United States Department of Agriculture

Land Management Plan for the

Apache-Sitgreaves National 

Forests

Apache, Coconino, Greenlee, and Navajo 

Counties, Arizona

Forest Service Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests MB-R3-01-10 August 2015

Slightly Revised October 2016
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any 

public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and 

TTY). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 

1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or 

(202) 720-6382 (TTY). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Printed on recycled paper – August 2015; Slightly Revised October 2016 to include 

Administrative Changes 1-3. 
Land Management Plan 

for the 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests

Apache, Coconino, Greenlee, and 

Navajo Counties, Arizona

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan i

Contents

Commonly Used Acronyms.......................................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1. Background...................................................................................................................1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1

Purpose of this Land Management Plan ...................................................................................................... 1

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation ............................................................................. 2

Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health ............................................................................. 3

Managed Recreation................................................................................................................................ 4

Community–Forest Interaction................................................................................................................ 4

Plan Consistency.......................................................................................................................................... 5

Plan Content ................................................................................................................................................ 5

Plan Decisions......................................................................................................................................... 5

Other Content .......................................................................................................................................... 8

Changes to the Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 9

Administrative Changes .......................................................................................................................... 9

Plan Organization ...................................................................................................................................... 10

Roles and Contributions of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs............................................................................ 11

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Mission .................................................................................................... 13

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Vision ...................................................................................................... 13

Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction..................................................................................................15

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 15

Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health ............................................................................... 15

Overall Ecosystem Health ..................................................................................................................... 15

Air ......................................................................................................................................................... 18

Soil ........................................................................................................................................................ 20

Water Resources.................................................................................................................................... 22

Aquatic Habitat and Species.................................................................................................................. 25

All PNVTs............................................................................................................................................. 27

Riparian Areas....................................................................................................................................... 31

Forests: All Forested PNVTs................................................................................................................. 37

Forests: Ponderosa Pine......................................................................................................................... 40

Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer................................................................................................................... 42

Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer.................................................................................................................. 45

Forests: Spruce-Fir ................................................................................................................................ 47

Forests: Aspen ....................................................................................................................................... 49

Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs....................................................................................................... 52

Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak ............................................................................................................ 53

Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper .................................................................................................................... 55

Grasslands ............................................................................................................................................. 56

Interior Chaparral .................................................................................................................................. 59

Wildlife and Rare Plants........................................................................................................................ 61

Invasive Species.................................................................................................................................... 65

Landscape Scale Disturbance Events.................................................................................................... 67

Managed Recreation .................................................................................................................................. 69

Overall Recreation Opportunities.......................................................................................................... 69

Dispersed Recreation............................................................................................................................. 71

Developed Recreation ........................................................................................................................... 73

Motorized Opportunities ....................................................................................................................... 75

Nonmotorized Opportunities................................................................................................................. 78

Scenic Byways ...................................................................................................................................... 79

National Recreation Trails..................................................................................................................... 80

Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers....................................................................................... 82

Scenic Resources................................................................................................................................... 84

Community-Forest Interaction................................................................................................................... 86
Contents

ii Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Conservation Education ........................................................................................................................ 87

Lands..................................................................................................................................................... 88

Cultural Resources ................................................................................................................................ 89

American Indian Rights and Interests ................................................................................................... 92

Forest Products...................................................................................................................................... 94

Livestock Grazing ................................................................................................................................. 96

Minerals and Geology ........................................................................................................................... 98

Special Uses ........................................................................................................................................ 101

Water Uses .......................................................................................................................................... 103

Wildland Fire Management................................................................................................................. 105

Chapter 3. Management Area Direction ...................................................................................111

General Forest ......................................................................................................................................... 112

Community-Forest Intermix .................................................................................................................... 112

High Use Developed Recreation Area..................................................................................................... 115

Energy Corridor....................................................................................................................................... 116

Wild Horse Territory ............................................................................................................................... 118

Wildlife Quiet Area ................................................................................................................................. 119

Natural Landscape ................................................................................................................................... 121

Research Natural Area............................................................................................................................. 122

Recommended Research Natural Area .................................................................................................... 123

Wilderness............................................................................................................................................... 126

Primitive Area ......................................................................................................................................... 128

Recommended Wilderness ...................................................................................................................... 130

Chapter 4. Suitability ..................................................................................................................133

Introduction to Suitability........................................................................................................................ 133

Livestock Grazing Suitability .................................................................................................................. 133

Special Uses Suitability ........................................................................................................................... 134

Lands Suitable for Timber Production..................................................................................................... 135

Motorized Uses Suitability ...................................................................................................................... 137

Recreation Suitability .............................................................................................................................. 139

Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy.................................................................................................141

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 141

Monitoring Strategy................................................................................................................................. 141

List of Preparers..........................................................................................................................147

Team Members........................................................................................................................................ 147

Glossary........................................................................................................................................149

References ....................................................................................................................................173

Appendix A. Climate Change Trends and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management 

Planning........................................................................................................................................179

Overview and Background ...................................................................................................................... 179

Climate in the American Southwest and the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs..................................................... 179

Southwestern Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Ecosystems................................................ 184

Southwestern Climate Change and Socioeconomic Effects .................................................................... 193

Key Climate Change Factors for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs................................................................. 197

Potential Climate Change Strategies for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs...................................................... 200

Climate Change Glossary ........................................................................................................................ 204

References ............................................................................................................................................... 207

Specific Web Sites:.................................................................................................................................. 213

Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices ...........................................215
Contents

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan iii

Forestwide Vegetation Conditions .......................................................................................................... 215

Age Classes Typically Occurring on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs........................................................... 240

Old Growth in the Southwestern Region of the Forest Service ............................................................... 242

Vegetation Management Practices .......................................................................................................... 243

References ............................................................................................................................................... 246

Appendix C. Communications Sites...........................................................................................249

Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, Policies, and Other Sources of Information ......251

Forest Service Directives......................................................................................................................... 251

Federal Statutes ....................................................................................................................................... 254

American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) as amended (42 USC 1996)............................... 254

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ............................................................................................ 255

Anderson-Mansfield Reforestation and Revegetation Act of October 11, 1949 ................................ 255

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 USC 431- 433)........................................................................................ 255

Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (AHPA) (16 USC 469) ................................ 255

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 as amended (ARPA) (16 USC 470 aa et seq.) .... 255

Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 ...................................................................................................... 256

Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1940, as amended .............................................................. 256

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of July 22, 1937............................................................................ 256

Clarke-McNary Act of June 7, 1924 ................................................................................................... 256

Clean Air Act of August 7, 1977, as amended (1977 and 1990)......................................................... 256

Clean Water Act (see Federal Water Pollution Control Act) .............................................................. 257

Common Varieties of Mineral Materials Act of July 31, 1947 ........................................................... 257

Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of July 1, 1978.......................................................................... 257

Economy Act of June 30, 1932 ........................................................................................................... 257

Emergency Flood Prevention (Agricultural Credit Act) Act of August 4, 1978 ................................ 257

Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended .................................................................................... 257

Energy Policy Act of 2005 .................................................................................................................. 258

Energy Security Act of June 30, 1980................................................................................................. 258

Federal Advisory Committee Act of October 6, 1972......................................................................... 258

Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of November 18, 1988 ......................................................... 258

Federal Insecticide, Rodenticide, and Fungicide Act of October 21, 1972 ........................................ 258

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of October 21, 1976 ........................................................ 259

Federal Noxious Weed Act, 1974, as amended ................................................................................... 259

Federal Power Act of June 10, 1920 ................................................................................................... 259

Federal-State Cooperation for Soil Conservation Act of December 22, 1944.................................... 259

Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act) ......................... 259

Federal Water Project Recreation Act of July 9, 1965 ........................................................................ 260

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of September 15, 1960............................................................... 260

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of March 10, 1934...................................................................... 260

Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (2008 Farm Bill) Public Law 110-246 Title VIII –

Forestry, Subtitle A, B, and C ............................................................................................................. 260

Forest Highways Act of August 27, 1958 ........................................................................................... 260

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of August 17, 1974................................ 261

Freedom of Information Act of November 21, 1974........................................................................... 261

Geothermal Steam Act of December 24, 1970.................................................................................... 261

Granger-Thye Act of April 24, 1950 ................................................................................................... 261

Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (H.R. 1904) ........................................................................ 261

Historic Sites Act of 1935 (16 USC 461)............................................................................................ 262

Intergovernmental Cooperation Act of October 16, 1968 (31 USC 6505).......................................... 262

Joint Surveys of Watershed Areas Act of September 5, 1962............................................................. 262

Knutson-Vandenberg Act of June 9, 1930 .......................................................................................... 262

Land Acquisition Act of March 3, 1925.............................................................................................. 262

Land Acquisition – Title Adjustment Act of July 8, 1943................................................................... 262
Contents

iv Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of September 3, 1964 .......................................................... 262

Law Enforcement Authority Act of March 3, 1905 ............................................................................ 263

Leases Around Reservoirs Act of March 3, 1962................................................................................ 263

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 ..................................................................................................... 263

Mineral Leasing Act of February 25, 1920 ......................................................................................... 263

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Lands Act of August 7, 1947 ....................................................... 263

Mineral Resources on Weeks Law Lands Act of March 4, 1917 ........................................................ 263

Mineral Springs Leasing Act of February 28, 1899 ............................................................................ 263

Mining Claims Rights Restoration Act of August 11, 1955................................................................ 263

Mining and Minerals Policy Act of December 31, 1970..................................................................... 264

Multiple Use–Sustained Yield Act of June 12, 1960 .......................................................................... 264

National Environmental Education Act of November 16, 1970.......................................................... 264

National Environmental Policy Act of January 1, 1970 ...................................................................... 264

National 1990 Farm Bill (title XII – Forest Stewardship Act) Act of November 28, 1990................ 264

National Forest Management Act of October 22, 1976....................................................................... 264

National Forest Roads and Trails Act of October 13, 1964................................................................. 265

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 as amended (NHPA) (16 USC 470) .............................. 265

National Forest System Land and Resource Management Plans (16 U.S.C 1604) ............................ 265

National Trails System Act of October 2, 1968 .................................................................................. 265

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA) (25 USC 3001) ...... 265

Occupancy Permits Act of March 4, 1915 .......................................................................................... 266

Oil and Gas Leasing Reform Act of 1987 ........................................................................................... 266

Organic Administration Act of June 4, 1897....................................................................................... 266

Petrified Wood Act of September 28, 1962 ........................................................................................ 266

Pipelines Act of February 25, 1920..................................................................................................... 266

Public Buildings Cooperative Use Act of 1976................................................................................... 266

Public Land Surveys Act of March 3, 1899 ........................................................................................ 267

Public Rangelands Improvement Act of October 25, 1978 ................................................................. 267

Rescission Act of 1995........................................................................................................................ 267

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended.............................................................................................. 267

Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RIFRA) (42 USC § 2000bb)..................................................... 267

Renewable Resources Extension Act of June 30, 1978....................................................................... 268

Research Grants Act of September 6, 1958......................................................................................... 268

Rural Development Act of August 30, 1972 ....................................................................................... 268

Safe Drinking Water Amendments of November 18, 1977................................................................. 268

Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 ........................................... 268

Sikes Act of October 18, 1974, as amended........................................................................................ 268

Small Tracts Act of January 22, 1983 ................................................................................................. 268

Smokey Bear Act of May 23, 1952 ..................................................................................................... 269

Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of November 18, 1977.................................................. 269

Solid Waste Disposal Act (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) of October 21, 1976............ 269

Supplemental National Forest Reforestation Fund Act of September 18, 1972 ................................. 269

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of August 3, 1977....................................................... 269

Sustained Yield Forest Management Act of March 29, 1944.............................................................. 269

Timber Export Act of March 4, 1917 .................................................................................................. 269

Timber Exportation Act of April 12, 1926 .......................................................................................... 270

Title Adjustment Act of April 28, 1930 .............................................................................................. 270

Toxic Substances Control Act of October 11, 1976 ............................................................................ 270

Transfer Act of February 1, 1905 ........................................................................................................ 270

Tribal Forest Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-278)............................................................... 270

Twenty-Five Percent Fund Act of May 23, 1908 ................................................................................ 270

Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards U.S. Criminal Code (Title 18 USC Chapter 91 – Public 

Lands) Act of June 25, 1948................................................................................................................ 270

U.S. Mining Laws (Public Domain Lands) Act of May 10, 1872 ....................................................... 270
Contents

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan v

Volunteers in the National Forests Act of May 18, 1972 .................................................................... 271

Water Quality Improvement Act of April 3, 1970 .............................................................................. 271

Water Resources Planning Act of July 22, 1965 ................................................................................. 271

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of August 4, 1954................................................... 271

Weeks Act Status for Certain Lands Act of September 2, 1958.......................................................... 271

Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of December 15, 1971, as amended by Federal Land 

Policy Management Act of 1976 and Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 ........................ 272

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of October 2, 1968 ................................................................................. 272

Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964 ................................................................................................. 272

Wildlife Game Refuges Act of August 11, 1916................................................................................. 272

Wood Residue Utilization Act of December 19, 1980 ........................................................................ 272

Woodsy Owl/Smokey Bear Act of June 22, 1974............................................................................... 272

Youth Conservation Corps Act of August 13, 1970............................................................................ 273

Regulations.............................................................................................................................................. 273

33 CFR § 323 Permits for Discharges of Dredged or Fill Material into Waters of the United States. 273

36 CFR § 60 National Register of Historic Places.............................................................................. 273

36 CFR § 61 Procedures for Approved State and Local Government Historic Preservation 

Programs.............................................................................................................................................. 273

36 CFR § 63 Determinations of Eligibility for Inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places 273

36 CFR § 65 National Historic Landmarks Program .......................................................................... 273

36 CFR § 68 The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for Historic Properties ................................. 273

36 CFR § 79 Curation of Federally Owned and Administered Archaeological Collections.............. 274

36 CFR § 212 Forest Development Transportation System................................................................ 274

36 CFR § 219 Planning ....................................................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 221 Timber Management Planning..................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 222 Range Management ..................................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 223 Sale and Disposal of National Forest System Timber.................................................. 274

36 CFR § 228 Minerals....................................................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 241 Fish and Wildlife.......................................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 251 Land Uses .................................................................................................................... 274

36 CFR § 254 Landownership Adjustments........................................................................................ 274

36 CFR § 261 Prohibitions.................................................................................................................. 275

36 CFR § 291 Occupancy and Use of Developed Sites and Areas of Concentrated Public Use........ 275

36 CFR § 292 National Recreation Areas ........................................................................................... 275

36 CFR § 293 Wilderness-Primitive Areas......................................................................................... 275

36 CFR § 294 Special Areas ............................................................................................................... 275

36 CFR § 295 Use of Motor Vehicles Off Forest Development Roads .............................................. 275

36 CFR § 296 Protection of Archaeological Resources: Uniform Regulations .................................. 275

36 CFR § 297 Wild and Scenic Rivers................................................................................................ 275

36 CFR § 800 Protection of Historic Properties.................................................................................. 275

40 CFR § 121-135 Water Programs.................................................................................................... 276

40 CFR § 1500 Council on Environmental Quality ............................................................................ 276

43 CFR § 3 Preservation of American Antiquities.............................................................................. 276

43 CFR § 10 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act Regulations........................ 276

50 CFR § 402 Regulations Governing Interagency Cooperation—Endangered Species Act of 

1973, as amended ................................................................................................................................ 276

Executive Orders ..................................................................................................................................... 276

E.O. 11593 Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment, 1973 ................................... 276

E.O. 11644 (amended by E.O. 11989) Use of Off-Road Vehicles, 1972, 1977 ................................. 277

E.O. 11988 Floodplain Management, 1977......................................................................................... 277

E.O. 11990 Protection of Wetlands, 1977 ........................................................................................... 277

E.O. 12088 Federal Compliance with Pollution Control Standards (Amended by E.O. 12580), 

1978, 1987........................................................................................................................................... 277

E.O. 12372 Intergovernmental Review of Federal Programs, 1982.................................................... 277
Contents

vi Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

E.O. 12862 Setting Customer Service Standards, 1993 ...................................................................... 278

E.O. 12898 Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and LowIncome Populations, 1994 ................................................................................................................... 278

E.O. 13007 Indian Sacred Sites, 1996 ................................................................................................. 278

E.O. 13112 Invasive Species, 1999 ..................................................................................................... 278

E.O. 13175 Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments, 2000 ......................... 278

E.O. 13186 Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds, 2001 .......................... 279

E.O. 13195 Trails for America in the 21st Century, 2001.................................................................... 279

E.O. 13287 Preserve America, 2003 ................................................................................................... 279

E.O. 13352 Facilitation of Cooperative Conservation, 2004............................................................... 279

E.O. 13433 Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation, 2007................................. 279

State Regulations..................................................................................................................................... 279

Other Sources of Information .................................................................................................................. 280

Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions .....................................................289

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 289

Proposed Management Actions............................................................................................................... 289

Possible Management Actions................................................................................................................. 291

Overall Ecosystem Health ................................................................................................................... 291

Air ....................................................................................................................................................... 292

Soil ...................................................................................................................................................... 292

Water Resources.................................................................................................................................. 292

Aquatic Habitat and Species................................................................................................................ 292

Vegetation Management...................................................................................................................... 292

Riparian Areas..................................................................................................................................... 292

Wildlife and Rare Plants...................................................................................................................... 293

Invasive Species.................................................................................................................................. 293

Landscape Scale Disturbance Events.................................................................................................. 293

Developed and Dispersed Recreation.................................................................................................. 294

Motorized and Nonmotorized Opportunities....................................................................................... 294

Scenic Byways .................................................................................................................................... 294

Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers..................................................................................... 294

Conservation Education ...................................................................................................................... 295

Lands................................................................................................................................................... 295

Cultural Resources .............................................................................................................................. 295

American Indian Rights and Interests ................................................................................................. 295

Forest Products.................................................................................................................................... 295

Livestock Grazing ............................................................................................................................... 295

Minerals and Geology ......................................................................................................................... 296

Special Uses ........................................................................................................................................ 296

Water Uses .......................................................................................................................................... 296

Wildland Fire Management................................................................................................................. 296

Management Areas.............................................................................................................................. 297

Appendix F. Maps .......................................................................................................................299

Index .............................................................................................................................................303
Contents

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan vii

List of Figures

Figure 1. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and adjacent landowners.............................................. 2

Figure 2. Fall colors, Apache-Sitgreaves NFs..........................................................................11

Figure 3. Blue River................................................................................................................ 22

Figure 4. Prescribed fire.......................................................................................................... 39

Figure 5. Ecological diversity provided by a healthy, mature aspen stand ............................. 50

Figure 6. Golden-crowned kinglet .......................................................................................... 61

Figure 7. Yellow toadflax, an invasive species on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs...................... 65

Figure 8. Woods Canyon Lake................................................................................................ 74

Figure 9. Small diameter trees to be used for forest products................................................. 96

Figure 10. Treated area within the CFI that survived the 2011 Wallow Fire .........................114

Figure 11. East Fork of the Little Colorado River in Mount Baldy Wilderness ................... 126

Figure 12. A forest user rides along the Saffel Canyon OHV Trail ...................................... 137

Figure 13. Wetland/Cienega Riparian Areas Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition......... 216

Figure 14. Wetland/Cienega Riparian Areas Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition 217

Figure 15. Montane Willow Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition..................... 218

Figure 16. Montane Willow Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition219

Figure 17. Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition............... 220

Figure 18. Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

...................................................................................................................................... 221

Figure 19. Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition .. 221

Figure 20. Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation 

Condition ...................................................................................................................... 222

Figure 21. Ponderosa Pine Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition...................................... 223

Figure 22. Ponderosa Pine Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition................ 224

Figure 23. Dry Mixed Conifer Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition ............................... 225

Figure 24. Dry Mixed Conifer Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition.......... 226

Figure 25. Wet Mixed Conifer Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition ............................... 227

Figure 26. Wet Mixed Conifer Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition.......... 229

Figure 27. Spruce-Fir Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition ............................................. 229

Figure 28. Spruce-Fir Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition ....................... 231

Figure 29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland Overstory Vegetation Condition.......................... 232

Figure 30. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition.... 233

Figure 31. Piñon-Juniper Woodland Overstory Vegetation Condition.................................. 233

Figure 32. Piñon-Juniper Woodland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition............ 234

Figure 33. Semi-desert Grassland Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition......................... 235

Figure 34. Semi-desert Grassland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition ............... 236

Figure 35. Great Basin Grassland Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition......................... 236

Figure 36. Great Basin Grassland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition................ 237

Figure 37. Montane/Subalpine Grasslands Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition ........... 238

Figure 38. Montane/Subalpine Grasslands Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition.. 239

Figure 39. Interior Chaparral Overstory Vegetation Condition ............................................ 239

Figure 40. Interior Chaparral Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition....................... 240

Figure 41. Keen’s tree classification for ponderosa pine ...................................................... 241

Figure 42. Hierarchy of management direction for national forests..................................... 251

Figure 43. Management Areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Apache National Forest area)

...................................................................................................................................... 301
Contents

viii Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Figure 44. Management Areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Sitgreaves National Forest 

area) .............................................................................................................................. 302

List of Tables

Table 1. Eligible wild and scenic rivers of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs by river classificationa

........................................................................................................................................ 82

Table 2. Suitable wild and scenic rivers of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs by river classification

........................................................................................................................................ 83

Table 3. Fire regimes by PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.......................................... 106

Table 4. Management areas of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (acres of NFS land)...................111

Table 5. Areas recommended for wilderness........................................................................ 130

Table 6. Suitability of livestock grazing on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.............................. 134

Table 7. Suitability of select special uses on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs ............................ 134

Table 8. Suitability of lands for timber production and tree cutting ..................................... 136

Table 9. Suitability of motorized travel on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs............................... 137

Table 10. Suitability for new designated motorized areas, NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, 

and temporary road construction on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs................................. 138

Table 11. Suitability for mechanized and nonmotorized travel on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

...................................................................................................................................... 140

Table 12. Apache-Sitgreaves NFs land management plan monitoring questions, monitoring 

methods, and frequency of measurements.................................................................... 142

Table 13. Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ PNVTs and NFS acres................................................... 215

Table 14. Standard Vegetation Management Practices for Site-Specific Project Planning and 

Implementation ............................................................................................................. 244

Table 15. Communications sites on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests ...................... 249

Table 16. List of proposed management actions (plan objectives) ....................................... 289
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) ix

Commonly Used Acronyms

ADEQ Arizona Department of 

Environmental Quality

ADOT Arizona Department of 

Transportation

ADWR Arizona Department of Water 

Resources

AZGFD Arizona Game and Fish 

Department

AMS Analysis of the Management 

Situation

ASQ Allowable Sale Quantity

BAER Burned Area Emergency 

Response

BLM Bureau of Land Management

BMP Best Management Practice

CCF 100 Cubic Feet

CCVA Climate Change Vulnerability 

Assessment

CER Comprehensive Evaluation Report

CFI Community-Forest Intermix

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CWPP Community Wildfire Protection 

Plan

DBH Diameter at Breast Height

DRC Diameter at Root Collar

DMCF Dry Mixed Conifer Forest

EI Ecological Indicator

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EO Executive Order

ERU Ecological Response Unit

ESA Endangered Species Act

FHA Federal Highway Administration

FIA Forest Inventory Analysis

FR Federal Register

FSH Forest Service Manual

FSM Forest Service Handbook

GIS Geographical Information System

GTR General Technical Report

HUC Hydrologic Unit Code

IRA Inventoried Roadless Area

MIS Management Indicator Species

MSO Mexican Spotted Owl

MVUM Motor Vehicle Use Map

NEPA National Environmental Policy 

Act

NF National Forest

NFMA National Forest Management Act

NFS National Forest System

NPS Non-Point source

NRCS Natural Resource Conservation 

Service

NRHP National Register of Historic 

Places

NRT National Recreation Trail

NVUM National Visitor Use Monitoring

OHV Off-Highway Vehicle

PAC Protected Activity Center

PFA Post-Fledging Family Area
Commonly Used Acronyms

x (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

PFC Proper Functioning Condition

PNVT Potential Natural Vegetation Type

RMRS Rocky Mountain Research Station

RNA Research Natural Area

ROS Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

SAD Sudden Aspen Decline

TCP Traditional Cultural Property

TES Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey

USC United States Code

USDA United States Department of 

Agriculture

USFWS United States Fish and 

Wildlife Service

USFS United States Forest Service

WQA Wildlife Quiet Area

WUI Wildland-Urban Interface
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 1

Chapter 1. Background

Introduction

The “Land Management Plan for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” (hereinafter referred to 

as the plan or land management plan), covers the National Forest System (NFS) lands within the 

boundary of the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests (Apache-Sitgreaves NFs or the forests).

The Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests’ 2.1 million acres

1

are managed as a single 

administrative unit by the Forest Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA). The forests are located in the White Mountains of east-central Arizona (figure 1). The 

Gila National Forest administers the portion of the Apache National Forest located in New 

Mexico.

The forests are divided into five contiguous ranger districts: Black Mesa, Lakeside, Springerville, 

Alpine, and Clifton. Ranger district offices are located in Overgaard, Pinetop-Lakeside, 

Springerville, Alpine, and Clifton. The Supervisor’s Office is located in Springerville. 

The forests share boundaries with the Gila, Coconino, and Tonto National Forests; Fort Apache 

and San Carlos Apache Indian Reservations; Bureau of Land Management; State land; several 

cities, towns, and communities; and private lands (figure 1).

The roles and contributions of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are described on page 11.

Purpose of this Land Management Plan

The planning process that was followed to create this plan aims to produce responsible land 

management for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs based on useful and current information and 

guidance. The planning process used the provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule, as allowed per the 

transition language of the 2012 Planning Rule (36 CFR § 219.17(b)(3)). Land management 

planning guides the Forest Service in fulfilling its responsibilities for the stewardship of the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs to best meet the needs of the American people.

This plan provides broad guidance and information for project and activity decisionmaking on the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs for approximately the next 15 years. The plan is strategic in nature. It 

does not include project and activity decisions. Those decisions will be made later, after specific 

proposals are made and analyzed and there is additional opportunity for public involvement. 

Under the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) of 1976 (Public Law 94-588), projects and 

activities must be consistent with the plan (see “Plan Consistency” section below). 

The plan provides a framework that contributes to sustaining native ecological systems by 

managing toward desired conditions that support native plant and animal diversity. The plan 

integrates forest restoration, watershed protection, vegetation resilience to ecological 

disturbances, wildlife conservation, and contributions to social and economic values, goods, and 

services. The plan honors the continuing validity of private, statutory, or pre-existing rights. 

 

1 According to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ Geographic Information System (GIS) data, total forest acreage in 2012 

was 2,110,196 acres (2,015,352 acres NFS land and 94,844 acres of non-NFS land).
Chapter 1. Background

2 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Figure 1. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and adjacent landowners

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

The management situation is described in the Comprehensive Evaluation Report or CER (Forest 

Service, 2008a) and CER Supplement (Forest Service, 2010). Together these documents meet the 

content requirements of the Analysis of the Management Situation or AMS, as required by the 

procedures of the 1982 Planning Rule, by describing the social, economic, and ecological 

conditions and trends in and around the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The CER integrates key findings 

from the Ecological Sustainability Report (Forest Service, 2008b), the Economic and Social 

Sustainability Assessment (Forest Service, 2009a), Resource Evaluations (Forest Service, 2008c), 

and input from the public and Forest Service employees. The CER notes where the former land 

management plan (the 1987 plan) does not provide adequate management guidance for the 
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 3

present and future, and it identifies where the conditions and trends indicate a need for change 

from the 1987 plan. 

The CER/AMS identifies three primary areas, or revision topics, where there are priority needs 

for change in program direction.

1. Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health

2. Managed Recreation

3. Community–Forest Interaction

Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health

Conditions have changed since the forest plan was issued in 1987 including the recognition that 

vegetation conditions (structure, composition, and function) are divergent from reference 

conditions; forest conditions indicate a substantial departure from the natural fire regime; and 

there are plant and animal species which need further consideration in the planning process. There 

are also emerging issues not addressed by the 1987 plan (e.g., nonnative invasive plants and 

animals, climate change). 

The following are needs for change to the 1987 plan:

• Better describe desired conditions for the vegetative communities of the forests. The 

vegetative communities include ponderosa pine, wet mixed conifer, dry mixed conifer, 

spruce-fir, and aspen forests; piñon-juniper and Madrean pine-oak woodlands; Great 

Basin, semi-desert and montane/subalpine grasslands; interior chaparral, mixed broadleaf 

deciduous, montane willow, and cottonwood-willow riparian forests; and 

wetland/cienega riparian areas. There is a need to describe the desired composition, 

structure, and cover of these vegetation communities that will result in resilient, 

functioning ecosystems. 

• Identify the desired fire regimes that will help restore fire to a more natural role as one of 

the forests’ primary disturbance agents. 

• Provide direction to guide future vegetation management activities, including burning 

and mechanical treatments, to move toward or maintain desired conditions.

• Incorporate management direction to guide future projects to provide habitat to maintain 

viable populations of existing native and desired nonnative vertebrate species in the 

planning area.

• Include appropriate standards and guidelines to provide direction to maintain species 

diversity and viability across the planning area.

• Reevaluate and update the management indicator species (MIS). MIS are species whose 

population changes are believed to indicate the effects of management activities. MIS are 

selected to allow evaluation of the differences between alternatives in the environmental 

impact statement.

• Add plan components to provide future project direction to control, treat, and eradicate 

nonnative plant and animal invasive species.

• Address the emerging issue of climate change by incorporating adaptive management 

strategies and describing ecological conditions that are resilient to change.
Chapter 1. Background

4 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Managed Recreation

There are several concerns related to unmanaged recreation that are not adequately addressed in 

the 1987 plan. These include increasing recreational use of the forests and changing 

demographics of forest users. There are also special areas that were not mentioned in the 1987 

plan (e.g., scenic byways), as well as rivers that are eligible for the National Wild and Scenic 

Rivers System. There may be National Forest System lands that could be recommended to 

Congress for designation into the National Wilderness Preservation System. 

The following are needs for change to the 1987 plan:

• Update the spectrum of recreation opportunities to reflect current and projected recreation 

needs, natural resource impacts, and public input. This includes identification of areas 

that are developed for high use and areas that resemble more natural landscapes.

• Identify the suitability of areas on the forests for motorized vehicle use and other 

recreational activities. 

• Incorporate direction for special areas that were not included in the 1987 plan, including 

recommended research natural areas, the Heber Wild Horse Territory, scenic byways, and 

national recreation trails. 

• Recommend additional special areas (i.e., research natural areas) where needed. The 

intent is to recommend these areas in the revised forest plan; subsequent analyses would 

determine whether they should become official designated areas.

• Recognize the management requirements for rivers that are eligible or suitable for the 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. 

• Evaluate lands for wilderness potential and, if determined to be appropriate by the 

responsible official, recommend designation by Congress and provide interim 

management guidance. 

Community–Forest Interaction

There are several social concerns that cause a need to change the 1987 plan. Communities are at 

risk from uncharacteristic wildfire. There are increasing demands for goods, services, and forest 

access from growing populations and urban developments that border the forests. Many 

communities are surrounded by the forests and can be affected by adjustment to the forests’ land 

ownership. Commodity use and production have shown declines from the past. However, these 

forest uses contribute to sustaining the lifestyles and traditions of local communities. Energy 

resource demands also continue to grow. 

The following are needs for change to the 1987 plan:

• Provide direction to address communities at risk from uncharacteristic wildfire. This 

includes describing the appropriate vegetation desired conditions and fire regime and 

treatment of the wildland-urban interface.

• Provide guidelines and suitability determinations for addressing urban interface demands 

(e.g., access, trailheads, special use permits). 

• Update guidelines regarding land ownership adjustments that better reflects community

expansion needs and preservation of open space. 
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 5

• Continue to provide a sustainable supply of forest and rangeland resources that is 

consistent with achieving desired conditions and supports local communities. Determine 

the suitability of lands for timber production and the allowable sale quantity of timber. 

• Identify major existing energy (utility) corridors and provide management direction for 

these areas. Update the criteria for establishing new energy corridors.

Other needs for change have been and will continue to be identified. New information and 

changing conditions will necessitate changes in management. As these become ripe for action, 

iterative and adaptive management may result in changes to the plan. For example, following the 

538,000-acre Wallow Fire of 2011, a changed condition assessment (Forest Service, 2012b) was 

conducted and the information was used in the development of this plan, in particular the 

“Landscape Scale Disturbance Events” section in chapter 2.

Plan Consistency

As required by the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) and the National Forest System 

Land Management Planning Rule, all projects and activities authorized by the Forest Service 

must be consistent with the plan. As projects and activities are planned, an interdisciplinary team 

assesses the potential environmental, physical, biological, aesthetic, cultural, engineering, and 

economic impacts on the area.

Projects and activities include all actions under 16 USC 1604(i). A project or activity must be 

consistent with the plan by being consistent with applicable plan decisions (see the “Plan 

Decisions” section below).

Plans also contain other content (see the “Other Content” section below). Projects and activities 

are not required to be consistent with this other content.

Where a proposed project or activity would not be consistent with a plan decision, the responsible 

official has the following options:

• To modify the proposal so that the project or activity will be consistent; 

• To reject the proposal; or 

• To amend the plan at the same time as the approval of the project or activity so that the 

project or activity is consistent with the plan as amended. The amendment may be limited 

to apply only to the project or activity.

Plan Content

This plan includes plan decisions and other content. Any substantive changes to plan decisions 

will require a plan amendment. A change to other content may be made using an administrative 

change process. See the “Changes to the Plan” section below for more information.

Plan Decisions

Plan decisions include goals (hereafter identified as desired conditions), objectives, standards, 

guidelines, suitability, special areas, and monitoring. Plan decisions apply to projects or activities 

where site conditions provide an inherent capability to meet those plan decisions. Plan decisions 
Chapter 1. Background

6 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

for the portion of the Apache NF located in New Mexico can be found in the Gila National Forest 

land management plan.

Plan decisions for forestwide direction and management areas are displayed in shaded 

boxes to distinguish them from other sections of the plan. 

Plan decisions for suitability and monitoring are found in their respective tables in chapters 4 and 

5.

Desired Conditions

Desired conditions set forth the desired social, economic, and ecological attributes of the ApacheSitgreaves NFs. They attempt to paint a picture of what we (the public and Forest Service) desire 

the forests look like or the goods and services we desire them to provide. Desired conditions are 

normally expressed in broad, general terms and are timeless in that there is no specific date by 

which they are to be completed. Desired conditions may only be achievable over a long 

timeframe (in some cases, several hundred years). In some cases, a desired condition matches the 

current condition, so the goal is to maintain the existing condition. Desired conditions are 

aspirations and are not commitments or final decisions approving projects.

To be consistent with the desired conditions of the plan, a project or activity, when assessed at the 

appropriate spatial scale described in the plan (e.g., landscape scale), must be designed to meet 

one or more of the following conditions:

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions of a plan 

without adversely affecting progress toward, or maintenance of, other desired conditions; 

or

• Be neutral with regard to progress toward plan desired conditions; or

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long 

term, even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward or 

maintenance of one or more desired conditions in the short term; or

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long 

term, even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward other desired 

conditions in a negligible way over the long term.

The project documentation should explain how the project is consistent with desired conditions 

and describe any short term or negligible long term adverse effects the project may have 

concerning the maintenance or attainment of any desired condition.

Objectives

Objectives are concise, time-specific statements of measurable planned results that make progress 

toward or maintain desired conditions. An objective forms the basis for further planning to define 

the precise steps to be taken and the resources to be used in achieving desired conditions. The 

objectives represent just some of the expected outcomes or actions required to accomplish 

movement toward desired conditions. Not every action the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs may initiate is 

identified in the plan, just the primary ones.
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 7

Objectives are strongly influenced by recent trends, past experiences and anticipated staffing 

levels, and short term budgets. Variation in achieving objectives may occur during the next 15 

years because of changes in environmental conditions, available budgets, and other factors.

Additionally, objectives are stated as annual ranges (e.g., treat 5,000 to 35,000 acres annually). 

However, more than 35,000 or less than 5,000 acres may be treated in one or more years, but the 

annual average over the life of the plan (15 years) would fall within the objective range.

A project or activity is consistent with the objectives of the plan if it contributes to or does not 

prevent the attainment of any applicable objectives. The project documentation should identify 

any applicable objective(s) to which the project contributes and document that the project does

not prevent the attainment of any objectives. If there are no applicable objectives, the project 

must be consistent with the objectives of the plan, and the project document should state that fact.

Standards

Standards are constraints upon project and activity decisionmaking. A project or activity must be 

consistent with all standards applicable to the type of project or activity and its location in the 

plan area. A project or activity is consistent with a standard in only one way:

1. The project or activity is designed in exact accord with the standard.

Variance from a standard is not allowed except by plan amendment. The project documentation 

should confirm that the project is consistent with applicable standards.

Guidelines

A project or activity must be consistent with all guidelines applicable to the type of project or 

activity and its location in the plan area. A project or activity is consistent with a guideline in 

either of two ways:

1. The project or activity is designed exactly in accord with the guideline; or

2. A project or activity design varies from the exact words of the guideline, but it is as 

effective in meeting the purpose of the guideline to contribute to the maintenance or 

attainment of the relevant desired conditions and objectives.

The project record should contain documentation describing how the project is consistent with the 

applicable plan guidelines. Guidelines must be followed, but they may be modified for a specific 

project if the intent of the guideline is followed and the deviation is addressed in the project 

record with supporting rationale. However, when deviation from a guideline does not meet the 

original intent, a plan amendment is required.

Special Areas

Special areas are lands that have designations by Congress or another delegated authority. Special 

areas are designated because of their unique or special characteristics. This plan provides 

direction for the following special areas: scenic byways, national recreation trails, eligible and 

suitable wild and scenic rivers, a botanical area, designated and recommended research natural 

areas, wild horse territory, designated and recommended wilderness, and a primitive area.
Chapter 1. Background

8 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Where the plan provides plan decisions specific to a special area, a project or activity must be 

consistent with those area-specific decisions. The project documentation should describe how the 

project or activity is consistent with the area-specific decisions of the plan.

Suitability

Suitability describes the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices 

(uses) to a particular area of land. A unit of land may be suitable for a variety of individual or 

combined uses.

A project with the purpose of timber production may only occur in an area identified as suitable 

for timber production (16 USC 1604(k)). The documentation for the project should confirm the 

project area meets the suitability requirements.

Except for projects with a purpose of timber production, a project or activity can be consistent 

with plan suitability determinations in either of two ways:

1. The project or activity is a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location where the 

project or activity is to occur; or

2. The project or activity is not a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location (i.e., 

the plan is silent on the use or the plan identifies the use as not suitable), but the 

responsible official determines that the use is appropriate for that location’s desired 

conditions and objectives.

The project documentation should describe that the project or activity is either: (1) a use for 

which the area is specifically identified in the plan as suitable or (2) not a use for which the area 

is specifically identified in the plan as suitable, but it is nonetheless appropriate for that location.

Monitoring

Monitoring is used to determine the degree to which on the ground management is maintaining or 

making progress toward desired conditions. The monitoring strategy includes questions and 

performance measures designed to inform implementation and effectiveness of plan decisions. It 

helps ensure that the plan remains adaptive, in that new knowledge and information can be 

analyzed and the plan modified as needed.

Other Content

Besides the plan decisions mentioned above, the plan also contains other content that are not plan 

decisions. Other content includes chapter 1, certain sections in chapters 2 and 3 that are not 

displayed in shaded boxes, sections of chapters 4 and 5 that are not displayed in tables (i.e., 

background, management approaches, related plan content), and all appendices.

Background

The “Background” section provides a narrative regarding resource conditions. The primary 

information sources for this section are the Comprehensive Evaluation Report (Forest Service, 

2008a), Ecological Sustainability Report (Forest Service, 2008b), Economic and Social 

Sustainability Assessment (Forest Service, 2009a), Resource Evaluations (Forest Service, 2008c),

and the Wallow Fire Changed Condition Assessment (Forest Service, 2012b). 
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 9

Management Approaches

The “Management Approaches” section identifies probable management actions for achieving 

desired conditions and objectives. Management approaches describe the priorities and 

expectations for future program implementation. Partnerships and collaborative arrangements for 

accomplishing desired conditions are also included as part of management approaches. 

Management approaches are strongly influenced by recent trends, past experiences, and 

anticipated staffing levels and short term budgets. Decisions about what projects or activities are 

actually proposed and approved, as well as details of project design, are determined by public 

involvement, science, and professional experience at the project or activity level.

Related Plan Content

The “Related Plan Content” section lists other portions of the plan that contain associated 

information.

Other

It should be noted that acreages and mileages listed in the plan are approximate. They were 

calculated using the most current data available in the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ Geographic 

Information System (GIS). As the GIS database is updated, these measurements may change.

Changes to the Plan

A change to the plan requires either an administrative change or amendment. The following 

summarizes circumstances that warrant administrative changes or amendments to the plan.

Administrative Changes

An administrative change is any future change to the plan (after the revised plan goes into effect) 

that does not require a plan amendment or plan revision. They are minor changes to the plan that 

do not substantively affect the management direction or create additional environmental 

consequences. These minor changes include the following:

• Corrections of clerical errors to any part of the plan;

• Conformance of the plan to new statutory or regulatory requirements;

• Changes to elements of the plan that are not plan decisions as described in the “Other 

Content” section above; and

• Changes to the plan monitoring strategy, after notice is made to the public of the intended 

change and consideration has been given to public comment and feedback.

The procedures for administrative changes are outlined in 36 CFR § 219.13(c) of the 2012 

Planning Rule. 

Site-Specific Plan Amendments

Site-specific plan amendments allow specific projects or other activities to deviate from certain 

plan decisions. These amendments apply only to the specific project or activity; they do not 

permanently modify the plan. If changes are made to management area map GIS layers (data), 

they are made only for the area affected. Such amendments are usually proposed with appropriate 
Chapter 1. Background

10 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

environmental analysis for the site-specific project proposal. The procedures for a site-specific 

plan amendment are outlined in the applicable planning regulation.

Programmatic Plan Amendments

Programmatic plan amendments change the text and language of the plan decisions identified in 

the earlier “Plan Decisions” section and any other changes that cannot be addressed through the 

administrative change process or site-specific plan amendments. These are permanent changes 

that apply to all future projects. The procedures for addressing a programmatic plan amendment 

are outlined in the applicable planning regulation.

Plan Organization

Chapter 1. Background – briefly describes the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, the analysis of the 

management situation, the purpose of this plan, plan content, and plan organization. For a quick 

preview of the plan structure, glance at the table of contents. This chapter does not contain any 

plan decisions.

Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction – contains plan decisions and other content that are applicable 

forestwide. 

Chapter 3. Management Area Direction – contains plan decisions and other content that is 

applicable to particular management areas. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are divided into 12 

management areas. 

Chapter 4. Suitability – describes the appropriateness of certain resource management practices 

(uses) across the forests.

Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy – contains the monitoring plan decisions and provides a 

framework for subsequent monitoring and evaluation. 

Glossary – provides definitions of select words from this plan. These words are noted by 

hypertext at least once in the main document.

Appendix A. Climate Change Trends and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management 

Planning – provides information and discussion about climate change in the Southwestern 

Region of the Forest Service and considerations for land management planning. 

Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices – describes the current (2011) 

and desired future conditions for the 14 major potential natural vegetation types (PNVTs) on the 

forests, as well as management practices that may be used to maintain or make progress toward

desired conditions.

Appendix C. Communications Sites – identifies the designated communications sites located on 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, Policies, and Other Sources of Information –

provides a partial listing of relevant statutes, regulations, and policies applicable to the Forest 

Service.
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 11

Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions – lists proposed and possible 

management actions that may take place on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs at the project or activity 

level during the planning period.

Appendix F. Maps – contains maps of management areas.

Hypertext is used throughout the plan—it allows the user of the electronic version of this plan to 

click on a word (indicated by underlined text) and be redirected to another area of the plan or an 

external reference. Note: the first occurrence of a word that is found in the glossary is

hyperlinked, for example Glossary.

Roles and Contributions of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

The distinctive characteristics of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs frame the roles it plays and 

contributions it provides to the local area, the State, the Southwestern Region, and the Nation. 

The forests are located along and below the Mogollon Rim, an abrupt escarpment which is the 

southern boundary of the Colorado Plateau and splits Arizona into low elevation deserts and high 

elevation mountains and 

plateaus. The forests 

encompass mountains, 

hills, cinder cones, plains, 

plateaus, deep canyons, 

and escarpments. 

Elevations range from 

about 3,500 feet in the 

Clifton area to 11,400 feet 

on Mount Baldy2 near 

Springerville.

The diverse vegetation 

ranges from semi-desert

grasslands to high 

elevation spruce-fir forests. 

The Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs contain a portion of 

the largest ponderosa pine forest in the world and the most extensive montane and subalpine 

grasslands in Arizona. Many of the unique riparian vegetation types of Arizona are found within 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are a distinctive and important component of the arid Southwest, 

containing over 30 lakes and reservoirs and more than 1,000 miles of rivers and perennial 

streams, more than any other Arizona national forest. The forests contain the headwaters of 

several major Arizona river systems, including the Little Colorado, Black, Blue, and San 

Francisco.

 

2 The summit of Mount Baldy is within the Fort Apache Indian Reservation just outside the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ 

boundary.

Figure 2. Fall colors, Apache-Sitgreaves NFs
Chapter 1. Background

12 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Diverse ecosystems provide habitat for a wide array of wildlife, fish, and plants; some of which 

can only be found in this area. Unique species include Apache trout, Springerville pocket mouse, 

White Mountains ground squirrel, Three Forks springsnail, and Mogollon paintbrush. The 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are one of two national forests in the Nation to provide a home for the 

recovery of the Mexican gray wolf (Mexican wolf).

Most visitors to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs come from Arizona’s metropolitan areas, seeking a 

respite from the desert heat or the noise and/or confinement of urban living. Many are drawn to 

the water-based activities; while others enjoy the diverse scenery of vast rolling grasslands, 

rugged desert terrain, and lush alpine forests.

Forest visitors enjoy the recreation opportunities of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, including three 

scenic byways and several popular developed recreation areas. The forests also provide an 

abundance of dispersed recreation opportunities. Three wilderness areas and the Nation’s only 

primitive area provide opportunities for solitude and backcountry experiences. Over a thousand 

miles of trails provide ample hiking, bicycling, horseback, and off-highway vehicle access to 

natural highlights of the forests’ landscape. Big game hunting and fishing in some of the best 

lakes and streams of the Southwest are popular activities. The forests are also a destination for 

winter activities: snow play, snowmobiling, ice fishing, cross-country skiing, and sledding.

Many people, some of whom have long-time connections to the forests, have an interest in and 

use the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. American Indian tribes and many local residents have traditional 

ties, such as forest product collection, hunting, and large group gatherings. Loggers and ranchers 

continue to be an important part of the forests’ history, and their traditional uses remain an 

important part of the cultural landscape.

Additional values that make the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs unique in a national and regional context 

include the following:

• Visitors use the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs as a place to stay overnight more than any other 

forest in the National Forest System (Stynes and White, 2005).

• Aldo Leopold, known as the father of wildlife conservation, served as a timber cruiser on 

the Apache National Forest from 1909 to 1911.

• All but one of the Arizona big game species (bison) can be found on the forests. Species 

include pronghorn antelope, black bear, bighorn sheep, elk, javelina, turkey, mountain 

lion, mule deer, and white-tailed deer.

• Nine of the 21 Outstanding Arizona Waters are on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. These 

streams are considered outstanding State resources. 

• Twenty-one of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ rivers (and creeks) are eligible and two are 

suitable for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

• At 50 miles long, the Blue River is one of the longest stretches in the State with native 

fish species.

• The highest lightning frequency in Arizona occurs along the Mogollon Rim and the 

White Mountains.
Chapter 1. Background

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 13

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Mission

The phrase, “Caring for the Land and Serving People,” succinctly captures the Forest Service 

mission. The mission is to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests 

and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations. The overall goal of managing 

National Forest System lands is to sustain the multiple uses of its resources in perpetuity while 

maintaining the long term productivity of the land.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs staff strives to effectively and efficiently manage National Forest 

System lands and resources to meet the needs and desires of the public following applicable laws, 

regulations, and policies while enhancing the environment.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Vision

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs effectively manage for resiliency across the landscape. We ensure the 

perpetuation of a broad range of diverse habitats, exceptional recreation opportunities, 

functioning watersheds, robust rangelands, and a balanced flow of forest resources for future 

generations. We integrate community values and protection into all aspects of forest management.

Our employees are appreciated individually for their contributions and embrace safety as a core 

value. We embrace diversity and a collaborative approach with each other and the public. Our 

work is efficient, innovative, and adaptive. 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 15

Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Introduction

This chapter sets forth plan decisions and other content that apply forestwide. See chapter 1 for 

descriptions of plan decisions and other content. In the event of conflicts with other sections of 

this plan, the more restrictive plan decision generally applies. However, a project or activity level 

evaluation may be required to resolve the conflict. Plan decisions apply to projects or activities 

where site conditions provide an inherent capability to meet those plan decisions.

Plan decisions for forestwide direction are displayed in shaded boxes to distinguish them 

from other sections of the plan. 

Plan decisions and other content for management areas (chapter 3) and suitability (chapter 4) 

should also be consulted.

Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health

Healthy ecosystems are diverse and self-sustaining, displaying a variety of conditions (e.g., 

composition, structure, function, processes) between and within them. Ecosystem diversity

includes the distribution, complexity, and natural disturbance regimes of watershed and landscape 

scale features, affecting terrestrial, aquatic, and riparian ecosystems. Communities, populations, 

and individual plant and animal species are uniquely adapted to and dependent upon ecosystem 

diversity.

The following desired conditions describe the characteristics of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs that 

provide ecosystem diversity. Ecosystem diversity is the primary means by which this plan 

contributes to the maintenance and improvement of ecosystem health. Species diversity needs are 

accounted for in all aspects of this plan. Social and economic needs are also integrated into 

ecosystem desired conditions.

The ecological desired conditions are described at multiple scales and may only be achievable 

over a long timeframe (several hundred years). Descriptions at various scales are developed to 

provide detail and guidance for the design of future projects and activities that help achieve the 

desired conditions over time. Descriptions under the landscape scale provide the “big picture” 

desired conditions for terrestrial resources across the larger land area. Descriptions at the midscale and fine scale provide further details necessary for guiding future site-specific projects and 

activities. A combination of fine scale units add up to the mid-scale and a combination of midscale units add up to the landscape scale. Conversely, desired conditions for aquatic resources are 

described using watershed scales to help provide their relative importance or niche. Conditions 

for larger land areas are described under the 4th level (subbasin) to 5th level (watershed) 

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) watershed scale. More detailed descriptions for site-specific

conditions are described at the 6th level (subwatershed) HUC watershed scale. Not all resources 

require a description at each scale. 

Overall Ecosystem Health

Background for Overall Ecosystem Health

Prior to the late 1800s, the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs ecosystems were considered to be resilient. 

The landscape was filled with a wide variety of vegetation that provided habitat for a diverse 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

16 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

array of plants and animals. Fire, disease, and weather variability were natural components of 

these functioning ecosystems.

Beginning in the late 1800s, Euro-American settlers began making substantial changes to the 

ecological and species diversity of the landscape. In some cases, the underlying ecological 

processes and disturbances that sustained diversity have been altered from historic patterns 

(Forest Service, 2008b) and may not support the same native species distribution and abundance. 

Under current conditions, natural ecological processes (e.g., insects, disease, fire, climate change) 

are producing uncharacteristic outcomes (e.g., 2002 Rodeo-Chediski Fire, 2011 Wallow Fire, 

spruce-fir and piñon die off) in many ecosystems.

Public needs as well as public expectations regarding management of the national forests and 

grasslands have changed. Congress directed the Forest Service to manage National Forest System 

(NFS) lands for multiple uses and benefits and for the sustained yield of renewable resources. 

Multiple use means managing resources, under the best combination, to benefit the American 

people, while ensuring the sustained productivity of the land and protecting the quality of the 

environment into the future. There is general recognition of the principle that every use cannot 

occur on every acre of NFS land. 

The Forest Service has identified uncharacteristic fire and the buildup of fuels, unmanaged 

recreation, invasive species, and the loss of open space as threats to the health and sustainability

of the Nation’s forests. In addition, climate change1 has been added to the list of forces shaping 

the national forests and grasslands.

This plan provides a framework to contribute to ecological sustainability by identifying desired 

conditions that support diverse native plant and animal communities while protecting natural 

features and cultural resources. The needs for fish, wildlife, and rare plants are addressed

throughout the plan, rather than in one specific section.

The intent of this plan is to guide management efforts in the restoration and/or maintenance of 

ecosystems by maintaining or moving towards desired conditions. Sustainable supplies of 

resources such as timber, recreation, and forage are byproducts of healthy, functioning 

ecosystems.

Desired Conditions for Overall Ecosystem Health

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Ecological components (e.g., soil, vegetation, water) are resilient to disturbances 

including human activities and natural ecological disturbances (e.g., fire, drought, 

wind, insects, disease, pathogens).

 

1 The state of knowledge needed to deal with climate change at the forest scale is evolving and the potential outcomes, 

as a result of climate change, are uncertain. Most global climate models are not yet precise enough to apply to land 

management at the ecoregional or forest scale. This limits regional and forest-specific analysis of potential effects of 

climate change (see appendix A). However, based on current climate model projections and research, climate change 

factors that appear most likely to affect southwestern national forests and affect desired conditions are ecological, 

weather-related disturbances, and socioeconomic demands and include increases in (1) frequency of intense storms; (2) 

wildfire risks; (3) outbreaks of insects, diseases, and nonnative invasive species; (4) demand for decreasing water 

supplies; and (5) national forest socioeconomic uses and demands.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 17

• Natural ecological disturbances return to their characteristic roles within the 

ecosystem. Wildfire, in particular, is restored to a more natural function.

• Natural ecological cycles (i.e., hydrologic, energy, nutrient) facilitate shifting of plant 

communities, structure, and ages across the landscape. Ecotone shifts are influenced at 

both the landscape and watershed scale by ecological processes. The mosaic of plant 

communities and the variety within the communities are resilient to disturbances.

• Ecological conditions for habitat quality, distribution, and abundance contribute to selfsustaining populations of native and desirable nonnative plants and animals that are 

healthy, well distributed, connected, and genetically diverse. Conditions provide for the 

life history, distribution, and natural population fluctuations of the species within the 

capability of the landscape.

• Large blocks of habitat are interconnected, allowing for behavioral and predator-prey 

interactions, and the persistence of metapopulations and highly interactive wildlife 

species across the landscape. Ecological connectivity extends through all plant 

communities.

• Habitat configuration and availability allows wildlife populations to adjust their 

movements (e.g., seasonal migration, foraging) in response to climate change and 

promote genetic flow between wildlife populations.

• Habitat quality, distribution, and abundance exist to support the recovery of federally 

listed species and the continued existence of all native and desirable nonnative species.

• Healthy ecosystems provide a wide range of ecosystem services.

• Watersheds exhibit high geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to their 

natural potential condition.

Objectives for Overall Ecosystem Health

• During the planning period, improve the condition class on at least 10 priority 6th level 

HUC watersheds by removing or mitigating degrading factors2.

Management Approaches for Overall Ecosystem Health

In order to achieve overall ecosystem health and provide for species diversity, management focus 

is on achieving satisfactory watershed conditions and restoring ecological functions, especially 

natural fire regimes.

There is a concerted effort to restore priority 6th level HUC watersheds by reducing degrading 

factors. Priority 6th level watersheds are identified on an ongoing basis using the Watershed 

Condition Framework process. The 6-step “Watershed Condition Framework”

3

for improving 

 

2 Degrading factors include, but are not limited to, actions that cause or maintain high departure from historic

vegetation conditions, unsatisfactory or impaired soil condition, nonfunctioning riparian areas, impaired species habitat, 

occurrence of invasive species, and unstable road and trail conditions.

3

Information from the Watershed Condition Framework, including condition class and prioritization information, is 

available at http://apps.fs.usda.gov/WCFmapviewer/.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

18 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

watershed condition class includes (1) rating watersheds for current condition, (2) prioritizing 

watersheds for treatment, (3) developing watershed action plans for the entire watershed 

(including non-NFS lands) that identify specific project level activities needed to change 

condition classes, (4) implementing integrated suites of projects within priority watersheds, (5) 

tracking restoration accomplishments, and (6) monitoring the effectiveness of change in 

condition.

Highest priority treatments are those that remove risk factors that may threaten the integrity of the 

watershed, specifically those that cause low geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative 

to the watershed’s natural potential condition and that lead to unstable drainage networks or to

conditions which may not support beneficial uses of water. Geomorphic integrity can be defined 

in terms of attributes such as slope stability, soil erosion, channel morphology, and other upslope, 

riparian, and aquatic habitat characteristics. Hydrologic integrity relates primarily to flow, 

sediment, and water quality attributes. Biological integrity is defined by the characteristics that 

influence the diversity and abundance of aquatic species, vegetation, and soil productivity. 

Specific objectives to reduce degrading factors can be found below in the “Soil,” “Water

Resources,” “Aquatic Habitat,” and “All PNVTs” (vegetation) sections. Treatments include those 

that restore and then maintain natural fire regimes, improve riparian condition, restore meadows 

or openings, repair gullies, and reduce erosion.

Wildland fire has played an important ecological role in shaping the vegetation on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs. Forest managers utilize prescribed fire (planned ignitions) and wildfire

(unplanned ignitions) to help reintroduce fire into the ecosystems, restore natural fire regimes, 

and remove excessive fuels. Fire may be used alone or in combination with other treatments.

Direction for managing wildland fire is found in the “Wildland Fire Management” section.

Related Plan Content for Overall Ecosystem Health

See all sections listed under Maintenance and Improvement of Ecosystem Health in chapter 2.

Air

Background for Air

The Clean Air Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-500) and its subsequent amendments assign Federal 

land managers the responsibility to protect air quality related values in Class I airsheds and to 

protect human health and basic resource values in all areas.

Mount Baldy Wilderness (7,000 acres) is the only Class I airshed on the forests. This airshed is 

located directly above the wilderness. In Mount Baldy Wilderness, little to no deterioration of air 

quality is allowed. All other areas of the forests are Class II airsheds where only moderate 

deterioration of air quality is allowed. 

Human health standards are defined in the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set 

by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for seven pollutants considered harmful to public 

health: carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter 10 microns in size or smaller 

(PM10), particulate matter 2.5 microns in size or smaller (PM2.5), ozone, and sulfur dioxide. 

Population centers with the potential to be impacted from management activities on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs are the Show Low/Pinetop-Lakeside, Eagar/Springerville, Winslow, Holbrook,

Heber/Overgaard, and Payson areas. The Show Low/Pinetop-Lakeside, Eagar/Springerville, 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 19

Heber/Overgaard, and Payson areas are monitored continuously for fine particulates as they 

receive air drainage from the forests and nearby Fort Apache Indian Reservation. As determined 

by the State of Arizona, a portion of the forests falls within a sulfur dioxide (SO2) maintenance 

plan area near Morenci. Disturbances as described within the forest plan (e.g., vehicles traveling 

on unpaved roads, smoke from fires) may have an insignificant impact on air quality within this 

nonattainment area.

Temporary decreases in air quality from management activities on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are 

primarily from prescribed fire. Wildfires also produce emissions and are subject to conformance 

with State regulations (see appendix D). The NAAQS pollutant of concern from wildland fire is 

fine particulate matter, both PM10 and PM2.5. Studies indicate that 90 percent of smoke particles 

emitted from wildland fires are PM10, and about 90 percent of PM10 is PM2.5. Because of its small 

size, PM2.5 has an especially long residence time in the atmosphere and penetrates deeply into the 

lungs. 

The same fine particulate matter that poses health risks is also largely responsible for visibility 

impairment. The State of Arizona has developed a State implementation plan with long term

strategies to make “reasonable progress: in improving visibility in Class I areas inside the state 

and in neighboring jurisdictions” (Environmental Protection Agency, 1999), and focuses on 

anthropogenic (human) sources of emissions. 

Road dust has not been demonstrated to be a measurable contributor on a regional level to 

visibility in the 16 Class I areas located on the Colorado Plateau (Arizona Department of 

Environmental Quality, 2003). Although road dust has been a localized issue associated with 

implementation of some projects in the past, it has been addressed with site-specific mitigation 

measures.

Desired Conditions for Air

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Air quality related values, including high quality visual conditions, are maintained 

within the Class I airshed over Mount Baldy Wilderness.

• Class II airsheds meet State of Arizona air quality standards including those for 

visibility and public health.

Guidelines for Air

• During extended periods of burning, smoke should be monitored, in cooperation with 

the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, for levels that may have impacts to 

human health from fine particulates.

Management Approaches for Air

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs participate with the State of Arizona in the air quality regulatory 

process. Specialists review air permit applications for new and modified industrial facilities to 

ensure that their air emissions do not adversely impact the air quality related values (e.g., 

visibility) of federally protected Class I wilderness areas. Forest managers consider impacts to 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

20 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Class I and II areas and follow State of Arizona permit and regulatory requirements for smoke 

production to help determine the management response for wildfires. Site-specific mitigation for 

fugitive dust is incorporated into ground-disturbing projects through implementation of best 

management practices (BMPs) and retention and replacement of ground cover.

Related Plan Content for Air

See the following sections: All PNVTs, Wildland Fire Management, and Wilderness.

Soil

Background for Soil

The soil surface is the crucial area where plant and animal organic matter accumulates, begins to 

decompose, and eventually becomes incorporated into soil. It is also the zone of maximum 

biological activity and nutrient release. The presence and distribution of topsoil is critical to 

vegetation productivity. The physical condition of the soil surface plays a key role in soil stability, 

nutrient cycling, and water infiltration; the soil condition rating is based on these factors.

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs have areas with unsatisfactory soil condition. Before the 2011 Wallow 

Fire, satisfactory soil condition was estimated to be about 70 percent of the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs acres forestwide, compared to reference condition of at least 95 percent. Soil condition 

within the Wallow Fire area was estimated to be 78 percent satisfactory pre-fire and was reduced 

to about 50 percent satisfactory post fire. Soil condition recovery is variable and highly dependent 

on pre-fire soil condition, soil burn severity, and future land uses. In addition, soils associated 

with naturally unstable geology (e.g., Datil formation, slow geologic landslides) contribute to 

sediment loads in downstream rivers.

Desired Conditions for Soil

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Ecological and hydrologic functions are not impaired by soil compaction.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Soil condition rating is satisfactory4.

• Soils are stable within their natural capability4. Vegetation and litter limit accelerated 

erosion (e.g., rills, gullies, root exposure, topsoil loss) and contribute to soil deposition 

and development.

• Soils provide for diverse native plant species5. Vegetative ground cover (herbaceous 

vegetation and litter) is distributed evenly across the soil surface to promote nutrient 

cycling, water infiltration, and maintain natural fire regimes.

 

4 Satisfactory soil condition exists when indicators signify that soil function is being sustained and soil is functioning 

properly and normally. The ability of soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high.

5 Species composition and cover amounts and the amount of vegetation and litter needed for soil protection are 

described by ecological unit in the “Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” (Laing 

et al., 1987, as amended).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 21

• Biological soil crusts (e.g., mosses, lichens, algae, liverworts) are present and 

reestablished if potential exists.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Soil loss rates do not exceed tolerance soil loss rates6.

• Logs and other woody material are distributed across the surface to maintain soil 

productivity7. 

• Vegetation and litter are sufficient to maintain and improve water infiltration, nutrient 

cycling, and soil stability.

Objectives for Soil

• Annually, enhance or restore an average of 350 acres within priority 6

th level HUC 

watersheds, including treating the causes of State and federally designated impaired or 

threatened waters to improve watershed condition and water quality. 

Guidelines for Soil

• Projects with ground-disturbing activities should be designed to minimize long and 

short term impacts to soil resources. Where disturbance cannot be avoided, project 

specific soil and water conservation practices should be developed.

• Severely disturbed sites should be revegetated with native plant species when loss of 

long term soil productivity is predicted. 

• Locally collected seed should be used where available and cost effective. Seeds should 

be tested to ensure they are free from noxious weeds and invasive nonnative plants at a 

State certified seed testing laboratory before acceptance and mixing.

• Coarse woody debris retention and/or creation should be used as needed to help retain 

long term soil productivity.

Management Approaches for Soil

The forests emphasize restoration treatments in priority 6th level HUC watersheds that have a

high risk to ecologic sustainability. There is also an effort to improve water quality impaired 

streams and water bodies. Restoration treatments may include seeding, mulching, stabilization of 

gullies, or obliteration of unauthorized routes.

The Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey (TES) for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs was developed using 

local, regional, and southwestern U.S. research data collected prior to its publication in 1987. The 

 

6 Tolerance soil loss rates are the maximum rates that soil can erode and not reduce long term soil productivity. These 

were established for each terrestrial ecosystem mapping unit component and are described in the “Terrestrial 

Ecosystem Survey for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” (Laing et al., 1987, as amended).

7 The amount of woody material varies by PNVT; see vegetation desired conditions.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

22 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

forests use ground cover and vegetation canopy cover provided for each mapping unit to establish 

resource value ratings for soil and plant health for many management activities, particularly in the 

analysis and monitoring of restoration treatments and for grazing allotment management. The 

TES will be updated as new information is available to reflect current conditions and concepts. 

Ecological site descriptions will be developed using the TES as a baseline for further refinement 

of resource value ratings.

Related Plan Content for Soil

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, All PNVTs, Water Resources, Dispersed 

Recreation, Motorized Opportunities, and Nonmotorized Opportunities.

Water Resources

Background for Water Resources

Lands within the forests form the headwaters for the Little Colorado, Black, Blue, and San 

Francisco Rivers which produce water for many uses throughout the State of Arizona. Streams 

and riparian areas occur at a higher density than any other area in the 

State. Watersheds and aquatic ecosystems have changed from 

reference conditions, but the location of stream channels has 

generally not changed. The demand for water resources is increasing.

Many riparian areas are not in proper functioning condition. 

Diversions, impoundments, unnaturally dense forests, grazing, and 

prolonged drought have altered streamflow and riparian condition. In 

addition, pumping from the Little Colorado groundwater aquifer 

associated with the forests is greater than the estimated recharge, 

resulting in reduced water availability and affecting some 

streamflows and groundwater dependent ecosystems. 

Water quality is generally good, but there are some impaired streams 

and lakes. Suspended sediment is a potential nonpoint source water 

quality problem throughout the forests. There are nine Outstanding 

Arizona Waters on the forests.

Preserving streamflows is a challenge due to increased water demand and legal mandates for 

natural resources. Currently, the only avenue available to the Forest Service to preserve 

streamflows is to obtain water rights from the State of Arizona for instream flows. Arizona 

instream flow water rights are unique and provide the Forest Service with an opportunity to 

maintain and protect flow within streams so that fish and wildlife habitat and water-based 

recreation can be sustained. The Organic Administration Act8 provided for the establishment of 

national forest lands for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flow, consistent 

with existing Federal or state water rights laws. Other Federal law9allows for diversions or 

impoundments of water as long as the environment is protected and damage to fish and wildlife 

habitat is minimized.

 

8 Organic Administration Act, 1887 (16 USC 4751, 16 USC 481).

9 Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1976. Sec 505 (43 USC 1765).

Figure 3. Blue River
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 23

Desired Conditions for Water Resources

4

th Level (Subbasin) to 5th Level (Watershed) HUC Watershed Scale Desired Conditions

• Water quality, stream channel stability, and aquatic habitats retain their inherent 

resilience to natural and other disturbances.

• Water resources maintain the capability to respond and adjust to disturbances without 

long term adverse changes.

• Vegetation and soil conditions above the floodplain protect downstream water quality, 

quantity, and aquatic habitat.

6

th Level (Subwatershed) HUC Watershed Scale Desired Conditions

• Instream flows provide for channel and floodplain maintenance, recharge of riparian 

aquifers, water quality, and minimal temperature fluctuations.

• Streamflows provide connectivity among fish populations and provide unobstructed 

routes critical for fulfilling needs of aquatic, riparian-dependent, and many upland 

species of plants and animals.

• Water quantity meets the needs for forest administration and authorized activities (e.g., 

livestock grazing, recreation, firefighting, domestic use, road maintenance).

• Stream channels and floodplains are dynamic and resilient to disturbances. The water 

and sediment balance between streams and their watersheds allow a natural frequency 

of low and high flows.

• Stream condition is sufficient to withstand floods without disrupting normal stream

characteristics (e.g., water transport, sediment, woody material) or uncharacteristically

altering stream dimensions (e.g., bankfull width, depth, slope, sinuosity).

• Floodplains are functioning and lessen the impacts of floods on human safety, health, 

and welfare.

• Water quality meets or exceeds Arizona State standards or Environmental Protection 

Agency water quality standards for designated uses. 

• Water quality meets the needs of desirable aquatic species such as the California 

floater, northern and Chiricahua leopard frog, and invertebrates that support fish 

populations.

Standards for Water Resources

• Consistent with existing water rights, water diversions or obstructions shall at all times 

allow sufficient water to pass downstream to preserve minimum levels of water flow

that maintain aquatic life and other purposes of national forest establishment.

Guidelines for Water Resources

• Projects with ground-disturbing activities should be designed to minimize long and 

short term impacts to water resources. Where disturbance cannot be avoided, project 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

24 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

specific soil and water conservation practices and best management practices (BMPs)

should be developed.

• Streams, stream banks, shorelines, lakes, wetlands, seeps, springs and other bodies of 

water should be protected from detrimental changes10 in water temperature and 

sediment to protect water quality, aquatic species and riparian habitat.

• Aquatic management zones should be in place between streams and disturbed areas 

and/or road locations to maintain water quality and suitable stream temperatures for 

aquatic species.

• As State of Arizona water rights permits (e.g., water impoundments, diversions) are 

issued, the base level of instream flow should be retained by the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs.

• Constraints (e.g., maximum limit to which water level can be drawn down or minimum 

distance from a connected river, stream, wetland, or groundwater-dependent 

ecosystem) should be established for new groundwater pumping sites permitted on 

NFS lands in order to protect the character and function of water resources. 

• Short term impacts in watersheds containing Outstanding Arizona Waters may be 

allowed when long term benefits to water quality, riparian areas, and aquatic resources 

would occur.

• Treated wastewater may be used to provide wetland habitats.

• To protect water quality and aquatic species, heavy equipment and vehicles driven into 

a water body to accomplish work should be completely clean of petroleum residue. 

Water levels should be below the gear boxes of the equipment in use. Lubricants and 

fuels should be sealed such that inundation by water should not result in leaks. 

Management Approaches for Water Resources

The width of aquatic management zones—generally 50 to 300 feet—is determined at the project 

level based on stream attributes (e.g., class and type, channel condition, aspect, side slope 

steepness, erosion hazard of adjacent lands). The aquatic management zone for waters with high 

resource value and quality would be at the greater width of this range. Management activities 

within aquatic management zones are either modified or excluded to mitigate impacts to aquatic 

resources. Aquatic management zone protection extends to riparian areas and groundwaterdependent ecosystem resources, such as springs, seeps, fens and bogs as well as karst/cave 

features.

Related Plan Content for Water Resources

See the following sections: Soil, Aquatic Habitat and Species, Riparian Areas, Dispersed 

Recreation, Motorized Opportunities, Nonmotorized Opportunities, Special Uses, and Water 

Uses.

 

10 Detrimental changes are described in species-specific literature (e.g., recovery plans, listing and critical habitat 

designations, conservation strategies).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 25

Aquatic Habitat and Species

Background for Aquatic Habitat and Species

The forests are home to 14 native and 24 nonnative fish species. Fish habitats range from high 

elevation cold water streams (trout) to the lower elevation warm water streams (minnow and 

sucker). Other aquatic species include Chiricahua leopard frog, narrow-headed gartersnake, and

springsnails and other aquatic invertebrates.

Most streams have been altered from reference conditions, resulting in reduced quality of fish 

habitat. Inventoried streams have exhibited reduced habitat capabilities. Native fish populations 

and distributions are decreasing range-wide, and the resiliency of all fish species has been 

impacted. The alteration of habitats, isolation of populations, and introduction of nonnative

species have contributed to the decline of native fish habitat and populations. Almost all of the 

forests’ fish-bearing streams have been impacted by diversions. Some streams, during low flow 

years can be totally diverted, impacting habitat and aquatic species.

Invasive species are a serious and growing threat to native species. Nonnative invasive animals 

and plants, such as fish, crayfish, and Eurasian watermilfoil, prey on, out-compete, and degrade 

habitats that many native species depend on. In some cases, nonnative species are able to 

hybridize (crossbreed) with native species. 

If climate change predictions become reality, a warmer and drier climate may further reduce the 

quality and quantity of wetlands that provide habitat for resident and migratory waterfowl and 

associated mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Destruction of historic waterfowl congregation 

areas along the Colorado River and changes in migratory patterns have added to the importance 

of maintaining forest wetlands.

Desired Conditions for Aquatic Habitat and Species

4

th Level (Subbasin) to 5th Level (Watershed) HUC Watershed Scale Desired Conditions

• Streams and aquatic habitats support native fish and/or other aquatic species providing 

the quantity and quality of aquatic habitat within reference conditions11.

• Habitat conditions contribute to the recovery of federally listed species. 

• Streamflows, habitat, and water quality support native aquatic and riparian-dependent 

species and habitat.

6

th Level (Subwatershed) HUC Watershed Scale Desired Conditions

• Habitat and ecological conditions are capable of providing for self-sustaining 

populations of native, riparian-dependent plant and animal species.

• Native fish, reptile, amphibian, and invertebrate populations are free from or minimally 

impacted by nonnative plants and animals.

• Aquatic species habitat conditions provide the resiliency and redundancy necessary to 

maintain species diversity and metapopulations.

 

11 Reference conditions are described in species-specific literature and research.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

26 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Desirable nonnative fish species provide recreational fishing in waters where those 

opportunities are not in conflict with the recovery of native species.

• Wetlands are hydrologically functioning and have sufficient (composing 50 percent of 

the wetland) emergent vegetation and macroinvertebrate populations to support 

resident and migratory wetland dependent species.

Objectives for Aquatic Habitat and Species

• Annually, enhance or restore 5 to 15 miles of stream and riparian habitat to restore 

structure, composition, and function of physical habitat for native fisheries and 

riparian-dependent species.

• During the planning period, complete at least five projects (e.g., remove barriers, 

restore dewatered stream segments, or connect fragmented habitat) to provide for 

aquatic and riparian associated species and migratory species.

Standards for Aquatic Habitat and Species

• When drafting (withdrawing) water from streams or other water bodies, measures will 

be taken to prevent entrapment of fish and aquatic organisms and the spread of 

parasites or disease (e.g., Asian tapeworm, chytrid fungus, whirling disease).

Guidelines for Aquatic Habitat and Species

• Management and activities should not contribute to a trend toward the Federal listing

of a species.

• Activities occurring within federally listed species habitat should apply habitat 

management direction and species protection measures from recovery plans.

• To prevent degradation of native species habitat and the incidental or accidental 

introduction of diseases or nonnative species, aquatic species should not be transferred 

through management activities from one 6th level HUC watershed to another.

• Sufficient water should be left in streams to provide for aquatic species and riparian 

vegetation.

• Projects and activities should avoid damming or impounding free-flowing waters to 

provide streamflows needed for aquatic and riparian-dependent species.

• The needs of rare and unique species associated with wetlands, fens, bogs, and springs 

should be given priority consideration when developing these areas for waterfowl 

habitat and other uses.

• When new water diversions are created or existing water diversions are reanalyzed, 

measures should be taken to prevent entrapment of fish and aquatic organisms.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 27

Management Approaches for Aquatic Habitat and Species

Proactive management of aquatic habitats and populations is critical to reversing downward 

population trends in several federally listed species. Physical barriers or habitat alterations like 

temperature changes, loss of streamflow, nonnative species predation, and nonnative

hybridization can be threats to these species. Habitat improvement projects are prioritized with an 

emphasis on federally listed species and other species with population or habitat concerns. 

Managers work to ensure native species can be found in their historic habitat. 

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs assist the Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD) with efforts 

to protect and reintroduce native aquatic species where appropriate and control or eradicate 

nonnative species. The forests support efforts to develop effective methods to eradicate crayfish 

and other undesirable nonnative species. The Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests coordinate with 

and support the AZGFD in the use of aquatic habitat and species improvement methods in order 

to move aquatic resources toward desired conditions when such methods are consistent with 

applicable plan components.

Enhancement or restoration treatments may include stabilization of stream banks and road

crossings, facilitation of aquatic species passage and movement, restoration of perennial flows 

and native vegetation, or removal of unneeded impoundments. Ephemeral and seasonal wetlands 

are managed to lengthen wet periods. Wetlands are protected from activities that reduce habitat 

quality or size such as dewatering or loss of emergent vegetation. 

Related Plan Content for Aquatic Habitat and Species

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Water Resources, Riparian Areas, Invasive 

Species, Livestock Grazing, and Water Uses.

All PNVTs

Background for All PNVTs

The 14 major PNVTs

12 can be assembled into 5 groupings: riparian, forest, woodland, grassland, 

and chaparral. This section pertains to all 5 groupings and all 14 PNVTs. Each PNVT consists of 

one or more subtypes depending on local environmental characteristics. These subtypes (e.g., 

pine-Gambel oak is a subtype of the ponderosa pine PNVT) are not described in detail in this plan 

but may be evaluated at the project or activity level.

Riparian PNVTs include wetland/cienegas and three riparian forested PNVTs: mixed broadleaf 

deciduous, montane willow, and cottonwood-willow. There are four forested PNVTs: ponderosa 

pine, dry mixed conifer, wet mixed conifer, and spruce-fir. Madrean pine-oak and piñon-juniper 

make up the woodland PNVTs. The three grassland PNVTs are Great Basin, semi-desert, and 

montane/subalpine. Interior chaparral is the only chaparral PNVT. 

All of these PNVTs vary, to some degree, in structure, composition, function, and natural 

ecological processes from what they were historically. Fire and climate change are among the 

most important natural ecological disturbances that shaped these vegetation communities. 

The variety of habitat conditions provides for a wide diversity of plant species. Preliminary

estimates include over 2,500 species and varieties. Vegetation conditions for Mexican spotted owl

(MSO) and other federally listed species, although not described in detail below, are managed 

consistent with the habitat requirements specified in the appropriate species recovery plan.

 

12 This plan refers to PNVT, meaning the potential natural vegetation type. Refer to appendix B for more information.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

28 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Ranges of values presented in desired conditions reflect varying multiple use needs and/or the 

natural variation in the composition and structure within a PNVT due to soils, elevation, and

aspect. The desired conditions do not necessarily represent reference conditions, since it may not 

be possible, nor desirable, to return to that condition. Additional information on desired 

conditions for overstory and understory vegetation can be found in appendix B.

Desired conditions are described at multiple scales when possible. Fine scale is a 10-acre or less 

area at which the distribution of individual trees (single, grouped, or aggregates of groups) is 

described. Mid-scale is a unit of 100 to 1,000 acres and is composed of assemblages of fine scale 

units which have similar biophysical conditions. Landscape scale is an assemblage of mid-scale 

units, typically composed of variable elevations, slopes, aspects, soils, plant associations, and 

ecological processes. An area at this scale comprises multiple mid-scale units, most often 10 or 

more.

Desired Conditions for All PNVTs

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Each PNVT contains a mosaic of vegetative conditions, densities, and structures. This 

mosaic occurs at a variety of scales across landscapes and watersheds. The distribution 

of physical and biological conditions is appropriate to the natural disturbance regimes 

affecting the area.

• The vegetative conditions and functions are resilient to the frequency, extent, and 

severity of disturbances (e.g., fire, insects and disease, flood, climate change, 

management activities). The landscape is a functioning ecosystem that contains all its 

components and processes.

• Natural processes and human and natural disturbances (e.g., wildland fire, mechanical 

vegetation treatments) provide desired overall tree density, structure, species 

composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling. Natural fire regimes are 

restored. Uncharacteristic fire behavior is minimal or absent on the landscape. 

• Wildland fire maintains and enhances resources and, as nearly as possible, is allowed 

to function in its natural ecological role. 

• Native plant communities dominate the landscape.

• Species genetic diversity remains within native vegetation and animal populations, 

thus enabling species to adapt to changing environmental and climatic conditions. 

• Vegetative connectivity provides for species dispersal, genetic exchange, and daily and 

seasonal movements across multiple spatial scales.

• Vegetation characteristics (e.g., density, litter) provide favorable conditions for water

flow and quality.

• Organic soil cover and herbaceous vegetation protect soil, facilitate moisture 

infiltration, and contribute to plant and animal diversity and ecosystem function.

• Diverse vegetation structure, species composition, densities, and seral states provide 

quality habitat for native and desirable nonnative plant and animal species throughout 

their life cycle and at multiple spatial scales. Landscapes provide for the full range of 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 29

ecosystem diversity at multiple scales, including habitats for those species associated 

with late seral states and old growth. 

• Old growth is dynamic in nature, well distributed, and spatially shifts across forest and 

woodland landscapes over time.

• Old or large trees, multistoried canopies, large coarse woody debris, and snags provide 

the structure, function, and associated vegetation composition as appropriate for each 

forested and woodland PNVT.

• Vegetation conditions allow for transition zones or ecotones between riparian areas, 

forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands. Transition zones may shift in time and 

space due to changing site conditions from disturbances (e.g., fire, climate change).

• Insect and disease populations are at endemic levels with occasional outbreaks. A 

variety of seral states usually restricts the scale of localized insect and disease 

outbreaks.

• Disjunct populations of Chihuahuan pine, Arizona cypress, and Rocky Mountain maple 

are present with the ability to reproduce on capable sites.

• Herbivory is in balance with available forage (i.e., grazing and browsing by authorized 

livestock, wild horses, and wildlife do not exceed available forage production within 

established use levels).

• Vegetation conditions within each PNVT should be similar to site potential13.

• Shrub components contain a diverse array of native vegetation that is well distributed 

across the landscape to provide nutritional needs for browsers.

• Vegetation provides products—such as wood fiber or forage—to help meet local and 

regional needs in a manner that is consistent with other desired conditions on a 

sustainable basis within the capacity of the land.

• Ecosystem services are available as forests, woodlands, grasslands, and riparian 

communities successfully adapt to a changing and variable climate.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Stand densities and species compositions are such that vegetation conditions are 

resilient under a variety of potential future climates. 

• Vegetation conditions provide hiding and thermal cover in contiguous blocks for 

wildlife. Native plant species are present in all age classes and are healthy, 

reproducing, and persisting.

• Vegetative ground cover (herbaceous vegetation and litter) is optimized14 to protect and 

enrich soils and promote water infiltration. There is a diverse mix of cool and warm 

season grasses and desirable forbs species.

 

13 Similarity refers to a method of comparing the composition of the existing plant community to the potential natural 

plant community as described by the ecological unit in the “Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey for the Apache-Sitgreaves 

National Forests” (Laing et al., 1987, as amended).

14 Based on site capability as defined by the specific ecological unit under consideration in the “Terrestrial Ecosystem 

Survey for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” (Laing et al., 1987, as amended).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

30 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Grasses, forbs, shrubs, and litter are abundant and continuous to support natural fire 

regimes.

• The composition, density, structure, and mosaic of vegetative conditions reduce 

uncharacteristic wildfire hazard to local communities and forest ecosystems. 

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Rare or unique plant communities (e.g., agaves, Chihuahuan pine) are intact and 

persisting.

• Herbaceous vegetation amount and structure (e.g., plant density, height, litter, seed

heads) provides habitat to support wildlife and prey species.

• Some isolated infestations of mistletoe provide for a diversity of habitat components 

(e.g., food, nesting, cover) for a variety of species such as owls, squirrels, and some 

birds and insects.

Standards for All PNVTs

• Across the planning unit, within each PNVT, vegetation management activities shall be 

designed to maintain or move plant composition toward a moderate to high plant 

community similarity15 as compared to site potential.

• Vegetation treatments shall include measures to reduce the potential for introduction of 

invasive plants and animals and damage from nonnative insects and diseases. 

Guidelines for All PNVTs

• During project design and implementation, precautions should be taken to reduce the 

potential for damage to residual vegetation in order to prevent premature or excessive 

mortality.

• Landscape scale restoration projects should be designed to spread treatments out

spatially and/or temporally within the project area to reduce implementation impacts 

and allow reestablishment of vegetation and soil cover.

• Restoration methods, such as thinning or prescribed fire, should leave a mosaic of 

untreated areas within the larger treated project area to allow recolonization of treated 

areas by plants, small mammals, and insects (e.g., long-tailed voles, fritillary 

butterflies).

• Wildland fires may be used to meet desired resource conditions, maintain or promote 

desired vegetation species, and enable natural fires to return to their historic role.

• Insect and disease infected trees should be removed to prevent spread beyond endemic 

levels.

 

15 Moderate similarity to the desired plant community begins at 34 percent; high similarity to the desired plant

community begins at 67 percent. Similarity is described in FSH 2090.11 (1.47a - Ecological Status). Current 

methodology for estimating similarity is found in the Region 3 Rangeland Analysis and Management Training Guide, 

July 1999 (revised November 2013).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 31

• Green slash and decked logs should be managed, in a timely manner, to make them 

unfavorable bark beetle habitat. 

• Project implementation should include bark beetle monitoring within and adjacent to 

all active slash-creating projects to help prevent beetle outbreak.

• Projects should include quantitative and/or qualitative objectives for implementation 

monitoring and effectiveness monitoring to assist in moving toward or maintaining 

desired conditions.

Management Approaches for All PNVTs

Vegetation treatments are concentrated in priority 6

th level HUC watersheds and areas identified 

in community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs), including regular treatments to maintain 

desired conditions in the Community-Forest Intermix Management Area16. The PNVTs (see 

specific PNVTs and appendix B) are validated at the project or activity level for application of 

plan desired conditions. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs work to update and refine the terrestrial 

ecosystem survey.

As treatments are planned, forest managers consider native species resiliency in order to avoid 

loss of genetic diversity, including the widespread elimination of a particular native woody 

species and/or certain genotypes/phenotypes of any species. Local plant materials are collected, 

stored, propagated, and used to provide for continued genetic diversity and to respond to 

changing environmental conditions. Those species lacking in the tree seed inventory, as well as 

other key plant species at risk from uncharacteristic disturbance, are collected as opportunities 

arise from a variety of locations within their natural ranges.

Managers also consider the impacts of insects and disease. Appropriate cutting methods and/or 

fire are used to manage mistletoe and other insect and disease infestations. Large project areas 

(generally larger than 500 to 1,000 acres) creating green slash for 2 or more consecutive years are 

generally spaced over 2 miles apart from each other to help prevent bark beetle population 

buildup. To further reduce bark beetle occurrence, managers attempt to effectively treat slash 

within approximately 30 days of slash creation.

Related Plan Content for All PNVTs

See the following sections: Air, Soil, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Landscape Scale Disturbance 

Events, Motorized Opportunities, Forest Products, Wildland Fire Management, and CommunityForest Intermix.

Riparian Areas

Background for Riparian Areas

Riparian areas include plant communities associated with springs, seeps, streams, ponds, lakes,

and other wet areas. These areas collect and transport water, soil, and organic material from 

upslope and upstream. They make up the most biologically productive and diverse components of 

 

16 The Community-Forest Intermix Management Area makes up a portion of the wildland-urban interface. See chapter 

3 for information on management areas.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

32 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

the forests’ ecosystems. Fish, most wildlife, and many plant species depend on riparian areas for

their existence. Riparian areas provide important habitat connectivity for terrestrial and aquatic 

species. Some wildlife, such as otter and beaver, historically contributed to the maintenance of 

riparian areas.

Riparian areas are important because water is rare in the Southwest. Four specific PNVTs occur 

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs: montane willow riparian forest, cottonwood-willow riparian 

forest, mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forest, and wetland/cienega. These riparian areas cover 

less than 3 percent of the forests; however, they represent a major portion of the riparian areas 

within the ecoregion17. Because they cover such a small area and have a shallow saturated zone 

beneath them, they are vulnerable to disturbance. The interface between riparian areas and 

uplands provides important wildlife habitat and helps filter sediment. Compared to surrounding 

uplands, riparian areas have characteristics (e.g., surface water, saturated soils) that reduce fire 

frequency and fire intensity.

Montane willow riparian forest PNVT, at roughly 4,800 acres, is found along approximately 

1,130 miles of rivers and streams starting at about 5,000 feet in elevation and extending up to 

approximately 11,000 feet. At lower elevations, this riparian PNVT can be found along perennial 

streams and seasonal or intermittent drainages. Dominant woody vegetation includes a variety of 

willows such as Geyer and Bebb, narrowleaf cottonwood, and Arizona alder. Shrubs include 

skunkbush sumac, chokecherry, and red osier dogwood. An assortment of herbaceous species is 

usually present. At higher elevations, montane willow riparian areas are found along stream 

banks, seeps, fens, and isolated springs. Dominant woody vegetation includes a variety of 

willows, thinleaf alder, and currant. In many high elevation sites, nonnative Kentucky and Canada 

bluegrasses are the dominant herbaceous species.

Cottonwood-willow riparian forest PNVT covers approximately 15,900 acres and is typically 

found at elevations from 5,500 to 7,500 feet along roughly 800 miles of rivers and streams in 

wider valley bottoms. This riparian PNVT is found primarily on the Sitgreaves NF. Dominant 

woody species include narrowleaf cottonwood and a variety of willows such as Geyer and 

Goodding’s. An assortment of herbaceous species is usually present.

Mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forest PNVT, at roughly 9,700 acres, is found along 

approximately 860 miles of rivers and streams. Elevations start around 3,500 feet and range up to 

approximately 6,500 feet. The vegetation is a mix of riparian woodlands and shrublands with a 

variety of vegetation associations. The dominant vegetation depends on a mixture of site-specific

characteristics including elevation, soil type, stream gradient, and depth to groundwater. For 

example, one vegetation association is dominated by bigtooth maple with mixed stands of Emory 

oak and scattered conifers (pines and junipers). Other sites can be dominated by a mixture of 

woody species including boxelder, Fremont cottonwood, Arizona sycamore, velvet ash, Arizona 

walnut, desert willow, and true willow species (e.g., Goodding’s), as well as numerous shrub, 

grass, and forb species.

 

17 Ecoregion sections and subsections are units in the National Hierarchy of Ecological Units ranging in size from 

13 million acres (section) down to 10,000 acres (subsection) that describe areas of similar environmental and biological 

features. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is located in the White Mountains-San Francisco Peaks-Mogollon Rim ecoregion 

section.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 33

Wetland/cienega riparian areas generally occur between 5,500 and 11,000 feet elevation and 

cover roughly 17,900 acres. This PNVT is associated with perennial springs, seeps or headwater 

streams, bogs, and fens where groundwater intersects the surface and creates pools of standing 

water, sometimes with channels flowing between pools. Wetland/cienegas may also include high 

elevation meadows with subsurface flows. Vegetation composition is diverse, varies with 

elevation, and includes saltgrass, bentgrasses, sacaton, and bog alkaligrass at lower elevations and 

tufted hairgrass, mannagrasses, sedges, and spikerushes, among others, at middle and higher 

elevations. 

All of the riparian PNVTs’ overstory vegetation, except for the cottonwood-willow riparian forest

PNVT, are considered departed from reference conditions. Most of this departure has occurred in 

response to past grazing and water diversions for agriculture. Many riparian areas are not in 

proper functioning condition (PFC). Changes in watershed conditions have resulted in altered 

canopy cover, including a loss of mature trees and saplings; a change in vegetation species 

composition, including a shift toward increasing conifer dominance; and a reduction in the 

amount and composition of herbaceous vegetation. In addition, riparian tree species are not 

successfully reproducing in many areas. During drought conditions, riparian areas are more 

susceptible to damage from wildfire than under normal conditions. 

Based on range conditions and ecological status, the majority (approximately 59 percent) of 

herbaceous understory vegetation within the riparian forested PNVTs is highly to severely 

departed from desired conditions. The ecological status of herbaceous understory vegetation 

within the wetland/cienega riparian areas is split, nearly equally, between low to moderately 

departed and high to severely departed from desired conditions. 

The montane willow, cottonwood-willow, and mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forests are

generally within the historic fire regime. The wetland/cienega’s fire regime is moderately 

departed. Additional information about overstory and understory vegetation conditions can be 

found in appendix B.

Because riparian areas are important to a large number of wildlife, no single species could 

adequately serve as a management indicator species for analyzing impacts to biological diversity. 

Instead, two riparian areas were selected as an “ecological indicator” or EI for forest plan 

monitoring to provide an indirect way to estimate how forest management and activities influence 

associated species. The montane willow and the cottonwood-willow riparian forested PNVTs 

were selected18 as the riparian EI.

Desired Conditions for Riparian Areas

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Natural ecological disturbances (e.g., flooding, scouring) promote a diverse plant 

structure consisting of herbaceous, shrub, and tree species of all ages and size classes

necessary for the recruitment of riparian-dependent species.

 

18 For more information, see the “Wildlife and Rare Plants” section, chapter 3 of the Programmatic Final 

Environmental Impact Statement for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Forest Service, 

2014).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

34 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Riparian-wetland conditions maintain water-related processes (e.g., hydrologic, 

hydraulic, geomorphic). They also maintain the physical and biological community 

characteristics, functions, and processes.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Stream (lotic) riparian-wetland areas have vegetation, landform, and/or large coarse 

woody debris to dissipate stream energy associated with high water flow.

• Streams and their adjacent floodplains are capable of filtering, processing, and storing 

sediment; aiding floodplain development; improving floodwater retention; and 

increasing groundwater recharge.

• Vegetation and root masses stabilize stream banks, islands, and shoreline features 

against the cutting action of water.

• Ponding and channel characteristics provide habitat, water depth, water duration, and 

the temperatures necessary for maintaining populations of riparian-dependent species 

and for their dispersal.

• Beavers occupy capable stream reaches and help promote the function and stability of 

riparian areas.

• Lentic riparian areas (e.g., wet meadows, fens, bogs) have vegetation and landform 

present to dissipate wind action, wave action, and overland flow from uplands.

• Wetland riparian areas are capable of filtering sediment and aiding floodplain

development that contribute to water retention and groundwater recharge.

• Willows (e.g., Bebb, Geyer, Arizona, Goodding’s) are reproducing with all age classes 

present, where the potential exists.

• The spatial extent of wetlands is maintained19.

• Sedimentation and soil compaction from forest activities (e.g., vehicle use, recreation, 

livestock grazing) do not negatively impact riparian areas.

• Riparian vegetation consists mostly of native species that support a wide range of 

vertebrate and invertebrate species and are free of invasive plant and animal species.

• Riparian-obligate species within wet meadows, around springs and seeps, along stream 

banks, and active floodplains provide sufficient14. vegetative ground cover (herbaceous 

vegetation, litter, and woody riparian species) to protect and enrich soils, trap 

sediment, mitigate flood energy, stabilize stream banks, and provide for wildlife and 

plant needs.

• Diversity and density of riparian forest vegetation provides for breeding, escape, 

hiding, and resting cover for wildlife and provides travel ways between other habitat 

areas and seasonal ranges.

 

19 The spatial extent of wetlands is delineated in the 2011 RMAP (Regional Riparian Mapping Project) found in the 

forests’ GIS database.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 35

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• The ecological function of riparian areas is resilient to animal and human use.

• Riparian soil productivity is optimized as described by the specific TES map unit14

under consideration as indicated by the vigor of the vegetation community. Based on 

species composition, ungrazed plant heights20 range from 10 inches to 36 inches.

• Floodplains and adjacent upland areas provide diverse habitat components (e.g., 

vegetation, debris, logs) as necessary for migration, hibernation, and brumation 

(extended inactivity) specific to the needs of riparian-obligate species (e.g., New 

Mexico meadow jumping mouse, Arizona montane vole, narrow-headed gartersnake).

• Large coarse woody debris provides stability to riparian areas and stream bottoms 

lacking geologic control (e.g., bedrock) or geomorphic features (e.g., functioning 

floodplains, stream sinuosity, width/depth ratio).

• Vegetation is structurally diverse, often dense, providing for high bird species diversity 

and abundance, especially neotropical migratory birds. It includes large trees and snags 

in the cottonwood-willow and mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forests to support 

species such as beaver, yellow-billed cuckoo, bald eagles, Arizona gray squirrel, and 

various bat species.

Objectives for Riparian Areas

• Annually, move 200 to 500 acres toward desired composition, structure, and function 

of streams, floodplains, and riparian vegetation.

• Within the planning period, relocate, repair, improve, or decommission a minimum of 

4 miles of National Forest System roads or trails that add sediment to streams, damage 

riparian vegetation, erode stream banks, cause gullies, and/or compact floodplain soils.

• Annually, remove an average of 2 miles of unauthorized roads or trails that add 

sediment to streams, damage riparian vegetation, erode stream banks, cause gullies, 

and/or compact floodplain soils.

• Within the planning period, enhance or restore 5 to 25 wet meadows, springs, seeps, or 

cienegas to proper hydrologic function and native plant and animal species 

composition.

• Annually, work with partners to reduce animal damage to native willows and other 

riparian species on an average of 5 miles of riparian habitat.

Guidelines for Riparian Areas

• Ground-disturbing projects (including prescribed fire) which may degrade long term 

riparian conditions should be avoided.

 

20 Plant height source material: Vine, 1960; Hermann, 1970 and 1975; Hitchcock and Chase, 1971; McDougall, 1973; 

Correll and Correll, 1975; Gould, 1977; Martin and Hutchins, 1980; Benson and Darrow, 1981; Hickman, 1993; 

Cronquist et al., 1997; Ruyle and Young, 1997; Welsh et al., 1997; Hurd et al., 1998; Barkworth et al., 2003 and 2007; 

Flora of North America, 2008; and Springer et al., 2009.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

36 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Wet meadows, springs, seeps and cienegas should not be used for concentrated 

activities (e.g., equipment storage, forest product or mineral stockpiling, livestock 

handling facilities, special uses) that cause damage to soil and vegetation.

• Active grazing allotments should be managed to maintain or improve to desired 

riparian conditions.

• Storage of fuels and other toxicants should be located at least 100 feet outside of 

riparian areas to prevent spills that could impair water quality or harm aquatic species. 

• Equipment should be fueled or serviced at least 100 feet outside of riparian areas to 

prevent spills that could impair water quality or harm aquatic species. 

• Construction or maintenance equipment service areas should be located at least 100 

feet from riparian areas, and treated to prevent gas, oil, or other contaminants from 

washing or leaching into streams.

Management Approaches for Riparian Areas

Riparian areas that are emphasized for treatment occur within priority 6

th level HUC watersheds 

or areas that have native fish and aquatic species concerns. The forests currently use Proper 

Functioning Condition methodology (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1998 and 1999) to 

inventory riparian condition. Landscape scale restoration is expected to improve riparian 

conditions through improved hydrologic function of uplands. Riparian conditions may be 

improved by such techniques as removing non-riparian species, planting or restoring native 

species, stabilizing or eliminating roads, encouraging beaver colonization, or constructing 

fencing. Treatments may include restoration of hardwood and cottonwood galleries, restoration of 

upland conditions by removing encroaching trees and/or reducing tree densities, and restoration

of infrequent fire. Large human constructed dams may be altered or removed to restore and/or 

improve riparian and wetland functionality. The forests maintain an inventory and assessment of 

wetlands and other groundwater-dependent resources such as springs, seeps, bogs and fens.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs work with the Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD)

minimize wildlife impacts to riparian vegetation and structure and to develop project design 

criteria to protect important habitat features such as springs, bogs, seeps, and fens. In high impact 

areas, partnerships may be formed to construct and maintain exclosure fencing. The ApacheSitgreaves NFs work with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to update existing conservation 

agreements (e.g., Arizona willow) and develop new ones as needed. 

Related Plan Content for Riparian Areas

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, Water Resources, Aquatic Habitat 

and Species, All PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Dispersed Recreation, Motorized 

Opportunities, Nonmotorized Opportunities, and Wildland Fire Management.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 37

Forests: All Forested PNVTs

Background for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

The following objectives, guidelines, and management approaches apply to ponderosa pine, dry 

mixed conifer, wet mixed conifer, spruce-fir, and aspen in addition to the specific direction listed 

in those sections. Forested PNVTs total approximately 946,000 acres.

Desired Conditions for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

See the desired conditions for ponderosa pine, dry mixed conifer, wet mixed conifer, spruce-fir, 

and aspen.

Objectives for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

• Annually, treat 5,000 to 35,000 acres to reduce tree densities, restore natural fire 

regimes, promote species habitat and ecosystem health, reduce fire hazard, maintain 

desired conditions, initiate recovery from uncharacteristic disturbance, and provide 

forest products, leaving a desired mix of species with the range of desired densities that 

are resilient to changing climatic conditions.

Standards for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

• Regulated timber harvest activities shall occur only on those lands classified as suitable 

for timber production. 

• If individual harvest openings created by even-aged silvicultural practices are proposed 

that would exceed 40 acres, then National Forest Management Act (NFMA) 

requirements regarding public notification and regional forester approval shall be 

followed. These requirements do not apply to the size of areas harvested because of 

natural catastrophic conditions such as, but not limited to, fire, insect and disease 

attacks, or windstorms.

• On lands suitable for timber production, timber harvest and wildland fire intended to 

create openings for tree regeneration shall only be used when there is reasonable 

assurance of restocking within 5 years after final regeneration harvest. Restocking 

level is prescribed in a site-specific silviculture prescription for a project treatment unit 

and is determined to be adequate depending on the objectives and desired conditions 

for the plan area. In some instances, such as when lands are harvested or prescribed 

burned to create or maintain openings for firebreaks and vistas, it is appropriate not to 

restock.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

38 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• On lands suitable for timber production, even-aged stands shall have reached or 

surpassed culmination of mean annual increment (95 percent of culmination of mean 

annual increment of growth, as measured by cubic volume) prior to regeneration 

harvest, unless the following conditions have been identified during project 

development: (1) when such harvesting would assist in reducing fire hazard within the 

wildland-urban interface, or (2) when harvesting of stands will trend landscapes toward 

vegetation desired conditions (e.g., uneven-aged structure).

• Harvesting systems shall be selected based on their ability to meet desired conditions 

and not strictly on their ability to provide the greatest dollar return.

• Clearcutting shall be used only where it is the optimum method for meeting desired 

conditions.

Guidelines for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

• Where current forests are lacking proportional representation of late seral states and 

species composition on a landscape scale, old growth characteristics should be retained 

or encouraged to the greatest extent possible within the scope of meeting other desired 

conditions (e.g., reduce impacts from insects and disease, reduce the threat of 

uncharacteristic wildfire). 

• Healthy southwestern white pine should be retained to maintain the wide range of 

genetic variability that contributes to resistance against the nonnative white pine blister 

rust disease.

• Tree species that are less susceptible to root disease should be retained within areas of 

root disease infection to reduce spread of disease.

• On single species dominated sites, uneven-aged management may be used where less 

than 20 percent of the host tree species—or less than 25 percent of the area—is 

infected by dwarf mistletoe. Thinning and under-burning may be used to keep dwarf 

mistletoe levels from increasing. Even-aged management or deferral should be 

considered when greater than 20 percent of the host species, or 25 percent of the area, 

is infected with dwarf mistletoe. 

• On single species dominated sites, thinning should not be attempted where more than 

80 percent of the host species—or 90 percent of the area—is infected with dwarf 

mistletoe. Regeneration and/or deferral may be used in these cases. However, in the 

Community-Forest Intermix Management Area additional treatment options may be 

used.

• On mixed species dominated sites, even-aged management or deferral should be used 

instead of uneven-aged management where more than 50 percent of conifer trees 

(excluding white fir) are infected by dwarf mistletoe.

• When thinning dwarf mistletoe infected sites, as much mistletoe should be removed as 

possible without sacrificing the healthiest, most desirable trees for the particular site (in 

some situations, this may involve retaining some trees in the upper canopy that are 

lightly infected to meet multiple resource objectives).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 39

• Where a seed cut treatment (even-aged method to promote natural seedling 

establishment) is applied for dwarf mistletoe control, it should be followed within 10

years of seedling establishment by a final removal treatment or other effective means 

to prevent further infection.

• Where a site-specific analysis indicates the need to reduce fire-kill of desired residual 

trees, fuel continuity and/or loading should be reduced before use of prescribed fire.

• Trees, snags, and logs immediately adjacent to active red squirrel cone caches, Abert’s 

squirrel nests, and raptor nests should be retained to maintain needed habitat 

components and provide tree groupings.

• Hiding cover, approach cover (by waters), and travel corridor cover should be provided 

where needed by wildlife.

Management Approaches for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

Forest treatments occur predominantly in ponderosa pine and dry and wet mixed conifer. There is 

an emphasis on restoring natural fire regimes, providing wildlife species habitat needs, obtaining 

sustainable forest products, and/or achieving ecosystem health within priority 6

th level HUC 

watersheds. Treatment methods (see appendix B) may include wildland fire, fencing, mechanized 

and hand thinning, planting, chemical treatments, and other silvicultural treatments. Cone

collection, tree planting, and natural regeneration are used to ensure the perpetuation of desired 

tree species. Mexican spotted owl and northern goshawk are management indicator species (MIS) 

of forest density and structure. The treatment objective listed above would contribute to species 

viability.

When salvaging timber where high severity fire occurred, an adequate number of trees for snag 

recruitment and coarse woody debris would be left to maintain long term soil productivity and to 

meet wildlife needs. The desired amount of snags and debris is described in the specific forested 

PNVT desired conditions section.

Considerations are made so that remaining 

trees following thinning projects are less 

subject to windthrow. To help prevent 

windthrow, project managers consider

(1) soils with windthrow potential, 

(2) species silvics (windthrow prone), and 

(3) avoiding cuts which would reduce 

existing tree density by generally more 

than 66 percent in one entry, unless the 

remaining trees are kept in windfirm 

groups. 

The use of wildland fire to burn large 

areas is expected to be an important tool to 

manage some aspen and insect and disease populations. Uneven-aged management techniques are 

used primarily, and some even-aged management is used especially when managing species such 

as aspen and spruce. Even-aged treatments may be applied in the short term for forest health

concerns (e.g., heavy dwarf mistletoe infections) to facilitate a transition to uneven-aged 

Figure 4. Prescribed fire
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

40 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

management. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs work with partners to reduce browse impacts on 

woody species.

Related Plan Content for Forests: All Forested PNVTs

See the following sections: All PNVTs, Forests: Ponderosa Pine, Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer, 

Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer, Forests: Spruce-Fir, Forests: Aspen, Landscape Scale Disturbance 

Events, Forest Products, Wildland Fire Management, and Community-Forest Intermix 

Management Area.

Forests: Ponderosa Pine

Background for Forests: Ponderosa Pine

Ponderosa pine at approximately 602,200 acres represents the largest PNVT on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs. This PNVT generally occurs at elevations ranging from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. It is 

dominated by ponderosa pine and commonly includes other species such as Gambel oak, New 

Mexico locust, and at lower elevations and more southerly aspects, juniper, and piñon. 

Occasionally, species such as quaking aspen (aspen), southwestern white pine, Rocky Mountain 

Douglas-fir, white fir, and blue spruce may be present and may occur as individual trees or in 

small groups at higher elevations and more northerly aspects. This PNVT sometimes appears 

savanna like, with extensive areas of grasses, forbs and occasional shrubs forming variably-sized

interspaces in between individual trees, small clumps, and groups of trees. Approximately 

6,000 acres of aspen are scattered across this PNVT. 

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (post-Wallow Fire) severely departed from reference 

conditions. There are too many stands in all diameter classes with a closed canopy characteristic, 

and there are too few large to very large size trees with an open canopy character. The majority 

(85 percent) of the herbaceous understory vegetation within ponderosa pine forest is highly to 

severely departed from desired conditions. Approximately 9 percent of this PNVT was reset to an 

early developmental state because of the 2011 Wallow Fire. The natural fire regime is also 

severely departed from reference conditions. Historically, fire burned relatively frequently (every 

2 to 17 years) and at low intensities that kept the forest open with abundant herbaceous cover.

Some areas that appear to be ponderosa pine forest are actually historic montane/subalpine or 

Great Basin grasslands that have been encroached by conifer species.

Desired Conditions for Forests: Ponderosa Pine

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• The ponderosa pine forest is a mosaic of structural states ranging from young to old 

trees. Forest structure is variable but uneven-aged and open in appearance. Sporadic

areas of even-aged structure may be present on 10 percent or less of the landscape to 

provide structural diversity.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 41

• The forest arrangement consists of individual trees, small clumps, and groups of trees 

with variably-sized interspaces of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Vegetation associations 

are similar to reference conditions. The size, shape, and number of trees per group and 

the number of groups per area vary across the landscape. Tree density may be greater 

in some locations, such as north-facing slopes and canyon bottoms.

• The ponderosa pine forest is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but declining, 

top-killed, lightning-scarred, and fire-scarred trees provide snags and coarse woody 

debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout the landscape. 

Ponderosa pine snags are typically 18 inches or greater in diameter and average 1 to 2 

per acre. 

• Coarse woody debris, including logs, ranges from 3 to 10 tons per acre. Logs average 3

per acre within the forested area of the landscape.

• Where it naturally occurs, Gambel oak is present with all age classes represented. It is 

reproducing to maintain or expand its presence on capable sites across the landscape. 

Large Gambel oak snags are typically 10 inches or larger in diameter and are well 

distributed.

• Grasses, forbs, shrubs, needles, leaves, and small trees support the natural fire regime. 

The larger proportion (60 percent or greater) of soil cover is composed of grasses and 

forbs as opposed to needles and leaves. 

• Old growth occurs throughout the landscape, in small, discontinuous areas consisting 

of clumps of old trees, or occasionally individual old trees. Other old growth 

components are also present including dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and/or structural diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape 

over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). 

• Frequent, low to mixed severity fires (fire regime I), occurring approximately every 2 

to 17 years, are characteristic in this PNVT.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Ponderosa pine forest is characterized by variation in the size and number of tree 

groups depending on elevation, soil type, aspect, and site productivity. The more 

biologically productive sites contain more trees per group and more groups per area, 

resulting in less space between groups. Interspaces typically range from 10 percent in 

more biologically productive sites to 70 percent in the less productive sites. Tree 

density within forested areas ranges from 20 to 80 square feet basal area per acre.

• The tree group mosaic composes an uneven-aged forest with all age classes, size 

classes, and structural stages present. Occasionally, patches of even-aged forest 

structure are present (less than 50 acres). Disturbances sustain the overall age and 

structural distribution.

• Fires burn primarily on the forest floor and do not spread between tree groups as crown 

fire.

• Forest structure in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) may have smaller, more widely 

spaced groups of trees than in the non-WUI areas.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

42 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Northern goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) may contain 10 to 20 percent 

higher basal area in mid-aged to old tree groups than northern goshawk foraging areas

and the surrounding forest. 

• Northern goshawk nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged and dominated 

by large trees with relatively denser canopies than the surrounding forest.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Trees typically occur in irregularly-shaped groups and are variably spaced with some 

tight clumps. Tree crowns in the mid- to old-aged groups are interlocking or nearly

interlocking providing for species such as Abert’s squirrel. 

• Interspaces surrounding tree groups are variably shaped and composed of a grass, 

forb, and shrub mix. Some may contain individual trees or snags. 

• Trees within groups are of similar or variable ages and may contain species other than 

ponderosa pine. Tree groups are typically less than 1 acre and average 1⁄2 acre. Mid- to 

old-aged tree groups consist of approximately 2 to 40 trees with interlocking canopies.

• Where Gambel oak occurs, the majority are single trunk trees over 8 inches in diameter 

with full crowns.

Guidelines for Forests: Ponderosa Pine

• Where Gambel oak or other native hardwood trees and shrubs are desirable to retain 

for diversity, treatments should improve vigor and growth of these species.

• Where consistent with project or activity objectives, canopy cover should be retained 

on the south and southwest sides of small, existing forest openings that are naturally 

cooler and moister. These small (generally one-tenth to one-quarter acre) shaded 

openings provide habitat conditions needed by small mammals, plants, and insects 

(e.g., Merriam’s shrew, Mogollon clover, four-spotted skipperling butterfly). Where 

these openings naturally occur across a project area, these conditions should be 

maintained on an average of 2 or more such openings per 100 acres.

Related Plan Content for Forests: Ponderosa Pine

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested 

PNVTs, Forests: Aspen, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Wildland Fire Management, and CommunityForest Intermix Management Area.

Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer

Background for Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer

The forests contain two mixed conifer forested PNVTs. The dry mixed conifer PNVT burns on a 

more frequent cycle than the wet mixed conifer PNVT, due to the presence of shade intolerant 

(fire and dry site adapted) species in the mix.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 43

Dry mixed conifer, covering approximately 147,900 acres, typically occurs between the 

ponderosa pine and wet mixed conifer forests. Dry mixed conifer generally occurs at elevations 

between 7,000 and 10,000 feet on flat ridgetops and upper slopes of drainages and knolls. Species

vary in relation to elevation and moisture availability and are mainly shade intolerant trees. In 

lower elevations and drier areas, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, Gambel oak, ponderosa pine, 

piñon, and juniper may codominate. In higher elevations and moister areas, ponderosa pine may 

codominate with Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, aspen, white fir, southwestern white pine, and 

Rocky Mountain juniper. The understory can be composed of a wide variety of shrubs, grasses, 

sedges, rushes, and forbs depending on the soil type, aspect, elevation, disturbance history, and 

other factors. Over 14,000 acres of aspen are scattered across this PNVT.

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (post-Wallow Fire) highly departed from reference 

conditions. The forest composition has shifted toward more shade tolerant species that are not 

adapted to fire, such as true firs. It also has too many stands with a closed canopy characteristic,

and there is an underrepresentation of medium to very large size trees with an open canopy 

character. The majority (approximately 78 percent) of the herbaceous understory vegetation 

within the dry mixed conifer forest is highly to severely departed from desired conditions.

Approximately 25 percent of this PNVT was reset to an early developmental state because of the 

2011 Wallow Fire. The natural fire regime is also severely departed from reference conditions. 

Historically, fire burned relatively frequently (every 10 to 22 years) and at low intensities. This 

historic regime kept the forest open and maintained fire-resistant species and an abundant 

herbaceous understory.

Desired Conditions for Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• The dry mixed conifer forest is a mosaic of conditions composed of structural states 

ranging from young to old trees. Forest structure and density are similar to ponderosa 

pine forest. Forest appearance is variable but uneven-aged and open. Sporadic areas of 

even-aged structure may be present on 10 percent or less of the landscape to provide 

structural diversity.

• The forest arrangement consists of small clumps and groups of trees with variablysized interspaces of grass, forb, and shrub vegetation associations similar to reference 

conditions. Size, shape, number of trees per group, and number of groups per area are 

variable across the landscape. Where they naturally occur, groups of Gambel oak are 

healthy and maintained or increased. Tree density may be greater in some locations, 

such as north-facing slopes and canyon bottoms.

• The dry mixed conifer forest is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but 

declining, top-killed, lightning-scarred, and fire-scarred trees provide snags and coarse 

woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout the 

landscape. Snags are typically 18 inches in diameter or greater and average 3 per acre. 

• Coarse woody debris, including logs, ranges from 5 to 15 tons per acre. Logs average 3

per acre within the forested area of the landscape.

• Southwestern white pine is present with the ability to reproduce on capable sites.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

44 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Grasses, forbs, shrubs, needles, leaves, and small trees support the natural fire regime. 

The larger proportion (60 percent or greater) of soil cover is composed of grasses and 

forbs as opposed to needles and leaves. 

• Old growth occurs throughout the landscape, in small, discontinuous areas consisting 

of clumps of old trees, or occasionally individual old trees. Other old growth 

components are also present including dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and/or structural diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape 

over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). 

• Frequent, low to mixed severity fires (fire regime I) occurring every 10 to 22 years are 

characteristic in this PNVT.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• The dry mixed conifer forest is characterized by a variety of size and number of tree 

groups depending on elevation, soil type, aspect, and site productivity. The more 

biologically productive sites contain more trees per group and more groups per area, 

resulting in less space between groups. Interspaces typically range from 10 percent in 

more biologically productive sites to 50 percent in less productive sites. Tree density 

within forested areas ranges from 30 to 100 square feet basal area per acre. 

• The mosaic of tree groups is composed of uneven-aged forest. All age classes and 

structural stages are present. Occasionally, there are small patches (less than 50 acres) 

of even-aged forest present. Disturbances sustain the overall age and structural 

distribution.

• Fire burns primarily on the forest floor and does not spread between tree groups as 

crown fire.

• Forest structure in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) may have smaller, more widely 

spaced groups of trees than in the non-WUI areas.

• Northern goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) may contain 10 to 20 percent 

higher basal area in mid-aged to old tree groups than northern goshawk foraging areas 

and the surrounding forest. 

• Northern goshawk nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged but are 

dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than the surrounding forest.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Trees typically occur in irregularly-shaped groups and are variably spaced with some 

tight clumps. Tree crowns in the mid- to old-aged groups are interlocking or nearly 

interlocking providing for species such as red squirrel. 

• Interspaces surrounding tree groups are composed of a grass, forb, and shrub mix. 

Some may contain individual trees or snags. 

• Trees within groups are of similar or variable ages and one or more species. Tree group 

sizes typically are less than 5 acres, but often less than 1 acre, and at the mature and 

old stages consist of approximately 2 to 50 trees.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 45

• Where Gambel oak occurs, the majority are single trunk trees over 8 inches in diameter 

with full crowns.

Guidelines for Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer

• Where Gambel oak or other native hardwood trees and shrubs are desirable to retain 

for diversity, treatments should improve vigor and growth of these species.

• Where consistent with project or activity objectives, canopy cover should be retained 

on the south and southwest sides of small, existing forest openings that are naturally 

cooler and moister. These small (generally one-tenth to one-quarter acre) shaded 

openings provide habitat conditions needed by small mammals, plants, and insects 

(e.g., Merriam’s shrew, Mogollon clover, four-spotted skipperling butterfly). Where 

these openings naturally occur across a project area, these conditions should be 

maintained on an average of 2 or more such openings per 100 acres.

Related Plan Content for Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested 

PNVTs, Forests: Aspen, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Wildland Fire Management, and CommunityForest Intermix Management Area.

Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer

Background for Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer

The forests contain two mixed conifer forested PNVTs. The wet mixed conifer forest PNVT

burns on a less frequent cycle than the dry mixed conifer forest PNVT.

Wet mixed conifer, at approximately 178,000 acres, occurs at elevations between 8,500 to 

10,000 feet on gentle to very steep slopes. Tree species composition varies depending on seral 

state, elevation, and moisture availability. This PNVT can be composed of early seral species 

such as aspen, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, New Mexico locust, southwestern white pine, and 

late seral species such as maple, white fir, and blue spruce. Ponderosa pine may be a minor 

component in some locations or absent. The absence of Engelmann spruce distinguishes this 

PNVT from spruce-fir. This PNVT has an understory of a wide variety of shrubs, grasses, and 

forbs depending on soil type, aspect, elevation, disturbance, and other factors. Herbaceous species 

may include, but are not limited to, red baneberry, starry false Solomon’s seal, and subalpine 

lupine. Over 50,000 acres of aspen are scattered across this PNVT.

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (post-Wallow Fire) highly departed from reference 

conditions. There is a lack of aspen regeneration and too few large to very large shade tolerant 

trees with a closed canopy characteristic. Approximately 35 percent of this PNVT was reset to an 

early developmental state because of the 2011 Wallow Fire. The majority (approximately 

74 percent) of the herbaceous understory vegetation within the wet mixed conifer forest is highly 

to severely departed from desired conditions. 

The natural fire regime is also moderately departed from reference conditions. Historic fire 

regimes were typically of mixed severity fires (every 35 to 50 years) and occasional high severity, 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

46 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

stand replacing, crown fires (every 120 to 400 or more years). Natural ecological disturbances in 

this PNVT typically occur at two spatial and temporal scales: large scale infrequent (mostly fire) 

and small scale frequent (e.g., fire, insects, disease, wind).

Desired Conditions for Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• The wet mixed conifer forest is a mosaic of structural stages and seral states ranging 

from young to old trees. The landscape arrangement is an assemblage of variably-sized

and aged groups and patches of trees and other vegetation associations similar to 

reference conditions. 

• All seral states are present across the landscape, with each state characterized by 

distinct dominant species composition, biological and physical conditions, and enough 

of each state is present to develop into the next state progressively over time.

• Canopies are more closed than dry mixed conifer. An understory, consisting of native 

grass, forbs, and/or shrubs, is present. 

• The wet mixed conifer forest is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but 

declining, top-killed, lightning-scarred, and fire-scarred trees provide snags and coarse 

woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout the 

landscape. The number of snags and logs and amount of coarse woody debris varies by 

seral state ranging from 8 to more than 16 tons per acre. 

• Old growth occurs over large, continuous areas. Old growth components include old 

trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and/or structural 

diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a result of 

succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality).

• Mixed severity fire (fire regime III) is characteristic of this forest. High severity fires 

(fire regimes IV and V) rarely occur.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• The size and number of groups and patches vary depending on disturbance, elevation, 

soil type, aspect, and site productivity. Patch sizes vary but are frequently hundreds of 

acres and rarely thousands of acres. Groups of tens of acres or less are relatively 

common. There is a mosaic of primarily even-aged groups and patches, which vary in 

size, species composition, and age. Grass, forb, and shrub openings created by 

disturbances may compose 10 to 100 percent of the area depending on the type of 

disturbance.

• Uneven-aged groups and patches, comprising about 20 percent of this PNVT, provide 

for species such as the black bear and red-faced warbler that need multistoried 

canopies with dense low- to mid-canopy layers.

• Tree density ranges from 30 to 180 square feet basal area per acre depending upon time 

since disturbance and seral states of groups and patches. 

• There are 20 or more snags greater than 8 inches in diameter per acre and 1 to 5 of 

those snags are 18 inches or greater in diameter. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 47

• Coarse woody debris, including logs, varies by seral state, ranging from 5 to 20 tons 

per acre for early-seral states; 20 to 40 tons per acre for mid-seral states; and may be as 

high as 35 tons per acre, or greater, for late-seral states. These conditions also provide 

an abundance of fungi including mushrooms and truffles used by small mammals.

• Forested PNVTs in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) are dominated by early-seral,

fire-adapted species growing in an overall more open condition than the surrounding 

forest. These conditions result in fires that burn primarily on the forest floor and rarely 

spread as crown fire. 

• Mixed (fire regime III) and high (fire regime IV) severity fires in this PNVT, occurring 

every 22 to 150 years along with other disturbances, maintain desired overall tree 

density, structure, species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling. 

High severity fires do not exceed patches of 1,000 acres of mortality. Other smaller 

disturbances occur more frequently.

• Northern goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) may contain 10 to 20 percent 

higher basal area in mid-aged to old tree groups than northern goshawk foraging areas

and the surrounding forest. 

• Northern goshawk nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged but are 

dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than the surrounding forest.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• In mid-aged and older forests, trees are typically variably spaced with crowns 

interlocking (grouped and clumped trees) or nearly interlocking providing for species 

such as red squirrel. Trees within groups can be of similar or variable species and ages. 

• Small openings are present as a result of disturbances (e.g., wind, disease).

Related Plan Content for Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested 

PNVTs, Forests: Aspen, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Wildland Fire Management, and CommunityForest Intermix Management Area.

Forests: Spruce-Fir

Background for Forests: Spruce-Fir

The spruce-fir forest PNVT, at approximately 17,700 acres, is found on the coldest, wettest high 

elevation sites (approximately 9,500 to 11,400 feet) and within cold-air drainages at lower 

elevations on the Apache NF portion of the forests. The majority of this forested PNVT lies 

within designated wilderness areas. Spruce-fir intergrades with the wet mixed conifer PNVT at 

lower elevations. It is dominated by Engelmann spruce but contains other species depending on 

elevation. The understory commonly includes currant, Scouler’s willow, honeysuckle, common 

juniper, huckleberry, alpine clover, and sedges. Approximately 6,000 acres of aspen are scattered 

across this PNVT.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

48 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (post-Wallow Fire) highly departed from reference 

conditions. There is a lack of aspen regeneration. There are also too few large to very large shade 

tolerant trees with closed canopies. Approximately 31 percent of this PNVT was reset to an early 

developmental state because of the 2011 Wallow Fire. The majority (approximately 76 percent) of 

the herbaceous understory vegetation within spruce-fir forest is low to moderately departed from 

desired conditions.

The natural fire regime is also moderately departed from reference conditions. Historically, 

principal ecological disturbance factors were insects, disease, and wind followed by infrequent 

high severity fires. Natural ecological disturbances in this PNVT typically occur at two temporal 

and spatial scales: large scale infrequent (fire, which occurred every 150 to 400 years and climate 

variability) and small scale frequent (e.g., fire, insects, disease, wind).

Desired Conditions for Forests: Spruce-Fir

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• The spruce-fir forest is a mosaic of structural stages and seral states ranging from 

young to old trees and is composed of multiple species. The landscape arrangement is 

an assemblage of variably-sized and aged groups and patches of trees and other 

vegetation similar to reference conditions.

• Tree canopies in this forest are closed. An understory, consisting of native grass, forbs, 

and/or shrubs, is present in early seral states and is replaced by trees in later seral 

states.

• The spruce-fir forest is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but declining topkilled, lightning-scarred, and fire-scarred trees provide snags and coarse woody debris. 

Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout the landscape. 

• Corkbark fir is present with the ability to reproduce on late-seral sites appropriate for 

the species.

• Old growth occurs over large, continuous areas. Old growth components include old 

trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and/or structural 

diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a result of 

succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality).

• In the spruce-fir forested PNVT, mixed to high severity fires (fire regimes III and IV) 

occur infrequently. 

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• The size and number of groups and patches vary depending on disturbance, elevation, 

soil type, aspect, and site productivity. Patch sizes vary but are mostly hundreds of 

acres and rarely thousands of acres. There may be frequent small disturbances resulting 

in groups of tens of acres or less. A mosaic of primarily even-aged groups and patches, 

which vary in size, species composition, and age, is present. Grass, forb, and shrub 

openings created by disturbances may compose 10 to 100 percent of the area 

depending on time since disturbances. Aspen is occasionally present in large patches.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 49

• Uneven-aged groups and patches, comprising about 20 percent of this PNVT, provide 

for species such as the MacGillivray’s warbler and Swainson’s thrush that need 

multistoried canopies with dense low- to mid-canopy layers.

• Tree density ranges from 30 to 250 square feet basal area per acre, depending upon 

disturbance and seral states of the groups and patches. 

• In general, there are 13 to 30 snags greater than 8 inches in diameter per acre and 1 to 3 

of those snags are 18 inches or greater in diameter. 

• Coarse woody debris, including logs, varies by seral state, ranging from 5 to 30 tons 

per acre for early-seral states; 30 to 40 tons per acre for mid-seral states; and 40 tons 

per acre or greater for late-seral states. These conditions also provide an abundance of 

fungi including mushrooms and truffles used by small mammals.

• The wildland-urban interface (WUI) comprises primarily grass/forb/shrub vegetation. 

Structures in the WUI are surrounded by grassy openings with very few or no trees. 

These conditions result in ground fires.

• Mixed and high severity fires (fire regime III and IV)—occurring every 150 to 400 

years—along with other disturbances maintain desired overall tree density, structure, 

species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling.

• Northern goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) may contain 10 to 20 percent 

higher basal area in mid-aged to old tree groups than northern goshawk foraging areas

and the surrounding forest. 

• Northern goshawk nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged but are 

dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than the surrounding forest.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Mid-aged to old trees grow tightly together with interlocking crowns. Trees are of the 

same size and/or age class in early group/patch development. In late development, they 

may be multilayered. 

• Small openings are present as a result of localized disturbances (e.g., wind, disease).

Related Plan Content for Forests: Spruce-Fir

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested 

PNVTs, Forests: Aspen, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Wildland Fire Management, and CommunityForest Intermix Management Area.

Forests: Aspen

Background for Forests: Aspen

Aspen (quaking aspen) occurs as a species within the conifer forested PNVTs. As a species, aspen 

is adapted to a much broader range of environmental conditions than most plant species 

associated with it. This highly variable ecological community can comprise mostly aspen 

(roughly 24,000 acres) or aspen codominating with few to several conifer species (roughly 52,000 

acres). Aspen occurs across the forested landscape as a shifting mosaic over space and time. At 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

50 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

lower elevations, conifers include ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, and white fir. At 

middle elevations, conifers include Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, white fir, blue spruce, 

southwestern white pine, and ponderosa pine. Rocky Mountain juniper can also be present. At 

higher elevations, conifers include Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, 

subalpine fir, corkbark fir, and Engelmann spruce.

Relatively pure aspen stands may function 

as natural firebreaks across the landscape, 

support watershed stability, and contribute 

to scenic landscapes. Aspen is a 

disturbance dependent species requiring

fire, windthrow, or cutting to regenerate an 

overmature stand into a young stand. 

Without periodic fire or with high levels of 

herbivory, conifers will replace aspen. As a 

result, this type is considerably altered 

today and may be difficult to identify 

because of conifer succession. The 

presence of even a single aspen tree in a 

conifer stand provides strong evidence that 

the area historically supported a seral

component of aspen. As a direct result of 

the 2011 Wallow Fire, roughly 33 percent of the aspen overstory was eliminated, and those acres 

are now being regenerated into the seedling/sapling size class with open canopy characteristics, 

largely through clonal root sprouting (additional acres, previously unoccupied may be established 

through seed production and seedling establishment). The majority of trees in the remaining 

aspen overstory are 10 inches or greater in diameter and exist in a closed canopy condition. This 

would indicate that most of the remaining aspen on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are mature to 

overmature trees and are being over-topped by conifers within the individual forested PNVTs.

Aspen exist as single storied or, more commonly, multistoried depending on disturbance history 

and local stand dynamics. Historically, aspen suckers (root sprouts) were common. Aspen stands 

are usually closed canopied. The understory structure may be complex with multiple shrub and 

herbaceous layers, or simple with just an herbaceous layer. The herbaceous layer may be dense or 

sparse, dominated by grasses and grass-like plants or forbs. Some of the species typically found 

associated with aspen include bracken fern, Arizona peavine, meadow rue, deer’s ears, yarrow, 

violet, paintbrush, arnica, and several grasses and sedges. Decaying coarse woody debris is 

common.

Aspen stands are typically moister and cooler, supporting a greater abundance of plants, fungi, 

invertebrates, mammals, and cavity-nesting bird species than the surrounding forest. Even small 

aspen groups provide this unique habitat. Aspen is second only to riparian ecosystems in 

biological diversity and supports more bird species than other forested areas in the Southwest. For 

these reasons, aspen is designated as an “ecological indicator” or EI. EIs are selected and 

monitored as a means to assess management effects to biological diversity; in this case, the 

diversity of habitats that aspen provides and the associated species. 

Fire regimes for aspen are determined by the adjacent forested PNVT, with fire return intervals 

ranging from 2 to 20 years at low elevations in ponderosa pine, to 10 to 30 years for mixed 

Figure 5. Ecological diversity provided by a 

healthy, mature aspen stand
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 51

conifer at middle elevations, and up to 30 to 400 years for spruce-fir. Both spruce-fir and mixed 

conifer forested PNVTs have mixed severity fire regimes, experiencing frequent, low intensity 

surface fires, as well as infrequent, stand replacing crown fires. Overall, aspen is an important 

successional community in ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and spruce-fir forested PNVTs. Aspen 

is primarily affected by fire, wind, insects, disease, pathogens, herbivores, and climate 

interactions.

The decline in aspen throughout its western range is an ecological concern. This declining trend 

has been noted for the past 50 years, but aspen mortality has become more pronounced since 

about 2002. Not only are trees dying, but their clonal root systems are also dying. Several factors 

have been hypothesized as causal agents in the decline of aspen: fire suppression, conifer 

competition, ungulate browsing, drought, insects, pathogens, and climate change. 

Desired Conditions for Forests: Aspen

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Areas of aspen occur and shift across the forested landscape. They are successfully 

regenerating and being recruited into older and larger size classes. Size classes have a 

natural distribution, with the greatest number of stems in the smaller size classes.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Aspen may compose 10 to 100 percent of the area depending on disturbance (e.g., fire, 

insects, silvicultural treatments) in multistoried patches.

• As an early seral species, aspen reproduction and recruitment benefit from low severity 

surface fires in association with ponderosa pine and dry mixed conifer forested PNVTs, 

and mixed-severity fires in association with wet mixed conifer and spruce-fir forested 

PNVTs.

Objectives for Forests: Aspen

• Aspen dominated and codominated acres within forested PNVTs, representing a range 

of age classes, are maintained on at least 50,000 acres during the planning period.

Guidelines for Forests: Aspen

• To preclude concentrated herbivore impacts, new surface water development should 

not be constructed within proximity to aspen stands (approximately a quarter of a

mile).

• Restoration of aspen clones should occur where aspen is overmature or in decline to 

maintain a sustainable presence of this species at the landscape level.

• When managing for early seral states, competing conifers should be removed from 

aspen stands when needed to increase aspen longevity and increase diversity of aspen 

age classes.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

52 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Aspen restoration and retention efforts should include measures to ensure viability of 

aspen on the landscape.

Management Approaches for Forests: Aspen

The forests work with the AZGFD to address concerns about aspen reestablishment in both the 

short and long term. Where appropriate, aspen may be seeded, planted, or transplanted. Wildland 

fire, sometimes over large acreages, may be used for regeneration or maintenance of aspen. 

Management activities that kill or stress overstory trees (e.g., clearcutting, fire) may be used since 

they mimic natural disturbances and enhance aspen regeneration. Aspen restoration efforts may 

include providing/improving substitute forage away from aspen, removing conifer competition, 

fencing to exclude ungulates, and range management practices (e.g., salt locations; herding;

timing, intensity, frequency, and duration of livestock use).

Related Plan Content for Forests: Aspen

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested 

PNVTs, Forests: Ponderosa Pine, Forests: Dry Mixed Conifer, Forests: Wet Mixed Conifer, 

Forests: Spruce-Fir, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Livestock Grazing, and Wildland Fire 

Management.

Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

Background for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

The following objectives, guidelines, and management approaches apply to Madrean pine-oak 

and piñon-juniper woodland PNVTs in addition to the specific direction listed in those sections. 

Woodland PNVTs total approximately 617,000 acres.

Desired Conditions for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

See the desired conditions for Madrean pine-oak and piñon-juniper woodland PNVTs. 

Objectives for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

• Annually, treat or maintain 5,000 to 15,000 acres to promote a highly diverse structure.

Guidelines for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

• Mechanical restoration of woodlands should emphasize individual tree removal to limit 

ground disturbance.

• Tree species that are less susceptible to root disease should be retained within areas of 

root disease infection to reduce spread of disease.

• Treatments should leave single or small groups of medium to large native trees that are 

widely spaced with expanses of herbaceous vegetation and coarse woody debris to

provide for soil productivity, traditional uses (e.g., piñon nut gathering), and wildlife 

needs such as foraging habitat for migratory birds (e.g., black-throated gray warbler,

piñon jay) and other birds.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 53

• Hiding cover, approach cover (by waters), and travel corridor cover should be provided 

where needed by wildlife.

Management Approaches for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

Treatment methods may include wildland fire, mechanized and hand thinning, leaving woody 

debris scattered across the ground, soil erosion control, stabilizing gullies to restore water tables, 

planting grass, and chemical treatments. The majority of treatments are focused in the Madrean 

pine-oak woodlands (primarily burning) with some treatments occurring in piñon-juniper.

Treated (e.g., cut, burned) alligator juniper and other resprouting species may require follow-up

and possibly repeat treatments in order to meet project objectives. Terrestrial ecosystem survey

information is useful to identify areas where burning is the most effective management tool.

Related Plan Content for Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs

See the following sections: All PNVTs, Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak, Woodlands: PiñonJuniper, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Forest Products, and Wildland Fire Management.

Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak

Background for Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak

Madrean pine-oak woodlands, at roughly 394,900 acres, cover nearly 20 percent of the ApacheSitgreaves NFs and usually occupy foothills and mountain slopes. Elevations range from 

approximately 4,000 to 7,000 feet. These woodlands consist of an open to closed canopy of 

evergreen oaks and various conifers, including gray oak, Emory oak, and alligator juniper. 

Beneath the canopy, there are annual and perennial grasses, forbs, shrubs, and half-shrubs.

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (2011) highly departed from reference conditions. There are 

too many acres of closed canopy conditions consisting of small, medium, or large trees. Medium 

to very large trees with herbaceous understory and open canopy are lacking. The herbaceous 

understory vegetation within the Madrean pine-oak woodland is split, nearly equally, between 

low to moderately departed and highly to severely departed from desired conditions. The fire 

regime is also severely departed from reference conditions. Low severity surface fires frequently 

(every 3 to 8 years) burned through this PNVT maintaining an open stand structure.

Some areas that appear to be Madrean pine-oak woodlands are actually historic semi-desert

grasslands that have been encroached by woody species.

Desired Conditions for Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• A mix of desired species14, ages, heights, and groupings of trees create a mosaic across 

the landscape.

• The majority of this woodland has an open canopy consisting of large trees and an 

herbaceous understory, with some groups of closed canopy. Overall, canopy cover is 

10 to 50 percent.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

54 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Snags, averaging 1 to 2 per acre, and older trees are scattered across the landscape. 

Coarse woody debris averages 1 to 5 tons per acre.

• Understory vegetation includes evergreen oaks, mountain mahogany, grasses, and 

forbs.

• Ground cover consists of perennial grasses and forbs that frequently carry fire through 

the landscape.

• Grasses, forbs, shrubs, needles, leaves, and small trees support the natural fire regime. 

The larger proportion (60 percent or greater) of soil cover is composed of grasses and 

forbs as opposed to needles and leaves. 

• Fires are typically of low or occasionally moderate severity (fire regime I) and occur 

every 5 to 20 years.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Some large patches in the Madrean pine-oak woodland are closed canopy, have 

multiple age classes, large trees, and old growth-like characteristics (e.g., numerous 

snags, large coarse woody debris) in order to provide for wildlife such as Mexican 

spotted owl and black bear, that need denser habitat.

• The size and number of groups and patches vary depending on disturbance, elevation, 

soil type, aspect, and site productivity. Patch sizes vary but are mostly tens of acres, 

with rare disturbances of hundreds of acres. There may be frequent small disturbances 

resulting in groups and patches of tens of acres or less. A mosaic of groups and patches 

of trees, primarily even-aged, that are variable in size, species composition, and age, is 

present. Grass, forb, and shrub openings created by disturbance may compose 10 to 

100 percent of the area depending on the disturbances.

• Woodland densities range from 15 to 50 square feet basal area per acre.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Single large trees or small groups are widely spaced between large expanses of 

herbaceous vegetation and shrubs.

Guidelines for Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak

• Where Mexican spotted owls are found nesting in canyons or on north slopes within 

the Madrean pine-oak woodland, adjacent treatments should be modified to meet the 

needs of foraging owls.

Related Plan Content for Woodlands: Madrean Pine-Oak

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Woodlands: All 

Woodland PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Forest Products, and Wildland Fire Management.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 55

Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper

Background for Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper

At roughly 222,200 acres, this woodland PNVT is mostly found on lower slopes of mountains 

and upland rolling hills at approximately 4,500 to 7,500 feet in elevation. The most common pine 

is the piñon. The juniper component is a variable mix of one-seed, Utah, alligator, and Rocky 

Mountain. In addition, annual and perennial grasses, forbs, shrubs, and half-shrubs can be found 

beneath the more open woodland canopy. Species composition and stand structure vary by 

location primarily due to precipitation, natural ecological disturbances, elevation, temperature, 

and soil type.

The piñon-juniper woodland can be divided into two subgroups: savanna and persistent 

woodland. Savanna, with an herbaceous-dominated understory, generally occurs on flats, basins, 

gentler east-, south-, and west-facing foothills, gentle uplands, and transitional valleys at 

generally lower elevations. The soils associated with savanna are moderately deep to deep and 

biologically productive. The persistent woodland, having a sparse discontinuous understory of 

some grasses and/or shrubs, generally occurs on flats, ridgetops, rugged uplands, and steep slopes 

at various elevations, and occurs on soils that are shallow and rocky. Historic records show that 

where there were larger interspaces between trees and less ground cover, prairie dog colonies 

were found across the piñon-juniper woodland on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

This PNVT’s overstory is currently (2011) slightly departed from reference conditions. When 

compared to desired conditions, there are too many medium to very large trees with open and/or 

closed canopies. While there are too few seedlings, saplings, and small trees with open and/or 

closed canopies, understory vegetation is lacking in many areas. The majority (91 percent) of the 

herbaceous understory vegetation within the piñon-juniper woodland is highly to severely 

departed from desired conditions. The current fire regime is similar to reference conditions. 

Many areas that appear to be piñon-juniper woodland are actually historic Great Basin grassland

that has been encroached by woody species.

Desired Conditions for Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper – Savanna

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• The piñon-juniper savanna is open in appearance with trees occurring as individuals or 

in small groups and ranging from young to old. Overall, tree canopy cover is 10 to 15 

percent, but may range up to 30 percent. 

• Scattered shrubs and a continuous herbaceous understory, including native grasses, 

forbs, and annuals, are present to support a natural fire regime.

• Grasses, forbs, shrubs, needles, leaves, and small trees support the natural fire regime. 

The larger proportion (60 percent or greater) of soil cover is composed of grasses and 

forbs as opposed to needles and leaves. 

• Old growth occurs in isolated locations scattered throughout the landscape, as 

individual old trees or as clumps of old trees. Other old growth components may also 

be present including dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and/or 

structural diversity.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

56 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Fires are low to mixed severity (fire regime I), occurring every 1 to 35 years.

Desired Conditions for Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper – Persistent Woodland

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• A mix of desired species14, ages, heights, and groupings of trees create a mosaic across 

the landscape. 

• Tree canopy cover is closed (greater than 30 percent), shrubs are sparse to moderate, 

and herbaceous cover is patchy. 

• Snags, averaging one to two per acre, and older trees with dead limbs and tops are 

scattered across the landscape. Coarse woody debris averages 2 to 5 tons per acre.

• Old growth includes old trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and/or structural diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape 

over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). 

• Fire is less frequent and more variable than in the savanna due to patchiness of ground 

cover. The fires that do occur are mixed to high severity (fire regimes II, III, IV, and 

V).

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Grass and forb cover is maximized, based on site capability, to protect and enrich soils.

Related Plan Content for Woodlands: Piñon-Juniper

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Woodlands: All 

Woodland PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Wildland Fire Management, and Community-Forest 

Intermix Management Area.

Grasslands

Background for Grasslands

There are three grassland PNVTs: semi-desert, Great Basin, and montane/subalpine. Grasslands 

are characterized by less than 10 percent tree and/or shrub cover. Grassland PNVTs total 

approximately 344,000 acres. 

The semi-desert grassland PNVT encompasses roughly 107,000 acres and occurs below the 

Mogollon Rim at elevations ranging from approximately 3,200 to 4,500 feet. This grassland is

bounded by Chihuahuan Desert at the lowest elevations and Madrean pine-oak woodland or 

interior chaparral at the higher elevations. Species composition and dominance varies based on 

soils and topography. Dominant grassland species include black grama, blue grama, hairy grama, 

tobosa, threeawns, and mixed native perennial forbs. Shrubs also inhabit these grasslands and 

their abundance and species composition also varies; however, juniper and mesquite are the most 

common woody species.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 57

The Great Basin grassland PNVT encompasses roughly 185,500 acres and is limited to lower 

elevations above the Mogollon Rim. It is higher in elevation (approximately 5,500 to 7,500 feet) 

and climatically cooler and moister than semi-desert grasslands and is adjacent to and 

intermingles with piñon-juniper savanna ecosystems. Vegetation consists mostly of grasses and 

forbs with interspersed shrubs. Grass species may include, but are not limited to, Indian ricegrass, 

threeawns, blue grama, needle and thread, New Mexico feathergrass, green needlegrass, 

Muhlenbergia species, James’ galleta, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, and sand dropseed. 

Shrub and half-shrub species may include, but are not limited to, fourwing saltbush, winterfat, 

serviceberry, rabbitbrush, fringed sage, and snakeweed. Piñons and junipers are the most 

commonly encroaching trees.

The montane/subalpine grasslands PNVT, at roughly 51,600 acres, typically occur at elevations 

ranging from approximately 7,500 to 11,400 feet on gentle to steep slopes. These grasslands 

contain a mix of species that varies based on moisture. Common species at higher elevations in 

more moist sites include tufted hairgrass, southwest fescue, Nebraska sedge, yarrow, dryspike 

sedge, Baltic rush, and nonnative Canada and Kentucky bluegrasses. The more dry upland sites 

are dominated by mutton bluegrass, Arizona fescue, pine dropseed, mountain muhly, White 

Mountain sedge, southwest fescue, woolly cinquefoil, and small-leaf pussytoes. Common species 

at lower elevations in more moist sites include Canada and Kentucky bluegrasses, spike muhly, 

spreading fleabane, annual Muhlenbergia species, white clover, yarrow, and dandelion. The more 

dry upland sites at lower elevations are dominated by pine dropseed, blue grama, spreading 

fleabane, prairie junegrass, White Mountain sedge, annual Muhlenbergia species, and Fendler’s 

sandwort. Trees may occur along the periphery of these grasslands, primarily ponderosa pine, 

southwestern white pine, aspen, Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir, depending on elevation and 

moisture gradient. Some shrubs may also be present.

Healthy grasslands are important habitat for a variety of wildlife species and are essential to 

maintain pronghorn antelope populations. Historic records show that prairie dog colonies were 

commonly found in grassland areas with less ground cover. Grasslands of the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs have undergone dramatic changes over the last 130 years. Changes include encroachment by 

trees and shrubs, loss of perennial grass cover, loss of cool season species, increase in exposed 

soil surface, and the spread of nonnative species. Over 75 percent of the semi-desert and 65 

percent of the Great Basin grasslands have been encroached by woody species. In addition, the 

majority (52 percent or greater) of the herbaceous vegetation understories within the semi-desert 

and Great Basin grasslands are highly departed from desired conditions. However, the majority 

(68 percent) of the herbaceous understory vegetation within the montane/subalpine grasslands is

in moderately departed from desired conditions. 

Fire plays a key role in the maintenance of the forests’ grasslands. Currently (2011), the three 

grasslands all show departure from reference conditions in overstory structure and composition, 

with both semi-desert and Great Basin highly departed, and montane/subalpine moderately 

departed. Fire historically occurred every 10 to 30 years in the Great Basin and 2 to 10 years in 

the semi-desert. In the montane/subalpine, fire occurred every 2 to 400 years (depending on the 

adjacent forested PNVT).

Many areas that appear to be forest or woodland are actually historic grassland that has been 

encroached by woody species.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

58 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions for Grasslands

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Perennial herbaceous species dominate and include native grasses, grass-like plants 

(sedges and rushes), and forbs, and in some locations, a diversity of shrubs.

• Herbaceous vegetation and litter provide for and maintain the natural fire regime (fire 

regime I and II). In semi-desert grasslands, the natural fire return interval is 

approximately every 2 to 10 years. In Great Basin grasslands the natural fire return 

interval is approximately every 10 to 30 years. In montane/subalpine grasslands it 

ranges from approximately 2 to 400 years, depending on the adjacent forested PNVT.

• Landscapes associated with montane/subalpine grasslands vary from natural appearing 

where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity) to unaltered where only 

natural ecological changes occur (very high scenic integrity).

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Woody (tree and shrub) canopy cover is less than 10 percent.

• Prairie dogs are present and support healthy grassland soil development and the 

diversity of associated species (e.g., western burrowing owl).

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Average herbaceous vegetation heights

21 vary by grassland PNVT and yearly weather 

conditions. Ungrazed herbaceous vegetation heights20. range from 7 to 29 inches in 

Great Basin grasslands, 7 to 26 inches in montane/subalpine grasslands, and 10 to 32

inches in semi-desert grasslands.

• During the critical pronghorn antelope fawning period (May through June22), cool 

season grasses and forbs provide nutritional forage; while shrubs and standing grass 

growth from the previous year provide adequate hiding cover (10 to 18 inches) to 

protect fawns from predation. 

Objectives for Grasslands

• Decrease or maintain the woody canopy cover at less than 10 percent by treating up to 

25,000 acres annually. 

Guidelines for Grasslands

• Restoration treatment of grasslands should result in a woody canopy cover of less than 

10 percent; more than one treatment may be required.

 

21 Measured on ungrazed plants as an indicator of vigor.

22 Fawning may extend through mid-July in the high elevation montane/subalpine grasslands.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 59

• Mechanical restoration of grasslands should emphasize individual tree removal to limit 

soil disturbance. 

• New fence construction or reconstruction where pronghorn antelope may be present 

should have a barbless bottom wire which is 18 inches from the ground to facilitate 

movement between pastures and other fenced areas. Pole and other types of fences 

should also provide for pronghorn antelope passage where they are present.

• Pronghorn antelope fence and other crossings should be installed along known 

movement corridors to prevent habitat fragmentation.

Management Approaches for Grasslands

The management approach is to maintain and improve grasslands by eliminating competing 

conifers, leaving woody debris scattered across the ground, stabilizing gullies to restore water 

tables, and reseeding with native species. Treatments are located in restorable and treatable 

grasslands, primarily in the Great Basin and semi-desert grassland PNVTs. Obliteration and 

rehabilitation of unauthorized roads and trails may be needed. There is an emphasis to provide 

enough grass to reduce topsoil loss and allow fire to spread and resume its role in maintaining 

grasslands. Pronghorn antelope is a management indicator species (MIS) for grassland 

restoration. The treatment objective listed above would contribute to their viability.

Related Plan Content for Grasslands

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants,

Scenic Resources, Livestock Grazing, and Wildland Fire Management. 

Interior Chaparral

Background for Interior Chaparral

The interior chaparral PNVT, at roughly 56,000 acres, is typically found on mountain foothills 

and lower slopes where desert landscapes transition into Madrean pine-oak woodlands. Typically, 

interior chaparral is structurally uniform and dominated by shrubs with thick, stiff, waxy 

evergreen leaves. Mixed shrub associations include manzanita, desert ceanothus, mountain 

mahogany, silktassel, Stansbury cliffrose, yerba de pasmo, evergreen oaks, Arizona cypress, 

sumacs, and various cacti. Grasses are a minor component in chaparral and may include bullgrass 

and longtongue muhly.

Current (2011) interior chaparral overstory composition and structure and fire regime are similar 

to reference conditions. However, approximately 40 percent of the herbaceous understory 

vegetation within this PNVT is highly departed from desired conditions. Nonnative invasive 

species, such as mullein, are infesting a portion of the interior chaparral PNVT.

Desired Conditions for Interior Chaparral

• In the early seral state, chaparral contains an herbaceous component in the understory. 

Later seral states are dense, nearly impenetrable thickets with considerable leaf litter. 

Standing dead material may accumulate in areas that have not burned for several 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

60 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

decades. Chaparral is in a constant state of transition from early to late seral state and 

back again, with fire being the major ecological disturbance.

• Ground cover consists primarily (85 to 95 percent) of shrub litter (e.g., small stems, 

leaves).

• The majority (85 to 95 percent) of chaparral is closed canopy with some interspaces of 

grasses and forbs.

• High severity fires occur every 35 to 100 years (fire regime IV) in a mosaic pattern.

Management Approaches for Interior Chaparral

Since the interior chaparral is the PNVT closest to reference conditions, the management 

approach is to maintain that condition into the future, primarily by using wildland fire 

Related Plan Content for Interior Chaparral

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, All PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants, 

and Wildland Fire Management.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 61

Wildlife and Rare Plants

Background for Wildlife and Rare Plants

The great variety of habitats found on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide for a wide diversity of 

plant and animal species. Preliminary estimates 

account for over 500 wildlife species including 

14 native fish, 13 amphibians, 36 reptiles, more 

than 300 birds, and over 100 mammals. Over 

2,000 species of plants have been identified, 

including nonvascular species like mosses and 

fungi The forests currently (2014) have 18

species that are listed, proposed, or candidates for 

listing under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 

(Public Law 93-205), 13 with proposed or 

designated critical habitat. There are more than 

two dozen plant species designated by the 

regional forester as sensitive species; these are 

considered “rare plants” due to the potential for

declines in their populations

23

.

Three areas have been identified by the National 

Audubon Society for their great diversity of 

breeding and migratory bird species. These are 

known as important bird areas (IBAs). The 

Mogollon Rim Snowmelt Draws IBA is located 

on the west side of the forests on the Black Mesa 

Ranger District, extending onto the Coconino 

National Forest. The Blue and San Francisco 

Rivers IBA is located on the Alpine and Clifton Ranger Districts. The Upper Little Colorado 

River IBA on the Springerville Ranger District includes its east, west, and south fork tributaries 

and extends off the forests to include the AZGFD Wenima Wildlife Area. While these areas 

provide exceptional birding opportunities, they carry no management obligations or restrictions 

for the forests.

The modified landscape of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs does not support the patterns of native 

species distribution and abundance it once did. Some species are no longer found on the forests 

(e.g., Merriam elk, grizzly bear) and once common species are now found in limited locations 

(e.g., California floater, Bebb willow). On the other hand, some species such as Abert’s squirrels 

may be more abundant today than historically. Unusual or unique native plants growing on the 

forests include agaves that grow in “colonies” (Agave parryi), a species of pine that resprouts 

(Pinus leiophylla), and an aquatic insect-eating plant (Utricularia macrorhiza). Other species, 

some desirable and some not, have been introduced and have become naturalized. In recent years, 

management changes (e.g., stream buffers for thinning and burning, activity timing restrictions, 

adjustments in livestock numbers and seasons) have been made to improve habitat. In addition, 

efforts are underway to restore a number of species including the Chiricahua leopard frog and 

Mexican wolf.

 

23 The status of all sensitive species (both plant and animal) is periodically reviewed by the regional forester. Species 

can be added or removed from the list based on new information.

Figure 6. Golden-crowned kinglet

© Photo courtesy of Nick Saunders
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

62 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

The needs of individual or groups of wildlife species include food, water, and shelter. Adequate 

amount and connectivity of habitat is also crucial to daily and seasonal movements, finding 

mates, and being able to utilize available habitat across the landscape. Healthy, diverse vegetation 

and functioning ecosystem processes help ensure diversity of habitats and wildlife, while 

reducing risks to the sustainability of those habitats and species. In addition, refuges (e.g., 

wildlife quiet areas, unroaded areas) or unique habitats are necessary to sustain other species. 

This section addresses primarily terrestrial species. The “Aquatic Habitat and Species” section

addresses fish and other aquatic dependent species. Other sections of the plan address many 

habitat components and species’ needs. Additional considerations are included here.

Desired Conditions for Wildlife and Rare Plants

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater)

• Habitat conditions contribute to the recovery of federally listed species. 

• Habitat is well distributed and connected.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Wildlife are free from harassment and disturbance at a scale that impacts vital 

functions (e.g., breeding, rearing young) that could affect persistence of the species.

Fine Scale Desired Conditions (less than 10 acres)

• Collection of animals and plants does not negatively impact species abundance.

• Localized rare plant and animal communities are intact and functioning.

Objectives for Wildlife and Rare Plants

• Annually, improve wildlife habitat connectivity by removing at least five unneeded 

structures (e.g., fence).

Guidelines for Wildlife and Rare Plants

• Management and activities should not contribute to a trend toward the Federal listing

of a species.

• Activities occurring within federally listed species habitat should apply habitat 

management objectives and species protection measures from recovery plans.

• Modifications, mitigations, or other measures should be incorporated to reduce 

negative impacts to plants, animals, and their habitats and to help provide for species 

needs, consistent with project or activity objectives.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 63

• A minimum of six nest areas (known and replacement) should be located per northern 

goshawk territory. Northern goshawk nest and replacement nest areas should be 

located around active nests, in drainages, at the base of slopes, and on northerly 

(northwest to northeast) aspects. Nest areas should be 25 to 30 acres each in size.

• Northern goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) of approximately 420 acres in 

size should be designated around the nest sites.

• During treatments, snags should be retained in the largest diameter classes available as 

needed to meet wildlife or other resource needs. 

• Cool and/or dense vegetation cover should be provided for species needing these 

habitat components (e.g., Goodding’s onion, black bear, White Mountains chipmunk, 

western yellow-billed cuckoo).

• Active raptor nests should be protected from treatments and disturbance during the 

nesting season to provide for successful reproduction. Specifically for northern 

goshawk nest areas, human presence should be minimized during nesting season of 

March 1 through September 30.

• Any action likely to cause a disturbance and take to bald and golden eagles in nesting 

and young rearing areas should be avoided per the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection 

Act.

• Prairie dog controls24 should not be authorized except when consistent with approved 

State of Arizona Gunnison’s prairie dog conservation strategies.

• Rare and unique features (e.g., talus slopes, cliffs, canyon slopes, caves, fens, bogs, 

sinkholes) should be protected from damage or loss in order to retain their distinctive 

ecological functions and maintain viability of associated species.

• The needs of localized species (e.g., New Mexico meadow jumping mouse, Bebb

willow, White Mountains paintbrush) should be considered and provided for during 

project activities to ensure their limited or specialized habitats are not lost or degraded.

• Constructed features should be maintained to support the purpose(s) for which they 

were built. Constructed features should be removed when no longer needed. 

Management Approaches for Wildlife and Rare Plants

Conservation of wildlife species remains a high priority on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and 

wildlife considerations are an integral part of planning and activities. The management approach 

is to provide a diversity of habitats, well distributed, with ecological conditions that support 

native and desired nonnative animal species over the long term. The forests also provide for 

wildlife and their needs consistent with recovery plans, biological opinions, conservation 

strategies, conservation assessments, management plans, memorandums of understanding 

(MOUs), and Forest Service direction. Species conservation assessments/strategies and 

agreements executed at the forest level are reviewed every 10 years and updated as necessary.

Wildlife and plant species occurring or potentially occurring on the forests are tracked in the 

 

24 Controls do not include State authorized hunting.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

64 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

forests’ species databases; these are maintained and periodically updated. The forests also support 

species conservation initiatives such as the Important Bird Area Program.

The forests work collaboratively with the AZGFD to plan and implement projects that make 

progress toward the forests’ desired conditions and help achieve conservation actions specified in 

the Arizona State Wildlife Action Plan. Large scale wildlife habitat restoration treatments benefit 

multiple species while small projects address the needs of localized species. The forests also work 

with AZGFD to develop species and associated habitat management plans (e.g., Gunnison’s 

Prairie Dog Conservation Plan).

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs work in partnership with the AZGFD to protect and reintroduce 

native species, including highly interactive species such as beavers, prairie dogs, and wolves, and 

to control or eradicate nonnative, undesirable species. Agreements are implemented so that 

appropriate species and subspecies are introduced. The forests coordinate with AZGFD to update 

national maps showing locally occupied bighorn sheep habitat and domestic sheep grazing 

allotments. The purpose of this effort, along with site-specific project or activity analyses, is to 

help prevent disease transmission between domestic and wild sheep. Examples include separation 

of domestic and wild sheep and development of protocols to prevent straying of domestic sheep 

from areas they are authorized to graze.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs cooperate with other State and Federal agencies and tribes, as well as 

private entities and adjacent landowners, to support species diversity, recovery, and wildlife 

management. The forests participate in the development and implementation of conservation 

plans and activities for identified species to help preclude Federal or State listing. The forests 

actively participate in implementation of recovery plan actions for federally listed species. 

Actions (e.g., closures, timing of treatments) are implemented to limit management impacts and 

disturbances and to help prevent listing of species as threatened or endangered.

Habitat and species monitoring are an integral part of proactive and adaptive wildlife and 

resource management on the forests. Examples include monitoring of federally listed and 

candidate species, management indicator species, ecological indicators, land birds, and bears.

The forests coordinate with the AZGFD, Arizona Wildlife Linkages Working Group, and Arizona 

Department of Transportation (ADOT) to enhance public safety and promote passage of wildlife. 

There may be a need to develop, construct, and install habitat connecting and safer wildlife 

crossings and modify proposals to account for important wildlife linkages. An example could be 

increasing the distance that roadway fences are set back from the road’s edge in order to provide 

herds of animals more room to maneuver during crossings.

The forests coordinate with the Wildlife Service Program of USDAAnimal and Plant Health and 

Inspection Service (APHIS) and the State of Arizona to promote healthy populations of predators, 

while reducing livestock conflicts with wildlife. Proactive livestock management practices (e.g., 

separating livestock from predators in time and place, range riders, herding) are incorporated to 

help keep conflicts from arising. In accordance with the national memorandum of understanding 

between the Forest Service and APHIS, the effectiveness of wildlife damage management 

practices is periodically reviewed.

Forest managers recognize the need to acquire a greater understanding of many nongame species 

(e.g., amphibians, invertebrates, fish), including their habitat requirements and the effects of 

management activities. The forests encourage and support wildlife research and inventory. The 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 65

forests develop partnerships with interested individuals and groups to help implement the wildlife 

program, including wildlife survey and habitat assessment. The forests also promote public 

education and valuing of the wildlife resource on the forests. The latter is increasingly important 

with growing urbanization and forest use.

Where the need is demonstrated, seasonal road restrictions and area closures may be used to 

provide refuge in small and large blocks of land habitat for a wide range of species.

Related Plan Content for Wildlife and Rare Plants

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, All PNVTs, Dispersed Recreation, 

Developed Recreation, Motorized Opportunities, Nonmotorized Opportunities, Livestock Grazing,

Minerals and Geology, and Wildlife Quiet Areas.

Invasive Species

Background for Invasive Species 

Nonnative plants (including diseases) and animals (including insects) that do, or have the 

potential to do, ecological or economic harm are classified as invasive species. Invasive species 

can be terrestrial or aquatic. On the ApacheSitgreaves NFs, numerous invasive species pose 

risks to native species and ecosystem function 

and to the production of forest goods and 

services. Invasive plants, of which there are over 

50 species, are currently (2008) found on at least 

30,000 acres of the forests. For example, musk 

thistle and Siberian elm have spread along 

roadways, bull thistle has established in 

numerous meadows and wetlands, and tamarisk 

has become common along many streams and 

lakes. Crayfish, also common in many streams 

and lakes, are harming several native aquatic 

species.

Management of invasive species is an increasing 

need across all PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs. There is an array of tools (chemical, 

biological, mechanical, and cultural) to help 

managers control or eradicate these species. To 

address terrestrial invasive plants, managers 

have implemented an integrated forestwide 

noxious or invasive weed management program. 

Even though complete eradication of invasive species is not always possible, aggressive treatment 

of existing populations, along with prevention of new infestations or populations, is important to 

protect native ecosystem diversity.

Figure 7. Yellow toadflax, an invasive 

species on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

© Photo courtesy of Michael Shepherd, USDA 

Forest Service, Bugwood.org
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

66 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions for Invasive Species

Landscape Scale Desired Condition (10,000 acres or greater) 

• Invasive species (both plant and animal) are nonexistent or in low occurrence to avoid 

negative impacts to ecosystems.

Mid-Scale Desired Conditions (100 to 1,000 acres)

• Undesirable nonnative species are absent or present only to the extent that they do not 

adversely affect ecosystem composition, structure, or function, including native species 

populations or the natural fire regime.

• Introduction of additional invasive species rarely occurs and is detected at an early 

stage.

Objectives for Invasive Species

• Annually, contain, control, or eradicate invasive species (e.g., musk thistle, Dalmatian 

toadflax) on 500 to 3,500 acres.

• Annually, control or eradicate invasive species (e.g., tamarisk, bullfrogs) on at least 2 

stream miles.

Standards for Invasive Species

• Projects and authorized activities shall be designed to reduce the potential for 

introduction of new species or spread of existing invasive or undesirable aquatic or 

terrestrial nonnative populations.

Guidelines for Invasive Species

• Projects and activities should not transfer water between drainages or between 

unconnected water bodies within the same drainage to avoid spreading disease and 

aquatic invasive species.

• Project areas should be monitored to ensure there is no introduction or spread of 

invasive species.

• Treatment of invasive species should be designed to effectively control or eliminate 

them; multiple treatments may be needed.

• Pesticide use should minimize impacts on nontarget plants and animals.

Management Approaches for Invasive Species

The forests use an integrated management approach with the goal of preventing, controlling, or 

eradicating invasive species. This involves prioritizing both species and areas for treatment, 

depending on risk, and identifying the most appropriate methods for control and eradication. 

Particular attention is needed for treatment of yellow starthistle, tamarisk, musk thistle, and bull 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 67

thistle. Species not yet extensive which provide good opportunity for treatment success include 

Dalmatian toadflax, Canada thistle, and bullfrogs. Treatment efforts are focused in roadways, 

developed recreation sites, trailheads, boating areas, and areas with mechanical treatments or 

concentrated use (e.g., corrals, driveways, log landings, dispersed campsites, pile burn sites). The 

control or eradication of crayfish and undesirable nonnative fish is needed to restore native 

aquatic species; however, more research is needed to determine effective tools for aquatic 

invasive species.

Forest employees identify, locate, and report invasive species occurrences. The forests maintain 

an inventory which identifies areas of invasive species occurrence. Because of the often 

aggressive and tenacious nature of invasive species, the forests apply timely initial treatments 

with follow-up treatments for as long as needed to meet either eradication or control goals.

The forests continue to provide education and outreach programs designed to increase employee, 

public, and permittee awareness. Implementation of preventative measures (e.g., pre- and postwork equipment sanitation, requiring certified weed-free seed and hay) continues through 

permitting, contracting, and other forest administrative processes. The forests continue to utilize 

vehicle wash stations to prevent spread of noxious weeds, nonnative invasive plants, insects, and 

disease pathogens.

Where determined appropriate, the forests collaborate with other agencies and entities in efforts 

to replace nonnative aquatic species with natives. The forests encourage ADOT to treat noxious 

weeds and undesirable nonnative invasive plants along highways. The forests cooperate with the 

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), APHIS, AZGFD, ADOT, Arizona Department 

of Agriculture (ADA), tribes, State and county extension services, local governments, and other 

organizations (e.g., Little Colorado River Weed Management Group) to support a successful 

invasive species management program. The Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests coordinate with 

and support the AZGFD in the use of aquatic habitat and species improvement methods in order 

to move aquatic resources toward desired conditions when such methods are consistent with 

applicable plan components.

Related Plan Content for Invasive Species

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Aquatic Habitat and Species, All PNVTs,

Wildlife and Rare Plants, Conservation Education, and Special Uses.

Landscape Scale Disturbance Events 

Background for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

Landscape scale (generally over 10,000 acres) disturbance events are recurring natural ecological 

processes with characteristic outcomes. However, given current (2011) departure from reference 

conditions, outcomes can be uncharacteristic where there are drastic changes in soil and 

vegetation components. These can lead to ecological succession away from desired conditions, 

which can be complicated by other factors like climate change and invasive species. When 

uncharacteristic outcomes occur, the landscape can take hundreds of years or more to recover to 

some level of stability. Where outcomes are uncharacteristic and there are needs to accelerate 

recovery, additional direction is provided to protect existing resources and facilitate recovery of 

soil and vegetation components and improve ecosystem health. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

68 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

Landscape Scale Desired Conditions (10,000 acres or greater) 

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs landscapes retain the resiliency to survive landscape scale 

disturbance events.

Standards for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

• Threats to human safety and property shall be promptly addressed following landscape 

scale disturbance and mitigated through measures such as signing, temporary closures, 

or treatment.

Guidelines for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events 

• Erosion control mitigation features should be implemented to protect significant 

resource values and infrastructure such as stream channels, roads, structures, 

threatened and endangered species, and cultural resources.

• Felling of hazard trees (either dead or alive) should be limited to those which could hit 

a road, recreation site, building, or other infrastructure to protect places where humans, 

vehicles, or developments would most likely be present. 

• Projects and activities (e.g., revegetation, mulching, lop and scatter) should be 

designed to stabilize soils and restore nutrient cycling, if needed, and establish 

movement toward the desired conditions for the affected PNVT(s).

• Where conifer seed sources are lost or poorly distributed and/or deciduous tree species 

are not adequately resprouting, artificial regeneration (e.g., planting, seeding) should 

be used to promote movement toward desired conditions, provided adequate site 

conditions exist.

• Management should emphasize long term reestablishment of native deciduous trees, 

shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation to maintain ecosystem diversity. 

• An adequate number and size of snags and logs, appropriate for the affected PNVT, 

should be retained individually and in clumps to provide benefits for wildlife and 

coarse woody debris for soil and other resource benefits. 

• Projects and activities should include both short and long term provisions for scenic 

integrity, especially in sensitive foreground areas (high and very high scenic integrity).

Management Approaches for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

Managers consider the large scale event recovery guidance in Forest Service Manual 2030 when 

responding to these disturbance events. Hazard trees may be removed along roads to meet 

guidance in FSM 2330 (publicly managed recreation opportunities) and FSM 7700 (travel 

management). Where extensive tree mortality results from landscape scale disturbance and 

economic value exists, salvage of dead trees may be considered where this contributes to the 

movement toward desired conditions. Deferral of ecological restoration or salvage projects and 

activities may also be considered where these are not necessary for recovery. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 69

Principles for ecological restoration and resilience as outlined in FSM 2020 are the basis for 

ecological restoration projects and activities. Based on site conditions, ecological restoration 

projects and activities focus on establishing and ensuring survival of native vegetation. Nonpersistent cereal grain seeding can be used after high severity wildfires to provide additional soil 

cover, alone or in conjunction with application of weed-free mulch, as long as treatments are 

consistent with EO 13112, FSM 2900, FSM 2523.2, and FSM 5100, Chapters 40 and 50.

Native tree and shrub planting follows plan guidelines for those individual forested and woodland 

PNVTs. To ensure their persistence, there is a focus on reintroduction of fire, protection of tree 

regeneration, treatment of insects and disease, or adjustment of management actions as needed. 

Additional direction found in the FSM 2400, Chapters 70 and 90, and FSM 2300, Chapter 20,

guides managers in silvicultural practices, reforestation, and forest management in wilderness.

Where wild ungulate use is hindering long term reestablishment of deciduous tree species, 

managers work with the AZGFD to address the situation.

Developed sites (recreation and administration) are evaluated following a landscape disturbance 

event for short and long term viability for continued use or for modification of the site. Site action 

plans are developed for implementation. Roads in event areas are evaluated for current and future 

access needs. Opportunities to decommission roads that are identified as no longer necessary for 

forest management and access or to relocate necessary access routes are considered. Forest 

boundary and/or other ownership landlines and land survey monuments are re-established and 

posted where needed.

Related Plan Content for Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Soil, Water Resources, All PNVTs, 

Developed Recreation, Motorized Opportunities, Scenic Resources, and Wildland Fire 

Management.

Managed Recreation

Overall Recreation Opportunities

Background for Overall Recreation Opportunities

The primary recreation activities are “relaxing and escaping the heat,” fishing, hiking, offhighway-vehicle (OHV) use, viewing natural features and wildlife, camping, driving for pleasure, 

picnicking, and large group gatherings. A wide variety of other activities, including boating and 

hunting, also occur on the forests. There are over 30 lakes and reservoirs and more than 1,000 

miles of rivers and streams, more than can be found in any other national forest in the 

Southwestern Region. The forests are a destination for winter activities including snow play, 

snowmobiling, ice fishing, cross-country skiing, and sledding.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs receive approximately 2 million visitors per year. A high proportion 

of these visitors spend the night on the forests. Approximately 70 percent of the forests’ Arizona 

visitors are from the Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas. These visitors, including those that 

view wildlife, hunt, and fish, contribute significantly to the economic well-being of the 

surrounding areas. The forests’ contribution to the local economy from the recreation and wildlife 

areas is approximately 69 percent of the local jobs and 68 percent of the local labor income 

(Forest Service, 2009a).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

70 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Highway improvements provide easier access to the forests from Arizona’s major metropolitan 

areas, increasing the number of visitors and demand for recreation. The demographics of the 

recreating public are changing. An aging and urban population and increased ethnic diversity 

contribute to an increased demand for an array of recreation opportunities.

Forest managers face major challenges in providing quality recreation opportunities, maintaining 

a safe transportation system, and providing for resource protection.

Desired Conditions for Overall Recreation Opportunities

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs offer a spectrum of recreation settings and opportunities 

varying from primitive to rural and dispersed to developed, with an emphasis on the 

natural appearing character of the forests.

• Inventoried roadless areas (IRAs) maintain their overall roadless character. 

• Recreation activities occur within the ability of the land to support them and with 

minimal user conflicts.

• Recreation enhances the quality of life for local residents (e.g., social interaction, 

physical activity, connection with nature), provides tourist destinations, and contributes 

monetarily to local economies.

• Recreation opportunities provide for a variety of skill levels, needs, and desires in 

partnership with recreation permit holders, private entities, volunteer groups, 

community groups, and State, Federal, and tribal governments.

• Visitors can easily access information about recreation activities and safe and proper 

use of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

• Recreation use does not negatively affect wildlife habitat and populations. Negative 

interactions between people and wildlife are minimized.

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are free from vandalism and refuse.

• Recreation use does not negatively affect the use and character of cultural resources.

• “Leave No Trace” principles are practiced.

Guidelines for Overall Recreation Opportunities

• Recreation related project level decisions and implementation activities should be 

consistent with mapped classes and setting descriptions in the recreation opportunity 

spectrum (ROS).

• Developed and dispersed recreation sites and other authorized activities should not be 

located in places that prevent wildlife or livestock access to available water.

• Food and other items that attract wildlife should be managed to prevent reliance on 

humans and to reduce human-wildlife conflicts.

• Constructed features should be maintained to support the purpose(s) for which they 

were built. Constructed features should be removed when no longer needed.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 71

Management Approaches for Overall Recreation Opportunities

The primary management approach is to continue the availability of outdoor opportunities visitors 

seek and which are not readily available from other public or private entities. These opportunities

must be compatible with the environment and other uses.

To better understand future recreation needs, supply and demand studies (capacity analyses) may 

be completed for high use recreational areas and outfitter and guide permits. There is a focus on 

reducing conflicts between users and resources, utilizing tools such as law enforcement, public 

involvement, and education. Private ventures and partnerships may be used to help provide 

recreation opportunities to forest visitors.

The recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) map establishes desired ROS classes for the 

management areas of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The ROS classes reflect desired settings that 

provide information for project and activity level decisions and implementation activity. The ROS 

classes define broad physical, social, and administrative settings. Site-specific analysis is 

necessary to further refine desired settings that may apply at the project or activity level. The 

ROS map can be found in the plan set of documents.

Related Plan Content for Overall Recreation Opportunities

See the following sections: Soil, Riparian Areas, Water Resources, Wildlife and Rare Plants,

Dispersed Recreation, Developed Recreation, Motorized Opportunities, Nonmotorized 

Opportunities, Scenic Byways, National Recreation Trails, Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic 

Rivers, Scenic Resources, Conservation Education, Cultural Resources, Special Uses, Wilderness, 

Primitive Area, and Recommended Wilderness.

Dispersed Recreation

Background for Dispersed Recreation

Visitors to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs participate in a variety of dispersed recreation activities. 

These activities range from motorized to nonmotorized and consumptive to nonconsumptive. 

Some examples of dispersed recreation are hunting and fishing, camping, trail use, sightseeing, 

driving for pleasure, snowmobiling, cross-country skiing, wildlife viewing, and picnicking. The 

forests are known for their backcountry opportunities: three designated wilderness areas, the Blue 

Range Primitive Area, and roadless areas encompassing over 300,000 acres.

In spite of the large expanse of undeveloped area available for dispersed recreation use (both 

motorized and nonmotorized), every acre is not suitable for every use. The challenge for forest 

visitors and managers is to protect multiple use opportunities and to minimize conflicting uses 

while, at the same time, maintaining freedom of choice to the greatest extent possible.

Desired Conditions for Dispersed Recreation

• Dispersed recreation opportunities (e.g., hunting, fishing, hiking, camping) are 

available and dispersed recreation sites (e.g., campsites, trailheads, vistas, parking 

areas) occur in a variety of ROS classes throughout the forests.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

72 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Facilities for dispersed recreation activities are appropriate for the ROS class and 

scenic integrity objective of the location and are designed to the minimum necessary to 

protect natural and cultural resources.

• Wildlife viewing areas are dispersed throughout the forests and provide opportunities 

to view waterfowl, migratory birds, elk, and other species.

• Access, parking, regulations, orientation, and safety information are in place to provide 

safe and enjoyable dispersed recreation opportunities.

• Water-based settings are available and the associated recreation opportunities (e.g., 

canoeing, fishing, waterfowl hunting) do not degrade aquatic resources.

• Winter nonmotorized areas provide a variety of nonmotorized recreation opportunities 

in a quiet, natural setting (including groomed and ungroomed ski trails). Noise from 

motorized use is uncommon in areas away from main road corridors.

• Winter motorized areas provide a variety of motorized recreation opportunities with a 

variety of challenges including areas open to cross-country, over-snow motorized use, 

some with groomed or ungroomed trails.

• Roads and trails provide a variety of opportunities to view natural landscapes and 

wildlife.

Objectives for Dispersed Recreation

• Annually, rehabilitate, stabilize, revegetate, or relocate an average of five dispersed 

campsites to improve recreation opportunities and/or protect the environment.

• Within the planning period, work with the AZGFD, ADOT, and other partners to 

provide at least 10 new wildlife viewing opportunities.

Standards for Dispersed Recreation

• Dispersed campsites shall not be designated in areas with sensitive soils or within 50 

feet of streams, wetlands, or riparian areas to prevent vegetation and bank damage, soil 

compaction, additional sediment, or soil and water contamination.

Guidelines for Dispersed Recreation

• In dispersed areas, the priority for facilities or minor developments should be access 

and protection of the environment, rather than the comfort or convenience of the 

visitors.

• Timing restrictions on recreation uses should be considered to reduce conflicts with 

wildlife needs or soil moisture conditions.

• Dispersed campsites should not be located on or adjacent to archaeological sites or 

sensitive wildlife areas.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 73

Management Approaches for Dispersed Recreation

Forest managers recognize the importance and popularity of dispersed recreation and seek to 

balance the strong desire people have for freedom of choice (in terms of their recreation activity) 

with adequate protection of cultural and natural resources. Focus is on providing quality dispersed 

recreation opportunities and reducing conflict among recreation users. Where intensive dispersed 

use—including camping—occurs (e.g., Bear Canyon Lake, south of Big Lake), managers 

consider the development of a management plan to delineate the intensive use area, address 

resource concerns, and provide for sustainable recreation. 

Related Plan Content for Dispersed Recreation

See the following sections: Soil, Riparian Areas, Water Resources, Wildlife and Rare Plants,

Overall Recreation Opportunities, Conservation Education, and Cultural Resources.

Developed Recreation

Background for Developed Recreation 

There are over 50 developed campgrounds, offering single family, multifamily, and large group 

campsites. Other developed recreation opportunities include picnic areas, boating and fishing 

sites, trailheads, two visitor centers, and scenic overlooks.

In the late 1980s, the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs first awarded concessionaire permits to a private 

corporation to manage and operate the majority of the developed recreation sites; more than half 

of the developed campgrounds are currently (2014) operated by concessionaire. One developed 

recreation area, Fools Hollow Lake, is operated through a partnership with Arizona State Parks, 

Arizona Game and Fish Department, and the City of Show Low. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs 

have one rental cabin located on the Alpine Ranger District.

Desired Conditions for Developed Recreation

• Developed recreation sites provide opportunities for people to camp, obtain 

information, and participate in day-use activities (e.g., picnic areas, fishing piers, 

scenic overlooks, wildlife viewing sites).

• Facilities are maintained, accessible, and complement the forests’ natural character. 

Facilities range from primitive to highly developed, with an emphasis on blending the 

facilities with the landscape.

• Forest vegetation in developed sites is healthy (species, size, and age) and 

complements recreational activities, scenery, and human safety.

• Developed campgrounds are places where structures and human caused vegetation 

changes may be seen but they do not dominate the view or attract attention (low to 

moderate scenic integrity). Human activities in the areas visible from campgrounds 

(foreground to middle ground, 300 feet to 4 miles) should not attract attention or stand 

out, and the landscapes should appear natural (moderate to high scenic integrity).

• Developed campgrounds provide roaded natural or roaded modified recreation 

opportunities.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

74 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Objectives for Developed Recreation

• Within the planning period, reduce the developed recreation deferred maintenance 

backlog at plan approval by 10 percent.

• Within the planning period, accessible and wildlife-resistant trash facilities should be 

provided in all developed sites where trash is collected.

Standards for Developed Recreation

• Where trash facilities are provided, they shall be bear resistant.

Guidelines for Developed Recreation

• Developed recreation sites should not be constructed unless validated with a capacity 

analysis.

Management Approaches for Developed Recreation

Focus is on maintaining the forest recreation and administrative developments in a safe and 

sustainable manner while providing for quality opportunities for visitors. As the ApacheSitgreaves NFs move into the future, the emphasis is to balance new construction with current 

and future maintenance requirements.

Forest managers assess Apache-Sitgreaves NFs recreation and administrative facilities in order to 

establish a program that is 

sustainable, realistic, and responsive 

to public need. Facilities may be 

redesigned, as necessary, in order to 

accommodate persons with 

disabilities, respond to demographic 

changes, and reduce conflicts with 

cultural and natural resources as 

outlined in the recreation facility 

analysis and master plan. Recreation 

site plans describe the detailed 

management for each developed 

recreation area, including vegetation 

management plans for campgrounds. 

Future recreational rental 

designations (e.g., cabins) are 

considered on a case-by-case basis 

including administrative and public benefits.

Related Plan Content for Developed Recreation

See the following sections: Overall Recreation Opportunities, Wildlife and Rare Plants, and 

Conservation Education.

Figure 8. Woods Canyon Lake
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 75

Motorized Opportunities

Background for Motorized Opportunities

Over 2,900 miles of roads and trails are open for public motorized use. These roads and trails are 

also needed for forest management or administrative use. Summers, holidays, and hunting 

seasons generally have high volumes of motor vehicle traffic. OHV use continues to increase. 

Unauthorized (user-created) routes and motorized use on closed roads are major concerns. 

Desired Conditions for Motorized Opportunities

• A maintained road and motorized trail system is in place and provides for safety and 

access for the use (e.g., recreation, minerals, vegetation treatment, fire protection) of 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

• Users have opportunities for motorized access and travel on a system of designated 

NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, and motorized areas25.

• The transportation system provides a variety of recreation opportunities including 

varying degrees of difficulty, from OHV trails to paved scenic byways, while limiting 

resource and/or user conflicts.

• NFS roads, motorized trails, and motorized areas are easily identified on the ground 

(e.g., well marked).

• The road and trail system is accessible from local communities, State, county, and local 

public roads and trails.

• Loop trails exist for motorized trail users.

• Tread Lightly!® principles are commonly practiced.

• The location and design of roads and trails does not impede wildlife and fish

movement.

Objectives for Motorized Opportunities

• Annually, maintain at least 20 percent of the passenger vehicle and 10 percent of the

high-clearance vehicle NFS roads.

• Annually, maintain at least 20 percent of NFS motorized trails.

Standards for Motorized Opportunities

• Motorized vehicle travel shall be managed to occur only on the designated system of 

NFS roads and motorized trails and designated motorized areas. 

• Unless specifically authorized, motorized cross-country travel shall be managed to 

occur only in designated motorized areas.

 

25 The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs will designate NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, and motorized areas through a separate 

travel management analysis.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

76 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Temporary road construction shall minimize the impacts to resource values and 

facilitate road rehabilitation. Temporary roads shall be rehabilitated following 

completion of the activities for which they were constructed.

• Road maintenance and construction activities shall be designed to reduce sediment 

(e.g., water bars, sediment traps, grade dips) while first providing for user safety.

Guidelines for Motorized Opportunities

• New motorized trails or additions to designated trails should include destinations and 

loops to provide for a variety of opportunities.

• New roads or motorized trails should be located to avoid Mexican spotted owl

protected activity centers, northern goshawk post-fledging family areas, and other 

wildlife areas as identified; seasonal restrictions may be an option.

• New roads, motorized trails, or designated motorized areas should be located to avoid 

meadows, wetlands, seeps, springs, riparian areas, stream bottoms, sacred sites, and 

areas with high concentrations of significant archaeological sites. The number of 

stream crossings should be minimized or mitigated to reduce impacts to aquatic 

species.

• As projects occur in riparian or wet meadow areas, unneeded roads or motorized trails 

should be closed or relocated, drainage restored, and native vegetation reestablished to 

move these areas toward their desired condition.

• As projects occur, roads or motorized trails that contribute to negative impacts on 

cultural resources should be closed or relocated. 

• As projects occur, redundant roads or motorized trails should be removed to reduce 

degradation of natural resources.

• Roads and motorized trails removed from the transportation network should be treated 

in order to avoid future risk to hydrologic function and aquatic habitat. 

• Trail markings (e.g., signs) should be designed to complement the character of the 

surrounding lands.

• Roads and motorized trails should be designed and located so as to not impede 

terrestrial and aquatic species movement and connectivity.

• As projects occur, existing meadow crossings should be relocated or redesigned, as 

needed, to maintain or restore hydrologic function using appropriate tools such as 

French drains and elevated culverts.

• After management activities occur in areas with high potential for cross-country 

motorized vehicle use, methods (e.g., barriers, signing) should be used to control 

unauthorized motorized use.

Management Approaches for Motorized Opportunities

Access and opportunities to experience areas through motorized travel are key components of 

recreation, as well as a management emphasis for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The Apache-
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 77

Sitgreaves NFs provide a serviceable and sustainable transportation system that meets the need 

for public access, land management, resource protection, and user safety. The management 

approach is to enhance opportunities for motorized trail users, relocate trails to reduce conflicts 

between motorized and nonmotorized users or other resources, and develop management plans 

for designated motorized use areas. 

This plan provides the framework to guide future changes to the transportation system. Once the 

final decision of this plan has been made, potential changes to the forests’ transportation system 

will be evaluated under this framework and through implementation of the Travel Management 

Rule (36 CFR § 212) as required by Executive Order 11644. Upon completion of travel 

management planning, the associated motor vehicle use map (MVUM) would be printed. The 

MVUM would display the roads, trails, and areas that are designated for motorized vehicle use. 

Travel management planning is not a static process. Based on public input, monitoring, and sitespecific analysis, the MVUM could be adjusted. The annual reissuing of the MVUM would 

reflect any changes made through the NEPA process. Use inconsistent with those designations, 

and inconsistent with this plan, would be prohibited.

Approval of temporary road construction is contingent on the completion of an environmental 

analysis that addresses road construction and road obliteration, including setting timelines.

When routes are removed from the transportation system, follow-up treatments may include 

outsloping roadbeds, removing stream crossing structures, breaching drainage ditches, removing 

unstable fills, maintaining or restoring fish passage, and removing invasive weeds. 

Measures (e.g., education, signage, law enforcement, seasonal road closures) are used to 

discourage encroachment of motorized vehicles into nonmotorized areas and to protect wildlife, 

infrastructure, and other resources. Emphasis is placed on reducing user conflict and resource 

damage. Resource damage from vehicle use is rehabilitated as soon as possible. The forests 

promote roadside interpretive services along scenic byways. Educational techniques (e.g., 

brochures, signs) may be used to help visitors understand proper motorized use etiquette. 

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs coordinate with the Federal Highway Administration and ADOT to 

facilitate transportation needs, planned improvements, and transportation conditions. ApacheSitgreaves NFs work with ADOT to alleviate concerns with scenic resources; maintenance 

activities; use of herbicides; use of deicing agents; and creation of safety turnouts, parking lots, 

and wildlife crossings.

Trail maintenance priorities are based on providing user safety, minimizing erosion, providing 

appropriate recreation opportunities, and accommodating administrative needs. The forests work 

with partners and volunteers to maintain trails, including the Adopt-A-Trail Program and user 

groups. Partnerships are in place prior to new motorized trail construction to facilitate trail 

maintenance.

Related Plan Content for Motorized Opportunities

See the following sections: Soil, Riparian Areas, Water Resources, All PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare 

Plants, Overall Recreation Opportunities, Scenic Byways, and Cultural Resources.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

78 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Nonmotorized Opportunities

Background for Nonmotorized Opportunities

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs have approximately 1,000 miles of nonmotorized trails for hiking, 

horseback riding, mountain biking, and cross-country skiing. Trail conditions are variable across 

the forests, with maintenance focused on high use trails. Several trails are paved to provide 

additional opportunities for visitors with physical limitations. National recreation trails are 

addressed following the “Scenic Byways” section.

Desired Conditions for Nonmotorized Opportunities

• Nonmotorized opportunities are available in a variety of settings that provide differing 

levels of challenge and seclusion.

• Blocks of forest land accessible from populated areas are available for nonmotorized

opportunities. These areas are free from the sights and sounds of motorized recreation.

• Opportunities for primitive recreation are available.

• A maintained and environmentally sound nonmotorized trail network is in place, 

providing for user safety and access to locations of interest for a variety of uses.

• Nonmotorized trails are defined and marked.

• Destination and loop trails exist for nonmotorized users.

Objectives for Nonmotorized Opportunities

• Annually, maintain at least 20 percent of nonmotorized trails.

Guidelines for Nonmotorized Opportunities

• Trail markings (e.g., signs, blazes) should be designed to complement the character of 

the surrounding lands.

• New nonmotorized routes should avoid meadows, wetlands, seeps, springs, riparian 

areas, stream bottoms, sacred sites, and areas with high concentrations of significant 

archaeological sites. The number of stream crossings should be minimized or mitigated 

to reduce impacts to aquatic habitat.

• To maintain nonmotorized user opportunities, nonmotorized trails should not be 

colocated on open motorized routes.

• New trails and trail relocations should be designed and located so as to not impede 

terrestrial and aquatic species movement and connectivity.

• Meadow crossings should be designed or redesigned to maintain or restore hydrologic 

function using appropriate tools such as French drains and elevated culverts.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 79

Management Approaches for Nonmotorized Opportunities

Access and opportunities to experience areas through nonmotorized travel are key components of 

recreation. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide a serviceable and sustainable trail system that 

meets the need for public access, land management, resource protection, and user safety. 

Emphasis is on reconstructing or adding nonmotorized trails near population centers or developed 

recreation sites to provide additional or enhanced nonmotorized recreational opportunities.

Signing, enforcement, public information, seasonal and special closures, maintenance, 

construction, and restoration take place as appropriate. Emphasis is placed on reducing user 

conflict and resource damage. Educational techniques (e.g., brochures, signs) enhance visitor 

knowledge of proper nonmotorized use etiquette.

Trail maintenance priorities are based on providing user safety, minimizing erosion, providing 

appropriate recreation opportunities, and accommodating administrative needs. Partnerships are 

in place prior to new nonmotorized trail construction to facilitate trail maintenance. The forests 

work with partners, user groups, and volunteers to maintain trails, including the Adopt-A-Trail 

Program.

Related Plan Content for Nonmotorized Opportunities

See the following sections: Overall Recreation Opportunities, National Recreation Trails, Wildlife 

and Rare Plants, Riparian Areas, Soil, Scenic Resources, and Water Resources.

Scenic Byways

Background for Scenic Byways

Three scenic byways pass through the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs: Coronado Trail National Scenic 

Byway, From the Desert to Tall Pines Scenic Road, and White Mountain Scenic Road. Scenic 

byways are considered special areas by the Forest Service.

In September 2005, the 120-mile Coronado Trail National Scenic Byway was designated by the 

Federal Highway Administration. This route has also been a national forest byway and Arizona 

State scenic byway since 1989. This byway traverses the Springerville, Alpine, and Clifton 

Ranger Districts.

The From the Desert to Tall Pines Scenic Road has been a national forest scenic road and Arizona 

State scenic byway since 1996. Approximately 3 miles of this 67 mile scenic road are on the 

Black Mesa Ranger District. The 123-mile White Mountain Scenic Road has been an Arizona 

State scenic byway since 1992 and a national forest byway since 1989. This byway is partially 

located on the Springerville Ranger District.

Desired Conditions for Scenic Byways

• Viewsheds along scenic byways provide natural appearing landscapes and enhance 

recreation tourism that supports local communities.

• The intrinsic qualities identified for each scenic byway remain intact.

• Scenic byways exhibit natural appearing landscapes where human activities do not 

stand out in the foreground, up to one-half mile (high scenic integrity).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

80 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Scenic byways provide roaded natural recreation opportunities.

Guidelines for Scenic Byways

• Visual impacts from vegetation treatments, recreation uses, range developments, and 

other structures should blend with the overall landscape character along scenic byways.

• Signs, kiosks, and other exhibits should provide interpretive, education, and safety 

information along scenic byways and in adjacent recreation sites.

Management Approaches for Scenic Byways

Forest managers work with partners to implement the “Coronado Trail Corridor Management 

Plan.”

Related Plan Content for Scenic Byways

See the following sections: Motorized Opportunities and Scenic Resources.

National Recreation Trails

Background for National Recreation Trails

The forests have four national recreation trails (NRTs), all designated in 1979: Blue Ridge, 

General George Crook, Eagle, and Escudilla. NRTs provide a variety of outdoor recreation 

opportunities and are accessible from urban areas. NRTs are considered a special area by the 

Forest Service.

The Blue Ridge NRT, located on the Lakeside Ranger District, is approximately 9 miles long. The 

trail climbs the west side of Blue Ridge Mountain (7,650 feet in elevation) through a mixture of 

pines, junipers, and many varieties of wildflowers. The mountain itself is a volcanic remnant. 

There are scenic views from the summit.

Fifty-eight miles of the 114-mile long General George Crook NRT are located in both the Black 

Mesa and Lakeside Ranger Districts. The trail is part of the route used by General George Crook 

to deliver supplies to outposts including Fort McDowell, Fort Verde, Camp Reno, Fort Apache, 

and Camp San Carlos. This route became one of the first major roads in Arizona and was used for 

decades as a supply and communications route. The original blazes can still be seen on the 

ponderosa pines lining the trail, as well as occasional traces of homesteads. The trail is popular 

with equestrians, mountain bikers, and hikers.

The Eagle NRT, located on the Clifton Ranger District, is approximately 28 miles long. The 

northern end of the trail begins on the Mogollon Rim at about 9,000 feet elevation and descends 

over 4,000 feet through a variety of vegetation types (mixed conifer to riparian) to its southern 

trailhead adjacent to Eagle Creek Road. The trail traverses several canyons, each with its own 

unique scenery and vegetation.

Escudilla NRT, located on the Alpine Ranger District, is approximately 3 miles long. The trail 

ascends Arizona’s third highest mountain and is located in Escudilla Wilderness. Administrative 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 81

designation of the trail predates wilderness designation. Forest Service policy discourages 

national recreation trails in designated wilderness.

Desired Conditions for National Recreation Trails

• The Blue Ridge NRT provides a nonmotorized trail opportunity where visitors can 

experience the scenic qualities of the area.

• The General George Crook and Eagle NRTs provide nonmotorized trail opportunities

where visitors can experience the historic and scenic qualities of the area.

• The immediate foreground (0 to 200 feet) views from the NRTs vary from natural 

appearing landscapes where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity) to 

unaltered landscapes where generally only ecological changes occur (very high scenic 

integrity).

Objectives for National Recreation Trails

• Within 5 years of plan approval, initiate the process for the regional forester to remove 

the NRT designation from the Escudilla trail in conformance with Forest Service 

Manual 2353.57 – Management of National Recreation Trails.

Standards for National Recreation Trails

• Visual impacts from vegetation treatments, wildland fire, recreation uses, range 

developments, and other structures will blend with the overall landscape character 

along national recreation trails.

Guidelines for National Recreation Trails

• Trail markings (e.g., signs, blazes) should be designed to complement the character of 

the surrounding lands.

• National recreation trails should be managed for nonmotorized or mechanized travel

where permitted; however, the General George Crook and Eagle NRTs may have 

motorized travel where the trail coincides with a designated road or motorized trail.

• New developments which do not support use of, or enhance, a national recreation trail 

should not be placed within the visual corridor of the trail.

• The General George Crook National Recreation Trail should be managed to preserve 

evidence of historic roadway and landscape character, including related historic trees, 

markers, gravesites, and water holes within a 200-foot corridor.

Related Plan Content for National Recreation Trails

See the following sections: Nonmotorized Opportunities and Cultural Resources.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

82 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers 

Background for Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

There are no designated wild and scenic rivers26 on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. 

However, the forests have over 20 eligible rivers and 2 suitable rivers, which reflects the 

importance of water and its presence on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Eligible and suitable wild 

and scenic rivers are considered special areas by the Forest Service.

There are approximately 339 miles of 23 rivers that are eligible to be included in the National 

Wild and Scenic Rivers System (table 1). There are 172 miles classified as wild, 66 miles 

classified as scenic, and 101 miles classified as recreational. These rivers are located in all ranger 

districts except Lakeside. 

Eligible rivers are managed to retain their status until a suitability determination has been made 

whether to recommend their inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

Suitable rivers on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs include portions of the Blue River and KP Creek 

(table 2). These rivers were found to be suitable for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic 

Rivers System through a separate environmental analysis (Forest Service, 2010b). Suitable rivers 

are managed to maintain their conditions and values until congressional action is taken. One-half 

mile wide corridors, one-quarter mile on each side of eligible and suitable rivers, are managed to 

protect the identified river values.

Table 1. Eligible wild and scenic rivers of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs by river 

classificationa

River Name Wild

(miles)

Scenic 

(miles)

Recreational 

(miles) Total Miles

Bear Wallow Creek 3.7 – 0.9 4.6

Black River 18.3 0.5 – 18.8

Campbell Blue Creekb 4.1 – 8.0 12.1

Coal Creekb 9.6 0.6 7.7 17.9

Dix Creek – 3.3 – 3.3

Eagle Creek – – 19.5 19.5

East Clear Creekc – 21.2 – 21.2

East Eagle Creek 7.5 3.5 3.5 14.5

East Fork Black River 3.3 1.2 8.2 12.7

East Fork Little Colorado River – 9.3 – 9.3

Fish Creek – 9.9 0.6 10.5

Little Blue Creek 18.4 – – 18.4

Leonard Canyond – – 23.6 23.6

 

26 Designated wild and scenic rivers are those that are included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 83

River Name Wild

(miles)

Scenic 

(miles)

Recreational 

(miles) Total Miles

North Fork East Fork Black River 12.7 1.0 – 13.7

Pigeon Creek 4.8 – 10.3 15.1

San Francisco River 9.0 – 15.0 24.0

Sardine Creek 8.9 – – 8.9

South Fork Little Colorado River – 7.3 – 7.3

Turkey Creek 9.1 – – 9.1

West Fork Black River 8.6 3.0 11.6

West Fork Little Colorado River 6.4 – 1.7 8.1

Willow Creek 18.9 – -– 18.9

Woods Canyon – Chevelon Creek 28.4 5.3 2.4 36.1

Total Miles 171.7 66.1 101.4 339.2

a Forest Service, 2009b

b Also located on the Gila NF. Total miles shown.

c Also located on the Coconino NF. A portion of this river is the boundary between the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and the 

Coconino NF. Miles shown are the common boundary.

d Also located on the Coconino NF. Miles shown are the common boundary between the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and 

the Coconino NF.

Table 2. Suitable wild and scenic rivers of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs by river 

classification

River Name Wild

(miles)

Scenic 

(miles)

Recreational 

(miles) Total Miles

Blue River 23.3 4.2 – 27.5

KP Creek 11.3 – – 11.3

Total Miles 34.6 4.2 0.0 38.8

Portions of the eligible West Fork and East Fork Little Colorado Rivers are located within Mount 

Baldy Wilderness. All of the eligible Bear Wallow Creek is within Bear Wallow Wilderness. 

There are no eligible or suitable rivers in Escudilla Wilderness. A portion of the suitable Blue 

River is within the Primitive Area Management Area. Most of the suitable KP Creek is also 

within the Primitive Area Management Area; the remainder is within the Natural Landscape

Management Area. Other eligible rivers are located within a variety of management areas across 

the forests.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

84 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions for Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

• Eligible and suitable wild river segments display unaltered landscapes where generally 

only ecological changes occur (very high scenic integrity) and provide primitive and/or 

semiprimitive nonmotorized recreation opportunities.

• Eligible and suitable scenic river segments display landscapes which vary from slightly 

altered where human activities may be seen but do not attract attention (moderate 

scenic integrity) to natural appearing where human activities do not stand out (high 

scenic integrity) and provide semiprimitive nonmotorized, semiprimitive motorized, 

and/or roaded natural recreation opportunities.

• Eligible and suitable recreational river segments display landscapes which vary from 

moderately altered where human activities are evident (low scenic integrity) to slightly 

altered where human activities may be seen but do not attract attention (moderate 

scenic integrity) and provide primitive, semiprimitive nonmotorized, semiprimitive 

motorized, and/or roaded natural recreation opportunities.

Standards for Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

• Each eligible river’s free-flowing condition, outstandingly remarkable values, and 

classification shall be sustained until further study is conducted.

• Each suitable river’s free-flowing condition, outstandingly remarkable values, and 

classification shall be maintained until congressional action is completed.

Management Approaches for Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

Where eligible or suitable wild and scenic rivers segments occur (all management areas), the 

most restrictive management direction applies.

Related Plan Content for Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

See the following sections: All PNVTs, Wilderness, and Primitive Area.

Scenic Resources

Background for Scenic Resources

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs contain some of the most scenic landscapes in the State of Arizona 

ranging from rugged canyons to rolling hills and grasslands to alpine forests. A favorite activity of 

forest visitors is viewing natural features and wildlife.

Desired Conditions for Scenic Resources

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs appear predominantly natural, and human activities do not 

dominate the landscape.

• The natural and cultural features of the landscapes that provide a “sense of place” are 

intact.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 85

• Landscapes possess vegetation patterns and compositions that are naturally variable in 

appearance and contribute to scenic values.

• Visitors have opportunities to experience important scenic elements including fall 

colors, rolling grasslands, picturesque vistas, and green riparian corridors.

• Lakes (reservoirs) and surrounding lands (1⁄4 mile from the shore) provide landscapes 

which vary from slightly altered where human activities may be seen but do not attract 

attention (moderate scenic integrity) to natural appearing where human activities do 

not stand out (high scenic integrity).

• The scenic vistas associated with canyons and other landforms retain their scenic 

integrity.

• The vistas—both from and onto—the Mogollon Rim exhibit landscapes which vary 

from natural appearing where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity) 

to unaltered where generally only ecological changes occur (very high scenic 

integrity).

Objectives for Scenic Resources

• Annually, accomplish an average of five projects to enhance scenic resources (e.g., 

restore grasslands and aspen, remove unnecessary fences, close and rehabilitate 

unneeded gravel/cinder pits).

Guidelines for Scenic Resources

• Constructed features and landscape alterations should be designed to complement the 

natural setting.

• Projects or activities in primitive and semiprimitive recreation opportunity spectrum 

(ROS) classes should be designed to maintain a predominately natural appearing 

environment.

Management Approaches for Scenic Resources

Management emphasis is to maintain the scenic qualities of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs that 

contribute to the forests’ niche (e.g., rolling grasslands, rugged desert terrain, lush forests, fall 

colors). 

The Scenery Management System (SMS) is a tool for inventorying and managing scenic 

resources. This system is used to incorporate scenery management principles into the planning, 

design, and implementation of projects and activities. The scenic integrity objective map can be 

found in the plan set of documents.

Related Plan Content for Scenic Resources

See the following sections: Grasslands, Landscape Scale Disturbance Events, Scenic Byways, 

National Recreation Trails, Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Livestock Grazing,

Minerals and Geology, Special Uses, Community-Forest Intermix, Energy Corridor,
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

86 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Recommended Research Natural Area, Wilderness, Primitive Area, Recommended Wilderness, 

and Wildlife Quiet Areas, Natural Landscape, and Research Natural Area.

Community-Forest Interaction

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are literally the backyard for many residents of the White Mountains

region of Arizona. Many communities adjoin the forests, while the forests completely surround 

others. Because of this close proximity, many communities and private landowners are directly 

affected by forest management decisions. These entities, in turn, affect forest management.

There has been a major increase in development on land adjoining and/or surrounded by the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Demands related to this growth include access to the forests, utility 

corridors, roads, special use permits, and recreational opportunities. More and more people are 

living close to the forests, and managers are challenged to provide goods, services, and access 

that populations demand, while meeting a variety of user expectations and desires.

Increases in population and housing development may lead to more wildland-urban interface 

(WUI) areas, loss of open space, and associated use of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and demands 

for services. Forest managers are faced with concerns over available water supply and the 

preservation of open space (natural areas) around communities.

In general, communities associated with the forests have shifted from a commodity-based 

economy dependent on logging and grazing to a service-based economy dependent on service, 

recreation, and construction. However, there continue to be local social and economic 

dependencies on commodity use and production, which in turn contribute to economic diversity 

and sustaining the lifestyles and traditions of local communities.

Management emphasis is to build and maintain lasting relationships with local communities, 

forest users, and tribes. Communication and trust contribute to quality of life, economically stable 

communities, and healthy forests. A variety of partnerships, including volunteers, are in place to 

assist in resource management and advancement toward desired conditions. This includes 

partnerships and relationships among Forest Service, local community groups, and forest 

permittees.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs contribute leadership, organizational skills, facilities, and other 

resources to communities. Agency personnel are active participants within the communities. 

These communities benefit economically when the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and its employees 

make local purchases for goods and services.

Laws and regulations are enforced so that the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are available to all persons 

for legitimate uses with a minimum of restrictions and to promote visitor safety, protect facilities, 

and cultural and natural resources. There is an emphasis to provide an increased visible presence 

of uniformed Forest Service employees that help to facilitate law enforcement, deter violations, 

and provide information to the public. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs cooperate with State and local 

law enforcement agencies to protect forest resources, employees, visitors, and property. The 

forests are responsive and assist with local search and rescue requests.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs collaborate with other Federal agencies; tribes; State and local 

governments; or other interested or affected communities, groups, or persons to better understand 

climate change across the landscape.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 87

Conservation Education

Background for Conservation Education

The Forest Service has a recognized role and responsibility to educate people about the 

management and conservation of our Nation’s forests and grasslands. Increasing youth and adult 

knowledge of—and environmental literacy about—forests and natural resources continues to be 

critical to the accomplishment of the Forest Service mission today.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide many learning opportunities where participants appreciate 

the diversity of ecosystems, plants, and wildlife. The conservation education program of the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs includes opportunities for local residents and visitors to learn about the 

forests. Forest Service employees provide information, lead tours, and participate in local school 

programs. Interpretive programs are provided in campgrounds and the forests’ two visitor 

information centers, Big Lake and Mogollon Rim. With the help of partners, the forests have been 

able to expand education opportunities with additional programs (e.g., Kids in the Woods). 

The importance of having a viable conservation education program is affirmed. There is a need 

for the public to understand forest issues, laws, consequences of forest user behavior, and forest 

management actions.

Desired Conditions for Conservation Education

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide opportunities for adults and children to explore 

and learn about ecosystems.

• Forest visitors have access to information about topics of concern related to the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (e.g., ecosystem restoration, unmanaged recreation, 

uncharacteristic wildfire), including appropriate visitor behavior (e.g., follow forest 

orders, pack out trash, appropriate sanitation, wildfire prevention).

• Forest visitors have access to information about the features of the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs, its ecosystems, multiple uses, and other management aspects of the forests.

• Interpretive information (e.g., ecology, wildlife, cultural resources, unique geologic 

features, Forest Service mission) is available to forest visitors at Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs visitor centers, administrative offices, recreation sites, and along major forest 

roadways.

Management Approaches for Conservation Education

Forest users are informed about the mission of the Forest Service and the benefits derived from 

authorized land uses. Forest users have access to timely public information (e.g., forest closures, 

fire danger). Public information, interpretive services, and environmental education programs and 

activities connect people to the land and to each other. Programs encourage visitors and local 

residents to take informed actions in sustaining cultural and natural resources. The forests 

promote established programs (e.g., TreadLightly!®, Leave No Trace, Kids in the Woods, 

Passport in Time, Bear Aware) that help connect people to nature. A variety of techniques (e.g., 

handouts, Web site, presentations) are used to educate users on topics ranging from land ethics to 

forest history. The forests place an emphasis on providing interpretive programs, especially 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

88 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

through its visitor centers (Big Lake and Mogollon Rim) and development of education tools 

(e.g., invasive species prevention). 

Related Plan Content for Conservation Education

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Invasive Species, Overall Recreation 

Opportunities, Cultural Resources, and Wildland Fire Management. 

Lands

Background for Lands

Many communities are completely surrounded by the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and, therefore, are 

limited in the ability to expand. Forest managers face many challenges associated with growing 

communities within and adjacent to the forests. Apache-Sitgreaves NFS lands provide less 

developed opportunities than residents and visitors find in urban settings, such as greenbelts and 

parks.

Desired Conditions for Lands

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs exist in a pattern that promotes efficient management 

which consists of large contiguous tracts of NFS lands.

• Residents and visitors are aware of Forest Service regulations and respect common 

property boundaries.

• The construction or placement of fences and gates, structures, signs, or other private 

personal property on NFS land (occupancy trespass) rarely occurs. Disposal of 

personal property (e.g., dumping) rarely occurs on NFS lands.

Objectives for Lands

• Annually, survey and post on average 2 to 5 miles of unposted NFS boundary.

• Annually, maintain on average 2 to 5 miles of property boundary posting and corner 

monuments.

• Annually, resolve an average of three existing trespass cases.

Guidelines for Lands

• Access points to NFS land from adjacent non-NFS developments and subdivisions 

should be limited and provide all residents (not just edge lot owners) common entry 

points. Individual access points should be discouraged to minimize the development of 

unauthorized roads or trails.

• Land exchanges should not result in the creation of isolated NFS parcels surrounded by 

other ownerships.

• Land acquisitions and exchanges should evaluate, and possibly include, associated 

beneficial encumbrances (e.g., water rights, mineral rights, easements, instream flow).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 89

Management Approaches for Lands

Land adjustments (e.g., exchanges, purchases) help to consolidate the NFS land base, reduce 

administrative problems and costs, enhance public access and use, and support resource 

management objectives. Management emphasis is to work with local communities to understand 

their community expansion needs and retain access to NFS land. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs 

work with communities during development of their master plans and with communities, 

developers, and homeowner groups to retain legal access to public lands (e.g., easements, 

trailheads).

In order to reduce trespass issues along property boundaries, education, partnerships, and law 

enforcement are used. Survey and proper posting of boundaries between NFS lands and other 

lands is a key objective. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) resurveys are requested where 

section corners have not been brass capped, especially in areas of complex land patterns, where 

development is taking place, or where impacted by landscape scale disturbance.

NFS lands that are made available for exchange generally meet one or more of the following 

criteria: (1) isolated tracts or scattered parcels that cannot be efficiently managed, (2) recreation 

residence tracts, (3) provide for consolidation of public lands, (4) improve management or benefit 

specific resources, or (5) overriding public needs.

Lands desirable for acquisition generally meet one or more of the following criteria: (1) lands that 

contain vital species habitat or vital wildlife habitat (e.g., calving areas, critical winter range); (2) 

lands needed for developed or dispersed recreation; (3) wetlands, riparian areas, and other water 

oriented lands; (4) lands that contain unique natural or cultural values; (5) lands that improve 

public land management, meet specified administrative needs, or benefit other NFS programs; (6) 

lands that provide needed access, protect public lands from fire or trespass, or prevent damage to 

public land resources; (7) lands that are needed to consolidate public landownership or meet 

research needs; (8) lands that are needed to meet programs prescribed or endorsed by acts or 

reports of Congress or the Department of Agriculture; (9) inholdings that contain needed access;

or (10) undeveloped inholdings. When acquired, lands are evaluated for suitability (chapter 4) 

prior to being allocated for appropriate uses.

Related Plan Content for Lands

See the following section: Community-Forest Intermix.

Cultural Resources

Background for Cultural Resources

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ heritage program manages the cultural resources of the forests. The 

lands of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs contain a long and diverse cultural record that began 

approximately 12,000 years ago. Remnants of past and current human activities and events that 

reflect continuous use by Native peoples and the exploration, settlement, and management by 

Euro-American cultures can be found throughout the forests. Based on inventory surveys, it is 

estimated that approximately 100,000 archaeological sites are located on the forests. As of 2011, 

approximately 385,300 acres had been intensively surveyed for cultural resources resulting in the 

identification of over 6,900 sites. Many of these sites have been determined as eligible for listing 

on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). At present, 10 properties are listed on the 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

90 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

National Register. The forests also contain cultural landscapes, prehistoric trails, and historic 

routes and trails.

Properties presently listed on the National Register of Historic Places include Bailey Ruin, Bear 

Mountain Lookout, Butterfly Lodge, Deer Springs Lookout, Lake Mountain Lookout, Los Burros 

Ranger Station, Pinedale Ranger Station, Promontory Butte Lookout, PS Knoll Lookout, and 

Water Canyon Administrative Site.

In addition, lands and resources are considered traditionally significant to all American Indian 

tribes associated with the lands of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs: Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, 

Hopi Tribe, Navajo Nation, Pueblo of Zuni, San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tonto Apache Tribe, White 

Mountain Apache Tribe, Yavapai-Apache Nation, and Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe, and in some 

cases, specific resources or areas are considered sacred by one or more tribes. Traditional cultural 

places and use areas are cultural historic properties that may be eligible to the National Register 

of Historic Places. 

Cultural resources are nonrenewable with few exceptions. Once the resource has been disturbed, 

damaged, altered, or removed, nothing can recover the information that could have been gained 

through analysis or replace the opportunity for individuals to understand and experience the site. 

Forest Service management activities, public use, and natural processes have impacted cultural 

resources. Damage from vandalism (e.g., pilfering) continues to be a management issue. Current 

forest management practices minimize or avoid impacts to cultural resources. 

Desired Conditions for Cultural Resources

• Significant cultural resources (i.e., archaeological, historic, traditional cultural 

properties (TCPs), known American Indian sacred sites) are preserved and protected 

for their cultural importance and are free from adverse impacts.

• Heritage programs, interpretive presentations, brochures, or displays are available to 

provide opportunities for public use, understanding, and enjoyment of the ApacheSitgreaves NFs’ cultural resources.

• Eligible and historically-significant27 cultural properties are listed on the National 

Register of Historic Places (NRHP).

Objectives for Cultural Resources

• Every 2 years or according to Southwestern Region Heritage Program standards, 

National Register sites and priority cultural resources are inspected.

• During the planning period, nominate at least five eligible cultural resources for 

inclusion in the NRHP.

• Annually, provide a Passport in Time (PIT) or other education project to provide 

opportunities for the public to learn about the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ past and cultural 

resources. 

 

27 Significance as defined by the National Historic Preservation Act and 36 CFR § 60.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 91

• Annually, complete a minimum of 100 acres of non-project cultural inventory to 

expand existing knowledge about the nature, location, and management needs of the 

forests’ cultural resources.

Standards for Cultural Resources

• Human remains shall not intentionally be excavated for educational purposes (e.g., 

research, field schools).

• Contracts, permits, or leases that have the potential to affect cultural resources shall 

include appropriate clauses specifying site protection responsibilities and liabilities for 

damage.

Guidelines for Cultural Resources

• Activities that have the potential to adversely affect cultural resources should be 

discouraged in areas with a high concentration of significant archaeological sites or in 

areas of cultural or religious significance28 to American Indians.

• Avoidance or protection measures should be the preferred method to prevent or 

minimize adverse effects to cultural resources listed in, nominated to, eligible for, or 

unevaluated for the NRHP.

• Historic facilities that are eligible for the NRHP should be managed to retain their 

integrity.

Management Approaches for Cultural Resources

Management emphasis of the heritage resource program includes inventory, protection, 

study/evaluation, interpretation, and preservation. In addition to law, regulation, and policy, the 

forests follow the programmatic agreement regarding cultural resources protection and 

responsibilities executed by the New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and Oklahoma State Historic 

Preservation Officers (SHPO), the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and the Forest 

Service, Southwestern Region. The forests’ heritage program also uses National Register 

Bulletins and the Forest Service Southwestern Region 1996 document “Cultural Affiliations: 

Prehistoric Cultural Affiliations of Southwestern Indian Tribes” to assist in complying with law, 

regulations, policy, and desired conditions.

When resource management conflicts occur, the values of preservation of cultural resources are 

weighed against the values of the proposed land use. In assessing the priority for preservation of 

cultural resources, consideration is given to the following: (1) listing on or eligibility for the 

NRHP; (2) adequacy of present methods of investigation and data recovery to realize the current 

research potential; (3) likelihood that the resource will have greater importance for addressing 

future research questions than current ones; (4) presence of values associated with significant 

historical persons or events, traditional cultural or religious values, or unique interpretive values 

where those values exist undisturbed in their original context(s); (5) likelihood of disturbing 

 

28 Sacred sites as defined in E.O. 13007, traditional cultural properties as defined in National Register Bulletin 38, 

traditional cultural purposes as defined in the 2008 Farm Bill Section 8102, Subtitle B.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

92 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

historic or prehistoric burials; (6) significance based primarily on architectural character and 

integrity of the setting; (7) importance of preservation in place relative to the objectives of the 

State Historic Preservation Plan; and (8) site densities that make data recovery economically 

infeasible or require unattainable operating conditions. Where preservation in place is important 

under these conditions, consideration is given to project redesign, relocation, or cancellation. If 

adverse effects cannot be avoided, they are mitigated per 36 CFR § 800.

Areas rated as highest priority for non-project cultural inventory are those: (1) known or thought 

to be threatened by looting and/or impacts of visitor use or other forces, (2) expected to have high 

site densities, and (3) important to understanding the historic or prehistoric occupation of the 

forests. 

Sites that need management or treatment plans are prioritized as follows: (1) sites subject to 

ongoing impacts or deterioration, (2) sites of high traditional, scientific, or community value, and 

(3) historic buildings or facilities with high potential for adaptive reuse.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs continue to collaborate with other forests, the State Historic 

Preservation Officer, the public, and affiliated tribes to develop management strategies for the 

forests’ cultural resources, including a forest heritage plan. Scientific studies and research of the 

forests’ heritage collections and resources, including an ethnographic inventory, contribute to 

tribal knowledge and Forest Service management activities.

Related Plan Content for Cultural Resources

See the following sections: Overall Recreation Opportunities, Dispersed Recreation, Motorized 

Opportunities, Nonmotorized Opportunities, National Recreation Trails, Conservation Education, 

American Indian Rights and Interests, Livestock Grazing, Minerals and Geology, Special Uses, 

Wildland Fire Management, and Community-Forest Intermix.

American Indian Rights and Interests

Background for American Indian Rights and Interests

American Indian tribes are sovereign nations. The United States has a fiduciary relationship with 

tribal governments as set forth in the U.S. Constitution, treaties, statutes, executive orders, court 

decisions, and agreements. This relationship is also known as the Federal Trust Duty to American 

Indians. Therefore, the Forest Service has certain responsibilities to American Indian tribes to 

fulfill the government’s Federal Trust Duty. In meeting these responsibilities, the Forest Service 

must administer their programs in a manner that does not interfere with tribal rights and

resources. When American Indian tribes ceded lands to the United States government, rights and 

privileges to off-reservation lands were reserved for their tribal members. Culturally affiliated

tribes retain rights to use Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ lands in ways that are not allowed to the 

general public. Access or use by the general public may be temporarily denied to allow tribal 

members to exercise their rights and interests in privacy and solitude.

Forest managers are required to consult tribes when proposed policies or management actions 

may affect their interests. Nine federally recognized tribal governments, representing five 

American Indian tribes, have aboriginal territories and traditional ties to the lands now 

administered by the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs: Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, Hopi Tribe, Navajo 

Nation, Pueblo of Zuni, San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tonto Apache Tribe, White Mountain Apache 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 93

Tribe, Yavapai-Apache Nation, and Yavapai-Prescott Tribe. Each tribe has their own history, 

traditions, and relationship to the land and other groups. The lands and resources of the ApacheSitgreaves NFs have been used and continue to be used by many of the tribes for a variety of 

traditional cultural and religious activities. Past and current consultations with tribes have 

identified places and properties of religious and cultural use. These places are ethnographically 

important to tribal values and are inseparable from their cultures.

The better known TCPs, sacred sites, or areas known to have been used and/or continue to be 

used for traditional cultural purposes include, but are not limited to, Escudilla Mountain, Mount 

Baldy, Greens Peak, Rose Peak, Gobbler Peak, St. Peters Dome, Burro Mountain, Antelope 

Mountain, Pole Knoll, Flume Mountain, SU Knoll, Head of Chevelon Canyon, Chevelon Butte, 

areas near Aspen Lake, numerous springs, caves, and the Little Colorado River. Many other areas 

located on the forests are used for traditional cultural purposes but have not been specifically 

identified. Additional areas may be identified through project or permit specific tribal 

consultation. Therefore, the inventory of known TCPs, sacred sites, and areas used for traditional 

cultural purposes is subject to change, and the list will be updated as needed. Forest managers 

confer with the forest heritage program manager or forest tribal liaison for more specific 

information.

Desired Conditions for American Indian Rights and Interests

• Members of affiliated tribes have access to gather forest resources and products for 

traditional cultural purposes28. (e.g., medicinal plants, boughs, basket materials, pollen, 

plants and minerals for pigments).

• Traditionally used resources are not depleted and are available for future generations.

• Sacred sites and significant TCPs are accessible and free of adverse impacts allowing 

for culturally affiliated tribes to gather traditional forest products and conduct 

ceremonies. 

• All sacred objects, human remains, funerary objects, and objects of cultural patrimony 

removed from lands of Apache-Sitgreaves NFs have been repatriated to the appropriate 

tribe.

Objectives for American Indian Rights and Interests

• Over the planning period, a minimum of five MOUs are renewed or established with 

tribes associated with the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

Guidelines for American Indian Rights and Interests

• Significant TCPs and sacred sites, that are known to be utilized by tribes for traditional 

use and religious ceremonies, should be managed to preserve the character and use of 

the site.

• Activities and uses should be administered in a manner that is sensitive to traditional 

American Indian beliefs and cultural practices.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

94 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Human remains and religious objects recovered from excavations conducted on the 

forests should be repatriated within 5 years in compliance with the Native American 

Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-601).

Management Approaches for American Indian Rights and Interests

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs develop and maintain effective working relationships and recognize 

American Indian tribal viewpoints. Management actions support the forests’ Federal trust 

responsibilities. Tribes are consulted at the early stages of planning and project design, so that 

tribal perspectives as well as traditional knowledge can be incorporated into project designs and 

decisions. Forest managers work with tribes to achieve mutually beneficial desired conditions and 

objectives. 

Agreements are in place for repatriation of human remains and artifacts. The management 

approach is to ensure the confidentiality of tribal information received by tribes through 

consultation if requested. The gathering of forest products or temporary closures of forest lands 

may occur for traditional and cultural purposes if requested by a tribe. These activities are 

authorized by USC Title 25 Indians, Chapter 32A Cultural and Heritage Cooperation Authority, 

Sections 3051-3057.

Forest employees receive training so they understand the unique legal relationship between the 

Federal government and American Indian tribes, set forth in the U.S. Constitution, treaties, 

statutes, executive orders, and court decisions. Managers may use wildland fire to restore and 

enhance traditional cultural use areas used for collecting plants. Managers work to resolve 

conflicts with activities such as mining and drilling, OHV areas, energy corridors, and electronic 

sites that are generally inconsistent with the desired conditions for TCPs.

Related Plan Content for American Indian Rights and Interests

See the following sections: Overall Recreation Opportunities, Cultural Resources, Forest 

Products, Special Uses, and Community-Forest Intermix.

Forest Products

Background for Forest Products

Forest products include wood (timber, biomass, firewood) and special forest products. Special 

forest products include floral greenery, Christmas trees and boughs, mushrooms, wildlings

(transplanted trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants), cones, medicinal plants, cuttings, herbs, nuts, 

berries, and decorative wood.

The total volume of wood products sold by the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs has fluctuated over time 

with an overall downward trend since the 1990s. Focus has shifted toward ecological restoration 

and reduction of wildfire hazard to communities by removing small diameter, insect-infested, and 

dead and dying trees. The forests encourage new wood product industries to utilize these 

products. Firewood harvest continues to be an important component of the local social and 

economic fabric.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 95

Desired Conditions for Forest Products

• The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide a sustainable supply of forest products (e.g., small 

roundwood, sawlogs, biomass, firewood, cones, Christmas trees, wildlings) to 

businesses and individuals within the capability of the land.

• The collection of live plants, mushrooms, and other forest products does not impact 

species persistence onsite.

Objectives for Forest Products

• Annually, prepare and offer up to an average of 122,000 CCF29 from suitable 

timberlands resulting from sustainable harvest to provide wood products to businesses 

and individuals. 

• Annually, provide up to 94,000 CCF (119,380 cords30) of firewood for personal and 

commercial use.

• Annually, provide an average of 5,000 permits for Christmas trees.

Standards for Forest Products

• Authorizations to cut, collect, or use forest products for any personal, commercial, or 

scientific purpose (i.e., permits, contracts, agreements) shall include provisions to 

ensure the needs of wildlife, which depend upon those forest products, will continue to 

be met (e.g., fungi and cone collection with respect to overwinter forage needs of 

squirrels).

Guidelines for Forest Products

• Permits issued for forest products should include stipulations to protect resources.

Management Approaches for Forest Products

Wood products are a secondary benefit of treatments that are intended to restore the forests’ 

ecological composition, structure, and function to a healthier, resilient condition. Timber 

production and tree cutting are used to help achieve vegetation desired conditions, as well as 

contribute to the local and regional economy. Uneven-aged silvicultural systems are emphasized 

and even-aged systems are used where appropriate. Tree cutting on lands not suitable for timber 

production may occur for such purposes as restoration, salvage, fuels management, insect and 

disease mitigation, protection or enhancement of biological diversity or wildlife habitat, research 

or administrative studies, or recreation consistent with other management direction.

A variety of partnerships and authorities are used for making forest products available to forest 

users (e.g., procurement contracts, stewardship contracts, forest products permits). The forests 

also use the Tribal Forest Protection Act to collaboratively work with adjacent tribal governments

 

29 CCF = 100 cubic feet

30 1 CCF = 1.27 cords
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

96 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

to carry out restoration projects. Tribes culturally 

affiliated with lands on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs 

may gather trees, portions of trees, or forest products 

free of charge for noncommercial traditional and 

cultural purposes. 

The forests allowable sale quantity (ASQ) is 

estimated as an annual average of 122,000 CCF. The 

ASQ represents the amount of timber (not including 

firewood or nonindustrial wood) that may be sold 

from lands suitable for timber production. Wood 

from nonsuitable timberlands would also be 

available.

Other desired forest products, such as house logs, are 

available through permits or small sales. Areas may be identified for forest product removal (e.g., 

Christmas tree, firewood). Woody biomass not removed by project operations may be made 

available to meet public or industry needs. Plan direction and interdisciplinary input are used to 

develop additional project specific and/or resource specific conditions to be included in all forest 

product permits and contracts issued.

Related Plan Content for Forest Products

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, All PNVTs, Forests: All Forested PNVTs, 

Woodlands: All Woodland PNVTs, Wildlife and Rare Plants, American Indian Rights and 

Interests, Landscape Scale Disturbance Events, and Special Uses.

Livestock Grazing

Background for Livestock Grazing

As of 2014, the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs administer 92 active grazing allotments and two 

designated sheep driveways. Livestock grazing contributes to the livelihood of the permittees and 

to the economy of local communities and counties. Livestock numbers have declined over the last 

20 years, as the forests have balanced permitted numbers with the capacity of the land while 

responding to environmental changes such as drought. Over the last decade, the forests have 

worked with partners and permittees to reduce grazing pressure on sensitive areas (e.g., critical 

areas, riparian areas).

Desired Conditions for Livestock Grazing

• Livestock grazing contributes to the social, economic, and cultural diversity and 

stability of rural communities. 

• Livestock grazing and associated activities occur such that healthy, diverse plant 

communities, satisfactory condition soils, and wildlife habitat are maintained or 

improved.

• Range developments for livestock minimize impacts to wildlife and blend with the 

natural environment.

Figure 9. Small diameter trees to be used 

for forest products
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 97

• Livestock grazing is in balance with available forage (i.e., grazing and browsing by 

authorized livestock, wild horses, and wildlife do not exceed available forage 

production within established use levels).

• Livestock grazing and associated activities do not negatively impact cultural resources.

Standards for Livestock Grazing

• New or reconstructed fencing shall allow for wildlife passage, except where 

specifically intended to exclude wildlife (e.g., elk fencing). 

• New livestock watering facilities shall be designed to allow wildlife access and escape.

Guidelines for Livestock Grazing

• During maintenance of existing watering facilities, escape ramps that are ineffective or 

missing should be replaced. 

• Critical areas should be managed to address the inherent or unique site factors, 

condition, values, or potential conflicts associated with them.

• Grazing use on seasonal allotments should be timed to the appropriate plant growth 

stage and soil moisture. 

• New livestock troughs, tanks, and holding facilities should be located out of riparian

areas to reduce concentration of livestock in these areas. Existing facilities in riparian 

areas should be modified, relocated, or removed where their presence is determined to 

inhibit movement toward desired riparian or aquatic conditions.

• As areas are mechanically treated or burned, or after large disturbances, timing of 

livestock grazing should be modified as needed, in order to move toward desired 

conditions and to accomplish the objectives for the treatment or disturbed area.

• Forage, browse, and cover needs of wildlife, authorized livestock, and wild horses 

should be managed in balance with available forage so that plants providing for these 

needs remain at or move toward a healthy, persistent state.

• Efforts (e.g., temporary fencing, increased herding, herding dogs) should be made to 

prevent transfer of disease from domestic sheep and goats to bighorn sheep wherever 

bighorn sheep occur. Permit conversions to domestic sheep or goats should not be 

allowed in areas adjacent to or inhabited by bighorn sheep.

• To minimize potential resource impacts from livestock, salt or nutritional supplements 

should not be placed within a quarter of a mile of any riparian area or water source. 

Salt or nutritional supplements should also be located to minimize herbivory impacts to

aspen clones.

• To prevent resource damage (e.g., stream banks) and disturbance to federally listed and

sensitive wildlife species, trailing of livestock should not occur along riparian areas.

Where no alternative route is available, approval may be granted where effective 

mitigation measures are implemented (e.g., timing of trailing, number of livestock 

trailed at one time).
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

98 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Constructed features should be maintained to support the purpose(s) for which they 

were built. Constructed features should be removed when no longer needed. 

• New range developments should be located to minimize impacts to scenic resources 

and reduce the potential for vandalism and livestock-vehicle conflicts. Range 

developments should be designed in consideration of public safety, especially in areas 

of concentrated recreation use.

Management Approaches for Livestock Grazing

The management approach is to improve or maintain the health of rangelands by completing sitespecific NEPA environmental analyses, assessments, and decisions and updating allotment 

management plans for individual grazing allotments to emphasize the achievement of desired 

conditions. Sustainable stocking levels, mitigation measures, and appropriate grazing systems are 

tools utilized to that end.

Forest managers work with permittees to adjust timing, intensity, and frequency of livestock 

grazing to respond to changing resource conditions. Livestock and associated developments are 

managed to minimize impacts to forest resources, including cultural resources, native plant and 

animal species, wetlands, springs, seeps, karst and riparian areas. Vacant allotments or pastures 

are stocked or withdrawn from grazing when necessary to benefit other resource needs. Vacant 

allotments or pastures are evaluated for consistency with, and trend toward, plan desired 

conditions prior to renewing use, with consideration of suitability (chapter 4) for appropriate uses.

The Congressional Grazing Guidelines (FSM 2320 – Wilderness Management, section 2323.33 –

exhibit 01) are used to manage livestock grazing in wilderness and primitive areas.

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs work with permittees, the State, tribes, and other organizations to 

maintain or improve rangeland conditions. The forests work with the Tonto National Forest, 

AZGFD, sheep permittees, and other permittees to administer the Heber-Reno and Morgan 

Mountain sheep driveways. Range developments are maintained on an annual basis so as to not 

be a hazard to wildlife. Forest managers also work with non-permittee livestock owners to 

prevent unauthorized livestock use, including reconstructing fencing where needed. 

Because drought is inevitable in the Southwest, livestock grazing management on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs incorporates, as necessary, (1) evaluation of drought conditions, (2) drought 

management relative to vegetation impacts, (3) stocking during and after drought, and (4) early 

and effective communications with all affected parties.

Related Plan Content for Livestock Grazing

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Aquatic Habitat and Species, Riparian 

Areas, Forests: Aspen, Grasslands, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Scenic Resources, Cultural 

Resources, and Wild Horse Territory.

Minerals and Geology

Background for Minerals and Geology

The potential for locatable and leasable minerals is low because of the existing geological 

makeup of the forests. Numerous active mining claims for locatable sandstone are found on the 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 99

Lakeside and Black Mesa Ranger Districts. Also, several mill site claims are located on the 

Clifton Ranger District. A large copper deposit and open pit copper mine exist just south of the 

forests’ boundary near Morenci, Arizona. There may be some abandoned mines on ApacheSitgreaves NFS lands that need closure. A number of small abandoned surface operations and test 

pits are scattered across the forests and are not regarded as hazardous.

Common variety minerals include sand, gravel, landscape rock, cinders, and crushed rock. The 

demand for these mineral materials from the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is low. Permitted uses are 

predominantly small private sales from common use pits, a multi-operator commercial pit, and 

various pits for State and county road uses (primarily for road cinders).

Karst features are located primarily on the Black Mesa Ranger District. They are geological 

landforms that predominantly result from shaping processes controlled by soluble bedrock, 

usually limestone. Karst landscape is characterized by closed depressions, disappearing streams, 

and solutional shaping. Karst features create unique microhabitats and are important areas for 

rapid subsurface drainage and aquifer recharge. 

Desired Conditions for Minerals and Geology

• Mineral developments, including pits, mines, equipment, and associated structures, do 

not dominate the scenic landscape.

• Mineral materials (e.g., gravel, cinders) are available for road maintenance activities 

for the Forest Service transportation system, public road system, and ADOT use.

• Mineral materials (e.g., cinders, decorative stone) are available to support resource 

management needs, personal use, and commercial pursuits.

• Lands where past mineral development or exploration has occurred are returned to 

stable conditions and vegetated with native species.

• Abandoned mine lands do not endanger people or the environment.

• Naturally occurring geological features (e.g., caves, sinkholes) remain intact to support 

wildlife habitat, recreation opportunities, and unique vegetation.

• Both caves and abandoned mines are available for roosting bats, reducing the potential 

for displacement, abandonment of young, and possible mortality.

• Archaeological, geological, and biological features of caves and abandoned mines are 

not adversely affected by visitors.

Guidelines for Minerals and Geology

• Key cultural sites, research natural areas, and administrative and recreation sites with 

an investment in facilities should be withdrawn from mineral entry to protect resources 

and existing infrastructure.

• Mineral material resource sites should be located where economical and the scenic 

integrity objectives can be met. Adverse visual impacts should be minimized.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

100 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Existing designated mineral material collection areas and community pits should be 

utilized to the maximum before new areas are developed. Additional mineral material 

development should balance private and community needs while providing for 

sustainable administrative use.

• Abandoned mine lands or unneeded mineral material pits should be restored, closed, or 

rehabilitated to provide for resource protection and public health and safety.

• Streambed and floodplain alteration or removal of material should not occur if it 

prevents attainment of riparian, channel morphology, or streambank desired conditions.

• To reduce disturbances from human activities and prevent the spread of disease, bat 

gates should be constructed and installed in cave and mine entrances used as shelter for 

bats within 3 years of discovery when there are no conflicts with cultural resources.

• Caves and abandoned mines that are used by bats should be managed to prevent 

disturbance to species and spread of disease (e.g., white-nose syndrome).

• Active mineral operations should be managed to deter public motorized vehicle travel 

for public safety.

• Oil and geothermal leases should contain the “no surface occupancy” restriction in 

designated31 or recommended special areas (e.g., recommended wilderness, primitive 

area, eligible or suitable wild and scenic rivers corridors, research natural areas, 

botanical area, and wild horse territory), sacred sites, American Indian TCPs, and 

properties on the National Register of Historic Places to protect the unique character of 

these areas.

• Common variety mineral activities should not be permitted in designated or 

recommended special areas or Chevelon Canyon to protect the unique character of 

these areas.

Management Approaches for Minerals and Geology

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs cooperate with the State and other agencies to inventory, mitigate, 

and rehabilitate hazardous abandoned mines and mined areas. As abandoned mine land hazards 

(e.g., adits, drifts, portals, shafts) are identified and inventoried, appropriate long-term

management and closure is considered. Pit plans provide detailed management direction for 

mineral material pits. 

Strategies to protect cave and karst resources include use of best management practices and sitespecific design features such as activity buffers that prevent silt, sediment, and debris from 

flowing into karst features. Cave and karst management plans are developed as needed.

Some gravel and cinder pits are managed for very low scenic integrity and may dominate the 

landscape when viewed from nearby.

 

31 Designated wilderness is withdrawn from leasing and mineral entry.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 101

Related Plan Content for Minerals and Geology

See the following sections: Wildlife and Rare Plants, Scenic Resources, Cultural Resources, and 

Special Uses.

Special Uses

Background for Special Uses

Occupancy and use of NFS lands for public and private purposes, where the use is consistent with 

natural resource management goals, occur through the issuance of special use authorizations and 

easements. A wide range of uses may be permitted including, but not limited to, water storage and 

transmission, electric transmission and distribution lines, communications sites, alternative and 

renewable energy generating facilities, research permits, resorts, organization camps, outfitters 

and guides, recreational events, and large group gatherings.

Increased demand is expected for additional utility lines and renewable energy sources to serve 

the growing populations of Arizona and the Southwest. There are three major energy transmission 

corridors, two on the Black Mesa Ranger District and one on the Clifton Ranger District. See the 

“Energy Corridor Management Area” section for direction specific to these three corridors.

Desired Conditions for Special Uses

• Energy developments and other special uses are not major features on the landscape 

and should not attract attention (moderate scenic integrity).

• Lands where special use activities have occurred show little evidence of impacts.

• Communications sites display landscapes which vary from moderately altered where 

human activities are evident (low scenic integrity) to slightly altered where human 

activities may be seen but do not attract attention (moderate scenic integrity).

Standards for Special Uses

• Noxious plants and nonnative invasive species monitoring and control shall be 

included in contracts, permits, and agreements.

• Special use authorizations for the collection of live species with limited distribution 

(e.g., some invertebrates, plants) shall include permit provisions to ensure the species 

persist onsite.

• New communications sites or energy developments shall not be authorized on 

traditional cultural properties.

Guidelines for Special Uses

• Special use authorizations should include provisions that limit encumbrances of NFS 

land.

• The number of communications sites, energy developments, and energy corridors 

should be minimized to limit encumbrances of NFS land.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

102 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• New communications permittees and equipment should be located or colocated within 

designated communications sites as identified in appendix C.

• New communications sites, energy developments, and energy corridors should be 

located to minimize impacts to scenery, special areas, and species.

• Commercial use of Forest Service administrative communications sites should be 

discouraged to avoid potential use conflicts or communication interference.

• High power antenna/towers should not be authorized except for the existing 

antenna/tower located on Porter Mountain. Upon termination of the Porter Mountain

high power permit, or in the case of inoperability, this communications site should be 

managed as low power.

• Existing energy corridors should be used to their capacity with compatible upgraded 

power lines before evaluating new routes.

• Environmental disturbance should be minimized by colocating pipelines, power lines, 

fiber optic lines, and communications facilities.

• Power pole installation or replacement under special use authorization should include 

raptor protection devices in open habitat such as large meadows and grasslands. Raptor 

protection devices should be installed on existing poles where raptors have been killed.

• The use of underground utilities should be favored to avoid potential conflicts with 

resources (e.g., scenic integrity, wildlife, wildfire, heritage).

• Water use associated with special use authorizations should be in accordance with 

Arizona State Statutes and should have a decreed water right or a valid claim.

• Target ranges may be appropriate in the General Forest or Community-Forest Intermix

Management Areas because of the wide spectrum of recreation opportunities that can 

be provided in these areas. Other management areas should be avoided.

• Constructed features should be maintained to support the purpose(s) for which they 

were built. Constructed features should be removed when no longer needed.

• As applicable, issuance of special use authorizations should incorporate measures to 

reduce potential impacts to wildlife and avoid rare and unique habitats (e.g., bogs, 

fens).

• Commercial outfitters and guides should not be authorized to use developed 

campgrounds so those sites remain available for noncommercial forest visitors.

• Commercial outfitters and guides may be authorized use of range developments when 

there is no conflict with allotment management.

• Large group and recreation event special uses should not be authorized within 

wilderness, recommended wilderness, primitive area, wildlife quiet areas, eligible 

“wild” river corridors, riparian and wetland areas, cultural resource sites, Phelps Cabin 

Botanical Area, Phelps Cabin Research Natural Area, or recommended research natural 

areas to protect the unique character of these areas.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 103

Management Approaches for Special Uses

Special use authorizations are considered for uses that complement other opportunities and are 

based on public need or cannot be met on private or other Federal lands. Timeliness of processing 

special use requests is based on agency capacity (available funding and staffing). The cost of 

processing special use permits may be recovered from the proponent where authorized and used 

to process permits and monitor compliance. Forest users should have information regarding when 

there is a need to obtain a permit, particularly for collection of forest products.

Developed energy corridors are managed for very low scenic integrity where vegetation and 

structural changes may attract attention and dominate the landscape when viewed from nearby.

Requests for energy development and transmission corridors are evaluated based on public need, 

economics, and environmental impacts of the alternatives. Emphasis is to use existing corridors to 

their capacity with compatible utilities, including upgrade of existing power lines, before 

evaluating new routes. To minimize impacts to wildlife, managers consider current U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service and Arizona Game and Fish Department guidelines for energy development.

Site plans for the forests’ communications sites provide detailed management direction, including 

scenery management. The forests have over 35 communications sites (see appendix C), both 

commercial and administrative, where authorized telecommunications facilities are located. There 

are no plans to add additional communications sites.

The Forest Service is responsible for obtaining compliance of special use authorization 

requirements (permit terms and conditions) that would impose restrictions or limitations on water 

diversion, storage, or use not within the jurisdiction of the Arizona Department of Water 

Resources.

Public road agencies (agencies that maintain roads with gas tax funding) are encouraged to accept 

USDA easements on roads they maintain and/or provide access to private properties. Where 

feasible, road use permits issued to public road agencies may be converted to easements as 

opportunities arise. Managers coordinate with ADOT on management of vegetation in highway 

rights-of-way to limit the spread of noxious weeds and nonnative invasive plants through 

appropriate timing of treatments.

Related Plan Content for Special Uses

See the following sections: Water Resources, Invasive Species, Scenic Resources, Lands, 

Cultural Resources, Wilderness, Primitive Area, and Recommended Research Natural Areas.

Water Uses

Background for Water Uses

Demand for water exceeds supply, except during exceptionally wet years when the amount of 

water produced exceeds downstream storage capacity. The forests’ demand for water is very small 

compared to downstream users but is extremely important for proper resource management. The 

demands for Federal reserved water rights for administrative sites, road construction and 

watering, and firefighting are expected to increase. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

104 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

All new water acquisitions require either application to the State of Arizona or purchase from 

other water users. In some basins, the forests may have water rights, but the rights may need to be 

severed and transferred to other locations within the basin to meet management needs. The forests 

are directed to follow State water rights laws and policies.

Desired Conditions for Water Uses

• Water developments contribute to fish, wildlife, and riparian habitat as well as scenic

and aesthetic values.

• Apache-Sitgreaves NFs water rights are secure and contribute to livestock, recreation, 

wildlife, and administrative uses.

• Surface water is not diminished by groundwater pumping.

• Dams, diversions, or other water control structures are designed, maintained, and 

operated to conserve water resources.

Objectives for Water Uses

• Annually, prepare at least one instream flow water rights application until water 

acquisition needs are complete to sustain riparian areas, fish, wildlife, and water-based 

recreation.

Standards for Water Uses

• Forest Service water rights must be put to beneficial use and that use documented and 

consistent with ADWR regulations.

• Special uses for water diversions shall maintain fish, wildlife, and aesthetic values and 

otherwise protect the environment.

• Streams on NFS lands with high aquatic values and at risk from new water diversions 

shall be preserved and protected with instream flow water rights. 

• Groundwater withdrawals shall not measurably diminish surface water flows on NFS 

lands without an appropriate surface water right.

Guidelines for Water Uses

• Constructed features should be maintained to support the purpose(s) for which they 

were built. Constructed features should be removed when no longer needed. 

Management Approaches for Water Uses

Management emphasis is to provide adequate water supplies to support the mission of the Agency 

in addition to helping maintain continuous water supplies to downstream users on and off the 

forests including small communities located adjacent to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Instream 

flows are protected or enhanced to achieve resource needs in accordance with State and Federal 

procedures.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 105

The forests participate in water rights adjudications, maintain a water rights and water uses 

database, and honor the water rights of others. Forest personnel work with legal water right 

holders to help conserve water through terms and conditions of permits or easements to capture 

and transmit water on or across public lands. The forests work with the State and other agencies 

to deal with groundwater issues and maintain instream flows. The forests work with affected 

members of the public to gain their support for instream flows.

Project level analysis (e.g., compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 

(Public Law 91-190)) for new water developments or reissuances includes an assessment of 

Forest Service water needs with an inventory of existing water rights and water uses within the 

subwatershed (6th level HUC) of the subject water development. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs seek 

to conserve water through better education of water users (e.g., recreationists, permittees) on 

conservation measures and by applying good water management practices (e.g., preserve water 

by identifying and reducing leaks) as they relate to diversion and storage operations. Groundwater 

is critical to maintaining flow in some of the most important streams in the State (e.g., Chevelon 

Creek and Tonto Creek). Groundwater recharge occurs in higher elevations and is critical to long 

term maintenance of the resource.

Related Plan Content for Water Uses

See the following sections: Water Resources, Aquatic Habitat and Species, and Special Uses.

Wildland Fire Management

Background for Wildland Fire Management

Fire has played an important ecological role in shaping the vegetation on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs. The PNVTs are adapted to recurring wildfires started by lightning from spring and early

summer thunderstorms. The condition and structure of several PNVTs have changed from 

reference conditions and, as a result, are departed from desired conditions. More information 

about ecological conditions can be found in the background sections for each PNVT.

There are five natural fire regimes based on average number of years between fires (fire 

frequency) combined with the severity of the fire on the dominant overstory vegetation (see table 

3 below). They are:

• Fire regime I: 0- to 35-year frequency and low (surface fires most common) to mixed 

severity (less than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced);

• Fire regime II: 0- to 35-year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity (greater 

than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced);

• Fire regime III: 35- to 100+-year frequency and mixed severity (less than 75 percent of 

the dominant overstory vegetation replaced);

• Fire regime IV: 35- to 100+-year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity 

(greater than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced);

• Fire regime V: 200+-year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

106 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Table 3. Fire regimes by PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

PNVT Fire Regime

Ponderosa Pine Forest I

Dry Mixed Conifer Forest I

Wet Mixed Conifer ForestaIII

Spruce-Fir Forest III, IV

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland I

Piñon-Juniper WoodlandbI, II, III, IV, V

Interior Chaparral IV

Great Basin Grassland I

Semi-desert Grassland I, II

Montane/Subalpine Grasslands I, II

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian ForestcI, III

Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian ForestcI, III

Montane Willow Riparian ForestcI, III

Wetland/Cienega Riparian AreascI, III

a Within wet mixed conifer, fire regime IV and V may occur; however, it is rare.

b Within piñon-juniper, fire regime I is found in piñon-juniper savanna; II, III, IV, and V are found in piñon-juniper 

persistent woodland.

c Wetland/cienega riparian areas and mixed broadleaf deciduous, montane willow, and cottonwood-willow riparian 

forests’ historic and current fire return intervals are strongly influenced by surrounding PNVTs and their fire regime.

Today, the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs contain many more young trees and changes in species 

composition in all PNVTs than were historically present. With more continuous canopy cover, 

ladder fuels, and accumulated live and dead woody material, the probability of large, 

uncharacteristic, stand-replacing fires continues to increase. These fires burn with more intensity

and severity; cause higher tree mortality; degrade watersheds; sterilize soils; and threaten adjacent 

communities, forest infrastructure, and wildlife habitat. Examples of uncharacteristic wildfires 

include the 2002 Rodeo-Chediski Fire and 2011 Wallow Fire.

Guidance for the Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy (Forest Service 

and DOI, 2009) provides for the consistent implementation of the 1995/2001/2003 Federal 

Fire Policy. Wildland fire is defined as any non-structure fire that occurs in the wildland; it is 

categorized into two distinct types:

• Wildfires – Unplanned ignition of a wildland fire (e.g., fires caused by lightning or

unauthorized and accidental human-caused fires) and escaped prescribed fires.

• Prescribed fires – Planned ignitions. 

Federal fire policy requires that every area with burnable vegetation have a fire management plan

(FMP). FMPs are strategic plans that outline a program to manage wildfires and prescribed fires
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 107

within the planning area. FMPs and their associated programs and activities support the 

implementation of land management plans. FMPs are designed to adapt to changing conditions. 

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ FMP provides for firefighter and public safety first; includes fire 

management strategies, tactics, and alternatives; and addresses values to be protected and public 

health issues. The FMP helps guide fire managers in wildland fire decisionmaking. 

When appropriate weather and fuel moisture conditions exist, use of wildland fire is a costeffective way to reduce the likelihood of uncharacteristic fire. The risk of uncharacteristic fire can 

be reduced when fires occur within historic fire regimes. 

To achieve ecosystems that are resilient to fire disturbance, vegetation structure needs to be more 

consistent with desired conditions. In addition to fire treatments, activities such as thinning and 

tree harvesting are needed to reduce tree density and canopy cover and support the natural fire 

regime. Strategic placement and design of these treatments is key to minimizing the impact from 

fire on values to be protected more efficiently because these activities are costly and there is 

limited capacity to implement them.

Desired Conditions for Wildland Fire Management

• Human life, property, and natural and cultural resource are protected within and 

adjacent to NFS lands. 

• Wildland fires burn within the range of frequency and intensity of natural fire regimes.

Uncharacteristic high severity fires rarely occur and do not burn at the landscape scale. 

• Wildland fire maintains and enhances resources and functions in its natural ecological 

role. 

• For all PNVTs, the composition, cover, structure, and mosaic of vegetative conditions 

reduce uncharacteristic wildfire hazard to local communities and forest ecosystems. 

Guidelines for Wildland Fire Management

• Wildland fire may be used to meet PNVT desired conditions and enable natural fire

regimes. 

• Human-induced impacts (e.g., smoke production, suppression actions) to natural 

processes, resources, or infrastructure attributable to wildland fire activities should be 

managed towards achieving objectives as identified in the applicable decision 

document.

• Resources and infrastructure (e.g., fences, roads, stock tanks) that are lost or damaged 

by prescribed fire, use of wildland fire, or any suppression activities should be 

stabilized and rehabilitated. 

• Firelines, helispots, and fire camps should be located to avoid disturbance to critical 

species and impacts to cultural resources. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

108 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Aerial retardant drops should avoid threatened, endangered, proposed, or candidate, 

identified sensitive species, and waterways32.

Management Approaches for Wildland Fire Management

Wildland fire objectives are based on factors such as movement of PNVTs toward desired 

conditions, fuel conditions, current and expected weather and fire behavior, topography, resource 

availability, and values to be protected. Social and economic considerations (e.g., smoke) may 

also affect objectives, as well as adjoining jurisdictions having similar or differing missions and 

directives. 

Wildfires may be concurrently managed for one or more objectives (e.g., protection, resource

enhancement) that can change as the fire spreads across the landscape. Strategies chosen for 

wildfires include interdisciplinary input to assess site-specific values to be protected. These 

strategies are used to develop incident objectives and courses of action to enhance or protect 

those values. Managers use a decision support process33 to guide and document wildfire 

management decisions that provide for firefighter and public safety, minimize costs and resource 

damage, and are consistent with values to be protected and management objectives. For 

prescribed fires, the decision document is the signed NEPA decision. To meet the plan’s treatment 

objectives using prescribed fires, site-specific burn plans are developed which guide 

implementation. All prescribed fires are conducted in accordance with the Arizona Smoke 

Management Plan, administered by ADEQ, to comply with the Clean Air Act.

Wildland fire is one tool in the process of restoring the forests’ fire-adapted ecosystems; in areas 

departed from desired conditions, the use of fire is often most effective when combined with 

mechanical treatments that further restore forest structure34. Mechanical treatments are costly, so 

the capacity to implement such treatments across the landscape is limited. Strategic placement 

and design of mechanical treatments increases their effectiveness in protecting values to be 

protected. 

Wildland fire may be the only viable tool in areas such as steep rugged terrain or remote areas 

where mechanical treatments are not feasible. Objectives in these areas may include higher fire 

intensities and higher levels of mortality to achieve vegetation structural changes that would not 

occur through other means to move toward desired conditions. Fuels specialists and 

silviculturists, along with other resource specialists, work to ensure land management objectives 

are met. Joint silviculture prescriptions and burn plans may be produced.

Management of wildland fire is coordinated across jurisdictional boundaries whenever there is 

potential for managing a wildfire or a prescribed fire on more than one jurisdiction (e.g., other 

national forests, tribal lands, State lands). This is done with the understanding that fire-adapted 

ecosystems transcend jurisdictional boundaries.

 

32

 See the Nationwide Aerial Application of Fire Retardant on National Forest System Land. Final Environmental 

Impact Statement. USDA Forest Service for species-specific information including which individual sensitive species 

are identified.

33 The decision support system currently being used is the Wildland Fire Decision Support System. 

34

 See Standard Management Practices for Site-Specific Project Planning and Implementation table in appendix B for 

how prescribed fire can be integrated with other silvicultural treatments at the project level. 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 109

Three community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) cover over 895,000 acres of WUI on 

Federal, State, county, and private lands and include 36 communities within the ApacheSitgreaves NFs’ boundary. These plans identify and prioritize areas for treatment based on input 

from communities and multiple stakeholders. These plans help determine treatment priorities.

Related Plan Content for Wildland Fire Management

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Air, All PNVTs, Landscape Scale 

Disturbance Events, Conservation Education, Scenic Resources, and Community-Forest Intermix 

Management Area.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 111

Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Management areas are areas that have similar management intent and a common management 

strategy. The plan decisions and other content are described for each management area in this 

chapter. See chapter 1 for descriptions of plan decisions and other content. This direction does not 

substitute for, or repeat, forestwide direction. In the event that a plan decision in this section and 

the plan decision in another section conflict, a project or activity level evaluation may be required 

to resolve the conflict; generally the more restrictive plan decision prevails. Plan decisions apply 

to projects or activities where site conditions provide an inherent capability to meet those plan 

decisions.

Plan decisions for management area direction are displayed in shaded boxes to 

distinguish them from other sections of the plan. 

Plan decisions and other content for forestwide direction (chapter 2) and suitability (chapter 4) 

should also be consulted.

Twelve management areas have been identified and are listed in table 4 below. Several 

management areas are designated special areas, such as wilderness. These are places that have 

been designated by statute or through past administrative process because of their unique or 

special characteristics. In addition, there are two categories of preliminary administrative 

recommendations that occur as separate management areas (recommended research natural areas 

and recommended wilderness). Those areas recommended for designation are managed to protect 

their special characteristics until a decision on the designation is made. Table 4 shows the 

different management areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Maps of the management areas can be 

found in appendix F.

Table 4. Management areas of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (acres of NFS land)

Management Area Size (acres)

General Forest 1,224,071

Community-Forest Intermix 60,564

High Use Developed Recreation Area 16,549

Energy Corridor 2,547

Wild Horse Territory 18,761

Wildlife Quiet Area 50,173

Natural Landscape 404,802

Research Natural Area 261

Recommended Research Natural Area 7,814

Wilderness 23, 234

Primitive Area 199,502

Recommended Wilderness 7,074
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

112 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

General Forest

Background for General Forest 

The General Forest Management Area encompasses the majority of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

All PNVTs occur in this management area. This area is capable of providing a variety of forest 

products—both commercial and noncommercial—that may contribute to local and regional 

communities. The management area contains undeveloped areas as well as developed facilities 

and open roads and trails. It also contains special areas including eligible and suitable wild and 

scenic rivers, national recreation trails, and scenic byways. The scenery in some parts of this area 

may reflect an intensively managed landscape where human influence is evident.

Desired Conditions for General Forest 

• Watershed condition rating is at satisfactory.

• Landscapes in the General Forest Management Area vary from moderately altered 

where human activities are evident (low scenic integrity) to natural where generally 

only ecological changes occur (very high scenic integrity).

• Recreation opportunities range from semiprimitive nonmotorized to rural.

Management Approaches for General Forest 

The emphasis of this area is to restore priority 6th level HUC watersheds, restore fire-adapted 

ecosystems, reduce the threat of uncharacteristic wildfire, and provide forest products. A wide 

variety of management activities occur and a wide variety of forest products are available within 

this management area. Lands identified as suitable for timber production have a regularly 

scheduled harvest of commercial timber. 

Related Plan Content for General Forest

See all resource and special area (Scenic Byways, National Recreation Trails, Eligible and 

Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers) sections listed in chapter 2.

Community-Forest Intermix

Background for Community-Forest Intermix

The Community-Forest Intermix Management Area consists of National Forest System (NFS) 

lands that are within one-half mile of communities-at-risk. Due to the threat of fire moving into or 

from developed areas, more intensive treatments (including regular maintenance) may be needed 

to reduce the risk of uncharacteristic wildfire and restore fire-adapted ecosystems. This 

management area may act as a zone in which fire suppression activities can be safely and 

effectively conducted. Likewise, it can act as a buffer to protect forest resources.

The Community-Forest Intermix Management Area makes up a portion of the wildland-urban 

interface (WUI). The WUIs were identified in community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) and 

may be located in several management areas. A WUI includes areas around human development 

at imminent risk from wildfire.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 113

Desired Conditions for Community-Forest Intermix

• The Community-Forest Intermix Management Area is composed of smaller groups of 

trees that are more widely spaced than other forested areas. These conditions result in 

fires that burn primarily on the forest floor and rarely spread as crown fire.

• There is legal and adequate access to public lands for resource management and 

recreation. 

• As a result of forest management, most wildfires are low to mixed severity surface 

fires resulting in limited loss of structures or ecosystem function.

• Residents and visitors are knowledgeable regarding wildfire protection of their homes 

and property, defensible space, and appropriate uses of the forests.

• These areas provide a safer firefighting environment than the general forest.

• Native grasses, forbs, shrubs, and litter (i.e., fine fuels) are abundant enough to 

maintain and support natural fire regimes, protect soils, and support water infiltration.

• The composition, density, structure, and mosaic of vegetative conditions reduce 

uncharacteristic wildfire hazard to local communities and forest ecosystems.

• Ponderosa pine and dry mixed conifer forest structure is similar to forestwide 

conditions or is composed of smaller and more widely spaced tree groups than in the 

general forest.

• Wet mixed conifer and spruce-fir forests are growing in an overall more open condition 

than the wet mixed conifer forest outside of the Community-Forest Intermix 

Management Area. These conditions result in fires that burn primarily on the forest 

floor and rarely spread as crown fire.

• Where potential occurs, pure deciduous stands (e.g., aspen, Gambel oak) act as natural 

firebreaks and enhance scenery.

• Grasslands have less than 10 percent woody canopy cover.

• Piñon-juniper stands have open canopy conditions.

• The integrity of riparian areas is maintained.

• Vandalism and pilfering of cultural resources are uncommon.

• Landscapes in the Community-Forest Intermix Management Area vary from 

moderately altered where human activities are evident (low scenic integrity) to natural 

appearing where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity).

• Recreation opportunities range from roaded natural to rural.

Guidelines for Community-Forest Intermix

• Unauthorized infrastructure should be removed.

• To reduce fire hazard and spread of insects and disease onto adjacent lands, slash 

should be treated (e.g., removal, pull back, relocation, burned) as soon as possible.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

114 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Where more than 80 percent of the host species or 90 percent of the area is infected 

with dwarf mistletoe (if regeneration or deferred treatment is not feasible), then 

thinning from below and/or prescribed fire should be used as needed for fire hazard 

reduction.

• Due to the greater values to be protected (e.g., homes, property), tree basal areas 

should be at the lower end of the desired range and openings should occur at the higher 

end of the desired range (as described in the applicable PNVT desired conditions).

• Retention of fire-resistant tree species (e.g., ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, pure aspen) 

should be emphasized in the wet mixed conifer and spruce-fir forested PNVTs to 

reduce fire hazard.

Management Approaches for Community-Forest Intermix

Forest managers work toward achieving the goals outlined in the CWPPs for the counties within 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Within this management area, these include the CWPP for At-RiskCommunities in Apache County, and the Sitgreaves CWPP (includes Apache, Coconino, and 

Navajo Counties).

Treatments may occur more 

often than in other 

management areas. Both 

mechanized methods and 

prescribed fire may be used 

regularly. A higher degree of 

temporary ground 

disturbance may occur. The 

amount of snags and residual 

large coarse woody debris is 

generally lower than in the 

General Forest Management 

Area. In addition, forest 

openings are larger and basal 

areas are lower than in the 

General Forest Management 

Area. The management 

approach within this 

management area is to complete initial treatments to reduce fire hazard. Once initial treatments 

are complete, the focus is to maintain the investment and desired conditions primarily through

prescribed fire and mechanical treatments. Other objectives may also be considered.

Best available control technologies are used to limit smoke impacts from forest management 

activities. Forest managers coordinate with adjacent land management agencies and tribes to help 

reduce the impacts of prescribed fire programs on nearby communities. The forests work closely 

with adjacent landowners and communities, particularly their planning and zoning departments, 

to encourage new and existing developments to take into account measures to protect people, 

property, and natural resources from wildfire.

Figure 10. Treated area within the CFI that survived the 

2011 Wallow Fire
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 115

Related Plan Content for Community-Forest Intermix

See the following sections: All PNVTs, Scenic Byways, National Recreation Trails, Eligible and 

Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, Lands, Cultural Resources, American Indian 

Rights and Interests, and Wildland Fire Management.

High Use Developed Recreation Area

Background for High Use Developed Recreation Area

The High Use Developed Recreation Area Management Area includes places with relatively high 

levels of visitor use that are managed to provide a wide variety of opportunities to a broad 

spectrum of visitors. High use developed recreation areas contain one or more facilities and may 

accommodate large numbers of people. They are associated with, and often provide, access to 

popular destinations, transportation corridors, scenic byways, scenic vistas, lakes, and streams. 

Interaction among visitors is high. The High Use Developed Recreation Area Management Area 

includes the following recreation areas: Rim Lakes, Fool Hollow, Woodland Lake Park, Big Lake, 

Greer Lakes, and Luna Lake.

Desired Conditions for High Use Developed Recreation Area

• Facilities are well maintained and provide for accessibility, user safety, comfort, and 

convenience, as well as protection of resources.

• Visitors can expect to see a wide range of human activities and development (including 

roads, trails, interpretive sites, campgrounds, trailheads, fences, and day-use facilities).

• The evidence of management activities is common.

• The surrounding landscape is natural appearing, pastoral, or historic with variations 

created by the recreational facilities.

• Trails are well marked and may include features such as loop systems or interpretive 

information.

• Recreation opportunities range from semiprimitive motorized to rural.

Guidelines for High Use Developed Recreation Area

• Roads, facilities, and signing should be designed to blend with surroundings.

• Management should focus on operation and maintenance, safety, aesthetics, and 

control of noxious weeds and nonnative invasive species. 

Management Approaches for High Use Developed Recreation Area

Recreation site plans describe the detailed management for each high use developed recreation 

area, including vegetation management plans for campgrounds. In addition to recreation use, 

other uses (including livestock grazing, timber management, and wildlife management) may 

occur in combination with surrounding recreation and scenic desired conditions.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

116 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Related Plan Content for High Use Developed Recreation Area

See the following sections: Developed Recreation, Scenic Resources, Scenic Byways, National 

Recreation Trails, and Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers.

Energy Corridor

Background for Energy Corridor

The Energy Corridor Management Area includes the three existing high voltage energy corridors 

located on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Two corridors traverse the Sitgreaves NF: one containing 

500 kV transmission lines and one containing 345 kV transmission lines. These are operated by 

Arizona Public Service and the Salt River Project. One 345 kV transmission line runs through a 

portion of the Clifton Ranger District; it is operated by Tucson Electric Power. Local distribution 

and low voltage transmission lines (up to 230 kV) are not included in this management area but 

are part of the management area in which they are physically located.

Although not mapped as a management area, there is one corridor that has been designated for 

future transmission facilities; it is located on the Sitgreaves NF and shares the same centerline as

the existing 500 kV transmission line. It was set in place in January 2009 by the Secretary of 

Agriculture’s Record of Decision for the “Designation of Section 368 Energy Corridors on 

National Forest System Land in 10 Western States.” The corridor has a width of 3,500 feet and is 

multimodal. The existence of this corridor does not authorize any projects, nor does it mandate 

that future rights-of-way locate in the corridor, or preclude the Forest Service from denying a 

project or requiring design revisions. If transmission facilities or rights-of-way are authorized in 

this corridor, this plan would be amended to adjust the Energy Corridor Management Area.

Desired Conditions for Energy Corridor

• Energy corridors serve a public benefit by providing for a reliable supply of energy 

essential to local, regional, and national economies.

• Vegetative conditions and land uses within the energy corridor facilitate the operation 

and maintenance of the associated facilities and infrastructure.

• Vegetation consists predominantly of grasses, forbs, shrubs, low-growing trees, and 

sapling-sized trees.

Standards for Energy Corridor

• Obsolete or unused facilities within energy corridors shall be removed and the areas 

rehabilitated.

Guidelines for Energy Corridor

• Energy corridors should be managed as nonmotorized areas to avoid conflicts with 

corridor operations and maintenance needs, although operations and maintenance 

activities may use motorized equipment.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 117

• To limit impacts to undisturbed areas, new utilities (e.g., power lines, telephone lines, 

gas lines) should be colocated within existing corridors whenever technically feasible, 

within existing rights-of-way (including road rights-of-way), or follow major 

transportation routes.

• Within and adjacent to energy corridors, vegetation should be managed similarly to the 

Community-Forest Intermix Management Area so that facilities stay operational and 

reduce the hazards of human-caused damage, damage from wildland fire, and falling 

trees.

• Clearing of vegetation along rights-of-way, facilities, and permitted sites should be 

limited to that which achieves desired conditions, abates an identified hazard to the 

facility, or for operational efficiency and weed control.

• Trees and shrubs in riparian areas should only be removed when there is an imminent 

threat to facilities and, in these cases, trees should be left for large coarse woody debris

recruitment into the stream and riparian system.

• When planning and implementing vegetation treatments (e.g., corridor maintenance), 

vegetation within riparian zones that provides rooting strength important for bank 

stability should be encouraged.

• As utility facilities are maintained or replaced, relocation of corridors outside of 

riparian areas should be considered to reduce potential impacts to these ecologically 

sensitive areas.

• Invasive plant species should be aggressively controlled within energy corridors to 

prevent or minimize spread.

Management Approaches for Energy Corridor

Existing energy corridors are managed according to approved management plans. Energy utility 

companies also comply with maintenance standards enforced by the North American Electric 

Reliability Corporation. Energy corridors are generally not managed to provide recreation 

opportunities. They are managed for very low scenic integrity where vegetation and structural 

changes may attract attention and dominate the landscape when viewed from nearby. 

Forest managers work toward establishing voluntary agreements with permit holders to reduce 

the effects of forest conditions and activities on the facilities. Future applicants are not precluded 

from proposing a project outside a designated energy corridor, though consideration and approval 

of such a request may require a plan amendment. Applicants would also need approval from the 

Arizona Corporation Commission.

Related Plan Content for Energy Corridor

See the following sections: Scenic Resources, Lands, Special Uses, National Recreation Trails, 

and Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

118 (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Wild Horse Territory

Background for Wild Horse Territory

This management area contains most of the Heber Wild Horse Territory, approximately 19,700 

acres,

1 on the Black Mesa Ranger District. The territory was established in 1973 pursuant to the 

Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971 as amended with the purpose of providing use 

by and for the protection of wild horses. The Heber Wild Horse Territory is considered a special 

area by the Forest Service. The Forest Service entered into a Stipulation Agreement filed on 

March 2, 2007, agreeing that wild horses are by law an integral part and component of the natural 

system of the public lands, as expressed by Congress. Under the Stipulation Agreement, the 

Forest Service agreed to "refrain from any gathering or removing of horses within the Heber Wild 

Horse Territory, as well as, on the Black Mesa and Lakeside Ranger Districts (which are 

considered the Sitgreaves National Forest) until the Forest Service completes, with public 

involvement, an analysis and appropriate environmental document pursuant to NEPA and 

develops a written Heber Wild Horse Territory Management Strategy."

Desired Conditions for Wild Horse Territory

• Grazing is in balance with available forage (i.e., grazing and browsing by authorized 

livestock, wild horses, and wildlife do not exceed established use levels).

• Horse numbers within the territory are aligned with the appropriate management level2

as described in the “Heber Wild Horse Territory Management Plan.”

• The Wild Horse Territory Management Area contains landscapes that vary from 

moderately altered where human activities are evident (low scenic integrity) to natural 

appearing where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity).

• Recreation opportunities range from semiprimitive nonmotorized to roaded natural.

Guidelines for Wild Horse Territory

• When wild horse populations exceed the appropriate management level, horses should 

be removed in accordance with the “Heber Wild Horse Territory Management Plan”

(when completed).

Management Approaches for Wild Horse Territory

The Forest Service will administer wild horses in the Heber Wild Horse Territory in accordance 

with applicable laws and regulations, including but not limited to 36 CFR Part 222, Subpart D. 

The Forest Service will work with the public to develop a Heber Wild Horse Territory 

Management Plan to direct specific management actions for the Heber Wild Horse Territory. 

Based on site-specific analysis, the management plan will determine an appropriate management 

 

1 Approximately 939 acres of the Heber Wild Horse Territory overlap the adjacent Community-Forest Intermix 

Management Area.

2 The Interior Board of Land Appeals (IBLA) has defined the appropriate management level as the “optimum” number 

of wild horses (or burros) which results in a thriving natural ecological balance and avoids a deterioration of the range. 

(109 IBLA 119; also reference Dahl vs. Clark, supra at 592). It is usually expressed as a range of numbers. 

From http://www.blm.gov/nv/st/en/prog/wh_b/appropriate_management.html
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 119

level. As directed in the regulations at 36 CFR 222. 61(a)(1), the goal is to maintain a thriving 

ecological balance within the territory. Management actions may be needed both inside and 

outside of the territory to meet desired conditions.

Related Plan Content for Wild Horse Territory

See the following sections: Soils, All PNVTs, Riparian Areas, Forests: Ponderosa Pine, Forests: 

Dry Mixed Conifer, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Invasive Species, Developed Recreation, Livestock 

Grazing, and Community-Forest Intermix.

Wildlife Quiet Area

Background for Wildlife Quiet Area

Wildlife quiet areas (WQAs) were first identified in the 1980s by the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs in 

cooperation with the AZGFD to provide relatively undisturbed habitat where big game and other 

wildlife could reside without disturbance from motorized vehicle use. Other reasons they were set 

aside include the need to address road-related erosion, provide for more effective use of the 

habitat, and provide the nonmotorized hunter a high quality hunt opportunity without motorized 

impacts. These areas are recognized as key wildlife habitats. WQAs may also provide relatively 

undisturbed habitat and wildlife populations for research purposes.

Desired Conditions for Wildlife Quiet Area

• WQAs provide blocks of core habitat to meet wildlife life stage requirements during 

the breeding, rearing, and, in some cases, the critical wintering period. 

• WQAs contribute to preserving natural behaviors and processes that sustain wildlife

populations associated with each WQA (see below).

• WQAs provide for wide ranging predators and big game species, are large enough for a 

range of species, and provide for population and genetic exchange.

• WQAs lack disturbance from motorized vehicles, resulting in less stress to wildlife. 

• WQAs provide undisturbed, nonmotorized hunting opportunities.

• WQAs provide semiprimitive nonmotorized recreation opportunities, including 

relatively quiet recreation opportunities close to or adjacent to intensively used areas.

• Landscapes in WQAs vary from slightly altered where human activities may be seen 

but do not attract attention (moderate scenic integrity) to natural appearing where 

human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity). 

• Willow Springs Horse Trap and Beaver-Turkey Ridge WQAs provide quiet areas for 

big game amid the intensive recreation uses on the Black Mesa Ranger District.

• Bear Springs and Cottonwood Seep WQAs provide quality travel, hiding, and thermal 

cover along the Mogollon Rim (Black Mesa and Lakeside Ranger Districts) for a wide 

variety of species ranging from turkeys to mountain lions. The WQAs provide an 

abundance of browse species important for deer and elk.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

120 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Woolhouse WQA on the Lakeside Ranger District provides high quality winter range 

for pronghorn antelope and elk within a busy and heavily used wildland-urban 

interface. 

• The Hulsey Bench WQA on the Alpine Ranger District provides Mexican spotted owl, 

northern goshawk, elk, deer, turkey, and bear refuge habitat.

• The Open Draw WQA on the Alpine Ranger District provides high quality foraging 

and young rearing habitat for deer, elk, turkey, and bear.

• Middle Mountain WQA provides refuge for northern goshawk, turkey, deer, elk, and 

Mexican spotted owl amid extensive dispersed recreation on the Alpine Ranger 

District.

• Upper Coyote Creek WQA on the Alpine Ranger District provides high quality habitat, 

especially undisturbed young rearing habitat, for deer, elk, turkey, and bear.

• St. Peters Dome WQA on the Springerville Ranger District provides high quality 

spruce-fir habitat for dusky grouse, bear, and other high elevation species.

Guidelines for Wildlife Quiet Area

• All WQAs should be managed to preclude snowmobile use to minimize disturbance 

during the critical winter period.

• WQA boundaries should be signed to identify the areas and educate the public about 

their purpose.

• Fences surrounding and within WQAs should be inspected and improved to allow 

wildlife movement within and outside of the areas. Fences should be removed if no 

longer needed.

• Hiding cover and travel ways for wildlife should be maintained to provide for security 

and connectivity of habitat.

• Restoration treatments should consider the needs of wildlife (e.g., calving/fawning 

areas, wallows, game crossings) to minimize potential impacts to the species and their 

habitat.

Management Approaches for Wildlife Quiet Area

WQAs are similar to the General Forest Management Area, but they are managed for 

nonmotorized access (except when otherwise authorized). There is an emphasis on improving 

wildlife habitat and maintaining existing wildlife developments. Management of habitat within 

WQAs may provide a benchmark for assessing effects of activities on generally undisturbed 

wildlife populations. The road in the Open Draw WQA is managed as open on a seasonal basis.

Related Plan Content for Wildlife Quiet Area

See the following sections: Overall Ecosystem Health, Wildlife and Rare Plants, Scenic 

Resources, National Recreation Trails, and Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 121

Natural Landscape

Background for Natural Landscape

These are generally undeveloped areas that are natural appearing and provide primitive and 

semiprimitive recreation opportunities. Management activities are allowed but are primarily 

focused on ecosystem restoration. This management area includes most of the inventoried 

roadless areas (IRAs) that were identified in the 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule. IRAs are 

managed to protect and conserve their roadless character.

Desired Conditions for Natural Landscape

• Succession, fire, insects, disease, floods, and other natural processes and disturbance 

events primarily shape the composition, structure, and landscape patterns of the 

vegetation (although management activities may also have a minor influence).

• These areas contribute to ecosystem and species diversity and sustainability; serve as 

habitat for plants and animals; and offer wildlife corridors, reference areas, primitive 

and semiprimitive nonmotorized recreation opportunities, and places for people 

seeking natural scenery and solitude.

• Inventoried roadless areas (IRAs) maintain their overall roadless character. 

• Roads and human structures may be present, although uncommon.

• Landscapes vary from natural appearing where human activities do not stand out (high 

scenic integrity) to natural where generally only ecological changes occur (very high 

scenic integrity), except as described below.

• Developed campgrounds, picnic areas, trailheads, and roads passable by passenger cars 

provide roaded natural recreation opportunities. Landscapes within and immediately 

adjacent to these features remain scenic. They may be slightly altered where human 

activities may be seen but do not attract attention (moderate scenic integrity) to natural 

appearing where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity).

• While emphasizing semiprimitive nonmotorized and primitive recreation opportunities, 

motorized travel may occur on designated NFS roads and motorized trails. 

• Natural landscapes contribute to preserving natural behaviors and processes that 

sustain wildlife populations.

Standards for Natural Landscape

• New mineral material pits shall not be authorized.

Guidelines for Natural Landscape

• Limited cross-country motorized vehicle use may be authorized for administrative 

purposes.

• Temporary road construction and motorized equipment may be used in order to

achieve ecological desired conditions.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

122 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• NFS roads should be maintained to the minimum standard to meet the objective 

maintenance level. 

• Unneeded mineral material pits should be closed, recontoured, and revegetated.

Management Approaches for Natural Landscape

The management emphasis is to retain the natural appearing character of these areas. 

Management activities occur mostly for ecological restoration because of natural ecological 

events or previous management actions. Management activities may include restoration of 

ecological conditions or habitat components, soil stabilization, wildland fire, hazardous fuels 

reduction, and invasive species reduction. Livestock grazing may occur where appropriate.

Related Plan Content for Natural Landscape

See the following sections: Scenic Byways, National Recreation Trails, Eligible and Suitable 

Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and Wildland Fire Management.

Research Natural Area

Background for Research Natural Area

RNAs are physical or biological units in which current natural conditions are maintained insofar 

as possible. These conditions are ordinarily achieved by allowing natural physical and biological 

processes to prevail without human intervention. However, under unusual circumstances, 

deliberate manipulation may be utilized to maintain the unique feature that the RNA was 

established to protect. (Forest Service Manual 4063.05)

Research natural areas (RNAs) are considered special areas by the Forest Service. RNAs are part 

of a national network of natural areas designated in perpetuity for research and education and/or 

to maintain biological diversity on NFS lands. RNAs are principally for non-manipulative 

research, observation, and study. However, RNAs can be used for manipulative research to help 

quantify and understand ecosystem processes and to improve forest management practices. 

This management area contains two special areas—the Phelps Cabin Research Natural Area and 

Phelps Cabin Botanical Area. The botanical area is recommended to be incorporated into the 

Phelps Cabin RNA. See the “Recommended Research Natural Area” section for more 

information.

The Phelps Cabin RNA is located on the Springerville Ranger District and is approximately 290 

acres3. It was established in 1970 to protect its natural condition and provide scientific study and 

education and for the maintenance of biological diversity. Located at approximately 9,400 feet in 

elevation, a portion of the RNA lies within Mount Baldy Wilderness. The overall terrain is gently 

rolling. Wetland communities contain several plant species of special interest including the 

Arizona willow and Mogollon paintbrush. Mixed conifer forest with spruce, fir, and aspen are 

present on uplands adjacent to the wet meadows.

 

3 A portion of the Phelps Cabin RNA falls within the Wilderness Management Area.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 123

Desired Conditions for Research Natural Area

• The Phelps Cabin RNA provides opportunities for research, study, observation, 

monitoring, and educational activities that maintain the natural conditions for which

the area was established.

• The Phelps Cabin RNA, outside of Mount Baldy Wilderness, exhibits landscapes that 

vary from natural appearing where human activities do not stand out (high scenic 

integrity) to natural where generally only ecological changes occur (very high scenic 

integrity).

• Recreation opportunities, although not encouraged, are semiprimitive nonmotorized.

Standards for Research Natural Area

• The Phelps Cabin RNA will be surveyed and posted with boundary signs within the 

planning period.

• The Phelps Cabin RNA will be managed for nonmotorized access within the area; 

exceptions may be made for permitted research use.

Guidelines for Research Natural Area

• Management measures should be used (e.g., fencing) to protect unique features.

• To minimize impacts to unique and sensitive plant species, recreational activities (other 

than use on the designated trail) should not be encouraged.

• Research special use authorizations should limit impacts to sensitive resources, unique 

features, and species within the RNA.

Related Plan Content for Research Natural Area

See the following sections: Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and 

Special Uses.

Recommended Research Natural Area

Background for Recommended Research Natural Area

Research natural areas are considered special areas by the Forest Service. There is a regional need 

for research natural areas that fall into specific categories (e.g., piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine, 

semi-desert grassland, wetland/cienega riparian area, and montane willow and cottonwoodwillow riparian forested PNVTs; quaking aspen; other aquatic habitats). The Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs have the opportunity to contribute to these needs. 

There are six recommended RNAs: Thomas Creek, Corduroy, Three Forks, Lower Campbell 

Blue, Sandrock, and the recommended Phelps Cabin RNA addition (Phelps Cabin Botanical 

Area). The first four recommended RNAs are located on the Alpine Ranger District. The 

Sandrock RNA is located on the Clifton Ranger District. The Phelps Cabin RNA addition is 

located on the Springerville Ranger District.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

124 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

The recommended Thomas Creek RNA is approximately 550 acres. It provides a representation 

of the wet mixed conifer and spruce-fir PNVTs and can serve as a reference for the study of 

succession and as a baseline for measuring long term change. The area may also serve as a 

baseline for evaluating the effects of fire and silvicultural prescriptions for timber and water 

production. It can also serve as an area to study the effects of climate change since the spruce-fir 

PNVT is sensitive to changes in temperature and moisture.

The recommended Corduroy RNA is approximately 3,350 acres. It provides a representation of 

high elevation vegetation types including aspen. This area may help researchers and foresters 

learn more about the multiple causes of sudden aspen decline (SAD), which is widespread across 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and other Arizona national forests. SAD results in the death of aspen 

root systems, thus causing total loss of aspen clones from affected sites.

The recommended Three Forks RNA is approximately 2,900 acres. This area provides a 

representation of montane willow riparian forested PNVT, fens, and wetlands unique to the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. It also provides habitat for several rare aquatic species: California 

floater, Three Forks springsnail, loach minnow, and Chiricahua leopard frog. This area provides 

research opportunities and serves as a reference for studying effects of fire, climate change, and 

management activities. It may also serve as a research area for control of invasive species while 

maintaining native species.

The recommended Lower Campbell Blue RNA is approximately 580 acres. This area is a prime 

example of high quality riparian vegetation and old growth forests. It provides habitat for 

Chiricahua leopard frog, loach minnow, New Mexico meadow jumping mouse, and Mexican 

spotted owl. This area may serve as a reference for studying grazing impacts in riparian areas and 

climate change.

The recommended Sandrock RNA is approximately 530 acres. It represents the semi-desert

grassland PNVT containing a variety of native grasses and forbs. This area has been excluded 

from domestic grazing for 25 years and provides a reference for studying past and future grazing 

effects.

It is recommended that the Phelps Cabin Botanical Area be incorporated into the Phelps Cabin 

RNA (see the “Research Natural Area” section for more information). The Phelps Cabin 

Botanical Area, approximately 100 acres, is the only botanical area on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs. It has been under special management for botanical and research values since 1910. It is 

located on the Springerville Ranger District along the East Fork Little Colorado River, adjacent to 

Phelps Cabin RNA and outside Mount Baldy Wilderness. Upon RNA designation, the botanical 

area designation would be removed.

Upon approval of the plan, the forests will recommend these RNAs to the Southwestern Region 

RNA Committee. If an RNA is recommended by the regional committee, it must undergo an 

ecological evaluation and a NEPA environmental assessment. To proceed with formal RNA 

designation, the committee must recommend the area to the Southwestern Regional Forester and 

Rocky Mountain Research Station Director for approval.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 125

Desired Conditions for Recommended Research Natural Area

• The recommended RNAs provide opportunities for research, study, observation, 

monitoring, and educational activities that maintain the natural conditions for which 

the area was recommended.

• The Three Forks Closure Area (30 acres) of the recommended Three Forks RNA is free 

from human trampling and other disturbances to protect very sensitive and unique 

species, such as the Three Forks springsnail, California floater, New Mexico meadow 

jumping mouse, Chiricahua leopard frog, and loach minnow.

• The recommended Three Forks, Campbell Blue, Corduroy, and Sandrock RNAs, 

outside of any eligible or suitable wild and scenic river corridor, exhibit unaltered 

appearing landscapes where human activities do not stand out (high scenic integrity).

• The recommended Thomas Creek RNA exhibits slightly altered landscapes where 

human activities may be seen but do not attract attention (moderate scenic integrity).

• The recommended Phelps Cabin RNA addition (currently the Phelps Cabin Botanical 

Area), outside of any eligible or suitable wild and scenic river corridor, exhibits

unaltered appearing landscapes where human activities do not stand out (high scenic 

integrity).

• Natural conditions prevail in the recommended Phelps Cabin RNA addition while 

providing an opportunity for interpretation, education, and research. 

• Unique plant species, including willows, paintbrushes, and gentians, thrive in the 

recommended Phelps Cabin RNA addition.

Guidelines for Recommended Research Natural Area

• To minimize impacts to unique and sensitive plant and animal species, recreational 

activities should not be encouraged.

• If necessary, recommended RNAs should be fenced to manage unique features.

• Research special use authorizations should limit impacts to sensitive resources, unique 

features, and species within recommended RNAs.

• Recommended RNAs should be managed for nonmotorized access within the area to 

minimize ground disturbances and protect the resources which make these areas 

unique.

Management Approaches for Recommended Research Natural Area

If a recommended RNA is not designated within 5 years of this plan’s approval, an evaluation 

may be conducted to verify the continued need as a research natural area. If there is none, a plan 

amendment may be completed to return the land area to other management. Lands returning to 

other management are evaluated for suitability (chapter 4) for appropriate uses.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

126 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Related Plan Content for Recommended Research Natural Area

See the following sections: Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and

Special Uses.

Wilderness

Background for Wilderness

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are home to three designated wilderness areas: Mount Baldy 

Wilderness, located on the Springerville Ranger District, and Escudilla and Bear Wallow 

Wilderness areas, located on the Alpine Ranger District. Wilderness areas are managed and their 

values protected according to the Wilderness Act of 1964 (Public Law 88-577). Wilderness areas 

provide opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation. Motorized

equipment and mechanical transport is prohibited in wilderness. Livestock grazing is allowed in 

wilderness unless specifically excluded by the law designating the area. Grazing is not restricted 

in any of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs wilderness areas.

Mount Baldy Wilderness was designated as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System 

in 1970 (Public Law 91-504). Its approximate 7,000 acres lie on the eastern slope of Mount 

Baldy. Elevations range from 9,000 to 11,400 feet above sea level. Mount Baldy is an extinct 

volcano which has experienced three distinct periods of glaciation. The peak’s summit is on the 

Fort Apache Indian Reservation. Three developed trails traverse this wilderness. The East and 

West Forks of the Little Colorado River are perennial through this wilderness and provide habitat 

for the threatened Apache trout.

Escudilla Wilderness, approximately 5,200 acres, was designated in 1984 (Public Law 98-406). 

This area encompasses the top and sides of Escudilla Mountain. It is home to several high 

elevation meadows which include some 

relatively rare plant associations. Notable 

landmarks in or just outside the wilderness 

include Profanity Ridge, Terry Flat, 

Toolbox Draw, and the Punchbowl. The 

Escudilla National Recreation Trail leads to 

the top of Escudilla Mountain.

Bear Wallow Wilderness, approximately 

11,080 acres, was designated in 1984 

(Public Law 98-406). This area is known 

for its canyon, large old conifers, and fall 

aspen colors. Several trails provide access 

into and through this area. Bear Wallow 

Creek flows throughout the year, providing 

habitat for the threatened Apache trout. 

Wildlife is abundant throughout the area.

Figure 11. East Fork of the Little Colorado River 

in Mount Baldy Wilderness
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 127

Desired Conditions for Wilderness

• Ecological conditions are affected primarily by natural ecological processes, with the 

appearance of little or no human intervention. 

• Fire functions as a natural ecological process.

• There is little evidence of human developments and little or no evidence of camping 

activity, unauthorized trails, trash, or other human impacts on the environment.

• Visitor use does not affect wilderness characteristics.

• Wilderness boundaries are posted and visible to visitors.

• There are unconfined opportunities for exploration, solitude, risk, and challenge. The 

nonmotorized trail system enhances the wilderness character. Where there is public 

demand, outfitters and guides provide services to visitors seeking a wilderness 

experience.

• Bear Wallow Wilderness provides outstanding opportunities for solitude and isolation. 

Encounters with small groups or individuals are infrequent.

• Within Mount Baldy and Escudilla Wilderness areas, trails concentrate use and provide 

access to popular destinations. Encounters with other users may occur. 

• Wilderness areas maintain natural landscapes where generally only ecological changes 

occur (very high scenic integrity) and provide primitive and/or semiprimitive 

nonmotorized recreation opportunities.

• Wilderness contributes to preserving natural behaviors and processes that sustain 

wildlife populations.

Standards for Wilderness

• Party size of 12 persons and/or 12 head of stock for hiking and riding groups in Mount 

Baldy Wilderness shall not be exceeded. A party size of 6 persons for overnight 

camping shall not be exceeded.

• Party size of 12 persons and/or 15 head of stock for hiking and riding groups in 

Escudilla and Bear Wallow Wilderness and the Blue Range Primitive Area shall not be 

exceeded.

• Objective(s) and strategies for all wildfires shall be identified.

• Fire management activities shall be conducted in a manner compatible with the overall 

wilderness management objectives (minimum impact suppression tactics).

• Human-caused disturbed areas that do not complement wilderness characteristics will 

be rehabilitated to a natural appearance, using species or other materials native to the 

area.

Guidelines for Wilderness 

• New trail construction may be considered if the objective is enhancement of the 

wilderness character (e.g., increase solitude opportunities, restore naturalness).
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

128 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Trail maintenance should be coordinated around anticipated visitor high use periods to 

minimize encounters.

• Trails that have minimal use, detract from the wilderness character, or cannot 

practically be maintained or reconstructed should be obliterated.

• Prescribed fire should be considered to reduce the risks and consequences of 

uncharacteristic wildfire within wilderness or escaping from wilderness by reducing 

unnatural fuel accumulations, if necessary to meet wilderness fire management 

objectives. Naturally occurring wildfires should be allowed to perform, as much as 

possible, their natural ecological role within wilderness.

• Fire camps, helispots, and other temporary facilities should be located outside the 

wilderness boundary to protect wilderness character.

• Firelines and spike camps (i.e., a remote camp usually near a fireline) should not be 

constructed adjacent to trails or camp areas to protect wilderness values. 

• Grazing of pack stock should not occur except as authorized by the district ranger 

when adequate forage is available.

Management Approaches for Wilderness

There is a need to complete and implement wilderness management plans, wilderness use 

capacity studies, and comprehensive vegetation inventories for each designated wilderness. The 

Congressional Grazing Guidelines (FSM 2320 – Wilderness Management, section 2323.33 –

Exhibit 01) are used to manage livestock grazing in wilderness areas. The “Minimum 

Requirements Decision Guide” is used to assess actions proposed within wilderness. Priorities for 

trail reconstruction are based on potential for loss of wilderness values, impacts to wilderness 

recreation opportunities, and the trails which receive the greatest use.

Related Plan Content for Wilderness

See the following sections: Air, Invasive Species, Overall Recreation Opportunities, Eligible and 

Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and Wildland Fire Management.

Primitive Area

Background for Primitive Area

The primitive area is considered a special area by the Forest Service. This management area 

consists of the Blue Range Primitive Area along with the presidential recommended additions to 

the area (199,502 acres). The only remaining primitive area in the National Forest System, the 

Blue Range Primitive Area is located on the Alpine and Clifton Ranger Districts. It was 

administratively designated by the Forest Service (L-20 regulations4) as a primitive area on 

June 21, 1933, to preserve its wilderness qualities. The Blue Range Primitive Area is managed as

wilderness, with one exception: the area is open to mineral prospecting and mineral development.

 

4

In 1939, the Secretary of Agriculture issued Regulations U-1, U-2, and U-2A (collectively, the "U-Regulations") to 

replace the L-20 Regulation.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 129

The Blue Range Primitive Area’s approximate 180,000 acres include deep, rugged canyons 

separated by steep, timbered ridges. The Mogollon Rim bisects the area and provides dramatic 

topographic features. Elevations range from 4,500 feet in the southern portion to 9,100 feet along 

the rim. This rapid change in elevation results in interesting and unique ecological associations. 

Unusual and spectacular rock formations highlight the scenery.

The Blue Range Primitive Area is important in the distribution of wildlife species. It lies on both 

north-south and east-west migration corridors. The wide variety of vegetation types reflects the 

area’s topography. There are approximately 270 miles of nonmotorized trails throughout the 

primitive area, about one quarter of the forests’ trails.

In 1971, the Forest Service submitted a recommendation to the President of the United States for 

the Blue Range Wilderness in New Mexico and Arizona. The President forwarded the 

recommendation to Congress, who eventually acted on a portion of the recommendation. In 1980 

Congress designated, and the President signed into law, the Blue Range Wilderness in New 

Mexico. The Arizona portion of the 1971 presidential recommendation (166,591 acres) included 

20,031 acres outside and along the west primitive area boundary. The Forest Service and 

presidential recommendation for the Blue Range Wilderness in Arizona has not been acted upon.

The entire Blue Range Primitive Area and the presidential recommended additions have been 

managed to protect their wilderness characteristics. 

Desired Conditions for Primitive Area

All wilderness desired conditions apply to the entire Blue Range Primitive Area and presidential 

recommended additions until congressional action has been taken.

• The Blue Range Primitive Area and presidential recommended additions maintain 

natural landscapes where generally only ecological changes occur (very high scenic 

integrity) and provide primitive recreation opportunities, except along the designated

road (36 CFR § 293.17(a)).

Standards and Guidelines for Primitive Area

All wilderness standards and guidelines apply to the entire Blue Range Primitive Area and 

presidential recommended additions until congressional action has been taken.

Management Approaches for Primitive Area

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs continue to manage the Blue Range Primitive Area and the 

presidential recommended additions as a primitive area until Congress acts on the 1971 

wilderness recommendation. Should Congress not designate any portion of this management area 

as wilderness and release lands from primitive area status, the released lands would be managed 

as a part of the Natural Landscape Management Area.

A management plan for the area, including comprehensive vegetation inventory, is needed to 

provide more detailed management guidance. The Congressional Grazing Guidelines (FSM 2320 

– Wilderness Management, section 2323.33 – Exhibit 01) are used to manage livestock grazing in 
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

130 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

the primitive area. The “Minimum Requirements Decision Guide” is used to assess actions 

proposed within the primitive area.

Related Plan Content for Primitive Area

See the following sections: Invasive Species, Overall Recreation Opportunities, Eligible and 

Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and Wildland Fire Management.

Recommended Wilderness

Background for Recommended Wilderness

In 2009, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest System lands were evaluated to determine potential 

wilderness areas. Table 5 below identifies the areas recommended for wilderness. There are no 

Forest Service system trails in these areas.

Table 5. Areas recommended for wilderness

Name Acreage

Escudilla Wilderness Addition 6,813

Bear Wallow Wilderness Additions 261

Total 7,074

These are preliminary administrative recommendations that will receive further review, including 

the applicable NEPA analyses, and possible modification by the Chief of the Forest Service, 

Secretary of Agriculture, and President of the United States. Congress has reserved the authority 

to make final decisions on wilderness designation.

Desired Conditions for Recommended Wilderness

• Recommended wilderness areas display natural landscapes where generally only 

ecological changes occur (very high scenic integrity) and provide primitive or 

semiprimitive nonmotorized recreation opportunities.

• Recommended wilderness contributes to preserving natural behaviors and processes 

that sustain wildlife populations.

Standards for Recommended Wilderness

• Objective(s) and strategies for all wildfires shall be identified.

• Fire management activities shall be conducted in a manner compatible with 

maintaining wilderness characteristics (minimum impact suppression tactics).

• Human-caused disturbed areas that do not complement wilderness characteristics shall 

be rehabilitated to a natural appearance, using plant species or other materials native to 

the area.
Chapter 3. Management Area Direction

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #3, October 6, 2016) 131

Guidelines for Recommended Wilderness

• The wilderness characteristics of each recommended wilderness should remain intact 

until a congressional decision on wilderness designation is made. Characteristics 

include naturalness, opportunities for solitude, opportunities for primitive recreation, 

and identified special features.

• Only nonmotorized travel may occur in recommended wilderness. However, motorized 

use associated with grazing allotments may occur and should be limited to that needed

to carry out required management practices as authorized.

• Prescribed fire should be considered to reduce the risks and consequences of 

uncharacteristic wildfire by reducing unnatural fuel accumulations, if necessary to 

meet fire management objectives. Naturally occurring fires should be allowed to 

perform, as much as possible, their natural ecological role.

• Fire camps, helispots, and other temporary facilities should be located outside the 

recommended wilderness to protect wilderness values. 

Related Plan Content for Recommended Wilderness

See the following sections: Overall Recreation Opportunities, Eligible and Suitable Wild and 

Scenic Rivers, Scenic Resources, and Wildland Fire Management.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016; Admin. 

Change #3, October 6, 2016) 133

Chapter 4. Suitability 

Introduction to Suitability 

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are suitable, or appropriate, for a variety of uses. The broad use 

categories on the following pages are not intended to be all inclusive. Other uses, projects, or 

activities may be proposed during the life of the plan. Acquired lands are evaluated for suitability 

(chapter 4) prior to being allocated to appropriate uses.

An identification of an area as suitable for a particular use does not mean that the use will occur 

over the entire area. Likewise, identifying that a particular use is not suitable in a management 

area does not mean that the use will not occur in specific areas. The identification of an area as 

suitable for various uses is guidance for project and activity decision-making and is not a resource 

commitment or final decision approving projects and activities. Final decisions on resource 

commitments are made at the project level. The final decision to authorize livestock grazing 

would be made at a project (allotment) level. 

Forestwide suitability calculations (acres suitable versus not suitable) can be found in appendix B 

of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs “Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement for the Land 

Management Plan” (Forest Service, 2012a). Specifics about suitability of areas are analyzed at 

the project or activity level and are subject to laws, regulations, and plan guidance. Areas that are 

not suitable are those where a use is not compatible with desired conditions. However, this does 

not mean that the use cannot occur. Conversely, areas identified as suitable, when analyzed at the 

project or activity level, may not be able to support that use1.

The suitability determinations (plan decisions) are summarized below and displayed in tables 6 

through 11. The information outside of these tables is not a plan decision but is provided for 

background. Plan decisions and other content for forestwide direction (chapter 2) and 

management areas (chapter 3) should also be consulted.

Livestock Grazing Suitability

Livestock grazing is defined as foraging by permitted livestock, including cattle, horses, and 

sheep. Provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule require that the capability and suitability for 

producing forage for grazing animals on National Forest System (NFS) lands be determined. 

Capability is the potential of an area of land to produce resources and supply goods and services. 

Capability depends upon current conditions and site conditions such as climate variability, slope, 

landform, soils, and geology. Although capability was determined in the 1980s during the first 

round of forest planning, it was necessary to recreate that determination because the original 

records were not retained. This process is documented in the planning record (Nelson, 2016).

Suitability is the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices to a 

particular area of land, in consideration of relevant social, economic, and ecological factors. 

Suitable rangeland is determined based on compatibility with desired conditions and objectives in 

the plan area. Lands within the plan area are not identified as suitable for a certain use if that use 

is prohibited by law, regulation, or policy; would result in substantial and permanent impairment 

of the productivity of the land or renewable resources; or if the use is incompatible with the 

desired conditions for the relevant portion of the plan area. A unit of land may be suitable for a 

variety of individual or combined management practices. Table 6 identifies areas as suitable or 

not suitable for livestock grazing.

 

1 As a result of site-specific analysis if plan suitability needs adjustment, it can be accomplished through a plan 

amendment.
Chapter 4. Suitability

134 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Table 6. Suitability of livestock grazing on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Management Area Livestock Grazing 

Suitable

Livestock Grazing 

Not Suitablea

General Forest X

Community-Forest Intermix X

High Use Developed Recreation Area X

Energy Corridor X

Wild Horse Territory X

Wildlife Quiet Area X

Natural Landscape X

Recommended Research Natural Area X

Research Natural Area X

Primitive Area X

Recommended Wilderness X

Wilderness X

Other Areas

Active and vacant grazing allotments X

Current National Forest System land not in a grazing 

allotment X

a Areas that are not suitable for livestock grazing may occur within allotment boundaries but do not contribute to the 

overall grazing capacity of the allotment.

Special Uses Suitability

Table 7 identifies select special use categories that are suitable or not suitable on certain areas of 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Energy corridors are linear strips of land identified for the present or 

future location of a utility right-of-way (e.g., above or below-ground electric transmission line, 

gas pipeline). Other energy developments include the infrastructure associated with the provision 

or transport of energy (e.g., dam, biomass power generation, wind turbines, solar panels). 

Communications sites are National Forest System lands used for telecommunications services as 

identified in appendix C.

Table 7. Suitability of select special uses on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Management Area

Energy 

Corridor

Suitable

Energy 

Corridor

Not 

Suitable

Other 

Energy 

Development

Suitable

Other 

Energy 

Development

Not 

Suitable

Communications 

Site

Suitable

Communications Site

Not 

Suitable

General Forest X X X

Community-Forest Intermix X X X

High Use Developed Recreation 

Area

X X X
Chapter 4. Suitability

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 135

Management Area

Energy 

Corridor

Suitable

Energy 

Corridor

Not 

Suitable

Other 

Energy 

Development

Suitable

Other 

Energy 

Development

Not 

Suitable

Communications 

Site

Suitable

Communications Site

Not 

Suitable

Energy Corridor X X X

Wild Horse Territory X X X

Wildlife Quiet Area Xa X X

Natural Landscape X X X

Recommended Research Natural 

Area

X X X

Research Natural Area X X X

Primitive Area X X X

Recommended Wilderness X X X

Wilderness X X X

Other Areas

Areas with natural appearing 

landscapes where human activities 

do not stand out (high scenic 

integrity) or natural landscapes 

where generally only ecological 

changes occur (very high scenic 

integrity)

X X X

Eligible or suitable wild and scenic 

river corridors

X X X

Sacred sites or American Indian

traditional cultural properties

X X X

a Existing energy corridors that cross wildlife quiet areas are considered suitable.

Lands Suitable for Timber Production

The National Forest Management Act requires that NFS lands be classified as to their suitability 

for timber production. NFS lands were reserved with the intent of providing goods and services to 

satisfy public needs over the long term, among these goods is the production of a sustainable 

supply of forest products. Therefore, some level of regulated forest production is necessary and 

appropriate from forested lands.

Timber production is the purposeful growing, tending, harvesting, and regeneration of regulated 

crops of trees to be cut into logs, bolts, or other round sections for industrial or consumer use. The 

term “timber production” does not include the production of firewood. On those lands classified 

as suitable for timber production (also referred to as suitable timberlands), the objective is to 

manage toward desired conditions, including restoring natural fire regimes, on a planned and 

regulated basis. Timber production activities contribute to a viable wood products processing 

industry.
Chapter 4. Suitability

136 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

In 2014, of the more than 2 million acres of NFS land, there are approximately 596,700 acres of 

NFS land that are suitable for timber production and 1,418,600 acres that are not suitable. 

Tree cutting is a broad term which describes the cutting of trees for uses such as safety, firewood, 

biomass, and small wood products. Materials from these cuts may be made available for sale. 

Tree cutting may be used to move toward the vegetation desired condition, but a planned and 

periodic harvest of forest products may be unfeasible and/or regeneration of the stand is not 

anticipated. For example, many grasslands on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are encroached by 

woody species. Cutting trees would help restore these grasslands.

Table 8 identifies areas of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs that are suitable or not suitable for timber 

production and tree cutting.

Table 8. Suitability of lands for timber production and tree cutting

Management Area

Timber 

Production

Suitable

Timber 

Production 

Not 

Suitable

Tree 

Cutting

Suitable

Tree 

Cutting

Not 

Suitable

General Forest X X

Community-Forest Intermix X X

High Use Developed Recreation Area X X

Energy Corridor X X

Wild Horse Territory X X

Wildlife Quiet Area X X

Natural Landscape X X

Recommended Research Natural Area X Xb

Research Natural Area X Xb

Primitive Area X Xc

Recommended Wilderness X X

Wilderness X Xc

Areas with soil condition rating of unsuited/inherently 

unstable X X

Other Areas

Lands not cost efficient in meeting timber production 

objectives X X

Grasslands, woodlands, interior chaparral, and riparian

forested PNVTs X X

Communications sites X X

Developed recreation and administrative sites X X

Eligible or suitable wild and scenic river corridors X Xd

MSO protected activity centers X X

a Suitability refers to areas that are accessible and operable for cutting with motorized or nonmotorized equipment. 

Most areas are suitable for nonmotorized (e.g., handsaw, axe) tree cutting.
Chapter 4. Suitability

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 137

b Tree cutting for research purposes is allowed.

c Trees may be cut in the Primitive Area or Wilderness Management Areas with nonmotorized equipment (e.g., axe, 

bucksaw) and primarily for trail maintenance (FSM 2323.13f, 2323.53, 2326).

d Tree cutting is not suitable in segments classified as wild except where needed in association with a primitive 

recreation experience such as to clear trails (FSH 1909.12 Chapter 82.51).

Motorized Uses Suitability 

This section describes the suitability of areas for motorized uses, including motorized travel and 

new designated motorized areas, roads, trails, or temporary roads intended for motorized vehicles.

Table 9 below displays areas that are suitable and not suitable for motorized travel. Motorized 

travel is defined as movement using machines 

that use a motor, engine, or other nonliving 

power sources other than a vehicle operated on 

rails or a wheelchair or mobility device, 

including one that is battery powered, that is 

designed solely for the use by a mobility

impaired person for locomotion and that is 

suitable for use in an indoor pedestrian area.

This plan provides the framework to guide 

future changes to the transportation system. 

Once the final decision of this plan has been 

made, potential changes to the forests’ 

transportation system will be evaluated under 

this framework and through implementation of 

the Travel Management Rule (36 CFR § 212). 

Upon completion of travel management 

planning, the associated motor vehicle use map (MVUM) would be printed. The MVUM would 

display the roads, trails, and areas that are designated for motorized vehicle use. Travel 

management planning is not a static process. Based on public input, monitoring, and site-specific

analysis, the MVUM could be adjusted. The annual reissuing of the MVUM would reflect any 

changes made through the NEPA process. Use inconsistent with those designations, and 

inconsistent with this plan, would be prohibited.

Table 9. Suitability of motorized travel on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Area

Motorized Travel

Suitable

Motorized Travel 

Not Suitable

On NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, or designated 

motorized areas 

X

Off of NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, or designated 

motorized areas (unless exempteda)

X

a Per the Travel Management Rule (36 CFR § 212 Subpart B), the following vehicles and uses are exempted: (a) 

aircraft; (b) watercraft; (c) over-snow vehicles2; (d) limited administrative use by the Forest Service; (e) use of any fire, 

 

2 Use by over-snow vehicles is governed by Subpart C of the Travel Management Rule, which states that “use by over-snow vehicles 

on National Forest System roads and National Forest System trails and in areas on National Forest lands may be allowed, restricted, 

Figure 12. A forest user rides along the Saffel 

Canyon OHV Trail
Chapter 4. Suitability

138 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

military, emergency, or law enforcement vehicle for emergency purposes; (f) authorized use of any combat or combat 

support vehicle for national defense purposes; (g) law enforcement response to violations of law, including pursuit; (h) 

motor vehicle use that is specifically authorized under a written authorization issued under Federal law or regulations; 

and (i) use of a road or trail that is authorized by a legally documented right-of-way held by a State, county, or other 

local public road authority.

Table 10 displays areas that are suitable and not suitable for future consideration of a new 

designated motorized area, NFS road, NFS motorized trail, or temporary road construction. A 

designated motorized area is one that has been designated for motor vehicle use. NFS roads 

and motorized trails are roads and motorized trails that the Forest Service determines are 

necessary for the protection, administration, and utilization of the National Forest System and the 

use and development of its resources. NFS motorized trails are divided into two categories—

greater than 50 inches and less than 50 inches—to accommodate a variety of vehicles. 

Temporary roads are roads necessary for emergency operations or are authorized by contract, 

permit, lease, or other written authorization; they are not a NFS road or trail and not included in a 

forest transportation atlas. Temporary roads are removed or rehabilitated following completion of 

the activity for which they were built.

Table 10. Suitability for new designated motorized areas, NFS roads, NFS motorized trails, 

and temporary road construction on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

New Designated 

Motorized Area

NFS Road and 

NFS Motorized 

Trail > 50"

NFS Motorized 

Trail < 50"

Temporary Road

Management 

Area Suitable Not 

Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Not Suitable

General Forest X X X X

CommunityForest IntermixX X X X

High Use 

Developed 

Recreation Area

X X X X

Energy Corridor X X X X

Wild Horse 

Territory

X X X X

Wildlife Quiet 

Area

X X X X

Natural 

Landscape

X X X X

Recommended 

Research Natural 

Area

X X X X

Research Natural X X X X

 

or prohibited.
Chapter 4. Suitability

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 139

New Designated 

Motorized Area

NFS Road and 

NFS Motorized 

Trail > 50"

NFS Motorized 

Trail < 50"

Temporary Road

Management 

Area Suitable Not 

Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Not Suitable Suitable Not Suitable

Area

Primitive Area X X X X

Recommended 

Wilderness

X X X X

Wilderness X X X X

Other Areas

Meadows, 

wetlands, riparian 

areas, and along 

stream bottoms

X X X X

Eligible or 

suitable wild and 

scenic river

corridors

X Xa Xa Xa

Areas with high 

concentration of 

significant 

archaeological or 

historic sites

Xb Xc Xc X

Sacred sites or 

American Indian

traditional 

cultural 

properties

X X X X

a New NFS roads and NFS motorized trails are not suitable in segments classified as wild (FSH 1909.12 Chapter 

82.51).

b New designated motorized areas are not suitable where site densities make data recovery economically infeasible,

areas with significant sites that include architecture or structures, or there is a high probability to disturb human 

remains.

c Exceptions may be made where construction or rerouting of a NFS road or motorized trail will protect and/or reduce 

impacts to cultural resource values.

Recreation Suitability 

Table 11 displays areas that are suitable or not suitable for future consideration of projects or 

activities involving mechanized travel or nonmotorized travel. 

Mechanized travel (mechanical transport) is defined as movement using any contrivance over 

land, water, or air, having moving parts, that provides a mechanical advantage to the user and that 

is powered by a living or nonliving power source. This includes, but is not limited to, sailboats, 
Chapter 4. Suitability

140 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

hang gliders, parachutes, bicycles, game carriers, carts, and wagons. It does not include 

wheelchairs when used as necessary medical appliances. It also does not include skis, snowshoes, 

rafts, canoes, sleds, travois, or similar primitive devices without moving parts. 

Nonmotorized travel (not including mechanized travel) is defined as movement not relying on 

machines that use a motor, engine, or other nonliving power source (e.g., walking, canoeing, 

horseback riding).

Table 11. Suitability for mechanized and nonmotorized travel on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs

Management Area

Mechanized 

Travel

Suitable

Mechanized 

Travel 

Not Suitable

Nonmotorized 

Travela\

Suitable

Nonmotorized 

Travela

Not Suitable

General Forest X X

Community-Forest Intermix X X

High Use Developed Recreation Area X X

Energy Corridor X X

Wild Horse Territory X X

Wildlife Quiet Area X X

Natural Landscape X X

Recommended Research Natural Area X X

Research Natural Area X X

Primitive Area X X

Recommended Wilderness X X

Wilderness X X

Other Areas

Meadows, wetlands, riparian areas,

and along stream bottoms X X

Eligible or suitable wild and scenic 

river corridors Xb X

a Does not include mechanized travel.

b Mechanized travel is not suitable in segments classified as wild.
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) 141

Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

Introduction

The purpose of monitoring and evaluation is to evaluate, document, and report how the land 

management plan is applied, how well it works, and if its purpose and direction remain 

appropriate. Monitoring determines actual conditions and compares them with desired conditions. 

Evaluation of monitoring results may identify that desired conditions are not being met and 

propose alternative management strategies. 

Adaptive management allows the use of alternative solutions to meet desired conditions. It 

includes defining measurable objectives, monitoring, learning and making changes, and 

recognizing and adjusting for the uncertainties of outcomes. This “Land Management Plan for the 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” (the plan) is an integral part of the adaptive management 

cycle that includes management decisions and actions. Monitoring and evaluating the effects of 

plan implementation is critical to adaptive management.

The monitoring strategy outlines the general framework for achieving plan monitoring and 

includes the monitoring questions and select monitoring methods listed in the following section. 

Monitoring questions focus on key plan decisions where carrying out projects and activities are 

likely to cause a change over time. It does not address project level implementation monitoring 

nor is it intended for research purposes. The adaptive management cycle also includes an 

approach for responding to changing conditions or public desires and to new information, 

including research and scientific papers.

The forest supervisor evaluates the monitoring information displayed in the evaluation reports 

through a management review and determines if any changes are needed in management actions 

or the plan itself. In general, biennial evaluations of the monitoring information consider the 

following questions:

• What are the effects of resource management activities on the productivity of the land?

• To what degree are resource management activities maintaining or making progress 

toward the desired conditions and objectives identified in the plan? Are costs of 

implementing programs occurring as predicted?

• What modifications are needed to account for unanticipated changes in conditions?

The plan is revised at least every 15 years and the forest supervisor may amend the plan at any 

time. All of the monitoring and evaluation timeframes identified in this chapter begin from the 

date of the record of decision.

The monitoring and evaluation strategy (plan decisions) below is displayed in table 12. The 

information outside of this table is not a plan decision but is provided for background.

Monitoring Strategy

Table 12 presents the monitoring questions, monitoring methods, and the frequency of 

measurements needed to address monitoring requirements identified in the provisions of the 2012
Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

142 (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Planning Rule1to help evaluate the plan and movement toward key desired conditions. In some 

cases, the monitoring questions and monitoring methods directly measure the accomplishment of 

meeting desired conditions. In other cases, they measure objectives or guidelines associated with 

desired conditions.

This monitoring strategy provides guidance in determining monitoring requirements and 

accomplishments. Monitoring intervals were chosen based on data availability and rate of change 

of variables to be measured. Some questions with evaluations occurring at monitoring intervals 

longer than 1 year may require annual data collection. Forest managers may need to prioritize 

what would be monitored in any given year and would schedule monitoring and evaluation 

through the annual budget process. Actual budget levels, funding emphasis, and emergence of 

new issues may affect accomplishment. Partnerships may be developed to accomplish monitoring 

and evaluation. 

Table 12. Apache-Sitgreaves NFs land management plan monitoring questions, monitoring 

methods and indicators, and monitoring intervals. 

Monitoring Questions Monitoring Method and Indicators Monitoring 

Interval

Maintenance and Improvement of 

Ecosystem Health

1. Are long-term soil health and 

productivity desired conditions being 

maintained or met?

Review a sample of soil-disturbing activities for 

compliance with best management practices 

(BMPs) by project and allotment operating 

instruction implementation.

Annually

2. How well are management 

activities contributing to desired 

conditions or maintaining watersheds 

in a healthy state and meeting 

Arizona water quality standards?

Review a sample of soil-disturbing activities for 

compliance with BMPs by project; allotment 

operating instruction implementation; Section 

18 reviews of allotment National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA); burn area 

emergency response (BAER) assessments; and 

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality 

water quality data.

Every 5 years

3. How are management activities 

contributing to desired conditions or 

affecting riparian habitats, including 

wetlands, on the forests? Are riparian 

areas attaining and/or moving toward 

proper functioning condition? Are 

identified ecological indicators (e.g., 

aspen, riparian) present and fulfilling 

their ecological function?

Review a sample of ground-disturbing activities 

for compliance with BMPs by project; 

allotment operating instruction implementation; 

prescribed fire burn plan implementation; 

proper functioning data or other approved 

Forest Service methodologies; and Section 18 

reviews of allotment NEPA. Monitor riparian 

habitats for changes in ground cover, species 

composition, bank stability, and water quality.

Every 5 years

4. Are management activities 

contributing to desired conditions or 

improving air quality across the 

forests in Class 1 (Mount Baldy 

Wilderness) and Class II airsheds?

Review interagency monitoring of protected 

visual environments’ data.

Annually

 

1 The transition provision, 36 CFR § 219.17(b)(3), of the 2012 Planning Rule (77 FR 21162-21276) allows use of the 

provisions of the planning rule, commonly called the 1982 Planning Rule, to amend or revise plans.
Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) 143

Monitoring Questions Monitoring Method and Indicators Monitoring 

Interval

5. Are habitats for threatened, 

endangered, sensitive, and other 

species for the forests being 

maintained or enhanced; meeting 

recovery objectives; moving toward 

desired conditions; and contributing 

to species viability?

Review implementation of biological opinion 

terms and conditions and aquatic habitat and 

population surveys using current approved 

methodologies. Review implementation and 

evaluate effectiveness of project mitigation 

measures affecting habitat.

Annually, on 

selected newly 

implemented and 

ongoing activities

6. Are PNVTs and habitat needs 

being provided for and contributing 

to desired conditions? What percent 

of grasslands have more than 10 

percent of encroachment of woody 

species?

Review mid-scale vegetation assessment and 

percent change; stand exam data; postprescribed fire monitoring plots; forest 

inventory analysis (FIA) plots; change in 

species composition and soil condition (range 

data); and acres of restored grassland.

Every 5 years

7. What is the effect of management 

upon habitat trends of ecological 

indicators (aspen, riparian) across the 

forests? 

Conduct aspen/riparian monitoring in 

accordance with species’ specific protocols in 

both treated and untreated areas and in burned 

(within large wildfire burns) and unburned 

areas.

Interdisciplinary team review the annual 

aspen/riparian ecological indicator species 

monitoring reports to determine trend.

Annually

Every 5 years

8. How are management activities 

affecting late successional forest 

structure in relation to desired 

conditions? 

Review amount and type of restoration 

treatments and the mid-scale vegetation 

assessment and percent change; FIA plots; postprescribed fire monitoring plots; BAER 

assessments; and percent departure from desired 

condition by PNVT.

Every 5 years

9. What is the status of Mexican 

spotted owls as a focal species?

Information on breeding Mexican spotted owl 

occupancy in areas where they are known to 

occur and surveys or inventory efforts where 

their occupancy status is unknown (or areas 

presumed to be abandoned) will allow us to 

make inferences regarding the overall status of 

this species in mixed conifer PNVTs. Conduct 

project and non-project area monitoring of 

Mexican spotted owl protected activity centers 

in accordance with species-specific protocols.

Annually

10. What is the status of northern 

goshawks as a focal species?

Information on breeding northern goshawk 

occupancy in areas where they are known to 

occur and surveys or inventory efforts where 

their occupancy status is unknown (or areas 

presumed to be abandoned) will allow us to 

make inferences regarding the overall status of 

this species in the ponderosa pine PNVT. 

Conduct project and non-project area 

monitoring of northern goshawk post-fledging 

areas in accordance with species-specific 

protocols.

Annually

11. What is the status of American 

pronghorn as a focal species?

To assess grassland PNVT habitat connectivity, 

obtain AZGFD population distribution data for 

American pronghorn populations.

Annually
Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

144 (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Monitoring Questions Monitoring Method and Indicators Monitoring 

Interval

12. Are management activities 

contributing to progress towards 

desired conditions for grassland 

habitat during the fawning period for 

American pronghorns?

Review AZGFD data for American pronghorns, 

including fawn:doe ratios and population 

trends.

Annually

13. Are management activities 

moving vegetation communities and 

habitats closer to the desired 

condition identified at the appropriate 

scales as compared to baseline 

conditions?

Review mid-scale vegetation 

assessment/percent change in developmental 

structural states, range analyses (transect data, 

photo plots, inspections), Forest Inventory and 

Analysis, Common Stand Exams, production 

and utilization surveys; Section 18 reviews of 

allotment NEPA; BAER assessments; fuels 

inventory; acres of aspen dominated and 

codominated forested PNVTs; and percent 

departure from desired condition by PNVT.

Review data sources listed above for departure 

or PNVT changes not explained by mechanical 

treatment, wildfire, natural succession or other 

ground disturbing event, as compared to 

baseline mid-scale (2012).

Review applicable indicators for all PNVTs: 

seral state diversity, ground cover, ecological 

status, patch size, disturbance regime (fire, 

insect, disease, flooding), coarse woody debris, 

snag density, fire regime condition class, 

riparian function assessment. 

Every 5 years

14. Is long term water quality 

(temperature) being maintained in 

aquatic systems to meet State of 

Arizona water quality standards for 

designated uses? What temperature 

change is attributed to climate vs. 

mechanical/wildfire treatments? Are 

water temperature changes correlated 

with climate vulnerability predictions 

for ASNFs watersheds?

Analyze forest stream temperature network data 

in comparison to available air temperature and 

streamflow data. Compare long-term trends in 

ADEQ monitoring data with forest monitoring 

data and CCVA predictions. 

Every 5 years

15. Are insect and disease 

populations within reference 

conditions? Are invasive plant 

species’ populations changing 

substantially? Are their population 

levels compatible with achieving 

vegetation desired conditions and 

management approaches? Are 

changes and levels consistent with 

regional changes and levels? What is 

the relationship between these 

stressors and climate vulnerability 

predictions?

Review forest health surveys and report, stand 

exams, project inspections and reviews, and 

noxious weeds and nonnative invasive species 

surveys and treatment reports.

Compare ASNFs to Southwest Region insect 

and disease population levels and trends to 

determine if change can be attributed to general 

decline in forest health in high vulnerability 

ERUs.2

Annually, 

forestwide

Every 5 years

 

2 Ecological Response Unit (ERU) is equivalent to PNVT; ERU nomenclature has been updated. 
Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) 145

Monitoring Questions Monitoring Method and Indicators Monitoring 

Interval

16. Has ASNFs’ Climate Change 

Vulnerability Assessment (CCVA) 

by ERU changed over the life of the 

forest plan? How do current climate 

patterns, over the life of the forest 

plan, compare to vulnerability 

predictions for the ASNFs?

Compare CCVA assessments over time to 

determine change in vulnerability by ERU, 

local unit and sub-watershed. 

Every 5 years

17. Has timber suitability 

classification changed on any forests’ 

lands?

Reapply timber suitability criteria and process. Every 10 years

18. Are forest and woodland stands 

adequately restocked within 5 years 

of final harvest treatment or after 

fire-created regeneration openings?

Are these restocked areas retaining 

species composition and density 

compared to baseline PNVT? Are 

stocking patterns correlated with 

climate vulnerability predictions?

Review annual reforestation needs report, 

stocking certifications, silvicultural 

prescriptions, timber/silvilculture tracking 

database. Assess species composition and 

density in restocked areas relative to baseline 

PNVT range of variability. 

Every 5 years

19. How is harvest unit size affecting 

landscape patterns across the forests?

Review mid-scale vegetation assessment and 

percent change.

Every 5 years

Managed Recreation

20. Do recreational opportunities 

respond to forest users’ desires, 

needs, and expectations?

Review recreation use surveys and acres by 

recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS).

Every 5 years

21. How are recreational activities 

(including off-highway vehicle use) 

affecting the physical and biological 

resources of the forests?

Review law enforcement warnings and citations 

regarding resource damage; amount of soil 

surface cover on routes or areas closed to motor 

vehicle travel; acres of noxious weeds and 

invasive nonnative species treated in developed 

campgrounds and dispersed camping areas; and 

trail condition surveys.

Annually

22. How are projects and programs 

affecting scenic integrity?

Conduct management reviews. Annually

23. Are the forests’ infrastructure 

(e.g., recreation facilities, roads, 

trails) and their ability to facilitate 

administrative needs and attainment 

of desired conditions for 

administrative uses and recreational 

opportunities, including access, 

sustainable?

Estimate amount of deferred maintenance 

(recreation and transportation).

Every 5 years

24. Are eligible and suitable wild and 

scenic rivers being managed to 

protect and enhance the identified 

outstandingly remarkable values?

Conduct management reviews of projects and 

ongoing activites within river corridors.

Every 2 years
Chapter 5. Monitoring Strategy

146 (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Monitoring Questions Monitoring Method and Indicators Monitoring 

Interval

25. Are designated wilderness and 

the primitive area being managed to 

maintain the wilderness values and 

character?

Conduct management reviews of projects and 

ongoing activities within designated wilderness 

and the primitive area.

Every 2 years

26. Are recommended wilderness 

being managed to protect the 

wilderness values and character?

Conduct management reviews of projects and 

ongoing activities within recommended 

wilderness.

Every 2 years

Community-Forest Interaction

27. How well are the forests 

interacting and planning in 

cooperation with communities?

Conduct management reviews and review 

number of tribal agreements and acres of 

community wildfire protection plan treated. 

Review number of grants, agreements, and 

volunteers and type of resource benefit.

Every 5 years

28. Do the forests provide 

interpretive opportunities that 

describe natural resources and the 

Forest Service mission?

Review number and type of interpretive 

programs conducted.

Every 5 years

29. Are outputs of goods and services 

being produced at a rate consistent 

with projections?

Review allowable sale quantity (ASQ) 

compared to actual sale quantity; number of 

firewood permits issued; number of cords of 

firewood sold; tons of biomass sold; number of 

Christmas tree permits sold; number of 

livestock permitted and actual use records; and 

number of forest products permits issued.

Every 5 years

Other

30. Are there changes that have 

resulted in unforeseen issues 

requiring plan amendments?

Review the number of forest plan amendments 

and conduct a content analysis on those 

amendments.

Every 5 years

31. Are plan objectives being 

achieved?

Report completed accomplishments toward 

meeting plan objectives.

Annually

32. Are the standards and guidelines 

prescribed being incorporated in 

NEPA documents and implemented 

in projects and activities?

Review the number of forest plan amendments 

and NEPA decision documents that deviate 

from forest plan standards and guidelines. 

Conduct management reviews of selected 

projects and activities.

Annually

33. What is the condition of 

archaeological sites and traditional 

cultural properties on ASNFs? 

Inventory and assessment of cultural resources 

from surveys conducted pre- and post- project 

and program monitoring; and stewardship 

actions taken, including preservation, 

stabilization, research, interpretation, 

partnerships, volunteer opportunities, and other 

forms of public outreach.

Every 2 years 
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 147

List of Preparers

The following individuals significantly contributed to development of the “Land Management 

Plan for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests” as members of the interdisciplinary plan 

revision team.

Team Members

• Pam Baltimore, Public Affairs Officer

• Russell Bigelow, Fuels Specialist

• Monica Boehning, Silviculturist

• Randall L. Chavez, Recreation and Lands Staff

• Tamara Conner, Environmental Coordinator

• Paula Cote, Environmental Coordinator

• Bob Csargo, Wildlife Biologist

• Michelle W. Davalos, Forest Planner

• Ryan Domsalla, Recreation and Lands Program Manager

• Cathy Dowd, Acting Forest Planner

• Beth Dykstra, Realty Specialist and Acting Recreation Program Manager

• Bob Dyson, Public Affairs Officer

• David Evans, Range Program Manager

• Genice Froehlich, Wildlife Biologist

• Joseph A. Hamrick, Silviculturist

• Jeremy Human, Fuels Specialist

• Charlotte Hunter, Heritage Program Manager and Tribal Liaison

• Deryl Jevons, Planning Staff Officer

• Margaret Kirkeminde, GIS Specialist

• Susan Lee, Fuels Specialist

• Nancy Loving, GIS Specialist

• Gary Miller, Engineer

• Chris Nelson, Watershed Program Manager 

• Debbie MacIvor, Engineer

• Daniel Mindar, Fuels Specialist

• Judy Palmer, Fuels Specialist

• Adriane Ragan, Writer/Editor

• Julia Faith Rivera, Writer/Editor

• James Schroeder, Fuels Specialist

• Melissa Schroeder, Heritage Program Manager and Tribal Liaison

• Joe Sitarzewski, Lands and Minerals Program Manager

• Tom Subirge, Soil Scientist

• Evelyn Treiman, Recreation Planner

• Jerry Ward, Fish Biologist

• Mitchel R. White, Ecologist
List of Preparers

148 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Linda WhiteTrifaro, Wildlife Biologist

• Cathy Taylor, Wildlife Biologist

• Pete Taylor, Archeologist

• Denise VanKeuren, Range Program Manager

In addition, numerous individuals and groups provided input into the development of this plan. 

Some of these include the following:

• Members of the public; tribes; county, State, Federal, and local agencies; and 

nongovernmental organizations provided review and input.

• The forests’ leadership team, especially three deputy forest supervisors Tom Osen, Bill 

Pell, and Christine Dawe, and four forest supervisors—Tom Osen, James Zornes, Chris 

Knopp, and Elaine Zieroth—provided direction and oversight.

• The employees of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provided review and input, especially the 

staffs of Alpine, Black Mesa, Clifton, Lakeside, and Springerville Ranger Districts.

• The Southwestern Region Plan Revision Team provided oversight and guidance.
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 149

Glossary

Adequate access – A route and method of access to non-Federal land that provides for reasonable 

use and enjoyment of the non-Federal land consistent with similarly situated non-Federal land 

and that minimizes damage or disturbance to NFS lands and resources (36 CFR § 251.111).

Adjudication – The legal process by which an arbiter or judge reviews evidence and 

argumentation, including legal reasoning, set forth by opposing parties or litigants to come to a 

decision which determines water rights and obligations between the parties involved.

Administrative use – Use by the Forest Service.

Aquatic habitat – A specific type of area with environmental (i.e., biological, chemical, or 

physical) characteristics needed and used by an aquatic organism, population, or community.

Air quality related value – A scenic, cultural, physical, biological, ecological, or recreational 

resource which may be affected by a change in air quality as defined by the Federal land manager 

for Federal lands.

Age class – Trees or plants that originated within a relatively distinct range of years. Typically the 

range of years is considered to fall within 20 percent of the average natural maturity of a 

particular species (e.g., if 100 years is required to reach maturity, then there would be five 20-year 

age classes).

Allowable sale quantity (ASQ) – The quantity of timber that may be sold from the area of 

suitable land covered by the land management plan for a time period specified by the plan. This 

allowable sale quantity (ASQ) is usually expressed on an annual basis as the “average annual 

allowable sale quantity.” For timber resource planning purposes, the allowable sale quantity 

applies to each decade over the planning horizon and includes only chargeable volume. 

Consistent with the definition of timber production, do not include firewood or other 

nonindustrial wood in the allowable sale quantity.

Aquatic management zones – An area of vegetation or forest litter located adjacent to stream

courses and/or riparian areas for the purpose of filtering sediment, providing bank stability, and 

providing shade for fisheries habitat in tree/shrub ecosystems.

Aspen clone – A genetically identical set of aspen trees all connected by the same root system, 

such that they can be vegetatively propagated. A clone may be a distinct aspen stand, or it may be 

a smaller inclusion within a conifer stand, or it may cover an entire mountainside as a large stand 

or patch. 

Available forage – That amount of growth of a vigorous and healthy plant that can be utilized as 

feed (regardless of what animal is using it) without impairing the plant’s long term health and 

productivity or other uses such as riparian filtering. The amount of available forage may be less 

where there is a need to restore health and vigor of forage plants. That amount may also depend 

on time of year and plant physiological stage or other conditions such as drought.

Basal area – The cross-sectional area of the stem or the stems of the plant or all plants in a stand. 

Herbaceous and small woody plants are measured at diameter at root collar (DRC) or near ground 

level; larger woody plants are measured at diameter at breast height (DBH) or other appropriate 

height. Basal area is a way to measure how much of a site is occupied by plants; it is expressed in 

square feet per acre for woody species. 
Glossary

150 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Beneficial uses of water – Beneficial use of water from rivers and streams is allocated by prior 

appropriation, meaning the first user to divert water and put it to a “beneficial use” obtains a 

priority right, and that right is to be satisfied before any other user has access to the water. The 

definition of what constitutes a “beneficial use” has evolved. Although the Arizona Legislature 

added habitat for wildlife and fish as one of the beneficial uses in 1941, it wasn’t until 1976 that 

the court ruled this included a right for instream flow, and the first instream flow permit was not 

issued until 1990. Obtaining a permit for instream flow allows users to leave their allocation of 

water in the river rather than diverting, consuming, or losing it for nonuse.

Best management practices (BMPs) – Methods, measures, or practices selected by an agency to 

meet its nonpoint source control needs. BMPs include, but are not limited to, structural and 

nonstructural controls and operation and maintenance procedures. BMPs can be applied before, 

during, and after pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate the introduction of 

pollutants into receiving waters (40 CFR § 130.2(m)).

Biological diversity – The variety of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ organisms, the ecological 

complexes in which they occur, and the processes and life support services they facilitate.

Browser – Animals that eat twigs and leaves of woody plants. An example of a browser is deer.

Candidate species – Plant and animal taxa considered for possible addition to the list of 

endangered and threatened species. These are taxa for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

has sufficient information on biological vulnerability and threat(s) on file to support issuance of a 

proposal to list, but issuance of a proposed rule is currently precluded by higher priority listing 

actions.

Cave – Any naturally occurring void, cavity, recess or system of interconnected passes beneath 

the surface of the earth or within a cliff or ledge which is large enough to allow an individual to 

enter. This includes shallow alcoves in rock faces or on steep slopes of that size.

Class I airshed – An airshed classification where areas require the highest level of protection 

under the Clean Air Act of 1963.

Class II airshed – An airshed classification representing National Forest System land that is not 

classified as a Class I airshed. These areas may receive a greater amount of human-caused 

pollution than Class I areas.

Clear-cutting regeneration method – The cutting of essentially all trees, producing a fully 

exposed microclimate for the development of a new age class. This includes coppice cutting.

Climate change – Refers to long-term (decades or longer) trends in climate averages, such as the 

global warming that has been observed over the past century, and long term changes in variability 

(e.g., frequency, severity, and duration of extreme events).

Climate variability – Refers to shorter term (daily, seasonal, annual, interannual, several years) 

variations in climate, including the fluctuations associated with El Niño (wet) or La Niña (dry) 

events.

Clump – A tight cluster of two to five trees of similar age and size originating from a common 

rooting zone that typically lean away from each other when mature. A clump is relatively isolated 
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 151

from other clumps or trees within a group of trees, but a stand-alone clump of trees can function 

as a tree group.

Coarse woody debris – Woody material, including logs, on the ground greater than 3 inches in 

diameter—a component of litter. Large coarse woody debris is often considered to be downed 

logs at least 12 inches in diameter and 8 feet in length.

Common variety minerals – Common variety minerals/salable mineral materials are 

synonymous terms for the same class of minerals that can be sold under a mineral material 

contract and are common. These minerals are relatively low value per volume such as sand, 

gravel, cinders, common building stone, and flagstone. Many of the materials are used for road 

surfacing, boulders, and engineering construction or may be specialty resources such as soil 

amendments or decorative stone, including flagstone. These minerals are typically sold unless 

used internally, by another government agency, or for ceremonial uses. In these cases they may be 

provided free of charge.

Communications site – An area of National Forest System land used for telecommunications 

services. A communications site may be limited to a single communications facility, but most 

often encompasses more than one facility. Existing Apache-Sitgreaves NFs communications sites 

are listed in appendix C.

Communities-at-risk – As identified in the Federal Register, high risk urban communities within 

the wildland-urban interface.

Community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) – Plans for at-risk communities that identify 

and prioritize areas for hazardous fuels treatments. The CWPPs that cover the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs include CWPP for the At-Risk-Communities in Apache County, CWPP for the At-RiskCommunities in Greenlee County, and the Sitgreaves CWPP (includes Apache, Coconino, and 

Navajo Counties).

Condition class – The Forest Service Manual (FSM 2521.1) uses three classes to describe 

watershed condition:

• Class 1 watersheds exhibit high geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to 

their natural potential condition and are functioning properly.

• Class 2 watersheds exhibit moderate geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative 

to their natural potential condition and are functioning at risk.

• Class 3 watersheds exhibit low geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to 

their natural potential condition and their function is impaired.

Connectivity – The arrangement of habitats that allows organisms and ecological processes to 

move across the landscape; patches of similar habitats are either close together or linked by 

corridors of appropriate vegetation; the opposite of fragmentation.

Coppice regeneration method – An even-aged method of regenerating a stand in which the trees 

in the previous stand are cut and the majority of regeneration is from sprouts or root suckers, such 

as used in regenerating aspen stands.

Critical area – A critical area for grazing management is an area which should be treated with 

special consideration because of inherent site factors, size, location, condition, values, or 
Glossary

152 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

significant potential conflicts among uses. Critical areas are evaluated separately from the 

remainder of a management unit because they contain special or unique values such as riparian 

areas (Bureau of Land Management, 1999).

Critical habitat – When a species is listed as endangered or threatened under the Endangered 

Species Act (ESA), it is protected which includes protection of the habitat it occupies. In addition, 

specific areas may be designated as particularly necessary for the species’ recovery whether the 

species is present or not; these areas are called “critical habitat.” Besides requiring Federal 

agencies to ensure that their actions will not jeopardize the survival of an endangered or 

threatened species itself, the ESA also requires that their actions not destroy or adversely modify 

designated critical habitat. ESA requirements have no implications on non-Federal lands unless 

activities thereon are undertaken with Federal funding or require a Federal permit.

Culmination of mean annual increment – The age in the growth cycle of an even-aged stand at 

which the average annual rate of wood volume growth has peaked and is beginning to steadily 

decline.

Cultural affiliation – A relationship of shared group identity which can be reasonably traced 

historically or prehistorically between a present day Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian organization 

and an identifiable earlier group (25 USC 3001 (2)). 

Declining – The senescent (aging) period in the lifespan of plants that includes the presence of 

dead and/or dying limbs, snag tops, and other characteristics that indicate the later life stages of 

vegetation.

Defensible space – An area either natural or manmade where material capable of allowing a fire 

to spread has been treated, cleared, reduced, or changed to act as a barrier between an advancing 

wildland fire and property or resources. In practice, “defensible space” is defined as an area a 

minimum of 30 feet around a structure that is cleared of flammable brush or vegetation.

Departure (departed) – The relative difference between existing and desired conditions or 

reference conditions.

Developed recreation site – A distinctly defined area where facilities are provided by the Forest 

Service for concentrated public use (e.g., campgrounds, picnic areas, swimming areas).

Diameter – The diameter of a tree species, usually measured by two primary methods:

• Diameter at breast height (DBH) – The diameter of a forest tree species at the bole (or 

trunk), typically measured at 4.5 feet above ground level.

• Diameter at root collar (DRC) – The diameter of a woodland tree species, typically 

measured at the root collar (the part of a tree where the main roots join the trunk, usually 

at or near ground level) or at the natural ground line, whichever is higher. 

Dispersed recreation – Outdoor recreation in which visitors are spread over relatively large 

areas. Where facilities or developments are provided, they are more for access and protection of 

the environment than for the comfort or convenience of the visitors.
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 153

Ecological disturbance – An event or force that brings about mortality to organisms and changes 

in their spatial patterning in the ecosystems they inhabit. Disturbance plays a significant role in 

shaping the structure of individual populations and the character of whole ecosystems. 

Ecological process – The four fundamental ecological processes of ecosystems are the water 

cycle, nutrient cycle, energy cycle, and community dynamics or succession (i.e., how the 

composition and structure of an ecosystem changes following a disturbance).

Ecological restoration – The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been 

degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Ecological restoration focuses on establishing the composition, 

structure, pattern, and ecological processes necessary to facilitate terrestrial and aquatic 

ecosystem sustainability, resilience, and health under current and future conditions. In the 

Southwestern Region, achievement of desired conditions means that the ecosystem has been 

restored. Restoration treatments are those that move ecosystem components toward desired 

conditions.

Ecological status – Ecological status is the degree of similarity between the existing vegetation 

(all components and their characteristics) and existing soil conditions compared to the potential 

natural plant community and the desired soil condition on a site. The present state of a TES map 

unit stated in terms of specific values or potentials with respect to species composition, ground 

cover, and soil characteristics. Ecological status is often evaluated on the basis of similarity 

indices between current conditions and the potential natural vegetation community (Forest 

Service, 1999). Ecological status ratings are: high, moderately-high, moderate-low, and low (FSH 

2209.21, Southwestern Region). The relationship between ecological status and range condition 

are: excellent and good range condition represents high ecological status, signifying no and low 

departure from desired conditions; fair range condition represents moderately-high ecological 

status, signifying moderate departure from desired conditions; poor range condition represents 

moderately-low ecological status, signifying high departure from desired conditions; and verypoor range condition represent low ecological status, signifying severe departure from desired 

conditions.

Ecosystem – A spatially explicit, relatively homogeneous unit of the earth that includes all 

interacting organisms and components of the abiotic (nonliving) environment within its 

boundaries. An ecosystem is commonly described in terms of its: (1) composition: major 

vegetation types, rare communities, aquatic systems, and riparian systems; (2) structure: 

successional stages, water quality, wetlands, and floodplains; and (3) function: ecological 

processes such as streamflows and natural disturbance regimes.

Ecosystem diversity – The variety of ecosystems present on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, as 

represented by the 14 potential natural vegetation types and the variety of species (both plant and 

animal), their habitats, and ecological processes that occur in their different physical settings.

Ecosystem services – Benefits obtained from ecosystems, including (1) provisioning services 

such as food, fresh water, fuel, and fiber; (2) regulating services such as climate, water, 

pollination, and disease regulation; (3) supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient 

cycling; and (4) cultural services such as educational, aesthetic, and cultural values as well as 

recreation and tourism opportunities.
Glossary

154 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Ecotone – A transition area of vegetation between two communities, having characteristics of 

both kinds of neighboring vegetation, as well as characteristics of its own. Varies in width 

depending on site and climatic factors.

Escaped prescribed fire – A prescribed fire that has exceeded or is expected to exceed 

prescription parameters or otherwise meets the criteria for conversion to wildfire. Criteria are

specified in Interagency Prescribed Fire – Planning and Implementation Procedures Reference 

Guide.

Emergent vegetation – Erect plants rooted under water that grow above (emerge from) the 

surface of the water (e.g., cattail, bulrush).

Encumbrance – Any right or interest in land, held by someone other than the owner, that may or 

may not be consistent with the owner’s use. Among other things, encumbrances may consist of 

mortgages, deeds of trust, agreements for support, life estates, leases, tax liens, outstanding 

mineral rights, reservations, restrictions, and rights of reverter.

Endemic – (1) Describes a population that has unique genetic characteristics and likely exists in a 

very limited geographic area. (2) Describes a population of native insects, diseases, plants, or 

animals which perform a functional role in the ecosystem when they are present at low levels, or 

constantly attack just a few hosts throughout an area but can become potentially injurious when 

they increase or spread to reach outbreak (epidemic) levels.

Energy corridor – A linear strip of land identified for the present or future location of utility 

right-of-way (e.g., above or below ground electric transmission line, gas pipeline).

Ephemeral wetlands – Wetlands that exist for a short period following precipitation or 

snowmelt; they are temporary and not the same as intermittent or seasonal wetlands, which exist 

for longer periods but not yearlong.

Equine – Horses, mules, and asses. [adapted from Arizona Revised Statue, Title 3 – Agriculture, 

Chapter 11 (Ownership, Control and Regulation of Livestock), Article 1, 3-1201 (Definitions)].

Even-aged stands – Stands that are composed of one or two distinct age classes of trees.

Even-aged management – The application of a combination of actions that result in the creation 

of stands in which trees are essentially the same age. Managed even-aged forests are 

characterized by a distribution of stands of varying ages (and, therefore, tree size) throughout the 

forest area. Clearcut, shelterwood, or seed tree cutting methods produce even-aged stands.

Federally listed species (listed species) – Any species of fish, wildlife, or plant which has been 

determined to be endangered or threatened under section 4 of the Endangered Species Act.

Federal reserved water rights (reserved rights) – When Congress designates Federal lands for 

a specific purpose, it also reserves sufficient water to serve the purposes of that designation. 

These water rights are known as “Federal reserved water rights” or simply, reserved rights. 

Reserved rights are implied rights, meaning that Congress need not expressly state in a bill that it 

intends to reserve Federal water right. The right exists whether or not Congress explicitly 

mentions it.
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 155

Feral animal – ". . . animals, including horses, burros, cattle, swine, sheep, goats, reindeer, dogs, 

and cats, without ownership, that have reverted to the wild from a domestic state . . ." (50 CFR 

30.11). Feral horses and burros are animals that do not meet the definition of a wild free-roaming 

horse in accordance with 36 CFR 222.60(b)(13).

Fire intensity – The product of the available heat of combustion per unit of ground and the rate 

of spread of the fire, interpreted as the heat released per unit of time for each unit length of fire 

edge. The primary unit is British thermal unit per second per foot (Btu/sec/ft.) of fire front. See 

also fire severity.

Fire regime – The patterns, frequency, and severity of fire that occur over a long period of time 

across a landscape and its immediate effects on the ecosystem in which it occurs. There are five 

fire regimes which are classified based on frequency (average number of years between fires) and 

severity (amount of replacement of the dominant overstory vegetation) of the fire. 

• Fire regime I – 0 to 35-year frequency and low (surface fires most common) to mixed 

severity (less than 75 percent of dominant overstory vegetation replaced)

• Fire regime II – 0 to 35-year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity (greater 

than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced)

• Fire regime III – 35 to 100+ year frequency and mixed severity (less than 75 percent of 

the dominant overstory vegetation replaced)

• Fire regime IV – 35 to 100+ year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity

(greater than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation replaced)

• Fire regime V – 200+ year frequency and high (stand replacement) severity.

Fire risk – The chance of fire starting, as determined by the presence and activity of causative 

agents.

Fire severity – Degree to which a site has been altered or disrupted by fire; also used to describe 

the product of fire intensity and residence time; usually defined by the degree of soil heating or 

mortality of vegetation.

Fireline – The part of a containment or control line that is scraped or dug to mineral soil.

Fire management plan – A plan that identifies and integrates all wildland fire management and 

related activities within the context of approved land management plans. It defines a program to 

manage wildland fires (wildfire and prescribed fire). 

Free-flowing – Existing or flowing in natural conditions without impoundment, diversion, 

straightening, rip-rapping, or other modification of the waterway.

Fugitive dust – Fine particulate matter from windblown soil and dust which becomes airborne.

Firewood – Wood grown or used for fuel.

Functioning ecosystem – An ecosystem that contains all components and processes necessary to 

maintain resilience over time.
Glossary

156 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Genetic exchange – The exchange of genetic material between individuals and/or populations 

through sexual reproduction.

Genotype – The genetic makeup of an organism or group of organisms.

Geomorphic – Refers to the process of erosion and sediment transport and deposition.

Goshawk foraging areas – Areas that surround goshawk PFAs (post-fledging family areas) that 

northern goshawks use to hunt for prey. They are approximately 5,400 acres in size (not including 

the PFA or nesting area acres).

Goshawk nest areas – Areas immediately around a nest that are used by northern goshawks in 

relation to courtship and breeding activities. They are approximately 30 acres in size and contain 

multiple groups or patches of large, old trees with interlocking crowns.

Goshawk post-fledging family areas (PFAs) – Areas that surround nest areas. They represent an 

area of concentrated use by the northern goshawk family until the time the young are no longer 

dependent on adults for food. PFAs are approximately 420 acres in size (not including the nest 

area acres).

Groundwater-dependent ecosystems – Communities of plants, animals, and other organisms 

whose extent and life processes are dependent on access to or discharge of groundwater. (USDA

FS 2012c). 

Group – A cluster of two or more trees with interlocking or nearly interlocking crowns at 

maturity surrounded by an opening. Size of tree groups is typically variable depending on 

forested PNVT and site conditions and can range from fractions of an acre (a two-tree group) 

(i.e., ponderosa pine, dry mixed conifer) to many acres (i.e., wet mixed conifer, spruce-fir). Trees 

within groups are typically non-uniformly spaced, some of which may be tightly clumped.

Group selection – An uneven-aged management method in which trees are removed and new age 

classes are established in groups, adjacent to other groups of different age classes. Group cut size 

is determined by the reproduction requirements of the species desired and by the number or total 

acreage of different age classes desired across the stand.

Habitat – The physical location or type of environment in which an organism or biological 

population lives or occurs.

Half-shrub – Half-shrubs have a woody base and lower stems but the top growth remains 

herbaceous during the growing season.

Herbaceous – Grass, grass-like, and/or forb vegetation.

Herbivory – Loss of vegetation due to consumption by another organism.

Highly interactive species – A species that has a disproportionate effect on its ecosystem. The

virtual or effective absence of a highly interactive species leads to significant changes in some 

feature of its ecosystem. Such changes include structural or compositional modifications, 

alterations in the import or export of nutrients, loss of resilience to disturbance, and decreases in 

native species diversity. The type of interactions these species have with their surrounding 

environment is critical to the persistence of certain ecosystem features through time. Examples of 
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 157

strong interactions include mutualisms (e.g., pollinators such as butterflies and spore and seed 

dispersers such as birds), consumers (e.g., large predators such as mountain lions), and ecosystem 

engineers (e.g., prairie dogs, beavers).

Hydraulic – Refers to the mechanical properties of water.

Hydrologic – Refers to the movement, distribution, and quality of water.

Hydrologic function – The behavioral characteristics of a watershed described in terms of ability 

to sustain favorable conditions of water flow. Favorable conditions of water flow are defined in 

terms of water quality, quantity, and timing.

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) – The United States is divided and subdivided into successively 

smaller hydrologic units which are identified by unique hydrologic unit codes (HUCs). The 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is contained within three 3rd level (basin) HUC watersheds: Little 

Colorado, Gila, and Salt Rivers. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs intersect thirteen 4

th level (subbasin)

HUC watersheds, thirty-two 5

th level (watershed) HUC watersheds, and two hundred and fifteen

6

th level (subwatershed) HUC watersheds. The average size of a 4th level HUC watershed is 1 

million acres, 5th level HUC watersheds are around 165,000 acres, and 6th level HUC watersheds 

are about 21,000 acres.

Individual tree selection – An uneven-aged management method where individual trees of all 

size classes are removed more or less uniformly throughout the stand, to promote growth of 

remaining trees and to provide space for regeneration.

Instream flow – Seasonal streamflows needed for maintaining aquatic and riparian ecosystems, 

wildlife, fisheries, and recreation opportunities at an acceptable level.

Interspaces – As defined by RMRS-GTR-310 (Reynolds et al., 2013), interspaces are areas 

within a stand that are not currently under the vertical projection of the outermost perimeter of 

tree canopies (drip-line). They are generally composed of grass-forb-shrub cover but could also 

be areas with scattered rock or exposed mineral soil. As spaces between trees, tree groups and tree 

clumps, interspaces contribute to the “open canopy” character of frequent-fire forests. They often 

connect with other interspaces and thus are variably shaped and sized. See “openings.”

Intrinsic qualities – For scenic byways, intrinsic qualities are the features considered 

representative, unique, irreplaceable, or distinctly characteristic of an area. They include 

archaeological, cultural, historic, natural, recreational, and scenic. 

Invasive species – Species that are not native to the ecosystem being described and that cause, or 

have the potential to cause, ecological or economic harm. 

Karst – A geological landform existing in an area where the predominant shaping process is 

controlled by soluble bedrock, usually limestone in nature. Karst landscape is characterized by 

closed depressions, disappearing streams, and solutional shaping. Classical karst drainage is 

vertical and underground.

Leasable minerals – Leasable minerals include coal, oil, gas, oil shale, sodium, phosphate, 

potassium, and geothermal. Leasable minerals also include the hardrock minerals, if they are 

found on lands that have “acquired” status. Leases are obtained through the Bureau of Land 

Management to extract these mineral resources.
Glossary

158 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Leave No Trace – Guidelines that help protect the land and lessen the sights and sounds of forest 

visitors. http://www.lnt.org/

Lentic – A non-flowing or standing body of water (e.g., pond, lake).

Litter – Litter consists of dead, unattached organic material on the soil surface that is effective in 

protecting the soil surface from raindrop splash, sheet, and rill erosion and is at least 1⁄2 inch thick. 

Litter is composed of leaves, needles, cones, and woody vegetative debris including twigs, 

branches, and trunks.

Livestock – Cattle, equine, sheep, goats, and swine, except feral hogs [adapted from Arizona 

Revised Statue, Title 3 – Agriculture, Chapter 11 (Ownership, Control and Regulation of 

Livestock), Article 1, 3-1201 (Definitions)].

Livestock grazing – Foraging by permitted livestock (domestic foraging animals of any kind).

Locatable minerals – In general, the hardrock minerals mined and processed for metals (e.g., 

gold, silver, copper, uranium, and some types of nonmetallic minerals such as sandstone). They 

are called “locatable,” meaning subject to mining claim location under the United States mining 

laws. Locatable minerals are limited to lands with “reserved public domain” status.

Lotic – A flowing body of water (e.g., stream, river).

Management review – One of the primary components of the overall Forest Service 

management/internal control system (FSM 1400). Management reviews are used to evaluate 

internal and administrative controls and to identify successful management, management/internal 

control weaknesses, and needed corrective actions.

Mechanized travel (Mechanical transport) – Movement using any contrivance over land, 

water, or air, having moving parts, that provides a mechanical advantage to the user and that is 

powered by a living or nonliving power source. This includes, but is not limited to, sailboats, 

hang gliders, parachutes, bicycles, game carriers, carts, and wagons. It does not include 

wheelchairs when used as necessary medical appliances. It does not include skis, snowshoes, 

rafts, canoes, sleds, travois, or similar primitive devices without moving parts.

Mechanical treatment – For the purposes of this plan, mechanical treatments include most 

vegetation treatments except fire. They may include mechanized cutting, hand thinning, and other 

silvicultural treatments.

Metapopulation – A set of partially isolated populations belonging to the same species that can 

interbreed and recolonize areas where the species has recently become extirpated (i.e., locally 

extinct).

Mexican spotted owl protected activity center (PAC) – An area established around an occupied 

Mexican spotted owl site to help ensure successful reproduction and species viability. A PAC is 

no less than 600 acres in size and includes the best owl nesting and roosting habitat. Management 

in PACs is focused on forest health and includes retention of key habitat elements such as higher 

levels of basal area and canopy cover to provide the cool understory conditions owls need and the 

down woody debris and forage (cover, fungi, seeds) needed by their prey. Management may 

involve thinning and/or burning to reduce the risk of high intensity wildfire, often with timing 
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 159

restrictions to prevent disturbance to owls during the breeding season (March 1 through August 

31).

Mosaic – Mix of recurring patterns of forested and non-forested areas at the identified scale (e.g., 

landscape, watershed, mid-scale). Patterns are variable and may change over time.

Motorized travel – Movement using machines that use a motor, engine, or other nonliving power 

sources other than a vehicle operated on rails or a wheelchair or mobility device , including one 

that is battery powered, designed solely for the use by a mobility-impaired person for locomotion 

and that is suitable for use in an indoor pedestrian area.

Motor vehicle use map (MVUM) – The MVUM displays designated roads, trails, and areas on 

an administrative unit or a ranger district of the National Forest System.

National Forest System (NFS) – As defined in the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Planning Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-378), the “National Forest System” includes all national 

forest lands reserved or withdrawn from the public domain of the United States, all national forest 

lands acquired through purchase, exchange, donation, or other means; the national grasslands and 

land use projects administered under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act (50 Stat. 

525, 7 USC 1010-1012); and other lands, waters, or interests therein administered by the Forest 

Service or are designated for administration through the Forest Service as part of the system.

National Forest System road – A road wholly or partly within or adjacent to and serving the 

National Forest System that the Forest Service determines is necessary for the protection, 

administration, and utilization of the National Forest System and the use and development of its 

resources. A forest road other than a road which has been authorized by a legally documented 

right-of-way held by a state, county, or other local public road authority (36 CFR § 212.1).

National Forest System trail – A trail wholly or partly within or adjacent to and serving the 

National Forest System that the Forest Service determines is necessary for the protection, 

administration, and utilization of the National Forest System and the use and development of its 

resources. A forest trail other than a trail which has been authorized by a legally documented 

right-of-way held by a state, county, or other local public road authority (36 CFR § 212.1).

Native species – A species which is a part of the original fauna or flora in the area in question.

Natural disturbance regime – The historic patterns (frequency and extent) of fire, insects, wind, 

landslides, floods, and other natural processes in an area.

Natural fire regime – The fire regime that existed prior to human facilitated interruption of 

frequency, extent, or severity.

Naturalized – A species or subspecies that is not native to an area, but one which has adapted to 

that area and has a stable or expanding population. In some cases, species move into a new area 

by themselves, but in most instances they are human-associated introductions.
Glossary

160 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Natural potential condition – (pertaining to watershed conditions) Conditions that are referred 

to as pristine and show little or no influence from human actions. Watersheds that are properly 

functioning have terrestrial, riparian, and aquatic ecosystems that capture, store, and release 

water, sediment, wood, and nutrients within their range of natural variability for these processes. 

When watersheds are functioning properly, they create and sustain functional terrestrial, riparian, 

aquatic, and wetland habitats that are capable of supporting diverse populations of native aquaticand riparian-dependent species (Forest Service, 2011).

Nonindustrial wood – Includes aspen, junipers, piñon pines, Chihuahuan pine, oaks, and any 

industrial species cut from non-suitable timberlands. Wood cut as nonindustrial may be used as 

firewood and/or biomass. Sometimes referred to as non-ASQ species.

Nonmotorized travel – Movement not relying on machines that use a motor, engine, or other 

nonliving power source (e.g., walking, canoeing, horseback riding).

Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) – NPS refers to water pollution affecting water quality from 

diffuse sources, such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into lakes, wetlands, 

rivers, and streams. NPS can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to 

a body of water at a single location, such as discharges from a chemical factory or urban runoff 

from a roadway or storm drain. NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific 

solution to rectify the problem, making it difficult to regulate.

Noxious weed – Any plant or plant product that can directly or indirectly injure or cause damage 

to crops (including nursery stock or plant products), livestock, poultry, or other interests of 

agriculture, irrigation, navigation, the natural resources of the United States, the public health, or 

the environment. The term typically describes species of plants that have been determined to be 

undesirable or injurious in some capacity. Federal noxious weeds are regulated by USDA-Animal 

and Plant Health Inspection Service under the Plant Protection Act of 2000, which superseded the 

Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974. When the species are native, they are not considered invasive 

species by the Federal Government.

Old growth – In southwestern forested ecosystems, old growth is different than the traditional 

definition based on northwestern infrequent fire forests. Due to large differences among 

Southwest forested PNVTs and natural disturbances, old growth forests vary extensively in tree 

size, age classes, presence, and abundance of structural elements, stability, and presence of 

understory (Helms, ed., 1998). Old growth refers to specific habitat components that occur in 

forests and woodlands—old trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and 

structure diversity (Franklin and Spies, 1991; Helms, ed., 1998; Kaufmann et al., 2007). These 

important habitat features may occur in small areas, with only a few components, or over larger 

areas as stands or forests where old growth is concentrated (Kaufmann et al., 2007). In the 

Southwest, old growth is considered “transitional” (Oliver and Larson, 1996), given that that the 

location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a result of succession and disturbance 

(tree growth and mortality). Some species, notably certain plants, require “old forest” 

communities that may or may not have old growth components but have escaped significant 

disturbance for lengths of time necessary to provide the suitable stability and environment. See 

appendix B for a more detailed description.

Old growth components – Include old trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and structural diversity.
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #1, June 21, 2016) 161

Old tree – Any native tree established before natural disturbance patterns were notably altered by 

Euro-American settlement (generally between 1850 and 1890 on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs). 

Such a tree exhibits all or most characteristics of overmaturity for its species, and/or has tree rings 

revealing its advanced age. For example, old ponderosa pine trees display the following: 

yellow/orange plates widened between bark furrows, horizontal to drooping limbs, rounded 

crown tops, and gradual bole taper (see Keen’s tree class number 4 in appendix B).

Openings – Generally persistent treeless areas having a fairly distinct shape or size, occurring

naturally due to differences in soil types as compared to sites that support forests or woodlands. 

Openings include meadows, grasslands, rock outcroppings, and wetlands. In contrast, created 

openings result from disturbances like severe fire or windthrow, or management activities to

intentionally create space for new tree regeneration. Natural and created openings are not the 

same as interspaces found in the frequent-fire forests or woodlands. See “interspaces.”

Other energy development – Infrastructure associated with the provision or transport of energy 

(e.g., biomass power generation, wind turbines, solar panels).

Outstanding Arizona Waters – Surface water designated by Arizona Department of 

Environmental Quality as an outstanding State water resource. These are waters with exceptional 

quality where water quality should not be degraded.

Patches – Areas larger than tree groups in which the vegetation composition and structure are 

relatively homogeneous. Patches compose the mid-scale, thus they range in size from 100 to 

1,000 acres. 

Phenotype – The visible characteristics of an organism resulting from the interaction of its 

genetic makeup and environment.

Plan set of documents – The complete set of documentation supporting the land management 

plan; it may include, but is not limited to, evaluation reports, documentation of public 

involvement, the plan including applicable maps, applicable plan improvement documents, 

applicable NEPA documents, and the monitoring program for the plan area.

Planned ignition – The intentional initiation of a wildland fire by hand-held, mechanical, or 

aerial device where the distance and timing between ignition lines or points and the sequence of 

igniting them is determined by environmental conditions (e.g., weather, fuel, topography), firing 

technique, and other factors which influence fire behavior and fire effects. See prescribed fire.

Planning period – The life of the plan, generally 10 to 15 years from plan approval.

Potential natural vegetation type (PNVT) – Coarse-scale groupings of ecosystem types that 

share similar geography, soils, vegetation, and historic ecosystem disturbances such as fire, 

drought, and grazing by native species. PNVTs represent the vegetation type and characteristics 

that would occur when natural disturbance regimes and biological processes prevail. Ecological 

Response Unit (ERU) is equivalent to PNVT; ERU nomenclature has been updated.

Prescribed fire – A wildland fire originating from a planned ignition to meet specific objectives 

identified in a written and approved prescribed fire plan for which NEPA requirements (where 

applicable) have been met prior to ignition. See planned ignition.

Primitive recreation – Reliance on personal skills and nonmotorized and non-mechanized means 

to travel and camp in an area, rather than reliance on facilities or outside help.
Glossary

162 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Priority 6th level (subwatershed) HUC watershed – The designated watersheds 

(subwatersheds) where restoration activities will concentrate on the explicit goal of improving 

watershed condition.

Proper functioning condition (PFC) – Proper functioning condition (PFC) is a qualitative 

method for assessing the condition of riparian-wetland areas. The term PFC is used to describe 

both (1) the assessment process or tool and (2) a defined, on the ground condition of a riparianwetland area:

• (1) The PFC tool is designed to assess if the physical elements (abiotic and biotic) are in

working order relative to an area’s capability and potential. When these physical 

elements are in working order, then channel characteristics develop that provide habitat 

for wildlife and other uses. Functionality comes first; then desired conditions are 

achieved. 

• (2) A riparian-wetland area is considered to be in proper functioning condition when 

adequate vegetation, landform, or large woody debris is present to:

○ dissipate stream energy associated with high water flow, thereby reducing erosion 

and improving water quality; 

○ filter sediment, capture bedload, and aid floodplain development; 

○ improve floodwater retention and groundwater recharge; 

○ develop root masses that stabilize stream banks against cutting action; 

○ develop diverse ponding and channel characteristics to provide the habitat and the 

water depth, duration, and temperature necessary for fish production, waterfowl 

breeding, and other uses; and 

○ support greater biological diversity (Bureau of Land Management, 1998).

Proposed Species – Any species of fish, wildlife, or plant that is proposed in the Federal Register

to be listed under section 4 of the Endangered Species Act.

Range condition – The present state of vegetation of a range site in relation to the climax 

(potential natural) plant community for that site. It is an expression of the relative degree to which 

the kinds, proportions, and amounts of plants in a plant community resemble that of the climax 

plant community for the site (Forest Service 1999). Range condition as evaluated and ranked by 

the Forest Service, is an adjective expression of the status or health of the vegetation and soil 

relative to the combined potential to produce a sound and stable biotic community. Soundness 

and stability are evaluated relative to a standard that encompasses the composition, density, and 

vigor of the vegetation and physical characteristics of the soil. The adjectives that describe range 

condition are: excellent, good, fair, poor and very-poor (FSH 2209.21, Southwestern Region). 

According to Holechek et al. (1989), range condition is measured in degrees of departure from 

climax; excellent range condition would represent climax, and very-poor range condition would 

represent the greatest departure from climax.

Recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) – A framework for defining the types of outdoor 

recreation opportunities the public might desire, and identifies that portion of the spectrum a 

given national forest area might be able to provide. The ROS map can be found in the plan set of 

documents. The broad classes are: 
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 163

• Primitive (P) – Characterized by essentially unmodified natural environment. Interaction 

between users is very low and evidence of other users is minimal. Essentially free from 

evidence of human-induced restrictions and controls. Motorized use within the area is 

generally not permitted. Very high probability of experiencing solitude, closeness to 

nature, tranquility, self-reliance, and risk.

• Semiprimitive Nonmotorized (SPNM) – Characterized by a predominantly natural or 

natural appearing environment. Interaction between users is low, but there is often 

evidence of other users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum onsite controls 

and restrictions may be present but are subtle. Motorized use is generally not permitted. 

High probability of experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, tranquility, self-reliance, 

and risk.

• Semiprimitive Motorized (SPM) – Characterized by a predominantly natural or natural 

appearing environment. Concentration of users is low, but there is often evidence of other 

users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum onsite controls and restrictions 

may be present but are subtle. Motorized use is generally permitted. Moderate probability 

of experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, tranquility, self-reliance, and risk.

• Roaded Natural (RN) – Characterized by a predominantly natural appearing 

environment with moderate evidence of the sights and sounds of other humans. Such 

evidences usually harmonize with the natural environment. Interaction between users 

may be low to moderate but with evidence of other users prevalent. Resource 

modification and utilization practices are evident but harmonize with the natural 

environment. Conventional motorized use is provided for in construction standards and 

design of facilities. Opportunity to affiliate with other users in developed sites but with 

some chance for privacy.

• Roaded Modified (RM) – Characterized by substantially modified natural environment 

except for campsites. Roads and management activities may be strongly dominant. There 

is moderate evidence of other users on roads. Conventional motorized use is provided for 

in construction standards and design of facilities. Opportunity to get away from others but 

with easy access.

• Rural (R) – Characterized by substantially modified natural environment. Resource 

modification and utilization practices are to enhance specific recreation activities and to 

maintain vegetative cover and soil. Sights and sounds of humans are readily evident, and 

the interaction between users is often moderate to high. A considerable number of 

facilities are designed for use by a large number of people. Facilities are often provided 

for special activities. Moderate densities are provided far away from developed sites. 

Facilities for intensified motorized use and parking are available. Opportunity to observe 

and affiliate with other users is important, as is convenience of facilities.

• Urban (U) – Characterized by a substantially urbanized environment, although the 

background may have natural appearing elements. Resource modification and utilization 

practices are to enhance specific recreation activities. Vegetative cover is often exotic and 

manicured. Sights and sounds of humans onsite are predominant. Large numbers of users 

can be expected, both onsite and in nearby areas. Facilities for highly intensified motor 

use and parking are available with forms of mass transit often available to carry people 

throughout the site. Opportunity to observe and affiliate with other users is very 

important, as is convenience of facilities.

Redundancy – Multiple occurrences of the representative conditions across the landscape.
Glossary

164 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Reference conditions – Environmental conditions that infer ecological sustainability. Reference 

conditions are often represented by the historic range of variation (i.e., the characteristic range of 

variation, not the total range of variation) for a particular attribute, prior to Euro-American

settlement and under the current climatic period. For some ecosystems, the historic range of 

variation reflects American Indian burning. Reference conditions may not necessarily represent

desired conditions.

Reforestation – The natural or artificial reestablishment (restocking) of an area with forest trees.

Regulated – The technical (rather than legal or administrative) aspect of controlling forest 

stocking, periodic harvests, growth, and yields to meet management objectives including 

sustained yield. This control can be done either by area, volume of growing stock, or basal area or 

stand density index measures. An uneven-aged, regulated forest is one which has a balanced 

progression of three or more age/size classes, such that each younger/smaller class is advancing 

to replace the class above it on approximately the same acreage, until it is mature for harvest or 

other resource objectives. A regulated forest reaches sustained yield when the volume cut 

periodically equals the amount of net volume growth for that same period.

Repatriation – In the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (25 USC 3005), 

the term “repatriate” means to transfer physical custody of and legal interest in Native American 

cultural items to lineal descendants, culturally affiliated American Indian tribes, and Native 

Hawaiian organizations. 

Research natural area – A physical or biological unit in which current natural conditions are 

maintained insofar as possible. These conditions are ordinarily achieved by allowing natural 

physical and biological processes to prevail without human intervention. Research natural areas 

are principally for non-manipulative research, observation, and study. They are designated to 

maintain a wide spectrum of high quality representative areas that represent the major forms of 

variability found in forest, shrubland, grassland, alpine, and natural situations that have scientific 

interest and importance that, in combination, form a national network of ecological areas for 

research, education, and maintenance of biological diversity.

Resiliency –The ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the 

same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organization, and the capacity 

to adapt to stress and change.

Restoration – See ecological restoration.

Riparian area – Terrestrial ecosystems characterized by wet soils and plant species that are water 

loving and dependent on the water table or its capillary fringe zone (a zone in the soil just above 

the water table that remains saturated or almost saturated. Riparian areas make up the most 

biologically productive component of forest ecosystems providing unique wildlife habitat in the 

Southwest. Riparian areas also function to transport and filter water, soil and organic material 

from upslope to stream.). Examples of riparian areas on the forests include areas along streams, 

or around wetlands, lakes, ponds, springs and seeps, and include wet meadows, fens, bogs and 

floodplains.

Road decommissioning – Activities that result in the stabilization and restoration of unneeded 

roads to a more natural state (36 CFR § 212.1). It includes a range of activities from ripping and 
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 165

seeding to full reclamation by restoring the original topography. Road decommissioning results in 

the removal of a National Forest System road from the forest transportation atlas.

Road removal – The elimination of unauthorized routes. It includes a range of activities from 

ripping and seeding to full reclamation by restoring the original topography.

Scale – The aerial extent of certain plan decisions are described at various scales:

• Fine scale is an area of about 10 acres or less at which the distribution of specific site 

characteristics such as individual tree species (single, grouped, or aggregates of groups) is 

described.

• Mid-scale is an area of 100 to 1,000 acres composed of assemblages of fine scale units 

that have similar biophysical conditions.

• Landscape scale is an assemblage of mid-scale units typically composed of variable 

elevations, slopes, aspects, soils, plant associations, and natural ecological processes. An 

area at this scale comprises multiple mid-scale units, most often 10 or more.

• 6th level HUC watershed scale is a unit of the forest approximately comparable to a 6th 

level HUC (hydrologic unit code) watershed (approximately 5,000 to 80,000 acres).

• 4th to 5th level HUC watershed scale is a unit of the forest approximately comparable to 

a 4th level HUC (hydrologic unit code) watershed (approximately 400,000 to 2,000,000 

acres). A 4th level HUC watershed is an aggregation of multiple 5th level HUC 

watersheds. A 5th level HUC watershed scale is a unit of the forest approximately 

comparable to a 5th level HUC watershed (approximately 80,000 to 300,000 acres).

Scenic integrity – The state of naturalness or a measure of the degree to which a landscape is 

visually perceived to be “complete.” The highest scenic integrity ratings are given to those 

landscapes that have little or no deviation from the landscape character valued by constituents for 

its aesthetic quality. Scenic integrity is the state of naturalness or, conversely, the state of 

disturbance created by human activities or alteration. Scenic integrity is measured in five levels: 

• Very high (unaltered) – A scenic integrity level that generally provides for ecological 

change only.

• High (appears unaltered) – Human activities are not visually evident. In high scenic 

integrity areas, activities may only repeat attributes of form, line, color, and texture found

in the existing landscape character.

• Moderate (slightly altered) – Landscapes where the valued landscape character “appears 

slightly altered.” Noticeable deviations must remain visually subordinate to the landscape 

character being viewed.

• Low (moderately altered) – Human activities must remain visually subordinate to the 

attributes of the existing landscape character. Activities may repeat form, line, color, or 

texture common to these landscape characters, but changes in quality of size, number, 

intensity, direction, pattern, and so on, must remain visually subordinate to these 

landscape characters.

• Very Low (heavily altered) – Human activities of vegetative and landform alterations 

may dominate the original, natural landscape character but should appear as natural 

occurrences when viewed at background distances.
Glossary

166 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Seed cut – One step of an even-aged regeneration cutting method in which the healthiest, most 

desirable trees are left, and stand conditions are created for them to become good cone producers. 

The intention is to promote natural tree regeneration where needed.

Selection regeneration method – An uneven-aged method where individual trees or groups of 

trees of all size classes are removed, more or less uniformly throughout the stand, to promote 

growth of remaining trees and to provide space for regeneration. Includes individual tree selection

and group selection methods.

Sense of place – The aesthetic, nostalgic, or spiritual effects of physical locations on humans 

based on personal, use oriented, or attachment oriented relationships between individuals and 

those locations. The meaning, values, and feelings that people associate with physical locations 

because of their experiences there.

Sensitive species – A sensitive plant or animal species for which population viability is a concern 

as evidenced by: (1) a significant or predicted downward trend in population numbers or density, 

or (2) a significant current or predicted downward trend in habitat capability that would reduce a 

species’ existing distribution (FSM 2670.32). Sensitive species are designated by the regional 

forester and that status is periodically reviewed. Impacts to sensitive species from forest 

management and activities are analyzed in a biological evaluation.

Seral state – A particular plant and animal community developmental stage which is transitional 

between other stages along the continuum of succession or change. Changes in seral states can 

take place over time or very quickly and movement between states can be in either direction. 

Aspen is an example of a seral state that, without disturbance over time, will eventually be 

replaced by a subsequent seral state dominated by conifers.

Silvics – Knowledge of forest tree species differing needs for light, water, soil nutrients, growing 

space, and temperature ranges; it includes species adaptations and responses to various 

environmental factors such as fire, flood, extreme temperatures, wind, drought, insects, diseases, 

wildlife, and other tree species. The basis for silviculture.

Silviculture – The art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, 

and quality of forests and woodlands using species silvics to meet the diverse needs and values of 

landowners and society on a sustainable basis. Under this definition, silvicultural treatments 

include all management activities that control the establishment, growth, composition, health, and 

quality of forested lands to achieve stated land management objectives. The use of prescribed fire 

on forested lands qualifies as a silvicultural treatment in the context of this definition. 

Sinkholes – Large depressions in limestone geology; rimrock-lined depressions in basaltic 

geology may be considered sinks as well.

Slash – The residue (e.g., branches, bark) left on the ground after a management activity such as 

logging, or natural ecological process such as a storm or fire.

Snags – Standing dead or partially dead trees (snag topped), often missing many or all limbs 

and/or bark. Snags (generally 12 inches or larger) provide essential wildlife habitat for many 

species and are important for forest ecosystem function.
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 167

Soil and water conservation practices – Set of practices, which when applied during 

implementation of a project, protects soil and water quality to the level required by beneficial 

uses. These lead to the formation of site-specific BMPs during project planning.

Soil condition rating – A qualitative rating developed within the Southwestern Region of the 

Forest Service that provides an overall picture of soil condition vital in sustaining ecosystems. It 

is based on three soil functions: the ability of soil to resist erosion, infiltrate water, and recycle 

nutrients. There are four soil condition ratings: 

• Satisfactory – soil function is being sustained and soil is functioning properly and 

normally.

• Impaired – the ability of the soil to function properly and normally has been reduced or 

there exists an increased vulnerability to degradation.

• Unsatisfactory – degradation of vital soil functions result in the inability of the soil to 

maintain resource values, sustain outputs, or recover from impacts.

• Inherently unstable – these soils are eroding faster than they are renewing themselves.

Soil productivity – The inherent capacity of the soil to support appropriate site-specific

biological resource management objectives, which includes the growth of specified plants, plant 

communities, or a sequence of plant communities to support multiple land uses.

Special use authorization – A permit, term permit, temporary permit, lease, easement, or other 

written instrument that grants rights or privileges of occupancy and use subject to specified terms 

and conditions on National Forest System land.

Species diversity – Abundance of different species (both plant and animal) on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs and adjoining lands; species richness. NFMA requires that land management 

plans provide for diversity of plant and animal communities.

Springs and seeps - Springs and seeps are groundwater-dependent ecosystems where 

groundwater discharges at the ground surface, often through complex subsurface flow paths 

(Stevens and Meretsky, 2008).

Stand – A contiguous group of trees generally uniform in age class distribution, composition, 

condition, and structure, and growing on a site of generally uniform quality, to be a 

distinguishable unit, such as mixed, pure, even-aged, and uneven-aged stands. A stand is the 

fundamental unit of silviculture reporting and record keeping.

Stray animal –

 " . . . livestock, bison or ratites whose owner is unknown or cannot be located, or any such 

animal whose owner is known but permits the animal to roam at large on the streets, alleys, 

roads, range or premises of another without permission." (Arizona Revised Statute: Title 3, 

Chapter 11, Article 7, 3-1401) 

 Stray horses and burros are animals that do not meet the definition of a wild free-roaming 

horse in accordance with 16 USC 1332(b), 36 CFR 222.60(b)(13), and 36 CFR 222.63.

Structure – Structure includes both the vertical and horizontal dimensions of a vegetation type or 

plant community. The horizontal structure refers to spatial patterns of individual and groups of 

plants and openings, as well as plant size and species composition. The vertical component refers 

to the layers of vegetation between the forest floor and the top of the canopy. Each vegetation 
Glossary

168 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

type has its own structure. For example, forests have greater vertical structure than a grassland or 

woodland based on the height of the dominant species.

Suitable timberlands – Land to be managed for timber production on a regulated basis. Such 

lands are those which have been determined to meet the following criteria: (a) are available for 

timber production (i.e., not withdrawn for wilderness or other official designation by Congress, 

the Secretary of Agriculture, or Chief of the Forest Service); (b) are physically capable of 

producing crops of industrial wood without irreversible resource damage to soils productivity or 

watershed conditions; (c) adequate tree restocking within 5 years of final harvest is reasonably 

assured; (d) adequate information exists about responses to timber management activities; (e) 

timber management is cost efficient over the planning horizon in meeting forest objectives that 

include timber production; (f) timber production is consistent with meeting the management 

requirements and multiple use objectives specified in the forest plan or plan alternative; and (g) 

other management objectives do not limit timber production activities to the point where it is 

impossible to meet management requirements set forth in 36 CFR § 129.27 (per FSH 2409.13, 

WO Amendment 2409.13-92-1, O Code and Chapter 20). 

Sustainability – Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of 

future generations to meet their needs. Sustainability is composed of desirable social, economic, 

and ecological conditions or trends interacting at varying spatial and temporal scales embodying 

the principles of multiple use and sustained yield.

Temporary road or trail – A road or trail necessary for emergency operations or authorized by 

contract, permit, lease, or other written authorization that is not a forest road or trail and that is 

not included in a forest transportation atlas (36 CFR § 212.1).

Terrestrial ecosystem survey (TES) – Also called the terrestrial ecological unit inventory, the 

TES identifies ecological units for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs that are distinct from each other in 

terms of their soil, vegetation, and climate components.

Thinning – An intermediate treatment made to reduce the stand density of trees primarily to 

improve growth, enhance forest health, recover potential mortality, emphasize desired tree 

species, and/or emphasize desired forest structure. It includes crown thinning (thinning from 

above, high thinning), free thinning, low thinning (thinning from below), selection thinning 

(dominant thinning), mechanical thinning (leaves trees in equally-spaced rows), and mechanized 

thinning (any spacing arrangement). Mechanized thinning should not be confused with 

mechanical thinning. As used in this plan “mechanized thinning” includes prescribed cuts made 

by both hand and/or mechanized equipment, as a distinction from prescribed thinning by use of 

wildland fire only. Traditional (cutting) prescribed thinning can be used with both even- and 

uneven-aged management systems. Thinning with prescribed fire can qualify as an intermediate 

treatment, but may not provide enough controlled tree selection to clearly fit in either 

management system.

Timber production – Purposefully growing, tending, harvesting, and regenerating regulated 

crops of trees to be cut into logs, bolts, or other round sections for industrial or consumer use. In 

addition, managing land to provide commercial timber products on a regulated basis with 

planned, scheduled entries. It does not include firewood or harvest from unsuitable lands. (FSM 

1900)
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 169

Traditional cultural property (TCP) – Defined in National Register Bulletin 38 as properties 

associated “with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that (a) are rooted in that 

community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the 

community.” TCPs can range from structures, mountains, and other landforms to plant gathering 

locations to communities. These areas are considered historic properties that may be eligible to 

the National Register of Historic Places.

Tree cutting – The cutting or removal of trees for wood fiber use and other multiple use

purposes. Sometimes referred to as “timber harvest” or “thinning.”

Tread Lightly!® – Outdoor ethics with a special focus on motorized and mechanized recreation. 

http://www.treadlightly.org

Unauthorized livestock – Any cattle, sheep, goat, hog, or equine not defined as a wild freeroaming horse or burro by 36 CFR § 222.20(b)(13), which is not authorized by permit (or Bill for 

Collection) to be upon the land on which the livestock is located and which is not related to use 

authorized by a grazing permit (livestock owned by other than a national forest grazing permit 

holder). Noncommercial pack and saddle stock used by recreationists, travelers, other forest 

visitors for occasional trips, as well as livestock to be trailed over an established driveway when 

there is no overnight stop on Forest Service administered land do not fall under this definition. 

Unauthorized road or trail – A road or trail that is not a forest road or trail or a temporary road 

or trail and that is not included in a forest transportation atlas (36 CFR § 212.1). Sometimes 

referred to as a “user-created” road or trail.

Uncharacteristic wildfire – An increase in wildfire size, severity, and resistance to control 

compared to reference conditions which occurred historically. These fires result as a consequence 

of more continuous canopy cover, ladder fuels, and accumulated live and dead woody material.

Uncharacteristic wildfires burn with more intensity; cause higher tree mortality; degrade 

watersheds; sterilize soils; and threaten adjacent communities, forest infrastructure, and wildlife 

habitat. See reference conditions

Uneven-aged forests – Forests that comprise three or more distinct age classes of trees, either 

inter-mixed or in small groups.

Uneven-aged management – The application of combined actions needed to simultaneously 

maintain continuous forest cover, recurring regeneration of desirable species, and the orderly 

growth and development of trees through a range of diameter or age classes to provide a sustained 

yield of forest products. Cutting is usually regulated by specifying the number or proportion of 

trees of particular sizes to retain within each area, thereby maintaining a planned distribution of 

size classes. Cutting methods that develop and maintain uneven-aged stands are single-tree 

selection and group selection.

Unplanned ignition – The initiation of a wildland fire by lightning or unauthorized and 

accidental human-caused fires. See wildfire.

Use of wildland fire - Management of either wildfire or prescribed fire to meet resource 

objectives specified in land management plans. 
Glossary

170 (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Values to be protected (values at risk) - Includes property; structures; physical improvements; 

natural and culture resources; community infrastructure; and economic, environmental, and social 

values.

Vigor – Relates to the relative robustness of a plant in comparison to other individuals of the 

same species. It is reflected primarily by the size of a plant (i.e., height, weight) and its parts in 

relation to its age and the environment in which it is growing.

Wild and scenic rivers – These rivers are free-flowing and have at least one outstandingly 

remarkable value. Eligible and suitable rivers are given a tentative classification of wild, scenic, 

or recreational. These rivers may be included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

• Wild – Those rivers or segments of rivers free of impoundments and generally 

inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds or shorelines essentially primitive, and 

waters unpolluted. These represent vestiges of primitive America.

• Scenic – Those rivers or segments of rivers free of impoundments, with shorelines or 

watersheds still largely primitive, and shorelines largely undeveloped but accessible in 

places by roads. 

• Recreational – Those rivers or segments of rivers readily accessible by road or railroad, 

that may have some development along their shorelines, and that may have undergone 

some impoundment or diversion in the past. 

Wild free-roaming horses and burros –

 " . . . all unbranded and unclaimed horses and burros on public lands of the United States." (16 

USC 1332(b)). 

 "Wild free-roaming horses and burros mean all unbranded and unclaimed horses and burros 

and their progeny that have used lands of the National Forest System on or after December 15, 

1971, or do hereafter use these lands as all or part of their habitat, but does not include any 

horse or burro introduced onto the National Forest System on or after December 15, 1971, by 

accident, negligence, or willful disregard of private ownership. Unbranded, claimed horses and 

burros for which the claim is found to be erroneous, are also considered as wild and freeroaming if they meet the criteria above." (36 CFR 222.60(b)(13)) 

 "Horses and burros not within the definition in § 222.20(b)(13) [recodified as 36 CFR § 

222.60(b)(13)] which are introduced onto Wild Horse and Burro Territories or ranges after 

December 15, 1971, by accident, negligence, or willful disregard of private ownership, and 

which do not become intermingled with wild free-roaming horses or burros shall be 

considered as unauthorized livestock and treated in accordance with provisions in 36 CFR 

261.7 and 262.10." (36 CFR 222.63)

Wild Horse and Burro Territory – " . . . lands of the National Forest System which are 

identified by the Chief, Forest Service, as lands which were territorial habitat of wild freeroaming horses and/or burros at the time of the passage of the Act." (36 CFR 222.60(b)(15))

Wildfire – Unplanned ignition of a wildland fire (e.g., fires caused by lightning or unauthorized 

and accidental human-caused fires) and escaped prescribed fires. See unplanned ignition.

Wildfire hazard – A fuel complex, defined by volume, type condition, arrangement, and 

location, that determines the degree or ease of ignition and of resistance to control.
Glossary

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 171

Wildland – An area in which development is essentially nonexistent, except for roads, railroads, 

power lines, and similar transportation facilities. Structures, if any, are widely scattered.

Wildland fire – A general term describing any non-structure fire that occurs in the vegetation 

and/or natural fuels. The two types of wildland fire are wildfires and prescribed fires. Other terms 

such as “fire-use fires,” “resource benefit fires,” or “suppression fires” are not used in this plan. 

Wildland-urban interface (WUI) – Wildland-urban interface includes those areas of resident 

populations at imminent risk from wildfire, and human developments having special significance. 

These areas may include critical communications sites, municipal watersheds, high voltage 

transmission lines, church camps, scout camps, research facilities, and other structures that, if 

destroyed by fire, would result in hardship to communities. These areas encompass not only the 

sites themselves, but also the continuous slopes and fuels that lead directly to the sites, regardless 

of the distance involved. (FSM 5140.5, Southwestern Region supplement).

Wildling – A native plant growing uncultivated in the wild: specifically, the collection or 

transplant of such whole live plants.

Windthrow – Trees susceptible to wind damage (e.g., uprooting, toppling, bole breakage). 

Woody biomass – The trees and woody plants, including limbs, tops, needles, leaves, and other 

woody parts, grown in a forest, woodland, or grassland environment, that are the byproducts of 

forest management used to produce bioenergy and the full range of bio-based products.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 173

References

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality. (2003). Arizona State Implementation Plan to 

Maintain and Improve Air Quality. Phoenix, AZ.

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality. (2012). 2010 Status of Water Quality: Arizona’s 

Integrated 305 (b) Assessment and 303(d) Listing Report. Phoenix, AZ.

Arizona Game and Fish Department. (2003). Crayfish. Phoenix, AZ. (pamphlet) 2 pp. [online] 

URL: http://www.azgfd.gov/pdfs/i_e/Crayfish_Brochure.pdf

Barkworth, M.E.; K.M. Capels; S. Long; and M.B. Piep (eds.). (2003). Flora of North America: 

North of Mexico, Vol. 25, Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, part 2. 

Oxford University Press, Inc. New York, NY. 911 pp.

Barkworth, M.E.; K.M. Capels; S. Long; L.K. Anderton; and M.B. Piep (eds.). (2007). Flora of 

North America: North of Mexico, Vol. 24, Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): 

Poaceae, part 1. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York, NY. 783 pp.

Benson, L.; and R.A. Darrow. (1981). Trees and shrubs of the southwestern deserts, 3rd edition. 

The University of Arizona Press. Tucson, AZ. 416 pp.

Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior. (1998). Riparian area 

management: A user guide to assessing proper functioning condition and the supporting 

science for lotic areas, Prichard, D.; Anderson, J.; Correll, C.; Fogg, J.; Gebhardt, K.; 

Krapf, R.; Leonard, S.; Mitchell, B.; and Staats, J. (wkgroup.). Tech. Ref. 1737–15, USDI 

Bureau of Land Management, Service Center. Denver, CO. BLM/RS/ST-98/001+1737. 

134 pp.

Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior. (1999). Riparian area 

management: A user guide to assessing proper functioning condition and the supporting 

science for lentic areas, Prichard, D.; Berg, F.; Hagenbuck, W.; Krapf, R.; Leinard, R.; 

Leonard, S.; Manning, M.; Noble, C.; and Staats, J. (wkgroup.), Tech. Ref. 1737-16, 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Service Center. Denver, CO. BLM/RS/ST99/001+1737+REV03. 118 pp.

Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, and Cooperative Extension 

Service, Forest Service, and Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture. (1999). Interagency Technical Reference 1734-3: Utilization Studies and 

Residual Measurements.

Correll, D.S.; and H.B. Correll. (1975). Aquatic and wetland plants of the Southwestern United 

States, Vols. 1 and 2. Stanford University Press. Stanford, CA. 1,777 pp.

Cronquist, A.; A.H. Holmgren; N.H. Holmgren; J.L. Reveal; and P.K. Holmgren. (1997). 

Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A., Vol. 6, the 

Monocotyledons. The New York Botanical Gardens, Columbia University Press. New 

York, NY. 584 pp.

Elzinga, C.L.; D.W. Salzer; and J.W. Willoughby. (1998). Measuring and monitoring plant 

populations. BLM Tech. Ref. 1730–1, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Service 

Center. Denver, CO. BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730. 477 pp.
References

174 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (1999). EPA Regional Haze Rule 40 CFR § 51. EPA 

Office of Air and Radiation, Technology Transfer Network, OAR Policy and Guidance 

Record. 

Flora of North America. (2008). [online] URL: http://floranorthamerica.org/

Franklin, J.F.; and T.A. Spies. (1991). Ecological definitions of old-growth Douglas-fir Forests. 

Pp. 61–69 in Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-fir Forests. L.F. Ruggiero, 

K.B. Aubry, A.B. Carey, and M. Huff, tech. coords. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-285. Pacific Northwest Research Station. Portland, OR. 533 pp.

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (1999). Southwestern Region rangeland analysis 

and management training guide. Southwestern Region. Albuquerque, NM. 224 pp.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2001). USDA – Forest Service guide to noxious 

weed prevention practices. Version 1.0, Dated July 5, 2001. Northern Region, Missoula, 

MT. 25 pp.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008a). Comprehensive Evaluation Report. 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008b). Ecological Sustainability Report. 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008c). Forest Plan Revision Resource 

Evaluations. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008d). Keeping it Wild: An Interagency 

Strategy to Monitor Trends in Wilderness Character Across the National Wilderness 

Preservation System. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-212. Rocky Mountain Research 

Station. Fort Collins, CO.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2009a). Economic and Social Sustainability 

Assessment. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2009b). Eligibility Report for the National Wild 

and Scenic River System. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2010a). Comprehensive Evaluation Report 

Supplement to Meet Analysis of the Management Situation Requirements. ApacheSitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2010b). Final Environmental Assessment for 

Blue River and KP Creek Wild and Scenic Suitability. Apache-Sitgreaves National 

Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2011). Watershed Condition Framework-A 

Framework for Assessing and Tracking Changes to Watershed Condition FS-977. 

Washington, DC. 32 pp.

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2012a). Programmatic Environmental Impact 

Statement for the Land Management Plan. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests.

Springerville, AZ.
References

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 175

Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2012b). Wallow Fire Changed Condition 

Assessment. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2012c). Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems: 

Level II Inventory Field Guide. Gen. Tech. Report WO-86b. Washington, DC. 32 pp

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Arizona 

Wildlife Federation, and Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. (1990). Elk in Arizona’s High 

Country: A Success Story of Cooperation on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. 

(pamphlet) 2 pp. 

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Interior Bureau of Land 

Management, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park 

Service (Forest Service and DOI). (2009). Guidance for Implementation of Federal 

Wildland Fire Management Policy. [online] URL:

http://www.nifc.gov/policies/policies_documents/GIFWFMP.pdf.

Gould, F.W. (1977). Grasses of the southwestern United States. The University of Arizona Press.

Tucson, AZ. 352 pp.

Helms, J.A. (ed.). (1998). The Dictionary of Forestry. The Society of American Foresters. pp. 1-

224.

Hermann, F.J. (ed.). (1970). Manual of the Carices of the Rocky Mountains and Colorado Basin, 

Agriculture Handbook No. 374. USDA Forest Service, U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Washington, DC. 397 pp.

Hermann, F.J. (ed.). (1975). Manual of the rushes (Juncus spp.) of the Rocky Mountains and 

Colorado Basin. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report GTR RMRS-18. Rocky 

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Fort Collins, CO. 107 pp.

Hickman, J.C. (ed.). (1993). The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. University of 

California Press. Berkeley, CA. 1,400 pp.

Hitchcock, A.S.; and A. Chase. (1971). Manual of the grasses of the United States, 2nd edition, 

Vols. 1 and 2. Dover Publications, Inc. New York, NY. 1,051 pp.

Hurd, E.G.; N.L. Shaw; J. Mastrogiuseppe; L.C. Smithman; and S. Goodrich. (1998). Field guide 

to Intermountain sedges. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report GTR-RMRS10. Rocky Mountain Research Station. Ogden, UT. 282 pp.

Invasive.org. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. [online] URL:

http://www.invasive.org

Kaufmann, M.R.; D. Binkley; P.Z. Fulé; M. Johnson; S.L. Stephens; and T.W. Swetnam. (2007). 

Defining old growth for fire-adapted forests of the western United States. Ecology and 

Society 12(2): 15. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art15/.

Küchler, A.W. (1964). Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States. American 

Geographical Society Special Publication No. 36. New York, NY. 116 pp. plus map.

Laing, L.; N. Ambos; T. Subirge; C. McDonald; C. Nelson; and W. Robbie. (1987). Terrestrial 

Ecosystem Survey for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Southwestern Region, 

Albuquerque, NM. 453 pp.
References

176 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Martin, W.C.; and C.R. Hutchins. (1980). A flora of New Mexico, Vols. 1 and 2. A.R. Gantner 

Verlag K.G., FL-9490 Valduz, Strauss & Cramer GmbH, 6945 Hirschberg, Germany. 

2,591 pp.

McDougall, W.B. (1973). Seed plants of northern Arizona. The Museum of Northern Arizona, 

Flagstaff, AZ. 594 pp.

Natural Resource Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2003). National range 

and pasture handbook, 1st revision. Grazing Lands Technology Institute, Washington DC. 

521 pp. [online] URL:

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/landuse/crops/?cid=stelprdb104

3084

Oliver, C.D.; and B.C. Larson. (1996). Forest Stand Dynamics, Update Edition. John Wiley & 

Sons. New York, NY.

Purdue, J.R.; J.R. Heffelfinger; and K.E. Nicolls. (2002, January/February). Is Merriam’s elk 

really extinct? Arizona Wildlife Views. pp. 6-10.

Reynolds, R.T.; A.J. Sánchez Meador; J.A Youtz; T. Nicolet; M.S. Matonis; P.L. Jackson; D.G. 

DeLorenzo; and A.D. Graves (2013). Restoring composition and structure in 

Southwestern frequent-fire forests: A science-based framework for improving ecosystem 

resiliency. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-310. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. Fort Collins, CO. 76 pp.

Ruyle, G.B.; and D.J. Young. (1997). Arizona range grasses. Cooperative Extension, College of 

Agriculture, The University of Arizona. Tucson, AZ. 152 pp.

Smith, L.; G. Ruyle; J. Dyess; W. Meyer; S. Baker; C.B. Lane; S.M. Williams; J.L. Maynard; D. 

Bell; D. Stewart; and A. Coulloudon. (2012). Guide to rangeland monitoring and 

assessment. Arizona Grazing Lands Conservation Association. 196 pp.

Society for Range Management. (1998). A glossary of terms used in range management. Society 

for Range Management. Denver, CO. pp. 20.

Springer, J.D.; M.L. Daniels; and M. Nazaire. (2009). Field guide to forest and mountain plants of 

northern Arizona. Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University.

Flagstaff, AZ. 649 pp.

Stevens, L.E. Meretsky, V.J. (2008). Springs ecosystem ecology and conservation, In, Stevens, 

L.E.; Meretsky, V.J. eds. Aridland springs in North America: ecology and conservation, 

Tucson, AA: University of Arizona Press. pp 3-10.

Stynes, D.J.; and E.M. White. (2005). Spending Profiles of National Forest Visitors, NVUM Four 

Year Report. Michigan State University. East Lansing, MI. [online] URL: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/recreation/programs/nvum/NVUM4YrSpending.pdf

Thomas, J.W.; and D.E. Toweill. (1982). Elk of North America: Ecology and Management. 

Wildlife Management Institute in cooperation with U.S. Forest Service. pp. 23-24.

Vine, R.A. (1960). Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press.

Austin, TX. 1,104 pp. 
References

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 177

Welsh, S.L.; N.D. Atwood; L.C. Higgins; and S. Goodrich. (1997). A Utah flora. Great Basin 

Naturalist Memoirs, No. 9. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. 894 pp.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 179

Appendix A. Climate Change Trends

and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land

Management Planning

Overview and Background

Climate scientists agree that the Earth is undergoing a warming trend, and that human-caused 

elevations in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases 

(GHGs) are among the causes of global temperature increases. The observed concentrations of 

these greenhouse gases are projected to increase. Climate change may intensify the risk of 

ecosystem change for terrestrial and aquatic systems, affecting ecosystem structure, function, and 

productivity.

This section contains a description of the climate patterns and trends in the Southwestern United 

States followed by a description of how current climate models and predictions may generally 

affect those climate patterns in the near future. Then, a short, land management plan revision 

oriented synthesis of climate change literature follows. This synthesis focuses on how climate 

change might be currently influencing—and may impact in the future—ecological and 

socioeconomic systems. The intent of the review is to examine those areas of climate change 

research that may have an impact on how the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is managed. Specifically, 

this section summarizes current and future climate trends at the regional (American Southwest) 

and, if possible, the forests level. Possible effects of climate change on ecosystems are discussed 

regarding water abundance and quality, biological diversity and wildlife species, economic and 

social conditions in the Southwest, and a description of limitations and uncertainties inherent in 

projected future climate scenarios. Finally, this document discusses possible management issues 

that should be considered during land management planning.

Climate in the American Southwest

and the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

What is Climate?

Climate may be defined as the “average weather,” or more rigorously, as the statistical description 

of weather in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities (e.g., temperature, 

precipitation, wind) over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The 

standard period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These 

quantities are often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a 

wider sense is the statistical description of the state or condition of the climate system1. In 

contrast, weather describes the daily conditions (individual storms) or conditions over several 

days (e.g., a week of record-breaking temperatures) to those lasting less than 2 weeks2. Natural 

climate variability refers to variations due to natural internal processes (internal variability) in the 

 

1 According to the World Meteorological Organization, the climate system is a highly complex arrangement consisting 

of five major components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and land surface and biosphere, and the 

interactions between them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and 

because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions and solar variations, and human-induced influences such as the 

changing composition of atmosphere and land use changes.

2 The glossary of climate terms used in this report is drawn from “A Glossary of Terms” used in the “Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report” (IPCC, 2007).
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

180 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

climate system or natural external forcing (external variability), in the mean state and other 

statistics of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events 

(IPCC, 2007). Climate and climate variability are determined by the amount of incoming solar 

radiation, chemical composition and dynamics of the atmosphere, and surface characteristics of 

the Earth. The circulation of the atmosphere and oceans influences the transfer of heat and 

moisture around the planet and, thus, strongly influences climate patterns and their variability in 

space and time. Much of the current climate change literature states that human activities, such as 

fossil fuel burning, industrial activities, changes in land use, animal husbandry, and fertilized and 

irrigated agriculture, lead to increases in GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), 

and nitrous oxide (N2O). These increased GHGs contribute to the greenhouse effect and cause the 

surface temperature of the Earth to increase. Global atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4, and 

N2O have increased markedly because of human activities since 1750, and now far exceed 

preindustrial levels (IPCC, 2007).

The climate of the Southwest U.S. is often referred to as dry and hot; however, it is very complex. 

While low deserts of the Southwest experience heat and drying winds in the early summer, 

forested mountain areas and plateaus may experience cold and drifting snow during winter. 

Climate variability is the norm within this region, as temperature and precipitation fluctuate on 

time scales ranging from seasons to centuries. Monsoon thunderstorms in July and August are 

often accompanied by flash flooding. From fall to spring, the weather can be warm with clear 

skies. The Southwest also experiences periods of short and long term drought. Indeed, severe 

regional floods or droughts have affected both indigenous and modern civilizations on time scales 

ranging from single growing seasons to multiple years, even decades (Hughes et al., 2002).

To a large degree, a quasi-permanent subtropical high-pressure ridge over the Southwest leads to 

the characteristically low annual precipitation, clear skies, and year-round warm weather over 

much of the region. This high-pressure ridge is created through Hadley circulation3. Where the 

descending branch of Hadley circulation comes down, it tends to create a zone of atmospheric 

high pressure that makes it difficult for clouds to form. Much of the Southwest U.S. lies in the 

subtropical zone, where warm, dry air is flowing back down to Earth following its rain-inducing

rise in the tropics. Descending air in the subtropics relates to an ongoing global pattern known as 

Hadley circulation. 

In addition, the Southwest is located between the mid-latitude and subtropical atmospheric 

circulation regimes. This positioning, relative to shifts in these atmospheric patterns, is the main 

reason for the region’s climatic variability. El Niño (also known as the El Niño Southern 

Oscillation or ENSO) is an increase in sea surface temperature of the eastern equatorial Pacific 

Ocean with an associated shift of the active center of atmospheric convection from the western to 

the central equatorial Pacific. ENSO has a well-developed teleconnection4 with the Southwest, 

usually resulting in wet winters. La Niña, the opposite oceanic case of El Niño, usually results in 

dry winters for the Southwest. Another important oceanic influence on winter climate of the 

 

3 Hadley circulation is a flow pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, beginning with warm, moist air rising near 

the equator, poleward movement 6 to 9 miles above the surface, descending motion in the subtropics, and equatorward 

movement near the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the trade winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical 

deserts, and jet streams.

4 Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been identified through 

statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño teleconnection with the southwestern U.S. 

involves large scale changes in climatic conditions that are linked to increased winter rainfall.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 181

Southwest is a feature called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), which has been defined as 

temporal variation in sea surface temperatures for most of the northern Pacific Ocean. The major 

feature that sets the climate of the Southwest apart from the rest of the U.S. is the North American 

Monsoon which, in the U.S., is most noticeable in Arizona and New Mexico. Up to 50 percent of 

the annual rainfall of Arizona and New Mexico occurs as monsoonal storms from July through 

September (Hughes et al., 2002). 

In summary, while many factors influence climate in the Southwest during a particular year or 

season, the region’s overall climate is defined by predictable weather patterns that occur across 

the years and decades to define the region’s climate. The region’s overall aridity relates to a 

global circulation pattern known as Hadley circulation, which creates a semi-permanent highpressure zone over the Southwest. Relatively high temperatures with dynamic daily swings define 

this geographic region. Mountains and other differences in elevation affect local climate patterns. 

The North American Monsoon works to bring moisture from the tropics into the region during the 

summer months.

Future Climate of the Southwest and the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Currently, there appears to be broad agreement among climate modelers that the Southwest U.S. 

is experiencing a drying trend that would continue well into the latter part of the 21st century 

(IPCC, 2007; Seager et al., 2007). While the ensemble5scenario used by Seager et al. (2007) 

included two models with predictions of increased precipitation, the researchers concluded that 

the overall balance between precipitation and evaporation would still likely result in an overall 

decrease in available moisture. Regional drying and warming trends have occurred twice during 

the 20th century (1930s Dust Bowl and the 1950s Southwest Drought) and were severe during 

what is known as the Medieval Climate Anomaly, an interval of warm, dry conditions with 

regional variability from A.D. 900 to 1350 (Hughes and Diaz, 2008; Herweijer et al., 2007). The 

current drought conditions may very well become the new climatology of the American 

Southwest, including the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, within a timeframe of years to decades. 

According to recent multi-model ensemble scenarios, the slight warming trend observed in the 

last 100 years may continue, with the greatest warming to occur during winter. These climate 

models depict temperatures rising approximately 5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit (F) by the end of the 

century (IPCC, 2007). This trend would increase pressures on the region’s already limited water 

supplies, as well as increase energy demand, alter fire regimes and ecosystems, create risks for 

human health, and affect agriculture (Sprigg, 2000). 

The number of extremely hot days is also projected to rise during the 21st century. By the end of 

the century, parts of the Southwest, including the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, are projected to face 

summer heat waves lasting 2 weeks longer than have been occurring in recent decades. Some 

climate model interpretations also suggest a fivefold increase in unusually hot days by the end of 

the century, compared to 1961 to 1985. In effect, the high temperatures that formerly occurred on 

only the hottest 5 percent of days could become the norm for a quarter of the year—100 days or 

more—in much of the Southwest (IPCC, 2007).

 

5 Multimodel ensembles: Researchers have found that the average of numerous available climate models—sometimes

called the ensemble mean—almost always weigh in with more accuracy than any one model. This technique often uses 

18 to 20 different coupled global circulation models and combines the output from each to produce and ensemble 

output (CCSP, 2008c).
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

182 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Observations based on measurements from weather stations indicate that the temperature rise 

projected for the future is similar to the rate of increase much of the Southwest has already 

registered in recent decades, particularly since the mid-1970s. Since 1976, the average annual 

temperature increased by 2.5 degrees F in Arizona and 1.8 degrees F in New Mexico. The recent 

temperature increase is unusual, even in the context of records compiled from tree rings and other 

natural temperature archives dating back more than 1,200 years for the northern hemisphere 

(Trouet et al., 2009; Hughes and Diaz 2008; Herweijer et al., 2007; Meko et al., 2007). 

Warmer winter temperatures in the Southwest have serious implications for snow cover, an 

important natural reservoir of water in the West. In a study conducted on two watersheds in 

central Arizona (one watershed partially located on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs), Svoma (2009) 

found that between water years 1934 and 2007, average snowpack elevation levels have increased 

with a decrease in snow amounts. In his study, he directly correlated this with increasing 

temperatures. Shorter winters and less snowpack also affect the timing of natural cycles such as 

plant dormancy and blooming and peak river flows. Throughout the West, the number of days in 

the frost-free season, which varies by location, has been increasing more rapidly than in the East 

(Lenart, 2007). Summer temperatures have also climbed, especially since the mid-1970s. 

Maximum temperatures regularly reach above 100 degrees F daily for weeks on end in many 

southwestern cities (Lenart, 2007). The temperature rise alone has some predictable effects on 

aridity in the region. For instance, higher temperatures increase evaporation rates. Higher 

temperatures and a drier landscape increase wildfire hazard and put extra stress on ecosystems 

(Lenart, 2007).

Precipitation changes remain much more difficult to predict than temperature, because 

precipitation is more variable and operates on a smaller scale. Predicting future precipitation is 

difficult in the Southwest, due to added complexities such as topography and monsoonal timing. 

When comparing climate model simulations to what actually occurred, researchers found the 

results roughly matched 50 to 60 percent of the time for precipitation. This compares to about 95 

percent of the time for temperature (Lenart, 2007).

Precipitation is projected to decline by 5 percent by 2100 for much of Arizona and New Mexico, 

based on modeling results from an ensemble of 18 general circulation models. A 10 percent 

decrease could occur for the southern half of Arizona; while northeastern New Mexico is 

projected to remain roughly stable, based on the same estimates. Such a precipitation decrease 

could have a more serious impact than the numbers suggest. The decrease of water draining into 

rivers and reservoirs typically can be double or triple the proportional reductions in rainfall 

amounts, especially when combined with higher temperatures (Christensen and Lettenmaier, 

2006). 

In another study, researchers using a multi-model ensemble of 19 models projected an increase in 

aridity for the Southwest. Their study defined the Southwest as the land area stretching from east 

to west, from Houston to San Francisco and north to south from Denver to Monterrey, Mexico; 

this area includes the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Only 2 of the 19 climate models evaluated 

suggested a potential decrease in aridity for the southwestern quadrant of the country (Seager et 

al., 2007).

Snowpack measurements suggest that rising temperatures are melting winter snow progressively 

earlier in the year, delivering water to reservoirs and water users in greater quantities earlier in the 

spring season. Historically, snowmelt has occurred at the same time communities ramp up their 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 183

water consumption, which has drained reservoirs as they fill. When streamflows rise earlier in the 

year, reservoirs fill more quickly. Earlier future streamflows would likely increase the chance that 

spikes in river flows occur when the reservoirs are at full capacity, increasing the probability of 

flash floods (Guido, 2008).

Average air temperatures are rising, and it is likely that continued warming would accentuate the 

temperature difference between the Southwest and the tropical Pacific Ocean, enhancing the 

strength of the westerly winds that carry moist air from the tropics into the Southwest during the 

monsoon. This scenario may increase the monsoon’s intensity, duration, or both, in which case,

floods would occur with greater frequency (Guido, 2008).

While the region is expected to dry out, it is also likely to see larger, more destructive flooding. 

Along with storms in general, hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become 

more intense. Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their annual 

precipitation from storms that begin as tropical cyclones in the Pacific Ocean. In fact, some of the 

largest floods in the Southwest have occurred when a remnant tropical storm hit a frontal storm 

from the north or northwest, providing energy to intensify a remnant tropical storm (Guido,

2008).

In summary, based on multi-model ensemble climate models, by the end of the 21st century the 

Southwest is likely to experience the following conditions: temperature increases of 5 to 8 

degrees F; an increase in the number of extremely hot days, with summer heat waves lasting 2 

weeks or more, accompanied by warmer winters with a reduced snowpack, and a later monsoonal 

season; a 5 percent drop in precipitation throughout most of Arizona, including the ApacheSitgreaves NFs, and possibly a 10 percent drop in southern Arizona; and an increase in extreme 

flood events following an overall increase in tropical storms.

Discussion

The state of knowledge needed to address climate change at the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs scale is 

still evolving. Because none of the current climate models, including multi-model ensembles, 

adequately resolve important topographic variations (e.g., mountain ranges versus valleys) and 

occurrences such as ENSO (El Niño) or the North American Monsoon, their results are imprecise 

and the subject of continuing research. However, these models do reproduce much of the 

underlying features of the Earth’s climate, and their basic structure has been proven under 

countless experiments and forecasts of the weather systems from which climate is usually 

described. Therefore, these models remain a credible means of estimating potential future climate 

scenarios. Most global climate models are not yet precise enough to apply to land management at 

the ecoregional or Apache-Sitgreaves NFs scale. This limits, to some degree, regional and 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs specific analysis of potential effects from climate change. Additionally, 

industrial society during the past 200 years has likely placed unprecedented pressures on 

ecosystems, increasing the unpredictable nature of future environmental change (Millar et al., 

2007). 

Improvement in regional-level models has increased with refinement of global climate modeling 

techniques. As climate model resolution increased to about 4,000 square miles per grid square, 

regional models may eventually be considered reliable at resolutions of about 350 square miles, 

nearly double the area of Albuquerque, New Mexico (Lenart, 2008). These model improvements 

also may provide researchers the information they need to downscale results to the local level of 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

184 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

national forests. Research efforts in this area have been successful in capturing fine scale details 

of historical climate, suggesting that regional methods can add value for assessments of the 

impacts of climate change projections (Maurer and Hidalgo, 2008). Researchers at The Nature 

Conservancy are currently downscaling multi-model ensemble climate projections to spatial 

resolutions between roughly 1⁄2 and 71⁄2 miles (Enquist and Gori, 2008). In another effort, 

scientists used statistical downscaling of multi-model ensemble to consider how Colorado River 

streamflow might change with climate (Christensen and Lettenmaier, 2006). In the future, this 

same approach could be applied to headwater streams on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (e.g., Blue 

River, Black River). 

Paleoenvironmental studies of changing climate in the Southwest may provide a limited historical 

ecological context for ecosystem variability and climate change. Such studies can provide a 

limited range of knowledge about past climate change, strengthening or weakening El Niño or La 

Niña events, patterns of precipitation, drought severity, and changes in vegetation patterns 

(Swetnam and Betancourt, 1997; Swetnam et al., 1999). A recurrent trend in the literature 

suggests that predicting the future effects of climate change and subsequent challenges to land 

management in the Southwest remains inexact and would require a combination of approaches.

In summary, climate modeling is a developing science. Newer multi-model ensembles are “better 

than the sum of their parts” and are used increasingly for projecting climate change in the 

Southwest. Downscaling techniques, including statistical downscaling, dynamical downscaling, 

and sensitivity analysis, are improving. Regional modeling, which incorporates jet stream 

activity, tropical storm and monsoon tracking, and regional elevation effects, has a high potential 

to improve localized climate projections. However, this general regional-level modeling still 

relates to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

Southwestern Climate Change

and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Ecosystems

Water and Climate Change

Changes in water distribution, timing of precipitation, availability, storage, watershed 

management, and human water uses may present some of the most important challenges of 

climate change and national forest management in the Southwest. Terrestrial and aquatic 

ecosystems and all human socioeconomic systems in the Southwest depend on water. In this 

section, the stage is set for the review of climate change by briefly discussing water in the 

Southwest, its overall importance to ecological and socioeconomic systems, and the possible 

impacts to this resource by potential changes in climate.

The prospect of future droughts becoming more severe because of global warming is a significant 

concern, especially because the Southwest continues to lead the Nation in population growth. 

Recent warming in some areas of the Southwest is occurring at a rate among the most rapid in the 

Nation (Seager et al., 2007) and is significantly higher than the global average in some areas. This 

is driving declines in spring snowpack and river flows. Further water cycle changes are projected

which, when combined with increasing temperatures, signal a serious water supply challenge in 

the decades and centuries ahead. Water supplies are projected to become increasingly scarce, 

demanding tradeoffs among competing uses, and potentially leading to conflict. 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 185

Climate change, with both wet periods and droughts, has been a part of Southwestern climate for 

millennia. The droughts of the last 110 years pale in comparison to some of the decades-long 

“megadroughts” that the region experienced over the last 2,000 years (Seager et al., 2008). 

During the closing decades of the 1500s, for example, major droughts gripped areas of the 

Southwest. As of 2009, much of the Southwest remains in a drought that began about 1998, with 

2002, the driest water year on record for many parts of Arizona6(McPhee et al., 2004), including 

the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. This event is the most severe western drought of the last 110 years 

and is exacerbated by record warming. Projections for this century point to an increasing 

probability of regional drought, made more probable by warming temperatures. The most likely 

future for the Southwest is a substantially drier one. Combined with the historical record of severe 

droughts and the current uncertainty regarding the exact causes and drivers of these past events, 

the Southwest must be prepared for droughts that could result from multiple causes. The 

combined effects of natural climate variability and human-induced climate change could result in 

a challenging combination of water shortages for the region (Karl et al., 2009).

Development in the Southwest has been dependent upon technology to deliver water resources. 

Most snowpack and upland reservoir locations are on national forests in the Southwest (Smith et 

al., 2001; State of New Mexico, 2005). There are an estimated 3,771 surface acres of perennial 

lakes and ponds within the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Forest Service, 2008). The ApacheSitgreaves NFs also contain many of the headwater streams in the Little Colorado, Salt, and 

Upper Gila River Basins. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs receive a large portion of Arizona’s annual 

snowpack. Current estimated water yields from the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are roughly 384,650 

acre-feet per year (Forest Service, 2008), the majority going to the greater Phoenix metropolitan 

area. Some studies predict water shortages and lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally 

changing river flows and transfers of water from agriculture to urban uses as critical climaterelated impacts to water availability (Barnett et al., 2008). 

While agriculture remains the greatest water user in the Southwest, this use has decreased as 

Arizona’s and New Mexico’s booming populations demand more water for municipal and other 

uses and irrigation technologies improve; this ongoing trend could affect future agricultural uses. 

Without upland reservoirs and watersheds important to Arizona’s largest metropolitan center 

located on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, alternative water sources, water delivery systems, and 

infrastructure support for agriculture would need to be developed (Lenart, 2007). 

Extreme precipitation events, occurring after extended drought, may increase the number and 

severity of flash floods and accelerate soil erosion. The timing and extent of storm-related 

precipitation would play a key role in determining the degree to which people and the 

environment are affected (Swetnam and Betancourt, 1997; Swetnam et al., 1999; Lenart, 2007). 

In a drought of the magnitude of the worst 1-year drought on record, water demand may exceed 

supply by 68 percent. According to National Weather Service data from the last 110 years,

portions of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs experienced below average precipitation 1 year out of 

every 2 and drought7 1 year out of every 6. In a 5-year scenario modeled after the worst drought 

in the historical record, water demand in Arizona could exceed supply by 67 percent; in a 10-year 

scenario, demand may exceed supply by 59 percent (Lenart, 2007). In the Southwest, intense 

 

6 Drought impacts in 2002 included extensive wildfires, water supply emergencies, vegetation and wildlife mortality, 

and economic losses in the ranching, agriculture, and tourism sectors.

7 The Society for Range Management defines drought as 75 percent or less of the average yearly rainfall.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

186 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

debate would likely continue over water allocation. Add a highly variable climate over time and 

at a large, landscape scale; the situation becomes even more conflict prone (Lenart, 2007). 

In the realm of human health, a sequence of rain-drought-rain can trigger outbreaks of 

Hantavirus. Also there is evidence linking unusually wet seasons with an increase in reported 

cases of valley fever. In both instances, the distribution of precipitation over time and space are 

important factors.

The flooding potential is very likely to increase because of earlier and more rapid snowpack 

melting, with more intense precipitation events. Even if total precipitation increases substantially, 

snowpack would likely be reduced because of higher overall temperatures. However, it is possible 

that more precipitation would create additional water supplies, reduce demand, and ease 

competition among uses (Joyce et al., 2001; Smith, et al., 2001).

In contrast, a drier climate is very likely to decrease water supplies and increase demand for uses 

such as agriculture, recreation, aquatic habitat, and power, thus increasing competition for 

decreasing supplies (Joyce et al., 2001). Overall, these trends would increase pressures on the 

already limited water supplies in the Southwest, increase energy demand, alter fire regimes and 

ecosystems, create risks for human health, and affect agriculture (Swetnam and Betancourt, 1997; 

Sprigg et al., 2000).

Climate Change and Potential Ecosystem Impacts on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Natural ecosystems are regulated by climate, which is, to some degree, determined by natural 

ecosystems. Long term or short term climate variability may cause shifts in the structure, 

composition, and functioning of ecosystems, particularly in the fragile boundaries of the semiarid 

regions. These areas already contain plants, insects, and animals highly specialized and adapted to 

the landscape. A changing climate of wetter, warmer winters and overall temperature increases 

would alter their range, type, and number throughout the Southwest. Responding differently to 

shifts in climate, the somewhat tenuous balance among ecosystem components would also 

change. As phenology is altered, the overall effects between interacting species are difficult to 

predict, particularly given the rate of climate change and the ability of symbionts to adapt. As the 

health of the ecosystem is a function of water availability, temperature, carbon dioxide, and many 

other factors, it is difficult to determine accurately the extent, type, and magnitude of ecosystem 

change under future climate scenarios. Yet, should vegetation cover and moisture exchanging 

properties of the land change, important local and regional climate characteristics such as albedo,

8

humidity, wind, and temperature would also change with potential compounding effects to 

vegetation (Sprigg et al., 2000). 

Current research shows that climate is much more variable than is commonly understood and that 

this is expressed in nested temporal and spatial scales. Millar et al. (2007) provide a summation of 

natural climatic variables and their implications for forest managers. These are three key points 

from that research which should be considered in Apache-Sitgreaves NFs management strategies:

 

8 Albedo is the reflectance of a surface. Absorbed solar radiation warms the Earth’s surface, whereas, reflected 

radiation does not. Albedo is one component of this energy feedback. Different land covers have varied albedo. Thus, 

land use change can influence albedo and whether a land surface has a warming or cooling effect. For example, snow 

has a very high albedo and, thus, has a cooling effect (negative feedback). Melting of snow or coverage of snow with 

vegetation or black carbon (from air pollution) results in a lower surface albedo and has a warming effect (positive 

feedback) (IPCC, 2007).
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 187

1. The past record clearly shows that ecological conditions change constantly in response to 

climate. Plant and animal species would shift even in the absence of human influence 

(Millar et al., 2007).

2. Wet/dry oscillations associated with ocean-atmosphere patterns have driven regional and 

continental scale fire patterns for centuries. These patterns provide a basis for fire 

forecasting tools (Westerling et al., 2006).

3. Species ranges and populations are expected to be highly unstable as the climate shifts 

(Millar et al., 2007).

Climate may influence the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species through 

changes in resource availability, reproduction, and survivorship. The potential ecological 

implications of climate change trends in the Southwest indicate the following:

• More extreme natural ecological process events, including wildfires, intense rain, flash 

foods, and wind events (Swetnam et al., 1999).

• Greater vulnerability to invasive species, including insects, plants, fungi, and vertebrates 

(Joyce et al., 2006).

• Long term shifts in vegetation patterns (Westerling et al., 2006; Millar et al., 2007).

• Cold-tolerant vegetation moving upslope or disappearing in some areas; migration of 

some plant species to the more northern portions of their existing range (Clark, 1998).

• Potential decreases in overall forest productivity due to reduced precipitation (Forest 

Service, 2005).

• Shifts in the timing of snowmelt (already observed) in the American West, which, along 

with increases in summer temperatures, have serious implications for the survival of fish 

species and may challenge efforts to reintroduce species into their historic range (Joyce et 

al., 2006; Millar et al., 2007).

• Effects on biological diversity, pressure on wildlife populations, distribution, viability, 

movement and migration patterns because of increasing temperatures, water shortages, 

and changing ecological conditions.

• Effects on phenology and changes in the dates of flowering and associated pollination 

and food-chain disruptions (Guido, 2008).

In summary, expected changes to Southwest and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs ecosystems due to 

climate change include the following: projected decreases in precipitation, including reduced 

snowpack and overall water availability; increased risk from wildfire, insects and disease, and 

invasive species; and potential decreases in ecosystem productivity from water limitations and 

increased temperature. Potential impacts to riparian, wetland, and aquatic habitats and the species 

that depend on them are additional concerns.

Vegetation Changes

A warmer climate in the Southwest is expected to affect ecosystems by altering the biotic and 

abiotic stresses that influence and affect the vigor of ecosystems, leading to increased extent and 

severity of disturbances on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. As an example, the results of modeling 

five different climate scenarios by Ironside et al. (2010) showed only the San Francisco Peaks and 

the highest elevations of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs having the only suitable climate for 

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) sustainability in Arizona for the 21st century. Decreasing water 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

188 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

availability and higher temperatures would accelerate the stresses (i.e., multiyear drought, insects, 

fire) experienced in forests, woodlands, grasslands, chaparral, and riparian communities. In 

concert, these stressors may have significant effects on growth, regeneration, long term

distribution, abundance of forest species, and carbon sequestration.

Many Apache-Sitgreaves NFs ecosystems currently contain water-limited vegetation (e.g., semidesert grassland, Madrean pine-oak woodland, interior chaparral). Vegetation productivity on the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs may decrease with warming temperatures, as increasingly negative water 

balances constrain photosynthesis, although this may be partially offset if CO2 fertilization 

increases water use efficiency in plants. Piñon-juniper woodlands, a key Apache-Sitgreaves NFs 

PNVT, are water limited systems; piñon-juniper ecotones are sensitive to environmental 

fluctuations and existing canopy structure that may provide trees a buffer against drought. 

However, severe multiyear droughts periodically cause dieback of piñons, which may overwhelm 

local buffering. Since the early 1900s, the size and severity of the recent drought and piñon Ips 

beetle (Ips confusus) related die-off is unprecedented for the White Mountains and Coconino 

Plateau (Lynch et al., 2008).

Interdecadal climate variability strongly affects interior dry ecosystems, causing considerable 

growth during wet periods. This growth increases the evaporative demand, setting up the 

ecosystem for dieback during the ensuing dry period (Swetnam and Betancourt, 1997). The 

current dieback is historically unprecedented in its combination of fire suppression, low 

precipitation, and high temperatures. Increased drought stress via warmer climate is the 

predisposing factor, and piñon mortality and fuel accumulations are contributing factors. 

Ecosystem change may arise from large scale, severe fires that lead to colonization of invasive 

species, which further compromises the ability of piñons to reestablish. There is no simple way to 

predict these changes at the forest planning scale, although the science community is working on 

appropriate scale models that would assist forest managers in forecasting vegetation trends under 

different climate scenarios (Joyce et al., 2008).

Temperature increases contribute to lethal stresses on western forest ecosystems, increasing 

negative water balances and frequency, severity, and extent of disturbances (e.g., fire, insect 

outbreaks). Human development of the West has resulted in habitat fragmentation, creation of 

migration barriers (e.g., dams) and introduction of invasive species. The combination of 

development, invasive species, complex topography, and climate change is likely to lead to a loss 

of regional biological diversity. However, some species may migrate to higher altitudes in 

mountainous areas. It is also possible that some ecosystems (e.g., alpine) would virtually 

disappear from the region (Joyce et al., 2008).

Natural ecological processes having the greatest impact on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs include

insects, diseases, fires, droughts, inland storms caused by hurricanes, flash flooding, windstorms, 

ice storms, and the introduction of nonnative species. Climate variability and changes can alter 

the frequency, intensity, timing, and spatial extent of these natural events. Many potential 

consequences of future climate change are expected to be buffered by the resilience of ApacheSitgreaves NFs plant and animal communities to natural climatic variation. However, an 

extensive body of literature suggests that new disturbance regimes under climate change are 

likely to result in significant disturbances to U.S. forests, with lasting ecological and 

socioeconomic impacts (Joyce et al., 2001). 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 189

Wildfire

Historically, wildfires have been a recurring natural ecological disturbance in conifer forests, 

piñon-juniper woodlands, interior chaparral, and grassland ecosystems of the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs. An analysis of wildfire and climate trends in the western United States from 1974 to 2004

shows that the frequency of large wildfires and fire season length increased substantially after 

1985 (Westerling et al., 2006). These changes were closely linked with earlier spring snowmelt 

and increases in spring and summer air temperatures. Earlier spring snowmelt probably 

contributed to greater wildfire frequency by extending the period during which ignitions could 

occur and by reducing water availability to ecosystems before the arrival of the summer 

monsoons, thus enhancing drying of vegetation and surface fuels (Westerling et al., 2006). These 

trends of increased fire size correspond with the increased cost of fire suppression. 

In recent years, western forests have been increasingly impacted by wildfires, burning homes and 

wildlands; suppression costs have totaled more than $1 billion per year for Federal land 

management agencies. Since about the mid-1970s, the total acreage burned and the wildfire 

severity in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests has increased. Fire frequency and severity 

may be exacerbated if temperatures increase, precipitation decreases, and overall drought 

conditions become more common. In addition, continued population growth would likely 

increase human-caused fires, since humans start nearly half of the fires in the Southwest. In 2011, 

for example, the Wallow Fire was determined to be human-caused and occurred in Apache, 

Navajo, Graham, and Greenlee Counties in Arizona and Catron County, New Mexico. It also 

spread to the Fort Apache and San Carlos Indian Reservations. At more than 538,000 acres, the 

Wallow Fire is the largest fire on record in Arizona.

Insects and Pathogens

Insects and pathogens are significant natural occurring ecological processes within forest 

ecosystems in the U.S., costing 1.5 billion dollars annually (Dale et al., 2001). Extensive reviews 

of the effects of climate change on insects and pathogens have reported many cases where climate 

change has affected and/or would affect forest insect species range and abundance, as witnessed 

in the Southwest. Climate also affects insect populations indirectly through effects on hosts. 

Insect and pathogen populations have responded to variability in climate and changing forest 

character (especially to changing structure and species composition) on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs (Lynch et al., 2010). Drought stress from decreased precipitation and/or warming reduces the 

ability of a tree to mount a defense against insect attack. This stress may also cause some host 

species to become more palatable to some types of insects. Fire suppression and large areas of 

susceptible trees, a legacy from logging, may also increase insect and pathogen populations (Ryan 

et al., 2008).

Invasive Species

Disturbance may reset and rejuvenate some ecosystems in some cases and cause enduring change 

in others. For example, climate change may favor the spread of invasive, nonnative grasses into 

arid lands where the native vegetation is too sparse to carry a fire. When these areas burn, they 

typically convert to nonnative monocultures and the native vegetation is lost (Ryan et al., 2008). 

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs suffer from many types of invasive species outbreaks, including 

plants (e.g., yellow star-thistle, musk thistle, cheatgrass, salt cedar, weeping lovegrass) and 

animals (e.g., bullfrog, crayfish). Collectively, 58 nonnative invasive plant species currently infest 

roughly 30,000 acres on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Forest Service, 2008). Invasive plants can
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

190 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

alter landscapes by overtaking native species, facilitating fire outbreaks, and altering the food 

supply for herbivorous animals and insects. For example, weeping lovegrass was introduced to 

the region for cattle feed and erosion control in the mid-1900s, but has since moved from 

ranchlands and roadways into the forest, woodland, and grassland communities on the ApacheSitgreaves NFs. Subsequently, this grass displaced native species.

Specific Habitats on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Our knowledge of possible climate change impacts on specific vegetation types remains limited. 

However, projected and observed climate change effects are being studied at the broad scale 

habitat level throughout the Southwest. The mild nature of climate gradients among lower life 

zones of the Southwest and protracted ecotonal bands make woodland plant communities 

particularly vulnerable (Allen and Breshears, 1998; Adams et al., 2009). Many of the region’s 

plant and animal species are associated with these key habitats and are important when 

considering the potential impacts of climate change on ecosystems managed by the Forest Service

in the Southwest.

Subalpine

Subalpine habitats are very susceptible to climate change in the Southwest, given their limited 

extent and marginal existence. Analyses of the ecological model results when driven by different 

climate scenarios indicate changes in the location and area of potential habitats for many tree 

species and plant communities. For example, subalpine habitats found on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs, and the variety of species dependent upon them, are likely to be greatly reduced. In some 

areas of the contiguous U.S., subalpine ecosystems are projected to all but disappear from 

western mountains (Joyce et al., 2001). On the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, subalpine habitat is 

projected to be replaced by ponderosa pine (Ironside et al., 2010). Increasing temperatures and 

shifting precipitation patterns may further limit the extent of subalpine vegetation (Lenihan et al., 

2008).

Upward elevational shifts of plants in subalpine ecotones have been increasing in North America. 

Some researchers have reported upward elevational shifts in subalpine vegetation due to climate. 

Assessing the vulnerability of species and locations in subalpine zones to climate change is an 

important issue for their conservation (Lenihan et al., 2008) and for the wildlife species that 

depend on alpine habitats. Subalpine species are at higher risk of extinction as suitable habitats 

rapidly disappear from mountaintops (Christensen et al., 2007). Some wildlife may be reliant on

snowpack melting to set phenological clocks (Inouye, 2008). Warm summer temperatures may 

force a reduction in daytime foraging by large herbivores whose tolerance for heat is lower than 

species adapted to warmer weather (Aublet et al., 2009). 

Riparian

Riparian habitats are very important for wildlife on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs; approximately 

511 wildlife and fish species (32 fish, 13 amphibian, 324 birds, 105 mammals, 36 reptiles)

(Vander Lee et al., 2006), as well as an unknown number of invertebrate and plant species, inhabit 

or use riparian areas at some time during their life. Research predicts that as climate changes, 

water inputs are expected to decline due to reduced precipitation and, subsequently, reduced

water in riparian zones. Water losses are also likely to increase due to elevated evapotranspiration 

rates at higher temperatures and greater runoff losses associated with increased frequencies of 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 191

high intensity convectional storms. Urban expansion would also increase human demand for 

water and further reduce water availability for wildland ecosystems. Decreased water availability 

would affect riverine and riparian ecosystem function, due to modifications in geomorphological 

processes and an overall reduction in the availability of moisture to plant communities. Although 

these areas compose less than 1 percent of Apache-Sitgreaves NFs lands, they provide critical 

habitat for vertebrates, invertebrates, migratory birds, and other riparian-dependent species. 

Reduced water inputs would cause riparian ecosystems to shrink. Furthermore, lowered water 

availability would stress riparian plants and increase the ecosystem susceptibility to invasion by 

nonnative plants (e.g., salt cedar, Russian olive) which in turn would disrupt the natural wildlife 

community (Archer and Predick, 2008).

Wetlands and Cienegas 

Climate change is likely to affect native plant and animal species by altering key habitats such as 

the wetland/cienega, fen, and bog ecosystems (Karl et al., 2009). There are roughly 11,825 acres 

of wetland/cienega riparian areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Forest Service, 2008). 

Wetlands/cienegas create unique habitats and microclimates that support diverse wildlife and 

plant communities. Wetlands/cienegas can exist with little or no water for long periods, or have 

several wet/dry cycles each year. When it rains, what appeared to be only a few clumps of short, 

dry grasses suddenly teem with aquatic plants and animals. Wetlands/cienegas provide a perfect 

habitat for migrating birds to feed, mate, and raise their young (Karl et al., 2009). 

Wetlands/cienegas also serve as natural wastewater purification systems. Wetlands/cienegas 

perform two important functions in relation to climate. They have mitigation effects through their 

ability to store carbon and have adaptation effects through their ability to store and regulate water

flows. Due to their ability to store and slowly release water, properly functioning 

wetlands/cienegas are vital during periods of extreme droughts.

Aquatic Systems

There are already observed shifts in the timing of snowmelt in the American West which, along 

with increases in summer air temperatures, have serious implications for the survival of fish 

species and may render some efforts to reintroduce species into their historic range useless

(Millar et al., 2007). Of the 14 native fish species found on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, 7 are 

currently protected under the Endangered Species Act (Forest Service, 2008). For cool and coldwater species, a nearly 50 percent reduction in thermal habitat is projected with scenarios of 

increased water temperatures (Eaton and Scheller, 1996). Predicted impacts to aquatic ecosystems 

include altered seasonal high flow events, increases in drought severity during summer flows, and 

increasing temperatures in small streams and tributaries that further limit habitat during seasonal 

flows (Williams and Carter, 2009).

The fundamental physiological components of growth and metabolism are strongly affected by 

temperature (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). For fish highly adapted to local climates, higher water

temperature decreases feeding and increases metabolism; resulting in decreased growth. Fish 

increase feeding rates to compensate for poor growing conditions leading to greater visibility and 

encounters with predators. Trout in whole lake experiments had lower survival at temperatures 

above optimum; those populations with the highest temperatures and lowest food abundance 

experienced the lowest survival. The prediction is for an increasing frequency of poor or failed 

year classes where fish cannot escape the warmer conditions. Research, so far, reflects a basic 

understanding of the impacts of climate warming on individuals but not on the outcomes at the 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

192 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

population levels (Biro et al., 2007). Current stresses on native aquatic species, including heattolerant nonnatives, add to the complexity of managing and adapting to climate change.

Plant and Animal Species

The Nature Conservancy (Vander Lee et al., 2006) produced a list of 511 known and potential 

vertebrate species on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, accounting for 14 native fish, 18 nonnative fish, 

13 amphibian, 36 reptile, 324 bird, and 105 mammal species. In addition, there are roughly 2,500 

plant species and potentially several thousand invertebrate species found on the forests. The 

White Mountains harbor several endemic species found primarily or exclusively on the forests. 

Twenty-one invertebrates have been found only in the White Mountains (Stevens, 2007), while 

five small mammals and one fish are found primarily there (AZGFD, 2007; Hoffmeister 1986; 

NatureServe Web site 2007, 2008, 2009). Another three mammal species found in the White 

Mountains are more widespread, but occur only within Arizona (AZGFD, 2007). 

Research suggests large changes in the structure and species composition of plant communities 

due to the warming air temperatures and altered hydrological cycles. Many of the region’s plant, 

animal, and insect species depend on precise phenological events based on climatic conditions for 

migration, flowering, and timing for foraging and reproductive activities. Climate thus influences 

their distribution and abundance through changes in resource availability, fecundity, and 

survivorship. It is currently unknown how many species would successfully adapt to changing 

conditions. The ability of plant and animal species to migrate under climate change is strongly 

influenced by their dispersal abilities and by disturbances to the landscape. Land use changes and 

habitat alterations around the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs would add to the challenge of plant and 

animal species adapting to climate change. Within an ecological context, wildlife and plant 

responses to climate change in the region are highly dependent on interactions between weather, 

land use, land cover, hydrology, fire, and stresses from invasive, nonnative species. 

Distribution

Many studies support the predictions of changes in species distribution related to climate change

especially related to temperature and precipitation changes. Temperature is likely to be the main 

driver for different species, including possible shifts in a coordinated and systematic manner 

throughout broad regions (Rosenzweig et al., 2007). Species at the upper elevations are at greater 

risk of extirpation since they may not be able to adapt to habitat changes. Other species such as 

White Mountains water penny beetle (Psephenus montanus), New Mexico meadow jumping 

mouse (Zapus hudsonius luteus), and Three Forks springsnail (Pyrgulopsis trivialis) are also at 

risk due to their limited distribution and occurrences, or they are unable to disperse or adapt to 

keep up with the high rates of climate change. Such organisms face increased risk of extinction 

(Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2008). In many instances, the impacts of range shifts would go far 

beyond the mere addition or subtraction of a species to or from a system. Some range shifts 

would have cascading effects on community structure and the functioning of ecosystems (Lawler 

et al., 2009). 

Habitat Quality

Climate change may cause a host of physical consequences to the ecosystems, which may in turn 

affect the quality of plant and animal habitats. This may occur through a decrease in available 

water, changes in vegetation type through decline in vigor, severe drought or fire, or through 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 193

changes in hydrology. Large areas of forest that were once habitat for some wildlife species may 

no longer be suitable, potentially leading to significant changes in species due to loss of needed 

habitat components (Karl et al., 2009). In their current state, the sustainability of 9 of the 14 

major PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is already at risk (Forest Service, 2008) without 

factoring in potential effects of climate change.

Behavior and Biology

The timing of seasonal activities of plants and animals is perhaps the simplest process by which 

to track responses of species to climate change. Observed phenological events include leaf 

unfolding, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf coloring, leaf fall of plants, bird migration, chorusing of 

amphibians, and appearance/emergence of insects (Rosenzweig et al., 2007).

Large herbivores, such as pronghorn antelope, inhabiting highly seasonal temperate environments 

are subject to drastic daily and seasonal changes in environmental quality. During summer, they 

must acquire sufficient resources for growth and reproduction and to survive the following winter. 

Foraging behavior in summer is thus vitally important. Higher temperatures may reduce the daily 

activities of large herbivores. This may affect foraging, growth, reproduction, and overall health 

of animals. They may experience hardship during the winter and may not reproduce as 

successfully (Aublet et al., 2009). In reptiles and amphibians, increased temperatures, and 

changing precipitation could negatively affect reproduction, for many of the same reasons as with 

fish (Hulin et al., 2009). Impacts are also possible to the migration and dispersal routes of many 

species, including migratory songbirds, which are already of concern due to declines in 

abundance (Sillett et al., 2000).

Fragmentation and Isolation

Habitat fragmentation could affect the full spectrum of biological diversity, from altering 

behavior of individuals, their genetics, and the characteristics of populations, which could

fundamentally change the structure and function of ecological communities (Lomolino and 

Perault, 2007). Climate change may contribute to further fragmentation of habitat and creation of 

migration barriers. Fragmentation and barriers are likely to impede elevational and/or northward 

migration of many species, resulting in decreases in their total range. Habitat loss and 

fragmentation may also influence shifts in a species distribution. Empirical evidence shows that 

the natural reaction of species to climate change is to redistribute to more favorable habitats. 

However, this redistribution may be hampered by fragmentation isolating suitable areas for 

colonization and preventing species movements, which may contribute to their extinction 

(Rosenzweig et al., 2007).

Southwestern Climate Change and Socioeconomic Effects 

This literature review found few substantive studies of the possible social and economic effects 

that climate change might cause or exacerbate in the Southwest. Most climate-related 

socioeconomic studies are either heavily theoretical, or too broad to apply specifically to the 

region. Over thousands of years, societies in the Southwest have faced climate change 

repeatedly—some successfully, some not so successfully (Dean, 2000). It is often difficult to 

“draw a conceptual line between climate change and other kinds of environmental 

transformations: both affect human societies by changing the availability of resources” (Tainter,

2000). How societies adapt to climate change is fundamentally dependent on how they approach 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

194 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

problem solving (Tainter, 2000). However, some of the more general social and economic 

projections can help to inform us about climate change effects on the region.

Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values are 

influenced by changes in natural environments. Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are 

growing at unprecedented rates. The combination of population growth and climate change would

likely exacerbate climatic effects, putting even greater pressure on water, forest, and other 

resources. Additionally, pressures put upon agriculture and other climate-sensitive occupations in 

neighboring Mexico may increase an already large migration of people into the southwestern U.S. 

(Sprigg et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2001). If conditions become too hot and dry, the number of 

people moving to the region may decrease.

Recent research in the Southwest shows that up to 60 percent of the climate related trends of river

flow, winter air temperature, and snowpack between 1950 and 1999 are human-induced. The 

study predicts water shortages, lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally changing river flow, 

transfers of water from agriculture to urban uses, and other critical impacts (Barnett et al., 2008). 

The region’s economy would likely continue to grow. Increases in service-oriented sectors, as 

well as the expanding high-tech industry, may bring more jobs and employment opportunities for 

the growing population. Significant changes due to population pressures include the following: 

decreased forest cover; increased construction; additional Federal and State parks, wilderness 

areas, and wildlife refuges; more land utilized for national defense and industry; expanded urban 

areas; and decreased pasture and rangelands (Joyce and Birdsey, 2000).

Forests significantly enhance the environment in which people live, work, and play. Population 

levels, economic growth, and personal preferences influence the value that is placed on forests

and, consequently, the resources demanded from forests. Changes caused by human use of forests 

could exceed impacts from climate change. According to the Forest Service (2009), the majority 

of recreation visitors on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs come from the Phoenix and Tucson 

metropolitan areas. According to National Visitor Use Monitoring data, the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs received nearly 2 million visits during 2001, 70 percent of those visitors came from 

Maricopa (Phoenix) and Pima (Tucson) Counties. Many Arizonans consider access to public 

lands a major contributor to the quality of life. Many southwestern forests as well as the ApacheSitgreaves NFs are experiencing very high recreational use while urban expansion is decreasing 

the amount of available open space. Climate change could have long term impacts on many of the 

amenities, goods, and services from forests including recreational opportunities, productivity of 

locally harvested plants such as berries or ferns, local economics through land use shifts from 

forest to other uses, forest real estate values, and tree cover and composition in urban areas and 

associated benefits and costs. Private agricultural, urban, and suburban areas are expanding and 

affecting Forest Service management. This expansion of human influences into the rural 

landscape alters natural ecological process patterns associated with fire, flooding, landslides, and 

native and introduced species. These land use changes are very likely to interact with and 

potentially exacerbate stresses on forests associated with climate change (Joyce and Birdsey,

2000).

Livestock Grazing

Livestock grazing is one of the management activities occurring on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. 

Ranching is a social, cultural, and agricultural activity throughout the rural Southwest. It is a 

major land use in both Arizona and New Mexico; its success depends on the natural vegetation 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 195

accessible to grazing animals. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide forage for livestock grazing, 

but they also provide crucial habitat for wildlife. Lands grazed on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs are 

not irrigated and any variability in precipitation and temperature directly affects forage plant 

production and wildlife habitat. Changes in climate may affect the vigor and productivity of 

forage plants and, thus, the overall conditions of both wildlife habitat and ecological conditions

which may affect grazing capability. It is possible that higher temperatures and decreased 

precipitation predicted for the next century would also decrease forage production and shorten the 

growing and grazing season, causing a reduction in livestock numbers; while flash floods and 

increased risk of animal disease can adversely affect the livestock industry (Joyce et al., 2001) 

dependent upon the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ forage resources.

Coupled with poor forage conditions, there may be a general scarcity of water for livestock, 

which may affect grazing capability. For a pasture to be available for grazing, it not only has to 

have sufficient nutritious vegetation but adequate water as well. Some allotments/pastures rely on 

wells and developed springs, but many utilize dirt tanks to capture snowmelt and monsoon 

rainfall for use by livestock. During recent droughts, many dirt tanks on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs dried up, making many pastures unusable for cattle even though forage may have been 

available. Ranching is in a vulnerable position, especially when viewed against a backdrop of 

changing climate, economic structure, urban expansion, increasing population, fluctuating market 

conditions, resource availability (Sprigg et al., 2000), and changing public policies.

Recreational Value 

Climate change affects national forest ecosystems and the relationships people have with those 

places. Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values 

are influenced by changes in natural environments. The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs provide many 

recreational opportunities including hiking, camping, hunting, bird watching, skiing, autumn leaf 

tours, and water-related activities such as fishing and boating. These activities provide income 

and employment in every forested region of the U.S. Outdoor recreation opportunities are likely 

to change, with resulting changes in public expectations and seasonality of use. Higher 

temperatures are very likely to result in a longer season for summer activities such as 

backpacking, but a shorter season for winter activities such as dog-sledding, cross-country skiing, 

and snowshoeing. Areas at low elevations and in more southern parts of the region are very likely 

to be at risk from shorter snow seasons and rising snowlines (Joyce et al., 2001; Svoma 2009). In 

areas of marginal annual snowpack, the inability to maintain cross-country skiing may result in 

the closure of some ski areas.

Urban and suburban expansion into undeveloped lands is likely to shift in response to climate 

change. Population shifts may cause new resource related human conflicts, and create unforeseen 

impacts on already stressed urbanized ecosystems. As temperatures increase in lowland, urban 

areas, recreation is expected to increase on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Forest Service, 2009), 

where cooler temperatures would attract people to higher elevations, with the forests becoming 

more of a refuge from increasingly hot summers (Irland et al., 2001).

Wood Products

Changes in climate and the consequent impacts on forests would likely change market incentives 

for investment in biomass technology and in wood conservation techniques. The market for wood 

products in the U.S. is highly dependent on the area and species composition of forests, supplies 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

196 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

of wood, technological change in production and use, availability of wood substitutes, demand for 

wood products, and international competition. Rising atmospheric CO2 would increase forest 

productivity and carbon storage in forests if sufficient water and nutrients are available. Any 

increased carbon storage would be primarily in live trees. However, in the Southwest and 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, as discussed above, overall production may be limited by decreased

available water. While increases in wildfire may decrease some available wood supply, treatment 

of wildland-urban interface areas and restoration of fire-adapted ecosystems in the Southwest and 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs may actually increase the overall availability of small diameter timber 

and related wood products (Joyce et al., 2001).

Multiple socioeconomic impacts often follow drought and severe insect outbreaks. Timber 

production, manufacturing, and markets may not be able to take advantage of vast numbers of 

killed trees. In addition, when insect outbreaks occur, the public often perceives this as an 

increased fire risk and as detrimental to the aesthetics of montane areas (Ryan et al., 2008). These 

factors could drive future public policy. Furthermore, wood supplies would vary by forest and 

woodland type (Sprigg et al., 2000; Joyce et al., 2001).

Health

Future climate scenarios would undoubtedly amplify current climatically driven human health 

concerns, with potential increased risk of dengue fever,

9

encephalitis, and other diseases 

associated with warmer climes, and the northern movement of disease vectors, such as malariacarrying mosquitoes. Diseases such as valley fever and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome are 

endemic in the Southwest. The incidence of Hantavirus has been linked to seasonal and 

interannual patterns of rainfall (Eisen et al., 2007). Research strongly suggests that valley fever is 

connected to the sequence and pattern of precipitation and wind. Future climate scenarios would

undoubtedly amplify current climatically driven human health concerns. Projected temperature 

increases are anticipated to create greater numbers of heat-induced illnesses, reduced air quality, 

and increased cases of respiratory illness due to the presence and persistence of dust and 

allergens. Conversely, in many temperate areas—which include the Southwest—there is clear 

seasonal variation in mortality; death rates during the winter season are 10 to 25 percent higher 

than in the summer. Several studies cited by the IPCC indicate that decreases in winter mortality 

may be greater than increases in summer mortality under climate change (McMichael et al., 

2001). The geographical range of disease-bearing vectors, such as the mosquito, would expand 

under the model scenarios for the 21st century (Liverman and Merideth, 2002). Pressures put upon 

agriculture and other climate-sensitive occupations in neighboring Mexico may increase an 

already large migration of people into the Southwestern U.S., making disease monitoring

increasingly difficult (Sprigg et al., 2000). This is of interest to the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and 

surrounding communities because the majority of forest users are from Maricopa and Pima 

Counties. Increased visitor use could be the vector necessary to spread any number of these health 

issues. 

Energy 

Higher air temperatures may increase the overall demand for energy within the region’s urban 

areas and could affect the Southwest’s current socioeconomic environment (Sprigg et al., 2000; 

Smith et al., 2001). Electricity supports human activity and offers the possibility of economic 

 

9 Dengue fever is a virus-based disease spread by mosquitoes.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 197

growth. For much of the region, water delivery systems rely on electricity for pumping 

groundwater and for directing water throughout the systems. Urban and agricultural uses of 

energy driven water resources are essential in the region’s current socioeconomic environment. 

During the warmest summer months, energy demands increase with the use of air-cooling 

systems. Given population projections for the region, a greater number of electricity generating 

plants would be needed to handle the demands that follow. Climate warming contributes to 

increased energy demands and evaporative loss from reservoirs. All reasonable scenarios of 

future climate variability must be considered when anticipating the costly measures necessary to 

provide dependable, safe, and reasonable supplies of energy (Sprigg et al., 2000). Increasing 

energy demand and the ensuing demand for alternative energy would likely impact the ApacheSitgreaves NFs through a growing need for new energy corridors, requests for wind and solar 

energy sites, and other special use related requirements, as well as the current and ongoing 

demand for biomass to fuel existing electrical cogeneration plants.

Key Climate Change Factors for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

Based on current projections, the primary regional-level effects of climate change most likely to 

occur in the Southwest include (1) warmer temperatures, (2) decreasing precipitation, (3) 

decreased water availability with increased demand, (4) increased extreme disturbance events 

(natural and human caused), and (5) increased use of the national forests for relief from increased 

temperatures.

Based on current climate model projections and research, the climate change factors that appear 

most likely to affect the Southwestern Region and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and to affect desired 

conditions in the revised land management plan are ecological, weather-related disturbances, and 

socioeconomic demands, as described:

• Projected increase in frequency of extreme weather events (intense storms);

• Projected increase in wildfire risks;

• Projected increase in outbreaks of insects, diseases beyond endemic levels, and nonnative 

invasive species;

• Projected increase in demand for decreasing upland water supplies; and

• Projected increase in national forest socioeconomic uses and demands.

These natural ecological processes and human-caused disturbance factors and the potential 

impacts on desired conditions for the national forests in the Southwestern Region and the ApacheSitgreaves NFs are described below.

Increased Extreme Weather Events

Climate change likely would increase flash floods, making the region’s growing population more 

susceptible to loss of life and property. While the Southwest and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs is 

expected to become warmer and drier, it is likely to experience more flooding. This relates in part 

to the fact that warm air holds more moisture than cooler air. The frequency of floods is also 

influenced by the rate of snowmelt in the winter and spring, the character of the summer 

monsoon, and the incidence of tropical hurricanes and storms in the autumn.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

198 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become more intense in the future. Since 

Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their annual precipitation from 

tropical storms, it is likely that this change would also increase flooding. In Arizona and New 

Mexico, floods killed 57 people between 1995 and 2006; while hundreds of others have needed to 

be rescued. The economic price tag is also high, costing Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and 

Utah approximately 5 billion dollars between 1972 and 2006. A potential increase in extreme 

storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts may present challenges for achieving the plan’s desired 

conditions.

Impacts from extreme weather events could include changes in the composition and diversity of 

desired ecosystems, destruction of habitat, timber loss, increasing damage to the forests’ 

infrastructure (e.g., trails, facilities, roads), and loss of recreation opportunities. Natural 

ecological process events that exceed the historic range of natural variation can change the 

makeup, structure, and function of vegetation types and watersheds. Heavy rains and higher flood 

levels can affect maintenance and structural integrity of forest infrastructure. Flooding is a natural 

and beneficial process in many aquatic systems. However, damage to aquatic systems from flash 

flood-caused erosion, downed trees, and inundation can change streamside habitats, affect aquatic 

life, and impact proper function of stream channels. These extreme weather events could create 

challenges in the ability of a national forest to achieving plan desired conditions and objectives 

for aquatic habitat restoration. Overall, increasing weather-related disturbances can divert limited 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs staff and funding to recovery efforts for extended periods.

Wildfire

Wildfire is another climate-related impact to ecosystems in the Southwest. Historically, wildfires 

have played an important role in the vitality of fire-adapted ecosystems. Past management and 

fire suppression practices, resulting in higher fuel loads, have changed the fire dynamics on the 

landscapes within the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, increasing the risk of uncharacteristic wildfire. 

Fire suppression activities in the West, including those conducted by Federal land management 

agencies, routinely cost more than 1 billion dollars per year. Since about the mid-1970s, the total 

acreage area burned and the severity of wildfires in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests 

have increased on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

Fire frequency and severity would likely increase as temperatures rise and precipitation 

decreases. Population growth in the Southwest may also lead to greater numbers of human-caused

wildfires. For example, the 2002 Rodeo and Chediski Fires on the Fort Apache Indian 

Reservation and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs were both started by humans and combined to burn 

nearly half a million acres (Joyce et al., 2008).

Outbreaks of Insects, Diseases, and Nonnative Invasive Species

Disturbances associated with climate change can have secondary impacts caused by wildfire and 

climate-related extremes. Increased temperature and moisture variations can cause stress and 

increase the susceptibility of forest ecosystems to insect, disease, and nonnative species. New 

environmental conditions can alter species mixes and can favor plants and animals that are more

adaptable or rapidly colonize new territories (Whitlock, 2008). Species that are already broadly 

adapted may become more prevalent and species with narrow adaptability may become less 

prevalent.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 199

According to Lynch et al. (2010), insect and pathogen populations have responded to changing 

forest character (e.g., structure, species composition) on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and 

variability in climate. They reported that contemporary outbreaks differ from pre-1950s regimes 

in that Ips bark beetle species became more significant than Dendroctonus species in ponderosa 

pine compared to the beginning of the 20th century when the reverse was the case. Damage to 

white fir by bark beetles and defoliators has increased; dwarf mistletoe incidence and infection 

severity have increased in ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and spruce; and the cumulative effects of 

several biotic and abiotic agents, which individually are seldom fatal, are causing widespread 

mortality and decline in aspen. They go on to state that damage in the piñon-juniper woodland 

and spruce-fir forest is unprecedented in the historic record, in terms of both the severity of 

damage and in the identity and variety of insects causing damage in the spruce-fir forest. Lynch et 

al. (2010) also found that coniferous species are replacing aspen in extensive areas and aspen dieoff and decline caused by a suite of biotic and abiotic factors has intensified the loss of this 

species. Extensive areas of damaged piñon-juniper are becoming juniper woodlands or 

grasslands. The potential for catastrophic insect outbreaks and pathogen-related mortality 

continues, especially during drought periods. There is also a threat of new exotic insects and 

pathogens. Contemporary trends are different enough from historic trends to expect altered 

ecosystem processes.

Desired conditions for healthy vegetation communities on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs include 

resilience to dramatic changes caused by abiotic and biotic stressors and mortality agents (e.g., 

pine beetles), and a balanced supply of essential resources (e.g., light, moisture, nutrients, 

growing space). Insects and diseases typically invade in cycles, followed by periods of relative 

inactivity. Nonnative invasive species, such as cheatgrass and salt cedar, are expected to continue 

to increase in numbers and extent. Active research and new management approaches are focused 

on addressing forest threats and vulnerabilities to an environment that is departed from the 

historic range of natural variability.

Diminishing Water Resources

As stated previously, most snowpack areas and upland reservoirs are located on national forests in 

the Southwest and the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. In many western mountain ranges, less 

precipitation is falling as snow and spring melting is occurring earlier. Streamflows in the

Colorado, Rio Grande, and several other southwestern rivers appear to be peaking earlier, 

suggesting that spring temperatures are warmer than in the past, causing snow to melt earlier. 

Water supplies are projected to become increasingly scarce, calling for tradeoffs among 

competing uses, potentially leading to conflict. Without upland reservoirs and watersheds, many 

managed by the Forest Service, elaborate water delivery systems and other infrastructure support, 

agriculture, urbanization, and other development could be severely constrained. In the Southwest, 

intense debate would likely continue over resource allocation and conservation of available 

supplies.

Climate Related Socioeconomic Demand

Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are growing at an unprecedented rate. As of the latest 

American Communities Survey (2009), Arizona’s population was 6,595,778. The increase for 

Arizona between 1980 and 2009 was over 123 percent. New Mexico’s current population of 

2,009,671 represents a change of over 47 percent between 1980 and 2009. Currently, over 5 

million people live within a 5-hour drive of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The combination of 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

200 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

population growth and climate change would likely exacerbate climatic effects, such as increasing 

visitor use which would put even greater pressure or demand on water, recreational opportunities, 

and other resources from the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Climate change could have long term

impacts on many of the amenities, goods, and services from the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. These 

include productivity of locally harvested plants (e.g., berries, mushrooms), wildlife, local 

economics through land use shifts from forest to other uses, forest real estate values, and tree 

cover and composition in urban areas and associated benefits and costs. Climate, combined with 

increasing regional population, would increase demand for water-related recreation opportunities 

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, as residents of urban areas seek relief from rising temperatures. 

The number of human-caused fire and wildlife-human conflicts would likely increase as well.

Potential Climate Change Strategies

for the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

The five potential management strategies described below relate to the five projected, key climate 

change factors most likely to be concerns for the Southwestern Region and the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs in moving toward the desired conditions in the revised land management plan. These are 

extreme weather events; wildfire and human-caused risks; insects, diseases, and invasive species;

water use and demand; and increase in socioeconomic demands. These management strategies 

focus on ways to incorporate changes from disturbances into managed forests and enhance 

ecosystem resilience.

In developing strategies for managing future changes, the range of possible approaches could be 

quite broad, but the management strategies listed below are focused on recommendations from 

recent research studies, including the U.S. Climate Change Science Program, SAP 4.4 (CCSP,

2008b), which are appropriate for the Southwestern Region and the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and 

balance effectiveness, feasibility, and available resources. Although some strategies contain new 

ideas, most of these management options include practices that are already in effect, can serve 

multiple needs, and may just need to be adjusted or expanded to respond to climate changes 

during the next 5 to 15 years. Using an adaptive management approach would allow national 

forest managers to adopt and adjust strategies as new information is available, conditions change, 

and staff and resources are available.

The key climate change factors are addressed directly or indirectly through the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs desired conditions, objectives, and management strategies:

1. Enhance adaptation by anticipating and planning for disturbances from intense storms;

2. Reduce vulnerability by maintaining and restoring resilient native ecosystems;

3. Increase water conservation and plan for reductions in upland water supplies;

4. Anticipate increases in forest recreation use, utilize markets and demand for smalldiameter wood and biomass for restoration, renewable energy, and carbon sequestration; 

and

5. Monitor climate change influences.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 201

Enhance Adaptation by Anticipating and Planning 

for Disturbances from Intense Storms

Although occurrences of storms and other disturbances cannot be precisely predicted and are 

often beneficial types of disturbance, anticipatory planning may predict impacts and have 

adaptive guidelines in place to protect sensitive areas. Areas such as riparian zones, endangered 

species habitats, and special areas may require different approaches for reducing disturbances or 

recovering from damaging events. Management responses from previous events can provide 

guidance for similar situations and take advantage of prior learning experiences. Prior planning 

can take advantage of disturbances when they eventually occur to convert vegetation to more 

resilient and desirable ecosystems and reduce assessment and response time while ensuring that 

sensitive resources requiring special responses are protected.

With the projected increase in extreme weather events, management practices for reducing soil 

erosion may be even more critical in the future. For example, standard soil erosion best 

management practices such as buffers filter strips, broad-based dips, and piling slash downslope 

of skid trails and along streams, can help mitigate increased erosion conditions. Roads and trails 

close to streams may be closed, removed, revegetated, or relocated away from stream channels to 

reduce impacts to aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Further, appropriately sized culverts at 

stream crossings should consider future runoff projections in a changing climate as well as 

reference conditions. New recreation sites, such as campgrounds, should be located well away 

from potential flash flood areas.

Reduce Vulnerability by Maintaining 

and Restoring Resilient Native Ecosystems

Managing ecosystems under uncertainty necessitates flexible and adaptive approaches that are 

reversible, implemented in incremental steps, allow for new information and learning, and can be 

modified with changing circumstances (Millar et al., 2007). Apache-Sitgreaves NFs ecosystems 

have evolved under a long and complex history of climate variability and change. Taking into 

consideration the number of mega-droughts and other climate-related variation through time, 

these plant and animal communities have a built-in resilience. Restoring and maintaining 

resilience in forest, woodland, chaparral, grassland, and riparian ecosystems are part of the basic 

elements of forestwide desired conditions, objectives, and management approaches. Risks of 

increased wildfire, outbreaks of insects and disease, invasive species, and loss of habitat represent 

ongoing, broad-scale challenges to management of the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. These issues are 

nothing new. However, climate change has the potential to increase or augment the impacts of 

these ecosystem risks.

Restoring and maintaining resilience would likely improve the potential for ecosystems to retain 

or return to desired conditions after being influenced by climate change related impacts and 

variability. Managing for resistance (e.g., maintenance thinning to prevent uncharacteristic fire, 

forest insect or disease epidemics) or resilience (e.g., noxious weed control), both traditional 

sustainability themes, offer common ground and present opportunities for meaningful response to 

climate change. Of the themes of resistance10 or resilience identified by Millar et al. (2007), the 

following may be useful for planning:

 

10 Resistance is the capacity of an organism or a system to withstand the disruptive effects of an environmental agent.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

202 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Manage for asynchrony11, which promotes diversity

• Promote connected landscapes

• Restore significantly disrupted animal and plant communities 

Wildland fire is an existing management tool that can serve multiple purposes, from attaining 

desired conditions for fire-adapted ecosystems and habitat for threatened and endangered species

to reducing fuel loads. It is also an important management strategy for maintaining desired 

habitats in a changing climate with more natural disturbances. With projections for more frequent 

storms and other extreme weather events and increased stresses from forest pests in a warmer, 

drier climate, wildland fire would continue to be an important management strategy for the future.

Although current programs and guidance are already in place to limit the introduction of 

nonnative species, treat invasive species, and manage insects and diseases, these efforts are likely 

to become more critical to maintaining desired conditions for healthy plant and animal 

communities under a changing climate. Because of land ownership patterns, success in reducing 

forest pests requires going beyond Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ boundaries and collaborating with 

partners. In addition, management practices (e.g., thinning for age class diversity and structure, 

reclaiming and restoring native grasslands) that sustain healthy plant and animal communities and 

provide adequate nutrients, soil productivity, and hydrologic function promote resilience and 

reduce opportunities for disturbance and damage.

For Wildlife and Plant Species Dependent on Forest Ecosystems

Fragmentation

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ desired conditions, objectives, and management approaches address 

preservation, establishment, and restoration of large, unfragmented areas of wildlife habitat. 

Large, interconnected blocks of habitat support a wide array of species and allow for genetic and 

behavioral interactions that are lacking with the creation of small patches (Robinson et al., 1995).

Promote Connectivity 

Landscape connectivity is the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement of a 

species among habitats required for its persistence with few physical or biotic impediments to 

migration (Taylor et al., 1993; Millar et al., 2007). Connectivity has two components: structural 

and biological connectivity. Structural connectivity, the spatial structure of a landscape, can be 

described from map elements. Biological connectivity is the response of individuals to the scale 

of landscape features (Brooks, 2003). Promoting connectivity in landscapes with management 

goals that can be modified as conditions change may allow species to respond naturally to 

changing climates. Desired goals include reducing fragmentation and planning at landscape scales 

to maximize habitat connectivity (Millar et al., 2007). Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ desired conditions, 

objectives, and management approaches address the importance and need for connectivity for 

both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

 

11 Asynchrony, in the general meaning, is the state of not being synchronized. In this usage, asynchrony refers to the 

promotion of diversity by managing for a range of conditions, occurring at different times, within a given ecosystem.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 203

Riparian Areas

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ desired conditions, objectives, and management approaches address 

riparian areas, their respective uplands, and watersheds by emphasizing protection from 

degradation, enhancement where possible, and maintenance of proper hydrologic functions. The 

forests also recognize that riparian areas provide important habitat connectivity for terrestrial and 

aquatic species. 

Maintain Biological diversity

By implementing the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ desired conditions, objectives and management 

approaches, and the above recommendations, biological diversity would be maintained as much 

as possible as climate change occurs. 

Increase Water Conservation and 

Plan for Reductions in Upland Water Supplies

As mentioned earlier, a major portion of Arizona’s snowpack and the headwaters of several river 

systems are located on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Aquatic and riparian ecosystems may be 

negatively impacted by increasing temperatures and reduced precipitation. Too much water 

arriving at once, from severe storm events, also can affect these water dependent ecosystems. 

Water amount, availability, distribution, and allocation, for a variety of ecological, wildlife, and 

aquatic species, as well as for human uses, needs to be considered in planning.

Municipal water supplies of Arizona are dependent on these upland sources. In many western 

mountain ranges, including the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, less precipitation falls as snow, and 

spring melting occurs earlier in the year. These water sources and associated water rights have 

always been important and contentious areas of concern for public land managers in the 

Southwest and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. With climate change, planning for water quantity and 

quality may become more important. To address such concerns, planners may wish to consider 

some of the following measures:

• Determine the water rights status for range, wildlife, public drinking systems, 

firefighting, recreational uses, and aquatic habitats;

• Assess and maintain infrastructure that could be affected by flooding (e.g., dams, bridges, 

roads, culverts);

• Review current status of State and regional water plans, forest and watershed health 

plan(s), integrated regional water planning efforts; and

• Plan for extreme events (e.g., flooding and/or drought).

Anticipate Increased Forest Recreation Use, Markets and Demand 

for Wood and Biomass, Renewable Energy, and Carbon Sequestration

The use of Apache-Sitgreaves NFs as a haven from the summer heat and for water-related 

recreation continues to grow with population increases throughout the region. Planning for 

recreation should take into account the possible growth in demand as temperatures increase and 

precipitation decreases because of climate change. This may affect recreation facilities—like 

campgrounds and boating facilities—as well as access to lakes, rivers, and other water features. 

Analysis of both potential snowfall and future winter temperature changes may need to be 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

204 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

considered when additions to, or new construction, of cross-country skiing and other snow-based 

recreation activities are proposed.

Salvaging and converting biomass into boards, firewood, and other wood products (as a 

byproduct of forest restoration) can help reduce carbon loss from wildland fire. Another 

consideration may be to use biomass that cannot be converted to wood products (such as from 

clearing roads and trails) for the continuation of bioenergy production. Bioenergy production can 

be carbon neutral and could replace the use of fossil fuels in generators; mobile generation 

facilities could also provide power to schools, hospitals, command centers, and other immediate

needs.

Monitor Climate Change Influences

It is not recommended that the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs create a completely new initiative or 

program of work solely for monitoring climate change. However, consideration of appropriate 

adjustments to the monitoring program to improve understanding of the relationships of key plan 

components and climate change may be needed. As the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs review their 

existing and potential research natural areas (RNAs), monitoring of climate change effects on 

specific ecosystems should be part of the research goals considered when building the RNA 

establishment record.

Climate Change Glossary

The following terms have been gathered by Forest Service researchers from numerous sources 

including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and others. Included are the most commonly referred-to terms 

in climate change literature and news media. This is only a partial list of terms associated with 

climate change. See other NOAA or IPCC documents for full glossaries associated with this 

topic.

Anthropogenic: Resulting from or produced by human beings. 

Anthropogenic emissions: Emissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas precursors, and 

aerosols associated with human activities. These include burning of fossil fuels for energy, 

deforestation, and land use changes that result in net increase in emissions.

Arid regions: Ecosystems with less than 250 millimeters precipitation per year. 

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost 

entirely of nitrogen (78.1 percent volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9 percent volume mixing 

ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93 percent volume mixing ratio), 

helium, and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035 percent volume 

mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is 

highly variable but typically 1 percent volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds 

and aerosols. 

Biological diversity: The numbers and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diversity), 

species, and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area. 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 205

Carbon dioxide (CO2): A naturally occurring gas, and also a byproduct of burning fossil fuels 

and biomass, as well as land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal 

anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas 

against which other greenhouse gases are measured and, therefore, has a Global Warming 

Potential of 1. 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization: The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of 

increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Depending on their mechanism of 

photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in the atmospheric carbon 

dioxide concentration. 

Climate: Climate may be defined as the “average weather,” or more rigorously, as the statistical 

description of weather in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities (e.g., 

temperature, precipitation, wind) over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of 

years. The standard period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO). These quantities are often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. 

Climate in a wider sense is the statistical description of the state or condition of the climate 

system. 

Climate change: Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean 

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or 

longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to 

persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that 

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, 

defines “climate change” as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to 

human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to 

natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” The UNFCCC thus makes a 

distinction between “climate change” attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric

composition, and “climate variability” attributable to natural causes. See also climate variability.

Climate feedback: An interaction mechanism between processes in the climate system is called a 

climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in 

turn influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative 

feedback reduces it. 

Climate model (hierarchy): A numerical representation of the climate system based on the 

physical, chemical, and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback 

processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The climate system can be 

represented by models of varying complexity—that is, for any one component or combination of 

components a “hierarchy” of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of 

spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, chemical, or biological processes are explicitly 

represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are involved. Coupled 

atmosphere/ocean/sea-ice general circulation models (AOGCMs) provide a comprehensive 

representation of the climate system. There is an evolution toward more complex models with 

active chemistry and biology. Climate models are applied, as a research tool, to study and 

simulate the climate, but they are also for operational purposes including monthly, seasonal, and 

interannual climate predictions. 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

206 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Climate variability: Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics 

(such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and 

temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural 

internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or 

anthropogenic external forcing (external variability). See also climate change.

Drought: There is no definitive definition of drought based on measurable processes. Instead, 

scientists evaluate precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture data for the present and recent 

past to determine drought status. Very generally, it refers to a period of time when precipitation 

levels are low, impacting agriculture, water supply, and wildfire hazard.

El Niño: In its original sense, El Niño is warm water current that periodically flows along the 

coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. This oceanic event is associated with a 

fluctuation of the intertropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific 

Oceans, called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon is 

collectively known as El Niño Southern Oscillation or ENSO. During an El Niño event, the 

prevailing trade winds weaken and the equatorial countercurrent strengthens, causing warm 

surface waters in the Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru 

Current. This event has great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature, and precipitation 

patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many 

other parts of the world. The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña. 

Extreme weather event: An extreme weather event is an event that is rare within its statistical 

reference distribution at a particular place. Definitions of “rare” vary, but an extreme weather 

event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. By definition, the 

characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place. An extreme 

climate event is an average of a number of weather events over a certain period of time, an 

average, which is itself extreme (e.g., rainfall over a season). 

Greenhouse effect: Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emitted by the 

Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric 

radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Thus, greenhouse 

gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This is called the “natural greenhouse 

effect.” Atmospheric radiation is strongly coupled to the temperature of the level at which it is 

emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height. Effectively, infrared 

radiation emitted to space originates from an altitude with a temperature of, on average, -19 °C, in 

balance with the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept at a much 

higher temperature of, on average, +14 °C. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases 

leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere and, therefore, to an effective radiation 

into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes a radiative forcing, an 

imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increase of the temperature of the surfacetroposphere system. This is the “enhanced greenhouse effect.” 

Greenhouse gas (GHG): Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and 

anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of 

infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. This property 

causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), 

methane (CH4), and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. 

Moreover, there are a number of entirely human made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such 
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 207

as the halocarbons and other chlorine and bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the 

Montreal Protocol. Besides CO2, N2O, and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse 

gases sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).

Phenotype: The visible characteristics of an organism resulting from the interaction of its genetic 

makeup and environment.

Radiative forcing: Changes in the energy balance of the Earth atmosphere system in response to 

a change in factors such as greenhouse gases, land use change, or solar radiation. The climate 

system inherently attempts to balance incoming (e.g., light) and outgoing (e.g., heat) radiation. 

Positive radiative forcings increase the temperature of the lower atmosphere, which in turn 

increases temperatures at the Earth’s surface. Negative radiative forcings cool the lower 

atmosphere. Radiative forcing is most commonly measured in units of watts per square meter 

(W/m2). 

Rangeland: Undeveloped land that is suitable for use by wildlife and domestic ungulates.

Rapid climate change: The nonlinearity of the climate system may lead to rapid climate change, 

sometimes called abrupt events or even surprises. Some such abrupt events may be imaginable, 

such as a dramatic reorganization of the thermohaline circulation, rapid deglaciation, or massive 

melting of permafrost leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others may be truly 

unexpected, as a consequence of a strong, rapidly changing, forcing of a nonlinear system. 

Regeneration: The renewal of a stand of trees through either natural means (seeded onsite or 

adjacent stands or deposited by wind, birds, or animals) or artificial means (by planting seedlings 

or direct seeding).

Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been 

identified through statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño 

teleconnection with the southwestern U.S. involves large scale changes in climatic conditions that 

are linked to increased winter rainfall.

Weather: Describes the daily conditions (individual storms) or conditions over several days 

(week of record-breaking temperatures) to those lasting less than 2 weeks.

References

Adams, H.D.; M. Guardiola-Claramonte; G.A. Barron-Gafford; J.C. Villegas; D.D. Breshears;

C.B. Zou; P.A. Troch; and T.E. Huxman. (2009). Temperature sensitivity of droughtinduced tree mortality portends increased regional die-off under global change-type 

drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(17): 7063–7066.

Allen, C.D.; and D.D. Breshears. (1998). Drought-induced shift of a forest-woodland ecotone: 

Rapid landscape response to climate variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of 

Sciences 95(25): 14839–14842.

Archer, S.R.; and K.I. Predick. (2008). Climate change and ecosystems of the southwestern 

United States. Rangelands, June 2008: 23–28.

Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD). (2007). Wildlife 2012 strategic plan. Arizona 

Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, AZ.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

208 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Aublet, J.F.; M. Festa-Bianchet; D. Bergero; and B. Bassano. (2009). Temperature constraints on 

foraging behaviour of male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) in summer. Oecologia, 2009 159(1): 

237–247.

Barnett, T.P.; D.W. Pierce; H.G. Hidalgo; C. Bonfils; B.D. Santer; T. Das; G. Bala; A.W. Wood; T. 

Nozawa; A.A. Mirin; D.R. Cayan; and M.D. Dettinger. (2008). Human-induced changes 

in the hydrology of the western United States. Science, 319: 1080–1083.

Biro, P.A.; J.R. Post; and D.J. Booth. (2007). Mechanisms of climate-induced mortality of fish 

populations in whole-lake experiments. Proceedings of the National Academy of 

Sciences 104(23): 9715–9719.

Brooks, C.P. (2003). A scalar analysis of landscape connectivity. Oikos, 102: 466–439.

CCSP. (2008a). The effects of climate change on agriculture, land resources, water resources, and 

biodiversity in the United States. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program 

and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Walsh, M.K.; G. Guibert; and R. 

Hauser (eds.); P. Backlund; A. Janetos; D. Schimel; J. Hatfield; K. Boote; P. Fay; L. 

Hahn; C. Izaurralde; B.A. Kimball; T. Mader; J. Morgan; D. Ort; W. Polley; A. Thomson;

D. Wolfe; M.G. Ryan; S.R. Archer; R. Birdsey; C. Dahm; L. Heath; J. Hicke; D. 

Hollinger; T. Huxman; G. Okin; R. Oren; J. Randerson; W. Schlesinger; D. Lettenmaier;

D. Major; L. Poff; S. Running; L. Hansen; D. Inouye; B.P. Kelly; L. Meyerson; B. 

Peterson; and R. Shaw (Authors)]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

CCSP. (2008b). Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and 

resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee 

on Global Change Research. [Julius, S.H.; J.M. West (eds.); J.S. Baron; B. Griffith; L.A. 

Joyce; P. Kareiva; B.D. Keller; M.A. Palmer; C.H. Peterson; and J.M. Scott (Authors)]. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

CCSP. (2008c). Reanalysis of historical climate data for key atmospheric features: Implications 

for attribution of causes of observed change. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change 

Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research [Dole, R.; M. 

Hoerling; and S. Schubert (eds.); P. Arkin; J. Carton; E. Kalnay; R. Koster; R. Pulwarty;

G. Hegerl; D. Karoly; A. Kumar; D. Rind; J. Carton; E. Kalnay; and D. Karoly 

(Authors)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data 

Center, Asheville, NC.

Christensen, N.; and D.P. Lettenmaier (2006). A multi-model ensemble approach to assessment of 

climate change impacts on the hydrology and water resources of the Colorado River 

basin. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 3: 3727–3770.

Christensen, J.H., B. Hewitson; A. Busuioc; A. Chen; X. Gao; I. Held; R. Jones; R.K. Kolli; W.-T. 

Kwon; R. Laprise; V. Magaña Rueda; L. Mearns; C.G. Menéndez; J. Räisänen; A. Rinke;

A. Sarr; and P. Whetton. (2007). Regional climate projections. Chapter 11, pp 847–940. 

In: Solomon, S.; D. Qin; M. Manning; Z. Chen; M. Marquis; K.B. Averyt; M. Tignor; and 

H.L. Miller (eds.). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of 

Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Clark, J.S. (1998). Why trees migrate so fast: Confronting theory with dispersal biology and the 

paleorecord. The American Naturalist, 152(2): 204–224.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 209

Conley J.; H. Eakin; T.E. Sheridan; and D. Hadley. (1999). CLIMAS ranching case study: Year 1. 

Report Series: CL3-99. Institute for the Study of the Planet Earth. Arizona State 

University, Tucson, AZ.

Dale, V.H.; L.A. Joyce; S. McNulty; R.P. Neilson; M.P. Ayers; M.D. Flannigan; P.J. Hanson; L.C. 

Irland; A.E. Lugo; C.J. Peterson; D. Simberloff; F.J. Swanson; B.J. Stocks; and B.M. 

Wotton. 2001. Climate change and forest disturbances. BioScience 51(9): 723–734.

Dean, J.S. (2000). Complexity theory and sociocultural change in the American southwest. 

Chapter 3, pp. 89-118. In: McIntosh, R.J.; J.A. Tainter; and S.K. McIntosh, (eds.). The 

way the wind blows: Climate, history, and human action. Columbia University Press, 

New York, NY.

Eaton, J.G.; and R.M. Scheller. (1996). Effects of climate warming on fish thermal habitat in 

streams of the United States. Limnology and Oceanography, 41(5): 1109–1115.

Eisen, R.B.; G.E. Glass; L. Eisen; J. Cheek; R.E. Enscore; P. Ettestad; and K.L. Gage. (2007). A 

spatial model of shared risk for plague and Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome in the 

southwestern United States. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 77: 

999–1004.

Enquist, C., and D. Gori. (2008). Implications of recent climate change on conservation priorities 

in New Mexico. A climate change vulnerability assessment for biodiversity in New 

Mexico, Part 1. The Nature Conservancy and Wildlife Conservation Society, Tucson, AZ.

Farber, S.C.; R. Costanza; and M.A. Wilson. (2002). Economic and ecological concepts for 

valuing ecosystem services. Ecological Economics, 41: 375–392.

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008). Ecological sustainability report: ApacheSitgreaves National Forests. Southwestern Region, Springerville, AZ.

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2009). Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests 

economic and social sustainability assessment. Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. 

Southwestern Region, Albuquerque, NM.

Guido, Z. (2008). Fire: Frequency and size. Climate Assessment for the Southwest. University of 

Arizona, Institute for the Study of Planet Earth, Tucson, AZ. [online] URL:

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/impacts/land/fire

Gonzalez, G.A. (2005). Urban sprawl, global warming and the limits of ecological modernisation. 

Environmental Politics, 14(3): 344–362.

Herweijer, C.; R. Seager; E.R. Cook; and J. Emile-Geay. (2007). North American droughts of the 

last millennium from a gridded network of tree-ring data. Journal of Climate, 20: 1353–

1376.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; L. Hughes; S. McIntyre; D.B. Lindenmayer; C. Parmesan; H.P. 

Possingham; and C.D. Thomas. (2008). Assisted colonization and rapid climate change. 

Science, 321(5887): 345–346.

Hoffmeister, D.F. (1986). Mammals of Arizona. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ.

Hughes, M.K.; and H.F. Diaz. (2008). Climate variability and change in the drylands of western 

North America. Global and Planetary Change, 65: 111–118.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

210 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Hughes, M.K.; P.R. Sheppard; A.C. Comrie; G.D. Packin; and K Angersbach. (2002). The climate 

of the U.S. Southwest. Climate Research, 21(3): 219–238.

Hulin, V.; V. Delmas; M. Girondot; M.H. Godfrey; and J-M. Guillon. (2009). Temperaturedependent sex determination and global change: Are some species at greater risk? 

Oecologia, 160(3): 493–506.

Inouye, D.W. (2008). Effects of climate change on phenology, frost damage, and floral abundance 

of montane wildflowers. Ecology, 89(2): 353–362.

IPCC. (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I 

to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

[Solomon, S.; D. Qin; M. Manning; Z. Chen; M. Marquis; K.B. Averyt; M. Tignor; and 

H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Irland, L.C.; D. Adams; R. Alig; C.J. Betz; C-C. Chen; M. Hutchins; B.A. McCarl; K. Skog; and 

B.L. Sohngen. (2001). Assessing socioeconomic impacts of climate change on US 

forests, wood-product markets, and forest recreation. BioScience, 51(9): 753–764.

Ironside, K.E., N.S. Cobb, K.L. Cole, M. Peters, J. Eischeid, and G. Garfin. (2010). Plausible 

future effects of climate change on ponderosa pine. Presentation at the Flagstaff Climate 

Adaptation Workshop of April 2010. The Nature Conservancy, Flagstaff, AZ.

Joyce, L.A.; and R. Birdsey, (tech coords.). (2000). The impact of climate change on America's 

forests. A technical document supporting the 2000 U.S. Forest Service RPA Assessment. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-59. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.

Joyce, L.; J. Aber; S. McNulty; V. Dale; A. Hansen; L. Irland; R. Neilson; and K. Skog. (2001). 

Potential consequences of climate variability and change for the forests of the United 

States. Chapter 19, pp. 489–522. In: Climate change impacts on the United States: The 

potential consequences of climate variability and change. National Assessment Synthesis 

Team (ed.). A Report for the US Global Change Research Program. Cambridge 

University Press. New York, NY.

Joyce, L.; R. Haynes; R. White; and R.J. Barbour, (tech. coords.). (2006). Bringing climate 

change into natural resource management: Proceedings. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-706. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 

Portland, OR.

Joyce, L.A.; G.M. Blate; J.S. Littell; S.G. McNulty; C.I. Millar; S.C. Moser; R.P. Neilson; K. A. 

O’Halloran; and D.L. Peterson. (2008). National forests. Chapter 3, pp. 1–127 In: 

Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. 

Julius, S.H., and J.M. West (eds.). A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program 

and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Washington, DC.

Karl, T.R; J.M. Melillo; and T.C. Peterson, (eds.). (2009). Global climate change impacts in the 

United States. Cambridge University Press. New York, NY.

Lawler, J.J.; S.L. Shafer; D. White; P. Kareiva; E.P. Maurer; A.R. Blaustein; and P.J. Bartlein. 

(2009). Projected climate-induced faunal change in the Western Hemisphere. Ecology,

90(3): 588–597.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 211

Lenart, M. (2007). Global warming in the Southwest: Projections, observations, and impacts. 

Climate Assessment for the Southwest. University of Arizona, Institute for the Study of 

Planet Earth, Tucson, AZ.

Lenart, M. (2008). Regional climate modeling. Climate Assessment for the Southwest. University 

of Arizona, Institute for the Study of Planet Earth, Tucson, AZ. [online] URL:

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/contributors/melanie-lenart

Lenihan et al. (2008). Response of vegetation distribution ecosystem productivity & fire to 

climate change scenarios for CA. Climatic Change, (2008) 87 (Suppl. 1):S215–S230.

Liverman, D.M.; and R. Meredith. (2002). Climate and society in the US Southwest: the context 

for a regional assessment. Climate Research, 21: 199–218.

Lomolino, M.V.; and D.R. Perault. (2007). Body size variation of mammals in a fragmented, 

temperate rainforest. Conservation Biology, 21(4): 1059–1069.

Lynch, A.M.; J.A. Anhold; J.D. McMillin; S.M. Dudley; R.A. Fitzgibbon; and M.L. Fairweather. 

(2008). Forest insect and disease activity on the Coconino N.F., 1918-present. U.S. Forest 

Service, Report for the Coconino N.F./Regional Analysis Team. Arizona Zone Office 

Forest Health Protection, U.S. Forest Service, Flagstaff, AZ.

Lynch A.M.; J.A. Anhold; J.D. McMillin; S.M. Dudley; R.A. Fitzgibbon; and M.L. Fairweather. 

(2010). Forest insect and disease activity on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs and Fort Apache 

Indian Reservation, 19182009. U.S. Forest Service, Report for the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs/Regional Analysis Team. Arizona Zone Office Forest Health Protection, U.S. Forest 

Service, Flagstaff, AZ.

Maurer, E.P.; and H.G. Hidalgo (2008). Utility of daily vs. monthly large-scale climate data: An 

intercomparison of two statistical downscaling methods. Hydrology and Earth System 

Science, 12: 551–563.

McMichael, A.; A. Githeko; R. Akhtar; R. Carcavallo; D. Gubler; A. Haines; R.S. Kovats; P. 

Martens; J. Patz; A. Sasaki; K.L. Ebi; D. Focks; L. Kalkstein; E. Lindgren; S. Lindsay;

and R. Sturrock. (2001). Human health. Chapter 9, pp. 451485. In: McCarthy, J.J.; O.F. 

Canziani; N.A. Leary; D.J. Dokken; and K.S. White, (eds.). Climate change 2001: 

Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third 

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Published for the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. New York, 

NY.

McPhee, J.C.; A.C. Comrie; and G.G. Garfin. (2004). A Climatology of drought for Arizona. 

Drought: Variability monitoring, impacts, and prediction. University of Arizona, Tucson, 

AZ (Joint with the 15th Symposium on Global change and Climate Variations and the 

14th Conference on Applied Climatology: Hall 4AB) Joint Poster Session 3, Monday, 12 

January 2004, 2:30 PM-4:00 PM. The 84th American Meteorological Society Annual 

Meeting, Seattle, WA.

Meko, D.M.; C.A. Woodhouse; C.A. Baisan; T. Knight; J.J. Lukas; M.K. Hughes; and M.W. 

Salzer. (2007). Medieval drought in the upper Colorado River basin. Geophysical 

Research Letters, 34(L10705): 1–5.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

212 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Millar, C.I.; N.L. Stephenson, and S.L. Stephens. (2007). Climate change and forests of the 

future: Managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecological Applications, 17(8): 2145–2151.

Owen, G. (2008). Invasive species. Climate Assessment for the Southwest. University of Arizona, 

Institute for the Study of Planet Earth, Tucson, AZ. [online] URL: 

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/impacts/land/invasive-species

Robinson, S.K.; F.R. Thompson; T.M. Donovan; D.R. Whitehead; and J. Faaborg. (1995). 

Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science,

267(1): 1987–1990.

Rosenzweig, C.; G. Casassa; D.J. Karoly; A. Imeson; C. Liu; A. Menzel; S. Rawlins; T.L. Root;

B. Seguin; and P. Tryjanowski, (2007). Assessment of observed changes and responses in 

natural and managed systems. Chapter 1, pp. 79–131. In: M.L. Parry; O.F. Canziani; J.P. 

Palutikof; P.J. van der Linden; and C.E. Hanson, (eds.). Climate change 2007: Impacts,

adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment 

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 

New York, NY.

Ryan, M.; S. Archer; R. Birdsey; C. Dahm; L. Heath; J. Hicke; D. Hollinger; T. Huxman; G. 

Okin; R. Oren; J. Randerson; and W. Schlesinger. (2008). Land resources. Chapter 3, pp. 

75–121. In: The effects of climate change on agriculture, land resources, water resources, 

and biodiversity. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the 

Subcommittee on Global Change Research, Washington, DC.

Sammis, T. (2001). Current, past, and future climate of New Mexico. New Mexico Climate, The 

Climate Center, Las Cruces, NM. [online] URL:

http://weather.nmsu.edu/News/climatefall01.pdf

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1997). Animal physiology: Adaptation and environment. Cambridge 

University Press. New York, NY.

Seager, R.; M. Ting; I. Held; Y. Kushnir; J. Lu; G. Vecchi; H-P. Huang; N. Harnik; A. Leetmaa;

N-C. Lau; C. Li; J. Velez; and N. Naik. (2007). Model projections of an imminent 

transition to a more arid climate in southwestern North America. Science, 316(5828): 

1181–1184.

Seager, R.; R. Burgman; Y. Kushnir; A. Clement; E. Cook; N. Naik; and J. Miller. (2008). 

Tropical Pacific forcing of North American medieval megadroughts: Testing the concept 

with an atmosphere model forced by coral-reconstructed SSTs. Journal of Climate, 21: 

6175–6190.

Sillett, T.S.; R.T. Holmes; and T.W. Sherry. (2000). Impacts of a global climate cycle on 

population dynamics of a migratory songbird. Science, 288: 2040–2042.

Sky Island Alliance. (2007). Restoring connections: Climate change. Newsletter of the Sky Island 

Alliance, 10(2): 1–15.

Smith, J.B.; R. Richel; and B. Miller. (2001). The potential consequences of climate variability 

and change: The western United States. Chapter 9, pp. 219–245. In: Climate change 

impacts on the United States: The potential consequences of climate variability and 

change. National Assessment Synthesis Team (ed.). A Report for the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program. Cambridge University Press. New York, NY.
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 213

Sprigg, W.A.; T. Hinkley et al. (2000). Preparing for a Changing Climate: The Potential 

Consequences of Climate Variability and Change: Southwest. A Report of the Southwest 

Regional Assessment Group. University of Arizona. The Institute for the Study of Planet 

Earth, Tucson, AZ, U.S. Global Change Research Program: 66.

State of New Mexico. (2005). Potential effects of climate change on New Mexico. Agency 

Technical Work Group. [Musick, B. (ed.); J. Allen; T. Darden; R. Floyd; M. Gallaher; D. 

Jones; K. Kostelnik; K. Kretz; R. Lucero; R. Romero; B. Toth; M. Uhl; and L. Weaver 

(contribs.)]. NM.

Stevens, L.E. (2007). A review of invertebrate species of management concern on five northern 

Arizona forests: Final Report. Unpublished report to five national forests in Southwestern 

Region.

Swetnam, T.W.; and J.L. Betancourt. (1997). “Mesoscale disturbance and ecological response to 

decadal climatic variability in the American Southwest.” Journal of Climate, 11: 3128–

3147.

Swetnam, T.W.; C.D. Allen; and J.L. Betancourt. (1999). Applied historical ecology: Using the 

past to manage for the future. Ecological Applications, 9(4): 1189–1206.

Tainter, J.A. (2000). Global change, history, and sustainability. Chapter 12, pp. 331-356. In: 

McIntosh, R.J.; J.A. Tainter; and S.K. McIntosh, (eds.). The way the wind blows: 

Climate, history, and human action. Columbia University Press. New York, NY.

Taylor, P.D.; L. Fahrig; K. Henein; and G. Merriam. (1993). Connectivity is a vital element of 

landscape structure. Oikos, 68: 571–573.

Trouet, V.; J. Esper; N.E. Graham; A. Baker; J.D. Scourse; and D.C. Frank. (2009). Persistent 

positive North Atlantic oscillation mode dominated the medieval climate anomaly. 

Science, 324(5923): 78–80.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2006). United States census, 2000. U.S. Department of Commerce, 

Washington, DC. From http://www.census.gov/

Vander Lee, B.; R. Smith; and J. Bates. (2006). Ecological and biological diversity of the ApacheSitgreaves National Forests (Chapter 7). In: Ecological and biological diversity of 

National Forests in Southwestern Region. Southwest Forest Assessment Project. The 

Nature Conservancy, Tucson, AZ.

Westerling, A.L.; H.G. Hildalgo; and T.W. Swetnam. (2006). Warming and earlier spring increase 

western U.S. Forest wildfire activity. Science, 313: 940–943.

Whitlock, C. (2008). Turning up the heat...on a bubbling cauldron of forest threats. Compass, 10: 

27–28.

Williams, J.E.; and J.M. Carter. (2009). Managing native trout past peak water. Southwest 

Hydrology, 8(2): 26–34.

Specific Web Sites:

American Communities Survey (2009), from http://factfinder.census.gov/

Climate Assessment for the Southwest (CLIMAS), from http://www.climas.arizona.edu/
Appendix A. Climate Change and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs Land Management Planning

214 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), from http://www.ipcc.ch/

NatureServe 2007, 2008, 2009, from http://www.natureserve.org

Past Global Change Web Page (PAGES) from http://www.pages.unibe.ch/

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, from http://www.pewclimate.org/

The Southwest Climate Change Network, from 

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/climate/southwest/

The Western Regional Climate Center, from http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

The Consortium for Integrated Climate Research in Western Mountains (CIRMOUNT), from 

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/cirmount/

The Nature Conservancy Climate Wizard, from http://www.climatewizard.org/

USGCRP-US Global Change Research Program, from http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/default.php/

U.S. Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center, from http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 215

Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and 

Management Practices

This appendix describes the current (2011) and desired structural future conditions for the 14 

major PNVTs on the forests and provides a graphic representation of age classes and an expanded 

description of old growth. It also describes the management practices that may be used to obtain 

those conditions.

Forestwide Vegetation Conditions

PNVTs

The Apache-Sitgreaves NFs can be divided into 14 major PNVTs (potential natural vegetation 

types) (see table 13 below). PNVTs are coarse-scale groupings of ecosystem types that share 

similar geography, vegetation, and historic ecosystem disturbances such as fire, drought, and 

grazing by native species. PNVTs represent the vegetation type and characteristics that would 

occur when natural disturbance regimes and biological processes prevail. It is important not to 

confuse PNVTs with existing vegetation types. The PNVT mapping (located in the ApacheSitgreaves NFs’ GIS database) was derived from the forests’ terrestrial ecosystem survey 

mapping. This mapping is intended to be used for mid- and landscape-scale planning. It is 

important to validate the PNVTs at the project and activity level.

Table 13. Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ PNVTs and NFS acres 

a Water, urban, and quarry account for 4,250 acres. Total Apache-Sitgreaves NFs land is 2,015,352 acres.

PNVTa Size (acres)

Wetland/cienega riparian areas 17,900

Montane willow riparian forest 4,808

Cottonwood-willow riparian forest 15,876

Mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forest 9,657

Ponderosa pine forest 602,206

Dry mixed conifer forest 147,885

Wet mixed conifer forest 177,995

Spruce-fir forest 17,667

Madrean pine-oak woodland 394,927

Piñon-juniper woodland 222,166

Semi-desert grassland 106,952

Great Basin grassland 185,523

Montane/subalpine grasslands 51,559

Interior chaparral 55,981
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

216 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

The following charts depict the current (based on data derived in 2011) and desired future

conditions for each of the forests’ PNVTs at a forestwide level1. Different combinations of 

vegetation state percentages may exist at the project or activity level. Based on site-specific

conditions and capabilities, the expectation is that some projects would move certain vegetation 

states toward desired percentages more than other projects; collectively, they would move toward 

desired percentages shown at the forestwide level. This information will be useful to measure 

progress toward desired vegetation conditions across the entire Apache-Sitgreaves NFs over time.

Wetland/Cienega Riparian Areas

Figure 13. Wetland/Cienega Riparian Areas Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the wetland/cienega riparian areas PNVT woody overstory vegetation 

structural states. At 17,900 acres (approximately 0.9 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 10th

in size out of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely vegetated; with < 10

percent tree or shrub canopy cover; early successional development

State B - Perennial herbaceous vegetation, with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy cover; mid 

successional development

State C - Shrubs, and seedling and sapling size (< 5′′ diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) 

or closed (≥ 30) canopy cover, with perennial herbaceous vegetation understory; mid 

successional development

State D - Shrubs, small size (5–9.9" diameter), medium size (10–19.9" diameter), and large to 

very large size (> 20" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) or closed (≥ 30) canopy cover, 

with herbaceous vegetation understory; late successional development; not part of the historic 

conditions or within historic range of variability, found on contemporary landscapes only.

The wetland/cienega riparian areas PNVT has a 36 percent or low departure rating from desired 

conditions and reference conditions making it the 7th and 9th most departed PNVT, respectively,

 

1 Percentages shown on the graphs for each structural state are rounded to the nearest whole number. Consequently, in 

some cases, the total percentage for all structural states may add up to slightly more than 100.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 217

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service 

Southwestern Regional Office; reference condition was derived from LANDFIRE (2003).

Figure 14. Wetland/Cienega Riparian Areas Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the wetland/cienega riparian areas PNVT’s current herbaceous 

understory vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting

 

2 Ecological status is the degree of similarity between the existing vegetation (all components and their characteristics) 

and existing soil conditions when compared to the potential natural plant community and the desired soil condition on a 

site. The present state of a TES map unit stated in terms of specific values or potentials with respect to species 

composition, ground cover, and soil characteristics. Ecological status is often evaluated on the basis of similarity 

indices between current conditions and the potential natural plant community (Forest Service, 1999). Ecological status 

ratings are high, moderately-high, moderate-low, and low (FSH 2209.21, Southwestern Region).

3 Range condition is the present state of vegetation of a range site in relation to the climax (potential natural) plant 

community for that site. It is an expression of the relative degree to which the kinds, proportions, and amounts of plants 

in a plant community resemble that of the climax plant community for the site (Forest Service, 1999). The adjective 

descriptions of range condition are excellent, good, fair, poor, and very-poor (FSH 2209.21, Southwestern Region). 

According to Holechek et al. (1989), range condition is measured in degrees of departure from climax; excellent range 

condition would represent climax and very-poor range condition would represent the greatest departure from climax. 

The relationship between ecological status and range condition are excellent and good range condition represents high 

ecological status, signifying no or low departure from desired conditions; fair range condition represents moderatelyhigh ecological status, signifying moderate departure from desired conditions; poor range condition represents 

moderately-low ecological status, signifying high departure from desired conditions; and very-poor range conditions 

represent low ecological status, signifying severe departure from desired conditions. 

Range condition, as evaluated and ranked by the Forest Service, is a subjective expression of the status or health of the 

vegetation and soil relative to the combined potential to produce a sound and stable biotic community. Soundness and 

stability are evaluated relative to a standard that encompasses the composition, density, and vigor of the vegetation and

physical characteristics of the soil (FSH 2209.21.40, Southwestern Region Supplement, page 3 of 46). Although the 

Allotment Analysis Handbook (FSH 2209.21, Southwestern Region) was officially removed from the directive system, 

this definition is used because the above information was derived (collected, calculated, and evaluated) using the 

procedures outlined in the FSH 2209.21, Southwestern Region Supplement, over a number of years.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

218 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

livestock grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 48 percent of capable grazing 

lands do not meet desired conditions.

Montane Willow Riparian Forest

Figure 15. Montane Willow Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the montane willow riparian forested PNVT overstory vegetation 

structural states. At 4,808 acres (approximately 0.2 percent of the forests), this PNVT is the 

smallest on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, and shrubs, and 

seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) canopy 

cover; early successional development.

 

4 According to the Forest Service (1999), capable areas are fully capable areas plus potentially capable areas. Fully 

capable areas are those areas which can be used by grazing animals under proper management without long term 

damage to the soil resource or plant communities. Typically, this land is stable for livestock grazing. Vegetative ground 

cover is maintaining site productivity and producing a minimum of 100 pounds of dried forage per acre per year. Soil 

loss, as judged by available techniques, is within tolerance levels. Potentially capable areas are those areas which could 

be used by grazing animals under proper management but where soil stability is impaired or range developments are 

not adequate under existing conditions to obtain necessary grazing animal distribution. These areas are not capable of 

being fully or adequately utilized by grazing animals. Generally, these areas have impaired soil stability, lack of water, 

steep terrain, and lack of access and/or there is insufficient vegetative ground cover to protect the soil, but if treated, 

developed, or properly managed, could be reclassified as fully capable. An example of potentially capable range is 

heavily timbered or woodland areas where the tree canopy cover exceeds natural conditions and the area is producing 

very little forage as a result of that condition. With silvicultural treatment to return to natural fire cycle conditions, 

areas presently classified as potentially capable may be returned and sustained as fully capable areas. Timbered areas in 

potentially capable condition may have sufficient cover and litter to protect the soil. Woodland areas may or may not 

have sufficient cover and litter to protect the soil. Usually, land in this category producing less than 100 pounds of dried 

forage per acre per year is considered potentially capable until the forested or woodland stand is opened up. 

Transitional range created by silvicultural treatments will not be allocated for ungulate grazing on a term basis. It 

should only be considered as surplus forage for a short period of time and dealt with on an annual basis. When 

determining grazing capacity in the potentially capable class, assignments of conservative allowable use of the forage 

resource must be made. Rationale for assigned allowable forage use levels will be documented. Where fully capable 

range is isolated by potentially capable or no capability range, allowable use should be set and managed at zero because 

access to them may cause accelerated erosion in potentially capable or no capability areas (Forest Service, 1999).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 219

State B - Shrubs, seedling and sapling, small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees with 

closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover, and medium size (10–19.9" diameter), and 

large to very large (> 20" diameter) size trees with open or closed canopy cover; 

mid- to late-successional development.

The montane willow riparian forested PNVT has a 21 percent or low departure rating from 

desired conditions and reference conditions making it the 10th and 12th most departed PNVT,

respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest 

Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE 

(2007e).

Figure 16. Montane Willow Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the montane willow riparian forested PNVT’s current herbaceous 

understory vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting 

livestock grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 80 percent the capable grazing 

lands do not meet desired conditions.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

220 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest

Figure 17. Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition 

The figure above depicts the cottonwood-willow riparian forested PNVT overstory vegetation 

structural states. At 15,876 acres (approximately 0.8 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 12th

in size out of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation dominated with shrubs, seedling and sapling size 

(< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) or closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy 

cover; early successional development.

State B - Tall shrubs and small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees with open or closed 

canopy cover; mid successional development.

State C - Medium size (10–19.9" diameter) and large to very large (> 20" 

diameter) size trees with open or closed canopy cover; late successional 

development.

The cottonwood-willow riparian forested PNVT has a 20 percent or no departure rating from 

desired conditions and reference conditions making it the 11th and 13th most departed PNVT, 

respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest 

Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE 

(2007d).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 221

Figure 18. Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation 

Condition

The figure above depicts the cottonwood-willow riparian forested PNVT’s current herbaceous 

understory vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting 

livestock grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 86 percent of the capable 

grazing lands do not meet desired conditions.

Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest

Figure 19. Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forested PNVT overstory 

vegetation structural states. At 9,657 acres (approximately 0.5 percent of the forests), this PNVT 

ranks 13th in size out of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural 

states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely 

vegetated; with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy cover; early successional 

development

0.0 < 1

10.0

57.2

29.1

3.0

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian Forest (CWRF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range 

Condition of Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

222 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State B - Shrubs, seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter), small size (5–9.9" 

diameter), and medium size (10–19.9" diameter) trees with closed (> 30 percent) 

canopy cover; mid-successional development.

State C - Shrubs, seedling and sapling, and small size trees with open (< 30

percent) canopy cover; mid-successional development.

State D - Shrubs, medium size, and large to very large size (> 20" diameter) trees 

with open canopy cover; late successional development.

State E - Shrubs, and large to very large size trees with closed canopy cover; late 

successional development.

The mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forested PNVT has a 33 percent or low departure rating 

from desired conditions and reference conditions making it the 8th and 9th most departed PNVT, 

respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest 

Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE 

(2007d).

Figure 20. Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation 

Condition

The figure above depicts the mixed broadleaf deciduous riparian forested PNVT’s current 

herbaceous understory vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of 

supporting livestock grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 54 percent of the 

capable grazing lands do not meet desired conditions.

0.0

14.8 19.8

51.0

4.3 10.2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Mixed Broadleaf Deciduous Riparian Forest (MBDRF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and 

Range Condition of Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 223

Ponderosa Pine Forest

Figure 21. Ponderosa Pine Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the ponderosa pine forested PNVT overstory vegetation structural states. 

At 602,206 acres (approximately 30 percent of the forests), this PNVT is the largest on the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development.

State B - Seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) canopy 

cover; all tree types; early successional development.

State C - Small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; all tree types; midsuccessional development.

State D - Medium size (10–19.9" diameter) trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; all 

tree types; late successional development.

State E - Large to very large size (≥ 20" diameter) trees, single storied, with open canopy 

cover; all tree types; late successional development.

State F - Seedling and sapling size trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover; all tree 

types; early successional development.

State G - Small size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; mid-successional 

development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State H - Medium size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; all shade tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State I - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

224 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State J - Medium size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; all tree types; late 

successional development.

State K - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; all tree types; 

late successional development.

State L - Medium size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; late 

successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State M - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State N - Recently burned, grass, forb, and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

uncharacteristic early successional development due to fire; not part of the reference 

condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

The ponderosa pine forested PNVT has a 77 percent or high departure rating from desired 

conditions and a 94 percent or severe departure rating from reference conditions making it the 2nd

and 1st most departed PNVT, respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions 

were provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were 

derived from the Nature Conservancy (Smith, 2006a).

Figure 22. Ponderosa Pine Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the ponderosa pine forested PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 85 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

< 1 1.2

13.5

69.6

15.1

< 1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Ponderosa Pine Forest (PPF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of 

Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 225

Dry Mixed Conifer Forest

Figure 23. Dry Mixed Conifer Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the dry mixed conifer forested PNVT overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 147,885 acres (approximately 7 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 6th in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development.

State B - Seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) canopy 

cover; all tree types; early successional development.

State C - Small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; all tree types; midsuccessional development.

State D - Medium size (10–19.9" diameter) trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; all 

tree types; late successional development.

State E - Large to very large size (≥ 20" diameter) trees, single storied, with open canopy 

cover; all tree types; late successional development.

State F - Seedling and sapling size trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover; all tree 

types; early successional development.

State G - Small size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; mid-successional 

development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State H - Medium size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; all shade tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State I - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State J - Medium size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; all tree types; late 

successional development.

State K - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; all tree types; 

late successional development.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

226 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State L - Medium size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; late 

successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State M - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; tree types; 

late successional development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State N - Recently burned, grass, forb, and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

uncharacteristic early successional development due to fire; not part of the reference 

condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

The dry mixed conifer forested PNVT has a 67 percent or high departure rating from desired 

conditions and a 77 percent or high departure rating from reference conditions making it tied with 

Great Basin grassland for the 3rd most departed PNVT from desired conditions and 3rd most 

departed PNVT from reference conditions on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions 

were provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were

derived from LANDFIRE (2007a).

Figure 24. Dry Mixed Conifer Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the dry mixed conifer forested PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 78 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

< 1 1.9

19.0

45.8

32.4

< 1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Dry Mixed Conifer Forest (DMCF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of 

Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 227

Wet Mixed Conifer Forest

Figure 25. Wet Mixed Conifer Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the wet mixed conifer forested PNVT overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 177,995 acres (approximately 9 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 5th in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types, with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development with aspen regeneration.

State B - Seedling and sapling (< 5" diameter), small (5–9.9" diameter), medium (10–19.9" 

diameter), large to very large (≥ 20" diameter) size trees, with open (> 10 percent and ≤ 30 

percent) or closed (> 30 percent) canopy cover, consisting of all aspen, deciduous tree mix, 

and evergreen-deciduous mix tree types; with a plurality of shade intolerant tree types.

State C - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types.

State D - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State E - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State F - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State G - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open canopy cover; shade intolerant 

tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State H - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types.

State I - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State J - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

228 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State K - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types, with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part 

of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State L - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State M - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State N - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not 

part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State O - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; 

not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State P - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part of 

the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State Q - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not 

part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State R - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State S - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part of 

the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

The wet mixed conifer forested PNVT has a 54 percent or moderate departure rating from desired 

conditions and a 61 percent or high departure rating from reference conditions making it tied with 

montane/subalpine grasslands for the 7th most departed PNVT for desired conditions and 7th 

most departed PNVT from reference conditions on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired 

conditions were provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference 

conditions were derived from the Nature Conservancy (Smith, 2006b).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 229

Figure 26. Wet Mixed Conifer Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the wet mixed conifer forested PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 74 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

Spruce-Fir Forest

Figure 27. Spruce-Fir Forest Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the spruce-fir forested PNVT overstory vegetation structural states. At 

17,667 acres (approximately 0.9 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 11th in size out of the 14 

PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types, with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development with aspen regeneration.

State B - Seedling and sapling (< 5" diameter), small (5–9.9" diameter), medium (10–19.9" 

diameter), large to very large (≥ 20" diameter) size trees, with open (> 10 percent and ≤ 30

percent) or closed (> 30 percent) canopy cover, consisting of all aspen, deciduous tree mix, 

and evergreen-deciduous mix tree types; with a plurality of shade intolerant tree types.

< 1 3.5

21.2

60.1

14.3

< 1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Wet Mixed Conifer Forest (WMCF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition 

of Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

230 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State C - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types.

State D - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State E - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State F - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State G - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open canopy cover; shade intolerant 

tree types; with aspen regeneration.

State H - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types.

State I - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State J - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary 

landscapes only.

State K - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types, with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part 

of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State L - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State M - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State N - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a 

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not 

part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State O - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with closed canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; 

not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State P - Seedling and sapling, and small size trees, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part of 

the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State Q - Medium size trees, single or multistoried, with open or closed canopy cover; with a

plurality of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not 

part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State R - Large to very large size trees, single storied, with open canopy cover; with a 

plurality of mixed shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen 

regeneration; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 231

State S - Large to very large size trees, multistoried, with open canopy cover; with a plurality 

of shade tolerant tree types; this state exists with elk and no aspen regeneration; not part of 

the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

The spruce-fir forested PNVT has a 59 percent or moderate departure rating from desired 

conditions and a 62 percent or high departure rating from reference conditions making it the 6th

most departed PNVT, respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were 

provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived 

from the Nature Conservancy (Smith, 2006c).

Figure 28. Spruce-Fir Forest Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the spruce-fir forested PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 24 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

0.0

54.5

21.7 23.7

0.0 < 1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Spruce-Fir Forest (SFF) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of Capable 

Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

232 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland

Figure 29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the Madrean pine-oak woodland PNVT overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 394,927 acres (approximately 20 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 2nd in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development.

State B - Seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) canopy 

cover; all tree types; early successional development.

State C - Small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; all tree types; midsuccessional development.

State D - Medium and large to very large size (≥ 10" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; 

all tree types; late successional development.

State E - Seedling and sapling size trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover; all tree 

types; early successional development.

State F - Small size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; mid-successional 

development.

State G - Medium and large to very large size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types;

late successional development.

The Madrean pine-oak woodland PNVT has a 61 percent or high departure rating from desired 

conditions and a 72 percent or high departure rating from reference conditions making it the 4th

most departed PNVT, respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were 

provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived 

from the Nature Conservancy (Schussman and Gori, 2006).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 233

Figure 30. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the Madrean pine-oak woodland PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 46 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

Piñon-Juniper Woodland

Figure 31. Piñon-Juniper Woodland Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the piñon-juniper woodland PNVT overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 222,166 acres (approximately 11 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 3rd in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Recently burned, grass, forb and shrub types with < 10 percent tree canopy cover; 

early successional development.

State B - Seedling and sapling size (< 5" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent) canopy 

cover; all tree types; early successional development.

State C - Small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; all tree types; midsuccessional development.

0.0

10.8

37.4

44.2

1.9 5.7

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland (MPOW) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range 

Condition of Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

234 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State D - Medium and large to very large size (≥ 10" diameter) trees, with open canopy cover; 

all tree types; late successional development.

State E - Seedling and sapling size trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover; all tree 

types; early successional development.

State F - Small size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types; mid-successional 

development.

State G - Medium and large to very large size trees, with closed canopy cover; all tree types;

late successional development.

The piñon-juniper woodland PNVT has a 28 percent or low departure rating from desired 

conditions and reference conditions making it the 10th and 11th most departed PNVT, respectively,

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service 

Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE (2005).

Figure 32. Piñon-Juniper Woodland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the piñon-juniper woodland PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 91 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

0.0 < 1

8.1

76.5

13.4

1.4

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO departure from

desired conditions

high ecological status

- LOW departure

from desired

conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

departure from

desired conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH departure from

desired conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE departure

from desired

conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Piñon-Juniper Woodland (PJW) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of 

Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 235

Semi-desert Grassland

Figure 33. Semi-desert Grassland Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the semi-desert grassland PNVT woody overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 106,952 acres (approximately 5 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 7th in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely vegetated; with < 10

percent tree or shrub canopy cover; early successional development.

State B - Perennial herbaceous vegetation, with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy cover; midsuccessional development.

State C - Perennial herbaceous vegetation with shrubs, seedling, and sapling size (< 5"

diameter), small size (5–9.9" diameter), and medium size (10–19.9" diameter) trees with open 

(< 30 percent) canopy cover; late successional development; not part of the reference 

condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State D - Shrubs, seedling and sapling, small, medium, and large to very large size (> 20"

diameter) trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover, and large to very large size trees 

with open canopy cover with perennial herbaceous vegetation understory, mid-successional 

development; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State E - Various noxious weeds and invasive nonnative plants makeup a significant portion 

of the herbaceous vegetation composition; not part of the reference condition, found on 

contemporary landscapes only.

The semi-desert grassland PNVT has a 79 percent or high departure rating from desired 

conditions and reference conditions making it the 1st and 2nd most departed PNVT, respectively,

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service 

Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from the Nature Conservancy 

(Schussman, 2006a).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

236 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Figure 34. Semi-desert Grassland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the semi-desert grassland PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 52 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

Great Basin Grassland

Figure 35. Great Basin Grassland Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the Great Basin grassland PNVT woody overstory vegetation structural 

states. At 185,523 acres (approximately 9 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 4th in size out 

of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely vegetated; with < 10

percent tree or shrub canopy cover; early successional development.

State B - Open perennial herbaceous vegetation, with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy 

cover; mid-successional development.

0.0 3.8

29.8

50.2

2.2

14.1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Semi-desert Grassland (SDG) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of 

Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 237

State C - Perennial herbaceous vegetation with shrubs, seedling and sapling size (< 5" 

diameter), small size (5–9.9" diameter), and medium size (10–19.9" diameter) trees with open 

(< 30 percent) canopy cover; late successional development.

State D - Shrubs, seedling, and sapling, small, medium, and large to very large size (> 20"

diameter) trees with closed (≥ 30 percent) canopy cover, and large to very large size trees 

with open canopy cover with perennial herbaceous vegetation understory, mid-successional 

development.

State E - Various noxious weeds and invasive nonnative plants makeup a significant portion 

of the herbaceous vegetation composition; not part of the reference condition, found on 

contemporary landscapes only.

The Great Basin grassland PNVT has a 67 percent or high departure rating from desired 

conditions and reference conditions making it tied with dry mixed conifer forest for the 3rd most 

departed PNVT from desired conditions and 5th most departed PNVT from reference conditions

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service 

Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE (2007b).

Figure 36. Great Basin Grassland Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the Great Basin grassland PNVT’s current herbaceous understory 

vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock 

grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 87 percent of capable grazing lands do 

not meet desired conditions.

0.0 < 1

9.6

69.3

17.8

2.7

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Great Basin Grassland (GBG) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of 

Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

238 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Montane/Subalpine Grasslands

Figure 37. Montane/Subalpine Grasslands Woody Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the montane/subalpine grasslands PNVT woody overstory vegetation 

structural states. At 51,559 acres (approximately 3 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 9th in 

size out of the 14 PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are,

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely vegetated; with < 10

percent tree or shrub canopy cover; early successional development.

State B - Perennial herbaceous vegetation, with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy cover; midsuccessional development.

State C - Perennial herbaceous vegetation, with < 10 percent tree or shrub canopy cover; late 

successional development.

State D - Shrubs, seedling, and sapling size (< 5" diameter), small size (5–9.9" diameter), 

medium size (10–19.9" diameter), and large to very large size (> 20" diameter) trees with 

open (< 30 percent) or closed (≥ 30) canopy cover, with perennial herbaceous vegetation 

understory; not part of the reference condition, found on contemporary landscapes only.

State E - Various noxious weeds and invasive nonnative plants makeup a significant portion 

of the herbaceous vegetation composition; not part of the reference condition, found on 

contemporary landscapes only.

The montane/subalpine PNVT has a 54 percent or moderate departure rating from desired 

conditions and reference conditions making it tied with wet mixed conifer forest for the 7th most 

departed PNVT from desired conditions and 8th most departed PNVT from reference conditions

on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service 

Southwestern Regional Office; reference conditions were derived from LANDFIRE (2007c).
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 239

Figure 38. Montane/Subalpine Grasslands Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the montane/subalpine Grasslands PNVT’s current herbaceous 

understory vegetation ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting 

livestock grazing and departure from desired conditions. Roughly 20 percent of capable grazing 

lands do not meet desired conditions.

Interior Chaparral

Figure 39. Interior Chaparral Overstory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the interior chaparral PNVT overstory vegetation structural states. At 

55,981 acres (approximately 3 percent of the forests), this PNVT ranks 8th in size out of the 14 

PNVTs on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs. The vegetation structural states are

State A - Herbaceous vegetation regeneration, recently burned, sparsely vegetated; with < 10

percent shrub or tree canopy cover; early successional development.

State B - Open perennial herbaceous vegetation, with shrubs, seedling, and sapling size (< 5"

diameter) and small size (5–9.9" diameter) trees with open (< 30 percent canopy cover; mid 

successional development.

3.6 7.3

67.6

17.4

2.8 1.2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Montane/Subalpine Grasslands (MSG) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range 

Condition of Capable Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

240 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

State C - Shrubs, seedling, and sapling, small, medium size (10–19.9" diameter), and large to 

very large size (> 20" diameter) trees with closed (≥ 30) canopy cover, and medium and large 

to very large size (> 20" diameter) trees with open canopy cover and no herbaceous 

vegetation understory; late successional development.

The interior chaparral PNVT has an 8 percent or no departure rating from desired conditions and 

reference conditions making it the least departed PNVT, respectively, on the Apache-Sitgreaves 

NFs. Desired conditions were provided by the Forest Service Southwestern Regional Office;

reference conditions were derived from the Nature Conservancy (Schussman, 2006).

Figure 40. Interior Chaparral Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Condition

The figure above depicts the interior chaparral PNVT’s current herbaceous understory vegetation 

ecological status2and range condition3 of the lands capable4 of supporting livestock grazing and 

departure from desired conditions. Roughly 40 percent of capable grazing lands do not meet

desired conditions.

Age Classes Typically Occurring on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs

The figure on the following page provides a graphic representation of ponderosa pine age classes. 

The four age classes range from 1, the youngest, to 4, the oldest. The four crown vigor classes

range from A, the most vigorous, to D, the poorest. Bole diameter is highly dependent upon 

growing conditions rather than age. In general, class 1 represents trees approximately 4 to 9 

inches DBH and 15 to 40 years old, class 2 is approximately 9 to 15 inches DBH and 40 to 75 

years, class 3 is 15 to 22 inches DBH and 75 to 130 years, and class 4 is more than 22 inches

DBH and more than 130 years old.

0.0 1.2

47.8

39.8

0.0

11.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Excellent Range

Condition

Good Range

Condition

Fair Range Condition Poor Range Condition Very-Poor Range

Condition

No Data

high ecological status

- NO Departure from

Desired Conditions

high ecological status

- LOW Departure

from Desired

Conditions

moderately-high

ecological status -

MODERATE

Departure from

Desired Conditions

moderately-low

ecological status -

HIGH Departure from

Desired Conditions

low ecological status

- SEVERE Departure

from Desired

Conditions

no known ecological

or departure status

Percent

Interior Chaparral (IC) PNVT Herbaceous Understory Vegetation Ecological Status and Range Condition of Capable 

Grazing Lands, and Relation to Desired Conditions
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 241

Figure 41. Keen’s tree classification for ponderosa pine
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

242 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Old Growth in the

Southwestern Region of the Forest Service 

“Old growth” refers to specific habitat components that occur in forests and woodlands: old trees, 

dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and structure diversity (Franklin and 

Spies, 1991; Helms, ed.; 1998; Kaufmann et al., 2007). These important habitat features may 

occur in small areas, with only a few components, or over larger areas as stands or forests where 

old growth is concentrated (Kaufmann et al., 2007). In the Southwest, old growth is considered 

“transitional” (Oliver and Larson, 1996), given that the location of old growth on the landscape

shifts over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). Some 

species, notably certain plants, require “old forest” communities that may or may not have old 

growth components but have escaped significant disturbance for lengths of time necessary to 

provide the suitable stability and environment.

There is an inverse relationship between the frequency of fire and the contiguity of old growth 

features (WSDNR, 2005). In frequent fire, all-aged systems (e.g., ponderosa pine, dry mixed 

conifer, some piñon-juniper types) old growth components can occur individually or in small 

areas of 0.1 to 1-plus acres (Cooper, 1961; White, 1985), separated spatially from other old 

growth. In infrequent fire systems (e.g., mixed conifer-aspen, spruce-fir, some piñon-juniper 

types), old growth components are often concentrated in larger patches, sometimes forming “old 

growth forest” over tens or hundreds of acres.

Old, and sometimes large, trees are an important component of old growth. It is the decadence

(dead tops, dead wood) or structure diversity (flattened crowns, branch characteristics), often 

associated with old age, that provide essential habitat elements. “Old” is relative to the trees 

species (Swetnam and Brown, 1992): about 200 years in ponderosa pine (Kaufmann, 1996) and

100 years in aspen. “Large” is also relative to tree species, but it can be roughly divided into two 

diameter groups: large trees in woodlands and large trees in forests. Large trees in woodlands are 

approximately 10 inches and greater in diameter (i.e., greater than 25 cm) (Weisz et al., 2012) and 

consist of piñon, juniper, oak, and other “dwarf” tree species where diameter is measured at the 

root collar (DRC). Large trees in forests are approximately 20 inches and greater (i.e., greater 

than 50 cm) and consists of species that dominate montane and subalpine zones, and they are 

measured at “breast height” (DBH). Large trees are valued for their longevity in providing old 

growth habitat and for their added ability to enhance structure diversity.

The structure diversity component includes both vertical and horizontal diversity. Vertical 

diversity is often assessed based on the number of canopy layers. Tree age data is sometimes used 

as an inference of canopy number (i.e., storiedness) and vice versa. Horizontal diversity can be 

evaluated using canopy cover and tree stem aggregation statistics, either within or among old 

growth sites. Structure diversity in old growth is relatively high, but as with the other old growth 

components, guidelines for structure and age diversity are specific to the PNVT.

Snags are standing dead or partially dead trees that are greater than about 6 feet (2 meters) in 

height (Helms, ed., 1998). Depending on the species of wildlife, snag diameter for habitat varies 

upward from 5 inches in diameter (greater than 12 cm) (Ganey, 1999; Harris, 1999; Harrod et al.,

1998; Lyon, 1977; McClelland and Frissell, 1975). Management guidelines for the retention and 

development of snags vary by PNVT and diameter class (Hutto et al., 1993; Thomas et al., 1979). 

Snags created by fire may not meet habitat needs for some wildlife and are often subject to 
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 243

separate retention guidelines (Hutto, 2008). Snags created by fire sometimes fall before they 

become useful as snag habitat.

Coarse woody debris is any woody material on the ground greater than 3 inches (8 cm) at the 

largest cross section (Brewer, 2008). Like snag guidelines, coarse woody debris guidelines are 

specific to PNVT and diameter class (Graham et al., 1994).

Vegetation Management Practices

The following table lists various treatment options for use under the uneven-aged and even-aged 

management systems, as well as intermediate treatments that can be used within either system.

See the land management plan glossary for definitions of most silvicultural terms used in the 

table.

Use of treatment methods listed in the following table requires project level analysis and a NEPA 

decision document followed by detailed site-specific prescription development and signature by 

regionally-certified silviculturists. These vegetation management practices are general guidelines. 

The treatment option chosen for each forest or woodland type and circumstance is determined by 

a certified silviculturist using guidance in this appendix, a review of applicable technical and 

scientific literature, and practical experience. Using this knowledge, the silviculturist determines 

if the practice is relevant to the specific vegetation and site condition. Additional practices may be 

dictated by other resource goals, particularly in riparian areas.

Forest Service Manual (FSM) 2478.03 (Silvicultural Examinations, Prescriptions, and 

Evaluations – Policy) requires, in part, that a prescription, detailing the methods, techniques, and 

timing of silvicultural activities, be prepared prior to initiating any silvicultural treatment on NFS 

lands. 

FSM 5142.1 (Developing Prescribed Fire Burn Plans) requires that a site-specific prescribed fire 

plan be prepared and approved by a qualified line officer for each prescribed fire in advance of 

ignition. The prescribed fire plan includes a description of the structure and composition of the 

vegetation and fuel characteristics and includes resource objective statements that are used to 

develop the prescribed fire prescription.

Fuels specialists and silviculturists, along with other resource specialists, work together to ensure 

land management objectives are met. Joint silviculture prescriptions and burn plans may be 

produced.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 244

Table 14. Standard Vegetation Management Practices for Site-Specific Project Planning and Implementationa

DESIRED 

VEGETATION 

SPECIES 

COMPOSITION

Gambel oak, 

Evergreen oak 

species, quaking 

aspen, chaparral 

species, 

cottonwood, willow, 

alder, etc.

See species belowb See species belowb See species belowb See species belowb See species belowb See species belowb See species belowb

All Forest and

Persistent Woodland 

Types

Grassland, Meadow, 

and Savanna 

Woodland Types

STRUCTURE

DESIRED ONEAGED, SINGLESTORIED STANDCDESIRED ONE-AGED, 

SINGLE-STORIED 

STANDC

DESIRED ONE-AGED, 

SINGLE-STORIED 

STANDC

DESIRED ONEAGED, SINGLESTORIED STANDC

DESIRED TWOAGED, TWOSTORIED STAND

(Two age classes, 

each > 10% BA most 

of the rotation)

DESIRED UNEVENAGED, MULTISTORIED STANDdDESIRED UNEVENAGED, MULTISTORIED STANDdDESIRED UNEVENAGED, MULTISTORIED STANDdANY DESIRED ONE-, 

TWO-, or MULTISTORIED STAND

DESIRED OPEN

(Grassland/meadow

< 10% woody canopy 

cover; savanna 

woodland 10-30% 

canopy cover)

FUNCTION

Coppice 

Regeneration 

Method

(vegetation 

regeneration 

function)

Clearcutting 

Regeneration Method

(no trees function for 

seed/shelter)

Seed Tree 

Regeneration Method

(some trees function 

for seed only)

Shelterwood 

Regeneration 

Method

(some trees function 

for seed/shelter)

Irregular Shelterwood 

Regeneration Method

(function for 

continuous tree cover)

Single-Tree 

Regeneration Method

(function for 

continuous tree cover)

Group-Selection 

Regeneration Method

(group size = 2-4 

acres)

Irregular GroupShelterwood 

Regeneration 

Method

Intermediate Treatment 

Methods

(tree cover kept 

between stand 

formation and

regeneration= manage 

existing stand for 

desired conditions)

No or Few Trees

(eliminate tree 

encroachment; 

maintain as 

predominantly 

herbaceous 

vegetation)

SILVICULTURAL

MANAGEMENT

PRACTICESe

(options listed are 

not in any 

particular order or 

preference)

Activity

Coppice

Coppice 

w/Reserves

Prescribed Fire

Protection from 

heavy ungulate 

browsing

Plant hardwood 

cuttings in riparian 

sites

Protect 

regeneration from 

animal damage

Activity

≤ 5% tree cover post 

harvest:

Patch cut

Strip cut

Stand cut

Prescribed Fire

Tree Planting

6-10% tree cover post 

harvest:

Patch cut w/Reserves

Strip cut w/Reserves

Stand cut w/Reserves

Prescribed Fire

Tree Planting

Protect regeneration 

from animal damage

Activity

Preparatory

Seed

1-10% tree cover post 

harvest:

Final Removal

Final removal 

w/Reserves

Limited Prescribed 

Fire

Fill-in Tree Planting

Protect regeneration 

from animal damage

Activity

Preparatory

Seed

Group Seed

Strip Seed

Removal

Group Removal

Strip Removal

Final Removal

Final Removal 

w/Reserves

Limited Prescribed 

Fire

Fill-in Tree Planting

Protect regeneration 

from animal damage

Activity

Preparatory

Seed

Removal

Final Removal

Final Removal 

w/Reserves

---------------------------

Coppice

Regeneration

Method:

Coppice w/Standards 

(understory must 

regenerate 

vegetatively by 

suckers/sprouts)

Over-browsing 

protection

Activity

Single Tree (Individual 

Tree) Selection

Limited Prescribed 

Fire

Activity

Group Selection

Group Selection 

w/Reserves

Limited Prescribed Fire

Tree Planting

Protect regeneration 

from animal damage

Activity

Seed

Removal

Final Removal

Final Removal 

w/Reserves

Limited Prescribed 

Fire

Fill-in Tree Planting

Protect regeneration 

from animal damage

Activity

Improvement cuts

Free Thinning

Low Thinning

Liberation

Cleaning

Weeding

Thinning Commercial 

and Noncommercial

Mortality Salvage

Sanitation Salvage

Prescribed Fire

Activity

Grassland 

Restoration and/or 

maintenance 

tree/shrub Cuts

Tree Pushing, 

Chaining

Prescribed Fire

Careful grazing 

management for 

herbaceous 

vegetation recovery, 

especially post-fire

Intensive animal 

browsing to maintain 

herbaceous 

vegetation cover

Herbicide treatments

a Standard management practices for certain composition, structure, and function attributes, other than deferral

b Ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, blue spruce, Engelmann spruce, southwestern white pine, white fir, subalpine fir, quaking aspen, pine-oak species, 

Chihuahuan pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, piñon pine, alligator juniper, Utah juniper, one-seed juniper, cottonwood, willow, Arizona cypress, mesquite, etc.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 245

NOTE: Methods and practices listed below will vary by tree species, and those used must be appropriate for the known SILVICS of the desired species.

c One-age class composes ≥ 90% of total stand BA for most of the rotation. Age difference between oldest & youngest tree in a class is less than 20% of the rotation.

d Three or more distinct age classes

ec Daniel et al. (1979). “Principles of Silviculture.” McGraw-Hill, New York. Smith, D.M. (1986). “The Practice of Silviculture.” John C. Wiley & Sons, New York, Helms, 

J.A., (ed.). (1998). “The Dictionary of Forestry.” The Society of American Foresters.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

246 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

References

Brewer, D. (2008). Managing Coarse Woody Debris in Fire-adapted Southwestern Forests. 

Ecological Restoration Institute working paper 21. Northern Arizona University, 

Flagstaff, AZ. 9 pp.

Cooper, C.F. (1961). Pattern in Ponderosa Pine Forests. Ecology 42: 493–499.

Franklin, J.F.; and T.A. Spies. (1991). Ecological definitions of old-growth Douglas-fir forests. 

Pp. 61–69 in Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-fir Forests. L.F. Ruggiero, 

K.B. Aubry, A.B. Carey, and M. Huff, tech. coords. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-285. Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR. 533 pp.

Ganey, J.L. (1999). Snag density and composition of snag populations on two national forests in 

northern Arizona. Forest Ecology and Management 117: 169–178.

Graham, R.T.; A.E. Harvey; M.F. Martin; T.B. Jain; J.R. Tonn; and D.S. Page-Dumroese. (1994). 

Managing Coarse Woody Debris in Forests of the Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest 

Service Res. Pap. INT-RP-477. Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 12 pp.

Harris, R.B. (1999). Abundance and Characteristics of Snags in Western Montana Forests. USDA 

Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-31. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ft. 

Collins, CO. 19 pp.

Harrod, R.J.; W.L. Gaines; W.E. Hartl; and A. Camp. (1998). Estimating Historical Snag Density 

in Dry Forests East of the Cascade Range. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWGTR-428. Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR. 16 pp.

Helms, J.A., editor (1998). The Dictionary of Forestry. The Society of American Foresters: 

Bethesda, MD. 210 pp.

Holechek, J.L.; R.D. Pieper; and C.H. Herbel. (1998). Range management: principles and 

practices, 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. 542 pp.

Hutto, R.L.; S.J. Hejl; C.R. Preston; and D.M. Finch. (1993). Effects of Silvicultural Treatments 

on Forest Birds in the Rocky Mountains: Implications And Management 

Recommendations. Pp. 386-391 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangel (eds.), status and 

management of neotropical migratory birds. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RM229. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ft. Collins, CO.

Hutto, R.L. (2008). The Ecological Importance of Severe Wildfires: Some Like It Hot. Ecological 

Applications 18: 1827–1834.

Kaufmann, M.R. (1996). To live fast or not: growth, vigor, and longevity of old-growth 

ponderosa and lodgepole pine trees. Tree Physiology 16: 139–144.

Kaufmann, M.R.; D. Binkley; P.Z. Fulé; M. Johnson; S.L. Stephens; and T.W. Swetnam. (2007). 

Defining Old Growth for Fire-Adapted Forests of the Western United States. Ecology and 

Society 12: 15.

LANDFIRE. (2003). Wet grasslands. Draft LANDFIRE Rapid Assessment Model: WGRA. 

LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. 5 pp. 
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 247

LANDFIRE. (2005). Juniper-pinyon (frequent fire type). Draft LANDFIRE Rapid Assessment 

Model: JUPI1. LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. 

8 pp.

LANDFIRE. (2007a). Southern Rocky Mountain dry-mesic montane mixed coniferous forest and 

woodland. LANDFIRE Biophysical Setting Model, Biophysical Setting: 1510510. 

LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. pp. 42–47. 

LANDFIRE. (2007b). Inter-Mountain. Basin semi-desert grassland. LANDFIRE Biophysical 

Setting Model, Biophysical Setting: 2411350. LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest 

Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. pp. 221–226. 

LANDFIRE. (2007c). Southern Rocky Mountain montane subalpine grassland. LANDFIRE 

Biophysical Setting Model, Biophysical Setting: 1511460. LANDFIRE Project, USDA, 

Forest Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. pp. 119–224. 

LANDFIRE. (2007d). North American warm desert riparian system. LANDFIRE Biophysical 

Setting Model, Biophysical Setting: 1511551. LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest 

Service and USDI, Geologic Survey. pp. 203–208. 

LANDFIRE. (2007e). Montane riparian system. LANDFIRE Biophysical Setting Model, 

Biophysical Setting: 2411590. LANDFIRE Project, USDA, Forest Service and USDI, 

Geologic Survey. pp. 203–208. 

Lyon, J.L. (1977). Attrition of lodgepole pine snags on the Sleeping Child Burn, Montana. USDA 

Forest Service Research Note INT-219. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station, Ogden, UT. 4 pp.

McClelland, B.R.; and S.S. Frissell. (1975). Identifying Forest Snags Useful for Hole-Nesting 

Birds. Journal of Forestry 73: 414–417.

Oliver, C.D.; and B.C. Larson. (1996). Forest Stand Dynamics, update addition. New York: John 

Wiley & Sons. 520 pp.

Schussman, H. (2006). Historical range of variation and state and transition modeling of historical 

and current landscape conditions for interior chaparral of the Southwestern U.S. Prepared 

for the USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region by The Nature Conservancy, Tucson, 

AZ. 24 pp.

Schussman, H.; and D. Gori. (2006). Historical range of variation and state and transition 

modeling of historical and current landscape conditions for madrean pine-oak of the 

Southwestern U.S. Prepared for the USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region by The 

Nature Conservancy, Tucson, AZ. 35 pp. 

Smith, E. (2006a). Historical range of variation and state and transition modeling of historical and 

current landscape conditions for ponderosa pine of the Southwestern U.S. Prepared for 

the USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region by The Nature Conservancy, Tucson, 

AZ. 43 pp.

Smith, E. (2006b). Historical range of variation and state and transition modeling of historical and 

current landscape conditions for mixed conifer of the Southwestern U.S. Prepared for the 

USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region by The Nature Conservancy, Tucson, AZ. 

31 pp.
Appendix B. Vegetation Conditions and Management Practices

248 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Smith, E. (2006c). Historical range of variation and state and transition modeling of historical and 

current landscape conditions for spruce-fir of the Southwestern U.S. Prepared for the 

USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region by The Nature Conservancy, Tucson, AZ. 37

pp.

Swetnam, T.W.; and P.M. Brown. (1992). Oldest Known Conifers in the Southwestern United 

States: Temporal And Spatial Patterns Of Maximum Age. Pp. 24–38 In Kaufmann, M.R. 

Moir W.H.; and Bassett, R.L., eds. Old-growth forests in the Southwest and Rocky 

Mountain regions: The status of our knowledge. USDA Forest Service workshop 

proceedings, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-213. Fort Collins, CO. 201 pp.

Thomas, J.W.; R.G. Anderson; C. Master; and E.L. Bull. (1979). Snags. Pp. 60–77 In Thomas,

J.W. (tech. ed.), Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests: The Blue Mountains of Oregon 

and Washington. USDA Forest Service Agricultural Handbook No. 553. Washington, DC.

512 pp.

Weisz, R.; D. Vandendriesche; and M. Moeur. (February 2012). White Paper O - Overview of 

How We Created VDDT Models with FVS - Calibrating Natural and Anthropogenic 

Events in State and Transition Models with FVS: A case study for ponderosa pine forest 

ecosystems. (One of 16 papers in the regional white paper series titled “The R3 FVS 

Process for Evaluating the Effects of Vegetation Management Activities in the Forest 

Plan Revision Process”). USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Regional Office. 

Albuquerque, NM. Interoffice publication.

White, A.S. (1985). Presettlement Regeneration Patterns in a Southwestern Ponderosa Pine Stand. 

Ecology 66: 589–594.

WSDNR. (2005). Definition and Inventory of Old Growth Forests on DNR-Managed State 

Lands. Washington State Department of Natural Resources technical report. Olympia, 

WA. 74 pp.
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 249

Appendix C. Communications Sites

The table below displays the designated communications and electronic sites to be administered 

per Forest Service Manual direction. Most are for Forest Service administration. Future 

development at all sites should adhere to direction in the “Land Management Plan for the 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests.” FSH 2709.11 Chapter 90 provides guidance for 

communications site management, including definitions of low and high power.

Table 15. Communications sites on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests

Site Name Administrative Commercial Low Power (LP) or 

High Power (HP)

Apache National Forest

Alpine Heliport X LP

Alpine Ranger Station X LP

Bear Mountain Lookout X LP

Big Lake Lookout and Visitor Center X LP

Blue Lookout X LP

Escudilla Lookout X LP

Nutrioso Communication Site X LP

Granville X LP

Green’s Peak Lookout X X LP

Hannagan Helibase X LP

MCI X LP

Mitchell Peak X LP

P.S. Knoll Lookout X LP

Reno Lookout X LP

Rose Peak Lookout X LP

Sizer Knoll X LP

South Mountain X X LP

Springerville Ranger Station X LP

Strayhorse X LP

Trail Cabin X LP

Water Canyon Admin. Site X LP

Sitgreaves National Forest

Brookbank X X LP

Chevelon Butte X LP

Chevelon Work Center X LP

Deer Springs Lookout X LP

Dutch Joe Lookout X LP

Gentry Lookout X LP

Heber Ranger Station X LP
Appendix C. Communications Sites 

250 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Site Name Administrative Commercial Low Power (LP) or 

High Power (HP)

Heber Sub-Station X LP

Juniper Ridge Lookout X LP

Lake Mountain Lookout X LP

Lakeside Ranger Station X LP

Long Hollow X LP

O’Haco Lookout X LP

Pinedale Work Center X LP

Porter Mountain X X LP, HPa

Promontory Lookout X LP

Springer Mountain Lookout X LP

a See the special uses section (guidelines) for additional direction about the high power site at Porter Mountain.
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 251

Appendix D. Relevant Laws,

Regulations, Policies, and Other Sources of 

Information

Direction for managing National Forest System land comes from a variety of levels. National and 

regional direction includes laws, executive orders, regulations, and Forest Service policy. The 

figure below illustrates this hierarchy of management direction beginning with national and 

regional direction at the highest level and ending with site-specific, project level direction when 

the land management plan (the plan) is implemented.

Figure 42. Hierarchy of management direction for national forests

Management direction includes applicable laws, regulations, and policies, although they generally 

are not restated in this plan. During plan implementation, a project must be consistent with the 

direction found in the plan, applicable laws, regulations, and Forest Service Manuals; applicable 

Forest Service Handbooks provide guidance only and do not provide required direction.

This appendix contains a listing of relevant statutes, regulations, and policies applicable to the 

Forest Service. 

Forest Service Directives 

http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/

The following is a partial listing of national and regional Forest Service policies relevant to this 

plan. A complete listing can be found in Forest Service Manuals and Forest Service Handbooks. 

Together, these are known as the Forest Service Directives System. 

The directives system is the primary basis for the management and control of all internal 

programs and serves as the primary source of administrative direction for Forest Service 

employees. The system sets forth legal authorities, management objectives, policies, 

responsibilities, delegations, standards, procedures, and other instructions. 

National and Regional Management Direction

Laws, Code of Federal Regulations, Forest Service Policy

 ⇩

Forestwide Management Direction – Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions, Objectives, Standards, Guidelines

 ⇩

Management Area Direction – Land Management Plan

Desired Conditions, Objectives, Standards, Guidelines

 ⇩

Project level Management Direction

Project Decision Documents (Decision Memos, 

Decision Notices, and Records of Decision)
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

252 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

The Forest Service Manual (FSM) contains legal authorities, goals, objectives, policies, 

responsibilities, instructions, and the necessary guidance to plan and execute assigned programs 

and activities. 

Forest Service Handbooks (FSH) are directives that provide instructions and guidance on how to 

proceed with a specialized phase of a program or activity. Handbooks either are based on a part of 

the FSM or they incorporate external directives. 

FSM 1000 Organization and Management

• FSM 1010 Laws, Regulations, and Orders 

• FSM 1020 Forest Service Mission 

FSM 1400 Controls

• FSM 1410 Management Reviews

FSM 1500 External Relations

• FSM 1560 State, Tribal, County, and Local Agencies, Public and Private Organizations

FSM 1563 American Indian and Alaskan Native Relations FSM 1600 Information Resources 

FSM 1900 Planning 

• FSM 1920 Land and Resource Management Planning

• FSM 1950 Environmental Policy and Procedures

• FSM 1970 Economic and Social Evaluation

• FSH 1909.12 Land and Resource Management Planning Handbook

○ Chapter 82.5 (Interim Management of Eligible or Suitable Rivers)

FSM 2000 National Forest Resource Management

• FSM 2020 Ecological Restoration and Resilience

• FSM 2030 Large Scale Event Recovery

• FSM 2060 Ecosystem Classification, Interpretation, and Application 

• FSM 2070 Vegetation Ecology

FSM 2200 Range Management 

• FSM 2260 Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros

• FSH 2209.13 Grazing Permit Administration Handbook, Southwestern Region 

supplement

FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management

• FSM 2320 Wilderness Management

• FSM 2330 Publicly Managed Recreation Opportunities

• FSM 2350 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities

○ FSM 2356 Cave Management

• FSM 2360 Heritage Program Management
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 253

○ FSM 2300-99-3 Special Interest Areas, Southwestern Region Supplement

• FSM 2380 Landscape Management

• FSH 2309.18 Trails Management Handbook

• FSH 2309.24 Cultural Resources Handbook

○ Chapter 10 Survey Standards, Southwestern Region Supplement

Chapter 40 Damage Assessment, Southwestern Region Supplement FSM 2400 Timber 

Management, Southwestern Region, and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs supplements

• FSM 2430 Commercial Timber Sales, Southwestern Region and Apache-Sitgreaves NFs 

supplements, Small Sales and Commercial/Personal Use Permits of Timber, Firewood, 

and other forest products

• FSM 2470 Silvicultural Practices

○ FSM 2478.03 Silvicultural Examinations, Prescriptions, and Evaluations – Policy

• FSH 2409.11 to FSH 2409.26 Timber Management and Silvicultural Practices 

Handbooks

○ FSH 2409.26b to 2409.26g Reforestation, Timber Stand Improvement, Silvicultural 

Examination and Prescription, Nursery, Seed, and Tree Handbooks

• FSH 2409.18 Timber Sale Preparation Handbook

○ Chapter 80 Uses of Timber Other Than Commercial Timber Sales Special Forest 

Products-Forest Botanical Products

• FSH 2409.19 Renewable Resources Handbook

Chapter 60 Stewardship Contracting FSM 2500 Watershed and Air Management 

• FSM 2540 Water Uses and Development, Southwestern Region supplement

• FSM 2550 Soil Management, Southwestern Region supplement

• FSH 2509.13 Burned-Area Emergency Response Handbook

○ Chapter 20 Burned-Area Survey and Emergency Treatment Strategy

• FSH 2509.23 Riparian Area Handbook, Southwestern Region supplement

FSM 2600 Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management 

FSM 2700 Special Uses Management

• FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook

○ Chapter 40 Special Uses Administration

○ Chapter 50 Standard Forms and Supplemental Clauses, Southwestern Region 

supplement

FSM 2800 Minerals and Geology

FSM 2900 Invasive Species Management

FSM 3100 Cooperative Fire Protection
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

254 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

FSM 3400 Forest Health Protection

• FSH 3409.11 Forest Health Protection Handbook

FSM 4000 Research

• FSM 4063 RNA Management Standards and Resource Protection Guidelines 

FSM 5100 Fire Management 

• FSM 5140 Prescribed Fire

○ FSM 5142.1 Developing Prescribed Fire Burn Plans

FSM 5150 Fuel Management FSM 5400 Land Ownership

• FSH 5409.13 Land Acquisition Handbook

○ Chapter 30 Land Exchange

FSM 5500 Land Ownership Title Management 

FSM 7300 Buildings and Other Structures

• FSM 7310 Buildings and Related Facilities

• FSH 7309.11 Buildings and Related Facilities Handbook

FSM 7400 Public Health and Pollution Control Facilities 

FSM 7500 Water Storage and Transportation 

FSM 7700 Travel Management

• FSM 7710 Travel Planning

• FSM 7720 Development (Policy on Transportation)

• FSM 7730 Operation and Maintenance 

• FSH 7709.55 Travel Analysis

• FSH 7709.56 Chapter 2 (Road Location) and Chapter 4 (Design)

• FSH 7709.59 Road Operations and Maintenance Handbook

○ Chapter 41.7 Hazard Identification and Correction

Federal Statutes 

The following is a partial listing of relevant laws which have been enacted by Congress. A 

Federal statute, or law, is an act or bill which has become part of the legal code through passage 

by Congress and approval by the President (or via congressional override). Although not specified 

below, many of these laws have been amended.

American Indian Religious Freedom 

Act (AIRFA) as amended (42 USC 1996)

Protects and preserves for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, 

and exercise the traditional religions of the American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut, and Native 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 255

Hawaiians including, but not limited to, access to sites, use, and possession of sacred objects and 

the freedom to worship through ceremonial and traditional rites. 

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 

Provides a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination 

against individuals with disabilities; for clear, strong, consistent, enforceable standards addressing 

discrimination against individuals with disabilities; to ensure that the Federal government plays a 

central role in enforcing the standards established in this act on behalf of individuals with 

disabilities; and to invoke the sweep of congressional authority, including the power to enforce 

the 14th amendment and to regulate commerce, in order to address the major areas of 

discrimination faced by people with disabilities. 

Anderson-Mansfield Reforestation 

and Revegetation Act of October 11, 1949 

Provides for the reforestation and revegetation of National Forest System lands and other lands 

under the administration or control of the Forest Service. 

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 USC 431- 433)

Prevents the appropriation, excavation, injury, or destruction of any historic or prehistoric ruin or 

monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on lands owned or controlled by the United States 

without permission. Provides for permits, for misdemeanor-level penalties for unauthorized use,

and authorizes the President to declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and 

prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest that are situated upon 

lands owned or controlled by the United States to be national monuments, and to reserve as a part 

thereof parcels of land needed for the proper care and management of the objects to be protected. 

The Archaeological Resources Protection Act has replaced the Antiquities Act as the authority for 

special use permits if the resource involved is 100 years old or greater.

Archaeological and Historic Preservation 

Act of 1974 (AHPA) (16 USC 469) 

It is also known as the Archaeological Recovery Act. AHPA amended and expanded the Reservoir 

Salvage Act of 1960 and was enacted to complement the Historic Sites Act of 1935 by providing 

for the preservation of significant scientific, historical, and archaeological data which might be 

lost or destroyed as the result of construction of a federally authorized dam or other construction 

activity. AHPA also allows for any Federal agency responsible for a construction project to 

appropriate a portion of project funds for archaeological survey, recovery, analysis, and 

publication of results.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act 

of 1979 as amended (ARPA) (16 USC 470 aa et seq.)

The act establishes permit requirements for removal or excavation of archaeological resources 

from Federal and Indian lands. Provides criminal and civil penalties for the unauthorized 

excavation, removal, damage, alteration, defacement, or the attempted unauthorized removal, 

damage, alteration, or defacement of any archaeological resource, more than 100 years of age, 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

256 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

found on Federal or Indian lands. Prohibits the sale, purchase, exchange, transportation, receipt, 

or offering of any archaeological resource obtained from public lands or Indian lands. The act 

further directs Federal land managers to survey land under their control for archaeological 

resources and create public awareness programs concerning archaeological resources.

Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 

Ensures that standards for the design, construction, and alteration of buildings owned, leased, or 

funded by the United States are prescribed to insure, wherever possible, that physically 

handicapped people have ready access to and use of such buildings. 

Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1940, as amended

Prohibits anyone, without a permit issued by the Secretary of the Interior, from “taking” bald 

eagles, including their parts, nests, or eggs. The act defines “take” as “pursue, shoot, shoot at, 

poison, wound, kill, capture, trap, collect, molest, or disturb.” Disturbance includes impacts that 

result from human-induced alterations in the nesting area even when eagles are not present. 

Sections 22.26–28 allow take of bald and golden eagles or their nests where it is unavoidable and 

where it is compatible with the continued preservation of the eagle. Permits for take are issued 

based on certain criteria such as, but not limited to, certifications, reporting, and monitoring.

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of July 22, 1937 

Directed the Secretary of Agriculture to develop a program of land conservation and utilization in 

order to correct maladjustments in land use and, thus, assist in such things as control of soil 

erosion, reforestation, preservation of natural resources, and protection of fish and wildlife. 

Clarke-McNary Act of June 7, 1924 

Authorizes and directs the Secretary of Agriculture, in cooperation with land grant colleges and 

universities or with other suitable state agencies, to aid farmers through advice, education, 

demonstrations, or other similar means in establishing, renewing, protecting, and managing wood 

lots, shelterbelts, windbreaks, and other valuable forest growth, and in harvesting, utilizing, and 

marketing the products thereof. The act also authorizes the secretary to accept, on behalf of the 

United States, title to any land donated by private landowners to assure future timber supplies or 

for other national forest purposes. 

Clean Air Act of August 7, 1977, as amended (1977 and 1990)

Enacted to protect and enhance the quality of the Nation’s air resources; to initiate and accelerate 

a national research and development program to achieve the prevention and control of air 

pollution; to provide technical and financial assistance to state and local governments in 

connection with the development and execution of their air pollution prevention and control 

programs; and to encourage and assist the development and operation of regional air pollution 

prevention and control programs. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 257

Clean Water Act (see Federal Water Pollution Control Act)

Common Varieties of Mineral Materials Act of July 31, 1947 

Authorizes the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture, under such rules and regulations as 

they may prescribe, to dispose of mineral materials (including but not limited to common 

varieties of sand, stone, gravel, pumice, pumicite, cinders, and clay) and vegetative materials 

(including but not limited to yucca, manzanita, mesquite, cactus, and timber or other forest 

products) on public lands of the United States, if the disposal of such materials is not otherwise 

expressly authorized by law, is not expressly prohibited by laws of the United States, and would 

not be detrimental to the public interest. 

Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of July 1, 1978 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to assist in the establishment of a coordinated and 

cooperative Federal, state, and local forest stewardship program for the management of nonFederal forest lands and forest lands in foreign countries. 

Economy Act of June 30, 1932 

Authorizes the head of a Federal agency or major organizational unit within an agency to obtain 

goods or services from a major organizational unit within the same agency or another agency if 

amounts are available; if it is determined to be in the best interest of the United States 

government; the agency or unit is able to provide or get by contract the ordered goods or services; 

and the head of the agency decides ordered goods or services cannot be provided as conveniently 

or cheaply by a commercial enterprise. 

Emergency Flood Prevention 

(Agricultural Credit Act) Act of August 4, 1978 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to undertake emergency measures for runoff retardation 

and soil erosion prevention, in cooperation with landowners and users, as the secretary deems 

necessary to safeguard lives and property from floods, drought, and the products of erosion on 

any watershed whenever fire, flood, or other natural occurrence is causing or has caused a sudden 

impairment of that watershed. 

Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended 

Authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened; prohibits 

unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species; authorizes the 

assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the act or regulations; and, authorizes the 

payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any 

violation of the act or any regulation issued thereunder. Section 7 of the act requires Federal 

agencies to use their authorities to carry out programs for the conservation of endangered and

threatened species and to insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by them is not 

likely to jeopardize the continued existence of listed species or modify their critical habitat. 

Section 4 of the Act directs development and implementation of recovery plans for threatened and 

endangered species and the designation of critical habitat. Several species listed under the act are 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

258 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

found on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs, some with recovery plans and some with designated critical 

habitat. Those with a recovery plan and/or a critical habitat designation as of 2014 are listed 

below:

• Mexican Wolf, Recovery Plan

• Lesser Long-Nosed Bat, Recovery Plan

• Southwest Willow Flycatcher, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Mexican Spotted Owl, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Chiricahua Leopard Frog, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Little Colorado River Spinedace, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Apache Trout Recovery Plan

• Spikedace, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Gila Trout, Recovery Plan

• Loach Minnow, Recovery Plan and Critical Habitat

• Razorback Sucker, Recovery Plan

Energy Policy Act of 2005

Requires the Secretary of Agriculture to ensure timely action on oil and gas permits, improve 

collection and retrieval of oil and gas information, and improve inspection and enforcement of 

permit terms (Section 362). 

Energy Security Act of June 30, 1980 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to make available timber resources of the National Forest 

System, in accordance with appropriate timber appraisal and sale procedures, for use by biomass 

energy projects. 

Federal Advisory Committee Act of October 6, 1972 

Sets standards and uniform procedures to govern the establishment, operation, administration, and 

duration of advisory committees. 

Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of November 18, 1988 

Established requirements for the management and protection of caves and their resources on 

Federal lands, including allowing land managing agencies to withhold the location of caves from 

the public, and requiring permits for any removal or collecting activities in caves on Federal 

lands. 

Federal Insecticide, Rodenticide, 

and Fungicide Act of October 21, 1972 

Requires the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to prescribe standards for the 

certification of individuals authorized to use or supervise the use of any pesticide that is classified 

for restricted use; regulates the sale of restricted use pesticides; and provides penalties for the 

unauthorized use or sale of restricted use pesticides. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 259

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of October 21, 1976

Requires that public lands be managed in a manner that will protect the quality of scientific, 

scenic, historical, ecological, environmental, air and atmospheric, water resource, and 

archaeological values; that, where appropriate, will preserve and protect certain public lands in 

their natural condition; that will provide food and habitat for fish and wildlife and domestic 

animals; and that will provide for outdoor recreation and human occupancy and use. Also states 

that the United States shall receive fair market value of the use of public lands and their resources 

unless otherwise provided for by law. 

Federal Noxious Weed Act, 1974, as amended 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to designate plants as noxious weeds by regulation; to 

prohibit the movement of all such weeds in interstate or foreign commerce except under permit; 

to inspect, seize and destroy products, and quarantine areas, if necessary, to prevent the spread of 

such weeds; and to cooperate with other Federal, state and local agencies, farmers associations, 

and private individuals in measures to control, eradicate, prevent, or retard the spread of such 

weeds. 

Federal Power Act of June 10, 1920 

Provides for cooperation between the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission and other Federal 

agencies, including resource agencies, in licensing and relicensing power projects. 

Federal-State Cooperation for 

Soil Conservation Act of December 22, 1944 

Authorized the adoption of 11 watershed improvement programs in various states for the 

improvement of water runoff, water flow retardation, and soil erosion prevention. 

Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

and Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act) 

Enacted to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and ecological integrity of the Nation’s 

waters. Provides for measures to prevent, reduce, and eliminate water pollution; recognizes, 

preserves, and protects the responsibilities and rights of states to prevent, reduce, and eliminate 

pollution, and to plan the development and use (including restoration, preservation, and 

enhancement) of land and water resources; and provides for Federal support and aid of research 

relating to the prevention, reduction, and elimination of pollution, and Federal technical services 

and financial aid to state and interstate agencies and municipalities for the prevention, reduction, 

and elimination of pollution. 

Established goals for the elimination of water pollution; required all municipal and industrial 

wastewater to be treated before being discharged into waterways; increased Federal assistance for 

municipal treatment plant construction; strengthened and streamlined enforcement policies; and 

expanded the Federal role while retaining the responsibility of states for day-to-day 

implementation of the law. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

260 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Federal Water Project Recreation Act of July 9, 1965 

Requires that recreation and fish and wildlife enhancement opportunities be considered in the 

planning and development of Federal water development. 

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of September 15, 1960 

Requires the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture, in cooperation with state agencies, to 

plan, develop, maintain, and coordinate programs for the conservation and rehabilitation of 

wildlife, fish, and game on public lands under their jurisdiction. 

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of March 10, 1934 

Authorizes the Secretaries of Agriculture and Commerce to provide assistance to and cooperate 

with other Federal and state agencies to protect, rear, stock, and increase the supply of game and 

fur-bearing animals, as well as to study the effects of domestic sewage, trade wastes, and other 

polluting substances on wildlife. The Act also authorizes the preparation of plans to protect 

wildlife resources, the completion of wildlife surveys on public lands, and the acceptance by 

Federal agencies of funds or lands for related purposes provided that land donations receive the 

consent of the state in which they are located. 

Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (2008 Farm Bill) 

Public Law 110-246 Title VIII – Forestry, Subtitle A, B, and C

Subtitle A: Amendment to the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978. Establishes national 

priorities for private forest conservation, a community forest and open space conservation 

program, and a secretary level Forest Resources Coordinating Committee.

Subtitle B: Cultural and Heritage Cooperation Authority. Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture 

to provide forest products to Indian tribes for traditional and cultural purposes; to protect the 

confidentiality of certain information, including information that is culturally sensitive to Indian 

tribes; to utilize National Forest System land for the reburial of human remains and cultural items, 

including human remains and cultural items repatriated under the Native American Graves 

Protection and Repatriation Act; prevent the unauthorized disclosure of information regarding 

human remains or cultural items reburied on National Forest System land; to ensure access to 

National Forest System land, to the maximum extent practicable, by Indians and Indian tribes for 

traditional and cultural purposes; to increase the availability of Forest Service programs and 

resources to Indian tribes in support of the policy of the United States to promote tribal 

sovereignty and self-determination; and to strengthen support for the policy of the United States 

of protecting and preserving the traditional, cultural, and ceremonial rites and practices of Indian 

tribes, in accordance with the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (42 USC 1996).

Subtitle C. Amendments to Other Forestry Related Laws. Amends the Lacey Act to include the 

illegal taking of plants, establishes an Emergency Forest Restoration Program, and renews 

authority and funding for the Healthy Forest Reserve Program.

Forest Highways Act of August 27, 1958 

Requires that funds available for forest development roads and trails be used by the Secretary of 

Agriculture to pay for the costs of construction and maintenance thereof, including roads and 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 261

trails on experimental and other areas under Forest Service administration, or for adjacent 

vehicular parking areas and sanitary, water, and fire control facilities. Authorizes the Secretary of 

Agriculture to enter into contracts with a state or civil subdivision thereof, and issue such 

regulations, as he deems desirable. See also Highways (23 USC Chapter 205 Forest development 

roads and trails).

Forest and Rangeland Renewable 

Resources Planning Act of August 17, 1974 

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to prepare a renewable resource assessment every 10 years; 

to transmit a recommended renewable resources program to the President every 5 years; to 

develop, maintain, and, as appropriate, revise land and resource management plans for units of 

the National Forest System; and to ensure that the development and administration of the 

resources of the National Forest System are in full accord with the concepts of multiple use and 

sustained yield. 

Freedom of Information Act of November 21, 1974 

Governs which government records are released to the public either automatically or upon 

request. 

Geothermal Steam Act of December 24, 1970 

Authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to issue leases for the development and utilization of 

geothermal steam and associated geothermal resources in any lands administered by him or by the 

Department of Agriculture, and to prescribe such rules and regulations, as he deems appropriate 

to carry out the provisions of the act. 

Granger-Thye Act of April 24, 1950 

Authorizes the Forest Service to spend appropriated funds on buildings, lookout towers, and other 

structures on lands owned by states, counties, municipalities, or other political subdivisions, 

corporations, or individuals; to procure and operate aerial facilities and services for the protection 

of national forests; to cooperate with and assist public and private agencies, organizations, 

institutions, and individuals in performing work on non-forest land for the administration, 

protection, improvement, reforestation, and other kinds of work as the Forest Service is 

authorized to do on forest land; to deposit sums from timber purchases to cover the costs of 

disposing of brush and debris; to permit the use of structures under its control; to sell nursery 

stock; and other purposes. 

Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (H.R. 1904)

Purposes are to reduce wildfire risk to communities and municipal water supplies through 

collaborative hazardous fuels reduction projects; to assess and reduce the risk of catastrophic fire 

or insect or disease infestation; to enhance efforts to protect watersheds and address threats to 

forest and rangeland health (including wildfire) across the landscape; to protect, restore, and 

enhance ecosystem components such as biological diversity, threatened/endangered species 

habitats, and forest productivity.
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

262 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Historic Sites Act of 1935 (16 USC 461)

Establishes a policy to preserve for public use historic sites, buildings, and objects of national 

significance for the benefit of the people. Authorizes the National Park Service’s National 

Historic Landmarks Program.

Intergovernmental Cooperation Act of October 16, 1968 (31 USC 6505)

The act permits Federal agencies to provide specialized or technical services to state and local 

units of government.

Joint Surveys of Watershed Areas Act of September 5, 1962 

Authorizes and directs the Secretaries of the Army and Agriculture to make joint investigations 

and surveys of watershed areas in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands, and to 

prepare joint reports setting forth their recommendations for improvements needed for flood 

prevention, for the conservation, development, utilization, and disposal of water, and for flood 

control. 

Knutson-Vandenberg Act of June 9, 1930 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to establish forest tree nurseries; to deposit monies from 

timber sale purchasers to cover the costs of planting young trees, sowing seed, removing 

undesirable trees or other growth, and protecting and improving the future productivity of the 

land; and to furnish seedlings and/or young trees for the replanting of burned-over areas in any 

national park. 

Land Acquisition Act of March 3, 1925 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to purchase land for national forest headquarters, ranger 

stations, dwellings, or other sites required for the effective performance of the authorized 

activities of the Forest Service. 

Land Acquisition – Title Adjustment Act of July 8, 1943 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to execute and deliver title adjustments if, after the 

acquisition of the land, the title thereto is legally insufficient for the purposes for which the land 

was acquired or if the land was acquired through mistake, misunderstanding, error, or 

inadvertence. 

Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of September 3, 1964 

Authorizes the appropriation of funds for Federal assistance to states in planning, acquisition, and 

development of needed land and water areas and facilities and for the Federal acquisition and 

development of certain lands and other areas for the purposes of preserving, developing, and 

assuring accessibility to outdoor recreation resources. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 263

Law Enforcement Authority Act of March 3, 1905 

Authorizes all Forest Service employees to make arrests for the violation of the laws and 

regulations relating to the national forests. 

Leases Around Reservoirs Act of March 3, 1962 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to amend any lease with respect to lands under the 

jurisdiction of the Forest Service providing for the construction, maintenance, and operation of 

commercial recreational facilities at a Federal reservoir project so as to provide for the adjustment 

of the amount of rental or other consideration payable to the United States under such lease. 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918

Makes it unlawful to “take” migratory birds, their eggs, feathers, or nests. A migratory bird is any 

species or family of birds that live, reproduce, or migrate within or across international borders at 

some point during their annual life cycle. Presidential executive order number 13186 additionally 

directs Federal agencies to integrate bird conservation into agency activities and to design 

migratory bird habitat and conservation principles and practices into agency environmental 

planning.

Mineral Leasing Act of February 25, 1920 

Provides that the deposits of certain minerals on land owned by the United States shall be subject 

to lease to citizens of the United States, provided royalties on such deposits are paid to the United 

States. 

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Lands Act of August 7, 1947 

Extended the provisions of the “mineral leasing laws” to those lands previously acquired by the 

United States for which they had not been extended, and lands thereafter acquired by the United 

States. 

Mineral Resources on Weeks Law Lands Act of March 4, 1917 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to permit the prospecting, development, and utilization of 

the mineral resources of the lands acquired under the Weeks Law. 

Mineral Springs Leasing Act of February 28, 1899 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to rent or lease to responsible persons suitable spaces and 

portions of ground near, or adjacent to, mineral, medicinal, or other springs within any national 

forest where the public is accustomed to or desires to frequent for health or pleasure. 

Mining Claims Rights Restoration Act of August 11, 1955 

States that all public lands belonging to the United States which have been withdrawn or reserved 

for power development or power sites shall be open to entry for location and patent of mining

claims and mineral development, subject to certain conditions. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

264 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Mining and Minerals Policy Act of December 31, 1970 

States that it is the policy of the Federal government to foster and encourage the development of 

economically sound and stable domestic mining, minerals, metal, and mineral reclamation 

industries; the orderly and economic development of domestic mineral resources, reserves, and 

reclamation of metals and minerals to help assure satisfaction of industrial, security, and 

environmental needs; mining, mineral, and metallurgical research to promote the wise and 

efficient use of our natural and reclaimable mineral resources; and the study and development of 

methods for the disposal, control, and reclamation of mineral waste products and the reclamation 

of mined land. 

Multiple Use–Sustained Yield Act of June 12, 1960 

States that it is the policy of Congress that the national forests are established and shall be 

administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish purposes, and 

authorizes and directs the Secretary of Agriculture to develop and administer the renewable 

surface resources of the national forests for the multiple use and sustained yield of products and 

services. 

National Environmental Education Act of November 16, 1970 

Enacted to establish and support a program of environmental education for students and 

personnel working with students in schools, institutions of higher education, and related 

educational facilities, and to encourage postsecondary students to pursue careers related to the 

environment. 

National Environmental Policy Act of January 1, 1970 

Directs all Federal agencies to consider and report the potential environmental impacts of 

proposed Federal actions, and established the Council on Environmental Quality. 

National 1990 Farm Bill (title XII – Forest 

Stewardship Act) Act of November 28, 1990 

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a competitive forestry, natural resources, and 

environmental grants program, and provides for other research programs. 

National Forest Management Act of October 22, 1976 

The National Forest Management Act reorganized, expanded, and otherwise amended the Forest 

and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, which called for the management of

renewable resources on National Forest System lands. The National Forest Management Act 

requires the Secretary of Agriculture to assess forest lands, develop a management program based 

on multiple use, sustained-yield principles, and implement a resource management plan for each 

unit of the National Forest System. It is the primary statute governing the administration of 

national forests. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 265

National Forest Roads and Trails Act of October 13, 1964 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to provide for the acquisition, construction, and 

maintenance of forest development roads within and near the national forests through the use of 

appropriated funds, deposits from timber sale purchasers, cooperative financing with other public 

agencies, or a combination of these methods. The act also authorizes the secretary to grant rightsof-way and easements over National Forest System lands. 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 

as amended (NHPA) (16 USC 470)

Sets forth the Federal government’s policy to preserve and protect historical and cultural 

resources. This act states that the historical and cultural foundations of the Nation should be 

preserved as a living part of the Nation’s community life and development in order to give a sense 

of orientation to the American people. Directs all Federal agencies to take into account the effects 

of their undertakings (actions, financial support, and authorizations) on properties included in or 

eligible for the National Register. Establishes inventory, nomination, protection, and preservation 

responsibilities for federally owned historic properties. As amended extends the policy in the 

Historic Sites Act to state and local historical sites as well as those of national significance, 

expands the National Register of Historic Places, establishes the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation and the State Historic Preservation Officers, and requires agencies to designate 

Federal preservation officers. Establishes criteria for designating tribal historic preservation 

officers to assume the functions of a state historic preservation officer on tribal lands.

National Forest System Land and 

Resource Management Plans (16 U.S.C 1604)

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to develop, maintain, and, as appropriate, revise land and 

resource management plans for units of the National Forest System, coordinated with the land 

and resource management planning processes of State and local governments and other Federal 

agencies.

National Trails System Act of October 2, 1968 

Established a national system of recreation, scenic, and historic trails by designating the initial 

components of the system and prescribing the methods and standards through which additional 

components may be added. 

Native American Graves Protection and 

Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA) (25 USC 3001)

Provides a process for Federal agencies to return Native American human remains, funerary 

objects, and sacred objects to the ancestors and appropriate Native American tribe. Includes 

provisions for the intentional excavation and unanticipated discovery of Native American cultural 

items on Federal and tribal lands, and penalties for noncompliance and illegal trafficking. The act 

requires agencies to identify holdings of such remains and objects and to work with appropriate 

Native American groups toward their repatriation.
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

266 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Occupancy Permits Act of March 4, 1915 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to permit, under such regulations as he may prescribe, the 

use and occupancy of suitable areas of land within the national forests for the purpose of 

constructing or maintaining hotels, resorts, or other structures necessary or desirable for 

recreation, public convenience, or safety; to permit the use and occupancy of suitable land for the 

purpose of constructing or maintaining summer homes; to permit the use and occupancy of 

suitable land for the purpose of constructing or maintaining buildings, structures, and facilities for 

industrial or commercial purposes when such use is consistent with other uses of the national 

forest; and to permit any state or political subdivision thereof to use or occupy suitable land for 

the purpose of constructing or maintaining buildings, structures, or facilities necessary or 

desirable for education or for any other public use or in connection with any other public activity. 

Oil and Gas Leasing Reform Act of 1987 

Amended the Mineral Lands Leasing Act of 1920 regarding competitive leasing of oil and gas for 

onshore Federal lands. Sets forth guidelines for the promulgation of regulations regarding lease 

sales, and prohibits the issuance of oil or gas leases upon certain lands allocated or designated as 

wilderness areas. 

Organic Administration Act of June 4, 1897 

Authorizes the President to modify or revoke any instrument creating a national forest; states that 

no national forest may be established except to improve and protect the forest within its 

boundaries, for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, and to furnish a 

continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States. 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to promulgate rules and regulations to regulate the use 

and occupancy of the national forests. 

Petrified Wood Act of September 28, 1962 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to promulgate regulations under which limited quantities 

of petrified wood may be removed from the national forests. 

Pipelines Act of February 25, 1920 

Authorizes the Secretary of the Interior or appropriate agency head to grant rights-of-way through 

any Federal lands for pipeline purposes for the transportation of oil, natural gas, synthetic liquid 

or gaseous fuels, or any refined product produced therefrom to any applicant possessing the 

qualifications provided in the act. 

Public Buildings Cooperative Use Act of 1976 

Authorizes the Federal government to acquire and utilize space in suitable buildings of historic, 

architectural, or cultural significance, unless use of such space would not prove feasible and 

prudent compared with available alternatives; to encourage the location of commercial, cultural, 

educational, and recreational facilities and activities within public buildings; to provide and 

maintain space, facilities, and activities, to the extent practicable, which encourages public access 

to and stimulates public pedestrian traffic around, into, and through public buildings, permitting 

cooperative improvements to and uses of the area between the building and the street, so that such 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 267

activities complement and supplement commercial, cultural, educational, and recreational 

resources in the neighborhood of public buildings; and to encourage the public use of public 

buildings for cultural, educational, and recreational activities. 

Public Land Surveys Act of March 3, 1899 

Provides that all standard, meander, township, and section lines of public land surveys shall be 

established under the direction and supervision of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 

whether the lands to be surveyed are within or without reservations, except that where the exterior 

boundaries of public forest reservations are required to be coincident with standard, township, or 

section lines, such boundaries may, if not previously established in the ordinary course of the 

public land surveys, be established and marked under the supervision of the director of the United 

States Geological Survey. This act made the surveying of forest reserve lands identical, in all but 

the establishment of boundaries, with that of the public domain. 

Public Rangelands Improvement Act of October 25, 1978 

Establishes and reaffirms the national policy and commitment to inventory and identify current 

public rangeland conditions and trends; manage, maintain and improve the condition of public 

rangelands so that they become as productive as feasible for all rangeland values in accordance 

with management objectives and the land use planning process; charge a fee for public grazing 

use which is equitable; continue the policy of protecting wild free-roaming horses and burros 

from capture, branding, harassment, or death, while at the same time facilitating the removal and 

disposal of excess wild free-roaming horses and burros which pose a threat to themselves and 

their habitat and to other rangeland values. 

Rescission Act of 1995

Directs the Forest Service to establish and adhere to a schedule for analysis and decisions on all 

grazing allotments where National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) compliance is 

required. Notwithstanding any other law, term grazing permits which expire or are waived before 

the NEPA analysis and decision pursuant to the schedule developed by individual Forest Service 

System units, shall be issued on the same terms and conditions and for the full term of the expired 

or waived permit. Upon completion of the scheduled NEPA analysis and decision for the 

allotment, the terms and conditions of existing grazing permits may be modified, if necessary to 

conform to such NEPA analysis and subsequent decision.

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended 

States that it is national policy that the Federal government plays a leadership role in promoting 

the employment of individuals with disabilities, and in assisting states and providers of services 

in fulfilling the aspirations of such individuals with disabilities for meaningful and gainful 

employment and independent living.

Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RIFRA) (42 USC § 2000bb)

Government shall not substantially burden a person’s exercise of religion even if the burden 

results from a rule of general applicability, except when the government demonstrates that 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

268 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

application of the burden to the person is in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest; 

and is the least restrictive means of furthering that compelling governmental interest. 

Renewable Resources Extension Act of June 30, 1978 

Authorizes and directs the Secretary of Agriculture, in cooperation with the state directors of the 

Cooperative Extension Service programs, to provide educational programs relating to forest and 

rangeland renewable resources. 

Research Grants Act of September 6, 1958 

Authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to enter into contracts with educational institutions, public 

or private agencies or organizations, or persons to conduct scientific or technological research. 

Rural Development Act of August 30, 1972

Enacted to provide multistate regional agencies, states, counties, cities, multicounty planning and 

development districts, businesses, industries, Indian tribes on Federal and state reservations, or 

other federally recognized Indian tribal groups and others involved with public services and 

investments in rural areas or that provide or may provide employment in these areas the best 

available scientific, technical, economic, organizational, environmental, and management 

information and knowledge useful to them, and to assist and encourage them in the interpretation 

and application of this information to practical problems and needs in rural development. 

Safe Drinking Water Amendments of November 18, 1977 

Amended the Safe Drinking Water Act to authorize appropriations for research conducted by the 

Environmental Protection Agency relating to safe drinking water; Federal grants to states for 

public water system supervision programs and underground water source protection programs; 

and grants to assist special studies relating to the provision of a safe supply of drinking water. 

Secure Rural Schools and 

Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 

Through this law the Forest Service gives rural communities the means to build and improve 

schools, provide road maintenance, emergency services, and conservation programs for their 

citizens. Thus, communities are no longer dependent on Federal timber sales from national forests 

to improve local schools and roads. 

Sikes Act of October 18, 1974, as amended 

This act authorizes the Forest Service to cooperate with state wildlife agencies in conservation 

and rehabilitation programs for fish, wildlife, and plants considered threatened or endangered.

Small Tracts Act of January 22, 1983 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to sell, exchange, or interchange by quitclaim deed all 

right, title and interest, including the mineral estate, of the United States in and to certain lands 

within the national forest when he determines it to be in the public interest. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 269

Smokey Bear Act of May 23, 1952 

Prohibits the unauthorized use of the “Smokey Bear” character or name. 

Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of November 18, 1977 

Provides for a continuing appraisal of the United States’ soil, water and related resources, 

including fish and wildlife habitats, and a soil and water conservation program to assist 

landowners and land users in furthering soil and water conservation. 

Solid Waste Disposal Act (Resource Conservation 

and Recovery Act) of October 21, 1976 

Promotes the protection of health and the environment and the conservation of valuable material 

and energy resources by providing technical and financial assistance to state and local 

governments and interstate agencies for the improvement of solid waste management techniques. 

Supplemental National Forest 

Reforestation Fund Act of September 18, 1972

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a supplemental national reforestation fund, and 

states that money transferred to this fund shall be available to the secretary for the purpose of 

supplementing programs of tree planting and seeding on National Forest System lands determined 

by the secretary to be in need of reforestation. 

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of August 3, 1977 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to enter into agreements with landowners, providing for 

land stabilization, erosion, and sediment control, and reclamation through conservation treatment, 

including measures for the conservation and development of soil, water, woodland, wildlife, and 

recreation resources, and agricultural productivity of such lands. 

Sustained Yield Forest Management Act of March 29, 1944 

Authorizes the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior to establish by formal declaration 

cooperative sustained-yield units which shall consist of federally owned or administered forest 

land under their jurisdiction and, in addition thereto, land which reasonably may be expected to 

be made the subject of one or more of the cooperative agreements with private landowners 

authorized by section 2 of the act in order to promote the stability of forest industries, 

employment, communities, and taxable forest wealth through continuous supplies of timber and 

forest products; and in order to secure the benefits of forests in the maintenance of water supply, 

regulation of streamflow, prevention of soil erosion, amelioration of climate, and preservation of 

wildlife. 

Timber Export Act of March 4, 1917 

Permits the Secretary of Agriculture to allow timber or other forest products to be cut or removed 

from a national forest and exported from the state or territory in which that national forest is 

situated. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

270 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Timber Exportation Act of April 12, 1926 

Authorizes the exportation of lawfully cut timber from the state or territory where grown if the 

supply of timber for local use will not be endangered, and authorizes the Secretary to issue rules 

and regulations to carry out the provisions of the act. 

Title Adjustment Act of April 28, 1930 

Authorizes the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture to execute a quitclaim deed where an 

application for a conveyance of land has been withdrawn or rejected. 

Toxic Substances Control Act of October 11, 1976 

Grants the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency the authority to regulate 

chemical substances and mixtures, which present an unreasonable risk of injury to the public 

health or the environment, and to take action with respect to chemical substances and mixtures, 

which are imminent hazards. 

Transfer Act of February 1, 1905 

Transferred the management and control of the Forest Reserves from the General Land Office 

(GLO) in the Department of the Interior to the Bureau of Forestry in the Department of 

Agriculture. 

Tribal Forest Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-278)

Authorizes the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture to enter into an agreement or contract 

with Indian tribes meeting certain criteria to carry out projects to protect Indian forest land.

Twenty-Five Percent Fund Act of May 23, 1908

Provides that 25 percent of all monies received from the sale of timber or other forest products 

shall be paid to the state in which such forest is located to be expended as the state may prescribe 

for the benefit of public schools and roads. 

Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards U.S. Criminal 

Code (Title 18 USC Chapter 91 – Public Lands) Act of June 25, 1948 

Defines the crimes and criminal procedure for crimes committed against public lands. 

U.S. Mining Laws (Public Domain Lands) Act of May 10, 1872 

Provides that all valuable mineral deposits in lands belonging to the United States, both surveyed 

and unsurveyed, are free and open to exploration and purchase, and the lands in which they are 

found to occupation and purchase by citizens of the United States and those who have declared 

their intention to become such, under regulations prescribed by law, and according to the local 

customs or rules of miners, so far as the same are applicable and not inconsistent with the laws of 

the United States. There are a number of acts which modify the mining laws as applied to local 

areas by prohibiting entry altogether or by limiting or restricting the use which may be made of 

the surface and the right, title, or interest which may pass through patent. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 271

Volunteers in the National Forests Act of May 18, 1972 

Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to recruit, train, and accept without regard to the civil 

service classification laws, rules, or regulations the services of individuals without compensation 

as volunteers for or in aid of interpretive functions, visitor services, conservation measures and 

development, or other activities in and related to areas administered by the secretary through the 

Forest Service. 

Water Quality Improvement Act of April 3, 1970 

Amends the prohibitions of oil discharges, authorizes the President to determine quantities of oil 

which would be harmful to the public health or welfare of the United States; to publish a national 

contingency plan to provide for coordinated action to minimize damage from oil discharges. 

Requires performance standards for marine sanitation device and authorizes demonstration 

projects to control acid or other mine pollution, and to control water pollution within the 

watersheds of the Great Lakes. Requires that applicants for Federal permits for activities 

involving discharges into navigable waters provide state certification that they will not violate 

applicable water quality standards. 

Water Resources Planning Act of July 22, 1965 

Encourages the conservation, development, and utilization of water and related land resources of 

the United States on a comprehensive and coordinated basis by the Federal government, states, 

localities, and private enterprises. 

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of August 4, 1954 

Establishes policy that the Federal government should cooperate with states and their political 

subdivisions, soil or water conservation districts, flood prevention or control districts, and other 

local public agencies for the purposes of preventing erosion, floodwater, and sediment damages in

the watersheds of the rivers and streams of the United States; furthering the conservation, 

development, utilization, and disposal of water, and the conservation and utilization of land; and 

thereby preserving, protecting, and improving the Nation’s land and water resources and the 

quality of the environment. 

Weeks Act Status for Certain Lands Act of September 2, 1958 

Subjects all lands of the United States within the exterior boundaries of national forests which 

were or hereafter are acquired for or in connection with the national forests or transferred to the 

Forest Service for administration and protection substantially in accordance with national forest 

regulations, policies, and procedures, excepting (a) lands reserved from the public domain or 

acquired pursuant to laws authorizing the exchange of land or timber reserved from or part of the 

public domain, and (b) lands within the official limits of towns or cities, notwithstanding the 

provisions of any other act, to the provisions of the Weeks Act of March 1, 1911 (36 Stat. 961), as 

amended, and to all laws, rules, and regulations applicable to National Forest System lands 

acquired thereunder. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

272 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of December 15, 1971, 

as amended by Federal Land Policy Management Act of 1976 

and Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 

Protects wild free-roaming horses and burros from capture, branding, harassment, or death; and 

states they are to be considered in the area where presently found an integral part of the natural 

system of the public lands. 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of October 2, 1968 

Instituted a National Wild and Scenic Rivers System by designating the initial components of that 

system, and by prescribing the methods by which and standards according to which additional 

components may be added to the system from time to time. 

Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964 

Established a National Wilderness Preservation System to be composed of federally owned areas 

designated by Congress as “wilderness areas” and administered for the use and enjoyment of the 

American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as 

wilderness. Provides for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness 

character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and 

enjoyment as wilderness. The act states that no Federal lands shall be designated as “wilderness 

areas” except as provided for in the act or by a subsequent act. 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs wilderness areas are designated under the following authorities:

• Public Law 91-504 of October 23, 1970, designates Mount Baldy Wilderness

• Arizona Wilderness Act of 1984 (Public Law 48-406) designates Escudilla and Bear 

Wallow Wilderness areas

Wildlife Game Refuges Act of August 11, 1916 

Authorizes the President of the United States to set aside lands for the protection of game 

animals, birds, or fish; and prohibits the hunting, catching, trapping, willful disturbance, or killing 

of any kind of game animal, game or nongame bird, or fish, or the taking of eggs of any such bird 

on any lands so set aside or in or on the waters thereof. 

Wood Residue Utilization Act of December 19, 1980 

Enacted to develop, demonstrate, and make available information on feasible methods that have 

the potential for commercial application to increase and improve utilization in residential, 

commercial, and industrial or power plant applications of wood residues resulting from timber 

harvesting and forest protection and management activities occurring on public and private forest 

lands, and from the manufacture of forest products, including wood pulp. 

Woodsy Owl/Smokey Bear Act of June 22, 1974 

Prohibits the unauthorized manufacture, reproduction, or use of the character “Woodsy Owl” the 

name “Woodsy Owl,” or the associated slogan “Give a Hoot, Don’t Pollute.” Also prohibits the 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 273

unauthorized manufacture, reproduction, or use of the character “Smokey Bear” or the name 

“Smokey Bear,” or a facsimile or simulation of such character or name. 

Youth Conservation Corps Act of August 13, 1970 

Establishes a Youth Conservation Corps whom the Secretaries of the Interior or Agriculture may 

employ without regard to the civil service or classification laws, rules, or regulations for the 

purpose of developing, preserving, or maintaining the lands and waters of the United States. 

Regulations 

Below is a partial listing of relevant regulations. Federal executive departments and 

administrative agencies write regulations to implement laws. Regulations are secondary to law. 

However, both laws and regulations are enforceable.

33 CFR § 323 Permits for Discharges of Dredged

or Fill Material into Waters of the United States

This regulation prescribes those special policies, practices, and procedures to be followed by the 

Corps of Engineers in connection with the review of applications for permits to authorize the 

discharge of dredged or fill material into waters of the United States. 

36 CFR § 60 National Register of Historic Places

Sets forth the procedural requirements for listing properties on the National Register. 

36 CFR § 61 Procedures for Approved State 

and Local Government Historic Preservation Programs

36 CFR § 63 Determinations of Eligibility for

Inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places

Developed to assist agencies in identifying and evaluating the eligibility of properties for 

inclusion in the National Register, and to explain how to request determinations of eligibility. 

36 CFR § 65 National Historic Landmarks Program

Sets forth the criteria for establishing national significance and the procedures used by the 

Department of the Interior for conducting the National Historic Landmarks Program. 

36 CFR § 68 The Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards for Historic Properties 

Sets forth standards for the treatment of historic properties containing standards for preservation, 

rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction. These standards apply to all proposed grant-in-aid 

development projects assisted through the National Historic Preservation Fund.
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

274 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

36 CFR § 79 Curation of Federally Owned 

and Administered Archaeological Collections

36 CFR § 212 Forest Development Transportation System

Sets forth the requirements for the development and administration of the forest development 

transportation system. 

36 CFR § 219 Planning 

Sets forth a process for developing, adopting, and revising land and resource management plans 

for the National Forest System. 

36 CFR § 221 Timber Management Planning 

Sets forth the requirements for management plans for national forest timber resources. 

36 CFR § 222 Range Management 

Sets forth the requirements for range management on the national forests, and for the 

administration of wild and free-roaming horses and burros and their environment. See Subpart B 

(Management of Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros).

36 CFR § 223 Sale and Disposal of National Forest System Timber 

Sets forth the requirements relating to the sale and disposal of National Forest System timber. 

36 CFR § 228 Minerals 

Sets forth the rules and procedures through which use of the surface of National Forest System 

lands, in connection with mining and mineral operations, shall be conducted so as to minimize 

adverse environmental impacts on National Forest System surface resources. 

36 CFR § 241 Fish and Wildlife 

Sets forth the rules and procedures relating to the management, conservation, and protection of 

fish and wildlife resources on National Forest System lands. 

36 CFR § 251 Land Uses 

Sets forth the rules and procedures relating to the use and occupancy of National Forest System 

lands. 

36 CFR § 254 Landownership Adjustments 

Sets forth the rules and procedures relating to exchange and conveyance of National Forest 

System lands. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 275

36 CFR § 261 Prohibitions 

Sets forth the general prohibitions relating to the use and occupancy of National Forest System 

lands. 

• 36 CFR 261.7 Unauthorized Livestock

36 CFR § 291 Occupancy and Use of Developed 

Sites and Areas of Concentrated Public Use 

Provides for fees charged for the occupancy and use of developed sites and areas of concentrated 

public use. 

36 CFR § 292 National Recreation Areas 

Sets forth the requirements for the administration of national recreation areas. 

36 CFR § 293 Wilderness-Primitive Areas 

Sets forth the requirements for the administration of wilderness and primitive areas. 

36 CFR § 294 Special Areas 

Sets forth the requirements for designation of special recreation areas. 

36 CFR § 295 Use of Motor Vehicles Off Forest Development Roads

Sets forth the rules and procedures relating to the administrative designation and location of 

specific areas and trails of National Forest System lands on which the use of motor vehicles 

traveling off of national forest development roads is allowed. 

36 CFR § 296 Protection of Archaeological Resources: Uniform Regulations 

Implements the Archaeological Resources Protection Act by establishing the uniform definitions, 

standards, and procedures for Federal land managers to follow in providing protection for 

archaeological resources located on public lands and Indian lands, including definitions of 

prohibited acts and penalties. The regulations also provide requirements for issuing permits under 

the authority of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act to any person proposing to excavate 

and/or remove archaeological resources from public lands or Indian lands.

36 CFR § 297 Wild and Scenic Rivers 

Sets forth the rules and procedures relating to Federal assistance in the construction of water 

resources projects affecting wild and scenic rivers or study rivers on lands administered by the 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

36 CFR § 800 Protection of Historic Properties 

Sets forth the provisions for the administration of the National Historic Preservation Act. 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

276 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

40 CFR § 121-135 Water Programs 

Sets forth the provisions for the administration of water programs including state certification of 

activities requiring a Federal license or permit, EPA administered permit programs, state program 

requirements, procedures for decisionmaking, criteria and standards for the National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination System, toxic pollutant effluent standards, water quality planning and 

management, water quality standards, water quality guidance for the Great Lakes System,

secondary treatment regulation, and, prior notice of citizen suits. See Title 40 (Protection of 

Environment), Chapter 1 (Environmental Protection Agency), subchapter D (Water Programs).

40 CFR § 1500 Council on Environmental Quality 

Council on Environmental Quality regulations implementing the National Environmental Policy 

Act.

43 CFR § 3 Preservation of American Antiquities

Implements the provisions of the Antiquities Act of 1906.

43 CFR § 10 Native American Graves 

Protection and Repatriation Act Regulations 

Implements the provisions of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 

1990. 

50 CFR § 402 Regulations Governing Interagency 

Cooperation—Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended

Interprets and implements the act. Addresses forms of consultation (early, formal, informal, and 

emergency), conferencing, preparation of biological assessments, designation of lead agency, 

responsibilities of Federal agency following issuance of a biological opinion, reinitiation of 

formal consultation, and irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resource.

Executive Orders 

Below is a partial listing of relevant executive orders. Executive orders are official documents by 

which the President provides instructions to executive departments and agencies. An executive 

order may be used to reassign functions among executive branch agencies. It may adopt 

guidelines, rules of conduct, or rules of procedure for government employees or units of 

government. It can also establish an advisory body or task force.

E.O. 11593 Protection and 

Enhancement of the Cultural Environment, 1973

States that the Federal government shall provide leadership in preserving, restoring, and 

maintaining the historic and cultural environment of the Nation, and that Federal agencies shall 

administer the cultural properties under their control in a spirit of stewardship and trusteeship for 

future generations; initiate measures necessary to direct their policies, plans, and programs in 

such a way that federally-owned sites, structures, and objects of historical, architectural, or 

archaeological significance are preserved, restored, and maintained for the inspiration and benefit 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 277

of the people; and, in consultation with the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, institute 

procedures to assure that Federal plans and programs contribute to the preservation and 

enhancement of non-federally owned sites, structures, and objects of historical, architectural, or 

archaeological significance.

E.O. 11644 (amended by E.O. 11989) 

Use of Off-Road Vehicles, 1972, 1977 

Establishes policies and provides for procedures that ensure that the use of off-road vehicles on 

public lands will be controlled and directed so as to protect the resources of those lands, to 

promote the safety of all users of those lands, and to minimize conflicts among the various uses of 

those lands. 

E.O. 11988 Floodplain Management, 1977 

Requires each Federal agency to provide leadership and to take action to reduce the risk of flood 

loss, to minimize the impact of floods on human safety, health and welfare, and to restore and 

preserve the natural and beneficial values served by floodplains in carrying out its responsibilities 

for acquiring, managing, and disposing of Federal lands and facilities; providing federally 

undertaken, financed, or assisted construction and improvements; and conducting Federal 

activities and programs affecting land use including, but not limited to, water and related land 

resources planning, regulating, and licensing activities. 

E.O. 11990 Protection of Wetlands, 1977 

Requires each Federal agency to provide leadership and to take action to minimize the 

destruction, loss, or degradation of wetlands, and to preserve and enhance the natural and 

beneficial values of wetlands in carrying out the agency’s responsibilities for acquiring, 

managing, and disposing of Federal lands and facilities; providing federally undertaken, financed, 

or assisted construction and improvements; and conducting Federal activities and programs 

affecting land use including, but not limited to, water and related land resources planning, 

regulating, and licensing activities. 

E.O. 12088 Federal Compliance with Pollution 

Control Standards (Amended by E.O. 12580), 1978, 1987 

Delegates responsibility to the head of each executive agency for ensuring that all necessary 

actions are taken for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental pollution. This 

order gives the Environmental Protection Agency authority to conduct reviews and inspections to 

monitor Federal facility compliance with pollution control standards. 

E.O. 12372 Intergovernmental Review of Federal Programs, 1982 

Issued to foster an intergovernmental partnership and a strengthened federalism by relying on 

state and local government coordination and review of proposed Federal financial assistance and 

direct Federal development. It requires Federal agencies to provide opportunities for consultation 

by elected officials of those state and local governments that would provide the non-Federal funds 

for, or that would be directly affected by, proposed Federal financial assistance or direct Federal 

development. It also allows states to develop their own process or refine existing processes for 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

278 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

state and local elected officials to use in reviewing and coordinating proposed Federal financial 

assistance and direct Federal development. 

E.O. 12862 Setting Customer Service Standards, 1993 

Requires all executive departments and agencies that provide significant services directly to the 

public to provide those services in a manner that seeks to meet the customer service standard 

established in the order, and requires agencies to identify customers, survey customers and frontline employees to determine the kind and quality of services needed and barriers to those services, 

benchmark customer service performance against the best in the business, make information, 

services, and complaint systems easily accessible, and provide a means to address customer 

complaints. 

E.O. 12898 Federal Actions to Address Environmental 

Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations, 1994 

Addresses environmental justice in minority and low-income populations and is designed to focus 

Federal attention on the environmental and human health conditions in minority communities and 

low-income communities with the goal of achieving environmental justice. The order is also 

intended to promote nondiscrimination in Federal programs substantially affecting human health 

and the environment, and to provide minority communities and low-income communities’ access 

to public information on, and an opportunity for public participation in, matters relating to human 

health or the environment. 

E.O. 13007 Indian Sacred Sites, 1996 

Requires each executive branch agency with statutory or administrative responsibility for the 

management of Federal lands, to the extent practicable, permitted by law, and not clearly 

inconsistent with essential agency functions, to accommodate access to and ceremonial use of 

Indian sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and to avoid adversely affecting the physical 

integrity of such sacred sites. Where appropriate, agencies shall maintain the confidentiality of 

sacred sites. 

E.O. 13112 Invasive Species, 1999

Ensures that Federal programs and activities to control and prevent invasive species are 

coordinated, effective, and efficient. It defines invasive species as “...an alien (or nonnative) 

whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human 

health.”

E.O. 13175 Consultation and Coordination 

with Indian Tribal Governments, 2000 

Promotes regular and meaningful consultation and collaboration with tribal officials in the 

development of Federal policies that have tribal implications, strengthens the United States 

government-to-government relationships with Indian tribes, and reduces the imposition of 

unfunded mandates upon Indian tribes.
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 279

E.O. 13186 Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds, 

2001

Recognizes the great ecological and economic value of migratory birds to this and other countries 

and the critical importance of their conservation. Directs agencies to integrate bird conservation 

principles, measures, and practices into agency activities; avoid or minimize adverse impacts on 

migratory bird resources when conducting agency actions; restore and enhance the habitat of 

migratory birds; and ensure that agency plans and actions promote programs and 

recommendations of comprehensive planning efforts such as Partners-in-Flight.

E.O. 13195 Trails for America in the 21st Century, 2001

Requires Federal agencies, to the extent permitted by law and where practicable and in 

cooperation with Tribes, States, local governments, and interested citizen groups, protect, 

connect, promote, and assist trails of all types throughout the United States.

E.O. 13287 Preserve America, 2003 

Advances the protection, enhancement, and contemporary use of the historic properties owned by 

the Federal government, and promotes intergovernmental cooperation and partnerships for the 

preservation and use of historic properties. Directs Federal agencies to increase their knowledge 

of historic resources in their care and to enhance the management of these assets. Encourages 

agencies to seek partnerships with state, tribal, and local governments and the private sector to 

make more efficient and informed use of their resources for economic development and other 

recognized public benefits. Better combines historic preservation and nature tourism by directing 

agencies to assist in the development of local and regional nature tourism programs using the 

historic resources that are a significant feature of many state and local economies.

E.O. 13352 Facilitation of Cooperative Conservation, 2004

Ensures that the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Defense and the 

Environmental Protection Agency implement laws relating to the environment and natural 

resources in a manner that promotes cooperative conservation, with an emphasis on appropriate 

inclusion of local participation in Federal decisionmaking, in accordance with their respective 

agency missions, policies, and regulations.

E.O. 13433 Facilitation of Hunting 

Heritage and Wildlife Conservation, 2007 

Directs Federal agencies with programs and activities that have a measureable effect on public 

management, outdoor recreation, and wildlife management, to facilitate the expansion and 

enhancement of hunting opportunities and the management of game species and their habitat.

State Regulations 

Arizona Revised Statute, Title 3 – Agriculture, Chapter 11 (Ownership, Control and Regulation of 

Livestock), Article 6, Section 3-1371 (Seizure of livestock by a livestock officer).

Arizona Revised Statute, Title 13 – Criminal Code, Chapter 29 (Offenses Against Public Order), 

Section 13-2927 (Unlawful feeding of wildlife, with exceptions).
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

280 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Arizona Revised Statute, Title 17 – Game and Fish, Chapter 3 (Taking and Handling of Wildlife), 

Article 1, Section 17-308 (Unlawful camping).

Arizona Administrative Code, Title 18 – Environmental Quality, Chapter 2 (Department of 

Environmental Quality Air Pollution Control), Article 15 (Forest and Range Management Burns).

Arizona Administrative Code, Title 18 – Environmental Quality, Chapter 11 (Arizona Water 

Quality Standards).

Other Sources of Information

Overall Ecosystem Health

• Forest Service, Watershed Condition Framework: A Framework for Assessing and 

Tracking Changes to Watershed Conditions (FS-977)

• Forest Service, Watershed Condition Classification and Technical Guide (FS-978)

Soil

• FSM 2550 Soil Management, Southwestern Region Supplement, Soil Management

• Forest Service, National Best Management Practices for Water Quality Management on 

National Forest System Lands, Volume 1 (FS-990a)

• Interagency Ecological Site Descriptions: Handbook for Rangelands (January 2013)

• USDA Forest Service, (2013). Technical Guidance for Soil Quality Monitoring in the 

Southwestern Region, (Letter dated January 16, 2013)

Water Resources

• Arizona Administrative Code, Title 18 – Environmental Quality, Chapter 11 (Arizona 

Water Quality Standards) 

• Memorandum of Understanding between Forest Service Southwestern Region and the 

State of Arizona Department of Environmental Quality

• Forest Service, Technical Guide to Managing Groundwater Resources Part 2 (Section: 

Overview of National Groundwater Policy) (FS-881)

• Forest Service, National Best Management Practices for Water Quality Management on 

National Forest System Lands, Volume 1 (FS-990a)

• Forest Service, Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems: Level II Inventory Field Guide 

(General Technical Report WO-86b)

Aquatic Habitat and Species

• Species recovery plans (see appendix D)

• Federal Register legal notices for 50 CFR § 217 Endangered Species Act listings, 

proposed listings, designated critical habitat, proposed critical habitat, 5-year reviews, 

and other species or habitat status changes Aquatic species current biological opinions

• Arizona Statewide Conservation Agreement for Roundtail Chub, Headwater Chub, 

Flannelmouth Sucker, Little Colorado River Sucker, Bluehead Sucker, And Zuni 

Bluehead Sucker
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 281

All PNVTs

• FSM 2020 Ecological Restoration and Resilience

• FSM 2470 Silvicultural Practices

• FSM 2478.03 Silvicultural Examinations, Prescriptions, and Evaluations – Policy 

• FSM 5142.1 Developing Prescribed Fire Burn Plans

• FSH 2409.17 and FSH 2409.26 Silvicultural Practices Handbook

• FSH 2409.26b to FSM 2409.26g Reforestation, Timber Stand Improvement, Silvicultural 

Examination and Prescription, Nursery, Seed, and Tree Handbooks

• FSH 3409.11 Forest Health Protection Handbook

• Interagency Prescribed Fire Planning and Implementation Procedures Guide (Section: 

Prescribed Fire Planning Process)

• Interagency Standards for Fire and Aviation Operations (Red Book), Forest Service 

Wildland Fire and Aviation Program Organization and Responsibilities (Section: Fuels 

Management)

• Interagency Ecological Site Descriptions: Handbook for Rangelands (January 2013)

Riparian Areas

• FSH 2509.23 Riparian Area Handbook, Southwestern Region (Section: Standards for 

Riparian Dependent Resources)

• Forest Service, Technical Guide to Managing Groundwater Resources Part 2 (Section: 

Overview of National Groundwater Policy) (FS-881)

• Forest Service, National Best Management Practices for Water Quality Management on 

National Forest System Lands, Volume 1 (FS-990a)

• Forest Service, Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems: Level II Inventory Field Guide

(General Technical Report WO-86b)

• Memorandum of Understanding between Forest Service Southwestern Region and the 

State of Arizona Department of Environmental Quality

• Bureau of Land Management, Riparian area management: A user guide to assessing 

proper functioning condition and the supporting science for lotic areas. Tech. Ref. 1737-

15

• Bureau of Land Management, Riparian area management: A user guide to assessing 

proper functioning condition and the supporting science for lentic areas. Tech. Ref. 1737-

16.

Wildlife and Rare Plants

• Species recovery plans (see appendix D)

• Federal Register legal notices for 50 CFR § 217 Endangered Species Act listings, 

proposed listings, designated critical habitat, proposed critical habitat, five-year reviews, 

and other species or habitat status changes

• Protection of Bald and Golden Eagles-Definition of “Disturb” (Federal Register, Volume 

72, Number 107, June 5, 2007); Authorizations Under the Bald and Golden Eagle 

Protection Act for Take of Eagles (Federal Register, Volume 73, Number 98, May 20, 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

282 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

2008); and Forest Service Southwestern Region direction regarding Permitting 

Regulations for Take of Eagles (November 18, 2009)

• National and State bald eagle management guidelines (recommendations for avoiding 

disturbance, activity specific guidelines, and additional recommendations)

• Forest Service, Management Recommendations for the Northern Goshawk in the 

Southwestern United States (General Technical Report RM-217)

• Terrestrial species current biological opinions

• Conservation assessments/strategies and agreements with the Fish and Wildlife Service 

and other agencies

• Arizona Game and Fish Department, Nongame and Endangered Wildlife Program, 

Interagency Management Plan for Gunnison’s Prairie Dogs in Arizona (Section: 

Conservation Objectives and Actions)

• Arizona Game and Fish Department, Arizona State Wildlife Action Plan (SWAP) 

(Sections: Species of Greatest Conservation Need, Stressors to Wildlife, Conservation 

Actions, Monitoring)

• Arizona Game and Fish Department, Wildlife 20/20 Strategic Plan (Section: Habitat 

Conservation)

• Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Birds, Bird Conservation Regions 16 

and 34, Birds of Conservation Concern

• Arizona Game and Fish Department, Nongame and Endangered Wildlife Program, 

Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Plan (Technical Report 142, Chapter V)

• Forest Service and the Western Hummingbird Monitoring Network, Western 

Hummingbird Partnership Action Plan (Section V: Conservation Actions)

• Memorandum of Understanding between the Forest Service and the Fish and Wildlife 

Service to Promote the Conservation of Migratory Birds

• Memorandum of Understanding between Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service –

Wildlife Services and the Forest Service National Forest System (concerning wildlife 

damage management on National Forest System lands)

• Memorandum of Understanding among the Arizona Game and Fish Department, New 

Mexico Game and Fish Department, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife 

Services, Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, White Mountain Apache Tribe, and 

various counties in Arizona and New Mexico for the conservation, management, and wild 

persistence of the Mexican wolf in its recovery area

• Conservation Assessment and Strategy for the Bald Eagle in Arizona with multi-partner 

interagency Memorandum of Understanding (Nest Watch Program, Post-Delisting Nest 

Area Monitoring, Winter Roost and Counts, Strategies Regarding Maintenance of 

Existing and Establishment of New Breeding Closures, Recreation, and Development)

• Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Wild Sheep Working Group, 

Recommendations for Domestic Sheep and Goat Management in Wild Sheep Habitat 

(Management Recommendations)

Invasive Species

• FSM 2900 Invasive Species Management

• FSM 3400 Forest Health Protection and Southwestern Region Supplement 3400-91-1

• FSH 3409.11 Forest Health Protection Handbook
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 283

• Forest Service, Environmental Assessment for the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests 

Integrated Forestwide Noxious or Invasive Weed Management Program and 

Management Plan

• Forest Service, Guide to Noxious Weed Prevention Practices

• Forest Service, Operational Guidelines for Aquatic Invasive Species Prevention and 

Equipment Cleaning

• Annual Interagency Guidance for Preventing Spread of Aquatic Invasive Organisms 

Common to the Southwestern Region (Section: Technical Guidelines for Fire Operations) 

State of Arizona, Aquatic Invasive Species Management Plan

• Field guide to noxious and invasive weeds known to occur or are potentially occurring on 

the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region, 

MR-R3-01-2.

Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

• FSM 2020 Ecological Restoration and Resilience

• FSM 2030 Large Scale Event Recovery 

• FSM 2070 Vegetation Ecology

• FSH 2509.13 Burned-Area Emergency Response Handbook, Chapter 20 – Burned-Area 

Survey and Emergency Treatment Strategy

• FSH 7709.59 Road Operations and Maintenance Handbook, Chapter 41 – Highway 

Safety Program Components (Section: Hazard Identification and Correction)

• FSH 2409.17 Silvicultural Practices Handbook, Chapter 2 – Reforestation and 

Southwestern Region Supplement

Overall Recreation Opportunities

• Forest Service, Outdoor Recreation Accessibility Guidelines (FSORAG) (Section: 

Technical Provisions).

• Forest Service, Trails Accessibility Guidelines (FSTAG) (Section: Technical Provisions)

• Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Recreation Facility Analysis.

Motorized Opportunities

• FSM 2350 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities

• FSH 2309.18 Trails Management Handbook FSM 7700 Travel Management

• FSH 7709.56 Road Preconstruction Handbook, Chapter 2 – Road Location and Chapter 4

– Design 

• 36 CFR § 212, 251, 261, 295 Travel Management, Designated Routes and Areas for 

Motor Vehicle Use; Final Rule

• Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Best Management Practices for Road 

Maintenance

Nonmotorized Opportunities

• FSM 2350 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities

• FSH 2309.18 Trails Management Handbook
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

284 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

• FSH 1909.12 Land Management Planning Handbook, Chapter 80 – Wild and Scenic 

River Evaluation (Section: Interim Management of Eligible or Suitable Rivers)

• Forest Service, Eligibility Report for the National Wild and Scenic River System 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests

Scenic Resources

• FSM 2380 Landscape Management

• Forest Service, Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management 

(Agriculture Handbook 701)

Lands

• FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook

• FSH 5409.13 Land Acquisition Handbook, Chapter 30 – Land Exchange

• FSH 7709.59 Road System Operations and Maintenance Handbook, Chapter 41 –

Highway Safety Program Components (Section: Hazard Identification and Correction)

Cultural Resources

• FSM 2360 Heritage Program Management

• FSM 2360.1-2361.32d Special Interest Areas a_90-4

• FSM 2360 Special Interest Areas, Southwestern Region Supplement 2300-99-3

• FSH 2309.24 Cultural Resources Handbook, Southwestern Region Supplement, Chapter 

10 – Survey Standards 

• FSH 2309.24 Cultural Resources Handbook, Southwestern Region Supplement, Chapter 

40 – Damage Assessment

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Cultural Affiliations: Prehistoric Cultural 

Affiliations of Southwestern Indian Tribes

• National Register Bulletin 38, Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional 

Cultural Properties

• Secretary of Interior National Register Bulletins

• Secretary of Interior Guidelines for Rehabilitation of Historic Buildings

• Archeology and Historic Preservation: Secretary of the Interior Standards and Guidelines, 

as amended and annotated

• Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Consultation with Indian Tribes in the 

Section 106 Review Process: A Handbook

• Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Guidance of Coordinating NEPA and Section 

106

• Arizona State Historic Preservation Office’s Context Studies, Standards, and Guidelines

• Arizona State Historic Preservation Office Historic Archaeology: A Research Guide

• First Amended Programmatic Agreement Regarding Historic Property Protection and 

Responsibilities among New Mexico Historic Preservation Officer and Arizona State 

Historic Preservation Officer and Texas State Historic Preservation Officer and 

Oklahoma State Historic Preservation Officer and the Advisory Council on the Historic 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 285

Preservation and United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Southwestern 

Region

American Indian Rights and Interests

• FSM 1563 American Indian and Alaskan Native Relations

• FSH 1509.13 American Indian and Alaska Native Relations Handbook, Chapter 10 –

Consultation with Tribes; Chapter 30 – Voluntary Closures

• FSH 2409.19 Renewable Resources Handbook, Chapter 60 – Stewardship Contracting, 

Amendment Number 2409.19-2008-7

• FSH 2409.18 Timber Sale Preparation Handbook, Chapter 80 –Uses of Timber Other 

Than Commercial Timber Sales Special Forest Products-Forest Botanical Products

• USC Title 25 Indians, Chapter 32 – A Cultural and Heritage Cooperation Authority, 

(Section: 3051-3057)

• 36 CFR § 261 Prohibitions in Areas Designated by Order; Closure of National Forest 

System Lands To Protect Privacy of Tribal Activities

• National Register Bulletin 38, Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional 

Cultural Properties

• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Departmental Regulation Number 1350-002: Tribal 

Consultation, Coordination, and Collaboration

• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Report to the Secretary of Agriculture: USDA Policy 

and Procedures Review and Recommendations Indian Sacred Sites

• Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Interagency Coordination for Protection of 

Indian Sacred Sites

• Memorandum of Understanding Among the U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Energy, 

and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Regarding Interagency Coordination 

and Collaboration for the Protection of Indian Sacred Sites

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Values, Attitudes and Beliefs Toward National 

Forest System Lands: Arizona Tribal Peoples (1996)

• U.S. Department of Agriculture, American Indians and Alaska Native: A Guide to USDA 

Programs

• Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Consultation with Indian Tribes in the 

Section 106 Review Process: A Handbook

Forest Products

• FSM 2400 Timber Management

• FSH 2409.11 to FSH 2409.26 Timber Management Handbooks

• FSH 2409.18 Timber Sale Preparation Handbook, Chapter 80 – Uses of Timber Other 

Than Commercial Timber Sales Special Forest Products-Forest Botanical Products

(Sections: Free Use, Administrative Use, Sales of Special Forest Products and Forest 

Botanical Products)
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

286 (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Livestock Grazing

• FSH 2209.13 Grazing Permit Administration Handbook, Southwestern Region 

Supplement

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Rangeland Analysis and Management Training 

Guide (2013)

• Bureau of Land Management, Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations (Technical 

Reference 1730-1, 1998)

• Arizona Grazing Lands Association, Guide to Rangeland Monitoring and Assessment, 

(2012)

Minerals and Geology

• FSM 2356 Cave Management

• Memorandum of Understanding between the National Speleological Society and the

Forest Service Cave and Karst Management

• 36 CFR § 228, Subpart A – Locatable Minerals

• 36 CFR Part 290 Cave Resources Management

• Central Arizona Grotto. 2015. Recommendations for Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest 

Cave and Karst Management 

http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd511748.pdf 

Special Uses

• FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook, Chapter 40 – Special Uses Administration

• FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook, Chapter 50 – Standard Forms and Supplemental 

Clauses (Section: Policy)FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook, Southwestern Region 

Supplement, Chapter 50 – Terms and Conditions

Water Uses

• Forest Service, Technical Guide to Managing Groundwater Resources Part 2 (Section: 

Overview of National Groundwater Policy) (FS-881)

• Forest Service, Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems: Level II Inventory Field Guide 

(General Technical Report WO-86b)

Wildland Fire Management

 FSM 5142.1 Developing Prescribed Fire Burn Plans

 Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics

 Interagency Prescribed Fire Planning and Implementation Procedures Guide (Section: 

Prescribed Fire Planning Process)

 Interagency Standards for Fire and Aviation Operations (Red Book), Forest Service 

Wildland Fire and Aviation Program Organization and Responsibilities 

 Interagency Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy 

(February 13, 2009)

 Annual Interagency Guidance for Preventing Spread of Aquatic Invasive Organisms 

Common to the Southwestern Region (Section: Technical Guidelines for Fire Operations) 
Appendix D. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policies, and Other Sources of Information

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 287

 National Wildfire Coordinating Group Memorandum Number 024-2010, Terminology 

Updates Resulting from Release of the Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland 

Fire Management Policy (2009)

 Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Fire Management Plan

 Apache, Navajo, and Greenlee Counties Community Wildfire Protection Plans

Energy Corridors

• Record of Decision: USDA Forest Service Designation of Section 368 Energy Corridors 

on National Forest System Land in 10 Western States, January 14, 2009: Appendix A: FS 

Land Use Plan Amendments

• Memorandum of Understanding among the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. 

Department of Commerce, U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Department of Energy, 

Environmental Protection Agency, The Council on Environmental Quality, The Federal 

Energy Regulatory Commission, The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and 

U.S. Department of the Interior, regarding cooperation in Federal agency review of 

electric transmission facilities on Federal land

Wilderness

• FSM 2320 Wilderness Management

• FSM 5150 Fuel Management 

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics

• Forest Service, Minimum Requirements Decision Guide http://www.wilderness.net/MRA

• Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Fire Management Plan

• Wilderness.net toolboxes http://wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=toolboxes

• Forest Service, Keeping it Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor Trends in

Wilderness Character Across the National Wilderness Preservation System (RMRSGTR-212)

Primitive Areas

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics. 

• Forest Service, Minimum Requirements Decision Guide http://www.wilderness.net/MRA

• Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Fire Management Plan

• Wilderness.net toolboxes http://wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=toolboxes

Recommended Wilderness

• Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics

• Forest Service, Minimum Requirements Decision Guide http://www.wilderness.net/MRA

• Forest Service, Keeping it Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor Trends in 

Wilderness Character Across the National Wilderness Preservation System (RMRSGTR-212) 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 289

Appendix E. Proposed and

Possible Management Actions

Introduction

This appendix describes some of the proposed and possible management actions that may take

place on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs at the project or activity level during the planning period 

(approximately 10 to 15 years) to maintain or move toward desired conditions as described in this 

plan. This list is not intended to be all inclusive; it is simply a list of possible actions that may 

take place based on the plan objectives and management approaches. This information is not a 

commitment to take any action and is not a “proposal” as defined by the Council on 

Environmental Quality regulations for implementing NEPA (40 CFR § 1508.23, 42 USC

4322(2)C)).

A plan amendment is not required to change or modify any of the proposed or possible 

management actions. The list of these actions can be updated at any time through an 

administrative change of the plan.

Proposed Management Actions

The objectives in chapter 2 of the plan represent projects or activities intended to be 

accomplished during the planning period. These are listed in the table below.

Table 16. List of proposed management actions (plan objectives)

Category Project/Activity Timeframe to 

Complete

Overall 

Ecosystem 

Health

Improve the condition class on at least 10 priority 6

th level HUC 

watersheds by removing or mitigating degrading factors.

Planning Period

Soil Enhance or restore an average of 350 acres per year within priority 6

th

level HUC watersheds, including treating the causes of State and federally 

designated impaired or threatened waters to improve watershed condition 

and water quality.

Annually

Aquatic Habitat 

and Species

Enhance or restore 5 to 15 miles of stream and riparian habitat to restore 

structure, composition, and function of physical habitat for native fisheries 

and riparian-dependent species.

Annually

Aquatic Habitat 

and Species

Complete at least five projects (e.g., remove barriers, restore dewatered 

stream segments, or connect fragmented habitat) to provide for aquatic 

and riparian-associated species and migratory species.

Planning Period

Riparian Areas Move 200 to 500 acres toward desired composition, structure, and 

function of streams, floodplains, and riparian vegetation.

Annually

Riparian Areas Relocate, repair, improve, or decommission a minimum of 4 miles of 

National Forest System roads or trails that add sediment to streams, 

damage riparian vegetation, erode streambanks, cause gullies, and/or 

compact floodplain soils.

Planning Period

Riparian Areas Remove an average of 2 miles of unauthorized roads or trails that add 

sediment to streams, damage riparian vegetation, erode streambanks, 

cause gullies, and/or compact floodplain soils.

Annually
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

290 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Category Project/Activity Timeframe to 

Complete

Riparian Areas Enhance or restore 5 to 25 wet meadows or cienegas to proper hydrologic 

function and native plant and animal species composition.

Planning Period

Riparian Areas Work with partners to reduce animal damage to native willows and other 

riparian species on an average of 5 miles of riparian habitat.

Annually

Forests Treat 5,000 to 35,000 acres to reduce tree densities, restore natural fire 

regimes, promote species habitat and ecosystem health, reduce fire 

hazard, maintain desired conditions, initiate recovery from 

uncharacteristic disturbance, and provide forest products, leaving a 

desired mix of species with the range of desired densities that are resilient 

to changing climatic conditions.

Annually

Aspen Aspen dominated and codominated acres within forested PNVTs, 

representing a range of age classes, are maintained on at least 50,000 

acres.

Planning Period

Woodlands Treat or maintain 5,000 to 15,000 acres to promote a highly diverse 

structure.

Annually

Grasslands Decrease or maintain the woody canopy cover at less than 10 percent by 

treating up to 25,000 acres.

Annually

Wildlife and 

Rare Plants

Improve wildlife connectivity by removing at least five unneeded 

structures (e.g., fence).

Annually

Invasive 

Species

Contain, control, or eradicate invasive species (e.g., musk thistle, 

Dalmatian toadflax) on 500 to 3,500 acres.

Annually

Invasive 

Species

Control or eradicate invasive species (e.g., tamarisk, bullfrogs) on at least 

2 stream miles.

Annually

Dispersed 

Recreation

Rehabilitate, stabilize, revegetate, or relocate an average of five dispersed 

campsites to improve recreation opportunities and/or protect the 

environment.

Annually

Dispersed 

Recreation

Work with Arizona Game and Fish Department, Arizona Department of 

Transportation, and other partners to provide at least 10 new wildlife 

viewing opportunities.

Planning Period

Developed 

Recreation

Reduce the developed recreation deferred maintenance backlog at plan 

approval by 10 percent.

Planning Period

Developed 

Recreation

Accessible and wildlife-proof trash facilities should be provided in all 

developed sites where trash is collected.

Planning Period

Motorized 

Opportunities

Maintain at least 20 percent of the passenger vehicle and 10 percent of the 

high-clearance vehicle NFS roads.

Annually

Motorized 

Opportunities

Maintain at least 20 percent of NFS motorized trails. Annually

Nonmotorized 

Opportunities

Maintain at least 20 percent of nonmotorized trails. Annually

National 

Recreation 

Trails

Initiate the process for the regional forester to remove the NRT 

designation from the Escudilla Trail in conformance with Forest Service 

Manual 2353.57 – Management of National Recreation Trails.

Within 5 years of 

plan approval

Scenic 

Resources

Accomplish an average of five projects to enhance scenic resources (e.g., 

restore grasslands and aspen, remove unnecessary fences, close and 

rehabilitate unneeded gravel/cinder pits).

Annually
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 291

Category Project/Activity Timeframe to 

Complete

Lands Survey and post on average 2 to 5 miles of unposted NFS boundary. Annually

Lands Maintain on average 2 to 5 miles of property boundary posting and corner 

monuments.

Annually

Lands Resolve an average of three existing trespass cases. Annually

Cultural 

Resources

National Register sites and priority cultural resources are inspected. Every 2 years or 

according to 

Southwestern 

Region Heritage 

program 

standards

Cultural 

Resources

Nominate at least five eligible cultural resources for inclusion in the 

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).

Planning Period

Cultural 

Resources

Provide a Passport in Time (PIT) or other education project to provide 

opportunities for the public to learn about the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ 

past and cultural resources.

Annually

Cultural 

Resources

Complete a minimum of 100 acres of nonproject cultural inventory to 

expand existing knowledge about the nature, location, and management 

needs of the forests’ cultural resources.

Annually

American 

Indian Rights 

and Interests

A minimum of five MOUs are renewed or established with tribes

associated with the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs.

Planning Period

Forest Products Prepare and offer up to an average of 122,000 CCF from suitable 

timberlands resulting from sustainable harvest to provide wood products 

to businesses and individuals.

Annually

Forest Products Provide up to 94,000 CCF (119,380 cords) of firewood for personal and 

commercial use.

Annually

Forest Products Provide an average of 5,000 permits for Christmas trees. Annually

Water Uses Prepare at least one instream flow water rights applications until water 

acquisition needs are complete to sustain riparian areas, fish, wildlife, and 

water-based recreation.

Annually

Possible Management Actions

The “Management Approaches” sections of chapters 2 and 3 of the plan describe some of the 

possible management actions for achieving desired conditions and objectives. These are 

summarized below.

Overall Ecosystem Health

• Use the Watershed Condition Framework process to identify priority watersheds for 

restoration.

• Restore watersheds through treatments to reestablish and then maintain natural fire 

regimes, improve riparian condition, restore meadows or openings, repair gullies, and 

reduce erosion.

• Utilize wildland fire (prescribed fire and use of wildland fire) to reintroduce fire into the 

ecosystems, restore natural fire regimes, and remove excessive fuels. 
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

292 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Air

• Work with the State of Arizona in the air quality regulatory process.

Soil

• Restore areas by seeding, mulching, stabilization of gullies, and obliteration of 

unauthorized routes.

• Update the Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey (TES) to reflect current conditions and 

concepts.

Water Resources

• Establish streamside management zones to protect water quality.

Aquatic Habitat and Species

• Prioritize habitat improvement projects with an emphasis on federally listed species and 

other species with population or habitat concerns.

• Cooperate with the Arizona Game and Fish Department to protect and reintroduce native 

aquatic species and control or eradicate nonnative species.

• Enhance or restore aquatic habitat through stabilization of stream banks and road 

crossings, facilitation of aquatic species passage and movement, restoration of perennial 

flows and native vegetation, and removal of unneeded impoundments.

Vegetation Management

• Prioritize vegetation treatments in focus watersheds and areas identified in community 

wildfire protection plans, including regular treatments to maintain desired conditions in 

the Community-Forest Intermix Management Area.

• Collect, store, propagate, and use local plant materials for continued genetic diversity.

• Use appropriate cutting methods, regeneration, and/or fire to accomplish vegetation 

treatment objectives and to manage dwarf mistletoe and other insect and disease 

infestations. Possible vegetation management practices are identified in “Appendix B. 

Vegetation Management Practices.”

• Work with the Arizona Game and Fish Department to address concerns about long term

aspen reestablishment. Restore aspen by providing/improving substitute forage away 

from aspen, removing conifer competition, fencing to exclude ungulates, and range 

management practices.

Riparian Areas

• Prioritize treatments in riparian areas to occur in focus watersheds and those that have 

native fish and aquatic species concerns.

• Use the Proper Functioning Condition (PFC) methodology to inventory riparian 

condition.

• Improve riparian conditions by removing non-riparian species, planting or restoring 

native species, stabilizing or eliminating roads, encouraging beaver colonization, and 

constructing fencing. Treatments may include restoration of hardwood and cottonwood 

galleries, restoration of upland conditions by removing encroaching trees and/or reducing 

tree densities, and restoration of infrequent fire.
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 293

• Alter or remove large human constructed dams to restore and/or improve riparian and 

wetland functionality. 

• Work with the Arizona Game and Fish Department to minimize ungulate impacts to 

riparian vegetation and structure.

• Work with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to update existing conservation agreements 

and develop new ones as needed.

Wildlife and Rare Plants

• Work collaboratively with the Arizona Game and Fish Department to protect and 

reintroduce native species and to control or eradicate nonnative, undesirable species.

• Cooperate with other State and Federal agencies, tribes, as well as private entities and 

adjacent landowners, to support species diversity, recovery, and wildlife management.

• Implement actions (e.g., closures, timing of treatments, seasonal road restrictions) to 

prevent relisting of species as threatened or endangered or provide wildlife refuge.

• Coordinate with the Arizona Game and Fish Department, Arizona Wildlife Linkages 

Working Group, and Arizona Department of Transportation to enhance public safety and 

promote passage of wildlife. Develop, construct, and install habitat connecting and safer 

wildlife crossings, and modify proposals to account for critical wildlife linkages.

• Coordinate with USDA Wildlife Services program and the State of Arizona to promote 

healthy populations of predators, while reducing livestock conflicts with wildlife.

• Promote public education and valuing of the wildlife resource on the forests.

Invasive Species

• Use an array of tools (chemical, biological, mechanical, and cultural) to control or 

eradicate invasive species.

• Provide education and outreach programs designed to increase awareness of invasive 

species.

• Implement preventative measures (e.g., pre- and post-work equipment sanitation, 

requiring certified weed-free seed and hay) through permitting, contracting, and other 

forest administrative processes.

• Collaborate with other agencies and entities to replace nonnative aquatic species with 

natives.

• Encourage the Arizona Department of Transportation to treat noxious weeds and 

nonnative invasive plants along highways.

• Cooperate with the Natural Resource Conservation Service, Arizona Game and Fish 

Department, Arizona Department of Transportation, local governments, and other 

organizations to support a successful invasive species management program.

Landscape Scale Disturbance Events

• Remove hazard trees and salvage dead trees, or consider deferring restoration or salvage 

projects, where extensive tree mortality exists. 

• Plant trees and shrubs when needed to establish native vegetation and/or habitat recovery.

• Evaluate developed sites and roads for continued and future use. Decommission or 

relocate roads that are no longer necessary or safe.

• Re-establish forest boundary and/or other ownership landlines and land survey 

monuments.
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

294 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Developed and Dispersed Recreation

• Complete supply and demand studies to better understand recreation needs.

• Use private ventures and partnerships to help provide recreation opportunities.

• Develop management plans, including vegetation management strategies, for dispersed 

and developed recreation areas.

• Operate and maintain recreation and administrative developments.

• Redesign facilities to accommodate persons with disabilities, respond to demographic 

changes, and reduce conflicts. Balance new construction with current and future 

maintenance requirements.

• Develop additional recreation rentals (e.g., cabins).

Motorized and Nonmotorized Opportunities

• Enhance opportunities for motorized trail users, relocate trails to reduce conflicts, and 

develop management plans for designated motorized use areas.

• Implement the Travel Management Rule (36 CFR § 212).

• Construct temporary roads where needed for emergency operations or contract, permit, 

lease, or other written authorization.

• Remove routes from the transportation system with follow-up treatments including 

outsloping roadbeds, removal of stream crossing structures, breaching of drainage 

ditches, removal of unstable fills, maintenance or restoration of fish passage, and removal 

of invasive weeds.

• Implement measures (e.g., education, signage, law enforcement, seasonal road closures) 

to discourage encroachment of motorized vehicles into nonmotorized areas.

• Coordinate with the Federal Highway Administration and Arizona Department of 

Transportation to facilitate transportation needs, planned improvements, and 

transportation conditions.

• Work with the Arizona Department of Transportation to alleviate concerns with scenic 

resources, maintenance activities, use of herbicides, use of deicing agents, and creation of 

safety turnouts, parking lots, and wildlife crossings.

• Use educational techniques (e.g., brochures, signs) to help users understand motorized 

and nonmotorized use etiquette.

• Maintain trails to provide for user safety, minimize erosion, provide recreation 

opportunities, and accommodate administrative needs. Work with partners, user groups, 

and volunteers to maintain trails.

• Reconstruct or add nonmotorized trails near population centers or developed recreation 

sites.

Scenic Byways

• Implement projects and activities outlined in the “Coronado Trail Corridor Management 

Plan.”

Eligible and Suitable Wild and Scenic Rivers

• Conduct suitability studies for eligible wild and scenic rivers.
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 295

Conservation Education

• Provide public information, interpretive services, and environmental education programs 

and activities that connect people to the land and to each other.

• Operate and maintain two visitor centers.

Lands

• Complete land adjustments (e.g., exchanges, purchases) to consolidate the NFS land base, 

reduce administrative problems and costs, enhance public access and use, and support 

resource management objectives.

• Work with local communities to understand their community expansion needs. Work 

with communities during development of their master plans and with communities, 

developers, and homeowner groups to retain legal access to public lands.

• Use education, partnerships, and law enforcement to reduce trespass issues.

Cultural Resources

• Inventory, protect, study/evaluate, interpret, and preserve cultural resources.

• Collaborate with other forests, the State Historic Preservation Officer, the public, and 

affiliated tribes to develop management strategies for cultural resources.

American Indian Rights and Interests

• Develop and maintain effective working relationships and recognize American Indian 

tribal viewpoints.

• Repatriate human remains and artifacts.

• Implement temporary closures of forest lands for traditional and cultural purposes.

Forest Products

• Use timber production and tree cutting to achieve vegetation desired conditions, 

contribute to the local and regional economy, and achieve such purposes as restoration, 

salvage, fuels management, insect and disease mitigation, hazard tree removal, protection 

or enhancement of wildlife habitat, perform research or administrative studies, or 

recreation and scenery management.

• Offer up to the allowable sale quantity (ASQ) an average of 122,000 CCF per year. The 

ASQ represents the amount of timber (not including firewood or nonindustrial wood) that 

may be sold from lands suitable for timber production. Offer other desired forest 

products, such as house logs, through permits or small sales.

• Use a variety of partnerships and authorities for making forest products available to uses 

(e.g., Tribal Forest Protection Act, procurement contracts, stewardship contracts, forest 

products permits). 

• Identify specific areas for forest product removal (e.g., Christmas tree, firewood).

Livestock Grazing

• Complete environmental analysis and assess and update allotment management plans to 

emphasize sustainable stocking levels, forage utilization, mitigation measures, and 

appropriate grazing systems.
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

296 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

• Adjust timing, intensity, and frequency of livestock grazing to respond to changing 

resource conditions, including drought.

• Evaluate and determine appropriate use for vacant allotments.

• Work with permittees, the State, tribes, and other organizations to maintain or improve 

rangeland conditions. 

• Work with the Tonto National Forest, Arizona Game and Fish Department, sheep 

permittees, and other permittees to administer the Heber-Reno and Morgan Mountain 

sheep driveways.

• Work with non-permittee livestock owners to prevent unauthorized livestock.

• Maintain range developments (e.g., fence, corrals).

Minerals and Geology

• Cooperate with the State and other agencies to inventory, mitigate, and rehabilitate 

hazardous abandoned mines and mined areas.

• Develop pit plans for mineral material pits.

• Develop cave management plans as needed.

Special Uses

• Issue special use authorizations that complement other opportunities and are based on 

public need or cannot be met on private or other Federal lands.

• Process requests for energy development and transmission corridors.

• Work with public road agencies to accept USDA easements on roads they maintain 

and/or provide access to private properties.

Water Uses

• Provide adequate water supplies to support the mission of the Agency and maintain 

continuous water supplies to downstream uses on and off the forests.

• Participate in water rights adjudications and honor the water rights of others.

• Work with State and other agencies to deal with groundwater issues and maintain 

instream flows.

• Conserve water through education of water uses on conservation measures and by 

applying good water management practices.

Wildland Fire Management

• Use a decision support process to guide and document wildfire management decisions

that provide for firefighter and public safety, minimize costs and resource damage, and 

are consistent with values to be protected and management objectives.

• Develop site-specific burn plans to guide implementation of the plan’s prescribed fire 

treatment objectives.

• Consider developing joint silvicultural prescriptions and burn plans.

• Coordinate management of wildland fire with neighboring jurisdictions.
Appendix E. Proposed and Possible Management Actions

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 297

Management Areas

• Use mechanized methods and prescribed fire on a regular basis in the Community-Forest 

Intermix Management Area. Work with adjacent landowners and communities to 

encourage new and existing developments to take into account measures to protect 

people, property, and natural resources from wildfire.

• Improve wildlife habitat and maintain existing wildlife developments within the Wildlife 

Quiet Area Management Area.

• Conduct ecological restoration activities including restoration of ecological conditions or 

habitat components, soil stabilization, prescribed fire and use of wildland fire, hazardous 

fuels reduction, and invasive species reduction with the Natural Landscape Management 

Area.

• Recommend land in the Recommended Research Natural Area and Recommended 

Wilderness Management Areas for special area designation.

• Develop wilderness management plans.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 299

Appendix F. Maps

This appendix contains maps of management areas. More information on management areas can 

be found in chapter 3. These maps were generated using the most current data available in the 

Apache-Sitgreaves NFs’ Geographic Information System (GIS). As the GIS database is updated, 

these maps may need to be updated.

Appendix F. Maps

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan 301

Figure 43. Management Areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Apache National Forest area)
Appendix F. Maps

302 Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

Figure 44. Management Areas on the Apache-Sitgreaves NFs (Sitgreaves National Forest area)
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) 303 

Index

air resources, 18–20

air quality, 18, 114, 142, 149

airshed, 142, 150

American Indian, 12, 89–92, 92–94, 100, 135, 139

aquatic habitat, 18, 22–24, 25–27, 76, 143

aquatic management zones, 24

Arizona State agencies

Arizona Department of Agriculture, 118

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality 

(ADEQ), 19, 142, 161

Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), 

64, 67, 72, 77, 99, 103

Arizona Department of Water Resources (ADWR), 

103

Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD), 27, 

36, 52, 64, 67, 98, 118, 119

aspen, 27–31, 43, 45, 48, 49–52, 57, 85, 97, 124, 126, 

143, 149

Bear Wallow Wilderness, 83, 126, 127, 130

Blue Range Primitive Area, 71, 128–30

caves, 99, 100

climate change (also called climate variability), 16, 25, 

28, 29, 51, 86, 124

coarse woody debris, 21, 28, 29, 34, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 

49, 50, 52, 54, 56, 114, 117, 151

communication sites, 101–3, 134, 136, 151

conservation education, 65, 67, 77, 79, 80, 87–88, 90, 

105, 120, 145

cultural resources, 16, 70, 76, 89–92, 97, 98, 99

sacred site, 76, 78, 90, 93, 100, 135, 139

Traditional Cultural Property (TCP), 90, 93, 94, 

100, 169

dry mixed conifer, 27–31, 42–45, 46, 51, 113

endangered species. See federally listed species

Endangered Species Act (ESA), 61, 152

energy corridor, 94, 101–3, 116–17, 134, 154

energy development, 101–3, 134, 161

Escudilla Wilderness, 80, 83, 126, 127, 130

Federal agencies

Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 89, 118, 157

Federal Highway Administration (FHA), 77, 79

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), 

67

Federal agenices

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), 36

federally listed species, 17, 27, 60–65, 143, 152, 154

fire management, 39, 112, 127, 130

community wildfire protection plan, 31, 112, 114, 

144, 151

fire behavior, 28

fire regime, 17, 18, 28, 30, 37, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 

45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 

66, 113, 135, 155

planned ignition (also called prescribed fire), 18, 

35, 39, 114, 128, 131, 161

unplanned ignition (also called wildfire), 18, 33, 

38, 113, 114, 169

forest health, 39, 143

even-aged management, 38, 39, 95, 154

restoration, 16, 30, 36, 52, 59, 120, 121, 122, 143, 

153

uneven-aged management, 38, 39, 95, 169

forest product, 12, 29, 36, 37, 39, 93, 94–96, 103, 112, 

135–37, 145, 169

biomass, 94–96, 136, 145, 171

Christmas tree, 94–96, 145

fuelwood, 94–96, 95, 135, 136, 145, 155

timber, 8, 94–96, 112, 124, 135–37, 144, 168

Fort Apache Indian Reservation. See White Mountain 

Apache Tribe

grasslands, 56–59, 85, 113, 136, 143

Great Basin, 27–31, 40, 55, 56–59, 57

montane/subalpine, 11, 27–31, 40, 56–59

semi-desert, 27–31, 53, 56–59, 124

grazing. See livestock grazing

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC). See watershed

interior chaparral, 27–31, 56, 59–60, 136

invasive species, 16, 25, 59, 65–67, 77, 101, 103, 115, 

117, 122, 124, 143, 144, 157, 189

Inventoried Roadless Areas (IRAs), 70, 121

lands, 88–89

livestock grazing, 22, 23, 36, 86, 96–98, 122, 124, 

126, 128, 133–34, 151, 158

Madrean pine-oak, 27–31, 52–53, 53–54, 56, 59

Management Areas, 133–34, 134–35, 135–37, 137–

39, 67

Community-Forest Intermix, 38, 102, 111, 112–15, 

117

Energy Corridor, 111, 116–17

General Forest, 102, 111, 112

High Use Developed Recreation Area, 111, 115–16

Natural Landscape, 83, 111, 121–22, 129

Primitive Area, 83, 100, 102, 111, 128–30

Recommended Research Natural Area, 111, 123–

25

Recommended Wilderness, 102, 111, 130–31

Research Natural Area, 111, 122–25

Wild Horse Territory, 100, 111, 118–19

Wilderness, 100, 102, 111, 126–28

Wildlife Quiet Area, 102, 111, 119–20

mechanized travel, 81, 126, 139, 158

minerals and geology, 36, 93, 98–101, 129, 151, 157, 

158, 166

mining, 94, 98–101, 128, 158

Mogollon Rim, 11, 12, 56, 80, 85, 129

motorized opportunities, 71–73, 75–77, 84, 100, 115, 

116, 121, 126, 137–39, 159

Mount Baldy Wilderness, 18, 19, 83, 122, 123, 124, 

126, 127, 142

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 124, 130, 

142, 143, 145

National Forest Management Act (NFMA), 1, 5, 135

National recreation trail, 7, 80–81, 81, 126
Index

304 (Admin. Change #2, August 15, 2016) Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests Land Management Plan

non-motorized opportunities, 71–73, 78–79, 81, 84, 

112, 116, 118, 119–20, 121, 123, 125, 126–28, 

128–30, 129, 130–31, 131, 67, 160

off-highway vehicles (OHVs), 12, 69, 75–77, 94, 137–

39, 144

old growth, 29, 38, 54, 124, 160

Phelps Cabin Botanical Area, 102, 122, 124, 125

Phelps Cabin Research Natural Area, 102, 122

piñon-juniper, 27–31, 43, 52–53, 55–56, 57, 113

plan consistency, 5

plan decisions, 5–8, 141

ponderosa pine, 11, 27–31, 40–42, 43, 45, 50, 51, 80, 

113

rare plants, 16, 60–65

recreational opportunities, 22, 69–71, 75–77, 86, 89, 

104, 112, 113, 119, 123, 137–39, 67, 144

developed recreation, 12, 67, 70, 73, 79, 115–16, 

136, 152

dispersed recreation, 12, 70, 71–73, 120, 152

winter recreation, 12, 69, 72, 120, 140

research natural area, 7, 99, 100, 122–25, 123–25, 164

revision topics, 3

riparian, 11, 22–24, 25–27, 27–31, 31–36, 89, 97, 98, 

104, 113, 117, 124, 136, 142, 164

roads and trails, 23, 24, 27, 65, 75–77, 78–79, 81, 86, 

98, 99, 103, 112, 115, 117, 119, 121, 123, 126, 127, 

129, 137–39, 144, 168

motor vehic le use map (MVUM), 137

motor vehicle use map (MVUM), 77

National Forest System roads and trails, 35, 75, 

138, 159

unauthorized roads and trails, 21, 35, 59, 75, 127, 

169

Rodeo-Chediski Fire, 16, 106

scale, 15, 28, 165

scenic byway, 7, 12, 77, 79–80, 115

scenic resources, 58, 73, 77, 79–80, 81, 84–86, 99, 

101, 104, 112, 113, 117, 118, 121, 123, 125, 127, 

129, 130, 144, 165

sensitive species, 125, 143

soil resources, 18, 20–22, 22–24, 27–31, 34, 136, 142, 

167

special uses, 101–3, 134–35

spruce-fir, 27–31, 47–49, 51, 113, 120, 124

Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey (TES), 31, 53, 168

timber production. See forest product

Travel Management Rule, 77

uneven-aged management. See forest health

Wallow Fire, 5, 16, 20, 40, 43, 45, 48, 106

water resources, 22–24, 82–84

water rights, 22, 23, 22–24, 105, 149, 154

water uses, 102, 103–5, 22–24

watershed, 17, 22–24, 25–27, 112, 142, 157

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) watershed, 15, 17, 

21, 26, 31, 39, 105, 112, 157, 162, 165

wet mixed conifer, 27–31, 45–47, 51, 113, 124

White Mountain Apache Tribe, 93

Fort Apache Indian Reservation, 126

White Mountains, 1, 12, 86

wild and scenic river, 12, 82–84, 100, 102, 125, 136, 

170

wilderness. See Management Areas

wildland-urban interface (WUI), 86, 112, 120, 151

wildlife, 12, 16, 17, 22, 28, 29, 32, 39, 53, 54, 57, 60–

65, 70, 72, 74, 75, 89, 95, 97, 98, 102, 104, 119–20, 

119, 121, 126, 127, 129, 130

aquatic species, 18, 23, 25–27, 31–36, 32, 36, 67, 

76, 78, 124

bald eagle, 63

connectivity, 23, 32, 62, 76, 78, 129, 151

fish, 12, 16, 22, 23, 25–27, 31–36, 32, 36, 75, 77, 

104

Gunnison’s prairie dog, 63, 64

Mexican gray wolf, 12, 61

Mexican spotted owl, 27, 54, 76, 120, 124, 136

Northern goshawk, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49, 63, 76, 120, 

156