has a GWP of 490. It replaces R-410A in AC equipment. 

All components of the mixture are classified by ISO 817 as A2L (low 

toxicity, lower flammability). 

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-2 

years in Asia (China, Japan, Korea), followed by other regions 

(Middle East, Europe). 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 93

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency of L-41 systems is at the same level of R-410A. The 

capacity is approximately 6% to 10% lower than R-410A still this 

capacity is easily recovered in new systems. Discharge temperatures 

are slightly higher than R-410A, still below the limit of existing 

compressors technologies. Due to its relative higher critical point 

compared to other refrigerants, DR-5 performs well at high ambient 

temperatures (warm climates).

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant would be slightly high as it contains 

HFC-1234yf which has an expensive manufacturing cost. It works 

well with existing POE lubricants. Due to its good efficiency at high 

ambient temperatures, power consumption would be lower relative to 

R-410A.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

R-447A 

(previously referred to as “L41”)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-447A is a mixture of HFCs; HFC-32, the new unsaturated HFC1234ze and a small amount of HFC-125. It replaces R-410A in AC 

equipment. This mixture is classified as A2L (low toxicity, lower 

flammability). It has a GWP of 572. 

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-2 

years in Asia (China, Japan, Korea), followed by other regions 

(Middle East, Europe). Some countries or regions may take longer 

than others due to building codes restrictions and lack of regulatory 

drivers.

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency of R-447A systems is at the same level of R-410A. The 

capacity is approximately 6% to 10% lower than R-410A. Discharge 

temperatures are slightly higher than R-410A, still below the limit of 

existing compressors technologies. Due to its relative higher critical 

point compared to other refrigerants, R-447A performs well at high 

ambient temperatures (warm climates).

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant is similar to R-410A. It works well 

with existing POE lubricants. Power consumption increases its 

effectiveness at high ambient temperatures relative to R-410A.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

R-450A

(previously referred to as “N13”) 

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-450A is a binary mixture of HFC-134a and HFC-1234ze(E) which 

as formulated is non-flammable. It has a GWP of 547 therefore 

reduces substantially the direct environmental impact. It replaces HFC134a in new equipment where its lower volumetric capacity can be 

addressed in the design of the equipment. This refrigerant would be 

classified by ISO 817 A1 (low toxicity, non-flammability). 
94 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Extent of commercialisation These chemicals are already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-2 

years in Asia (China, Japan, Korea), followed by other regions 

(Middle East, Europe). 

Energy efficiency, efficacy When used in reciprocating or scroll compressors, this refrigerant 

produces efficiency levels comparable to HFC-134a, although the 

capacity is lower. When used in scroll and reciprocating compressors, 

the same POE lubricant oil can be used. 

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend of new molecules HFC-1234ze(E) and existing ones 

(HFC-134a), its cost is moderate and not significant different from 

existing blends available in the market.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below). System components including 

compressors are not currently widely available. As with other 

zeotropic blends, temperature glide issues may influence the design of 

equipment and be an issue for certain applications such as reversible 

heat pumps.

“AC-5X” [HFC-32/HFC134a/HFC-1234ze(E); 

7/40/53%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

“AC-5X” is a ternary mixture of HFC-32, HFC-134a and HFC1234ze(E) which is formulated as non-flammable. It has a GWP of 

620 and is considered as an alternative to HFC-134a. As formulated it 

is anticipated it would be classified by A1 in ISO 817 (low toxicity, 

non-flammable)

Extent of commercialisation All components are already produced at a commercial scale.

Energy efficiency, efficacy In drop-in tests and calorimetry studies it has shown a close match to 

HFC-134a

Costs, cost effectiveness The bulk of this refrigerant is a new HFO molecule and consequently 

has higher cost than HFC-134a. This is mainly due to its different 

manufacturing process and economies of scale. It is expected that as 

production increases, the price premium would be reduced such that 

the cost of the blend should be moderate.

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

“XP-10” [HFC-134a/HFC1234yf; 44/56%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

XP-10 is a binary mixture of HFC-134a and HFC-1234yf, which as 

formulated is non-flammable. It has a GWP of 630 therefore reduces 

substantially the direct environmental impact. It replaces HFC-134a in 

new equipment, producing similar capacity and efficiency. As 

formulated, this refrigerant would be classified by ISO 817 A1 (low 

toxicity, non-flammable). 

Extent of commercialisation These chemicals are already produced at a commercial scale. It is 

anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-2 

years in Asia (China, Japan, Korea), followed by other regions 

(Middle East, Europe). 

Energy efficiency, efficacy When used in reciprocating or scroll compressors, this refrigerant 

produces efficiency levels comparable to HFC-134a. When used in 

scroll and reciprocating compressors, the same POE lubricant oil can 

be used. Due to its high critical temperature, it will perform very well 

in warm climates.

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend of a high manufacturing cost molecule (HFC-1234yf) 

and HFC-134a, its cost is expected to be high.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 95

Barriers and restrictions Its high cost would be the main barrier for widespread adoption by the 

market. Otherwise, the barriers are not different from conventional 

non-flammable HFC blends, typically that temperature glide issues 

may influence the design of equipment.

HFC-32

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

HFC-32 is a single component refrigerant that was originally used as a 

component of R-410A, which is 50% HFC-32 and 50% HFC-125, and 

other blends. HFC-125 was used to reduce the flammability of HFC-32 

and high discharge temperature. It has a GWP of 716. Pressure and 

capacity are around 1.5 times higher than HCFC-22 and equivalent to 

R-410A. It is classed as A2L (low toxicity, lower flammability) under 

ISO 817.

Extent of commercialisation HFC-32 is one of components of R-410A and R-407C, so fairly large 

production capacity is already available, Cylinders are made available 

in the market.

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency of HFC-32 systems or higher than R-410A and the 

theoretical COP is a few per cent better than R-410A at typical air 

conditioning conditions. The capacity is approximately slightly higher 

(~ 5%) but it can be easily accommodated with slight adjustment of 

the compressor displacement in new systems. Its system charge is 

lower than for R-410A. It has better heat transfer properties and 

transport properties than R-410A due to lower molar mass. Discharge 

temperatures are higher than R-410A. Higher polarity of refrigerant 

makes necessary the use of new lubricant oils. Some mitigation device

or controls may be necessary for handling the discharge temperature of 

the compressor especially at high ambient temperatures.

Costs, cost effectiveness The direct cost of this refrigerant is lower than that of R-410A as it is a 

not patented substance, simple molecular structure and lower fluorine 

necessity in molecule. The new lubricant oils and mitigation devices 

for high discharge temperature may add some cost. The better heat 

transfer and lower pressure drops in the pipes reduces the use of 

copper and aluminium resulting in more compact units which in 

general means lower cost units.

Barriers and restrictions The main barriers are related to the safe use of lower flammability 

refrigerants (see explanation below).

HFCs (1000 < GWP ≤ 3000)

R-448A 

(previously referred to as “N40”)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-448A is a mixture of saturated HFCs (HFC-32, HFC-125 and HFC134a) with unsaturated HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze, which as 

formulated is non-flammable. It has a GWP of 1270 and is therefore 

similar to pure HFC-134a. It replaces R-404A in existing and new 

refrigeration equipment. This refrigerant would be classified by ISO 

817 A1 (low toxicity, non-flammable). 

Extent of commercialisation The component chemicals are already produced at a commercial scale. 

It is anticipated that this refrigerant will be available during the next 1-

2 years. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy This refrigerant has a capacity similar to R-404A and a greater 

efficiency (up to +8%). The same POE lubricant oil can be used as 

with R-404A. 

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend, which includes HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze(E), its 

cost is likely to be higher than conventional HFC mixtures. 
96 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

“LTR-4X” [HFC-32/HFC125/HFC-134a/HFC1234ze(E); 

28%/25%/16%/31%]

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

LTR-4X is a zeotropic mixture of HFC-32, HFC-125, HFC-134a and 

HFC-1234ze(E) which has a GWP of 1295 and is formulated as nonflammable. It replaces R-404A or R-407A/F in refrigeration 

equipment. It is anticipated that this refrigerant will be classified under 

ISO 817 as A1 (low toxicity, non-flammable)

Extent of commercialisation All the components are in commercial production

Energy efficiency, efficacy Performance in DX systems is close to that of R-407A and R-404A 

with compressor discharge temperatures similar to R-407A.

Costs, cost effectiveness A proportion of this refrigerant is a new unsaturated HFC molecule 

and consequently has higher cost than R-404A. This is mainly due to 

its different manufacturing process and economies of scale. It is 

expected that as production increases, the price premium would be 

reduced such that the cost of the blend should be moderate.

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

R-449A (previously listed as 

“DR-33”)

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-449A is a mixture of saturated HFCs (HFC-32, HFC-125 and HFC134a) and unsaturated HFC-1234yf, which as formulated is nonflammable. It has a GWP of 1410 and is therefore similar to pure 

HFC-134a. It replaces R-404A in new refrigeration equipment. This 

refrigerant would be classified by ISO 817 A1 (low toxicity, nonflammable). 

Extent of commercialisation The component chemicals are already produced at a commercial scale. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy This refrigerant has a capacity marginally higher than R-404A and a 

slightly greater efficiency. The same POE lubricant oil can be used as 

with R-404A. 

Costs, cost effectiveness Being a blend, which includes HFC-1234yf, its cost is likely to be 

higher than conventional HFC mixtures. 

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

HFC-134a

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

HFC-134a is a pure substance with a GWP of 1370. It is used in a 

variety of equipment including heat pumps and chillers. It is classed as 

an A1 refrigerant (lower toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally.

Energy efficiency, efficacy Energy efficiency is good, provided that pipes and heat exchangers are 

suitably sized. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the substance is greater than HCFC-22 but less than HFC 

blends. 

Barriers and restrictions There are no significant barriers to its use. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 97

R-407C

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-407C is a mixture refrigerant comprising HFC-134a, HFC-125 and 

HFC-32 with a GWP of 1700. It has been used widely in air 

conditioning, chiller and heat pump systems, especially to help the 

transition from HCFC-22. It is classed as an A1 refrigerant (lower 

toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency is acceptable, although heat exchangers need to be 

designed suitably to take account of the temperature glide. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the refrigerant is approximately two to three times greater 

than HCFC-22. 

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

R-407F

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-407F is a mixture of the same components of R-407C but in slightly 

different proportions. Its GWP is 1820. It is typically used recently for 

centralised commercial refrigeration systems. It is classed as an A1 

refrigerant (lower toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency is acceptable and better than of the R-404A it is 

normally used to replace. However, heat exchangers need to be 

designed suitably to take account of the temperature glide. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the refrigerant is approximately two to three times greater 

than HCFC-22. 

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

R-407A

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-407A is a mixture of the same components of R-407C but in slightly 

different proportions. Its GWP is 2100. It is typically used recently for 

centralised commercial refrigeration systems. It is classed as an A1 

refrigerant (lower toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally. 

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency is acceptable and better than of the R-404A it is 

normally used to replace. However, heat exchangers need to be 

designed suitably to take account of the temperature glide. 

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the refrigerant is approximately two to three times greater 

than HCFC-22. 

Barriers and restrictions The barriers are not different from conventional non-flammable HFC 

blends, typically that temperature glide issues may influence the design 

of equipment.

R-410A

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-410A is a mixture refrigerant comprising HFC-125 and HFC-32 

with a GWP of 2100. It is used widely in air conditioning, chiller and 

heat pump systems. The safety is classed as an A1 refrigerant (lower 

toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally.

Energy efficiency, efficacy Generally the efficiency is equivalent to HCFC-12 or better, especially 

at lower temperatures. This efficiency however deteriorates at higher 

ambient temperatures.

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the refrigerant is approximately two to three times greater 

than HCFC-22. 
98 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Barriers and restrictions A slight barrier to its use it the operating pressures being higher than 

that of HCFC-22, although this is more perceived than practical. For 

countries which experience high ambient temperatures capacity and 

efficiency can degrade more rapidly than with HCFC-22. 

HFCs (GWP > 3000)

R-404A and R-507 

Description and discussion of 

each technology/chemical 

(including health and safety etc.)

R-404A is a mixture refrigerant comprising HFC-134a, HFC-125 and 

HFC-143a with a GWP of 3700. It has been used widely in 

commercial refrigeration systems. R-507 has a similar GWP and 

operates similarly to R-404A. Both are classed as an A1 refrigerant 

(lower toxicity, non-flammable).

Extent of commercialisation It is well commercialised globally. R-404A is more widely 

commercialised than R-507.

Energy efficiency, efficacy The efficiency is acceptable. A major advantage of R-404A and R-507 

is the low discharge temperature, which makes it possible to have a 

high temperature lift in a single stage system.

Costs, cost effectiveness The cost of the refrigerant is approximately two to four times greater 

than HCFC-22. 

Barriers and restrictions There are no significant barriers to its use, although it is now 

becoming considered less desirable within several regions due to its 

comparatively high GWP.

Barriers to flammable refrigerants

For the safe use of higher (A3 under ISO 817) and lower flammability (A2 under ISO 817) and lower 

flammability refrigerants with low flame speed (A2L under ISO 817), standards such as ISO-5149 

IEC 60335-2-24, IEC-60335-2-40 and IEC 60335-2-89 provide relevant safety requirements. For A2L 

refrigerants, some of these standards are under revision to accommodate requirements specifically for 

this new safety class. In practical terms the requirements means that systems located indoors with 

large charge sizes can be limited. In addition, technicians must be well-trained and competent in 

handling flammable refrigerants if the flammability is to be dealt with safely. In some countries 

building safety codes may prohibit the use flammable refrigerants in certain types of buildings.

10.1.1 Domestic Refrigeration 

Domestic refrigeration sub-sector comprises appliances that are broadly used domestically, such as 

refrigerators, freezers and combined refrigerator/freezer products. Beverage dispensing machines are 

similar products and are commonly included in domestic refrigeration, but represent a small fraction 

of total units. 

Approximately 100 million domestic refrigerators and freezers are produced annually, and it is 

estimated that this quantity is equally divided between non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. A 

typical product includes a factory-assembled, hermetically sealed, vapour-compression refrigeration 

system employing a 50 to 250 watt induction motor, containing 50 to 250 grams of refrigerant. 

Commercially available alternative technology to vapour-compression refrigeration is employed in 

specific products, such as absorption cycles for small fridges in hotels and so. The age distribution of 

the global installed products is extremely broad with median age estimates ranging from 9 to 19 years 

at retirement, being higher values typical for Article 5 countries. Long product life and high volume 

annual production combine for an estimated 1500 to 1800 million unit global installed inventory.

The main refrigerants used are hydrocarbon HC-600a (isobutane) and HFC-134a. More than 50% of 

current new production (globally) employs HC-600a, the remainder uses HFC-134a. HC-600a 

continues to be the main alternative to HFC-134a. Concerns in connection with the high flammability 

no longer exist for the low charges applied. No new alternative has matured to become energy-
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 99

efficient and cost-competitive. Considering costs, HC-600a itself is less expensive than HFC-134a,. 

but production cost for refrigerators can be higher due to the requirements for safety systems.

Initial developments to assess HFC-134a replacement with HFC-1234yf have begun, but is not being 

pursued as a high priority. HFC-1234yf has demonstrated the potential for comparable efficiency to 

HFC-134a. The lower flammability makes its application easier in countries with strong reservations 

about HC-600a.

10.1.2 Commercial Refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration is characterised by storing and displaying food and beverages at two main 

levels of temperature: medium level (around 0°C) for chilled food and low level (around -18°C) for 

frozen food. The refrigerating capacities of equipment vary from some hundreds of Watts to 1.5 MW 

depending on the three types of equipment: stand-alone equipment, condensing units, and 

supermarket systems. Refrigerant choices depend on the refrigerant charge, the level of temperature, 

the energy efficiency, as well as on regional regulations.

Stand-alone equipment

Stand-alone equipment also called “plug-in” consists of systems where all refrigeration components 

are integrated; for smallest types, the refrigeration circuit is entirely brazed or welded. 

Large global food companies have committed to not use HFCs in their new systems. 

The energy efficiency of the vending machine and bottle cooler with carbon dioxide cassettes is 

similar to HFC-134a machines with energy penalty that increases when the ambient temperature is 

higher than 25°C; the higher the ambient temperature the higher the energy penalty. The cost is 

slightly higher compared to HCFC or HFC equipment. The high technological level of expertise 

required forms a barrier for the application.

Where it concerns low GWP HFCs, tests have been performed under the auspices of AHRI “Low 

GWP AREP program during the year 2013. 34 reports are available; most of the tests have been 

performed as drop-in tests without any optimization of the refrigeration system in order to adapt it to 

the thermodynamic properties of the new refrigerants. Report #8 compares the main energy 

performances of HFC-1234yf, HFC-1234ze, and two blends, as it can be seen in Table 10-1. Both the 

relative capacity and the COP are lower compared to HFC-134a in this application, but the 

differences are relatively small. Simple adaptations such as compressor swept volume and heatexchanger sizing can suffice to meet the original performances.

Refrigerant Relative capacity compared to 

HFC-134a

Relative COP compared to 

HFC-134a

HFC-134a 1 1

HFC-1234yf 0.91 0.89

HFC-1234ze(E) 0.92 0.94

XP-10 0.92 0.90

N-13 0.95 0.94

Table 10-1 HFC-134a replacement candidates for commercial bottle coolers (AHRI Report #8)

Condensing units

Refrigeration capacities of condensing units range typically from 1 kW to 20 kW. Condensing units 

are composed of one (or two) compressor(s), one condenser, and one receiver; they are located 

external to the sales area. Condensing units are typically installed in specialty shops such as bakeries, 

butcher shops, and convenience stores. In most Article 5 countries there is an extensive use of 
100 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

condensing units, not only in small shops but also in supermarkets where up to 20 condensing units 

operate in parallel. 

R-717 is never used in condensing units because of cost and safety issues.

R-744 based condensing units are available in Northern Europe, but the market penetration is low. R744 systems require a double-stage design if high ambient temperatures occur frequently. Singlestage systems are designed for cold climates. The additional cost for a double-stage system is 

significant; cost is the main barrier for these R-744 systems. 

Several indirect condensing units with HC-290 or HC-1270 operate in Europe with typical refrigerant 

charges varying from 1 to 20 kg. The energy efficiency is good. The indirect system energy penalty is 

limited if the secondary loop is well designed, with larger heat-exchanger areas. Costs for these HCbased systems are typically 5 to 15% higher compared to HFC systems. For smaller capacities, direct 

HC condensing units are being used.

Table 10-2 presents candidates to replace R-404A in condensing units, according to the AHRI study 

above mentioned

Commercial name Volumetric capacity referred to R404A at -29°CCOP relative to COP 

R-404A

R-404A 1 1

ARM-30a 0.81 0.89

DR-7 1.02 1.07

L-40 0.83 0.86

Table 10-2 Candidates to the replacement of R-404A. (AHRI report #9)

Centralised systems

Centralised systems are the preferred option in supermarkets. They operate with racks of compressors 

installed in a machinery room. Two main design options are used, i.e., direct and indirect systems. 

Direct systems are the most widespread. The refrigerant circulates from the machinery room to the 

sales area, where it evaporates in display-case heat exchangers, and then returns in the vapour phase 

to the suction headers of the compressor racks. The supermarket cold rooms are cooled similarly. R404A and HCFC-22 are the most used refrigerants for those centralized systems. The refrigerant 

options table listed several candidates that are being promoted as replacements for R-404A in the 

large direct expansion supermarket systems.

Among the new technical options in use since about 10 years, CO2 cascade systems are found in two 

main architectures. This option has taken a significant uptake in Europe with about 1,600 stores 

equipped, the installed base being around 20,000 supermarkets with sales area ranging from 400 m2

to more than 15,000 m2. 

The preferred option for large European commercial companies is HFC-134a at the mediumtemperature level (-10 to -15°C) cascading with R-744 direct system for the low temperature (-35 to -

38°C), since this is a global option, applicable in all climates. 

For cold climates, CO2 is used at both temperature levels and when the outdoor temperature is higher 

than 25°C, the CO2 high-temperature system will operate at high pressure, around 9 to 10 MPa in 

transcritical operation, which is significantly less energy efficient compared to usual operation in 

refrigerant condensing mode. The additional cost is again limited to 10 to 15%. The lower energy 

efficiency for high ambient temperatures constitutes a barrier. In summary, R-744 clearly is an 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 101

important option for centralised systems in future commercial refrigeration, especially in cascade 

systems with another refrigerant at the medium temperature level or in trans-critical systems.

10.1.3 Transport Refrigeration

Technical requirements for transport refrigeration systems are extremely complex. The equipment 

has to operate over a wide range of ambient temperatures and weather conditions (wind, solar 

radiation, rain, sea water spray, etc.). The equipment has to be able to carry any one of a wide range 

of cargos with different temperature needs and often even different temperatures simultaneously in 

different compartments. At the same time acceleration and vibration has to be accommodated.

Refrigerant charges vary from less than 1 kg (refrigerated vans) to more than several kg (trucks, 

trailers and reefer containers) to 3,000 kg on board large fishing vessels (Schwarz et al., 2011). 

Leakage rates are estimated at 20% for trucks/trailers, 30% for vans and up to 40% for fishing vessels 

(Schwarz et al., 2011). All intermodal containers use hermetic or semi-hermetic systems, which have 

an estimated leakage rate below 5%. 

In 2012, three manufacturers of transport refrigeration equipment exhibited concepts of trailer or vans 

refrigeration units with R-744 at a trade show (Thermoking, 2012; Konvekta, 2012; Carrier, 2011). 

Although these systems feature several advantages, a detailed comparison with today’s standard 

equipment, and development leading to market introduction, is yet to be seen. The challenges include 

reduced energy efficiency under high ambient temperatures, larger physical space requirements, 

possible higher failure rates associated with circuit complexity, and higher price, at least initially. 

The use of hydrocarbons (mainly HC-290) in truck refrigeration units has been tested with a small 

number of vehicles in the UK, Australia and Germany. If not for flammability concerns, they would 

be the preferred choice because they can provide lower energy consumption in the order of 20% or 

more. Recently, a refrigerated truck with propene (HC-1270) was developed by a German company 

and is now in field tests for a supermarket chain in Germany. The system was reported to be superior 

to R-404A and comparable to R-410A (Burke, 2011). For a broader market introduction, 

manufacturers and customers require specific legal rules and standards for hydrocarbons to ensure 

safety in mobile applications. 

Cryogenic or open loop systems, which evaporate liquid CO2 or N2 charged to an insulated container 

aboard the truck, are alternatives to the vapour compression cycle for recurring distribution routes. 

The systems have advantages of being quiet and reliable. They offer a constant capacity that is 

independent of the engine (vehicle) speed. On the other hand, systems that discharge CO2 or N2 to the 

cargo box (not all do) bear a risk of asphyxiation if not equipped by gas sensors. They require energy 

for the liquefaction of the cryogenic liquid, which can make the systems expensive to operate and 

may result in higher overall greenhouse gas emissions, depending on the energy source used for 

liquefying CO2 or N2. 

One Japanese manufacturer has developed a system using ice slurry charged trucks for delivery of 

chilled goods in large cities with air pollution restrictions. The ice slurry is produced in a stationary 

refrigeration system and special compartments on board the trucks are charged with ice slurry prior to 

loading chilled food. Ice slurry can due to its heat of fusion keep truck and food cool for 8 to 10 hours

10.1.4 Large size (industrial) refrigeration

Large size refrigeration systems, often also called industrial refrigeration systems, are characterised 

by heat extraction rates in the range several 100 kW to 10 MW, typically at evaporating temperatures 

from –50 °C to +20 °C. About 75% of all large size refrigeration capacity is installed in the food 

industry, the rest in industrial processes and leisure applications (Schwarz et al., 2011). Over 90% of 

the large industrial refrigeration installations use R-717 whereas the market share of R-717 is only 
102 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

5% (India and China) to 25% (Europe and Russia) for smaller industrial refrigeration systems 

(RTOC, 2010).

Industrial R-717 systems are in general 15% more energy efficient than their HFC-counterparts and 

40% of the European industrial refrigeration systems use R-717 (Schwarz et al., 2011). While 

industrial refrigeration systems using R-717 are very tight due to the pungent smell of R-717, HFC 

systems in the EU show leakage rates of 8-10% at present (Schwarz et al., 2011).

Applying improvement levers such as reduced condensing temperature, increased evaporation 

temperature, variable speed compressors and multistage systems, the energy consumption of R-717 

plants can be drastically reduced (Gerwen, van, 2011). A replacement of a 3.2 MW HCFC-22 

refrigeration system by one using R-717 resulted in 40% reduction of energy consumption (McNeill, 

2011). As the new plant utilises heat recovery and water heating by means of an additional heat 

pump, the total annual cost savings are more than £1.4 million, resulting in a payback time of 2.7 

years (McNeill, 2011).

Hydrocarbons are not widely used, other than in situations where safety measures are already 

required, e.g. in a petrochemical plant or for compact chillers. They offer excellent efficiency, and 

compatibility with most materials and lubricants. However the precautions required to prevent 

ignition are significantly more expensive than those required for ammonia systems (RTOC, 2010).

R-744 is used with excellent efficiency in systems as the low temperature stage to a cascaded upper 

R-717 system especially in the food industry where the refrigerant has to evaporate in freezing 

equipment in the factory. According to van Gerwen (2011) “the use of R-744 as a refrigerant in the 

low pressure stage of a cascade refrigeration system, with ammonia in the high stage, could be an 

opportunity for further improvement”. In colder climates R-744 is energy efficient as the sole 

refrigerant.

Air can be used with good energy efficiency in low temperature applications, namely below -60 °C. 

At least one manufacturer is offering such systems (Machida, 2011).

Carbon dioxide can be used in some cases as an alternative to glycol or brine solutions as the heat 

transfer fluid of indirect R-717 or hydrocarbon systems, offering significant reductions in volume 

flow rate which gives operating cost reductions of up to 20% (Maratou, 2013) and can also result in 

installation cost reductions (Rhiemeier, 2009).

10.1.5 Water Heating Heat Pumps

Within the category of water heating heat pumps we have the heat pump water heaters, the space 

heating heat pumps and combined space and hot water heat pumps.. The required warm water 

temperature affects the selection of refrigerant. Heat pump systems are more efficient at lower sink 

temperatures, but each product must fulfil the required operating temperature. The main use of heat 

pumps is to replace fossil fuel water heating systems. This for the purpose to reduce the life-time cost 

and/or to reduce the impact to the environment. To compete with fossil fuel water heating systems the 

cost and energy efficiency is most important and has its impact on the selection of the refrigerant. 

Most heat pumps commercialised today make use of non-ODS refrigerants. Refrigerants used or R410A, HFC-134a, R-407C, HC-290, HC-600a, R-717, R-744. The majority of new equipment use R410A. In some Article 5 countries HCFC-22 is being used as it has favourable thermodynamic 

properties and high efficiency. To replace HCFC-22 by a non-ODS there are no technical barriers. 

The technical and process changes related to pressure, lubrication and contamination control are well 

known. Replacements are commercially available, technically proven and energy efficient. All 

replacements have a similar or lower environmental impact. R-410A has a slightly higher GWP but 

the required charge is less than HCFC-22. The issue in high ambient is of less or no importance for 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 103

water heating heat pumps. The main parameters to select the alternatives and the main issue to switch 

over from HCFC-22 are the cost effectiveness, economic impact, safe use and easiness of use. 

Replacements such as HFC-32 and other low-GWP HFC blends are under way to become commercial 

available. 

HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C, R-417A and R-410A are commercial available solutions, which 

have the highest grade of safety and easiness to use. R410A is most cost effective for small and 

medium size systems, while for large systems HFC-134a is most efficient. R-407C and R-417A are, 

from a design point of view, the easiest alternatives for HCFC-22 but cannot compete with the other 

HFC-solutions. As R-417A has a quite higher GWP than HCFC-22 it is difficult to propose this 

solution as environmentally sound.

10.1.6 Air Conditioning 

Small self-contained (window, portable, through-the-wall, packaged terminal)

Small Self-Contained (SSC) air conditioners are small capacity air conditioners in which all of the

refrigeration system components are contained within a single package. These products have cooling 

capacities typically ranging from 1.0 kW to 10 kW. This category of products includes window 

mounted, through-the wall, portable and packaged terminal ACs. Small self-contained ACs are 

designed to heat or cool single spaces, such as bedrooms, small shops, restaurants and offices.

As discussed in TEAP (2013), R-717 has not and is unlikely to be used in SSC AC systems. 

Information regarding the use of R-744 in this type of equipment was provided in TEAP (2013), 

where only niche type products are available (i.e., ECUs). Estimated costs are likely to be around 

double that of the baseline products and therefore not considered economically viable in most cases. 

This is particularly the case for high ambient climates. In fact, the low critical temperature of R-744 

that leads to poor performance at high ambient temperatures is what makes it difficult to apply in 

SSC ACs when good performance at temperatures above 30 oC are necessary. 

Mini-split (non-ducted)

Residential and light commercial air-conditioning is often done with non-ducted split air 

conditioners. Non-ducted split ACs are widely applied in commercial buildings, schools, apartments 

and free-standing residences. They comprise a compressor/heat exchanger unit (condensing unit) 

installed outside the space to be cooled or heated. The outdoor unit is connected via refrigerant piping 

to a fan-coil unit located inside the conditioned space, generally on the wall but also can be ceiling or 

floor mounted designs. In cool and cold climates reversible ACs (heat pumps) are gaining market 

acceptance in some regions and are dominant in others, where they are used primarily for heating but 

also provide cooling during summer operation.

R-444B is feasible to use in split ACs, for example, to replace HCFC-22 or R-407C, trialling is 

ongoing and efficiency is comparable (TEAP, 2013). The cost implications should be comparable to 

that of HCFC-22 and R-407C although probably greater due to the refrigerant cost but nevertheless 

economically viable. It is not unsuitable for use in high density urban areas and it is otherwise easy to 

use except the need to training of the service sector in the handling of flammable refrigerants.

The use of single component unsaturated HFCs, such as HFC-1234yf and especially HFC-1234ze(E), 

have not been seriously considered for single split ACs because their volumetric capacity is much 

lower than HCFC-22, which implies much bulkier systems and – along with high anticipated 

refrigerant price – implies a considerable increase in product cost (TEAP, 2013). 
104 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Multi-split, Split (ducted) and Ducted split commercial and non-split air conditioners

This section deals with the alternatives for each of these three sub-categories together as the 

alternatives and implications are almost the same.

A second type of non-ducted products are multi-split; essentially the same as a single split (as 

described in 3.6.2) but a single condensing unit may feed two or more indoor units (sometimes, up to 

50). Whilst dual indoor unit models may be used for residential applications, this category of split 

systems is more often used in commercial buildings. As with single splits, multi-splits also offer 

reversible (heating) options. Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) systems are a sub-category of the 

multi-split non-ducted air conditioning systems and are distinguished from regular multi-split systems 

by their ability to modulate the refrigerant flow in response to the system demand. VRF systems have 

capacities ranging from 10 kW to over 130 kW.

Ducted, split residential ACs are typically used where central forced-air heating systems necessitate 

the installation of a duct system that supplies air to each room of a residence or small zones within 

commercial or institutional buildings. A condensing unit (compressor/heat exchanger), placed outside 

the conditioned space, supplies refrigerant to one or more indoor coils (heat exchangers) installed 

within the duct system or air handler. Air in the conditioned space is cooled or heated by passing over 

the coil and is distributed to the conditioned spaces by the duct system. Systems can in principle be 

designed as reversible types, although for this category of ducted air conditioners it is done less 

frequently. Capacities range from 5 kW to 17.5 kW.

Ducted commercial ACs and heat pumps are manufactured in two forms: split system units which are 

matched with an indoor air handler/heat exchanger assembly and single packaged units which contain 

an integral fan and heat exchanger assembly which is connected by means of ducting to the air 

distribution system of the commercial structure. The majority of ducted commercial packaged ACs 

and heat pumps are mounted on the roof or outside on the ground of offices, shops, restaurants or 

institutional facilities. Multiple units containing one or more compressors are often used to condition 

the enclosed space of low-rise shopping centres, shops, schools or other moderate size commercial 

structures. Commercial ducted systems are offered in a wide range of capacities from around 10 kW 

to over 100 kW.

R-744 is seldom suitable for these systems. For systems which involve lengthy piping (such as multisplit) the cost implications can be significant whereas for packaged systems (such as non-split 

ducted) the cost implications are less severe. Nevertheless, there is no reason why R-744 systems 

would be unsuitable for densely populated areas. In these types of systems R-744 has use challenges 

for the above mentioned reasons and possible requirements for additional servicing skills.

Although feasible in a small proportion of situations, HCs are not used in multi-split and some types 

of ducted systems due to charge size limitations in occupied spaces (TEAP, 2013). Although they 

have been applied in a number of development models of split and non-split ducted systems, typically 

where additional safety measures are applied to reduce the amount of “leakable” charge, extensive 

application is challenging. Nevertheless, estimated costs are unlikely to be prohibitive, both HC-290 

and HC-1270 perform well at high ambients and they are not unsuitable for densely populated areas. 

However, due to charge amount limitations, they are not easily applicable and require expert 

consideration as to suitability of cases.

As highlighted in TEAP (2013), the use of single component unsaturated HFCs, such as HFC-1234yf 

and especially HFC-1234ze(E), have not been seriously considered for multi-split and ducted ACs 

because their volumetric capacity is low , implying bulkier systems and – along with high anticipated 

refrigerant price –a considerable increase in product cost. Some exceptions may exist for niche 

situations in systems intended for regions with very high ambient temperatures. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 105

10.1.7 Chillers

Comfort air conditioning in large commercial buildings and building complexes (including hotels, 

offices, hospitals, universities, and other central systems) is provided by chillers in most cases. They 

cool water or other heat transfer fluid (such as a water-antifreeze mixture) that is pumped through 

heat exchangers in air handlers or fan-coil units for cooling and dehumidifying the air. Chillers also 

are used for process cooling in commercial and industrial facilities such as data processing and 

communication centres, electronics fabrication, precision machining, and moulding. District cooling 

is another application that provides air conditioning to multiple buildings through a large chilled 

water distribution system, as opposed to air conditioning each building with separate systems. Chiller 

operation is driven by cooling requirements but provision for heat recovery may be included. The 

principal components of a vapour-compression chiller are one or more compressors driven by electric 

motors (or less commonly, engines or turbines using open drive compressors), a liquid cooler 

(evaporator), a condenser, a refrigerant, a lubrication system, a refrigerant expansion and flow control 

device, a power handling device (commonly a starter or variable speed electronic drive), and a 

control and protection unit. 

The complete chiller usually is factory assembled and tested; no connection between refrigerantcontaining parts is required on site by the installer except for very large chillers which may be 

shipped as multiple assemblies. Installation is accomplished by connection to water, power, and 

control systems. Vapour-compression chillers are identified by the type of compressor they employ; 

centrifugal or positive displacement compressors. Chillers can be further divided according to their 

condenser heat exchanger type, the most common being water-cooled or air-cooled and less common 

are evaporatively-cooled condensers and dry coolers.

Positive displacement chillers

Positive displacement chillers include those with reciprocating piston, screw, and scroll compressors. 

Smaller capacity models tends to be air cooled, which accounts for the majority of chillers, but as the 

capacity increases above around 350 kW water-cooled models become more frequent. Capacities can 

exceed several MWs. 

R-407C, R-410A and HFC-134a are widely used in positive displacement chillers and can be 

considered as the baseline options. 

R-717 is used fairly widely in reciprocating and screw chillers for refrigeration and air conditioning, 

is well proven for a variety of applications and provides excellent efficiency (TEAP, 2013). The cost 

effectiveness becomes favourable as the cooling capacity approaches 200 kW and up to about 6 MW, 

relative to HCFC-22, thus they tend to be economically viable above a certain capacity. In terms of 

regions with high ambient temperatures, R-717 chillers can and are used, although the very high 

discharge temperatures need to be accommodated for through inter-stage and oil cooling. Whether 

these chillers can be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas depends upon national 

regulations; some countries have no limits whereas others have limits in the order of several hundreds 

of kilograms (although this often exceeds the required charge anyway). In principle, R-717 is easily 

used in chillers, provided the measures identified previously are achieved and that the service sector 

is suitably trained. 

R-744 is now used in reciprocating chillers by many different manufacturers, with good efficiency 

whilst operating at ambient temperatures not exceeding the critical temperature (around 30 C), thus 

inferring a preference for water-cooled machines in hotter climates (TEAP, 2013). Due to 

construction material requirements, R-744 chillers become economically viable at capacities of 

several hundred kW. There is no reason for it to be unsuitable in densely populated urban 

environments. Provided engineers are capable of extending their refrigeration knowledge to 
106 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

understand the concepts of transcritical operation and that technicians have received the necessary 

training, this option is easily used.

Both HC-290 and HC-1270 are produced by a number of manufacturers in Europe and other regions 

and range from 40 kW to over 1 MW with high energy efficiency (TEAP, 2013). Generally the cost 

implications of applying HCs in chillers are negligible and can therefore be considered economically 

viable. There are no reasons why HC-290 and HC-1270 would not be suitable for use in densely 

populated areas. In principle they are easy to use provided engineers have the capability of 

considering flammability aspects and that the service sector is appropriately trained to handle 

flammable refrigerants.

HFC-1234ze(E) is suitable for chillers and has been trialled in systems in Europe, with good 

efficiency (TEAP, 2013). In principle the price of the equipment should not be affected significantly 

by design although the price of the refrigerant may have an impact on economic viability. Due to its 

high critical temperature, it will perform well in warm climates. There is no reason why it would not 

be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided the service 

sector is appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants. 

HFC-1234yf is also considered suitable for chillers and has also been trialled, providing comparable 

efficiency to HFC-134a. In principle the price of the equipment should not be affected significantly 

by design although the price of the refrigerant may have an impact on economic viability. Due to its 

high critical temperature, it is likely to perform well in warm climates. There is no reason why it 

would not be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided 

the service sector is appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants. 

It is feasible to use HFC-32 in positive displacement chillers with equivalent energy efficiency to the 

baseline options (TEAP, 2013). Some manufacturers are developing models. It is likely that the cost 

of equipment will not be affected significantly and thus likely to be economically viable. There is no 

reason why it would not be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily 

used provided the service sector is appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants.

The blends R-444B, R-446A, R-447A and DR-5 could be used as replacements for HCFC-22, R407C or R-410A in positive displacement chillers that employ reciprocating or scroll compressor 

technologies. It is not known whether any manufacturers are developing equipment with these 

alternative refrigerants. Depending upon the price of the refrigerant, the cost of equipment should not 

be affected significantly and are likely to be economically viable. There is no reason why it would 

not be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided the 

service sector is appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants.

A number of the new mixtures have been tested in chillers. HPR1D compared against R-410A 

showed a drop in COP and capacity of about 8%, ARM-70 gives a 7% improvement in COP and 11% 

lower capacity and ARM-32a shows 6% higher COP but a 26% drop in capacity (Schultz and Kujak, 

2012). In another evaluation (Schultz and Kujak, 2013a), ARM-32a gives a 6% higher capacity than 

HCFC-22 but 11% lower COP, whilst LTR4X and LTR6A provide the same capacity but 10% and 

19% lower COP, respectively. When compared with R134a in a water cooled chiller, ARM-42a has a 

marginally lower COP and capacity (Schultz and Kujak, 2013b), but capacity ranges from -1 – +6% 

and COP from -7 – -3% compared to R134a in an air cooled chiller (Kulankara and McQuade, 2013). 

R-450A is also feasible for use in positive displacement chillers and can be used in existing HFC134a technologies with minor modifications (TEAP, 2013), whilst maintaining adequate efficiency. 

Due to its high critical temperature, it will perform very well in warm climates. The cost of 

equipment should be economically viable. There is no reason why it would not be suitable for use in 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 107

densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided the service sector is appropriately 

trained to handle flammable refrigerants.

Similarly, XP-10 is feasible for use in HFC-134a type chillers with only minor modifications, with 

comparable efficiency (TEAP, 2013). It is not known whether any manufacturers are developing 

equipment with this refrigerant. There is no reason why it would not be suitable for use in densely 

populated urban areas and it would in principle be easily used. 

Centrifugal chillers 

These are chillers, which employ centrifugal compressors with one, two, and three compression 

stages. They are generally used for air conditioning applications in very large buildings and for 

district cooling. Centrifugal compressors most commonly are used in water cooled systems, 

especially those with capacities exceeding 1 MW. Air cooled centrifugal chillers are less common. 

These chillers operate by using the momentum of a molecule to increase pressure. A simplified 

description would be that, the lighter the molecule, the higher the chiller speed has to be. Natural 

substances, lacking the relatively heavy halogens in their structure, thus tend to require a more 

complex rotor (higher speed, diameter, more stages) than halogenated substances. Consequently, their 

use so far has been limited.

HFC-134a is used widely in various capacities of centrifugal chillers and is considered to be the 

baseline refrigerant. 

It is not practical to use R-410A and HFC-32 in centrifugal chillers. The thermal conductivity is 

basically better than HFC-134a, but due to high internal leak flow and high pressure difference with 

smaller molar mass, the compressor efficiency is not as high as one with HFC-134a or other low 

pressure refrigerants such as HFC-1234ze(E). In addition, boiling volume is not as high as HFC-134a 

and HFC-1234ze, so use of R-410A and HFC-32 will result in a larger evaporator. Consequently, the 

use of high pressure HFCs is very limited and negligible in general centrifugal chillers.

R-717 is seldom used in centrifugal chillers and R-744 is not used in such machines (TEAP, 2013). 

HCs are used to a limited extent in centrifugal chillers typically within certain petro-chemical 

industries (TEAP, 2013), but are not considered further here. 

R-718 (water) chillers are in use in several installations in Europe and are now commercially 

available in Japan in capacities of up to 350 kW using a special axial type compressor. Larger 

capacities are likely to be available within the next two years. Current products have high energy 

efficiency. The cost at large-scale production and thus the economic viability is not clear to date. In 

principle R-718 chillers should perform well under high ambient temperatures and there is no reason 

for them to be unsuitable in high density urban areas. There are no known limitations and should be 

easy to apply. 

HFC-1234yf is considered suitable for centrifugal chillers and is likely to give comparable efficiency 

to HFC-134a. In principle the price of the equipment should not be affected significantly by design 

although the price of the refrigerant may have a significant impact on economic viability. Due to its 

high critical temperature, it is likely to perform well in warm climates. There is no reason why it 

would not be suitable for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided 

the service sector is appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants. 

HFC-1234ze(E) is suitable for chillers and has been trialled in systems in various regions, and is 

expected to offer an efficiency improvement over HFC-134a (TEAP, 2013). Systems should be 

economically viable provided that the price of the refrigerant is not too high. Due to its high critical 

temperature, it will perform well in warm climates. There is no reason why it would not be suitable 
108 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

for use in densely populated urban areas and it would be easily used provided the service sector is 

appropriately trained to handle flammable refrigerants. 

HCFC-1233zd(E) is considered as a key alternative in low pressure centrifugal chillers, and should 

produce efficiency levels slightly better than HCFC-123, both at moderate and high ambient 

temperatures. It is being trialled in chillers by some manufacturers. Given that this refrigerant has a 

higher cost than HCFC-123 the cost of chillers would be greater but likely to be economically viable. 

There is no reason why it would not be suitable for use in high density urban areas and why it would 

not be easy to apply.

10.1.8 Mobile Air Conditioning

Cars and truck cabins used the same refrigerant CFC-12 from the 1950’s to 1992; it was then 

replaced by HFC-134a, which is still in use everywhere, even with the European ban that should have 

begun in 2011 for “new model” cars. Dependent on the country, the preferred option is to keep going 

with HFC-134a or to shift to HFC-1234yf. The uptake of HFC-134a replacement refrigerants did not 

occur as expected, neither for HFC-1234yf nor for CO2 (R-744), considered a second option, part of 

the reason was the allowance of the EU considering new model approvals as “old model” type ones.

For city or long haul buses and also train cabins, choices have always been somewhat more open. 

They were CFC-12 and HCFC-22, followed later by HFC-134a and R-407C. In Germany, some buses 

are operated on R-744 and the alternative air cycle (Brayton-Joule) technology has been installed on 

more than 100 ICE trains.

Cars 

The car industry has organised its global production (being more than 60 million vehicles in 2012) 

with a high level of specialisation. Air-conditioning systems are supplied by tier 1 suppliers that 

manufacture the complete AC system: heating, cooling and ventilation, as well as the control system. 

The car companies are interested in a strong competition among their suppliers and the consequence 

is that the best refrigerant should be a single, unique, and global one. From the carmaker point of 

view, the refrigerant has to be a commodity in terms of availability and costs. History shows that 

HFC-134a has been the only refrigerant chosen by all car companies to replace CFC-12, and until 

recently the expectation was that there will again be a single refrigerant world-wide.

As previously stated, R-744 equipment has seen a number of developments from 2000 to 2010 and 

several manufacturers reportedly reached “implementation readiness”. Tier 1 suppliers as well as car 

makers have developed several technical options with R-744: internal heat exchangers, external 

control compressors, micro-channel gas coolers, and evaporators dedicated to R-744. New hoses with 

ultra-low permeation have also been developed. The interest in and development of R-744 in this subsector declined significantly around 2009-2010, as car manufacturers and suppliers concentrated their 

efforts on HFC-1234yf. In 2013 there has been a renewed interest in R-744 MACs, with several 

German OEMs announcing their intention to develop such systems (see e.g. www.R744.com, 2013) 

and some of which stating their preference to stay with HFC-134a until R-744 will have been 

commercialised. However, to date no global OEM has installed R-744 for automotive airconditioning,

A number of tests have been performed in hot and cold climates. R-744 has been demonstrated to be 

similar in efficiency as best in class HFC-134a systems for some experimental fleet vehicles, except 

when the vehicle is idling and also under high temperature conditions (above 35°C)

The main barriers for R-744 systems have been issues such as costs, reliability and servicing aspects. 

Even for a series of at least 150,000 R-744 AC systems per year, costs would at least double 

compared to the baseline, according to Tier 1 suppliers (in the year 2010). The CO2 option not being 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 109

a global one, requires two AC systems (one for R-744, another one for HFC-134a) to be mounted on 

the same assembly line. Two other barrier issues were related to reliability and servicing:

 the shaft of the open-type compressor was a highly potential leak-prone component with no 

lessons learned at large scale, 

 R-744 servicing requires special training and also specific equipment making it necessary to 

develop a new world-wide servicing network for global car companies.

For electric cars or hybrid cars, available high voltage hermetic compressors can be used. 

Consequently, the shaft seal issue would disappear, which makes the R-744 MAC system a reliable 

one. Nevertheless, the cost issue for this type of system remains. In summary, R-744 is technically 

difficult to operate and creates a barrier in finding enough technical offers from the Tier 1 suppliers; 

only the best in class Tier 1 companies have been able to develop efficient R-744 compressors.

Hydrocarbons are efficient refrigerants and, like other refrigerants, have to be chosen according to 

their condensing and evaporating pressures. Safety concerns are a clear and strong barrier against the 

use of HCs in cars. During the competition between R-744 and HFC-152a, HFC-152a received a very 

strong opposition from the German car-makers that are vehemently against any use of flammable 

refrigerants in cars. 

The sales of HC blends for car AC systems for the aftermarket will continue in some countries, but 

this does not constitute a global trend and will not receive the support of any carmaker. In conclusion, 

HCs are not at present a global option for car AC systems.

Because of the flammability issue, two low-GWP non-flammable blends “Blend H” and “DP-1” have 

been proposed by chemical manufacturers in 2003. Blend-H failed for reason of decomposition issues 

and DP-1 failed due to the toxicity of one of its component. Additionally, as of 2011, other blends 

have been proposed, in particular AC-5 and AC-6, which are currently being evaluated by an SAE 

International Cooperative Research Program. 

HFC-1234yf , even if slightly flammable, is seen as the global solution for the car industry mediumsized manufacturing plant has started operation and is supplying some models built primarily in 

Europe, Japan, and the United States. However, if HFC-1234yf is to be a global solution for the entire 

industry, additional production capacity will be needed. HFC-1234yf is now being implemented in 

several models, especially in Europe, where the regulation requires refrigerants with a GWP < 150 

for new model cars since 2011, although enforcement of the requirement was delayed until 2013 

while chemical production capacity was being installed. The change from HFC-134a to HFC-1234yf 

seems to be one of the likely options because the car industry favours global options for AC systems. 

The preference of companies outside Germany would be to change to HFC-1234yf. It is also 

supported by LCCP analysis, which shows that HFC-1234yf would be superior to R-744 for most 

ambient temperatures. It can be mentioned that HFC-1234yf is currently available to some extent and 

the first cars using this refrigerant are therefore in production now. 

Its thermodynamic properties are very close to those of HFC-134a and so the adaptation is easy 

requiring on mechanically driven systems only minor changes to prevent any risk related to its very 

low flammability while the impact on electrically driven system is under investigation to evaluate the 

risk related with high voltages. 

German car manufacturers in 2012 raised again the issue of HFC-1234yf flammability and postponed 

its introduction in their assembly lines, until a separate safety assessment would have been 

conducted. Since then, two separate studies have been completed. Another Cooperative Research 

Program by the SAE confirmed previous conclusions that HFC-1234yf could be used safely for 

automotive air conditioning. Germany's motor vehicle department KBA concluded that while HFC-
110 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

1234yf was inherently more dangerous than HFC-134a in severe conditions, it could be applied 

safely. 

Many tests have been performed on HFC-1234yf and some adaptations on the suction line diameter 

and on the heat-exchanger tuning have been done in order to match HFC-134a energy performances. 

Developments have been made and no significant differences are measured compared to the best in 

class HFC-134a systems. The cost of the chemical is announced to be up to 10 times more than that 

of HFC-134a, but it is known that, in the chemical industries, prices could vary from 1 to 10 

depending on the sales volume. One OEM implementing this refrigerant stated that the total cost of 

the system, including the chemical and other components, was $75 more than an HFC-134a system.

The mass-production of HFC-1234yf has been delayed up to the beginning of 2014 based on current 

information. Due to the slow uptake of HFC-1234yf, even in Europe, HFC-134a is currently charged 

in most new AC systems. HFC-134a AC systems are the bench mark technology for all alternatives. 

The cost is also the reference for mass produced AC systems with a strong competition among Tier 1 

suppliers. Obviously the only barrier is its GWP. It is likely that HFC-134a will be replaced under 

different schedules in the various world regions.

Public transport

AC systems of both trains and buses are similar and are produced in small series of some hundreds 

per year. The cooling capacities vary from 10 to 35 kW depending on the size of the bus or the train 

car. Due to the small market of this application, technologies in use are coming from stationary airconditioning industry for heat exchangers. For buses, compressors are open-type compressors driven 

by the engine as for the car AC system. For trains, compressors are electrically-driven hermetic 

compressors. The refrigerant choice could therefore be different for those applications.

Carbon dioxide has been developed in Germany since 1996 by one company and the total fleet is 

about 50 city buses. In moderate climates, R-744 performs well and lessons learned from several 

years of experiences do not show significant troubleshooting. Another German manufacturer 

proposes and sells R-744 based AC systems for trains. The energy efficiency under German climate 

conditions appears to be in the same range as for the reference refrigerant HFC-134a. For high 

ambient conditions, the energy efficiency is lower at equal design efforts. The main barrier is related 

to costs, design habits and also the required sophisticated designs for hot climates. R-744 systems as 

developed for refrigerated transport by companies also manufacturing the “usual” HFC based AC 

systems for buses and trains, may trigger the change to R-744 systems for buses and trains. 

In conclusion, AC systems for buses and trains are a niche application. New developments with R744 will be a consequence of developments in larger market application and regulatory constraints.

HCs are not applicable in trains and buses due to safety issues for public transportation.

The HFC-1234yf development for car AC systems will have direct consequences for bus and train 

AC systems currently operated on HFC-134a. The shift can be done, based on first lessons learned in 

the car industry. For train AC systems, the use of R-407C or the use of new blends containing the 

chemicals HFC-1234yf or HFC-1234ze(E) could be proposed in the near future.

As mentioned for car AC systems, the energy efficiency can be as good as the reference line with 

HFC-134a, based on simple adaptations taking into account thermodynamic properties of HFC1234yf. The refrigerant cost, although greater than the usual price, is not a strong barrier, because its 

cost represents less than 1% of the total cost of those AC systems. The current barrier is related to the 

fact that no current regulation constraints exist. The change from HFC-134a to HFC-1234yf is a 

relatively easy option, as well as the possible shift from R-407C to new low GWP blends.
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 111

Air systems based on the reverse Brayton-Joule cycle with air compressors and turbines are the 

standard system for airplane AC systems. The difference between airplanes and trains is the outdoor 

temperatures (-50°C for airplanes). The efficiency of air systems is relatively poor and intrinsically 

lower compared to vapour compression systems. For high ambient temperatures, the cooling capacity 

is decreasing rapidly. For moderate climates, air systems are possible. The advantage is the absence 

of refrigerant; the drawback is the limited cooling capacity for high ambient temperatures.

Currently, the two dominant refrigerants are HFC-134a and R-407C in developed countries and HFC134a and HCFC-22 in developing countries. R-407C is often chosen for train cars, due to the inherent 

compactness of the AC system to be integrated in the roof of the train car. Barriers are based on the 

GWP of those refrigerants, even if those applications could be exempted of using low-GWP 

refrigerants for another couple of years in Europe. Within the next 10 years, R-407C is expected to be 

replaced by all the different alternatives previously mentioned. 

While the current HFCs could be used for a long period in train and bus niche applications, the shift 

from these high-GWP refrigerants to alternatives will be related to the overall developments in 

stationary AC systems.

10.2 Foams

10.2.1 Polyurethane appliances 

In the strictest sense, this sector covers both domestic and commercial appliances, although the major 

trends characterised in this section of the chapter will be related to the larger, and more 

homogeneous, domestic sector. However, the statistical information presented graphically will cover 

both groups of appliances. 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The Task Force Report in response to Decision XXIII/9 provided a full list of HCFC replacement 

options and offered a summary of the pros and cons of each option, as well as some additional 

commentary on critical aspects for decision-making in the appliance sector. Decision XXIV/7 has 

requested that the commercially available options and the alternatives under development (emerging 

options) be treated separately. Therefore, the Decision XXIV/7 Report tables have been reconstituted 

and updated accordingly. 
112 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

The assessment of these alternatives against the criteria of commercial availability, technical proof of 

performance, environmental soundness (encompassing efficacy, health, safety and environmental 

characteristics), cost effectiveness (capital and operating) and processing versatility in challenging 

ambient conditions is, in itself, a challenging objective. Typically, performance against such criteria 

can only be judged fully on a case-by-case basis and assessments made at a higher level will only be 

indicative. With this in mind, the following table seeks to give such an indicative assessment based 

on a nominal ranking of seven categories from ‘+++’ (the best) to ‘---‘ (the worst): 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 113

As has been noted in previous reports, the mix of performance properties (technical, economic and 

environmental) does not lead unambiguously to one single selection. Indeed, the proliferation of 

blends across the whole of the foam sector and nowhere more so than the appliance sector is an 

indication of the reality that there is no single best solution. Often a key factor is the size of the 

manufacturing plant, since the economies of scale have a considerable bearing on the relative 

importance of capital and operational costs. Cost also is a major factor in the consideration of the 

major emerging technologies. 

(b) Emerging Alternatives

As noted in the 2012 Task Force Report in response to Decision XXIII/9, the major emerging 

technologies in the appliance sector are based mostly around liquid unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs. These 

are all fairly similar in their properties and all seem to suggest a stepwise improvement in thermal 

performance over other low-GWP alternatives. The following table provides an overview of the 

‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of these technologies. 

The range of unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs has been reduced from the selection provided in the Decision 

XXIV/7 Report. The disclosure of the molecule behind Arkema’s code name AFA-L1 has now 

occurred and revealed it as they same molecule being developed and commercialised by Honeywell. 

However, the following table provides an analysis of these new molecules against the criteria 
114 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

considered for the commercially available alternatives based on limited experience in appliance 

sector trials. 

HFO-1234ze(E) HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

Gaseous liquid liquid

Proof of performance + ++ ++

Flammability ++ +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++

Other Environmental + + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- --

Process Versatility + + +

(c) Barriers and restrictions

As noted above, the commercialisation time-line and global availability of the various unsaturated 

HCFCs/HFCs will have a considerable bearing on their widespread adoption under the HCFC Phaseout Management Plans currently being enacted. Two of the three potential manufacturers are 

committing to timelines of 2015 or better, but the supply/demand curves for these alternatives are still 

not fully understood. 

One factor in the adoption of these new technologies is the potential use of blends of unsaturated 

HFCs/HCFCs with hydrocarbons to achieve intermediate thermal performance benefits at affordable 

cost. If the compromises made are too great, then the benefits will be too marginal to justify transition 

from existing hydrocarbon solutions where they are already in place, and to prefer unsaturated 

HCFC/HFC solutions over hydrocarbon where they are not. However, with the cost of these new 

compounds not completely established at this point, it is not clear whether solutions maximising the 

thermal performance benefits will be affordable. 

For those still using HCFC-141b, one strategy being considered in the case of some manufacturers is 

to make an intermediate transition to a high-GWP (lower investment) technology option such as 

saturated HFCs on the written understanding that a further transition to a low-GWP option will 

follow within a specified period. The choice would be left open until such time as optimum 

technology approaches have been established. 

For transitions directly from HCFC-141b to hydrocarbons, there are potential strategies to reduce the 

investment costs for smaller enterprises. These include the potential for using pre-blended mixes 

containing cyclo-pentane. However, this approach is not expected to impact the domestic appliance 

sector too greatly, since economies of scale would generally support a more comprehensive 

conversion strategy. However, in the case of some manufacturers of commercial appliances (e.g. 

vending machines), there may be more relevance. Further information is covered under Section 3.4. 

(c). 

10.2.2 Polyurethane Boardstock

This is one of the largest markets for rigid polyurethane foams in non-Article 5 Parties, but has only 

recently started to grow significantly in Article 5 Parties as requirements for building energy 

efficiency have increased. The historical analysis therefore focuses primarily on the non-Article 5 

experiences. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 115

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

Again, drawing from the evaluations conducted for Decision XXIV/7 with relevant updates where 

necessary, the following table illustrates the commercially available options for the polyurethane 

boardstock sector. 

In general, saturated HFCs have shown little uptake in most PU Boardstock markets because the 

hydrocarbon-based products have been shown to be fit-for-purpose at a more competitive cost. Since 

new capacity in the industry can accommodate hydrocarbon process safety issues at the design stage, 

the high incremental capital costs associated with later transitions can be mitigated to some extent. 

As building energy standards increase, there could be increasing pressure for better thermal 

efficiency, especially where space is limited and product thickness is constrained. There has therefore 

been some interest in possible blends of hydrocarbons with saturated HFCs. Indeed, it is suspected 

that some manufacturers may have adopted this strategy commercially, although it is difficult to track 

because no further plant modifications would normally be necessary. Such trends may also be shortlived, since there is increasing market pressure (e.g. through LEED and other environmental building 

schemes) to avoid the use of saturated HFCs.

According to the chosen criteria, the relative performance of alternative technology solutions in this 

sector can be summarised as follows: 

c-pentane n-pentane i-pentane HFC-245fa HFC365mfc/227ea

Proof of performance +++ +++ +++ ++ ++

Flammability --- --- --- ++ +(+)

Other Health & Safety 0 0 0 + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++ -- ---

Other Environmental - - - 0 0

Cost Effectiveness (C) -- -- -- ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) ++ +++ +++ -- --

Process Versatility ++ ++ ++ ++ +

The slight environmental concerns reflected for hydrocarbon options relate to some emerging 

concerns about local VOC regulations. In some regions there are exemptions for thermal insulation 

manufacturing plants, but this approach is not universal. 

(b) Emerging alternatives

The market pressure on saturated HFCs outlined in the previous section opens up the possibility for 

hydrocarbon blends with unsaturated fluorocarbons (both HCFCs and HFCs). The uncertainty of cost 

makes this option even less clear cut for PU Boardstock than it is for domestic appliances. 
116 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

Nonetheless, there continues to be sufficient interest in the option to justify its inclusion in this 

section as an emerging technology – albeit as a blend with hydrocarbons. 

The overall assessment of the criteria for unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs is very similar to that shown for 

PU appliances.

HFO-1234ze(E) HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

Gaseous Liquid liquid

Proof of performance + ++ ++

Flammability ++ +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++

Other Environmental + + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- --

Process Versatility + + +

The only potential difference is that the use of a gaseous option being used in the PU Appliances 

sector is less likely than for PU Boardstock. Nevertheless, it has been retained for completeness. 

(c) Barriers and restrictions

In practice, the quantity of PU Boardstock foam still using HCFCs is very limited and this fact alone 

testifies to the lack of barriers to appropriate transition. As noted earlier, much of the new capacity in 

the sector has been installed since the ozone issue emerged and the necessary requirements for 

hydrocarbon have typically been designed in.

The only likely transition pressure now emerging relates to the on-going goal of improved thermal 

efficiency. The major barrier to the adoption of blends of saturated HFCs with hydrocarbons is 

market pressure, while the potential barrier to the wider use of unsaturated HFCFs/HFCs is one of 

cost and, in the short term, availability.

10.2.3 Polyurethane Panels 

In the context of this analysis, the primary panels being referred to are steel-faced and either 

continuously or discontinuously produced. The market for such panels has developed very differently 

in various regions of the world, with the early adoption being mostly in Europe. However, the 

prefabricated approach to building that these panels allow is becoming increasingly widespread 

globally and manufacturing capacity has continued to grow to meet the need. 

 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The following table illustrates the main commercially available alternatives in the panel sector. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 117

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Steel-faced panels – continuously produced

Cyclopentane & n-Pentane

Low GWP Highly flammable

High incremental capital costs 

but most enterprises in subsector are large 

Low operating costs Industry standard

Good foam properties

HFC-245fa, HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP Low incremental capital cost

Good foam properties High operating costs

Improved insulation (cf. HC)

Steel-faced panels – discontinuously produced

Cyclopentane & n-Pentane

Low GWP Highly flammable High incremental capital cost, 

may be uneconomic for SMEs 

Low operating costs

Good foam properties

HFC-245fa, HFC-365mfc/277ea, 

HFC-134a

Non-flammable High GWP Low incremental capital cost

Good foam properties High operating costs Improved insulation (cf. HC)

CO2 (water)

Low GWP

Moderate foam properties 

-high thermal 

conductivityLow incremental capital cost

Non-flammable

Methyl Formate/Methylal

Low GWP

Moderate foam properties 

- high thermal 

conductivityModerate incremental capital 

cost (corrosion protection 

recommended)

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

As noted earlier, the pressure for improved thermal performance in the architectural (cladding) panel 

is less pronounced than it is for other building insulation types because of the structural requirements 

which are associated with that application. However, the same cannot be said for refrigerated 

transport where additional benefits in thermal performance can improve the load-carrying capacity of 

a vehicle. Therefore, there is on-going interest in saturated HFCs as legitimate alternatives, or at least 

components of blends for that application. 

In the discontinuous sector, there are other potential technologies based around CO2 (water) and 

HCOs such as methyl formate or methylal. These reduce the perceived risks associated with the use 

of hydrocarbons on discontinuous plants but do result in some compromises in foam properties 

including higher density and potentially poorer thermal performance. Nonetheless, they do offer lowGWP solutions in markets, which may not be too sensitive to thermal performance issues. 

These are all important considerations in the Article 5 context where the need to phase-out HCFCs 

requires the widest range of alternatives, especially for small and mixed use discontinuous panel 

facilities. The strengths and weaknesses of these alternatives are once again shown in the following 

table – this time relating to the panel sector. 

c-pentane

i-pentane 

n-pentane

HFC-245fa HFC365mfc/227ea CO2(water) Methyl 

Formate

Proof of performance + ++ ++ ++ ++ +

Flammability --- --- ++ +(+) +++ --

Other Health & Safety 0 0 + + - 0

Global Warming +++ +++ -- --- ++ ++

Other Environmental - - 0 0 ++ -

Cost Effectiveness (C) -- --- ++ ++ ++ 0

Cost Effectiveness (O) ++ +++ -- -- + +

Process Versatility ++ ++ + ++ + +
118 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

(b) Emerging alternatives

Again, the major emerging alternatives are unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs. In view of the relative 

abundance of commercially available alternatives, these blowing agents are likely to be focused on 

niche markets in the panel sector. 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Steel-faced panels – continuously produced

Liquid Unsaturated HFC/HCFCs 

(HFOs Low GWP High operating costs First expected commercialization in 2013

Non-flammable Trials in progress

Low incremental capital cost

Steel-faced panels – discontinuously produced

Liquid Unsaturated HFC/HCFCs 

(HFOs Low GWP High operating costs First expected commercialization in 2013

Non-flammable Trials in progress

Low incremental capital cost

In principle, unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs offer opportunities for improving thermal performance while 

retaining a low-GWP blowing agent. For reasons stated in respect of other foam sectors, the cost of 

these blowing agents is still uncertain and could prevent reliance on them in isolation. That said, the 

added value of a panel is certainly greater than that of Boardstock, so the ability to adsorb cost could 

be greater in this sector. Nevertheless, the most likely approach will be the adoption of blends with 

hydrocarbons provided that an incremental improvement in thermal performance can be achieved. 

This will be particularly important for the thermally sensitive applications such as refrigerated 

transport. The proof of performance is at a lower level in this sector than elsewhere and this is 

reflected in the following table: 

HFO-1234ze(E) HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

gaseous liquid liquid

Proof of performance 0 + +

Flammability ++ +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++

Other Environmental + + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- --

Process Versatility + + +

(c) Barriers and restrictions

The major barriers to the substitution of alternatives in the panel sector are not primarily related to 

the technologies available but to the wide range of enterprises involved (both in size and location) 

and the broad spectrum of applications served. Versatility is a key necessity for any technology in the 

discontinuous sector, but no single solution has emerged as being as versatile as the ozone depleting 

substances replaced. This may act as a deterrent to early phase-out of the remaining HCFC use in 

Article 5 enterprises where local requirements need to be matched. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 119

10.2.4 Polyurethane Spray 

Polyurethane spray foam has been used for many years as an efficient means of insulating structures 

which would be difficult to insulate in other ways, because of shape or location An example would be 

that of an insulated road tanker. Another would be the insulation of large flat roofs, which may not be 

as flat as might be presumed! More recently, however, polyurethane spray foams have emerged as a 

vital component of renovation strategies for existing buildings. Again, the efficiency and versatility 

of application, as well as the relative durability and thermal efficiency are all characteristics, which 

have contributed to the rapid growth of PU spray foam in both developed and developing regions. 

 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The commercially available technologies have been largely referenced already in the narrative, but 

can be summarised as follows: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Spray foam

Cyclopentane & n-Pentane Low GWP Highly flammable Unsafe to use in this application

HFC-245fa, HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP Industry standard

Good foam properties

High operating costs but 

improved by using mixed 

HFC/ CO2 (water)

CO2 (water) Low GWP

Moderate foam properties 

-high thermal conductivity 

& high densityExtra thickness leading to a cost 

penalty

Non-flammable

Methyl Formate Low GWP

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

Safety concerns when used for 

this application

It is important to note that the impacts of the saturated HFCs have been reduced by co-blowing with major 

drivers has been to reduce cost. As will be seen later in this sub-section this may be an important approach 

for the future.

HCOs (most notably methyl formate) have also been used for some PU spray work. The potential of 

supplying the system to site as blended polyol is believed to contribute to the management of risk, but it is 

still unclear whether the hazards seen with hydrocarbons in confined spaces have been avoided using the 

slightly less flammable methyl formate. Work continues in this area, although some systems are already 

being used commercially. The performance of these ODS alternatives against the criteria for this report can 

be summarised as follows: 

HFC-245fa HFC365mfc/227ea Super-critical CO2 CO2(water) Methyl 

Formate

Proof of performance +++ +++ ++ ++ +

Flammability ++ +(+) ++ +++ --

Other Health & Safety + + + - 0

Global Warming -- --- ++ ++ ++

Other Environmental 0 0 + ++ -

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ 0 ++ 0

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- + ++ ++

Process Versatility ++ ++ + + +
120 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

(b) Emerging alternatives

Alongside the appliance sector, the PU spray foam sector is attracting the most interest for potential 

adoption of the unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs. The rapid growth rate for the sector overall, the absence of 

serious low-GWP contenders and the fact that relatively high emission rates make the climate impact 

more immediate all align to encourage the manufacturers to focus on this application. 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Spray foam

Liquid Unsaturated HFC/HCFCs 

(HFOs Low GWP

High operating costs but 

improved by using mixed 

HFC/ CO2 (water)

First expected commercialization 

from 2013

Non-flammable Trials in progress

Low incremental capital cost

The cost of the alternatives remains the key question but this consideration is slightly diffused by the 

fact that the CO2(water) technology developed around HFC-245fa and HC-365mfc/227ea looks 

transferable to the unsaturated blowing agents as well. Manufacturers are in the process of field trials 

and the development of fairly sophisticated life cycle assessments to ensure that they have assessed 

the environmental impacts correctly. The co-blowing solution does not detract significantly from the 

overall thermal performance of the foam and the introduction of a low-GWP solution of this type 

would clear the way for widespread use of PU spray foam in a wide variety of refurbishment 

applications over the next 30-50 years as global attention focuses increasingly on building energy 

efficiency in existing stock. However, there are emerging concerns about the potential stability of the 

gaseous unsaturated blowing agents in low-pressure, pre-blended formulations. This is the subject of 

intense further development work, but no immediate solution has so far been forthcoming. The 

following table has been updated accordingly. 

HFO-1234ze(E) HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

gaseous liquid Liquid

Proof of performance 0 + +

Flammability ++ +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++

Other Environmental + + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- --

Process Versatility + + +

(c) Barriers and restrictions

Since the future of the sector rests largely on the emerging technologies, the main barriers relate to 

the stability, economics and availability of the unsaturated blowing agents. Much of the PU spray 

foam activity in China remains reliant on HCFC-141b and there is reluctance to make a transition to a 

sub-optimal solution when an emerging technology could out-perform it within 5 years. Various 

strategies are being considered including a two-step option via saturated HFCs. However, there is a 

need to gain commitment to the second conversion at the outset. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 121

10.2.5 Polyurethane In-situ/Block

One of the enduring advantages of polyurethane chemistry in general, and polyurethane foams in 

particular, is their ability to meet a broad range of applications. Since these applications can be 

diverse, ranging from cavity filling (e.g. buoyancy on leisure boats) to the fabrication of complex 

shapes required for pipe and flange insulation, the in-situ and block processes provide a resource to 

meet these needs. Self-evidently, these applications are also difficult to track in any organised way 

since they vary so much. Nevertheless, it is possible to track the manufacturing facilities that provide 

these products and services.

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The commercially available alternatives to HCFCs in the in-situ and block sectors are summarised in 

the following table: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Insulated pipes (pipe-in-pipe for district central heating systems)and other in-situ systems

Cyclopentane 

Low GWP Highly flammable High incremental capital cost

Low operating costs Industry standard

Good foam properties

HFC-245fa, HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP

Good foam properties High operating costs 

CO2 (water)

Low GWP

Moderate foam properties 

-high thermal 

conductivityNon flammable

Block foams for various applications including panels, pipe insulation section, etc

Cyclopentane & n-Pentane 

Low GWP Highly flammable High conversion costs, may be 

uneconomic for SMEs

Low operating costs Well proven technology

Good foam properties

HFC-245fa, HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP Low conversion costs

Good foam properties

High operating costs but 

improved by using mixed 

HFC/ CO2 (water)

CO2 (water)

Low GWP

Moderate foam properties 

-high thermal conductivity 

& poor ageingExtra thickness leading to a cost 

penalty

Non flammable

As with other thermal insulation sectors, saturated HFCs are used in block foams with a CO2 (water) 

co-blowing agent to limit climate impact and also to optimise the cost/performance relationship. It 

has generally been found that levels of saturated HFC can be lowered in these formulations to around 

50-60% of the blowing agent mix without having a detrimental effect on thermal performance. The 

blowing agent criteria for block and in-situ foams are shown below. In some instances, more than one 

rating is providing reflecting the fact that there is a disparate set of processes represented in this 

category. 
122 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

c-pentane n-pentane HFC-245fa HFC365mfc/227ea CO2(water)

Proof of performance +/++ +/++ ++ ++ ++

Flammability --- --- ++ +(+) +++

Other Health & Safety 0 0 + + -

Global Warming +++ +++ -- --- ++

Other Environmental - - 0 0 ++

Cost Effectiveness (C) -- --- ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) ++ +++ -- -- +

Process Versatility ++ ++ ++ ++/+++ +/++

(b) Emerging alternatives

In this instance, the Task Force has chosen to categorise methyl formate and methylal in the emerging 

alternative category. This reflects the fact that some of the applications across the sector have yet to 

be trialled using this HCO blowing agent. There are expected to be some limitations based on 

densities achievable and risks of corrosion with some equipment, but the availability of a relatively 

low cost, low-GWP solution with lower flammability than the pentanes may still prove of relevance 

for the sector going forward.

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PU FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Block foams for various applications including panels, pipe insulation section, etc

HCO (Methyl Formate/Methylal) Low GWP Higher density required Density increase necessary 

through role of MF as a solvent 

Liquid Unsaturated HFC/HCFCs 

(HFOs

Low GWP High operating costs Trials in progress

Non-flammable 

The option of liquid unsaturated HCFCs/HFCs in this sector is legitimate, but there is some concern 

that price and geographic availability may be significant limiting factors. Again, co-blowing with 

CO2 (water) may prove helpful for cost reasons, but uptake is expected to be more limited than in 

other sectors of the foam industry. The following table shows an assessment against the report 

criteria: 

Methyl Formate HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

Liquid liquid

Proof of performance 0/+ ++ ++

Flammability -- +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + + +

Global Warming +++ +++ +++

Other Environmental + + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- -- --

Process Versatility + ++ ++

(c) Barriers and restrictions

One of the major barriers to transition in this sector is the size and location of the enterprises 

involved. The provision of sophisticated low-GWP alternatives does not extend easily to these more 

diffuse networks and the effectiveness of transitions relies massively on the competence and 

commitment of the systems houses supplying the small and micro-enterprises. Efforts are needed to 

raise the profile of these operations with blowing agent technology providers and their supply 

networks. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 123

10.2.6 Polyurethane Integral Skin 

Integral skin foams are the one group of foams, which are not primarily used for thermal insulation 

purposes. They sub-divide into two types – ‘rigid integral skin’ (typically items such as steering 

wheels in automobiles) and ‘flexible integral skin’ (typically covering items such as shoe soles and 

some packaging foams). As the name suggests, the primary feature of integral skin products is their 

ability to encapsulate a relatively low density core (for weight saving purposes) with an integrated 

skin which is made from the same material and in the same process. As a polymer, polyurethane is 

particularly versatile in forming a resilient skin when moulded and this provides a level of utility 

which is rarely seen in other product types. 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The following table lists the commercially available options as of today: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR INTEGRAL SKIN PU FOAMS FOR TRANSPORT & 

FURNITURE APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Integral skin foams

CO2 (water) 

Low GWP Poor skin quality Suitable skin may require inmould-coating – added expense

Low conversion costs Well proven in application if skin 

acceptable

n-Pentane

Low GWP Highly flammable High conversion costs, may be 

uneconomic for SMEs

Low operating costs Low operating costs

Good skin quality Well proven in application

Shoe-soles

CO2 (water) 

Low GWP Well proven in application with 

polyester polyol technology

Low conversion costs

Skin quality suitable for 

sports shoe mid-soles

HFC-134a or HFC-245fa Used to give required 

skin in town shoes High GWP/Cost

The specific ranking of these blowing agent options is shown in the table below. 

 n-pentane HFC-134a HFC-245fa CO2(water)

Proof of performance ++ ++ + ++

Flammability --- +++ ++ +++

Other Health & Safety 0 + + -

Global Warming +++ --- --- ++

Other Environmental - 0 0 ++

Cost Effectiveness (C) --- ++ ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) +++ -- -- +

Process Versatility ++ ++ ++ 0

(b) Emerging alternatives

The area of most interest with respect to emerging technologies is the potential use of oxygenated 

hydrocarbons (HCOs). Both methyl formate and methylal are being considered for these applications 

and the early indications are that they could be significant future alternatives in the sector. Although 

both a flammable, the level of flammability is less than that associated with pure hydrocarbons. There 

is also the potential that systems houses may be able to formulate blended systems in such a way as to 
124 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

avoid flammability issues in the workplace. One area of concern for methyl formate is the potential 

corrosion of moulds, but at the levels of addition, this may not be a problem in practice. The other 

issue relating to both HCOs the high solvency power of the blowing agents which could lead to some 

softening of the skins. The following table summarises the issues: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR INTEGRAL SKIN PU FOAMS FOR TRANSPORT & 

FURNITURE APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Integral skin foams

Methyl formate

Low GWP

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

Moderate conversion costs 

Good skin quality Moderate operating 

costs

Newly proven in application 

Methylal

Low GWP

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

High conversion costs, may be 

uneconomic for SMEs

Good skin quality Moderate operating 

costs

No industrial experience 

Shoe-soles

Methyl formate

Low GWP

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

Moderate conversion costs 

Good skin quality Moderate operating 

costs

Newly proven in application 

Methylal

Low GWP

Flammable although 

blends with polyols may 

not be flammable

High conversion costs, may be 

uneconomic for SMEs

Good skin quality Moderate operating 

costs

No industrial experience 

Again, the specific performance ranking of the blowing agents is shown in the table below: 

Methylal Methyl Formate

Proof of performance + ++

Flammability -- --

Other Health & Safety 0 0

Global Warming ++ ++

Other Environmental - -

Cost Effectiveness (C) + 0

Cost Effectiveness (O) ++ ++

Process Versatility +(+) +(+)

It is noteworthy to mention that unsaturated HFCs/HCFCs are not seen as a realistic emerging 

technology in this sector because of the cost implications and the lack of any significant performance 

enhancement. 

(c) Barriers and restrictions

There are no fundamental barriers to the introduction of the emerging technologies, although pilot 

projects on the pre-blending of HCOs in polyols will be necessary. There have been some concerns in 

the past about the implications of the limited supplier base and access to intellectual property, 

although these have been largely addressed. However, the biggest challenge to the replacement of any 

remaining use of ozone depleting substances will be the roll-out of these technologies on a 

sufficiently widespread basis. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 125

If the widespread introduction of HCOs can be successful, there is likely to be the gradual 

replacement of both saturated HFCs (HFC-134a and HFC-245fa) and CO2(water) blown technologies. 

The replacement of saturated HFCs, will certain deliver some additional climate benefits. 

10.2.7 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS)

Extruded polystyrene board is unique amongst the foam sectors considered in this report in that it is 

blown exclusively with gaseous blowing agents. This is a consequence of the extrusion process. 

Extruded polystyrene (XPS) should not be confused with expanded polystyrene (EPS – also 

sometimes called ‘bead foam’) which uses pre-expanded beads of polystyrene containing pentane. 

EPS has never used ozone depleting substances and is seldom addressed in UNEP Reports for the 

Montreal Protocol. XPS is used primarily as a building insulation and often competes with PU 

Boardstock. Its particular competitive advantage is in relation to its moisture resistance, which makes 

it especially useful for under-floor insulation applications. There is another form of XPS known as 

‘Sheet’ which is typically used for non-insulating applications such as leisure products (e.g. surf 

boards) and packaging materials. XPS sheet exited from CFC use early in the history of the Montreal 

Protocol and has used hydrocarbons almost exclusively ever since. 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The following table illustrates the commercially available alternatives in the extruded polystyrene 

sector: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR XPS FOAM

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Extruded Polystyrene Foams 

Butane Low GWP Highly flammable

Low operating costs

HFC-134a/HFC-152a

Non-flammable High GWP

Good foam properties, 

especially thermal 

performance

Medium/high operating 

costs

CO2 /Ethanol/DME

Low GWP, low unit cost Small operation 

window

Difficult to process especially for 

more than 50mm thickness board 

Non-flammable Flammable co-blowing 

agent

Need ethanol and DME as coblowing agent 

As described earlier in this section, these three alternatives describe the primary options available in 

each of the three main non-Article 5 regions of the world. It should be noted that blends of saturated 

HFCs (HFC-134a/HFC-152a) are substantially used in North America and, to a lesser extent, in 

Europe, primarily by smaller producers who do not have the access to CO2 technology. Where they 

are used in Japan, they serve markets that cannot accept the flammability of hydrocarbon solutions. 

The assessment of these blowing agents via the criteria of this report is shown in the following table: 

 butane HFC-134a/

HFC-152a

CO2 with ethanol 

or DME

Proof of performance ++ +++ ++

Flammability --- +++ ++

Other Health & Safety 0 + +

Global Warming +++ --- +++

Other Environmental - 0 0

Cost Effectiveness (C) -- ++ ---

Cost Effectiveness (O) +++ -- ++

Process Versatility ++ ++ +
126 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

(b) Emerging alternatives

(c) HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR XPS FOAM

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Extruded Polystyrene Foams 

Gaseous unsaturated HFCs 

(HFOs) Low GWP High unit cost Semi-commercial availability –under evaluation

For all the reasons expressed in this section, there is considerable interest in the potential of 

unsaturated gaseous HCFCs/HFCs as either blowing agents or co-blowing agents with HCOs such as 

ethanol or dimethyl ether (DME). The technological solution has the potential of becoming a relative 

standard in the industry, but the key deciding factor in that respect will be the cost. This aspect is 

reflected in the criteria assessment below: 

HFO-1234ze(E)

Gaseous

Proof of performance +

Flammability ++

Other Health & Safety +

Global Warming +++

Other Environmental +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) --

Process Versatility ++

(c) Barriers and restrictions

For the HCFC consuming market in China and elsewhere, the challenge is to decide whether there is 

a transitional option that moves to a low-GWP alternative before the availability of unsaturated HFCs 

such as HFO-1234ze(E) is secured. It is clear that hydrocarbons would have been an obvious option 

and that would have been a high priority for a number of producers in China operating under the 

HCFC Phase-out Management Plan there. However, in recent years, there have been a series of fires 

(mostly in the construction phase of major building projects) which have caused a reaction against 

organic insulation materials in general and XPS in particular. One of the underlying problems has 

been the inconsistency in use of flame retardants within XPS formulations, with recycled feedstock 

not being properly characterised in some instances. The XPS industry is making a strong case that 

properly formulated XPS board can be used safely throughout its lifecycle, but these developments 

have created a further barrier to the introduction of hydrocarbons as blowing agents at this sensitive 

time. 

The introduction of unsaturated HFCs will certainly avoid such a controversy, but the availability of 

such technology in Article 5 Parties is uncertain – particularly when the technology is yet to be 

commercially adopted elsewhere. There is also the unanswered question concerning the impact on 

cost. A temporary switch to saturated HFC blends could ensure that the Montreal Protocol objectives 

are met, but this will do little to benefit the climate when over 1 billion tonnes of CO2-eq could be 

avoided by a more benign solution. 

10.2.8 Phenolic Foam

Phenolic foams are manufactured by a number of different processes, many of which shadow those 

already discussed for polyurethane foams. The largest markets for the product are as phenolic 

boardstock (manufactured by continuous lamination) and block foams, used primarily for fabricating 

pipe work insulation. Although the product made an entry into the North American market in the 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 127

early 1980s, the particular technology was dogged with problems. As a result, there is little use of 

phenolic foam in that region today. However, successful phenolic boardstock technologies emerged 

in both Europe and Japan, with sales of the product continuing to grow, not only because of overall 

increases in the demand for thermal insulation, but also because of gains in market share. Phenolic 

foam’s main competitive advantage rests in its intrinsic fire and smoke properties. However, since it 

is made by an emulsion process, it also offers smaller cells which result in improved thermal 

performance. More recently, the product has begun to emerge on the Chinese market - in part as a 

response to concerns over recent fires. 

The use of phenolic foam as pipework insulation also stems from the intrinsic fire and smoke 

properties of the product and the growth of the product’s use has been particularly strong in regions 

where internal fire regulations are strict or where the high rise nature of construction requires 

additional fire precautions. 

(a) Commercially available alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances 

The following table sets out the commercially available alternatives for the phenolic foam sector: 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PF FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Continuous processes (including flexibly-faced lamination and pipe section manufacture)

n- pentane/iso-pentane 

Low GWP Highly flammable High incremental capital cost

Low operating costs Industry standard

Good foam properties

HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP

Good foam properties High operating costs 

2-chloropropane

Low GWP Negligible ODP 

Non flammable

Block foams for various applications including panels, pipe insulation section, etc

HFC-365mfc/277ea

Non-flammable High GWP Low conversion costs

Good foam properties

High operating costs but 

improved by using mixed 

HFC/ CO2 (water)

The lack of low-GWP alternatives for discontinuous block foams signals the need for further work in 

this area. However, the ranking of these options against the report criteria can be summarised as 

follows:

n-pentane

i-pentane

2-chloropropane HFC-365/227ea

Proof of performance +++ +++ +

Flammability --- 0 ++

Other Health & Safety 0 0 +

Global Warming +++ +++ ---

Other Environmental - 0 0

Cost Effectiveness (C) --- - ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) +++ + --

Process Versatility ++ + ++
128 May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report

(b) Emerging alternatives

As with other sectors, there is considerable focus on the potential of unsaturated HFCs/HCFCs. 

HCFC REPLACEMENT OPTIONS FOR PF FOAM FOR BUILDING/ CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

SECTOR/OPTION PROS CONS COMMENTS

Continuous processes (including flexibly-faced lamination and pipe section manufacture)

Unsaturated HFC/HCFC liquids

Non-flammable Low conversion costs Limited trials at this stage

Good foam properties High operating costs 

Block foams for various applications including panels, pipe insulation section, etc

Unsaturated HFC/HCFC liquids

Non-flammable Low conversion costs Limited trials at this stage

Good foam properties High operating costs

One drawback for the adoption of this technology in phenolic foam is that there is no CO2(water) coblowing to offset some of the cost. Another option might be to use unsaturated HFCs/HCFCs as 

components of blends with hydrocarbons or other blowing agents. However, care will need to be 

taken with discontinuous block foams to avoid process flammability issues. The following table 

summarises the current status of these emerging options with respect to phenolic foam.

HFO-1336mzzm(Z) HFO-1233zd(E)

liquid liquid

Proof of performance 0 -

Flammability +++ +++

Other Health & Safety + +

Global Warming +++ +++

Other Environmental + +

Cost Effectiveness (C) ++ ++

Cost Effectiveness (O) -- --

Process Versatility +(+) +(+)

(c) Barriers and restrictions

The main technical barriers to the transition to unsaturated HFCs/HCFCs have already been set out in 

the previous section and need to be addressed in a first stage assessment. However, even if the 

technical hurdles are overcome, the investment case may not be compelling for the transition out of 

saturated HFCs in the discontinuous block foam sector in view of the small quantities consumed. It 

may require market pressure on the continued use of saturated HFCs or evidence of significant 

thermal performance improvements to provide additional support for the next transition step. 
May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 129

11 List of acronyms and abbreviations

ABC Dry Chemical Powder

AIHA American Industrial Hygiene Association

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BTP Bromotrifluoropropene

CEFIC European Chemical Industry Council

CEN European Committee for Standardisation

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

COP Coefficient of Performance

CTOC Chemicals Technical Options Committee

EC European Commission

EPA US Environmental Protection Agency

EU European Union

FIC Fluoroiodocarbon

FK Fluoroketone

FTOC Foams Technical Options Committee

GWP Global Warming Potential

HARC Halon Alternatives Research Corporation

HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon

HCFO Hydrochlorofluoroolefin

HCO Oxygenated hydrocarbon

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon

HFE Hydrofluoroether

HFO Hydrofluoroolefin

HTOC Halons Technical Options Committee

IIR International Institute for Refrigeration

IMO International Maritime Organisation

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISO International Organisation for Standardisation

LCCP Life Cycle Climate Performance 

VCLCG Liquefied Compressed Gas

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NOAEL No Observed Adverse Effect Level

n-PB n-Propyl Bromide

ODP Ozone Depletion Potential

ODS Ozone Depleting Substance

OEL Occupational Exposure Limit 

PFC Perfluorocarbon

RAC Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (also R/AC)

RTOC Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee

SNAP Significant New Alternatives Policy

STOC Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options Committee

TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

TEWI Total Equivalent Warming Impact

TLV Threshold Limit Value 

UL Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

VOC Volatile Organic Compound

May 2014 TEAP XXV/5 Task Force Report 131

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