Brief

IndustrialHeat Pumpsfor Steamand FuelSavings

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Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

1

Industrial Heat Pumps for

Steam and Fuel Savings

Industrial heat pumps are a class of active heat-recovery equipment that allows the temperature

of a waste-heat stream to be increased to a higher, more useful temperature. Consequently, heat

pumps can facilitate energy savings when conventional passive-heat recovery is not possible.

The purpose of this Steam Technical Brief is to introduce heat-pump technology and its 

application in industrial processes. The focus is on the most common applications, with guidelines

for initial identification and evaluation of the opportunities being provided.

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT PUMPS

A heat pump is a device that can increase the temperature of a waste-heat source to a temperature

where the waste heat becomes useful. The waste heat can then replace purchased energy and reduce

energy costs.

However, the increase in temperature is not achieved without cost. A heat pump requires an

external mechanical- or thermal-energy source. The goal is to design a system in which the benefits

of using the heat-pumped waste heat exceed the cost of driving the heat pump. 

Several heat-pump types exist; some require external mechanical work and some require external

thermal energy. For the purpose of discussing basic heat-pump characteristics, this brief will first

introduce the mechanical variety, and then address the thermal types.

1.1 Why can a heat pump save money?

Heat pumps use waste heat that would otherwise be rejected to the environment; they increase

air temperature to a more effective level. Heat pumps can deliver heat for less money than the cost 

of fuel. 

Heat pumps operate on a thermodynamic principle known as the Carnot Cycle. To aid 

understanding of this cycle, it is helpful to contrast the Carnot Cycle with the more familiar 

thermodynamic cycle that underlies the operation of steam turbines, the Rankine Cycle. 

Degrading high-grade thermal energy into lower-grade thermal energy creates shaft work, or

power, in the Rankine Cycle. In a steam turbine, this is accomplished by supplying high-pressure

steam and exhausting lower-pressure steam.

In contrast, mechanical heat pumps operate in the opposite manner. They convert lowertemperature waste heat into useful, higher-temperature heat, while consuming shaft work 

(Figure 1.1).

The work required to drive a heat pump depends on how much the temperature of the waste

heat is increased; in contrast, a steam turbine produces increasing amounts of work as the pressure

range over which it operates increases. 

Heat pumps consume energy to increase the temperature of waste heat and ultimately reduce the

use of purchased steam or fuel. Consequently, the economic value of purchasing a heat pump

depends on the relative costs of the energy types that are consumed and saved.
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

1.2 How does a heat pump work, and how much energy can it save?

Several types of heat pumps exist, but all heat pumps perform the same three basic functions:

• Receipt of heat from the waste-heat source

• Increase of the waste-heat temperature

• Delivery of the useful heat at the elevated temperature.

One of the more common heat pump types, the mechanical heat pump, will be used to show

how these functions work (Figure 1.2).

2

Figure 1.1: Comparison of Steam-Turbine and Heat-Pump Operating Principles

Steam: Higher P Heat: Higher T

Steam: Lower P Heat: Lower T

Steam

Turbine

Heat

Pump Work Work

Heat Sink

Heat Delivered by Heat Pump = Qe + W

Process Stream

Being Heated

Condenser (Heat Delivered Here) Tc

Te

Compressor

Work

W

Expansion Valve

Evaporator (Heat Accepted Here)

Waste-Heat Stream

Being Cooled

Heat Source

Heat Delivered to Heat Pump = Qe

1. Waste-heat stream evaporates heat-pump working fluid at low temperature and pressure

2. Compressor increases pressure of heat-pump working fluid

3. Heat-pump working fluid condenses at high temperature and pressure in the condenser, providing useful heat to a

 process stream 

4. Condensed working fluid is expanded back to the evaporator

Figure 1.2: Simple Schematic of Mechanically Driven Heat Pump

P = Pressure

T = Temperature

Qe = Waste-heat duty delivered

to heat pump

Tc = Condenser operating temperature

Te = Evaporator operating temperature

W = Work supplied to operate

heat-pump compressor
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

Waste heat is delivered to the heat-pump evaporator in which the heat-pump working fluid is

vaporized. The compressor increases the pressure of the working fluid, which in turn increases the

condensing temperature. The working fluid condenses in the condenser, delivering high-temperature

heat to the process stream that is being heated. 

A key parameter influencing the savings that a heat pump achieves is the temperature lift 

realized in the heat pump. Temperature lift is the difference between the evaporator and condenser

temperatures. 

Figure 1.3 illustrates how the cost of heat delivered by an electric-motor-driven mechanical heat

pump depends on the cost of electric power and on the temperature lift that the heat pump achieves.

For example, if natural gas costs $3.00/million British thermal units (MMBtu), the cost of delivering

heat from fuel at 80% efficiency will be $3.75/MMBtu. Figure 1.3 shows that the effective cost of heat

supplied by the heat pump is lower than the cost of purchased fuel that otherwise would be consumed. However, this advantage erodes as the temperature lift increases, because more work is

required to obtain the higher lifts. Also, because electricity is the work source for this heat pump,

lower power costs result in greater benefits.

Under the right circumstances, a heat pump can reduce energy costs and provide an attractive

cost-reduction project, particularly when:

• The heat output is at a temperature where it can replace purchased energy such as boiler 

steam or gas firing

• The cost of energy to operate the heat pump is less than the value of the energy saved

• The net operating cost savings (reduction in purchased energy minus operating cost) is 

sufficient to pay back the capital investment in an acceptable time period.

For industrial applications, simple paybacks of 2 to 5 years are typical. Different types of heat

pumps accomplish the three basic heat-pump functions in different ways, but in all cases the goal is

3

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Power Cost, c/kWh

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

x

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Heat-Pump Temperature Lift (°F)

Cost of Delivered Heat, $/MMBtu

Chart basis: – Heat-pump evaporator temperature = 120°F

 – Efficiency of heat-pump cycle is 65% thermodynamic maximum

 – Information is intended only to present trends, and will not apply to all cases.

Figure 1.3: Comparison of Cost of Heat Delivered
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

the same: recover waste heat, increase its temperature, and deliver it at a higher, more useful, 

temperature for a reduced cost compared to the alternative. The common variants are described below.

1.3 Common types of industrial heat pumps

A brief description of the most common types of heat pumps and their key operating principles

is provided below.

Closed-Cycle Mechanical Heat Pumps use mechanical compression of a working fluid to achieve

temperature lift. The working fluid is typically a common refrigerant. Most common mechanical

drives are suitable for heat-pump use; examples include electric motors, steam turbines, combustion

engines, and combustion turbines.

Open-Cycle Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) Heat Pumps use a mechanical compressor

to increase the pressure of waste vapor. Typically used in evaporators, the working fluid is water

vapor. MVC heat pumps are considered to be open cycle because the working fluid is a process

stream. Most common mechanical drives are suitable for heat-pump use; examples include electric

motors, steam turbines, combustion engines, and combustion turbines.

Open-Cycle Thermocompression Heat Pumps use energy in high-pressure motive steam to

increase the pressure of waste vapor using a jet-ejector device. Typically used in evaporators, the

working fluid is steam. As with the MVC Heat Pump, thermocompression heat pumps are open cycle.

Closed-Cycle Absorption Heat Pumps use a two-component working fluid and the principles of

boiling-point elevation and heat of absorption to achieve temperature lift and to deliver heat at higher

temperatures. The operating principle is the same as that used in steam-heated absorption chillers

that use a Lithium Bromide/water mixture as their working fluid. 

Key features of absorption systems are that they can deliver a much higher temperature lift than

the other systems, their energy performance does not decline steeply at higher temperature lift, and

they can be customized for combined heating and cooling applications.

Four heat exchangers—an evaporator, condenser, generator, and absorber—are found in a typical

absorption heat pump (Figure 1.4). High-temperature prime energy (steam or fuel) is supplied to the

desorber, where vapor is boiled out of the working fluid at high pressure. The high-pressure vapor is

condensed in the condenser, where the heat is recovered into a process stream. High-pressure 

condensate from the condenser is throttled to a lower pressure in the evaporator, where the waste

heat is recovered to vaporize the low-pressure condensate. In the absorber, concentrated working

fluid from the desorber contacts low-pressure vapor from the evaporator, creating heat that is recovered

into a process stream. The working fluid returns to the desorber to complete the cycle. 

In a typical absorption heat-pumping application, waste heat at low temperature is delivered to

the evaporator, and prime heat at high temperature is delivered to the generator. An amount of heat

equivalent to the sum of the high- and low-temperature heat inputs can be recovered at an 

intermediate temperature via the condenser and absorber. This is analogous to the thermocompression

heat pump, in which high-pressure steam is used to increase or lift low-pressure waste vapor to a

higher pressure and temperature. However, in the case of the high-lift absorption heat pump, the

temperature lift can be 200 to 300° F, rather than the 20 to 50° F of the thermocompression system.

An important variation of the Type-1 Absorption Heat Pump is obtained by selecting operating

parameters so that the device effects chilling at the ‘cold-end’ of the cycle while delivering hot water.

The ability to provide simultaneous cooling and heating provides additional benefits over a ‘heatingonly’ heat pump and improves the economics of an installation.

An alternate configuration for an absorption heat pump allows a medium-temperature waste-heat

stream to split into one higher-temperature stream and one lower-temperature stream. Adjusting the

operating pressures and working-fluid concentrations accomplishes this reconfiguration.

Figure 1.5 illustrates the energy balances for Type-1 and Type-2 absorption systems.

4
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

5

Prime

Energy

Input

Delivered

Heat

Output

High-Pressure Vapor

Desorber Condenser

Waste

Heat

Input

Delivered

Heat

Output

Dilute

Working-Fluid Pump

Absorber Evaporator

Low-Pressure

Vapor

Concentrated

Working-Fluid

Working-Fluid

Throttle Valve

Condensate

Throttle Valve

Figure 1.4: Simplified Schematic of an Absorption Heat Pump
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

6

Type-1 Absorbtion

Heat Pump

(Heat Amplifier)

Type-2 Absorbtion

Heat Pump

(Temperature

Amplifier)

Duty = Qh, MMBtu/h

Temperature = Th, F

Duty = Qh, MMBtu/h

Temperature = Th, F

Heat Rejection at

Ambient Temperature

Duty = QL, MMBtu/h

Temperature = TL, F

Duty = QL, MMBtu/h

Temperature = TL, F

Duty = Qh + QL, MMBtu/h

Temperature = Ti, F (Th > Ti > Ti)

Heat Input

Heat Input

Useful Heat Output

Useful Heat Output

Figure 1.5: Simplified Energy Balances for Absorption Heat Pumps

2.0 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

2.1 Which applications use heat pumps?

Table 1 provides a representative overview of heat-pump applications in industrial processes. 

The table is not comprehensive, but highlights the most common industrial applications and heatpump types.

The most common industrial application of heat pumping is dehumidification drying of lumber.

In this application, warm, humid exhaust air from a lumber-drying kiln is the heat source for a closedcycle mechanical heat pump that delivers heat to the incoming air. In addition to energy benefits, the

lower operating temperature of heat-pumped kilns improves product quality; the heat pump removing

VOCs from the exhaust also provides an environmental benefit.

While lumber-drying applications are numerous, the size of the units is usually small in terms of

the heat delivered. For example, 150,000 Btu/h heat output would be considered a large application;

however, industry is developing larger systems of 3 to 5 MMBtu/h.

Closed-cycle applications that are not for lumber drying range from 1 to 20 MMBtu/h heat 

output, and typically heat streams, such as process liquids or air.

The most common large-heat-load application is vapor compression evaporation. In this 

application, evaporated vapor is compressed over a small pressure range and condensed to provide the

energy to drive the evaporation process. Such systems deliver 20 MMBtu/h to over 100 MMBtu/h at a

low cost.

Evaporators and flash-steam recovery systems frequently incorporate thermocompression systems.

For example, paper dryers commonly use thermocompressors to recover flash steam from dryer 

condensate.

Absorption systems are commonly used in chilling applications as alternatives to mechanical

chillers, rather than in heat-pumping applications. 

Qh = Duty of high-temperature heat source TL = Temperature of low-temperature heat source

QL = Duty of low-temperature heat source Ti = Temperature of intermediate-temperature heat source

Qi = Duty of intermediate-temperature heat source F = Degrees Fahrenheit

Th = Temperature of high-temperature heat source
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

7

Table 1. Representative Overview of Heat-Pump Applications in Industrial Manufacturing Activities

Industry Manufacturing Activity Process Heat-Pump Type

Petroleum Refining Distillation of petroleum and Separation of propane/ Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

and Petrochemicals petrochemical products propylene, butane/butylene and Open cycle

ethane/ethylene

Chemicals Inorganic salt manufacture including salt, Concentration of product salt Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

sodium sulfate, sodium carbonate, solutions Open cycle

boric acid

Treatment of process effluent Concentration of waste streams Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

to reduce hydraulic load on Open cycle

waste treatment facilities

Heat recovery Compression of low-pressure Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

waste steam or vapor for use as Open cycle

a heating medium

Pharmaceuticals Process water heating Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Wood Products Pulp manufacturing Concentration of black liquor Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Paper manufacturing Process water heating Mechanical compression,

Closed cycle

Paper manufacturing Flash-steam recovery Thermocompression, Open cycle

Lumber manufacturing Product drying Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Food and Beverage Manufacturing of alcohol Concentration of waste liquids Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Beer brewing Concentration of waste beer Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Wet corn milling/corn syrup Concentration of steep water Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

manufacturing and syrup Open cycle

Thermocompression, Open cycle

Sugar refining Concentration of sugar solution Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Thermocompression, Open cycle

Dairy products Concentration of milk and of whey Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Thermocompression, Open cycle

Juice manufacturing Juice concentration Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

General food-product manufacturing Heating of process and cleaning Mechanical Compression,

water Closed cycle

Soft drink manufacturing Concentration of effluent Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Utilities Nuclear power Concentration of radioactive Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

waste Open cycle

Concentration of cooling tower Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

blowdown Open cycle

Miscellaneous Manufacturing of drinking water Desalination of sea water Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Steam-stripping of waste water or Flash steam recovery Thermocompression, Open cycle

process streams

Electroplating industries Heating of process solutions Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Concentration of effluent Mechanical Vapor Compression, 

Open cycle

Textiles Process and wash-water heating Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Space heating Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Concentration of dilute dope stream Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

General manufacturing Process and wash-water heating Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

Space heating Mechanical Compression,

Closed cycle

District heating Large-scale space heating Mechanical Compression, 

Absorption

Closed cycle

Solvent recovery Removal of solvent from air Mechanical Compression, 

streams Open cycle
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

8

2.2 Examples of heat-pump applications and types 

Descriptions of a few of the most common heat-pump applications can help illustrate how heat

pumps are integrated into process operations.

2.2.1 Lumber Drying—Closed-Cycle Mechanical

Lumber drying is accomplished by supplying heated air to stacked lumber in an enclosed room.

In a steam-heated lumber kiln, fresh air is heated and supplied to the kiln shown in Figure 2.1a. The

hot air evaporates moisture from the lumber and returns to the atmosphere.

Figure 2.1b shows how a closed-cycle mechanical heat pump is used for lumber drying. The

moist kiln exhaust air is passed over the heat-pump evaporator, cooling the exhaust and producing

some moisture condensation. The compressed heat-pump working fluid condenses against incoming

fresh air, supplying hot air to the dryer. The cost of power to drive the heat pump is much less than

the cost of using steam in the kiln without the heat pump.

Stacks of Lumber

Fan

Steam

Cooler,

moist air

Cooler,

moist air

Hot,

dry air

Hot,

dry air

Stacks of Lumber

Expansion

Valve

Heat Pump

Evaporator

Motor

Fan

Compressor

Heat Pump

Condenser

Heat Pump

Working Fluid

Figure 2.1b: Simplified Schematic of Closed-Cycle Heat-Pump Application for Lumber-Drying

Figure 2.1a: Simplified Schematic of Steam-Heated Lumber-Drying Kiln

Figure 2.1: Typical Examples of Steam Heat Used In Lumber-Drying Applications
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

9

2.2.2 Evaporation—Open-Cycle Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) for Sugar Solution Concentration

In the sugar refining process, large amounts of water must be evaporated from sugar solution

before final crystallization. Figure 2.2 shows how MVC evaporation compares to multi-effect 

evaporation.

In multi-effect evaporation, steam is supplied to the first effect of the evaporator to boil off some

water and create vapor. The vapor flows to an exchanger in the next effect, which operates at a lower

pressure because a vacuum is applied. Here, additional water is evaporated; this process is repeated in

each effect.

In an MVC evaporator, compressed vapor leaving the compressor condenses against the liquid

being evaporated; the vapor it creates flows to the compressor inlet. The compression sufficiently

increases the vapor pressure and allows vapor condensation at a temperature high enough to boil the 

incoming liquid.

The cost to drive the mechanical compression evaporator is less that the cost of the steam that

drives the multi-effect evaporator.

However, energy cost is not the only consideration in evaporator selection. A thorough evaluation

of all the benefits and drawbacks of each evaporator type would be necessary before selecting an

evaporator for a specific application.

2.2.3 Thermocompression—Paper-Dryer Flash-Steam Recovery

A thermocompression heat pump is similar to the mechanical compression heat pump in that

vapor is compressed so that it condenses at a higher pressure and temperature. However, instead of

using mechanical work as the means of compression, a thermocompressor uses energy gained from

reducing the pressure of higher-pressure steam. 

The use of a thermocompressor for recovery of flash steam in a paper dryer is shown in Figure 2.3.

In a paper machine, steam reaches each section of drying drums at the correct pressure to achieve

required drying conditions. Steam condensate from higher-pressure sections is flashed to lower 

pressures; it is then recompressed to maximize energy recovery from the steam condensate, and to

improve dryer energy efficiency.

Figure 2.2: Mechanical Compression Heat-Pump Application in Evaporation Process

1st Effect

Process

Vapor

2nd Effect

Process

Vapor

Vacuum

Condenser

Process

Condensate

Concentrated

Sugar Solution

Steam

Condensate

1st Effect 2nd Effect

Steam

Motor

Vapor

Compressor

Process

Vapor

Process

Condensate

Concentrated

Sugar Solution

Diluted

Sugar

Solution

Dilute

Sugar

Solution

Typical 2-Effect Evaporator Typical Mechanical VaporCompression Evaporator
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

3.0 HEAT-PUMP EVALUATION

Heat pump evaluation consists of four steps:

• Determining if a heat pump is a potential fit with your heat-recovery application

• Making an initial selection of heat-pump type

• Conducting preliminary cost/benefit analysis

• Performing a detailed feasibility study to define benefits and cost with sufficient confidence to

move forward with the implementation.

The information below provides assistance in working through these four steps.

3.1 When is a heat pump applicable?

Plant personnel can explore a few questions to determine if a heat pump might be applicable in

their facility:

• Where is heat available from the process? 

• Where is heat required in the process?

• What is the value of saved energy?

• Will the facility gain non-energy benefits such as environmental improvements or product 

quality?

The tables that follow provide some positive and negative indicators for heat-pump applicability.

These tables provide qualitative guidance on likely heat-pump feasibility. For example, if a reviewer

can associate the process and site in question with more favorable features than unfavorable, then it

is worth proceeding with further consideration. If unfavorable features predominate, then facility

personnel should re-evaluate the basis for considering a heat pump before proceeding.

10

Dryer

Section A

Dryer

Section B

High-pressure

Steam

Thermocompressor

Section B

Condensate

Section A

Condensate

Flash

Drum

Condensate Return

Figure 2.3: Thermocompression Heat-Pump Application in a Paper Dryer
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

11

Table 3.1 Features Favorable for Heat-Pump Installations

Features Favorable for Heat Pump Installation Reason

Process Features

1 The process involves evaporation Opportunity for highly effective heat pump

2 There are streams in the 160 to 220° F temper- Heat in this temperature range is hot enough to not require

ature range that are cooled or sent to drain too much lift to make it useful

3 Water, air or other process streams are heated Heat pumps can easily supply heat in this temperature 

from ambient to 150 to 250° F with steam or fuel range

4 Low-pressure steam is vented or condensed Condensing steam is a convenient heat source that a heat

pump can easily use

5 The process involves distillation with a small Opportunity for highly effective heat pump because of low

temperature range between the reboiler and heat-pump temperature lift

condenser

6 The amount of recoverable waste heat available The potential savings have to be large enough to generate

exceeds about 0.5 MMBtu/h interest in a project; economies of scale favor larger

installations

7 The heat source is a clean liquid or condensing Heat capture into the heat pump is simple

fluid

8 The process entails continuous operation with a Project generates more annual savings

high number of operating hours

Energy Costs

1 Electricity is cheap relative to fuel. For example Reduces the effective cost of heat delivered by the heat

the ratio of electricity cost to fuel cost on a pump

Btu basis is < 3.

2 Both fuel and power prices are high (this is Higher energy prices increase the value of cost savings

negative in general, but is a benefit in relative to capital cost; this improves payback

conservation efforts)

Utility System Features

1 Reducing use of heating steam, or use of fuel for Usually results in better economics

process heating, does not affect on-site

power generation

Table 3.2 Features Unfavorable for Heat-Pump Installations

Features Unfavorable for Heat Pump Installation Reason

Process Features

1 Heat is available at less than 200° F, but the A high-temperature lift requirement is not automatically a

processes need heat at over 250° F, indicating drawback. However, high temperature lifts increase the 

a high-temperature lift of over 50° F effective cost of heat that a mechanical heat pump delivers,

and reduces savings. Alternately, a high-lift requirement

indicates use of an absorption heat pump, which often have

a higher first-cost than mechanical types.

2 Waste heat is available from cooling a small A waste-heat stream may appear useful if it is available at 

stream a reasonably high temperature, but if it is a low-flow stream 

and cools down quickly, the heat pump will increase lift to

compensate. This leads to reduced savings

3 Additional maintenance costs Additional equipment, particularly rotating equipment, leads

to additional maintenance costs which offset the benefits

Energy Costs

1 Electricity is expensive relative to fuel. For Increases the effective cost of heat delivered by a 

example the ratio of electricity cost to fuel cost mechanical heat pump

on a Btu basis is > 6.

2 Both fuel and power prices are low (a benefit in Lower dollar value of energy cost savings reduces incentive

general, but negative for energy conservation for conservation

efforts)

Utility System Features

1 Reducing use of heating steam, or use of fuel for If a heat pump affects on-site power generation, the impact

heating, affects on-site power generation on power purchase must be considered, because it usually

reduces savings.
3.2 Initial selection of heat-pump type

Having established that a heat pump may be applicable, it is time to select a heat-pump type.

Choosing a heat pump has a direct influence on capital and operating costs. The type of heat pump

typically employed depends on:

• The nature of the heat source (for example, liquid, gas, condensing vapor)

• The nature of the heat sink (for example, liquid, gas, boiling fluid)

• The required temperature lift (temperature difference between the heat input and heat 

rejection temperatures).

Table 3.3 provides guidelines for selecting heat-pump type. Section 1.3 provides a description of

the major components and equipment configuration. 

The primary purpose of these guidelines is to provide a starting point for subsequent evaluations

of operating costs, savings, and capital cost. Several heat-pump types might be suitable for a given

application with the final choice, depending on the economic evaluations.

The vast majority of heat pumps operate with temperature lifts of less than 100° F. This brief

includes information for high-lift applications to help indicate the difference in equipment 

requirements needed to obtain high lifts. 

3.3 Estimating Savings

For any energy savings project, the basic goal in estimating savings in operating costs is to 

establish the difference in costs between current and future case-base operation.

For passive-heat recovery projects, establishing this cost difference is relatively simple, because

the value of steam or fuel saved is readily calculated.

In the case of heat pumps, the energy savings is equal to the value of steam or fuel saved, minus

the cost of operating the heat pump. The quantity of energy saved and the cost of operating the heat

pump depend on the application and the heat-pump characteristics.

The example that follows illustrates the steps involved to estimate the savings that a mechanical

heat-pump application would generate.

Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

12

Table 3.3 Guidelines for Selecting Heat-Pump Type

Temperature

Lift Heat-Source Type Heat-Sink Type Suggested Heat-Pump Type

< 100° F – Sensible cooling of liquid – Sensible heating of gas or 1. Closed-cycle mechanical

liquid 2. Absorption (lithium bromide/

– Boiling liquid water)

– Partial condensation of liquid – Sensible heating of gas or 1. Closed-cycle mechanical

from vapor stream liquid 2. Absorption (with lithium bromide/

– Boiling liquid water working fluid)

– Condensing steam – Evaporation of water 1. Open-cycle mechanical (singlestage compressor)

2. Thermocompression

– Condensing vapor (steam – Boiling liquid 1. Semi-open-cycle mechanical 

or other) – Sensible heating of gas or liquid (single-stage compressor)

> 100° F – All heat sources (except steam) – All heat sinks (except steam) 1. Absorption (with high lift working fluid)

2. Multistage mechanical compression

– LP steam – Higher-pressure steam header 1. Open-cycle mechanical

2. Absorption (with high lift working fluid)

3. Multistage mechanical compression
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

3.3.1 Mechanical Heat Pumps

To estimate savings for a mechanical heat pump, we need to know how much energy we will

save, along with its value. We can determine the relationships between work input, temperature lift,

and heat output using a parameter known as the heat pump Co-efficient of Performance (COPHP).

COPHP is defined as: COPHP = Qout / Win

where Qout is the heat delivered by the heat pump and Win is the energy or “work” supplied to the

driver. For an ideal, Carnot-cycle heat pump, the COP is related to the heat delivery temperature and

the temperature lift:

COPHP = Tout / (Tout – Tin)

Where Tin and Tout are the temperatures, in degrees Rankine, at which the heat pump receives

and delivers heat respectively (for example, the evaporator and condenser). Note that these 

temperatures are not the process operating temperatures, but the heat-pump operating temperatures.

Because a temperature difference between the process streams and the heat-pump working fluid must

exist, the actual temperature lift internal to the heat pump is greater than the temperature lift

applied to the process streams.

The COPHP of an actual machine will be 65 to 75% of that for an ideal machine. For the purpose

of estimating heat-pump work requirements, and operating cost, it is only necessary to know the

expected operating temperatures. (Note that COPHP is not the same as the more common term,

‘refrigeration COP (COPREF),’ which is defined as COPREF =Qin / Workin).

Figure 3.1 shows an example in which a process stream cooling from 170° F to 140° F is a 

10 MMBtu/h heat source, and a process stream heating from 180° F to 210° F is the heat sink.

13

Heat Sink

Heat Delivered by Heat Pump = Qe + W

Process Stream

Being Heated

Condenser (Heat Delivered Here) Tc

Te

Compressor

Work

W

Expansion Valve

Evaporator (Heat Accepted Here)

Waste-Heat Stream

Being Cooled

Heat Source

Heat Delivered to Heat Pump = Qe

1. Waste-heat stream evaporates heat-pump working fluid at low temperature and pressure

2. Compressor increases pressure of heat-pump working fluid

3. Heat-pump working fluid condenses at high temperature and pressure in the condenser, providing useful heat to a

Figure 3.1: Mechanical Heat-Pump Operating Parameters Example

210° F

170° F 140° F

tout = 230° F

tin = 120° F

Duty = 10 MMbtu/h

180° F

Qe = Heat delivered to heat pump Tin = Temperature at which heat-pump cycle accepts heat

W = Work supplied to heat-pump compressor Tout = Temperature at which heat-pump cycle rejects heat
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

To calculate the work input, we need to determine the Tin and Tout for the heat pump. 

Tin is determined by the temperature approach between the heat-pump working fluid and the

lowest temperature of the heat source. In this case, the heat source is cooling to 140° F and there is a

20° F approach temperature in the evaporator, so Tin = 120° F

Tout is determined by the temperature approach of the heat-pump working fluid to the hottest

temperature that the heat sink achieves. In this case, the heat source is heating to 210° F and there is

a 20° F approach temperature in the condenser, so Tout = 230° F.

The ideal COPHP for this example is:

(230+460) / (230-120) = 6.3

Assuming that the actual COPHP is 70% of ideal, the estimated operating COPHP will be:

6.3 x 0.7 = 4.4

The energy balances for the heat pump are as follows:

COPHP = Qout / Win

Qout = Qin + W

Some mathematical rearranging gives the relationship between Qin and Win as:

Win = Qin / (COP – 1)

For the example, the work required to deliver the waste heat at the higher temperature is:

Win = 10 MMBtu/h / (4.4 – 1.0) = 2.9 MMBtu/h or 862 kW

And Qout = 10 MMBtu/h + 2.9 MMBtu/h = 12.9 MMBtu/h

Therefore, our heat pump is going to save 12.9 MMBtu/h of heat input to the process, at the cost

of 862 kilowatts (kW) of electrical power.

If we assume that, in the base case, the cold process stream is heated with steam costing 

$5.00/MMBtu, and that power costs 4.5 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh), then we can calculate 

estimated savings as:

Savings, $/h = (12.9 x 5.00) – (862 x 0.045) = 25.71 $/h

If the process runs 8,500 hours per year, the project could be justified based on obtaining

$218,500/yr in annual savings.

Note that if the driver were not an electric motor, the cost of shaft work for the particular device

used would be substituted for power cost. In instances where turbines, or combustion engines are

drivers, considering the overall site energy balance is necessary to correctly determine the cost of

work.

The method described above helps determine if there are sufficient savings and incentive to 

pursue a heat-pump application. Although simplified, this method gives a reasonable idea of the

energy-cost economics of installing a mechanical heat pump.

When evaluating economics, also consider non-energy cost benefits:

• Product quality: In lumber-drying applications, the gentler heating resulting from use of heat 

pumps results in better quality dried lumber and higher yields.

• Offset capital costs: In evaporation applications, using a heat pump means that boiler steam 

load and cooling water duty are avoided. This leads to reduced capital for boilers and/or

cooling towers, together with lower NOx emissions. 

14
Industrial Heat Pumps for Steam and Fuel Savings

In addition, other costs may exist: 

• Operating costs for auxiliary pumps and fans associated with the heat pumps

• Maintenance costs for the heat-pump equipment.

In conclusion, try to include all relevant costs and benefits in the detailed economic calculations.

3.3.2 Other Heat Pump Types

The COPHP estimation method described above will work for most types of mechanically driven

heat pumps. 

For thermocompression heat pumps, the relationships between the heat recovered, thermal energy

input, and temperature lift can be determined from specific charts provided by thermocompressor

manufacturers. 

3.4 What will the capital cost be?

Cost estimates are available for only a few common heat-pump applications:

• Lumber-drying kilns

• Mechanical-compression evaporators

• Thermocompression evaporators

• Steam jets for paper machines.

Most other industrial heat pump installations are custom designed, and must be costed by sizing

the individual components (heat exchangers, compressors, etc.).

Consequently, there is a great deal of variation in costs. Historical costs for closed-cycle 

mechanical heat-pump systems range from $50,000 to over $200,000 per MMBtu of heat delivered;

no predictable relationship exists between size of unit and cost. 

As indicated earlier, simple paybacks for industrial heat-pump applications, where the primary

goal is energy-cost reductions are typically 2 to 5 years. 

3.5 What is the path from basic concept to installation for a heat-pump project?

As with any heat-recovery project, once a heat-pump opportunity is identified, the project needs

to undergo a feasibility study and a detailed engineering design. 

However, a few areas warrant special attention:

• Sizing: It is better to have a small, base-loaded installation with high operating hours than a 

unit that works at part load, part time.

• Back-up: A process operation must still be able to run should the heat pump break down. 

Address the need for a back-up.

• Alternates: A heat-pump installation will usually be more expensive than a passive-heat 

recovery project because heat has to be transferred twice (in and out of the heat pump), 

and a piece of rotating equipment may be needed.

A thorough heat-pump evaluation includes confirmation that a better alternative project has 

not been overlooked. 

Use of heat-integration methods, such as Pinch Technology, are useful for this type of 

evaluation. Pinch Technology, in particular, provides a set of systematic analytical methods 

and tools that help identify both heat-recovery project opportunities and heat-pumping 

opportunities.

15
Brief

IndustrialHeat Pumpsfor Steamand FuelSavings

U.S. Department of EnergyEnergy Efficiency and Renewable EnergyBringing you a prosperous future where energy is clean, abundant, reliable, and affordable

TIONAL INFORMATION, 

ONTACT:

mation Clearinghouse

00) 862-2086

) 586-8303

ouse@ee.doe.gov

ome page at

doe.gov

nd any comments,

, or suggestions to

er.oit@ee.doe.gov

 Technologies Program

ficiency 

wable Energy

artment of Energy

on, DC 20585-0121

-102003-1735

03

nc., for writing this BestPractices

chnical Brief, and the

ices Steam technical 

ittee for reviewing the

n.